m: 
 
 •:iir,-A
 
 FAEEOWS 
 
 llLITAM ElCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF MILITAllY OOWLEDGE 
 
 ILLXJSTR^TED 
 
 WITH MAPS AND ABOUT THREE THOUSAND WOOD ENGRAVINGS 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD S. FARROW, V. S. Army, 
 
 LATE ASSISTANT INSTRUCTOR OF TACTICS AT THE UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY, 
 
 WEST POINT, NEW YORK 
 
 "What Is obvious is not always known, and what Is known Is not always present."— JoaNSOX. 
 
 COMPLETE IN THREE VOLUMES. VOLUME I. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 
 
 240 BROADWAY. 
 
 188;").
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, In the year 1884, 
 
 By EDWAKD S. FARROW. 
 
 Assistant Ixstbuctob of Tactics at West Point, 
 
 In the ofSce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
 
 DEDICATED 
 
 TO THE 
 
 NATIONAL GUARDS OF AMERICA 
 
 In Appreciation of tl)cir (gutcrprisc anb balor 
 
 AND AS A TRIBUTE OF HOMAGE 
 
 TO 
 
 GALLANT SOLDIERS.
 
 SANTA BA. 
 
 PREFATORY NOTICE. 
 
 The design of this work is that of a Librabt of Militaet Knowledge for the 
 People — not a mere collection of elaborate treatises in alphabetical order, but a work to 
 be readily consulted as a Dictionary on every military subject on which people generally 
 require some distinct information — no article being longer than is absolutely necessary. 
 The several topics are not handled with a view to the technical instruction of those who 
 have to make a special study of particular branches of military knowledge or art. The 
 information given may be characterized in many instances as vo7i-2yrofcssional, embracing 
 those points of the several subjects which every intelligent man or woman may have occa- 
 sion to speak or think about. At the same time every effort is made that the statements, 
 so far as they go, shall be precise and scientifically accurate. 
 
 Although about 30,000 subjects have been compiled from the various publications and 
 records of the War Department, Foreign War Offices, and Military Works of reference, 
 more than 5000 original articles have been prepared by specialists in America and abroad. 
 While the Tactics, Ordnance, Gun Machinery, Implements, and Equipments of all ages 
 and of aU military powers have been fully described and illustrated under appropriate head- 
 ings, a complete system of cross-references enables the military student to quickly locate 
 several hundred articles pertaining to the general subject under investigation. Thus, 
 under the article Magazine Gun will be found the following references: Boch, Hujfi/tffton, 
 SxiUard, Surgess, Burton, Chajfee-Reece, Clemmons, Colt, Dean, EUiott, FrankUn, Hunt, 
 Lee, Lewis-Rice, Miller, Remington, Russell, Spencer-Lee, Springfield-Jones, Tiesing, 
 Trahue, Whitney, and W/nrhester 3fagazine Guns. Under each of these articles are refer- 
 ences to articles describing and illustrating all other arms of the respective classes. The 
 Compiler has made special effort to set forth in detail the numerous decisions, rendered by 
 the War Department and Tactical Department at West Point, on the tactical points raised 
 and submitted from time to time by the Officers of the Army and National Guard. The 
 descriptions and illustrations of more than 500 varieties of Gun Machinery, Steam Hammers, 
 Cranes, etc., constitute a novel feature of the work to be appreciated by those wishing to 
 investigate the subjects of construction, testing, etc. 
 
 The original plan has been strictly adhered to throughout; and if, as the work pro- 
 ceeded, there has been any change in the method or quality of the execution, it may at 
 least be affirmed that the change has not been for the worse. After some experience, it
 
 PREFATORY NOTICE. 
 
 bfcame easior to find the person specially qualifietl to write a particular kind of article, and 
 thus the circle of contributore became widened, and the distriliution of the work more special 
 ized. It was also seen to be desirable, in regard to certain classes of subjects, to admit a 
 rather ampler selection of heads. This has been effected without increasing the scale of 
 the work, not so much by less full treatment of the subjects, as by increased care in con- 
 densing the statements and omitting everything superfiuous. A great quantity of matter 
 i)ertaining to Foreign Armies has been uitroduced in this work, so as to enable the military 
 student to compare the organization, arms, etc., of all armies with those of his own service. 
 The Encyclopedia contains also descriptions of ancient armor, and of arms, lately in use, 
 which have become obsolete, as it may be of some interest to follow the changes which 
 have taken place in the mode and means of fighting from the earliest period down to the 
 present time. The insertion of veterinary terms and of remedies for the common com- 
 plaints of horses will be found useful under conditions where a Veterinary Surgeon is not 
 available, as is often the case in detached parties of Cavalry. A description of all tools 
 anil, machines found commonly in workshops may prove acceptable to Departmental Officers 
 on their first joining Government Manufacturing Establishments. , 
 
 Of the Sciences, the least adapted to encyclopedic treatment is Mathematics. All 
 terms of common occurrence in Gunnery, Reconnoissance, etc., however, have been intro- 
 duced, and a brief exposition of the subjects given, as far as could be done in an elemen. 
 tary way. Natural Philosophy has received ample attention, and all the leading doctrines 
 and facts of general interest will be found" under their appropriate heads, treated in a 
 popular way, and divested as far as possible of the technicalities of mathematics. Chem- 
 istry, some knowledge of which is becoming daily more indispensable in all departments of 
 military life, receives a comparatively large space. Prominence has been given to those 
 points of the subject that have either a direct practical military bearing or a special scien- 
 tific interest. During the progress of the work, several changes in the nomenclature and 
 notation of the Science have come into general use; these have been duly noted under the 
 appropriate headings. The new and far-reaching doctrines of the Correlation of Forces 
 and the Conservation of Energy have produced vast changes in the nomenclature and 
 classification of the various sections of Military Physics; while the more complete investi- 
 gations into the phenomena and laws of light, heat, motion, and electricity have created 
 virtually -new sections, which must find a place in any adequate survey of scientific prog- 
 ress. Mechanical invention has, indeed, so kept pace with the progress of Military Science 
 and the Art of War, that in almost every department of Physics improved machines and 
 processes have to be described, as well as new discoveries and altered points of view. The 
 Tnanufacture of gunpowder and high explosives is a signal instance of the extent to which 
 in our day scientific discovery is indebted to appropriate machinery and instruments of 
 observation and analysis. These extensive changes in Physics involve corresponding 
 changes in the method of their exposition. The scientific department of the work is 
 consequently treated in all its branches in the most effulgent manner, and over 1000 very 
 fine engravings are used for the purpose of illustration. 
 
 True to its projected plan as a Library of Military Knowledge fob the People, 
 this Encyclopedia will be found to 1)e especially rich in notices of miscellaneous military 
 matters. Some of the subjects introduced might perhaps be considered beneath the
 
 PREFATORY NOTICE. 
 
 dignity of a book aspiring to a more severely scientific character; but all of them are, if 
 not instructive, at least curious or entertaining, and likely to occur in the course of reading 
 or conversation. During the progress of the work, the Compiler has received numerous 
 assurances from parents as to how highly it was prized, even though only partly issued, by 
 their sons at Military Schools, as a repertory of the kind of things they are constantly in 
 search of and often puzzling their elders about. This use of the Encyclopedia has been 
 steadily kept in view; and it is gratifying to learn that it is found efEciently to serve the 
 purpose intended. 
 
 In conclusion, the Compiler asks the indulgence of Military Critics wherever errors or 
 discrepancies have crept into this work, and begs to acknowledge the valuable help ob- 
 tained from the works of many authors, both military and scientific, through the courtesy 
 of Messrs. John Wiley & Sons and Mr. D. Van Nostrand, publishers, and the assistance he 
 has received from various friends. To General Stephen Y. Benet, Chief of Ordnance, 
 United States Army, he is especially indebted for courteous assistance in the preparation 
 of the work. To economize in space and to avoid crowding up the text, the name of the 
 author from whom information has been derived has not been inserted after each quotation; 
 but a list of all works which have been consulted, and from which extractions have been 
 made, will be found at the commencement of each volume. 
 
 It is intended, with the view of meeting the changes which are constantly taking place 
 in the materiel of armies, new processes, military inventions, etc., to issue a Supplement at 
 suitable intervals, containing all alterations and additions. 
 
 Unitkd States Mtutaky Academy 
 West Point, New York, 1885
 
 LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED OK EXTRACTED FROM. 
 
 Aide-M^moire de lOfBcler d'fttat-Major. M. de Rouvre. 
 
 Aide-M«''moire to the Military Sciences. 
 
 Almanacb de Ootha. ISTfi. 
 
 American Univeraal Cyclopedia. 
 
 Ammunition, Treatise on, 1874. Published by English au 
 
 thority. 
 Analytical Digest of the Jlilitary Laws of the U. S. Scott. 
 Apervus em quclques Details de la Guerre. Bugeaud. 
 Archives, German Military. 
 Armies of Asia and Europe. Upton. 
 Arms and Annour. Boutell. 
 
 Army and Xavy Pension La«-s. Mayo and Moulton. 
 Army Circulars. Publishe<i by the English War Office. 
 Art and Science of War. WTieeler. 
 ArtiUerist 's Handbook of Reference. WeU and Daltou. 
 ArtillerLst's Manual. Gibl)on. 
 Artillerist's Manual, Uth edition. GrifBths. 
 Artillery and Infantry. Kingsbury. 
 Artillery, Dictionary of. Cotty. 
 
 Artillery Exercises, Field, Changes in, in 1ST3. Phlllpotts. 
 Artillery Institution Papers. 
 
 Artillery, Lectures on. Owen and Dames. 
 
 Artillery, Modem. Owen. 
 
 Artillery, TreaU.se on. Boxer. 
 
 Art of War. Graham. 
 
 Art of War. Jomini. 
 
 Astronomical Atlas. Milner. 
 
 A Treatise on the Law of Evidence. Greenleaf. 
 
 Baker's Elements of Mechanism. 
 
 Balfour's Encyclopedia of India. 
 
 Battles of the Revolution, Carrington. 
 
 Blue Books (Parliamentary). 
 
 Bourne on the Steam Engine. 
 
 Brande and Cox's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art, 
 1875. 
 
 Campaign In Germany, 1866. Prussian Staff. 
 
 Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac. Swinton. 
 
 Cape's Mathematics. 
 
 Cavalry Manual. AinsUe. 
 
 Chambers's Encyclopedia. 
 
 Change of MatZ-riel. Ihiblished by the English War Office. 
 
 Chemistry as applied to the Arts and Manufactures. Mus- 
 pratt. 
 
 Chemistry, Handbook of. Abel and Bloxam. 
 
 Chemistry, Manual of. O'Shaughuessy. 
 
 Classical Dictionary. Smith. 
 
 Commentaries, with Notes. Blackstone. 
 
 Conferences du MinLstre de la Guerre (France). 
 
 Conferences Militaires Beiges. 
 
 Construction of DwelUng-houses. 
 
 Consulate and the Empire. Thiers. 
 
 Courts-Martial. De Hart. 
 
 Court«-Martlal. Macomb. 
 
 Cross' and Hetzel's Military Laws of the United States. 
 
 Cummer Steam Engine. 
 
 Customs of Service for Non-commiasioned Officers and Sol- 
 diers of the Army. Kautz. 
 
 Customs of Service for Officers of the Army. Kautz. 
 
 Defense of Military Outposts. Jebb. 
 
 De la Tactlque des Trols Armes; Infanterie, Cavalerie, ArtU- 
 lerie. Decker. 
 
 Dictionary, Handy, of Military Terms. Knollys. 
 
 Dictionary, Military and Naval. Burn. 
 
 Dictionary, Military and Naval. James. 
 
 Dictifinury of Arts and Sciences. Francis. 
 
 Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. Ure. 
 
 Dictionary of Every Days Difficulties. Shilton. 
 
 Uicionarj- of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Smith. 
 
 Dictionary of Military Science. Campliell. 
 
 Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art. Brande. 
 
 Dictiouary of the EnglLsli Language. Johnson. 
 
 Dictionary of the English Language. Nuttall. 
 
 Dictionary of the English Language. Smart. 
 
 Dictionary of the United States Army. Gardner. 
 
 Dictionary, Philosophical. Button. 
 
 Dictionnaire Militaire Portatif. Le Grand. 
 
 Dictionnairi" Portatif et KaLsonne. Couturier. 
 
 Die Lehre Vom Neueren Festungski-ieg. Rilstow. 
 
 Dienst- Vorschriften der Koniglich Preussischen Armee. Voa 
 
 Helldorff. 
 Digest of Decisions of Federal Courts. Peters. 
 Digest of Laws of the United States. Dunlop. 
 Digest of Laws of the United States. Gordon. 
 Digest of MiUtary Laws. Mordecai. 
 
 Digest of Opinions of the Judge- Advocate General. Winthorp. 
 Electro-Ballistic Machines. Benet. 
 Elementary Lectures on Military Law. Tulloch. 
 Elementary Principles of Fortification. Hyde. 
 Elements of International Law. Wheaton. 
 Elements of Military Arts and Sciences. Halleck. 
 Encyclopedia Britannica 1 187.5). 
 Encyclopedic Militaire et Maritime. 
 Field-book of the Revolution. Lossing. 
 Field Exercise and Evolutions of the Army. 
 Field Exercise (English), 1870. 
 
 Field Fortification: a Manual of Military Sketching and Re- 
 connaissance. Published by EngUsljf authority. 
 Field Fortification. Macaulay. 
 Field Fortifications. Mahan. 
 Field Fortifications. MTieeler. 
 Fortification and other MiUtary Subjects as carried on at the 
 
 Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. 
 Fortification, .\metti. 
 Frederick the Great. Carlyle. 
 French Revolution. Thiers. 
 Friend of All. (jreeu. 
 Frontal Attack of Infantry. Laymann. 
 Geographic PliLsique. Historique et MiUtaire. Lava. 
 Grand Military C)|)erations. Jomini. 
 Great Campaigns. King. 
 Grunilzuge derTaktik der DreiWaffen, Infanterie, Kavallerie, 
 
 und Artillerie. Brandt. 
 Gunnery. H5'de. 
 Gunpowder. Badeley, Anderson, Qoodenough, Smith, and 
 
 Morgan. 
 Ourley on Mathematical and Surveying Instruments. 
 Handbook for Field Service. Lefroy. 
 Handbook for Military Artificers. 1875. Armstrong. 
 Handbook of Artillerj-. Roberts. 
 Handbook of Natural Philosophy. Lardner. 
 Handbook of the Mechanical Art8. Burns. 
 Heather on !MalhematicaI Instruments. 
 I Heavy Artillery Tactics. Tidball. 
 Heerwesenund Infanteriedienst der Koniglich PreuESlscben 
 
 Armee. Wltzlebon. 
 Hlstoire et Tactlque des Trois Armes, et plus PartlculiSrement 
 
 de I'Artillarie de Canipagne. Favt'*. 
 History of the Dre.ss of the British Soldier. Luard. 
 HIstDry of the Peninsula War. Nai)ier. 
 History of the Rebellion. Teuney. 
 History of the War In the Peninsula and in the South of 
 
 France. Napier.
 
 LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED OR EXTRACTED FROM. 
 
 9 
 
 Holtzapffel's Turning and Mechanical Manipulation. 
 
 How we are to Govern Oui'selves. Fonblanque. 
 
 Indifui and Burman Timbers. Skinner. 
 
 Infantry, Cavalry, and Artillery Tactics, United States Army. 
 
 Instructions for Armies. Lieber. 
 
 Instructions for Field Artillery. 
 
 Instructions in Military Engineering. Published by English 
 authority. 
 
 Instructions in the Duties of Cavalry reconnoitring an Ehiemy, 
 for the use of Auxiliary Cavalry. 
 
 Instruments, Mathematical, Meteorological, etc. Queen. 
 
 Jomlni's Treatise on Grand Military Operations, or a Critical 
 and Military History of the Wars of Frederick the Great. 
 Holabird. 
 
 Journals of the Royal United Service Institution. 
 
 Judge-Advocate and Recorder's Guide. Regan. 
 
 Knight's Mechanical Dictionary. 
 
 Kriegsfeuerwerkerei Zum Gebrauch fUr die KtiuigUch Preus- 
 siscbe Artillerie. Bath. 
 
 Kri^swOrterbuch. Loehr. 
 
 Law Dictionary. Bouvier. 
 
 Law of Nations. Vattel. 
 
 Legislation et Administration Militaires. Guillot. 
 
 l^issons of War from the Great Masters. Soady. 
 
 Life of Napoleon. Jomioi. 
 
 Life of the Duke of Slarlborough. Coxe. 
 
 Manual for Engineer Troops. Duane. 
 
 Manual for Rifle Practice. Wingate. 
 
 Manual of English Artillery Exercises, 1875. 
 
 Manual of Instructions for Testing the Defective Vision of 
 Soldiers. Longmore. 
 
 Manual of Military Law. Pipou and Collier. 
 
 Manuel coinplet a I'Usage des Candidats au Grade d'OflScier 
 d'Infanterie. TurUn. 
 
 Manuel d' Ad ministration et de Complabilite A I'usage des 
 OflBciers des Compagnies ou Escadron des Corps d'Infan- 
 terie et de Ca.valerie. Ruffln. 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge. 
 
 Maxims of War. Napoleon. 
 
 May hew on the Horse. 
 
 Mechanic's Magazine. 
 
 Memoire sur divers Perfectionnements Militaires. Cavalli. 
 
 Memoirs, fiherman. 
 
 Method of Horsemanship, Baucher. 
 
 Militair Conversations- Lexikon. Von der Llihe. 
 
 MiHtary Bridges. CuUum. 
 
 Military Bridges. Haupt. 
 
 Military Carriages, Close. 
 
 Military Carriages. Treatise on. Kemmis. 
 
 Military Catechi.sm and Handbook. Walshe. 
 
 Military Commission in Europe. McClellan. 
 
 Military Dictionary. Duane. 
 
 Military Dictionary. Scott. 
 
 MiUtary Elngineering. Mahan. 
 
 Mihtary Gymnastics. Farrow. 
 
 Military I^aw and Court -Martial. BenCt. 
 
 Military Law Authorities. Hough. 
 
 Military I>aw. Clode. 
 
 Military MLscellany. Marshall. 
 
 Mihtary Schools and Courses of Instruction in the Science 
 and Art of War. Barnard. 
 
 MiUtary Sketching and Reconnaissance. Hutchison and Mac- 
 Gregor. 
 
 Military Telegraph during the CivU War ia the U. S. Plum. 
 
 Motion of Projectiles. Owen. 
 
 Mountain Scouting. Farrow. 
 
 Mutiny Act and Articles of War. 
 
 Naval and Military Technical Dictionary of the French Lan- 
 guage. Bums. 
 
 Naval Gunnery. Douglas. 
 
 Naval Ordnance and Gunnery. Cook. 
 
 New Bayonet Exercise. Kelton. 
 
 Operations of War, 2d and 3d editions. Hamley. 
 
 Orders and Correspondence of General Winfleld Soott, Con- 
 g^ressional Documents, etc. 
 
 Ordnance and Armor. HoUey. 
 
 Ordnance and Gunnery. Benton. 
 
 Ordnance and Naval Gunnery. Simpson. 
 
 Outpost. Mahan. 
 
 Outposts. Hamley. 
 
 Pictorial Field-book of the War of 1812. Lossing. 
 
 Practical Treatise on Attack and Defense. Jebb. 
 
 Precis of Modem Tactics. Home. 
 
 Principles of Gunnerj-. Sladen. 
 
 Queen's Regulations, 18?3. 
 
 Regulations and Instructions for Encampments lEnglish). 
 
 Report on the Transport of Sick and Wounded by Pack Aui 
 mals. Otis. 
 
 Reports of the Chief of Ordnance, U. S. Army, 18?i-18ftL 
 
 Revue d'Artillerie. 
 
 Revue Militaire de I'fitranger (Paris). 
 
 Rifle Exercises and Musketry Instructions. 
 
 Rifle Firing. Laidley. 
 
 Rifles and Rifle Practice. Wflcox. 
 
 Royal Ai-tiflery. History of. Dimcan. 
 
 Russian Campaigns in Turkey, 1877-78. Greene. 
 
 Sandhurst Papers. 
 
 Science, La, des Personnes de Cour, d'fipfee et de Robe. 
 
 Shifts and Expedients of Camp-Life. Lord and Baines. 
 
 Short Notes on Field Batteries. Browne. 
 
 Simmons on Courts-Martial. 
 
 Small's Veterinary Tablet. 
 i Some Weapons of War. Bartlett. 
 
 Spectateur Militaire (Paris). 
 
 Steam Engine. Burns. 
 
 Strategy and Tactics. Dufour, 
 
 Studies in Tactics of Infantry. Von Scherff. 
 
 Sur la Formation des Troupes pour le Combat. JominL 
 
 Tableau Analytique. Jomini. 
 
 Tactical Deductions from the War of 1870-71. Bog^uslawski. 
 
 Tactics and Strategy. Twemlow. 
 
 Text-book for School of Musketry at Hythe. 
 
 Text-book of Gunnery. Mackinlay. 
 
 Text-lx>ok of the Construction and Manufacture of the Rifled 
 Ordnance in the British Service. Stoney and Jones. 
 
 The Admim'stration and Organization of the British Army, with 
 especial Reference to Supply and Finance. Fonblanque. 
 
 The Armies of Europe. McClellan. 
 
 The Art of Travel. Galton. 
 
 The Duties of the General Staff. Von Schellendorf. 
 
 The Elements of Mihtary Art and History. Duparcq. 
 
 The Elements of Modem Tactics. Shaw. 
 
 The Law relating to Officers in the Army. Prendergast. 
 
 The Military Laws of the United States. Callan. 
 
 Theorj- of War. Macdougall. 
 
 The Soldier's Pocket-book for Field Service. Wolseley. 
 
 Tomlinson's Cyclopedia of the Useful Arts and Manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 Treatise on Cranes. Towne. 
 
 Treatise on Fortification. Lendy. 
 
 United States Army Regulations. 
 
 United States Bridge Equipage. 
 
 United States Revised Statutes. 
 
 Voyle's Military Dictionary. 
 
 Weale's Series. 
 
 Weapons of War. Demmln. 
 
 Webster's Dictionary. 
 
 West Point; or. Information for those about to Enter the 
 Academy. Farrow. 
 
 WUhelm's Military Dictionary and Gazetteer. 
 
 Worcester's Dictionary. 
 
 Youatt on the Horse. Skinner.
 
 ABRHENIATIOXS OF MODERX TERMS, PHRASES ANT) TITLES EM- 
 PLUVED IN FARRONNS MILn'ARY ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 A.A.S. {Academuv Americancp Socius.) 
 Membt'p of the American Academy. 
 
 A.H. (Artinni Bucculaureits.) Bachelor 
 of Arts. 
 
 A.H.C.F.M. American Board of Com- 
 missioners for Foreign Missions. 
 
 Abp. Archbishop. 
 
 A.C. (Ante Chriatum.) Before Christ. 
 
 A. D, {Anno Domini.) In the year of 
 our Lord. 
 
 JEt. i^^Jtatis,) Of age: aged. 
 
 Al. Alabama. 
 
 A.M. {Artium Mafjister.) Master of 
 
 Arts; {Ante Merirltem) Before noon; 
 
 (Anno J/unrftt In the year of the 
 
 world. 
 An. {Anno.) In the year. 
 Apr. April. 
 A.K. (Anno Regni.) In the year of the 
 
 reign. 
 Ark. Arkansas. 
 A.l'.C. [Anno Urbis Condit<e.) In the 
 
 year from the foundation of the city. 
 Au<t. August. 
 A voir. Avoirdupois. 
 
 B. Book; ib.) Born. 
 
 B.A. Bachelor of Arts. • 
 
 Bol. Balance. 
 Bart. Baronet. 
 Bhl. Barrel 
 B.C. Before Christ. 
 B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. 
 B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. 
 Bd. Bound. 
 Bds. Bound in boards. 
 Benj. Benjamin. 
 Bk. Book. 
 
 B.L. Bachelor of Laws; Breech-load- 
 ing. 
 B.L.R. Breech- loading rifled. 
 Bp. Bishop. 
 Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General. 
 
 C. or Cap. (Caput.) Chapter. 
 Cal. California. 
 
 Cam., or Camh. Cambridge. 
 
 Caps. Capitals. 
 
 Cant. Captain. 
 
 C.B. Companion of the Bath 
 
 C. C. P. Cou rt of Common Pleas. 
 
 C.E. Civil Engineer. 
 
 Cent. iCentum.) A hundred. 
 
 C.J. Chief Justice. 
 
 CO. Commanding officer. 
 
 Co. Company. 
 
 Col. Colonel : Colorado. 
 
 Com. Commodore. 
 
 Conn., or ct. Connecticut. 
 
 Cor. Corinthian. 
 
 Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretary. 
 
 Crim. Con. Criminal Conversation : 
 AduUer>'. 
 
 Ct. Cent. 
 
 Cts. Cents. 
 
 Civt. Hundredweight. 
 
 D., or d. Penny, or pence. 
 
 Dan. Daniel. 
 
 D.A.Q M.G. DcDuty Assistant Quarter- 
 master-General. 
 
 D C. District of Columbia. 
 
 D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law. 
 
 D.D. (Divinitatia Doctor.) Doctor of 
 Divinity. 
 
 Dea. Deacon. 
 
 Dvc. December. 
 
 Del. Delaware. 
 
 Dep. Deputy. 
 
 Dept. Department. 
 
 Deut. I)eutercnif>iny. 
 
 De/t., (ir d/t. Defendant. 
 
 Dint. District, 
 
 Dist. Atty. District Attorney. 
 
 ditti}, or do. The same. 
 
 D.M. Doctor of Music. 
 
 DoU. ($) Dollars. 
 
 Dot. Dozen. 
 
 Dr. Doctor; Debtor; Dram. 
 
 D.V. {Deo Volente.) God willing. 
 
 Dvt. Pennyweight. 
 
 E. East. 
 
 Ed. Edition; Editor. 
 
 Edu: Edward. 
 
 E.g.. or e.g. (exempli gratia.) For ex- 
 ample. 
 
 Eliz. Elizabeth. 
 
 E. N. E. East - North-East. 
 
 Eph. Ei)hesian3. 
 
 Esq. Esquu'e. 
 
 et. al. (et alii.) And others. 
 
 etc., or (tc. {et cwtera.) And so forth. 
 
 et seo. (et seanentia.) Ajad what follows. 
 
 Exoa. Exodus. 
 
 E.rpl. Explanation. 
 
 Ez. Ezra. 
 
 Ezek. Ezekiel. 
 
 Fahr. Fahrenheit. 
 
 Feb. February. 
 
 F.G. Fine grain; Field-gun. 
 
 Fl., or Floi\ Florida. 
 
 Fred. Frederic. 
 
 FK.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 F.S. Field-service. 
 
 Ft. Foot, or feet. 
 
 Fur. Furlong. 
 
 Ga. Georgia. 
 
 G.B. Great Britain. 
 
 O.C. Goc<l conduct. 
 
 G.C.B. Grand Cross of the Bath. 
 
 Gen. Genera!; Genesis. 
 
 Geo. George; Georgia. 
 
 Oov. Governor. 
 
 Gov.-Gen. Governor-General. 
 
 G.S. General service. 
 
 G.S. ir. General service wagon. 
 
 H., or fl. Hour. 
 
 Hab. Hahakkuk. 
 
 H.B.M. His. or Her, Britannic Majesty. 
 
 H.C. House of Commons. 
 
 Ileh. Hebrews. 
 
 Hltd. Hogshead. 
 
 H.L. House of Lords. 
 
 H.Af. His. or Her. Majesty. 
 
 H.M.S. His, or Her, Majesty's Ship, or 
 Service. 
 
 Hon. Honorable. 
 
 Hos. Hosea. 
 
 H.R. House of Representatives. 
 
 H.R.H. His, or Her, Royal Highness. 
 
 Hnnd. Hundred. 
 
 /., or Isl. Island. 
 
 //i.. Ibid. (Ibidem.) In the same place. 
 
 /(/. {Idem.) The same. 
 
 i.e. (id est.) That is. 
 
 I.II.S. (/e.*fHs Ilominum Salvator.) Jesus 
 the Saviour of men. 
 
 ///. Illinois. 
 
 In. Inches. 
 
 Incofj. {Incognito.) Unknown. 
 
 Ind. Indiana. 
 
 I.y.R.I. {lesHs XazarenuA, Rex Tudce- 
 <prum.) Jesus of Naziiretb, King of the 
 Jews. 
 
 Innt. Instant (the current month). 
 
 /«>. Iowa. 
 
 i.q. {idem (piod.) The same as. 
 
 la. Isaiah. 
 
 It. Italics. 
 
 J. Justice; Judge. 
 
 Jan. January. 
 
 Jos. James. 
 
 Jtr. Jeremiah. 
 
 Jntt. John. 
 
 Jona. Jonathan. 
 
 Jos. Joseph. 
 
 Jt/sh. Josiiua. 
 
 J. P. Justice of the Peace. 
 
 Jr.. or Jun. Junior. 
 
 Juilif. Judges. 
 
 Jul.' Jidy. 
 
 Kan. Kansas. 
 
 KB. Knight of the Bath; King's Bench. 
 
 K.C.B. Kniglit Commander of the Bath. 
 
 Ken., or Ky. Kentuclty. 
 
 K.G. Knight of the Garter. 
 
 K.O.C. Knight of the Grand Cross. 
 
 Ki. Kings. 
 
 Knt., or Kt. Knight. 
 
 L.. or lb. Pound (weight). 
 
 L., /., or f. Pound titerling. 
 
 Im. Louisiana. 
 
 Lot. Latitude. 
 
 L.G. Large crain. 
 
 L.I. Long Island. 
 
 Lieut. Lieut enaut. 
 
 LL.B. Baclielor of Laws. 
 
 LL.D. Doctor of Laws. 
 
 L.L.R. Line of least resistance. 
 
 L.S. Land service. 
 
 M., or m. Masculine. 
 
 M.A. Master of Arts; Military Academy. 
 
 Maj. Major. 
 
 Mar. JIarch. 
 
 Mass. Massachusetts. 
 
 Matt. Matthew. 
 
 M.C. Member of Congress. 
 
 M.D. Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 Md. Maryland. 
 
 Mdlle., or Mile. Mademoiselle. 
 
 M.E. Mechanical Engineer. 
 
 Me. Maine. 
 
 Mem. Memorandum. 
 
 Messrs. Gentlemen. 
 
 Meth. Methodist. 
 
 Mich. Michigan. 
 
 Min., or viin. Minute, or minutes. 
 
 Minn. Minnesota. 
 
 Mi.'iS. Mississippi. 
 
 M.L. Muzzle-loading. 
 
 M.L.R. Muzzle-loading rifled. 
 
 MM. Messieurs. 
 
 Mme. Madame. 
 
 Mo. Missouri; Month. 
 
 Muns. Monsieur. 
 
 Mos., or mos. Months. 
 
 M.P. Member of Parliament. 
 
 M.P.P. Member of Provincial Parlift- 
 ment. 
 
 Mr. Master, or Mister. 
 
 Mrs. Mistress, or Missis. 
 
 M.S. Sacred to the Memory. 
 
 MSiy. Manuscripts. 
 
 Mt. Mount, or Mountain. 
 
 M.T. Mountain train. 
 
 Mus D. Doctor of Music. 
 
 iV., or n. North; Noun; Neuter. 
 
 N.A. North America. 
 
 Nath. Natlianiel 
 
 N.B. New Brunswick; iXota bene) Note 
 well, or take notice. 
 
 N.C. North Carolina; Non - commis- 
 sioned. 
 
 N.C.O. Non-commissioned Offlcer. 
 
 N.E. North-East; New England. 
 
 Neb. Nebraska 
 
 N.F. Newfoundland. 
 
 N.H. New Hampshire. 
 
 N.J. New Jersey. 
 
 N.L. North Latitude. 
 
 N.N.E. North North-East. 
 
 N.N. W. North-North-West. 
 
 No. { Xnmero. i Number. 
 
 Non Sfq. {Non scqititur.) It does not 
 follow. 
 
 Nos. Numbers. 
 
 Nov. November. 
 
 N.P. Notarv Public; New pattern. 
 
 N.S. Nova Scotia; The New Style (since 
 175:;). 
 
 N.T. New Testament. 
 
 N. IV. North-West. 
 
 N.Y. New York. 
 
 0. Ohio. 
 
 Ob. (Obiit.) Died. 
 
 Ob., or OMt. Obedient. 
 
 Oct. October. 
 
 O.P. Old Pattern. 
 
 Or. Oregon. 
 
 O.S. Old Style. 
 
 O.T. Old Testament. 
 
 Ox/., or Oxon. {Oxonia.) Oxford. 
 
 Oz, Ounce, or ounces. 
 
 P., or p. Page; Bebble.
 
 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 11 
 
 Pa., or Fenn. Pennsylvania. 
 
 Fart. Parliament. 
 
 Fd. Paid. 
 
 F.K.I. Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Fer cent. (Fer ciiitum.) By the hun- 
 dred. 
 
 Fh.lK (PhHos<>phi(B Doctor.) Doctor of 
 Philosopliy. 
 
 Fhil. Phjlippiaus. 
 
 Fhila. Philadelphia. 
 
 Finx., or I'xt. {Fhixit.) Placed after 
 the painter's name on pictures: as, 
 "Turner pxi." 
 
 Fk. Peck. 
 
 Ft. Plural 
 
 Fiff. Plaintiff. 
 P.M. 
 
 Postmaster: Past Master; (Post 
 
 Meridum) Afternoon. 
 P. M. O . Pust master- General. 
 P.O. Postufflce. 
 pp. Pages. 
 F.F.C. {Four Prendre Conge.) To take 
 
 leave. 
 Pr.. or V. (Per.) By the. 
 Prcs. President. 
 Fro/. Professor. 
 Fro tern. (Pro tempore.^ For the time 
 
 bein(j. 
 Prov. Proverbs; Province. 
 Frox. (Proximo.) Nextithenextmonth). 
 P.S. (Post Hcriptuin ) Postcript. 
 Ps. Psalm, or Psalms. 
 Ft. Pint. 
 
 Ptib Doc. Public Documents. 
 Ptct. Penny weight, 
 p.. or pit. Qiu'ry; Question; Queen. 
 y./>. Quefn's Bench. 
 Q.C. Queen's Council. 
 Q.ED. \Qiiod Krat Demonstrandum.) 
 
 Which was to be demonstrated. 
 p. 3t. Quartermaster. 
 p.iU.fr. Quartermaster-General. 
 pr Quarter {2S pounds) ; Farthing; 
 
 Quire 
 Qt. Quart: Quantity. 
 Ov. {Quod vide.) Wliich see. 
 R. (/?f-x) King: (/^cg/nn) Queen. 
 K.A. Royal Academy, or Academician; 
 
 Rear - Admiral : liight Ascension : 
 
 Royal Artillery. 
 R.C.D. Royal Carriage Department. 
 R.E. Royal Engineers. 
 Rec. Sec. Recording Secretary. 
 
 Rev. Revelation: Reverend. 
 
 R.F.G. Kille line grain. 
 
 R.G.F. Royal gtm factory. 
 
 R.l. Rhode Island. 
 
 R.L. Royal Laluiratory. 
 
 R.L.O. Kitle large grain. 
 
 R M.A. Royal Jliliiary Academy. 
 
 R.y. Royal Navy. 
 
 Rom. Roman; Romans. 
 
 Rom. Cath. Roman CatboHc. 
 
 R.R. Railrc)ad. 
 
 Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. 
 
 S. South: Signor: shilling. 
 
 6'.^. South America: Small arms. 
 
 S.A.A. Small-arm anmiuuitiun. 
 
 a. Afr. S<mlh Africa. 
 
 Sat. Saturday. 
 
 S.B. Smooth-bore. 
 
 S.C. South Carolina: Scrap -carriage. 
 
 ^ic, or Hcidp. iSridpsit.) Placed after 
 the engraver's name on a picture. 
 
 Sch.^ or Schr Schooner. 
 
 Scil , or .Sc. {Scilicet.) To wit; namely. 
 
 Script. Scripture. 
 
 S.E. South-East. 
 
 Sec. Secretary; .Section. 
 
 Sen. Senate; Senator; Senior. 
 
 Sep., or Sept. September. 
 
 Serg. Sergeant. 
 
 Serv., or Servt. Servant. 
 
 S.J. Society of Jesus. 
 
 S.J.C'. Supreme Judicial Court. 
 
 S. Lat. South Latitude. 
 
 Sid. Sailed. 
 
 Sm. Sanuiel. 
 
 S.M.J. iSa Mojestt' Imperiale.) His, or 
 Her, Imperial Majesty. 
 
 S.O. Stair Officer. 
 
 Soc. Society. 
 
 Sq. Square. 
 
 Sq.ft. Square feet. 
 
 Sq. in. Square inches. 
 
 Sq. m. S<piare miles. 
 
 St. Sir. or Senior. 
 
 SS., or ss. iScilicct.) Namely. 
 
 S.S. Sea-service; Sunday-school. 
 
 S.S.E. South-South-East. 
 
 S.S. W. South'South-West. 
 
 at. Saint; Street. 
 
 Stat. Statute. 
 
 S.T.D. (SacrcB Theologia' Doctor.) Doc- 
 tor of Divinity. 
 
 Sun., or Sund. Sunday. 
 
 Supt. Superintendent. 
 
 S.tV. South-West. 
 
 Ten., or Tenn. Tennessee. 
 
 Tex.' Texas. 
 
 Tfi., or Tkurs. Thursday. 
 
 77teo. Theodore. 
 
 Tr. Translation; Transpose; Treasurer; 
 Trustee. 
 
 Tu.^ or l\ie8. Tuesday. 
 
 Ult. (Ultimo.) Last, or Pertaining to 
 the last month. 
 
 U.S. United States. 
 
 U.S.A. United States of America; Uni- 
 ted .Stales Army. 
 
 U.S.M. United Slates Mail : United 
 States Marine. 
 
 U.S.M. A. United States Military Aca- 
 demy. 
 I U.S.y. United States Navy. 
 
 U.i>. I'. United States Volimteers. 
 
 U.7\ Utah Territory. 
 
 Ko. Virginia. 
 
 V.C Victoria Cross. 
 
 I'ice-Pres. Vice-President. 
 
 Urrf. (Vide.) See. 
 
 Vis., or Vise. Viscount. 
 
 Viz. {Videlicet.) Namely; to wit. 
 
 V.n. Verb neuter. 
 
 Voc. Vocative. 
 
 Vol. Volume. 
 
 V.P. Vice-lVesident. 
 
 V.R. {Victoria Regina.) Queec Vic- 
 toria. 
 
 Vs. ( Versus ) Against. 
 
 Vt. Veimont. 
 
 K* Week; West. 
 
 Wash. Washington. 
 
 Wed. Wednesday. 
 
 W.l. West India; West Indies. 
 
 W. Lon. West Longitude. 
 
 Wm. William. 
 
 W.M. Worshipful Master. 
 
 W.y. W. West-North-West. 
 
 W.S. W. West-South-West. 
 
 Wt. Weight. 
 
 Xmas. Christmas. 
 
 Y. Year. 
 
 Yd. Yard. 
 
 IV. Your. 
 
 Zach. Zachai^-. 
 
 Zech. Zechariah. 
 
 Zeph. Zephaniah. 
 
 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES E:MPL0YED IN FARROW'S MILITARY 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 Abante. (L.I Before; previously. 
 
 A hux. (Fr. I Down. 
 
 Ab extra. (LI From llie outside 
 
 Ab initio. iL ) From the beginning. 
 
 Ab origint. (L. t From the oriCTU. 
 
 Ab oi'o uJtque aft tnala. iL. t From the 
 egs: to the apples; from first to last. 
 Roman tiarMpiets began with eggs, and 
 ended witli apples. 
 
 Ahnrlu'innditii. iL.i From the founda- 
 tion of llie fity. 
 
 Acnmvte. iY'r.\ On account. 
 
 Adiuyinitiim. iL.) To infinity. 
 
 Ad interim. (L.) In the mean while. 
 
 Ad libitum. (L.i At one's pleasure 
 
 Ad naiuieam. (L.) To disRust; till dis 
 (rust is excited. 
 
 Adptitres iL 1 To his fathers; ie..dead. 
 
 Ad referendum. (L.) Till further con- 
 sitleration. 
 
 Ad valorem. fL.) According to; upon 
 the value. 
 
 Affaire d'amoiir. (Fr I An intrigue: 
 a Inve-affnir 
 
 Affaire dliominir. (Ft.) An affair of 
 honor; i.e . a duel 
 
 A fortiori. (L ) With stronger reason. 
 
 A guxto. (ItaM To o;ie's heart's con- 
 tent. 
 
 .4 hi Itonne keure. (Fr, t In happy time: 
 at a eood hour. 
 
 A la FVani^ai.se. (Tr.) In the French 
 manner. 
 
 Ala mode. (Fr.i In fa.sliion: fashionable. 
 
 A I'Angtaise. (Fr.) In the English man- 
 ner. 
 
 A'fr.sro (Ital > In the open air. 
 
 Alias (LI Otherwise; e.9.. Jones, oiios 
 the Coiint Johannes. 
 
 Alibi il. 1 F.lsewhere A legal defense 
 bv which the defendant attempts to 
 show that he was absent at the time 
 and from the plae"" »' the commission 
 of the crime. 
 
 Allons. (Fr) Come on ; let us go. 
 
 Alma mater (L/l A nourishing mother. 
 A name frequentlv applied by stu- 
 dents ro their college, 
 
 ,1 Voutranre (Fr.) To the uttermost: 
 the last extremitv. 
 
 Alter eqo. (T, ( A second self, 
 
 AInmniix. (LI A foster-child: a pupil 
 The graduates of American colleges 
 are often called alumni. 
 
 Amende honorable (Fr.i To make the 
 amende honorable is to make a i uit- 
 ahle anolngy for and confession of 
 one's offense. 
 
 .4mor patrice. (T..) Love of country; 
 patriotism. 
 
 .-(Bioiirpropre. (Ft.) Self-esteem. 
 
 ^ncien reqime (Fr.) The old govern- 
 ment; the French monarchy before 
 the Revolution. 
 
 Anno Domini. CL.) In the year of our 
 Lord. 
 
 ^nno mundi. (L.) In the year of the 
 
 world. 
 Annus mirabillis. (L.) The wonderful 
 
 year. 
 Antebellum. (L.) Before the war. 
 Ante meridiem. (L.) Before noon. 
 A posteriitri. (L. ) From the latter; the 
 
 cause from the effect, 
 A priori. (L.) From the former; the 
 
 effect from the cause. 
 A propos. (Fr.) Appositely; seasou- 
 
 aoly: in regard to. 
 Artfitnientuiii ad hominem. (L.) An ar- 
 gument to the man; i.e.. personal. 
 Audi alteram partem. (L ) Hear the 
 
 other part: both sides. 
 An fait. (Fr.) Skilled; accomplished; 
 
 competent. 
 Au fond. (Fr.) To the bottom; tho'r- 
 
 oughlv. 
 Au reioir. (Fr.) Goodby, till we meet 
 
 Auto da fe. (Rp.) An act of faith; i.e., 
 burning heretics. 
 
 Aux amies. (Fr.) To arms. 
 
 A rotre sanle. (Fr.) To your health. 
 
 Bas bleu. (Fr.) A bluestocking; a lit- 
 erary* woman, 
 
 Peau ideal. (Ft.) Ideal beauty. The 
 absolute beauty which exists only in 
 the mind. 
 
 Beau monde. (Fr.) The gay world; the 
 wo-ld of fashion.
 
 12 
 
 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 Bel esprit. (Fr.) A fine mind ; wit. 
 
 Ben trovata. (ICal.) Well fouod; "a 
 happy thoufcht." 
 
 BHe noir. (Fr.) A scarecrow; ^ hug- 
 bear. 
 
 Billet-doux. (Fr.) A love -letter; a 
 "sweet" note. 
 
 Bizarre. (Ft.) Strange; eccentric; fan- 
 ciful. 
 
 Bl<u^. (Fr.) One who has seen and 
 enjoyed everj'thing. and upon whom 
 pleasure palls, is called blasr. 
 
 Bvndfidr. it,.) lu good faith; genuine: 
 actual. 
 
 BoH-gre. mal-Qi-r. (Fr.) With a good or 
 ill grace; wllly-nHly. 
 
 Bonhumie. (Fr.) Simple, unaffected 
 good-nature. 
 
 Bun-Jour. (Fr.) Good-day: good-mom- 
 ine. 
 
 Bou-mnt. Fr.) A good word, i.e.. a 
 witty sayiu^. 
 
 Ccetvr'is paribus. (L.) Other things 
 beine: equal. 
 
 Canaille. (Fr.> The rabble; the com- 
 mon inuUiiude. 
 
 Carte blancht. tFr t Bliink sheet of 
 paper. To eivea person nirte/ilanrht- 
 Is to give hiin an unconditional dis- 
 cretion. 
 
 Casus belli. (L.» A case of war; an act 
 which justities war. 
 
 Cetlaut nrniit toga;. (L.) Let arms 
 yield to the guwn; i.e., miUtary to 
 civil power. 
 
 Celu va salts dire. (Fr.) That goes with- 
 out sayiuc: follows as a matter of 
 course anti necessarilj-. 
 
 Chacun a son goiU. (Fr.) Every man to 
 his taste. 
 
 Ch/iteauxen Ksp<tgne. (Fr.) Castles in 
 Spain; air castles. 
 
 Chef d'tvurrr. (Fr.) A masterpiece ; an 
 unequale<l work. 
 
 Cfie sarti, sara. (Ital.) What is to be. 
 will be. 
 
 Chei-alier d'ittdustrie. (Fr.) An adven- 
 turer; one who lives by his wits. 
 
 Chroitique Hcandaleuse. (Fr.) A record 
 of scantlals. 
 
 Cicerone. (ItaL* A person who acts as 
 guide to sighl-seers. 
 
 Comtne il /aut. (Fr.) Neatly; properly; 
 rightly; in "good form.*' 
 
 Compagnon de voyage. (Fr.) Compan- 
 ion of one's travels. 
 
 Compos mentis. (L.) Sane; of sound 
 mind. 
 
 Con amore. (Ital.) Eamestlj-; zeal- 
 ously. 
 
 Con apirito. (Ital.) In a spirited man- 
 ner. 
 
 Corps Diplomat if jue. (Fr.) The foreign 
 ambassa<iors. 
 
 CorpH.t iltUcti. (L) The body of the 
 offense. 
 
 Coup d'etat. (Fr.) A bold stroke in 
 politics. 
 
 Coitpdegr/ice. (Fr.) A stroke of mercy: 
 a tliial blow. 
 
 Coup de main. (Fr.) A bold, swift un- 
 derstanding. 
 
 Coup d'wil. I Fr. I A swift glance of the 
 eye. 
 
 Cofite <iu'il cofite. (Fr.) Let it cost 
 what it may. 
 
 Cui t>ono. iL.) Towhat (for whosel good. 
 
 Cum grano salts. (L.) With a grain of 
 salt; not un<|ualifle<lly. 
 
 Currente calanio. (L.) Rapidly and flu- 
 ently. 
 
 Da capo. (Ital.) From the beginning. 
 
 IM bonne grAce. (Fr.) lieadily; with 
 good will. 
 
 D^but. (Ft.) One's first appearance in 
 society, or on the stage. 
 
 De facto. (L) Actual; in fact. 
 
 De gustibus non eat di.yiutoniluin. (L.) 
 There is no disputing about tastes. 
 
 De jure. (L.) Rightfully; lawfully; law- 
 ful. 
 
 De mortuis nil nisi bonum. (L.) Say no- 
 thing but eood of the dead. 
 
 Denouement. (Fr.) The catastrophe of a 
 plot. 
 
 ffenovo. (L.) Anew; over again : afresh. 
 
 iMo volente. (L.t If it nlea.se Go<l. 
 
 Dernier ressort. (Fr.) The last resource. 
 
 De trop. (Fr.) In the way; too much. 
 
 Dieu et mon droit. (Fr.i Ooil and my 
 right. 
 
 Distingue. (Fr.) Distinguished In man- 
 ner. 
 
 Distrait. (Fr.) Preoccupied; absent- 
 minded. 
 
 Divide et impera. (L.) Divide and gov- 
 ern. 
 
 Dolce far niente. (Hal.) Sweet do-noth- 
 ing: luxurious idleness. 
 Double entente. iFr.i Double meaning; 
 obscenity in disguise. i(.>ften errone- 
 ously written double entendre.) 
 I\tuceur (Ft.\ Sweetuess; compensa- 
 tion: a gratuity. 
 Dramatis persuiux. (L.) The characters 
 
 of a drama. 
 Dulee domum. (L.t Sweet home. 
 Dum vivimus, vit^imiut. (L. i While we 
 .live, let us live; enjoy life to the full. 
 Kclat. (Fr.) Spleudor;"distinction; bril- 
 .liancy. 
 Klan. (Fr.) A spring; Are; dash; im- 
 petuosity. 
 Embanas de i-ichesses. (Fr. ) Embarrass- 
 ment of riches; excess of anything^ 
 Embonpoint. (Fr.) Plumpness of figure. 
 Empressemeni. (Fr.) Enthusiasm; eager- 
 ness. 
 En famille. (Fr.) In family ; by them- 
 selves. 
 Enfant gdte. (Fr.> A spoiled child. 
 Enfiiitt ten-ible. (Fr.) A terrible child; 
 
 making ill-timed remarks. 
 Kii grande toilette. (Fr.) In full dress; 
 
 toilet. 
 En masse. (Fr.) In a body. 
 En rapport. (FV.) In communication. 
 En r^gle. (Fr.) Asitshould be; in rule. 
 En revanche. (Fr.) To make up for it. 
 En route. (Fr.) On one's way. 
 En suite. (Fr.) In company together. 
 Entente cordiale. (Fr.) A cordial under- 
 standing. 
 Entourage. (Fr.) Surroundings; ad- 
 juncts. 
 Eutre nous. (Fr.) Between ourselves. 
 E pluribns unum. (L.) One of many. 
 
 Motto of the United States. 
 Ergo. (L.) Therefore. 
 Eftprit de corps. (Fr.) The spirit of the 
 body : a feeling for the honor and inter- 
 est of an organization. 
 Esprit fort. (Fr.) A skeptic; a free- 
 thinker. 
 Et ccetero. (L.) And the rest; etc. 
 Ex cnthedrd. (L.t From the chair; with 
 
 authority. 
 AVce/jtior.'iL. I Higher. 
 tlxennt omne». (L.) They all go out. 
 Ex nihilo nihil fit. (L.) From nothing, 
 
 nothing conies. 
 Ex officio. tL.) By virtue of his office. 
 Ex parte. (L.) From a part; one-sided. 
 Ex post facto. (L) After the deed is 
 
 done. 
 Ex tempore. (L.) Off-band. 
 Facile princeps. (L.) Easily the chief. 
 Earilis est descensus Averni. (h.) The 
 
 descent into hell is easy. 
 Fait accompli. (Fr. ) An accomplished 
 
 fact. 
 Faux jxis. (Fr.) A# false step; a mistake. 
 Fecit. iL.) He, or she, made. This word 
 is put after an artist's name on a pic- 
 lure. 
 Feb> de se. (L.) A felon of himself; a sui- 
 cide. 
 Femme dechambre. (Fr.) A chamber- 
 maid. 
 Femmesole. (Fr.) An unmarried woman. 
 Festina lente. (L.) Make haste slowly. 
 F^te champetre. (Fr.i A rural party ; a 
 
 party iu the open air. 
 Feuillettm. (Fr.) A small leaf . The bot- 
 toms of the pages in French news- 
 f)aners are so called, being given up to 
 ight literature. 
 Fiat Jiistitia, mat caelum. (L.t Let jus- 
 tice be done, though the heavens fall. 
 Finis coronat opus. (L.) The end ci-owns 
 
 the work. 
 Flagrante delicto. fL.) In the act. 
 Fugit hora. (L ) The hour Hies. 
 Gamin. (Fr.) A street-urchin. 
 (iari;on. iFr.) A waiter. 
 (iarde du corps. (Fr. ) A body-guard. 
 Oarde mobile. (Fr.) Troops liable for 
 
 general sen'ice. 
 Gtisronnade. (Fr.) Boasting; bragging. 
 Qaucherie. (Fr.) Awkwardness; clumsi- 
 ness. 
 <7en</nmie. (Fr.) An armed policeman. 
 ft'eniu.thici. iL t The genius of the place. 
 Oentilhomme. (Fr.) A gentleman ; noble- 
 man. 
 (Sennshomo. (L.) Tlie human race. 
 Gloria in txcelsis. (L.) lilory to God in 
 
 the hiirhest 
 Gloria Patri. (L.i Glory to the Father. 
 Grand siecle. (Fr.) A great century. 
 
 Grossierete. iFr.) Grossuess; rudeness. 
 Hal*eas corpus. iX*.) You may have the 
 
 body. 
 Hauteur. (Fr.) Haughtiness; loftiness. 
 IIiretubique.il,.) Here and everywhere. 
 Hicjacet. (L.) Here lies. 
 Homme d'etat. (Fr.) A statesman. 
 Hani soit qui mat !/ pens*:. (Fr.) Shame 
 
 to him who evil thinks. 
 Horribile dietn. (L.) Ht»rrible to say. 
 Hots de combat. (Fr.k Out of condition 
 
 to fight. 
 HAtel de ville. (Fr.) A town-hall. 
 Ibidem. (L. » In the same place. 
 Ich dien. (Ger.) I sen-e. (Motto of the 
 
 Prince of Wales.) 
 Ici on parte Fran^ais. (Fr.) French 
 
 si>oken here. 
 Idem sonans. iL.) Sounding the same. 
 I Id est. (L.) That is; i.e. 
 
 Ignis fatuus. (L.) A foolish fire; adelu- 
 ' slon. 
 
 I Ignobile vulgus. (L.) The ignoble crowd. 
 I Ignotum perignotius. (L.) The unknown 
 
 by something more unknown. 
 I Imprimis. (L.) In the first place. 
 I In articido mortis. (L.) At the point of 
 death. 
 Index expurgatorius. (L.) A purging in- 
 dex; a list of works prohibited lo be 
 read. 
 7a embryo. (L.) In the rudiments. 
 In esse. (L.) Actual; in existence. 
 In extremis. (L.) At the point of death. 
 In flagrante delicto. (L.) In the very 
 
 act. 
 Infra dignitatem. (L.) Beneath one*s 
 
 dignity. 
 Infuturo. (L.) In the future. 
 In hoc .vi(/no I'inees. (L.) lu this sign 
 
 thou shalt conquer. 
 In loco. (L.) In place; on the spot. 
 In medias res. (L.) In the middle of a 
 
 subject. 
 1)1 pace. (L.) In peace. 
 In pel^H•tuum . (L. ) Forever. 
 In pi-opri/i persond. (L.) In one's own 
 
 person. 
 In re. (L.) In the thing; in the matter of. 
 In rem. (L.I Against the thing. 
 In so'culd sceculorum. (L.) For ages of 
 
 ages. 
 Instantei: (L.) Instantly. 
 In statu quo. (L ) In the state in wluch 
 
 it was. 
 Inter alia. (L.) Among other things, 
 /lifer nos. (L.) Between ourselves. 
 Inter se. (L.) Among themselves. 
 In ioto. iL.) Entiivlv; wholly. 
 In transitu. (L.) Iu tlie passage; on the 
 
 way. 
 In riuo Veritas. (L.) In wine there is 
 
 truth. 
 Ipse dixit. (L.) He said it himself. 
 Ipso facto. iL ) By the fact itself. 
 Je ne sais quoi. (Fr.) I know not what. 
 Jeu de mots. (Fr.) A play upon words. 
 Jour de fete. (Fr.) Asaiut'sday; a fes- 
 tival. 
 Jubitante Deo. (L.) Be joyful to God. 
 Jupiter tonans. (L.) Jupiter the thun- 
 
 derer. 
 Jure divino. (L.) By divine law. 
 Jure humano. (L.) B^' human law. 
 Jus civile. (L.) The civil law. 
 Jus gentium. (L.) The law of nations. 
 Juste milieu. (Fr.) The Eolden mean. 
 Labor omnia vincit. (L.) Labor con- 
 quers all things. 
 Laissez faire. (Fr.) Let things alone. 
 I^apsus linguce. (L.) A slip of the tongue. 
 Lares et penates. (L.) The household 
 
 gods. 
 La us Deo. (L.) Praise be to God. 
 L'areiii'r. (Fr.) The future. 
 Le fieau monde. (Fr. i The world of fash- 
 ion. 
 Lt-se rnc^jeste. (Fr.) High treason. 
 Lex l(x-i. (L.) The law of the place. 
 Lex scripta. (L.) The written law. 
 Lex talionis. (L.) The law of retalia- 
 tion. 
 Literatim. (L ) Letter for letter. 
 Litterateur. (Fr.) A literary man. 
 Locus .'iigilli. (L.) The place of theseal. 
 Ma chere. (Fr ) Mv dear. 
 Mafoi. (Fr.) My faith; upon my faith. 
 Muifnum bonum. iL.) Agi-eatgood. 
 Mai.ton de ville. (Fr) The town house. 
 Maltre dhotel. (Fr.) A house-steward. 
 Major domo. (Ital.> A chief steward. 
 Maladie du paf/s. i Fr ) Homesickness. 
 Materiel. (F.) Opposed to personnel. 
 Mnter faniHias. (L ) The mother of a 
 family.
 
 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 
 
 13 
 
 Mouiaise haute. (Fr. i Bashfulness. 
 
 Uaximum. iL.t The greatest possible. 
 
 Ufjudice. (L.t In my judgment. 
 
 Memento nufri (L. I "Remember death. 
 
 Mriiiorabitia. iL.) Things deserving to 
 be remembered. 
 
 Mens Sana in corpore sano. (L.) A sound 
 mind in a sound body. 
 
 Meum et iuum. (lu.) Mine and thine. 
 
 Mirabile dictu. (h.) Wonderful to tell. 
 
 Mise en scene, (Fr.) Putting on the 
 stage. 
 
 Modus operandi. (L.) The method of 
 operating. 
 
 Jlon ami. (Fr.) My friend. 
 
 Hot ilordre. (Fr.) The password; coun- 
 tersign. 
 
 Muttum in parvo. (L.) Much in little. 
 
 Nemine contradicente. (L.j No one con- 
 tradicting. 
 
 Se phut xdtra. (L.t Nothing more be- 
 yond; the utmost. 
 
 Xil admirari. (L.; To wonder at no- 
 thing. 
 
 A'i7 desperandum. (L.) ^Ve must not de- 
 spair. 
 
 Kil'un ni I autre. (Fr.) Neither the one 
 nor the other. 
 
 I^imptii-te. (Fr.) It does not matter. 
 
 Nijfi priitn. (L.) Unless before. 
 
 Noblesse oblige. (Fr.) Nobility obliges; 
 noble must act nobly. 
 
 Nolens vtAens. (L ) Willy-nilly. 
 
 Noli me tangere. (L.) Don't touch me; 
 hand.s off. 
 
 Nolle prosequi. (L.) To abandon prose- 
 cution. 
 
 Nom de guerre. (Fr.) A war-name. 
 
 Nom de plume. (Fr.) Pen-name ; name 
 assumed by an author. 
 
 Nttn compos mentis. (L.) Not in one's 
 right mind. 
 
 Non eat inventus. (L.) He has not been 
 found. 
 
 Non multa. sed multum. (L.) Not many 
 things, but much. 
 
 Nota bene. vL.) Mark well. 
 
 Nous ai'on.t vhanqe tout ceta. (Fr.) We 
 have changed all that. 
 
 Nous verrou.t. (Fr. ) We shall see. 
 
 Odium theotogicum. (L.) Theological 
 hatred. 
 
 Olla p*Ml)-idft. <Sp ) A mixture. 
 
 Omnia vincit amor. (L.) Love conquers 
 all things. 
 
 On dit. (Fr.i They say; people say. 
 
 Onus probandi. (L.) The burden of 
 proof. 
 
 Oro pro nobis. (L.) Pray for us. 
 
 O tempora! O mores' (L.) Oh, the 
 times 1 Oh, the manners ! 
 
 Otium cum dignitate. (L.) Ease with 
 dignity. 
 
 Outre. (Fr.) Extravagant; e-Vtreme. 
 
 Par excellence. tTr.) By way of emi- 
 nence : in the highest degree. 
 
 Parhafard.iTT.) By chance. 
 
 Pari pas.tu. (L.) With equal step. 
 
 Parvenu. (Fr.) An upstart; a rich 
 snob. 
 
 Pilfer familias. (L.) The father of a 
 familv. 
 
 Pater patrice. (L.) The father of his 
 country. 
 
 Pax robUcum. (L.) Peace be with you. 
 
 Peccavi. (L.) I have Sinned. 
 
 Pendente lite. (L.) While the suit is 
 pending. 
 
 Per annum. (L.) By the year. 
 
 Per capita. (L.) By the head; on each 
 pe-^on. 
 
 Per contra. (L.) On the other hand. 
 
 Per diem. (L.) By the day; everyday. 
 
 Perse. (L.) By itself. 
 
 Per.mnnel. (Fr.) The staff; persons In 
 any service. 
 
 Petitio princijiii. (L.) Begging the ques- 
 tion. 
 
 Petite. (Fr.) Small; little. 
 
 Piece de resistance. (Fr.) A joint of meat. 
 
 Piuxit. (L ) He. or she. painted it. 
 
 Pis alter. (Fr.) A lasit expedient. 
 
 Plebs. (L.) The common people. 
 
 Poeta nascitur. non Jit. (L.) A poet is 
 bom, not made. 
 
 Point d'appui. (Fr.) Point of support. 
 
 Posse comitaius. (L.) The power of the 
 country; the force that may be sum- 
 moned by the Sheriff. 
 
 Paste restante. (Fr.) To be left till called 
 for. 
 
 Post meridiem. (L.) Afternoon. 
 
 Post mortem. (L.) After death. 
 
 Post obilmn. CL.) After death. 
 
 Pourparler. (Fr.) A consultation. 
 
 Pour prendre conge. (Fr.) To take 
 leave. 
 
 Precieuse. (Fr.) A bluestocking; a con- 
 ceited woman. 
 
 jPrei(.r chevalier. (Fr.) A gallant gentle- 
 man. 
 
 Prima donna. (Ital.) The first lady; the 
 principal female singer in an ItaUan 
 opera. 
 
 Piimti facie. (L.) On the flrst face; at 
 first sight. 
 
 P)im us inter pares. (L.) First among 
 his peei-s. 
 
 Pro bono publico. (L.) Fbr the public 
 good. 
 
 Proces verbal. (Fr.) Verbal process; the 
 taking of testimony in writing. 
 
 Pro et con . (h.) For and against. 
 
 Proformd. (L.) For the sake of form. 
 
 Pro patriA. (l..'l For ones country. 
 
 Pro tempore. (L.) For the time. 
 
 Punica Jides. (L.) Punic faith; i.e., 
 treachery. 
 
 Quantum sufficit. (L.) As much as is 
 sufficient. 
 
 Quelque cho.te. (Fr.) As if. 
 
 yii/rf Muiic' (L.) What now? A gossip. 
 
 Quid pro quo. (L.) An equivalent. 
 
 Qui Vive. (Fr.) Who goes there ? 
 
 Quod erat demonstrandum. (L.) Which 
 was to be demonstrated. 
 
 Quondam. (L) At one time; once. 
 
 fiai-aavis.it..) A rare bird. 
 
 Rechauffe. (Fr.) Warmed over; stale. 
 
 Recherche. (Fr.) Choice; elegant. 
 
 Redacteur. (Fr.) Ad editor. 
 
 Redivivus. (L.) Restored to life. 
 
 Reductio ad absurdum. (L.) Reduction 
 to an absurdity. 
 
 Rentes. (Fr.) Public funds; national se- 
 curities. 
 
 Requiescat in pace. (L.) May he, or she, 
 rest in peace. 
 
 Res gesttr. IL.) Things done. 
 
 Resurgam. (h.) I shall rfee again. 
 
 i?ei*enoii.'< d no^ nioi/fons. iFr. ) Let us 
 return to our sheep; come back to the 
 subject. 
 
 Robe de chambre. (Fr.) A dressing-gown. 
 
 Roue. (Fr.) A rake. 
 
 Rouge et noir. (Fr.) Red and black (a 
 game). 
 
 Sanctum sanctorum. (L.) The holy of 
 holies. 
 
 .Sangfroid. (Fr.) Cold blood; self-pos- 
 session. 
 
 Sans culottes. (Fr.) Without breeches ; 
 red republicans. 
 
 Sartor resartus (L.) The tailor patched. 
 
 Sauve qui pent. (Fr.) Save himself who 
 can. 
 
 Savoir-faire. (Fr.) Knowing how to do 
 things. 
 
 Satoir-iiiTe. iTr.) Knowledge of the 
 world. 
 
 Semper idem. (L.) Always the same. 
 
 Semper paraius. (L.) Always prepared. 
 
 Seqxiitur. CL.) It follows. 
 
 Sertadni. (L ) In order. 
 
 Sic iiur ad astra. (L.) Thus men go to 
 the stars. 
 
 Sic semper t'lrannis. (L.) Thus always 
 with tyrants. The motto of Virginia. 
 
 Sic transit gliyria mundi. (L.) So | 
 
 the glory of the world. 
 Similia stmilibus curantur. (L.) Like 
 
 is cured by like. 
 Sine die. (L. i Without a day. 
 .Sine qua non. (L.) Without which, not; 
 
 an indispensable condition. 
 Soidisant. (Fr.) Self-styled. 
 Spirituel. < Fr. ) Witty. 
 Status quo. (L.) The state in which; 
 
 the former state. 
 Stet.iL.) Let it stand. 
 Suai*l(ei- in modo. fortiter in re. (L.) 
 
 Gently in manner, bravely in action. 
 Sub rose. (L ) Under the rose; secretly. 
 Hui genei-is. [L.) Of its own kind. 
 Sumiiiuiii bonum. (L.) The supreme 
 
 good. 
 Tableau vivant. (Fr.) A living picture. 
 Tahle d'hote. iFr.) A public ordinary; 
 
 dinner at a fixed price. 
 Tabula rasa. (L.) .V smooth tablet; a 
 
 blank. 
 Tant mieux. (Fr.) So much the better. 
 Tant pis. iFr.) So much the worse. 
 Te Deum laudamus. (L.) Thee, God, we 
 
 praise. 
 Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in 
 
 illis. (L.) Times change, and we 
 
 change with them. 
 Tempus fugit. (L.) Time flies. 
 Terra finna. (L. I Solid earth. 
 TeiTa incognita. (L.) An unknown 
 
 country. 
 Tete-a-tete. (Fr.) Head to head ; in pri- 
 vate conversation. 
 Tiers elat. (Ft.) The third estate; i.e., 
 
 the commons. 
 Totidem verbis. (L.) In just so many 
 
 words. 
 Tour deforce. (Fr.) A turn of strength. 
 Tout ensemble. (Fr.) The whole taiken 
 
 together, 
 rout /<■ monde. (Fr.) Everybody. 
 Trottoir. (Fr.) The pavement. 
 Tu quoque, Brute! (L.) Thou, too, 
 
 Brutus. 
 Ubi libertas, ibi patria. (L.) Where lib- 
 erty is, there is my country. 
 Vbi supra. (L.) As mentioned above. 
 Ultima rhule. (L.) Uttermost Thule; 
 
 the end of the earth. 
 Usque ad imiUK-nm. (L.) Till it was, or 
 
 is. absolutely sickening. 
 C'(i7e dulci. (L.) The useful with the 
 
 sweet. 
 Ut infra. (L.) As below, 
 Ut supra. (1j.) As above. 
 Vade mecum. (It.) Go with me ; a com- 
 panion. 
 r<p i'ic/i». (L.) Woe to the vanqtiished. 
 Vale. (L.) Farewell. 
 Fa/efde c/iOKihre. (Fr.) A servant 
 Feni, vide, vici. (L.) I came, I saw, I 
 
 conquered. 
 Verbatim et literatim. (L.) Word for 
 
 word ; letter for letter. 
 Verbum .sat sapienti. (L.) A word to 
 
 the wise is sumcient. 
 rid. (L.) By way of. 
 X'ide. (L.) See. 
 Videlicet. CL.) Namely. 
 Vinculum matrimonii. (L.) The bond 
 
 of matrimony. 
 Vis a vis. (Fr.) Face to face. 
 Vis inert iw. (L.) The force of inactivity. 
 Vis viva. (L.) Living force. 
 Vivdvoce. (L.) By the lining voice. 
 Fife la bagatelle. (Fr.) Success to 
 
 trifles. 
 Vive la Reine. (Fr.) Long live the Queen. 
 Viiv lEmpereur. (Fr.) Long live the 
 
 Emperor. 
 Vive le Roi. (Fr.) Long live the King. 
 Voila. (Fr. I See there; behold. 
 Vox, et prceterea nihil. (L.) A voice, 
 
 and nothing more. 
 I'ox popxtti, vox Dei. (L.) The voice of 
 
 the people is the voice of God.
 
 INDEX OF MATTERS NOT HAVING SPECIAL ARTICLES. 
 
 At the close of Volume III. w\\\ be found an Index of Subjects not having Speciai, 
 Articles. It has noi been thought necessary to repeat in this Index the titles of the 
 many thousand articles composing the body of the work. A person consulting the 
 Encyclopedia is supposed, iu the first instance, to look for the subject he is in quest of in 
 its proper alphabetical place. If it is not to be found there, or by a cross-reference, by 
 turning to the Index he is likely to get a reference to it under another name, or as coming 
 in for notice in connection with some other subject. It frequently happens that subjects, 
 having articles of their own, are further noticed under other hcad.s; and where it seemed 
 ot importance, a reference is given in the Index to this additional information. The title 
 of the article referred to is printed in italics; and when the article is of considerable 
 length, the page is given in which the information is to be found. 
 
 CONTINUED REVISION. 
 
 The process of revising Farrow's Military Encyclopedia is constantly carried on, 
 thus keeping up the information to the latest possible date. These revisions and additions 
 will be supplied every few years in the shape of Supplements. A few blank pages are 
 inserted at the close of each volume for the purpose of noting the reference to the various 
 articles in the Supplements, which would naturally find alphabetical arrangement in the 
 respective volumes.
 
 LIST OF MAPS AND FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME \. 
 
 Africa, . . . . 
 
 Arms, .... 
 
 Asia, .... 
 
 Balloons, 
 
 Boilers, . . . . 
 
 Canada, .... 
 
 Cannon, etc.. Antique, 
 
 Catapults, etc., 
 
 Dbnuark, . . . . 
 
 Dredge, .... 
 
 Electricity. . . . . 
 
 England and Wales. . 
 
 Equipment and Accocterments, 
 
 Europe, .... 
 
 Flags, , . . . 
 
 Fortification, . 
 
 France, . . . . 
 
 Furnaces, Reducing Ores, etc., 
 
 Germ.vn Empire, 
 
 Guns, .... 
 
 PAGE 
 
 24 
 74 
 111 
 131 
 204 
 274 
 275 
 309 
 460 
 502 
 537 
 571 
 579 
 
 585 
 672 
 694 
 703 
 720 
 761 
 796
 
 ABACA. — The fibre of a species of plantain or 
 banana, Miwi Troghxlytarum, a native of the Phil- 
 ippine Isles, where it is extensively cultivated. The 
 leaf-stalks are split into long stripes, anil the fibrous 
 part is then sc|iarateil from the fleshy pulp. A 
 laborer can in this way produce daily .'iO lbs. of 
 hemp. Before 1825 the quantity prothiced was in- 
 significant, but now it amounts to nearly 31,000 tons 
 annually. In Manilla there is a steam rope-work for 
 making ropes of it for naval and inililary purposes. 
 They are durable, but not very flexible. The fibre of 
 a number of species of M-Usa is used in tropical 
 coimtries. 
 
 ABAISSE.— A term used in Heraldry. When the 
 fesse or any other armorial, figure is depressed, or 
 situated below the centre of the shield, it is said to be 
 dbai»S('. AdoKHe (back to back), uffroute or eonfnmtr 
 (facing or fronting one another), nitinixst' (sharpened 
 at the point), niU, (winged), are other heraldic terms 
 iKirrowed, like abaisse, from the French, and used by 
 English heralds in senses not differing essentiallj' 
 from their ordinary significations in that language. 
 See Heraldry. 
 
 ABAHTTKUS, — A buttress, or second wall, built to 
 strengthen another. These are frequently employed 
 in forlifieations. 
 
 ABANDON. — This term in a militarj' sense signifies 
 to retire suddenly from a place, fortified or other- 
 wise, thus leaving it and the inhabitants to the mere}' 
 of the enemy. Abandoning any fort, post, guard, 
 arms, ammunition, or colors without good cause is 
 punishable as provided in the 42d Article of War. 
 The term abandon is also used in the relinquithment 
 
 o_^o 
 
 significative of some base or ungentleman-like act on 
 lh<' part of the bearer. The coat is then said to be 
 aliated, or lowered in dignity. Guillini gives nine 
 such marks, all of which are of either one or the 
 other of the two disgraceful colors, tenne (tawny) 
 and sanguine. Such are the 
 delf tenne, assigned to him 
 who revokes his challenge;, 
 the escutcheon reversed san- 
 / |\, giiine, proper to him who 
 
 - I > offends the chastity of virgin, 
 ^ -— . \^ wife, or widow, or flies from 
 ^ \^ \ his Sovereign's banner; the 
 ^^^^^^^^^ ]ioint-dexter tenne, due to him 
 " who overmuch boast eth him- 
 
 .Miatement. j,^^,,f ^,f j^j^ n,.,rtial acts; and 
 
 the like. Marks of al>atement arr generally repu- 
 diated by the best heraldic authorities. Mencstrier 
 calls them sottims mif/luixi's, and Jloutagu is of 
 opinion that we shall seek in vain for a more appro- 
 priate designation. Almtements are carefully to be 
 distiugiiished from such subtractive alterations in 
 coats-of-arms as signify juniority of birth, or removal 
 from the principal house or senior branch of the 
 family. These are commonly called marks of 
 cailcnc}', distinctions, differences, or brisures. The 
 lalter term is generall.v ajiplied to marks of bastardy, 
 which might with less impropriety be classed with 
 abatements. See Heraldry. 
 
 ABATIS — ABATTIS.— An accessory means of de- 
 fence formed by cutting off the smaller branches of 
 trees felled in the direction from which the enemy 
 may be expected. It is readily seen in the drawing 
 
 Abatis. 
 
 of a military post, district, or station, or the breaking 
 up of a milit.ary establishment. 
 
 ABASE. — An old word signifjing to lower a flag. 
 Abaisser is in use in the French Marine, and both are 
 probably derived from the still older abeigli, to cast 
 down, to humble. In Heraldry, abased is used of 
 certain annorial bearings, when turned downward 
 toward the ))oint of the shield. See Heraldry. 
 
 ABATEMENT.— In Heraldry, a mark placed over 
 a portion of the paternal coat-of-arms of a family, 
 
 how an abatis placed at »', will impede the approach 
 of the enemy advancing over the clacis slope k, and 
 e.vpose his front to a galling fire ?rom the principal 
 guns of the work. The ends of the larger branches 
 are sharpened, and the butts of the limbs or trees 
 fastened b.v crochet-picket, or by imbedding in the 
 earth, so that they cannot be easily removed. In 
 redoubt.s or intrenchments they are usually fixed in 
 an upright position against the counterscarp, or at the 
 foot of the glacis, the plane of which is broken so as
 
 ASDUCTIOK. 
 
 ABSOLUTE FORCE OF OUNPOWBEB. 
 
 to conceal the nlmtis from the y'ww of the enemy, and 
 to jrviard a^iinst dtistructin^' ihe musketry-tire from 
 tUi'"l>anipet in their rear. Abatis arv alse) an excel- 
 lent means of lil.K-kinsr up a road, when trees grow- 
 on either side. If lirjinches are properly placed, and 
 intertwined one within another, thiir discngjigenient 
 is extremely illllieult. An alnitis will always 1h' 
 found a verV useful and etfeetive auxiliary to the de- 
 fence of housesor isolated post*, if judiciously placed 
 within nmm' of musketry. When close in front of 
 the windows on the groiind-tloor. or used as a cover 
 to the entrance-<i(H)r. it will be extremely <lilticult f()r 
 the cnemv to force his way int<) the building. It is 
 vrry readily sten how u i)rotile may be much 
 strengthened by planting n row of palisades in the 
 ditch, or even by driving stakes into it. and sharix'n- 
 ing them, or inaking a perix'ndicuhir abatis, by 
 l)lanting brushwood upright in the l)Ottom, with the 
 ends sharpened. An expeditious way also of adding 
 to the dillieulties of an as«iult is S(>eii where common 
 hurtlivs or gates, rails or brushwood, laid on the 
 ground soon after conuuencing the work, with their 
 extremities l)uried under the iiarapet, may be made 
 use of ; the earth underneath them, not .shown in the 
 figure, should be cut awaj- Avhen the ditch has been 
 sunk to its full depth. See Accessory Meant of De- 
 fence. 
 
 ABDUCTION.— The diminishing the front of a line 
 or column by breaking off a division. sub-di\Tsion, or 
 files, in order to avoid some obstacle. 
 
 ABET. — To encourage by aid or countenance; for- 
 merly used in a goo<l, but iiow chielly iu a bad sen.se. 
 It is a grave crime to aid or abet in mutiny or sedi- 
 tion, or excite resistance against lawful orders. Any 
 officer or soldier who, being present at any luutiny 
 or sedition, docs not use his utmost endeavor to sup- 
 press the same, or. having knowledge of any intended 
 mutiny or sedition, does not. without delay, give in- 
 fonuation thereof to his commanding officer, shall 
 suffer death, or such other punishment as a Court- 
 Martial may direct. 
 
 ABLE-BODIED. — A tenu. in a militarj' sense, ap- 
 pljing to one who is physically competent as a sol- 
 ilier for all duty. 
 
 ABLECTI.— An ancient military term applied to a 
 select body of men taken from the Extraordinarii of 
 the Roman army to serve as a body-guard to the 
 Commanding General or the Consul. 'The guard con- 
 sisted of forty mounted and one hundred and sixty 
 disnHJunted men. 
 
 ABOLLA. — A military robe of thick woollen stuff 
 (lined or doul)led) worn by the ancient Greeks and 
 Romans. 
 
 ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION.— The Roman 
 standard which was set up in the Temple of Jerusa- 
 lem, to which the soldiery offered sacrifices as to an 
 idol. 
 
 ABOUT. — A technical word to exjiress the move- 
 ment by which a body of troops or artillery -carriages 
 chnnires front. 
 
 ABRADANT. — A material, generally in powder, 
 tised in the armory for grinding, The term includes 
 emery, sjind, glass, and many other materials. Laps, 
 glazers, ritles, j)a|x;r, etc., are armed with al)nulants. 
 ABBI. — A French fenn signifying shelter, cover, 
 concealment; arm-sheds in a cam]) secure from rain, 
 du.st, etc.; place of security from the effect of shot, 
 shells, or attack. 
 
 ABSENCE. — Every offl<-er commanding a regiment 
 or an independent troop, battery, or company, not in 
 the tield, may, when actually i|uartered witli such 
 command, gnmt furlousbs to the enlisted men, in 
 such numlMTs and for such time as he shall deem 
 consistent with the gooil of the si-rvice. Every officer 
 commanding a reiriment. or an independent troo]), 
 battery, or company, in the tield, may grant fur- 
 loughs not excecdiMLT thirty <lays at one time, to five 
 per centum of the enlisted men. for good conduct in 
 the line of duty, but subject to the approval of the 
 communder of the forces of which said enlisted men 
 
 form a jiart. Every company officer of a regiment, 
 commanding any troop, l)attery, or company not in 
 the field, or conunanding in any garrison, fort, post, 
 or barnick, may, in the absence of his field-officer, 
 gnmt furloughs to the enlisted men, for a time not 
 exceeding twenty days in six montlis,- and not to more 
 than two persons to l)e absent at the same time. 
 
 Any soldier who absents himself from his troop, bat- 
 tery, company, or detjichment, without leave from his 
 commanding "officer, shall !« punished as a Court-Mar- 
 tial may direct. 
 
 Any officer or soldier who fails, except when pre- 
 vented by sickness or other necrssity, to repair, at the 
 fixed time, to the place of parade, exercise, or other 
 rendezvous appointed by his commanding officer, or 
 goes from the sjime. without leave from his com- 
 mamling officer, before he is dismissed or relieved, 
 shall be punished as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 ABSOLUTE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER.— The abso- 
 lute force of gunpowder is measured by the pressure 
 which it exerts when it exactly tills the space in which 
 it is fired. Various experiments have been made to 
 determine mechanically the absolute expansive force 
 of fired gunpowder, but with widely different results. 
 Robins estimated it at 1000 atmospheres, Ilutton at 
 1800, D'Antoni from 1400 to 1900, and Rumford car 
 ried it as high as 100,000 atmospheres. These discre- 
 pancies arise, in a great measure, from the verj- great 
 difference which exists Ix-tween the expansive force of 
 the ga.ses in the different mo- 
 ments of combustion, ami from 
 a want of coincidence in the ob- 
 servations! 
 
 The apparatus used by Rum- 
 ford to determine this point con- 
 sisted, essentially, of a small 
 eprouvette, E, capable of holil- 
 ing exactly 25 grains of powder. 
 The orifice wa.s closed with a 
 heavy weight, and the powder 
 was fired by heating the stem of 
 the eprouvette, S, with a red-hot , 
 csmnon-ball, B. For the first I 
 trial he filled the eprouvette 
 with 25 grains of the best quality of dry powder, and 
 rested upon the cover the knob, C, of a 24-pdr. gun, 
 whose W'cight was 8081 lbs. Notwithstanding Its 
 great strength, the eprouvette was burst at the first 
 fire into two pieces, and the 24-pdr. was rai.sed. 
 Rimiford endeavored to .show from the weight thus 
 raised that the pressure of the gases on the sides of 
 the eprouvette was greater than 10,000 atmospheres. 
 He further attempteil to show, that as the tenacity of 
 gooil iron is equal to 42iU times the pressure of the 
 atmosphere on the sjime surface, and as the surface of 
 rupture was Vi times that of the bore, the force neces- 
 sary to produce the rupture of the eprouvette must 
 have been 13 X 4231, or 55,003 atmospheres. 
 
 There are circumstances attending this experiment 
 which should lie taken into account, and which will 
 very niatcrially diminish this result. They are, the 
 diminution of the tenacity of the iron, due to heating 
 the eprouvette to produce explosion, and the incorrect 
 method by which Rumforil estimated the strength of 
 a hollow cylinder subjected to a strain of expansion. 
 
 Experiments were continued with a .similar appara- 
 tus to determine the relation between the density and 
 the expansive force of fired gimpowder. The capa- 
 city of the ejirouvette was nearly 25 gnnns. It was 
 fired with various charges from 1 up to 18 gnnns; and 
 the expansive force of each discharge was detemiined 
 by the smallest weight necessary to close the orifice 
 against the escape of the gas. With the results of 85 
 trials a table was formeil, from w hich a curve was 
 constructed which e.xpres.ses the relation between the 
 density and expansive force of fired gunpowder, from 
 1 to 15 gi-airis. I5y analogy antl calculation, this curve 
 was conliiuied up to a cljarge of 24 grains; and for 
 the density corresponding to this charge the pressure 
 was found to be 29,178 atmospheres.
 
 ABSTEEDAM PERCTTSSION-ITJSE. 
 
 ACADEMIC BOABD. 
 
 This pressure is much greater than tliat developed 
 in the explosion of projectiles and mines, owing to the 
 low temperature of the surrounding surfaces and the 
 large amount of heat which they absorb. It is the 
 same with cannon, for the most rapid firing does not 
 raise the temperature of the bore above 210 Fahr., 
 which is much below that of the eprouvette. Be- 
 sides, the powder does not completelj- fill the space in 
 rear of the ball; and, as powder bums progressively, 
 this space is enlarged l)efore the gases are completely 
 developed, and consequently their density is dimin- 
 ished. There is also a lo.ss of force by the escape of 
 the ga-ses through the windage and vent. 
 
 The following cquiition expres-ses the relation found 
 to exist between the den.sity imd expansive force of 
 charges of gunpowder, from 1 to 1.5 grains, tired in 
 an eprouvette the capacity of which was 25 graias — or 
 in other words, for charges in which the densities 
 v&iy from .04 to .6: p = 1.841(90r)(?)'~"*'*'; in which p 
 represents the pressure in atmospheres, and d the den- 
 sity of the inflamed products. It will be seen from 
 this e<iuation that the pressure increases more rapidly 
 than the density, since tlie exponent of the density is 
 greater than unity. The density of the gases is equal 
 to the weight of the powder burned di\ided by the 
 space occupied by the gases. By substituting this in 
 the equation, we can determine the pressure exerted 
 at any given instant of the combustion. Although 
 
 since tlic value of p is not affected so long as d remains 
 the same. See Explanioii and Uini]X>uder. 
 
 ABSTERDAM PEECUSSION-FUSE.— This fuse con- 
 sists of a metal fuse-stock. A, closed at the front end 
 by a screw-cap, B; a movable plun- 
 ger, C, ca.st around a cone-piece, D; 
 and a hollow tin cylinder, E. The 
 tin cylinder, E, at the base of the 
 plunger is cut longitudinally, so that 
 when opened out into the recess, F, 
 at the ba.sc of the fase-stock, the 
 plunger is held in place securely 
 until the impact of the shell. The 
 shock of discharge straightens out 
 the tin, freeing the plunger, which 
 moves forward to the cap, B, explod- 
 ing the musket-cap on the cone-piece 
 that ignites the bursting-charge. See 
 Fuge. 
 
 ABSTEEDAM PEOJECTILE.— A 
 projectile cast in a single piece and 
 iia\-ing an expanding ring of brass which projects 
 three-eighths of an inch beyond the base of the Tsro- 
 jcctile. See Projectile. 
 
 ABSTEACT. — A sheet of a prescribed form to ac- 
 company Returns, so prepared as to consolidate the 
 contents of numerous Vouchers. The following is one 
 form used by Quartermasters: 
 
 Abstract ofTranrfers of Funds made to officers on account of the Quartermaster' s Department by - 
 Quartermaster , U. S. Army, during the month of , 188 — . 
 
 
 1 
 
 To 
 whom 
 
 trans- 
 
 Regular ;lncldental 
 supplies, 'expenses. 
 
 Bcrracks Transpor- Clothing 
 
 and 1 tation of | and 
 quarters, the Army, equipage. 
 
 
 
 
 TotaL 
 
 "t< 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ferred. 
 
 Dolls. Cts. DoUs. Cts. Dolls. Cts. 
 
 Dolls. 
 
 Cts. DoUs. Cts. Dolls. Cts. 
 
 ill 
 
 Dolls. Cts. 
 
 Dolls. Cts. Dolls. 
 
 1 1 
 
 Cts. 
 
 DoUs. Cts. 
 
 
 
 Total.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I certify that the above abstract is correct. 
 
 (Signed in duplicate.) 
 
 this relation is de<luned for a particular kind of pow- 
 der, it may be used for all service-iwwders and ser\ice- 
 charges without serious error, since the actual amount 
 of gaseous products is nearly the same for idl, imd 
 the densities of the highest ser\ice-charges never ex- 
 ceed 0.6. 
 
 The accuracy of Rumford's formula has been lately 
 verified by a series of experiments made by Captain 
 Rodman." The apparatus used by this officer consisted 
 of a vcrj' thick cast-iron shell, to which was attached 
 An indenting piston for determining the pressure on 
 the inner surface, or powder-ca\itj- of the shelL The 
 following table shows the pressures calculated by the 
 fonnula and the pressures obtained by the experiments, 
 for three different densities: 
 
 Quariermasier , 
 
 Density. 
 
 Pressure by 
 Rumford's Formula. 
 
 Pressure by 
 Rodman's Experiments. 
 
 m 
 
 1.890 lbs. 
 2.900 •• 
 3.700 " 
 
 1.066 lbs. 
 2.5'» •• 
 3.230 " 
 
 The les.ser pressure obtained by Rodman's experi- 
 ments may be in a great measure explained by the 
 facts that the shell was not heated, but fired with ?. 
 friction-tube, and that the gas was allowetl to escape 
 through the vent. Further experiments were made 
 which show that .so long as the volume of the charge 
 hears the same proportion to the space in which it is 
 fired, the pressure on the unit of surface remains the 
 same, no matter what may l)e the amount of the 
 charge. This follows also from Rumford's formula. 
 
 One copy of an Abstract is retained by the officer who 
 makes the transfers, and the other is sent to the Chief 
 of the Bureau with the Accoun^Cu^rent. See .4c- 
 counts-CuTTent. 
 
 ABUSES AND DISOEDEES.— Every Commanding 
 Officer is recjuired to keep good order, and, to the 
 utmost of his power, redress all abu.ses and disorders 
 which may be committed by any officer or soldier of 
 his eommiuid. If, upon complaint made to him of 
 officers or soldiers beating, or othenvise ill-treating, 
 any jjerson, of disturbing fairs or markets, or of com- 
 mitting any kinds of riots, to the disquieting of the 
 citizens of the United States, etc., the said Commander 
 shall refu.se or omit to see justice done to the offender 
 or offenders, and reparation made to the party or 
 parties injured, as far as part of the offender's pay 
 shall enable him or them, he shall, upon proof there- 
 of, be cashiered, or othe^\^•ise punished, as a General 
 Court-Martial shall direct. 
 
 ABUTMENT.— The block at the rear of the barrel 
 of a fire-arm (esp(>eially a breech-loader), which re- 
 ceives the rearwaril force of the charge in firing. It 
 has the function of the breech-plug or breech-pin in the 
 muzzk'-Ioading firearm. A similar term is applied 
 to the corresponding portion in breech-loading can- 
 non. The variations in the ammgement are numer- 
 ous, and the different de\ices form the subjects of 
 many ])atents in the Unitetl States and foreign coun- 
 tries. 
 
 ACADEMIC BOARD.— The Academic Staff of the 
 United States Jlilitary Academy. By law, the Aca- 
 demic Board consist" of the SuiK-riutemlent and the
 
 AC&NZI. 
 
 ACCELEBOORAPHS. 
 
 Heads of the several deparlmenls of instruction. A 
 majority of the Board constitutes a (luoruni. Dissent- 
 inir niemlxTs of tlie Boanl may present tlieir views in 
 a nport whieli is entered on the record anil triuismitted 
 to the War Department. The Bo;ird recommend 
 for the approval of the War Department tlie te.xt- 
 lKX)ks best suited for each dei)artmeiit of instruction; 
 examine Cadets, and deeiile on their merits, ^nint 
 diploma.s, and recommend for promotion; and re- 
 port to Uie War Department on the system of studies 
 and instruction, proixisiiiir any improvement.^ therein 
 that e-\periencc may liave sugirested. The deliliira- 
 tions and ili.scussions of the Board are contidenlial, 
 and no member nor the Secretary shall disclose the 
 decision of the Boanl Ix'fore the Siune shall be an- 
 nouncetl by Jiroper authority, nor shall any member 
 nor the Secretary discover or disclose the vote or 
 opinion of any mcmt«r. At the annual examination 
 in June, the Academic Board examme, arranirc in 
 order of merit, and detcnuine the prolicieucy of the 
 Cadets of the First Class iu all the studies prescribed 
 for that class. For the purpose of examining the Ca- 
 dets of the other diLsses, the Superintendent may, at 
 his discretion, di\ndc the Academic Bosu-d into Com- 
 mitteis, each to consist of not less than three members 
 of the Board, each Conjmittee to examine, an-an^e in 
 order of merit, and determine the prolicieucy of the 
 Cadets in such branches of st udy as the Superintend- 
 ent shall direct. The Superintendent may, at his dis- 
 cretion, be a member of either Conxmillee, and preside 
 therein; otherwi.se, the senior member of tlie Academic 
 Board present shall preside. Each member of the 
 Aciulemic Board keeps careful notes of the examina- 
 tion, to enable him to give fidl and ample Informa- 
 tion, wlien re<iuiivd, of the performance of everv one 
 examined. To insure accurate classilication and the 
 a.scertainment of ca.ses of dcticiency, every Instnictor 
 in charge of a section, just before it.s examination, 
 carefully i)repares and submits to the Examining Com- 
 mittee a list of such section, arranged in the order of 
 merit as suggested by the marks during the term, and 
 tlie hnpre.ssion which the dxiily recitations have left 
 Ulion his mind, noting everj- ca.se of doubtful profici- 
 ency. The Committees report to the Academic Board 
 the results of their e.xiiminations of the .several classes, 
 upon which report the Board take such action as 
 they maj- think proper. The senior Assistant in the 
 br.mch of study under examination is a niemlier of 
 the Academic Board, or of the Committee, for all the 
 purixjses aliove mentionetl; and the Instructor of the 
 section under examinalion is a member of the Aca- 
 demic Board, or of the Committee, as the ca.se may 
 be, for the purpose of examining and arranging it iii 
 order of merit. Tlie record of each Committee is kept 
 by im officer detailed for that purjxjsc-, and is deliv- 
 ered by him, after the approval of tlie i^residing of- 
 ficer, to the SecreUiry of the Academic Boanf, . for 
 preservation among the records of the Academy; and 
 no niemlx-r of a Committee, nor its Secretary, shall 
 di.sclose the decision of the Committee before the 
 same .shall be announced by proper authority. Tlic 
 Academic Board decide the question of proticiency 
 of a Cadet by vole taken by ayes and nays {tira roce 
 or by ballot, as the Board may decide). At the close 
 of each examination the Academic Board report to 
 the War Department the names of all Cadets who are 
 deficient in stiidies or discii)line, to be dis<-harged, 
 unles.s otherwi.sc recommended by the Academic 
 Board. The Superintendent may, at any other time, 
 bring any Cadet before the Board to be examined, 
 and reported in like manner, if found ho)>ele.ssly de- 
 ficient. No Cadet is promoted until he has com- 
 pleted the entire course of studies at the Academy 
 and received a diploma from the Academic Boanl. 
 In the promotion of Cadets the rank of ea<li corre- 
 sponds with his standing on the roll of general merit 
 CStablisheil by the Academic Boanl. No Cadet re- 
 signing his warrant, or otherwise .separated fn)Mi the 
 Academy before Ihe coinphtion of his .slu<liis. shall 
 receive an appointment in the Army until after the 
 
 promotion of the class to which he belonged, unless 
 on the recommendation of the Academic Board; nor 
 then, if such apiK)intment interferes with the rjuik of 
 any Cadet of that class. The Jledical Otticers, con- 
 vened annuiilly at West Point, in the month of June, 
 to examine into the physical qualifications of the can- 
 didates for admission into the Military Academy, are 
 as.sociated with the Superintendent of the Academy 
 and the Commandant of Cadets; and these Officers 
 ' constitute a Board for the purpose of examining into 
 the physical qualifications of the members of the 
 graduating class, and no member of that class can be 
 commissioned in the Army, or attached as a super- 
 numerary thereto, who, in the opinion of the Board, 
 does not possess the requisite physical ability to serve 
 his country in the arduous and laborious stjition of 
 a Jlilitary OHicer. See United Statea Military Acad- 
 eiiii/. 
 
 ACANZI. — In military history, the name of the 
 Turkish light-horse who formed the vanguard of the 
 Sultan's aniiv. 
 
 ACCELERATED MOTION.— Motion in which the 
 velocity is continuallj' increasing, ^^^len the incre- 
 ments of velocity are equal in equal tunes, the motion 
 is s;iid to be vidformly accelerated. The best example 
 of such a motion is that of a falling body. It is 
 found that near the earth's surface a body descend- 
 ing from a state of rest falls 16^ ft. in the first 
 second. Now a little consideration will show that at 
 the end of the fii-st second it is moving at the rate of 
 32 j ft. per second. For since the velocity was noth- 
 ing at first and increased uniformly, Ki^, ft. must 
 have been the nuaii velocity — i.e., the velocity at the 
 middle of the time; and therefore the velocity at the 
 end must be double, or 32,V ft.: 82 J ft. is thus the 
 measure of the aeeelerative force of gravity. At the 
 end of the second and third seconds the velocity is 
 found to be doubled, trebled, etc., or 64i, 96i ft. See 
 FaUintj liiiditit. 
 
 ACCELERATING FORCE.— Force considered only 
 with reference to velocity generated and not with 
 reference to the mass moved. Accelerating force, if 
 uniform, is measured by the velocity generated in a 
 unit of time; if variable, by the velocity which would 
 be generated in a unit of time if the force were con- 
 tinued constant during that unit. The best example 
 of such uniform motion is that of a falling bodv. 
 
 ACCELERATING GUN.- A gun having additional 
 charge-chambers and a muzzle covering, with the 
 necessjiry means of exhausting the air, whereby the 
 atmosiiheric resistance is removed from Ihe front of 
 the pnjjeclile while passing along the bore. As soon 
 as the gun has been fired and the ball has passed the 
 chamber, the tire in the bore ignites the charges in 
 the additional charge-chambers, thereby giving the 
 ball additional force. The average penetration with 
 this gun in laminated armor composed of ^-in. 
 boiler-plates is 4|",; in.; and 4i iu, in solid iron, using 
 a lil-oz. steel bolt 8 in. long and J in. diameter, with 
 a charge of 4i oz. ]iowder. See Multi-eluiryv Gun. 
 
 ACCELEROGRAPHS.— The principle has long since 
 been made known on which the apparatus called 
 " accelcrographs" arc constructed, which the Marine 
 Artillery Service has adopted, accoriliiig to Ihe inven- 
 tion of Mr. Marcel Deprez, and which are designed 
 for measuring the succession of pressures developed 
 in a given jioint of a powder-chamber by the com- 
 bustion of a charge of powder either enclosed in a 
 vessel or placed in the bore of a gun and acting on the 
 projectile. The first apparatus which were I'stab- 
 li.shed on this principle were experimented on in 1873, 
 in Ihe workshops of Jlr. Bianchi, of Paris, for the 
 study of combustion in a closed vessel; afterwards, in 
 1874, on Ihe i>roving-ground of the Nevers foundry, 
 for the study of combustion in guns. Since that time 
 various improvements have been successively made in 
 the mode of constniclion and in the manner of em- 
 plovnient of these apparatus. 
 
 The aceelerograi>hs llius modified were emi)loyed 
 sevend years ago, iu numerous experiments, bolli at
 
 ACC£L£SOGBAFHB. 
 
 ACC£L£BOGBAPHS. 
 
 the laljoratorj- of the central depot for powder and 
 saltpetre, courteously placed at the disposal of the 
 marine by the engineers of that service, and at the 
 proving-ground of the Sevran-Livrj' powder-works 
 ■with the double advantage of proving the material 
 and the powder fabricate<l on tlie account of the de- 
 partment of the marine. In these trials these appa- 
 ratus proved convenient for handluig and of practi- 
 cal employment, and they furnished some valuable 
 obser^'ations on the law of combustion of powder- 
 charges, and on that of the development of the pres- 
 sures resulting therefrom both in close vessels and in 
 guns of various calibres. Also, by a slight modifi- 
 cation of the aecelerograph, employed for measuring 
 the pressures developed in the firing of guns, this ap- 
 paratus can be utilized for determining simultaneously 
 the law of the pressure developed in ^he bore and the 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 law of the recoil of the gun. The accelerographs in 
 question were of the types called slide-aeeclerographs, 
 in which the law of the movement of the piston, sub- 
 jected to the action of the powder-ga-ses, is deduced 
 from that of the known movement of a style-bearing 
 slide displacing itself in a direction normal to that 
 of the piston. More recently there has been a return 
 to the employment of accelerographs, in which the 
 movement of the piston is deduced from the tracing 
 of the vibrating fork. We will describe brietly the 
 arrangements peculiar to these diiTerent apparatus. 
 Finally, from the commencement of the experiments 
 on accelerographs, trial was made conjointly of ap- 
 paratus called accelerometers, based on tlie same 
 principle, but which indicated, at each experiment, 
 only one isolated value of the pressure developed by 
 the powder, corresponding to an arbitrary sub(ii\-ision 
 of the duration of combustion of the charge. These 
 
 apparatus, which require the repetition of identical 
 experiments for determining perfectly the law of the 
 development of the pressures produced by the com- 
 bustion of a charge of powder placed in certain defi- 
 nite conditions, have lieen applied to the study of the 
 combustion of powder in a closed vessel, as well as to 
 the study of tlie pressure develo)x?d in the bore of 
 guns. But they have been more especiallj' employed 
 in this latter ca.se by jilacing them in front of the 
 Initial .site of the projectile for measuring the pressure 
 existing against the " sabot" of this latter at the .siune 
 moment when it attains a definite point of its passage 
 in the bore, because one single experiment with this 
 apparatus .suffices, in this particular ca.se, to sliow the 
 value sought. Accelerometers should jjresent dif- 
 ferent arrangements, according as they are intended 
 to be mounted on fixed receptacles for the stud}' of 
 the combustion of powder in a closed vessel, or as it 
 is proposed to mount them on guns; two principal 
 tyjies have therefore lx?en established, the one denomi- 
 nated weight-accelerometers, and the other spring- 
 accelerometers. Fork-accelerometers have al.so been 
 employed for increasing the precision obtaine<l. V>'e 
 will describe briefly these diiTerent types, as well as 
 the apparatus which it was necessary to create for 
 obtaining the " tarage." 
 
 Slide-aeceU'rograph , used for studying the comlmttion 
 of poteder in a closed vessel. — It is known that the 
 aecelerograph is arranged in such a manner as to in- 
 dicate the law of the movement of a piston, of known 
 section and weight, bedded in a groove cut nonnallj' 
 in the sides of the ptfwder-chambcr and subjected 
 freely, on its ba.se, to the action of the gjtses produced 
 by the combustion of the charge. The apparatus 
 registers the spaces passed by the piston each instant 
 during the combustion, and consequently these pas- 
 sages can be exactly measured for very small and 
 regularly divided intervals of time. The curve of 
 the spaces traversed by the piston is thus determined 
 by points in the function of times, and by a known 
 process, which will be referred to hereafter, the law 
 of the velocities acquired and the law of the acceler- 
 ating forces to which the piston hiis been subjected 
 can be deduced. According to these remarks, each 
 chronograph apparatus should be composed of a pis- 
 ton of definite weight and section, mo\ing in a suit- 
 able groove, of a table supported by the piston and 
 designed to receive the registeriugs, and of a chrono- 
 graphic organ designed to produce these registering 
 tracings. To these pieces must be added for the ap- 
 paratus designed for studying the combustion of 
 powder in a closed vessel, the chambers or eprouvettes 
 designed to contain the powder and the preceding 
 organs. Finally, all the apparatus are completed by 
 the special instruments for the "tarage" and the read- 
 ings. Fig. 1 represents an accelerngraph arranged 
 for the study of combustion in a closed ves-sel, and 
 moiinted for that purpose on apparatus which has 
 received the name of epronvctte. This eprouvette 
 is composed of a removable chamber of steel, with 
 very thick sides, in which the powder subjected to 
 trial is exploded. As a precautionary measure, this 
 chaml)er is introduced in a bronze envelope, B, fur- 
 nished with a lid. On tliLs envelope is mounted the 
 frame of the aecelerograph proper, D. The steel 
 chaml^er is closed by two screw-stoppers, arnmged so 
 as to form obturators to prevent the escape of gas. This 
 obturation is obtained by these stoppers terminating 
 in perfectly adjusted parts and hollowed in the form 
 of basins, whose bevelled edges can sustain a certain 
 expansion from the pressure of the gases, and the 
 higher the pressure on the sides of the cylindrical 
 passage which they should stop the more exactly do 
 they fit. The gases are collected for analysis by 
 means of a screw-cock, K. The lower stopper is trav- 
 ersed by a truncated plug of steel, perfectly ad- 
 justed, prolonged by a cylindrical bar smd eleclncally 
 msulated from the body of the stopper by the iuter- 
 po.sition of a leaf of gold-beater's skin glued with 
 gum-lac. This plug supports in the interior of the
 
 ACCEUIBOOBAFHS. 
 
 6 
 
 ACCELEROORAFHS. 
 
 chamber, l)y means of a proloiigiUion in llic form of 
 It terminal,' the extremity of a" very tine iilatiiuim 
 wire, whu'* other end is tixe<l on a similar terminiil 
 communieatiujj: with the body of the apparatus. This 
 wire, raised to a red heat uniler the action of an elec- 
 tric current brought by the conductors, ignites the 
 charge of powder with winch it is i>laced in contact. 
 The up|KT .stt)pper is traversed by an oritice in 
 which is adjusted, with care, the piston whose move- 
 ment is to be registered. This i)iston extends through 
 the lid of the bronze envelope, and is screwed at 
 its upper extremity into a cubic inece, T, which 
 slides in the rectangular frame which is sustained 
 by the lid. The piston and the cube that sur- 
 mounts it form thus a movable body of known 
 ■weight, susceptible of being freely disi)lace(l under 
 the action of the force developed by the powder- 
 gases, but only within the limit of the stroke which 
 the height of the frame that serves as guide permits. 
 In the upper face of the cube is fitted an India- 
 rubber plug, which abuts against a screw of large 
 diameter, W, which hoMs the frame at its upper 
 part; the shock which results from the arrest of the 
 movement is thus deadened. Tlie screw may be let 
 down more or less, thereby diminishing at will the 
 
 that of the slide, which are affected in rectangular 
 directions, have a strictly common origin. Accord- 
 ing to this arrangement, if we supixjse that the pis- 
 ton alone is displaced while the slide remains station- 
 ary, the stylus will trace, on the left siile of the table, 
 a vertical line, following the same law of movement 
 which it is the question to determine. If, on the con- 
 trary, we suppose that the piston is immovable and 
 the slide lilxirated, the stylus will trace on the upper 
 part of the table a horizontal line, following a law of 
 a known movement. If the two movements are pro- 
 duced simultaneously, their combination will pro- 
 duce a tracing in the fonn of a regular curve in the 
 direction of the angle formed by the two preceding 
 right lines, which will serve as co-ordinate axes; and 
 if we measure with precision the abscissas and the 
 ordinatcs of the different points of this curve, the 
 horizontjd abscissas giving the durations of the tra- 
 jectory of the stylus, since we know the law of its 
 movement, we shall have the vertical strokes of the 
 piston which correspond to these known durations, 
 and consequently we can ascertain by points the 
 curve of the spaces passed by the piston in the func- 
 tion of the times. The readings, according to the 
 two co-ordinate rectangular axes, are made by meana 
 
 Fio. 
 
 stroke from its extreme value, which is about 0.05 [ 
 metres (1.988 inches). It is the law of the movement [ 
 of the piston, or rather of the ctibe that surmounts it, 
 which is the object to be registered. For this pur- | 
 pose a small stjuare table of steel, or even of thick 
 glass, covered with lamp-black, is fixed on one of the 
 faces of this cube. In front of this table is arranged 
 a small slide which has a stylus fonned of a needle 
 pressed by a small spiral si)ring, or, better, of a small 
 flexible and finely cut steel pin. The slide slides be- I 
 twccn two parallel rails arranged horizontallv, and j 
 in this movement its stylus traces a horizontal path 
 on the table, on its upper part, if we supimse it to be 
 immovable in its initial ))osiiion. The slide is set in 
 motion by the action of a triggcrspriiiL', very rajiid, 
 which, in the apparatus represented by the figure, is 
 nothing else than a strongly extended thong of India- 
 rubber. The exact law of the movement which it 
 takes iHKler the infiuence of this spring is also known, 
 as will be shown further on. It is kept, at the com- 
 mencement of each experiment, at the extremity of 
 its course by an organ arranu'cd in such a niuniiir as 
 to lilK-ratc it at the jirecise moment when the iiislon 
 is set in motiim under the action of the pow<l(T-ga.ses, 
 so that the two movements, that of the piston and 
 
 of a microscope, with crossed hairs, borne on a slide 
 which can be displaced conformably to two rectangu- 
 lar axes, and which is set in motion in each of these 
 directions by means of a micrometric screw. We can 
 thus easily make the readings to the hundredth of a 
 millimetre. 
 
 Slulr iieci'Urograph, employed for stiidyinr; the com- 
 btiHlioii of powder in guri,^. — When the accclerograjDh 
 is designed for measuring the pressures developed in 
 guns, the piston is lodged in a steel bushing like 
 those that are designed for the apparatus called crush- 
 ers employed also for estimating the pressures pro- 
 duced by the combustion of powder. This bushing 
 is screwed into a hole pierced in the sides of the gun, 
 normal to the bore, at a point chosen for the purpose, 
 and it lerminiiles, on the outside, in a threaded head 
 
 ' on which is screwed the frame which ser\'es as guide 
 f(<r the cube designed to receive the table and as a 
 
 ! support for the stjius-bearing slide. This frame and 
 these organs may also be absolutely the .same as in 
 the powder-mill accclcrograph, and the Imshing 
 which holds the apparatus may be jilaced in any 
 jiosition whatever, either in the vertical plane passing 
 through the axis of the gun, or in any meridian 
 plane inclined to the vertical. Fig. 2 represents an
 
 ACCELEBOOBAFHS. 
 
 ACCELEBOGBAFHS. 
 
 accelerograph insUillcd on a 14-centimetre (5.31-incli) 
 giin, mudel 1870, and plated in a vertical position. 
 The slide represented by these figures differs from that 
 dcscritwd above, in that the apparatus is here ar- 
 ranged for registering the law of the recoil of the 
 gun, as will be shown hereafter. 
 The only difference in signalling 
 with the powder-mill apparatus, 
 except this detail, is the arrange- 
 ment placing the additional 
 weight above the piston, when 
 there is room, in order to in- 
 crease, as occasion requires, the 
 duration of the unobstructed 
 stroke of the piston and to pro- 
 long it so as to continue the 
 movement during an interval 
 equal to that of the passage of 
 the projectile in the bore. This 
 weight, as it cannot, on account 
 of the recoil movement of the 
 gun, be guided by a stationary 
 rod placed in the prolongation 
 of the axis of the piston, as in 
 the powder-mill apiiaratus, is 
 here left free, and at the mo- 
 ment of the initial movement gf 
 the shot it is forced in the direc- 
 tion of the axis of the apparatus. 
 If we suppose this latter to be 
 vertical, as the figures show, the 
 '"'' ■'■ weight is forced vertically, but 
 
 in conseqiience of the comix)sition of the ascensional 
 movement and that of recoil, it describes really a 
 panibola, and it might fall on the gun if the precau- 
 tion is not taken to attach it to the extremity of an 
 elastic conl, of pro])er length, whose other end is 
 secured at a fixed point. The tension of this cord, 
 making it deviate from its plane curve, diverts It 
 from the gun so that it strikes the ground at a dis- 
 tance from the carriage iuid the gun, which are thus 
 preserved from the shock. This contrivance is not 
 necessary if the lodgment of the piston of the accel- 
 erograph is placed in sn inclined position in regard 
 to the vertical ; it is then only neces.sary for it to have, 
 on the side, a suflicient space free to fwrmit the pro- 
 jection of tlie weight. The necessity for employing a 
 weight of this kind, if it is desirable that the appara- 
 tus shotdd not reach the extremity of its path lx>fore 
 the projectile has passed the whole length of the 
 bore, is easy to demonstrate, and we can readily per- 
 ceive that this weight ought to augment with the 
 calibre of the gun, if we suppose the section of the 
 piston to Ix; constant and the free stroke allowed to 
 the apparatus also invariable. We know, in fact, 
 that if two movable bodies are subjected simulUine- 
 ously to two forces which remain always equal to 
 one another at each instant, but which, however, may 
 be varied in some manner, the spaces traversed by 
 these two movable bodies, under the influence of 
 these forces, are constantly in inverse ratio of their 
 mass. If, then, we suppose that the pressures devel- 
 oped in the chamber of the gun are exerted equally, 
 at Biich instant, on all the elements of the interior of this 
 chamlxT and, consequently, on the base of the piston 
 of the accelerograph just as on the bottom of the pro- 
 jectile, we must admit, neglecting, however, the re- 
 sistiince opposed to the projectile by the forcing and 
 the rifle-grooves, that the spaces passed at each in- 
 stant by the projectile in the bore and by the piston 
 of the accelerograph in its cylinder will be con- 
 stantly in inverse ratio of the masses set in motion in 
 each case, these masses being proportioned to the 
 unit of .surface. Now, in gims, the mass of the pro- 
 jectile referred to the unit of section increases with 
 the calibre and also proportionally with this calibre, 
 since if we suppose that the projectiles are sindlar, 
 which is actually the case, their ma.sses inerea.se a.s 
 the cube of the calibre, while the sections increase 
 only as the square, so that the proportion of these 
 
 two quantities increases as the first power of the cali- 
 bre. If, then, for a given calibre, the dimensions of the 
 accelerograph have been calculated so that the dura- 
 tion of the pass;ige of the free stroke, the greatest that 
 can be allowed it, is precisely equal to the duration 
 of the passage of the projectile in the bore, it will be 
 necessary in pa.ssing to a greater calibre to augment 
 proportionally to the calibre the total mass of pieces 
 set in motion, in order to continue to .satisfy the .same 
 condition, and supi)osing that neither the stroke nor 
 the section of the piston of the apparatus is changed. 
 In the apparatus constructed, when a piston of half a 
 centimetre square in section is employed, to which u 
 free stroke is allowed of o centimetres (1.968 inches), 
 the weight of the cube alone, which is about 4 kilo- 
 grammes (8.818 pounds) without additional masses, 
 secures for the 14-centimetre (5. 512-inch) gun, a reg- 
 istering duration nearly equal to that of tlic passiige 
 of the projectile in the bore; it is then only on depart- 
 ing from this calibre that it is necessjiry to employ 
 additional masses to make the two durations corre- 
 sjiond. By not making use of these masses we accel- 
 erate the movement of the piston and obtain in conse- 
 (juence greater precision in the tracing of the curve of 
 the passjige, but this tracing then applies only to a 
 limited fraction of the duration of combttslion of 
 
 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 the charge. We can, moreover, without at all touch- 
 ing the other organs of the apparatus, vary at will the 
 proportion of this duration of registering to the dura- 
 tion of combustion of the charge by changing the sec- 
 tion of the piston; for this purpose the apparatus can 
 be fumi.shed with bushings and pistons of dififerent 
 dimensions. 
 
 Slide-acceUrograph, employed for determining the law 
 of the recaU of the gun. — In what precedes there was 
 no notice taken of the influence exerted by the recoil 
 movement of the gim on the movement of the ac- 
 cclerogi'aph-slide, which serves to give the measure 
 of the times. Now, it is ca.sy to perceive that this 
 influence is far from being unimportant and that it 
 ought to be taken into account. If we suppose the 
 |)lane of the accelerograph table to be adjusted par- 
 allel to the plane of fire, it is e\ident that the point 
 of attachment of the extremity of the spring which 
 oix-rates the slide, which point is sustained directly 
 by the frame of the apjiaratus in the simple accelero- 
 graph previously describeil, will be influenced in the 
 recoil movement of the gun, while the style-bearing 
 slide will Ije displaced in space. The displacement 
 of the gim while the jirojectile is passing through the 
 bore is, in fact, far from being unimportant, as has 
 been admitted for some time, and it will be found 
 that for a 24<eiUimetre (9.4o-inch) gun, for example, 
 it is nearly 30 millimetres (1.1811 inches). The ten-
 
 ACCELEROGRAPHS. 
 
 8 
 
 ACCELEBOORAFHS. 
 
 sion of llu- Iii(liii-rul)l)er wbicli causes the movement 
 of the slide will then be diniinish.Kl, in eonsi^qnenee I 
 of the inertia of Ihi-; slide and (if the sprinu' also, if , 
 the iKtUn of atlarhnun! is lurned towards the muzzle | 
 of the jrnn, so that the recoil is protlueetl in a diree- | 
 tion the inverst- of the movement of the slide. On I 
 the coutnirv. it will 1m.' augmented if the ui>pan>tus 
 is tunied in"vers«'ly; that is lo sjiy, if the iw>int of at- 
 tachment of the sprinir is placttl towards the lireech. 
 M> that the movenuni of the slide and the recoil 
 movement are iHilh directed the s;inu' way. It would 
 be tot> dilhcull lo take into account this disturliin-; 
 effect whose caase.s are complicated, nntl it is more 
 natural lo si'ck to eliminate it altojjelher by jrivinj: to 
 the apparatus a suitable i)osition. The idea naturally 
 occurs to the mind lo adjust the apparatus in such a 
 manner that the plane of the table may be normal to 
 the plane of tire; under these conditions the slide is 
 iiitbieiiced in the recoil movement bv its bearing on 
 the guides, and its inertia cannot make it modify di- 
 rectly the tension of the spring which intluences it. 
 It was under the.se conditions that the experiments of 
 2><evers were made in 1874. and it was also in this 
 manner that the tracings reprtxluccil above were ob- 
 tained. But on applying the calculation to the re- 
 sults obtained by these tracings, it was easily seen 
 that the recoil liiovement, in si>ite of the precaution 
 taken in adjusting the table, still disturbed the work- 
 
 c 
 
 Fio.5. 
 
 ing of the apparatus by retarding the movement of 
 the slide. This result was evidently owing to the 
 friction caused l)y the pressure develoiied normally, 
 on the guides of the slide, in consequence of the in- 
 ertia of this i)icce. In order to diminish this distiirb- 
 ing effect, it is important to increase as nuich as pos- 
 sible the correspondence between the strain of tension 
 of the India-nibl)er s])ring and the ma.ss of the slide 
 intlucnced; but, on the other hand, this correspond- 
 ence iK-ing limited by the coiulition of making the 
 Btylus pass over the width of the table in a time 
 nearly equal to that reipiired by the tabic in moving 
 vertically o\cr the exieni of the free path of the ap- 
 paratus, we are not at liberty to dispose of this ele- 
 ment at pleasure. The inertia of the India-rubber 
 spring, which, notwithstanding its small bulk, in- 
 clines to take a cerl.ain curvature through the effect 
 of the recoil, presj'Uts also a disturbing element which 
 it is utterly out of Ihe question to take into accotml. 
 It therefore is preferable to seek a dilTerent ammge- 
 ment of the apparatus which eliminates all these 
 causes of error. Now, if we suppose the table to be 
 placed parallel to the plane of tire, and if we make 
 stationary the point of attachment of the spring which 
 sets the slide in motion, by tixing. for example, this 
 point of att.'iehment on a supjKirl independent of Ihe 
 slide, and iilace<l near the gun. we m'c tluil the move- 
 ment.of the slide will i)e no longer altereil through 
 the effect of inertia: but, on Ihe other hand, the tabic 
 being drawn in Ihe recoil movement, while the sliclc 
 
 is displaced in space as if there was no rwoil, the 
 tracing given by the stylus will no longer be the same 
 as that which 'was obtained before; Ihe horizontal 
 absci.ssius of Ihe curve traced on the table will be, in 
 fact, I'ach instant, the sum of the jiassages of the 
 stylus and Ihe displacements of the gun in its recoil 
 movement, if we supjiose the point of attachment of 
 the spring jihiced on the side of the muzzle of the 
 piece, or the difference of these sjimc (luantities if we 
 suppose this point placed on the side of the breech. 
 It w (juld therefore Ix' necc.s.sary to know at each in- 
 stant the displacement due to the recoil of the gim, 
 in order to deduce from the curve traced the curve 
 that woidd have been obtained if there had been no 
 recoil. Now, it is easy to obtain, on the same a))- 
 paralus. placed in this position, a curve that would 
 sliow for each of the positions of the piston in its 
 vertical disiilaccinent the quantity that the gim re- 
 coiled at the corresponding instant. It suffices, in 
 fact, to lit on the table a styhis absolutely stationary 
 in the space, that is to say, sustained by a support in- 
 dependent of the gun and the slide, in order that the 
 table which becomes displaced before this stylus, by 
 virtue of its two combined movements, may receive 
 u new curve the ordinatcs of which will be the pas- 
 sages of the piston and the abscis.s;is the pas.sages of 
 tlu." gun. But as the gun in recoiling is subject to 
 tremulovis movements which might not always per- 
 mit the stylus lo rest in contact with the table, and 
 which might also change the form of the curve, it is 
 necessjtry to desciibe a right line on the table in its 
 relative movement with the stationary stylus; and for 
 this purpose it is mounted on a small slide which 
 slides between two rails supported by the frame of 
 the accclerograph. In order to keep it stationary be- 
 tween these rails it nmst be secured by a rod to a 
 horizontal wooden cross-piece, supix)rted by two sta- 
 tionary guide-posts, and passing over Ihe gun. 
 
 Practically, in order that the same table may not 
 be crowded with tracings, two .similar tables are in- 
 stilled on the opposite faces of the cube pushed by 
 the piston; and the stationary stylus, as well as the 
 rails which hold it, are placed on one of the faces of 
 the nccelerograph-frame, while the rails guiding the 
 movable slide are fixed on the other face. Fig. 3 
 represents an accclerograph ajiparatus mounted in 
 this fashion on a 14-centimetre (5. 51 -inch) gun. model 
 1870. This apparatus is surmounted by an additional 
 weight, retained by a cord; and in Y we see the up- 
 riglits which sustain the cross-piece, U, to which 
 are fixed on one side the point of attachment of the 
 spring of the movable slide, and on the other side the 
 steel plate the extremity of which bears the station- 
 ary stylus. The movable slide presents, besides, a 
 very complicated arrangement, and it remains to show 
 the object of it. If we retained the movable slide 
 arranged as formerly, that is to say, attached directly 
 to the India-rubber tensi<m-spring, and although we 
 have no more fear of the disturbing effects owing to 
 the inertia of the slide and the spring, in consequence 
 of the i)recaution that we have taken to fix the point 
 of attachment of this spring to Ihe stationary cross- 
 ])ie(e. it might still happen that, imder the inlluence 
 of the concussion imparted to the gun at tiring, and 
 which makes the guide-bars which guide the slide 
 vibrate, tliese guide-bars might pinch the slide be- 
 tween them .and release it alternately, thus preventing 
 it from taking the regidarly accelerated movement 
 which the India-nibber is calculate<l to impart. This 
 is, indeed, wliat hai>pcned in the first trials, and a 
 regular movement of the slide was obtained at first 
 only for a ^■ery short time, which cork'sponded prob- 
 ably with the' time emitloyed by the jxiwder in de- 
 veloping all its power and forcing the projectile in 
 the bore, until Ihe moment when* by the effect of the 
 expansion, owing to Ihe notable displacement of the 
 ]>rojeclile, Ihe reaction of the siclfs of the piece causes 
 Ihe first vibrations of Ihe metal. The curve traced 
 on the table, after a very faint regular bend, pre- 
 sented all at once a distinct protuberance, denoting a
 
 ACCELEB06KAPH3. 
 
 ACCELEBOGBAFHS. 
 
 sudden retardation of the slide. In order to obviate 
 this inconvenience, we have formed the slide of two 
 pieces, the one very lijiht, bearing the stylus and 
 running in \ery solid giiidcs fixed on the frame; the 
 other, much heavier, running in the guides supported 
 by the wooden cross-piece and consecpiently fixed in 
 space. The two slides are secured by a steel wire, 
 flexible in every sense, but inextcnsible, so that the 
 small slide may receive, in the direction of the guides, 
 a movement identical with that of the large, notwith- 
 standing the concussions of the gun, and it is on the 
 heaWest slide that the tension-spring is fixed which 
 produces the movement. We apprehend that, in this 
 manner, we can irive sufficient resistance to the guides 
 of the small slide for them to yield a little imder the 
 effect of the \ibnilions, and sutlicient solidity to the 
 large motor slide so that the movement of this slide 
 cannot be sensibly changed by the feeble relative 
 resistance which the small " style-bearing" slide can 
 oppcse to it. Wc have said that the apparatus thus 
 arranged finnishes two curves on the tables borne by 
 the opposite faces of the eulie pushed by the movable 
 piston. One of these curves, that given by the slide 
 drawn 1)y the India-rubber spring, has its abscissas 
 or horizontal coordinates, which are, at each instant, 
 the sum of the displacements of the slide in the space 
 and the horizontal displacements of the gim in its 
 recoil movement; the other has its abscissas equal, 
 simply, to these latter disiilacements. If we put on 
 the successive abscissas of the first, the values equal 
 to the abscissas of the second, we obtain, by the dif- 
 ference, the curve that would have been traced if the 
 gun had not recoiled during the vertical displace- 
 ment of the pi.ston of the api)aratus; that is to say, 
 the curve by which the law of the movement of the 
 piston is made luiown, in the function of the known 
 law of the movement of the slide working separatelj', 
 and consequently in the function of the times. By 
 this known law is deduced, from the second curve, 
 the law of recoil of the gun in the function of the 
 times. Although the accelerograph just described is 
 not furnished with organs for registering the moment 
 of the departure of the projectile from the bore, we 
 can, by the aid of the curves which it gives, estimate 
 ^vilh a degree of precision the duration of the passage 
 in the bore and deduce therefrom the quant ifj- which 
 the gun has recoiled while the projectile was passing 
 through the bore. We know, in fact, that if we 
 neglect the effect of the mass of the powder-gases, 
 which, it is true, introduces a certain cause of error, 
 we may admit that the projectile and the gun, in- 
 cluding its carriage, nuist be dis|ilaced in an inverse 
 direction, each instant in quantities inversely pro- 
 portional to their respective mas.ses. We may then, 
 knowing the disi)laccnienls of the gun, deduce there- 
 from the corresponding displacements of the projec- 
 tile and, consequently, obtain the displacement of 
 the gun corresponding to the passage of the projectile 
 through the bore. 
 
 Electric irgintir-accelerograph nminimnfd hy vibra- 
 tion. — The reading of the results obtained by means 
 of the slide-accelerographs is long and ditticidt. As 
 we have said, it is necessary at tirst to measure, by 
 means of the microscope with double micrometric 
 screw, the ordinates of the curve of " tarage" which 
 correspond to the absci.s.sas passed in the times in- 
 creasing by equal fractions (for example, by thou- 
 sandths of a second), which abscissas are ascertained 
 by calculation. If is necessary afterwards, by means 
 of the microscoiH'. I" trace on the curve of firing tlie 
 ordinates thus obtained, and to read the correspond- 
 ing co-ordinates, according to the conjugate perpen- 
 dicular axis. These readings must all be made to 
 the hundredth of a millimetre, and we understand 
 how the successive operations so delicate may cause 
 accidental errors; in every case it reduces the final 
 precision; it would then be advantageous to find a 
 means of mea.suring the durations more convenient 
 and more preci.se in its emi>loyment. The solution 
 ■of this problem seemed to require the employment of 
 
 vibrating plates, inscribing directly, on the accelero- 
 graph-talile, the spaces pas.sed during intervals of 
 time, each equal to the period of vibration of the 
 plate, and thus we were induced, from the first, as 
 we said before, to place a vibrating plate on one side 
 of the movable slide (Fig. 1). This vilirating plate, 
 furnished with a pen which rested on the blackened 
 table, was, before firing, diverted from its position of 
 equilibrium by means of a screw mounted on a pro- 
 jection of the movable cube, and which barely 
 touched on the extremity of the plate, .so as to de- 
 tach it abruptly, as soon as the cube received the 
 least displacement. The plate gave besides a great 
 number of vibrations, usually a thousand a second, 
 and it was carefully " tared" beforehand by means of 
 the drop-chronograph, by a process easily understood 
 by examining Fig. 3. A is the vibrating plate fixed 
 on one of the guide-posts of the chronograph; the 
 small turn-l)utton B serves to keep it in the state of 
 initial tension; if is encountered by the falling mov- 
 able weight and suddenly turned away by a jirojec- 
 tion, C, on this weight. On this is ti.xcd a small 
 blackened table, D, so placed as to be encountered in 
 its passage by the \il)rating pen which traces the un- 
 dulations whose spacing measures the duration in the 
 function of the velocity of the drop-weight. This 
 
 Fio. 6. 
 
 latter is easily deduced from the position given to the 
 suspension-hook, E. Notwithstanding these precau- 
 tions, and although the constancy of the usual vibra- 
 tory movement of the plate could be counted on, the 
 tracings obtained could not show with sufficient pre- 
 cision the law of the movement of the piston. The 
 velocity of the cube being, in fact, relatively weak at 
 the beginning, two or three vibrations might be lost 
 during the time that the screw, designed to bend the 
 vibrating plate, was becoming detached; l)csides, the 
 regularity of the first vibrations of the jilafc was 
 changed" in consequence of the fact that the initial 
 flexion, which was imiiarfed to it by the pressure of 
 the screw on its extremity, did not give it the same 
 form that it takes in \ibrafing freely to flic limit of 
 its und\dations, so that the first vilirafions were cm- 
 ployed by it to recover its natural state of molecular 
 equilibrium, which, however, is very rapidly efiected; 
 it was necessary then to set aside these first defective 
 vibrations, and it is precisely the movement registered 
 by these first vibrations which it is imi>ortanf to know. 
 I On the.se two accounts it was jiroposed at first, as has 
 been said already, to use the tnicing of the vibrating 
 plate only as a counter-register for testing if the 
 1 accelerogfaph-slide had worked pro]>erly; a material 
 I disagreement lietween the total durations registered
 
 ACCZLEBOOBAPHS. 
 
 10 
 
 ACCELEBOOBAPHS. 
 
 by the two apparatus must, iu fact, indicate if the 
 sfide had sustained an unusual imiHilinienl, which, 
 in certain cast's, may be produced, either by tlie 
 presence of pr.iins of sjind in the grooves wliich guide 
 it, or even bv the vibniton.- elleet of those grooves 
 under the intluence of I lie firing, when the adjustage 
 is too carefidly made, or whenthe rails are too weak 
 or too weakly supiiorled on the apjtaratus. In order 
 to lessen the inei>nvenieuces pointed out, trial was 
 made of a new motle of disconnecting the vibrating 
 plate, by prtxiucing the flexion of it by means of a 
 jointed 'lever, its extremity acting on it while a pro- 
 ieition on the movable cube was applied under the [ 
 lever, near its point of articulation; thus the displace- ., 
 ments of the piston were amplitied and the discon- 
 nection accelerated, but no remedy was presented for 
 the disturbing effect of the first vibrations. In order 
 to obtain more precise results and to suppress entirely 
 the stvle-bearing slide moved by a sj^ring, it was pur- 
 posed" to utilize the properties" of the small electro- 
 magnetic registers couslrucled by Jlr. ilarcel-Deprcz, 
 the motion of which is sutliciently rapid to permit 
 their foUownng the vibratory movements of a tuning- 
 fork electrically sustained," and giving as many as 
 1000 vibrations per second. 
 
 Fig. 4 represents the arrangement given to Uie ap- 
 paratus in order to adapt it for registering the law of 
 recoil of the gun, and also for measuring directly the 
 duration of "the trajectory of the projectile in the 
 bore. The usual accelerogniph-frame was retained, 
 and for registering the rear face of the cube, B, was 
 arranged to receive a second tatile, in front of which 
 ran the stylus, secured by an iuextensible wire, I), at 
 a stationary point iu space. In front of this face of 
 the cube "was motmted a cylindrical shaft, F, on 
 which two small Marcel-Deprez registers, GG, were 
 put; one of these registers was placed in a circuit 
 passing through an interrupter fixed at the muzzle of 
 the piece; the other was placed in a circuit passing 
 through an interrupter-plate mounted on a fork elec- 
 triealfy sustjiined and ])laced at a distance from the 
 gun. When the fork was set in motion the current, 
 passing through the electro-magnet, sustained at each 
 period a rupture and a closure, so that the pen of the 
 register, constantly resting on the table, took an oscil- 
 laiory movement directed bj' that of the fork and 
 strictly equal to it. The tracings of the pen were 
 superposed as long as the table remained stationary; 
 but as soon as the tal)le was displaced, successive 
 tracings were obtained, whose spacings indicated the 
 displacements effected during each period. The 
 fork was set in motion a little before tiring the gun; 
 on the shot leaving, there was found on the table a 
 tracing left by the register directed by the fork and 
 which gives the law of the movement of the piston, 
 a signal given by the second register and which 
 marks the space passed by the piston at the moment 
 the projectile pa.s.scs from the muzzle of the ])iece, 
 and lastly a curve left by the stationary stylus and 
 •which shows the recoil of the gun each instant, in the' 
 function of the displacenuiits of the piston. Fig. 5 
 represents the arrangement of the fork electrically 
 sustained and designed to direct the movements of the 
 vibrating register. On the examination of this figure 
 we perceive that this fork. A. mounted on a cast-iron 
 base, B, is sustained l>y means of two electromag- 
 nets, C'C, traverse<l by a si)ecial cun-ent and a flexible 
 plate oscillating between two sup(X)rting screws, one 
 a conductor, the other an insulator, arranged as has 
 been previously shown. This plate, D, is fixed on 
 one of the branches of the fork; the other branch 
 I)ears symmetrically a similar insulated plate, E, sup- 
 ported, when the fork is at rest, against a metallic 
 screw, and separating from this screw for an instant 
 at each viliralion of the fork. The jilatc is connected 
 by a very fine flexible wire with a terminal, F, placed 
 in the special circuit of the accelerogra])h-register; 
 the supporting screw, communicating with the second 
 terminal, F , is also placeii in this circuit which is 
 thus established by the contact of the jjlate and the 
 
 screw, and interrupted on the cessation of this con- 
 tact. By turning the screw slowly, the duration of 
 the contact can "be regulated at each period. The 
 terminals, GG, serve to establish the current which 
 sustains the movement of the fork, and the circuit 
 passes through the handle, M, by which it may be in- 
 terru])led at will. In the trials that were made, tlie 
 fork and the batteiies were placed a short distance 
 from the gun, so as to have circuits only of small re- 
 sistance; It was necessary to sustain the vibrating 
 fork bj' means of these small model Dclaurier elements, 
 and four similar elements for each of the registers. 
 
 Electric f<frk-itccekrograph. — This apparatus, which 
 has l)een "descriljed. presented the inconvenience of 
 not giving subdivisions of time sufficient!}' small to 
 furnish with precision the value of the accelerating 
 forces of the piston. Experience showed, in fact, 
 that in order to calculate with sufficient precision the 
 accelerations obtained during such a short space 
 which corresponds with the devcloi^ment of the 
 maximum pressure in the bore of guns, even those of 
 large calibre, where this time is longest, it was neces- 
 .sary to descend, in measuring the times, below the 
 thousj\ndths of a second, and perhaps even to reach 
 as far as five thousandths at the least. Now, it was 
 practically impossible to make use of an electric fork 
 directing a register and giving more than one thou- 
 s;ind periods a second. A fork gi\'ing 1500 periods 
 might, indeed, be electrically sustained, though not 
 without difficulties; but the amplitude of these \nbra- 
 tions being very small, it was impossible to assure 
 the regular movement of the interrupter-plate, and 
 this sometimes missed its connection, which intro- 
 duced irregularities in the movements of the register. 
 As to this latter, the improvements effected by Mr. 
 Deprez would have enabled it to give, in case of need, 
 a greater number of signals per second than the limit 
 sought, and there was no obstacle there. A new 
 trial was made by emplojing an electric fork mounted 
 directly on the accelerograph. The case and the pis- 
 ton of the accelerograph, as well as the table sustained 
 by the latter, retained the sjime arrangements as be- 
 fore ; but the shaft which contained the register 
 directed by an exterior fork received directly a small 
 diapason electrically sustained bj' the aid of an ar- 
 rangement similar to that which has been already 
 described; this arrangement is here fixed entirely on 
 a metal frame, which contains the fork and which is 
 movalile with it on the support-axis, so as to permit 
 the pen of the table to be brought nearer or separated 
 at will, without prejudice to the vibratory movement. 
 As long as Ihe table is stationary, the tracings of the 
 pen in motion are superposed and form only one 
 mark; these tracings are separated and give a sinu- 
 soidal curve as s(X)n as the table is set in motion imder 
 the action of the piston. A second stationary pen, 
 on the support-frame, traces at the same time the 
 median path, whose successive intersections with the 
 sinusoid will give the spaces pa.ssed by the table dur- 
 ing Ihe corresponding periods. The results obtained 
 with the forkaccelerograph, although superior to 
 those given by the registering apparaUis suiiplied by 
 vibration, were not sufficient, however, and showed 
 that it Wius necessarv to seek to estimate still smaller 
 intervals of time. "The electric supply of a fork giv- 
 ing 2000 periods per second was, besides, very deli- 
 cate. Its initial movement was tedious to obtain 
 before each experiment, and it wiis rare that the 
 apparatus could be kept without derangement in a 
 working state during the whole continujvnce of a 
 series. After having sought without success to solve 
 the difficulty by the emplojment of a contrivance 
 which would have given the means of subdividing, 
 into a certain mimber of C(|ual parts, the duration of 
 each iicridd of the fork, which might have admitted 
 of [ireserving the last arrangement adojjted, but by 
 making use of forks giving oidy 1000 pciiods, and 
 consequently ea.sy to supply electrically, it was de- 
 cided to trj- again the employment of the fork set in 
 vibration mechanically.
 
 ACCELEBOHZTEBS. 
 
 11 
 
 ACCELEBOHETEBS. 
 
 Mecliankal fork-ncfelerogrnph. — We have seen that 
 in order to utilize a fork, viln-atinir mechanically at 
 the moment of firing, for rejjistering the displace- 
 ments of the accclerogrnph-pisfon, it was sufficient to 
 procure the initial movement of this fork a very little 
 time before the projectile leaves the bore, so that, the 
 vibrations having had tiine to regulate themselves 
 when the piston sustained its tirst displacement, the 
 origin and commencement of the movement could be 
 registered without error. It is necessjiry, besides, 
 tlwt the discharge of the gun should follow very 
 closely the initial movement of the fork, because if 
 forks are used givinsr 2000 to 3000 vibrations, as those 
 which are acknowledged to be necessarj-, these forks, 
 set in vibration by an energetic shock, preserve only 
 for a very short time, scarcely the tenth of a second, 
 an amplitude sufficient to give proper tracings for the 
 readings. Fire communicated bj- electricity gives, 
 evidently, the solution of the problem, for we con- 
 ceive that the mechani!>m whose release will produce 
 the vibration might, in working, establish the current 
 which will determine the inflammation, leaving, be- 
 tween these two operations, the internal strictly neces- 
 sarj" to permit the vibrations of the fork to regidate 
 themselves, without losing too much of their ampli- 
 tude. Fig. 6 represents the application of this idea 
 to an accelerograph which is arranged, with the ex- 
 ception of the organ for registering times, like those 
 which have been previously described, and which 
 consequently permits of measuring also the law of 
 the recoil of the gim. A vibrating fork, G, is simply 
 fixed in front of the table, whose branches are each 
 furnished with a pen, m order the more surely to ob- 
 tain a proper tracing. A wedge, H, on the extremity 
 of a small, horizontal-jointed lever, can Ix.- forced 
 between the branches of the fork and keeps them 
 apart; it sullices to strike sharply on the other branch, 
 K, of the lever in order to disengage it and make the 
 fork vibrate; this latter then gives an acute sound 
 which is perceptible only for a very short time. This 
 shock may be produced in the apparatus by the ex- 
 tension of a spiral spring lodged in a small cylindrical 
 box, L, fixed on the side of the case, and which sud- 
 denly pushes a percussion-lock, 31, guided vertically 
 through this box. The apparatus is cocked by rais- 
 ing the percussion-lock by means of a small handle, 
 P, which passes through a vertical groove; this bends 
 in the fonn of a knee to form a safety-notch. A pin, 
 N, is then entered into a hole nomially made in the i 
 spindle, which is an extension of the percussion-lock, | 
 and this latter is held only by the point of this pin, 
 when the handle is moved back in the groove. By 
 dra\ving away this pin, by the traction of a cortl 
 which is fixecf to it, the working of the apparatus is 
 produced. The precise moment of inflammation may i 
 vary within certain limits; in order to communicate the 
 fire, the upper part of the spindle of the percussion- 
 lock, which extends beyond the spring-bov, is fur- 
 nished with a metallic rubber, R, which may be fixed 
 at a variable height by metms of a pressure-screw, Q, 
 and which rests upon an insulating rod terminated by 
 a conductor, S, at its lower part. The metallic nib- 
 berof one part and the conductor of the other arc put 
 in communication with a firing-batteri' connecting 
 with the electric percussiou-tube of the gim, or with 
 a platinum wire sunk in the charge, if the trial is 
 made with a closed vessel. In consequence of this 
 arrangement the circuit is closed only when the per- 
 cussion-lock, pressed by the spring, brings the rubber 
 in contact with the conductor-plate, and this contact 
 is established at a moment which may vary, within 
 certain limits, depending on the moment when the 
 shock on the end of the iever produces the disconnec- 
 tion of the fork. The closing of the circuit mav Ix; 
 made to precede the shock if the retardation of in- 
 flammation of the charge is relatively considerable, 
 or, on the contrary, to follow it if the inflammation 
 must be very prompt. 
 
 ACCELEKOMETERS.— Accelerometers show, by 
 direct registry, the law of the movemeHt in the func- 
 
 tion of time of a piston subjected to the action of 
 powder-gases. It has been seen in studying the ac- 
 celerographs that an additional weight placed on this 
 piston in such a manner that it may be thrown verti- 
 cally without obstacle, when this latter is suddenly 
 stopped, can show, by a single ob.servation, the 
 velocity acquired by the piston up to the end of its 
 stroke. In fact, this weight, thrown freely and pre- 
 serving the velocity which it had in common with the 
 piston, will be raised to a height, h, given by the re- 
 lation v''='2gh, so that the observation of the height of 
 the vertical stroke h will show the velocity v. If it 
 is admitted that the phenomena of the combustion of 
 the powder are reproduced identically in the like 
 conditions, and if a series of detonations are elleeted 
 with a constant charge, but varying the free stroke 
 each time, which will be obtained, for instance, by 
 lowering successively the stop-screw W, in Fig. 1, in 
 the article Accelerogh.^phs, it is evident that the 
 obsers'ation of the corresponding heights of throw of 
 the additional weight supported by the piston would 
 show the succeissive velocities acquired by this piston 
 according to the gradually diminishing paths. We 
 could then determine, by this simple process, and 
 without a special chronometric organ, but on con- 
 dition of repeating the experiments, the law of move- 
 ment imparted to the piston. Mr. Marcel-Deprez, 
 from the first, proposed the emplopnent of apparatus 
 of this kind, which appeared more easy to realize 
 than accelerographs, and he gave them the name of 
 accelerometers. In principle, these apparatus are 
 composed of a piston of a certain weight, s\ibjected 
 freely to the action of the powder-gases, and for 
 which a variable stroke may be allowed, exactly 
 regulated each time; this piston must be provided, 
 moreover, with arrangements for measuring the 
 velocity acquired at the end of the stroke. For 
 stiitionary apparatus, susceptible of being placed 
 vertically, like those which may be installed on 
 eprouvettes, the measure of the final velocity can be 
 obtained simply by the ob.servation of the height of 
 the throw of an additional weight, as has been already 
 explained. For apparatus designed to be placed on 
 a gun, and which must consequently be subjected to 
 the violent effects of recoil, an arningement of this 
 kind could not bp emi)loyed, and Mr. Marcel-Deprez 
 was obliged, in \iew of this particular case, to seek 
 another means of measuring the velocity. By em- 
 ploying always an additional mass Iwrne by the 
 piston and thrown by it with the velocity which it is 
 sought to determine, he pointed out two different 
 processes, both very simple, for obtaining this meas- 
 ure. In one of the .systems, the weight thrown, 
 guided by a roil which passed through its axis, must 
 meet with a constant re.sistance which could be 
 regidated at will; in this case, the passage of the 
 weight on the rod must be theoretically proportional 
 to the square of the velocity, or if a constant antago- 
 nistic resistance could not be absolutely counted on, it 
 would be necessary, by a previous "tarage," to de- 
 termine the relation existing between the observed 
 paths of the weight on the rod and the corresponding 
 initial velocities. 
 
 In the second system proposed by Mr. Marcel-Du- 
 prez, we must oppose to the weight freely thrown, 
 and always guided by a central rod. a variable resist- 
 ance, but one known at each instant, as, for example, 
 that which the compression of a spring develops; in 
 this ca.se, however, welnay, for a spring and a given 
 weight, determine, by a previous " tarage," the rela- 
 tion which connects" the initial velocities with the 
 paths necessary in order to attain them. We can 
 also, by choosing springs susceptible of causing a 
 variable resistance according to a simple law, ascer- 
 tain that a law equally simple connects the velocities 
 with the paths. If, for example, we supiwse that 
 the energ)' exerted by the antagonistic spring varies 
 proportionally to the passages'of the weight, meas- 
 ured on its le"a\ing a fixed point situatcil on the tra- 
 jectory of this latter, we can observe that the paths
 
 ACCESSIBLE. 
 
 12 
 
 ACCESSORY MEANS OF DEFENCE. 
 
 producing; Ihc stopping of the weight are rendered 
 directly proportioiiiil to the initial velocities. The 
 trials undertakeu with the object of reali/ing the first 
 system did not succinl; a sliile has not yet been con- 
 structed ninnini; on a metallic rod on which a deti- 
 nite and strictly constant friction could lie exerted 
 over the whole length of its cours<\ If that con- 
 struction hail iH'cn realized, we could, by letting the 
 rod, furni.shed with its slide, fall vertically and from 
 incri'asing heights, on an unchangeable ob.stacle, have 
 obtained the paths of the slide proportional to the 
 heights of fall, under the influence of the shock 
 caused liy the sudden stopping, since the velocities 
 acquired in the fall of bodies are themselves propor- 
 tional to the square roots of the heights of fall. But 
 
 this result was far 
 from being attained, 
 and notwithstanding 
 all the care taken in 
 dressing and polish- 
 ing the surfaces in 
 contact, it was .settled 
 that the friction de- 
 pended on causes too 
 numerous and on in- 
 fluences too (litlicult 
 to estimate for it to be 
 pos.siblc to obtain re- 
 sults sutticiently regu- 
 lar; we found, in fact, 
 that the adhesion at 
 the departure being, 
 in all cases, greater 
 than during the move- 
 ment, the slide, after 
 having passed over a 
 small space, with a 
 very small velocity, 
 afterwards took a ve- 
 locity sensibly gi'cater 
 and a much longer 
 path than was reason- 
 ably expected and 
 without even giving 
 regular values. Under 
 these conditions we 
 must depend upon the 
 emplo^iinent of the 
 spring to weaken the 
 velocity of the addi- 
 tional weight, when, 
 by the arrangement 
 of Ihc apparatus, this 
 detached weight is 
 J^ not left to the action 
 of gravity alone, 
 where we must operate on masses in motion, as in 
 the tiring of guns, or where the locality does not per- 
 mit the installation of proper guides "for measuring 
 the vertical height of the weight. More recently use 
 has been made of vibrating forks leaving on the ad- 
 ditional mass thrown traces .sufficient in number to 
 deterndne the value of its initial velocity. The ac- 
 celerometers which have been constructed may be 
 distinguished as weight-accelcrometers, sjiring-ac- 
 celerometers, and fork-accelerometers; the two lat- 
 ter only can be mounted on guns. Simiilc acceler- 
 ometers may also be distinguished, that is, those 
 which contain only the organs designed for measur- 
 ing the final velocity of the jiiston, and the acceler- 
 ometers combined with accclerograjjh-organs, like 
 those of which we have already spoken aliove. In 
 these latter the accelerometcr arrangement is usually 
 employed only as a counter register of the course (if 
 the accelerograpb, and a few conipleniental details 
 will sullice to explain the function of the organs reji- 
 resented by the figures which we have already apjiro- 
 liriale<l to these apparatus. We will give tiie.se ex- 
 planations directly and afterwards dcsr-rilx-, more 
 in detail, the arrangement of the simple accclcro- 
 
 gniphs bj' referring to the mode of their employ- 
 ment. 
 
 The first powder-mill accelcrograjAs constnicted 
 were arranged in such a manner that they could be 
 iisi-d as weight-accelcrometers by making use, in 
 order to limit the stroke of the movable piston, of a 
 screw by which this stroke could Iw reduced to a 
 very small value and graduated at will. The regis- 
 tering of the height of the " cast" is obtained by ar- 
 ranging in the axis of the apparatus a virtical rod 
 guiiling the additional mass thrown; this rod is pro- 
 vided with a light slide of leather or felt, impelled 
 with a very slight friction by tliis mass in its ascen- 
 sional movement. The drawing rei>resents, in sec- 
 lion, an apiiaralus on which an- |ilaeed simultane- 
 ously two dilTereut arrangements for measuring the 
 final velocity of the weight; one of these arrange- 
 ments is, like the preceding, a vertical rod guiding a 
 slide impelled by the additional weight, which is 
 provided with a Dolx) ratchet-catch to prevent its 
 falling violently on the piston; the other is a spring 
 apparatus consisting of a spiral .spring put on a rod 
 which makes part of the piston and jiarticipates in all 
 its movements. The upper part of tins spring is fixed 
 to the rod; its lower part is terminated by a mass of 
 certain weight which rests freely on the head of the 
 piston and is thus cast upward, when this latter 
 sloi)s, with the vclocit)- which is to be determined. 
 Thus this ma.ss compresses the spring iintil its velocity 
 is terminated, then the spring in recoiling pushes it 
 back in its place. We apprehend that for a given 
 spring and mass we might by a preliminary tarage 
 detenninc the quantity of the compression of the 
 spring for the successively increasing velocities, so 
 that it may be easj' aftei-wards to deduce from an ob- 
 served compression the value of the velocity which 
 produced il. We shall see further on how this tarage 
 may be effected. In the apjiaratus reiiresenlcd in the 
 drawing, in section, in order to determine the quan- 
 tity of the compression of the spring in each experi- 
 ment, there is placed on the mass which tcrnunates 
 the lower part of the spring a small slide forming a 
 vernier, which slides with a slight friction on Uie 
 central rod, which is divided into millimetres. This 
 slide is )iuslied by the mass in its .ascensional move- 
 ment and aliandoued bj- it when it redescends after 
 having lost its velocity. The mass of the slide is so 
 small that it coidd not sustain a throw which would 
 push it beyond the position which the m.-iss itself has 
 reached, so that the division at which it stops may 
 give the exact measure of the compression of the 
 sjjring. If the place at our disposition does not admit 
 of placing above the ciirouvette a vertical rod to guide 
 the weight thrown, the .spring-system may suffice, 
 which requires only a small height, by suppressing 
 entirely the additional weight with ratchet mecha- 
 nism; we may also, in this way, use a lighter pisttm 
 and obtain greater velocities for smaller distances. 
 If, on the contrary, we adopt the double system, we 
 have the advantage of obtaining, for the measure of 
 the final velocity of the piston, two values which 
 nmst correspond. The spring arrangement may also 
 be applied to accelerographs mounted on a .gun, and 
 give also in this case a check measurement for the 
 final velocity of the piston. See Acalcn/i/rapfiK. 
 
 ACCESSIBLE.— p;asy of access or apjiroach. A 
 Jilace or lnrt is said to be (iccoasihle when it can be 
 a|ipr(i:icbeil with a bo.stile force bv land or sea. 
 
 ACCESSORY MEANS OF DEFENCE.— The means 
 employed as nrriKmn/ usually consist of artificial ob- 
 stacles", so arranged as to detain the enemy in a [Josi- 
 tion wliere he will be greatly cut up by the fire of 
 the work. Anything may be regarded as an olistacle 
 to the enemy liy which his attention is diverted from 
 the assjuled to his own situation; but no obstacle will 
 be of much scnice to the ai?sailed which is not w ilbiii 
 good striking distance of his weapons. The ]iroi>er 
 disjiosition, therefore, of obstacles is in advance of 
 the ditch within short muskct-range. Here they de- 
 \ay the assailant under fire, and give the assailed a
 
 ACCIDENTAL LINE OF OPERATIONS. 
 
 13 
 
 ACC0TJNT8-CTJEEENT. 
 
 feeling of more security as llie assailant is kept fur- 
 ther off. Marshes, waier-courses, wet ditches, preci- 
 pices, etc., may be regarded as obstacles, if they are 
 sufficient in themselves to stop the enemy's progress. 
 But, however strong, they are not solely to be relied 
 on; as the strongest natural position may be carried 
 if not \ngilantly guarded. 
 
 In placuig the ground around a work in a defen- 
 sive attitude, every means should be taken to reduce 
 to the smallest pos.sil)le number the points by which 
 the enemy may approach, so that, by accumulating 
 the troops on the weak points, a more vigorous de- 
 fence may be made. In making this arrangement, 
 equal care should be given to everything that, afford- 
 ing a shelter to the enemy, would enable him to ap- 
 proach the work unexposed to its tires. To prevent 
 this, all hollow roads, or dry ditches, which are not 
 entiladed by the principal works, should be filleil up, 
 or else be watched by a detachment, covered by an 
 advance-work. All trees, underwood, hedges, en- 
 closures, and houses, within atnnon-range, should 
 be cut down and levelled, and no stumps be al- 
 lowed higher than two feet. Trees beyond cannon- 
 range should not be felled; or if felled, they should be 
 burnt, to prevent the enemy's movements being con- 
 cealed. If there are approaches such as permanent 
 bridges, fords, and roads, which may be equally .ser- 
 viceable to the assailed and to the enemy, they should 
 be guanled with peculiar care, and be exposed to the 
 enfilading fire of a work especially erected for their 
 defence. See Abatis, Checatu-de-frise, Crow's-feet, 
 Entanglements, Praises, Inundations, Mines, Pali- 
 sades, SiiiiiU Pickets, Stockades, and Trous-de-loup. 
 
 ACCIDENTAL LINE OF OPERATIONS.— Lines of 
 operations are sometimes employed, different from 
 those proposed in the original plan of campaign. To 
 these lines the term accidental is applied. It does not 
 follow that their adoption is a matter of accident, as 
 might be infeiTed from their name. They are fre- 
 quently the result of a change in the original plan, 
 which probable change was foreseen and provided 
 for. 
 
 ACCIDENTAL OBJECTIVE. — Accidental objec- 
 tives are dependent upon the military operations 
 which have for their object the destruction or dis- 
 integration of the enemy's forces. The po>iition of 
 the enemy determines their location. Thus, if the 
 enemy's forces are greatly scattered, or his front 
 much extended, the central point of his iiosition i 
 would be a good objective point, since the po.ssession I 
 of it would divide the encm3-'s forces, and allow his 
 detachments to be attacked separately. Or, if the 
 enemy hius his forces well supported, a good objec- 
 tive would be on that flank the possession of which | 
 would allow his communications with his ba.se to 
 be threatened. It is well to remark that the term ] 
 "point" generally used in this connection is not to 
 be considered merely in its geometrical sense, but is ! 
 used to apply to the ol)ject which the army desires to 
 attain, whether it be a position, i). place, a line, or 
 even a section of countrv. ' 
 
 ACCIDENTAL STRATEGICAL POINT. — A point! 
 whose possession will give an advantage over the 
 enemy, causing liim to tight at a disadvantage, or re- 
 treat, is sm "accidental strategical point," since it is 
 frequently dependent upon the positions of the con- i 
 tending forces at a particular time. It is generally a ] 
 " decisive iwint," for its pos.session insures success i 
 for the military operation with which it was con- 
 nected. 
 
 ACCINTUS. — A word in ancient times signifying | 
 the complete accoutrements of a soldier. 
 
 ACCOLADE. — The term applied to the ceremony 
 with which a knight was admitted into the Order of 
 Chivalry. The Grand-Master, in receiving the neo- 
 phjte, embraced him by folding the arms round the 
 neck {fid coUum). — In music, the accolade is the 
 couplet imitins several staves, as in part-music. 
 
 ACCORD. — The conditions under which a fortress 
 or command of tr«ops is surrendered. . 
 
 ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL OF THE ARMY.— An 
 officer in the English service who has the control of 
 military tinance. He includes in his office that of 
 Chief Auditor, an amalgamation with that of Ac- 
 countant-General, which took jilace by order of the 
 Secretary of State for War in 1870. 
 
 ACCOUNTS.— The systematic record of public 
 expenditures. In the United States service, all 
 officers, agents, or other persons wiio are charged 
 with the safe-keeping, transfer, or disbursement of 
 the public moneys keep an accurate entry of each 
 sum received, anil of each payment or transfer ; and 
 render distinct Accounts of the application thereof, 
 according to the appropriation under which the 
 moneys may have been advanced to them. Every 
 officer or agent who, having received public money 
 which he is not authorized to retain as salary, pay, 
 or emolument, fails to render his Accounts "for the 
 same is deemed guilty of embezzlement, and is fined 
 in a sura equal to the amount of the money embez- 
 zled, and is imprisoned not less than six months or 
 more than ten years. 
 
 The following rules for computation of time are 
 observed, when iireparing Accounts for settlement : 
 
 1. For any full calendar month's service at a 
 stipulated monthly rate of comjiensiition (or yearly 
 rate, if paid in regular monthly or bimonthly in- 
 stallments), pa.vTnents are made" at such stipulated 
 rate, without regard to the number of days in that 
 month. 
 
 2. Wlien service commences on an intermediate day 
 of the month, 30 days is assumed as the length of the 
 month, whether the calendar length be 28, 29, 30, or 
 31 days, and pay allowed accordingly. 
 
 3. When the service terminates on an intermediate 
 day of the month, the actual numljer of days during 
 which service was rendered in that calendar month 
 is allowed in payments. 
 
 4. When the service embraces two or more months, 
 or parts of months, but one fraction is made. Thus, 
 from September 21 to November 25, inclusive, is 
 calculated September 21 to October 20, inclusive, one 
 month ; from October 21 to Xov-ember 20, inclusive, 
 one month ; from November 21 to 25, inclusive, five 
 days — making the time allowed two months and five 
 days. 
 
 5. When two fractions of months occur, both to- 
 gether less than a whole month, as from August 21 
 to September 10, the time is determined thus : 
 August 21 to 30, inclusive (ignoring 31st), ten days ; 
 from September 1 to 10, inclusive, ten days — making 
 the time allowed twenty days. 
 
 6. Service commencing in February is calculated 
 as though the month contained 30 days, thus : From 
 Februarj- 21 to 28 (or 29), inclusive, ten days ; but 
 wiien the service commences on the last day of Feb- 
 ruarj', only one day is allowed in that month. 
 
 7. For commutation of subsistence, and for ser- 
 vices of persons employed at a per-diem rate, pay- 
 ment is made for the actual number of days. 
 
 8. When service is rendered from one given date 
 to another, the Account must state clearly whether 
 both dates are included. 
 
 The Accoimts of disbursing officers of the Army 
 are kept in the offices of the Auditors of the Treasury 
 by fiscal years ; therefore no Account Current should 
 contain mixed accounts, and no item should be 
 entered thereon unless it pertains to the fiscal year to 
 which the funds are chargeable, and all accounts 
 current, abstracts, and touchers, including transfers 
 and refundments, should have noted in red ink on 
 the face, as well as indorsed in the brief on the back, 
 the fiscal year to which the funds pertain. 
 
 ACCOUNTS-CURRENT.— Rimning or continued ac- 
 counts between Disbursing Officers and the Gov- 
 ernment Accountant Officers. In the United States 
 service, the law requires that a separate account Ije 
 kept with each appropriation disbursed. The forms 
 of Account-Current and abstracts prepare<l for this 
 puipose and approved by the Second Comptroller of
 
 ACCOUTREMENTS. 
 
 14 
 
 ACCOUTBEMENTS. 
 
 the Treasury are used by disbursing officers. The 
 Accoiinl-C'urrcnt is made in duplicate ; one copy, 
 accompanied liy abstnicls and voiicliers <'(inipklc, 
 is forwarded to" the chief of Bureau within ten days 
 after tlie end of the month ; the other copy, also 
 accompanied by abstracts and vouchers, is retained 
 by the oftieer. " Fimds received from overpayments 
 pre\iously made are entered on the Aecouiitt'urrent 
 m the proiXT column. The entries shoidd show by 
 whom anil to whom the overpayments were made, on 
 what account, and refer to the "voucher and abstract. 
 Fiinds received on account of oven'avmeiits made 
 from appropriations not now controlled by the chief 
 of their Bureau, except as hereinafter provided, may 
 l)e entered under any head of appropriation on the 
 Account -Current. All funds received from .Sides, 
 refimdmcnts, or miscellaneous sources, are at once de- 
 posited in the nearest I'nitetl States depository to the 
 credit of the Treasurer of the United States on account 
 of the appropriation to which it belongs, if any, and 
 receipts taken therefor ; the original rcccijit is for- 
 warded to the chief of the Bureau, accomi)anied, if 
 possible, by information showing to what partictdar 
 appropriation the money belong, and for what year. 
 For funds thus ileposited, officers take credit on 
 their Account.s-Current. Accounts-Current should, 
 when pnicticable, cover monthly periods only. They 
 may, however, if necessary, be stated at intermediate 
 ■dates when rendered to close accounts on renewal of 
 Ijond, change of station, or taking advantage of 
 leave of absence of more than ten days. In the.se 
 ■cases the officer must make an actual bona fide 
 transfer of his entire balance of public fimds. The 
 Account-Current must exhibit the rcceilits and ex- 
 penditures for the period embraced, and must state 
 the place or places where the balance due the United 
 States is deposited. The amounts received and dis- 
 bursed and the balance on hand under the several 
 appropriations of each fiscal year must be exhibited. 
 In crediting drafts on the Account - Current the 
 number of the reqii utition , as indicated on each draft, 
 is carefully noted in the credit entry. 
 
 The following is a form of Account-Current used 
 in the Subsistence Department : 
 
 and plate, cartridge-box belt and plate, waist-belt and 
 jilate, gun-sling, bayonet-scabbard, and cap-pouch; 
 to which, on a march, are added the knapsack, can- 
 teen, and haversack. Two loops are attached to the 
 back of the cartridge-box for the pa.ssiige of the licit, 
 which passes diagonally across the body in front and 
 rear from the left shoulder to the right side, where it 
 passes beneath the waist-belt, and is secured to the 
 cartridge-box by two buckles. For ornament a round 
 brass i)late(in tlie United Statesstamped with an eagle) 
 is attached to this belt, so sis to fall about the centre of 
 the chest of the wearer. More frequently the plate 
 bears the number of the regiment or the letter of the 
 company. The waist-belt, as its name implies, ))asses 
 around the waist, and carries the bayonet-scabbard 
 and cap-pouch; it also serves to keep the cartridge-box 
 and belt in place close to the body; it is fastened by a 
 brass plate. The bayonet-scabbard is made of black 
 bridle-leather; it has a shape to lit the bayonet, and 
 is iirovided with a brass ferrule at its bottom for 
 ornament and protection; a leather loo]), or frog, is 
 attached to the upper part of the .scabbard for insert- 
 ing the waist-belt. The cap-pouch is also made of 
 black bridle-leather, and has a flap and iimer cover, 
 the flap being fastened by a brass button. The pouch 
 is lined with sheepskin with the wool on, to prevent 
 the caps from being jarred out and lost when the flap is 
 not buttoned. The gun-sling is of russet bag-leather, 
 \\ inches wide and 46 inches long; it has a standing 
 loop at one end and a brass hook at the other, with a 
 sliding loop between. All belts in the United States 
 land serWce are black, and are made either of leather 
 or of a strong species of felting, called buff, probably 
 because belts were formerly made of that color. 
 Until within a few years a separate belt was used for 
 suspending the bayonet-scabbard, passing over the 
 left shoulder and crossing the cartridge-box belt 
 diagonally' on the breast, which was ornamented with 
 a plate at the cros.sing. The ciutridgc-box belt has 
 sometimes been dispensed with, particularly for rifle- 
 men, the whole weight of the accoutrements, with, in 
 this ca.se, the addition of a heavy sword-bayonet and 
 scabbard, being borne by the ■naist-belt, ■which of 
 course had to be drawn very tight, forcibly com- 
 
 The United State*, on account of Stibmtence of the Army, in the month of - 
 
 Lieut. 
 
 ■ Begiment of - 
 
 A. A. C. 8. 
 
 , 188 , in account with 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Cr. 
 
 188 
 
 Dolls. Cts. 
 
 To amount disbursed, per Abstract of Fur- 
 chases 
 
 To amount disbursed, per Abstract of Con- 
 tingencies 
 
 To amount transferred to , per receipt 
 
 To amount transferred to , per receipt 
 
 To balance due the United States. . 
 
 188 . 
 
 By balance per last Account-Current 
 
 By sales to nfflcers for cash, per Abstract. . , 
 By sales to enlisted men for casii. per Ab 
 
 stract 
 
 By sales to companies, detachments, and 
 
 "hospitals, per Abstract 
 
 By sales to , per Abstract 
 
 By sales of stores at auction, per Abstract. . 
 By sales of barrels, boxes, hides, etc., per 
 
 Abstract 
 
 By transfer from , per invoice 
 
 By transfer from , per invoice 
 
 By Treasury Draft No. on War War- 
 rant No. 
 
 Dolls. Cte. 
 
 I certify that the above Account-Current exhibits a true statement of all moneys received, expended, and transferred 
 
 by me on account of Snhsisti-nce of the Army, not heretofore accounted for; and that the balance of dollars 
 
 and cents is due llie United States by me, and is deposited as follows: 
 
 With the Assistant Treasurer U. S. at $ 
 
 With the National Bank of 
 
 In transitu 
 
 In my personal possession, deposited In office safe . 
 
 Total 
 
 . Eeg't of - 
 
 .,A.A.C.S. 
 
 ACCOUTREMENTS— ACCOUTERMENTS.— The de- 
 
 ■viccs by which » soldier curries his arms, anuntini- 
 tion, etc. These vary in the difTcrent arms of the 
 ser\'ice according • lo ilie exigencies of the case. 
 Those for infantry usutdly consist of a cartridge-box 
 
 pressing the abdomen, and causing great and un- 
 necessary fatigue, or even permanent injur}'. This 
 arrangement was. we Ix'lieve, generally condemned 
 by the Jledical Department and in fact, by every 
 one who thought on the subject; but as the weapon
 
 ACCUMULATION OF POWIR. 
 
 15 
 
 ACCUEACT OF FntE. 
 
 above mentioned was in very limited ase, toward the 
 close of the war especially, the evil was not so general 
 as it might have been. The cartridge-box for cavalrj- 
 resembles in exterior appearance that for the infantry, 
 but is smaller, and its two loops are arranged so as to 
 pass the sabre-belt through them. Those used by the 
 troops in the late war were variously arransed in the 
 interior to suit the supposed necessities oi the car- 
 tridges of each particular kind of carbine, as Bum- 
 side's, Merrill's, etc. The cavalryman is also pro\'ided 
 with a small box or pouch for revolver-cartridges and 
 a cap-pouch. The sabre-belt, to which all the preced- 
 ing are attached, consists of a waist-belt, with two 
 brass rings for the shoulder-strap and sabre-slings, 
 and a brass loop sewed at one end to receive the 
 
 plate, which is rectangular and coimects the 
 two ends of the belt together. The accou- 
 trements for horse-artillery merely consist 
 of a pistol. cartridge-ix)uch, and cap-pouch, 
 both similar to those above described, and a 
 sabre-belt which differs from the cavalry- 
 belt only in the omission of the shoulder- 
 strap. More than forty patents have been 
 granted in the United States, since the 
 commencement of the late war, for improve- 
 ments in the construction of, and in slinging, 
 accoutrements. The more important of these patents 
 will be noticed imder specific headings. The draw- 
 ing shows the usual arrangement and adjustment of 
 accoutrements. The Ordnance Department at present 
 issues the following accoutrements to United States 
 troops: 
 
 Infantry Aeeoutremenfs. — Bayonet-scabbard, leath- 
 er; baj'onet-scabbard, steel; cartridge-box; cartridge- 
 box plate; cartridge-box Ix'lt; cartridge-box belt-plate; 
 cartridge-belt, with buckle (belt of leather, covered 
 with webbing, ■nith loops of webbing), for calibre .4.1; 
 gtm-sling; shoulder or sword belt for non-commis- 
 sioned officers or musicians; shoulder-belt plate; slid- 
 ing frogs for waist-belts (for swords); waist-belt; waist- 
 belt plate. 
 
 Catalry Accoutrements. — Sabre-belts, buff leather, 
 blacked; sabre-belts, grained leather, blacked; .sabre- 
 belt plates; sabre-knots; canteens; canteen-covers; 
 
 carbine-slings, buff leather, blacked; carbine-slings, 
 grained leather, blacked; carbine-sling swivels; car- 
 bine-cartridge boxes; carbine-cartridge pouches; cart- 
 ridge-loops (worn on sabre-belt); haversacks; pistol- 
 holsters, Smith & Wesson's; pistol-holsters, Colt's; pis- 
 tol-cartridge pouches; snap-hooks; Stuart's attach- 
 ments. 
 
 Sabre-belts and sabre-belt plates are issued as ac- 
 coutrements for the artillery. The following direc- 
 tions should be observed for reblacking the leather 
 parts of accoutrements: Brush them with a hard 
 brush, to clean the surface; if they are very greasy, 
 use a \\ire scmteh-brush. 'Then, with a soft brash or 
 sponge, apply the following mixture, viz.: one gal- 
 lon soft water, two pounds extract of logwood, half 
 a pound broken nutgalls, boiled until the logwood 
 is dissolved. When cold, add half a pint of the 
 pyrolignite of iron — made by dissolving iron-tilings 
 in pyroligneous acid, as much as the acid will take 
 up. The dye thus made should be well stirred, and 
 then left to settle. When clear, Iwttle it free from 
 sediment, and keep it well corked for use. Dye the 
 belts in the shade; then apply a little sperm or olive 
 oil, and rub well with a hard bnish. Should any bad 
 spots appear, scratch up the surface ^ith the wire 
 brush, and wet two or three times with a simple 
 decoction of gallnuts or sumach, and again apply the 
 dye. Logwood is not essential, and a solution of 
 copperas mav be tised iastead of the acetate of iron. 
 
 ACCUMULATION OF POWER.— The quantity of 
 motion in machines at the end of aiven intervals, 
 during which velocity has been constantly acceler- 
 ated. A simple case is the rammer of a pile driving 
 machine, which descends by force of gravity in a 
 certain time and falls upon .some object. If the ob- 
 ject does not move, the velocities of all the particles 
 in the hammer, which had gone on increasing during 
 the descent, are destroyed, and thus a shock is pro- 
 duced inmiensely greater than that which would 
 result from the mere pressure of the hammer. The 
 effect is directly proportional to the mass in motion, 
 and to the square of the velocity at the instant of 
 impact. 
 
 ACCUMULATOR. — An apparatus used in working 
 hydraulic cranes and other machines where a steady 
 and powerful pressure of water is required. The ac- 
 cumidator is intended as a substitute for a natural 
 head, as being more compact. Sir William Arm- 
 strong, in the first applications he made of this prin- 
 ciple to hydraulic cranes, employed a natural head 
 of water as the motive agent, obtaining the same by 
 pumping water into tanks at an elevation of about 
 200 feet: but subsequently he has employed the ac- 
 cumulator, as offering the advantages of greatly in- 
 creased capacity for pressure, and a less prime cost of 
 erection. The apparatus consists of a large cast-iron 
 cylinder, fitted with a plunger, which works water- 
 tight by means of a gland and packing. To this 
 plunger is attached, by mear^ of bolts and a strong 
 cast-iron cross-head, a loaded weight-ca.se. Thus a 
 pressure is obtained upon the water in the cylinder 
 equal to a column of watef ISOO feet high, or 660 
 pounds upon the square inch. As the water is 
 pumped into the cylinder by the pumping-eugine, 
 the piston with the weighted case rises, being guiiled 
 by a strong framework, anil is made to regulate the 
 amount of water pumped in by actuating a throttle- 
 valve in the steam-pijie of the pumping-engine, which 
 it closes after having reached a certain height. When 
 the cranes, etc., are in operation, the water passes 
 from this cylinder to the pipes actuating the motion 
 of the cranes, and the weighted i>lunger naturally 
 descends, always keei>iug up a constant pressure upon 
 the water: in descending, the same causes the throttle- 
 valve to open again, and the water is again pumix>d 
 in. 
 
 ACCURACY OF FIRE.— Firing for accuracy, 
 whether with artillery or small-arms, may involve 
 two entirely separate and distinct things: 1st. The 
 determination of the personal skill of the individual
 
 ACCXrSEI). 
 
 16 
 
 ACIDS. 
 
 using the weapon. 2d. The (leterminalion of tlie 
 (lualities as reparils accuracy of the weatKin itself. 
 The most coiiiinon way of deteniiining the relative 
 accuracy of jruns is to ascertain their nuan diffirenu» 
 uf ninge anil tiu'tm reduced dcjltction for a given mtaii 
 range, and compare tliem — that srun iK-ing the most 
 accurate for wliicli the.-^ quantities arc smallest. 
 
 An e.\act detiuition of the iiceuracy of a gun is a 
 matter of no little dilliculty. Of two guns fired from 
 the siuiie place, the sjime numlwr of rounds, at the 
 same target, with their a.xis in the same direction, 
 that would evitiently l)e the more accurate which 
 planted its shot more nearly together. But it is not 
 always possible io test the practice of guns under 
 precisely similar circumstances; therefore we nuist 
 .seek a ijefmilion equally true, but admitting, in ad- 
 dition, more elasticity in its application. Upon re- 
 flection , it becomes evident that an absolutely accurate 
 pun is one with which, fired under identical circum- 
 stances, the chance or jirobability of striking the same 
 spot twice amounts to certainty. Adopting the mathe- 
 matical notion of iirobability.'this will be represented 
 by vniti/ — guns less accurate having probabilities 
 represented by fractions. Such a mode, though .sug- 
 gested, has not been accompanied by the requisite 
 tables to render it of general use. 
 
 It is easier to determine, from the practice of the 
 gun it.self, a rectangle with which there would be an 
 equal chance of any shot from the cim striking or not 
 striking; or, if a given immlter of shots were fired, 
 half the number might be expected to fall within the 
 area. The accuracies of two guns would l)e inversely 
 as these rectangles for the same range. This luethod 
 w!is proiX)sctl by Captain Xoble, K. A., who furnished 
 the following formula for application. If a he the 
 length, and b the width of the area or rectangle re- 
 quired, then 
 
 „ , ^ „,,« sum of differences of ranges 
 
 a = 3.12 X .8453, -. n c i — : 
 
 one less than number of ranges 
 
 , , „,.„ sum of reduced deflections 
 
 b = 3.12 X .8453, j -. r .T i » .- — • 
 
 one less than number of deflections 
 
 The relative precision of small-anns is decided by 
 various methods. To detennine the centre of impae'l, 
 let the piece be pointed at the centre of a target 
 stationed at the required distance, and fired a certain 
 number of times, and let the positions of the shot- 
 holes, mea.surcd in vertical and horizontal directions 
 from the lower left-hand corner of the target, be ar- 
 ranged as in the following table: 
 
 No. of Shot. 
 
 Distances from lower left-hand comer, In feet. 
 
 Above. 
 
 4.( 
 
 Right. 
 
 10 
 4 
 
 7.33 
 
 The sum of all the vertical distances divided by 
 the numlKT of shots gives the hfight of the centre of 
 impact above the origin. Similarly the sum of all 
 the horizontal distances divided by the numl)er of 
 shots gives the horizonUil dktanre from the origin to 
 the centre of impact. Thus from the above table the 
 co-ordinates of the centre of impact are 4.67 and 7.33. 
 The co-ordinates of the centre of the target being 6 
 each, the centre of impact is 1.33 below and 1.33 to 
 the right of the centre of the target. The co-ordi- 
 nates of the centre of impact being known, the point 
 it.self is known, and its distance from the centre of 
 the target is called the ahuoliiU' iidiin din'tilioii. This 
 is equal to the souare-root of the sum of the s(|uares 
 of its \ ertic.'d ana horizontal distances from the centre 
 of the target. To obtain the mean deviation it is 
 necessary to refer each shot-hole to the centre of im- 
 
 ])act .as a new oriirin of co-ordinates, and this is done 
 l)y taking the differences lietween each tabular dis- 
 tance and the distance of the centre of impact and 
 ailding them. The sum of all the distances thus ob- 
 tained in one direction divided by the number of 
 shots gives the mtuii den'iilioii or figure of merit. A 
 shorter rule may be found: for if there are m distances 
 greater, and « (listiinces less than the distance from 
 the origin to the centre of impact, x, calling a the 
 sum of the greater and b the sum of the less, we may 
 write 
 
 a —mxA-nx — b a — b-\-(n — m)x „ ^ -. 
 
 = '-^- '— =fiffureof merit. 
 
 m-\-n m-\-n 
 
 In using this formula, due care must be paid to the 
 
 sign of (n — »«). This method might be iipplied to 
 
 the fire of cannon by reducing thiT grazes to an im- 
 
 aginarj' vertical target, the angles of descent being 
 
 a.ssumcd equal for all shot fired at the same elevation. 
 
 Applying this fornuda to the table given above, we 
 
 get 3.11 feet vertically, 2.22 feet horizontally, for the 
 
 mean deruition or figure of merit. 
 
 The mean horizontal error is found by adding the 
 horizontal distances by which the balls have missed 
 the centre of the target, and dividing this sum by the 
 numlx;r of balls; this quotient indicates how much 
 the average of the balls have missed horizontally the 
 point aimed at. It may be directly and quite readily 
 found by using the formula employed above, substi- 
 tuting for X the horizontal distance of the centre of the 
 target from the origin. Similarly the mean vertical 
 error may be found, by using the same formula, with 
 the substitution for i of the height of the centre of 
 the tjirget above the origin. The result shows e\n 
 dently by how much the average of the shots have 
 missed vertically. To get the absolute mean error 
 there are two methods. The first is short and simple, 
 and consists in calculating the hj-pothenuse of a right 
 triangle, in which the other two sides are the mean 
 horizontal and mean vertical errors. The second, 
 which should l)e called the calculation of the mean of 
 the absolute errors, consists in measuring for each ball 
 its absolute error, a distance from the point aimed at, 
 and to take the mean of these absolute errors by 
 dividing their sum by the number of balls fired. 
 This method is very long, since to have the absolute 
 error of each ball it is necessary to square two num- 
 bers and then extract the square-root of these sums as 
 the distance of the jioints struck have been measured 
 ujwn the vertical and horizontal lines passing through 
 the point aimed at. The results are not exactly the 
 same; the mejin of the absolute errors will be greater 
 than the absolute mean error. 
 
 ACCUSED. — In a military sense, the designation 
 of one who is arraigucil before a Military Court. 
 
 A-CHEVAL POSITION.— When troops are arranged 
 so that a river or highway pas-ses through the centre 
 and forms a pcrpcndicnlar to the front, they are said 
 to be drawn up in a-c/teral position. \Vellington's 
 army at Waterloo was d-cheeal on the road from 
 Charleroi to Brussels. In cases where a river forma 
 a perpendicular to the front, secure possession of a 
 bridge is nece.s.sary; otherwise one half of the troops 
 might be routed, while the remainder stood idly as 
 spectators. 
 
 ACIDS.^-Chemical compounds distinguished by the 
 property of combining with b;ises in definite propor- 
 tions to form salts. The most striking characteris- 
 tics of acids are a sour taste and the property of red- 
 dening vegetable blues. They are also mostly oxi- 
 dized bodies; and at one time o.xygen was thought to 
 be essential to an acid, as the name oxygen (the acid- 
 profluccr) indicates. Subsequent experience has 
 extended the definition. There is an important class 
 of undoubted acids that contain no oxygen; and silex 
 or flint, which, being insoluble, neither tastes sour nor 
 reildens lilnuis-jiaper, is lielil to be an acid because it 
 combines with ba.ses and fonns comiwunds like ac- 
 knowledged acids. The oxygen aci<ls, which are by 
 far the most numerous clas.s, are formed of element's
 
 ACINACIS. 
 
 17 
 
 ACOUSTICS. 
 
 (sulphur, nitrogen, cliromium, etc.) with two or 
 more equivalents of oxj'gen. The elements that 
 form the strongest aoiils with oxygen are the non- 
 metallic, and most of them have more than one stage 
 of acid oxidation. Thus sulphur, with two equiva- 
 lents of oxj-gen, forms sulphurous acid, symbol SO,; 
 with three equivalents it forms sulphuric acid, sJ^n- 
 bol SO3. Similarly arsenic gives rise to arsenious 
 acid (AsOj) and arsenic acid (A-sOs). The higher 
 stage of oxidation forms the stronger and more stable 
 acid. All metals, except ar.senic, that form acids 
 with oxygen, have also, at a lower stage of oxidation, 
 one or liibre oxides. To the.se oxygen acids must t)e 
 added the organic acids, composed cither of carbon 
 and o.xygcn, as oxalic acid (CjOj), or of these two 
 alonjj with hydrogen, as acetic acid (C.HaO,) and 
 formic acid (C'.IIO;,). There are al-so acids found in 
 animal fluids or resulting from their decomposition, 
 which contain nitrogen in addition to the three ele- 
 ments above named; such is uric acid (Ci«N4H40„). 
 The hydrogtii aciiU are formed of hydrogen and a 
 radical, eith,,'r simple or compound. The most im- 
 portant of these, and the type of its class, is hydro- 
 chloric or muriatic acid (CIH); others are hydnodic 
 (IH) and hydrocyanic acids (XC2H). As all acids, 
 however, even oxygen acids, possess acid properties 
 — i.e., combine with bases — only when in combina- 
 tion with water, a new view of the constitution of 
 acids is beginning to prevail, which makes hvdrogen 
 Uie real acidifying element in all acids, 'f h\is, in- 
 stead of considering vitriol as a compound of sul- 
 phuric acid and water (SOj+HO), the hvdratc<l acid 
 is held to be the real sulphuric acid, and its rational 
 formida to be (S(JiH). It thus becomes analogous 
 to hydrochloric acid (OIH). This \Tew has not only 
 the advantage of bringing all acids into one claas, 
 but makes the theory of tlieir comliinatinn with bases 
 and of their capacity of saturation uniform and 
 simi>lc, 
 
 ACINACES. — An ancient Persian sword, short and 
 straight, ami worn, contrary to the Roman fashion, 
 on the right side, or sometimes in front of the body, 
 as shown in the bas-reliefs fomid at Persepolis. 
 Among the Persian nobility they were frequently 
 made of gold, being worn as a baclge of distinction. 
 The (icinaccs was an object of religious worship with 
 the Scvthians and others. 
 
 ACIIDES. — A kind of missile weapon, in Roman 
 antiquity, with a thong tixed to it whereby it might 
 be drawn back again. 
 
 ACOLUTHI. — in military antiquity, ncoluthi was a 
 title given in the Grecian Empire to the Captain or 
 Conunander of the body-guards appointed for the 
 security of the Emperor's Palace. 
 
 ACONITE. — A poisonous plant, whose extract was 
 nnich used by ancient races for poisoning arrows. 
 The virulent hikh poison of India, equally fatal in its 
 efTecIs whether introduced into wovuids or tisken into 
 the stomach, is preiiared from the roots of several 
 species. The aconite fero.r of Nejiaul, from which 
 nnich of it is obtained, has lieen identilied by Drs. 
 Hooker and Thompson with aconite iiapelliis. Two 
 other Himalayan species, «<■«// /te ;)'(////</^'/« and am- 
 nite luriduin, are equally employed in its preparation. 
 Aconite album, or whitetiowercd monk's-hood, a 
 native of the Levant, and aconite lyco'ctonum, yellow- 
 flowered monk's-hood, or wolf's-bane, a native of the 
 Alps, are not unfrequent in our flower-gardens. 
 
 ACONTIUM.— In Grecian antiquity, a kind of dart 
 or javelin, resembling the Roman spiculmn. 
 
 ACOUSTICS.— The velocity of sound has been de- 
 termined by a.scertaining the time intervening between 
 the flash and rejiort of a gun, as observed at a given 
 distance, and dividing the distance by the time. After 
 many experiments in various countries. Van der Kolk 
 as.signed 1()!)1 feet 8 inches per second, ■with a probable 
 error of ;i.7 feet, as the velocity of sound in ilry air at 
 '4'i° Fahr. More recent experiments by the Astronomer 
 Royal at the Cape of Good Hope give lOOti feet. To 
 this velocity may be added 1.11 feet for each degree 
 
 Fahr. But air is not a perfect gas, and the variations 
 of (flastic force caused by a wave of soimd passing 
 through it are not unifomi; so these measures, though 
 approximately, may not be absolutely, correct. Fur 
 thermore, the rapidity of transmissicm depends upon 
 the loudness of the sound; and Captain Parrj- found, 
 in the polar regions, that the discharge of a cannon 
 at a distance of 2i miles was heard ])erceptibly .sooner 
 than the word ordering to fire, which, of course, pre- 
 ceded the discharge. There is also a gradual falling 
 off in the speed of sound; and Regnault determined 
 that a sound decreased in speed by 2.2 feet per second 
 in passing from a distance of 4()()() feet to one of T.WO 
 feet. He also found that the velocity depended upon 
 the pitch, the lower notes travelling faster than the 
 higher ones; thus, the fundamental note of a trumpet 
 travels faster than its harmonies. Soimd travels faster 
 in liquids than in air, and fa.ster in solids than in li- 
 quids. Through iron, sound travels ten and a half 
 times fa.ster than through air. Experiments on tele- 
 graph-wire produce almost identical residts. Differ- 
 ent metals tran.smit sound in widely different degrees. 
 Wertheini a.ssigned 16,822 for iron and 4030 for lead, 
 at a temperatiue of 68' Fahr. Except in a fert- cases, 
 the loudness of a sotnid is less as the distance in- 
 crea.ses between the source of the sound and the ear. 
 In an imlimited and imiform mediunt, the loudness 
 of the sound proceeding from a very small sounding 
 body varies inversely as the square of the distance. 
 Hut to verify this fact it would lie ncces.sary to make 
 a test at a considerable elevation above the earth's 
 surface, the car and source of soimd being separated 
 by air of constant densit}-. As the density of the 
 air diminishes, it woulrl be foimd that the loudness 
 of a sound at a given distance would decrea.se. The 
 decay of sound due to this cause is observable in the 
 rarefied air of high mountain regions. De Saiissure 
 found that the report of a pistol at a great ele\'atioa 
 ajipeared no louder than would a small cracker at a 
 lower level. But it must be .stated that when air- 
 strata of different den.sities are interiiosed between the 
 sound and the ear placed at a given distance, the in- 
 tensify depends only on the density of the air at the 
 source itself; whence it follows that sounds proceed- 
 ing from the surface of the earth may be heard at 
 equal distances as distinctly by a person in a floating 
 balloon as by one situated on the surface itself; where- 
 as any noise originating in the balloon would Ik' heard 
 at the surface as faintly as if the ear were placed in 
 the raretied air on a level with the balloon. 'I'his was 
 exemi)lified by Glaisher, the aeronaut, who at an 
 elevation of 2(1,000 feet heard with great distinctness 
 the whistle of a locomotive passing beneath him. 
 The prolonged roll of thunder, with its manifold va- 
 rieties, is partly to be a.scribed to the reflection of the 
 soiuid by niiiuntains, clouds, etc., but is mainly due 
 to the comparatively low rate of transmission thro\igh 
 air. The exi)lanation will be more easily imderstood 
 by noting the case of a volley tireil by a long line of 
 troops. A jierson at a given pcjint in the line woidd 
 hear the souivl of the nearest musket first, and of the 
 othcis in the order of distance, and the effect would 
 be a prolonged roll, concluded by the musket most 
 remote from the hearer, though all were tired at the 
 same instant; and the roll would gradually decrease 
 in loudness. If lie stood exactly oiijiosife the centre 
 of the line, the reports from either end would reach 
 him simultaneously and the elTcct woidd be more 
 nearly a loud crash. If the soldiers formed a circle, 
 the listener in the centre would hear a single explo- 
 sion, since the report of every gun would reach his 
 ear at the s;ime instant, and tlie whole ixplosion 
 would Ix' equal to that of the sum of all the separate 
 discharges. By varj-ing the form of arranging the 
 troops, corresponding variations in the sound wnuld 
 be produced. Keep in view, then, the fact that 
 flashes of lightning may be regsudid as rei>rc.senting 
 lines of troops, at the points and along the ranks of 
 which explosions are gcneraled at the same instant of 
 lime; then consider the variety of ilistance and posi-
 
 ACQI7£B£AUX. 
 
 18 
 
 ACTING SIGNAL OFFICEK. 
 
 tion relutive to the electric dischar^ of the listener, 
 nud we find no difficulty in accountuijr for the rollin'^ 
 jx-als of thundtr. In a niouutainous resion this roll- 
 ing is jrreally augmented by reverberations or echoes 
 from the steep decli\ities. 
 
 ACQUEKEAUX.— A machine of war, which was 
 luiu'h used in the Middle Ages to throw stones. 
 
 ACQUIT.— To release or set free from an (jbligation, 
 accusation, guilt, censure, suspicion, or whatever de- 
 volves upon a person as a charge or duty ; as, the 
 Court <ici/iiitji the accused. This word has also the 
 reflexive signification of to boar or conduct one's self ; 
 as, the soldier (tcquitltd himself well in battle. 
 
 ACftUITTANCE-EOLL.— In the Uritish serWce, a 
 docuMuiit ill which is .shown the monthly settlement 
 of the accounts of a troop, battery, or company, and 
 to which the signature of the soldier is attached, 
 countersigned bv the Captain or Oltiecr in Charge. 
 
 ACRE— ACRE-FIGHT.— An ohl duel fought by 
 AVarriors with sword and lance on the frontiers of 
 England and Scotland. This dueling was also 
 called Oimp-fg/it. 
 
 ACROBALISTES.— A name given by the ancients to 
 warlike races, such as the Parthians and Armenians, 
 who shot aiTows from a long distance. 
 
 ACROPOLIS.— The highest point of a city. Many 
 of the impnrtant cities of Greece and Asia Minor 
 "were protected by strongholds so named. The 
 acropolis occupied a lofty position, commanding the 
 
 Acropolis at Athens. 
 
 city and its environs ; inaccessible on all sides exceiit 
 one, which had, for the most part, artificial defences. 
 It contained .some of the most important public 
 building, esjiecially temples, besides affording a last 
 refuge ni case of a hostile attack. The acropolis, 
 like the castle of the Middle Ages, had formed the 
 centre or nucleus around which' the town gia(bially 
 grew. Among the most celebrated of aiuicnl iinu'S 
 was that of Argos, w^hose name, f.arissa, iii(li<'ales its 
 Pela-sgic origin; that of Messenia, which liort the 
 name of Ithome ; that of Thebes, called Cadmea ; 
 that of Corinth, known as Acro-Corinthus ; but 
 especially that of Atlieiis, whicli was styled pre- 
 cmineiitlv the Acropolis. 
 
 ACTING ASSISTANT SURGEONS.- Wlicn it is ncc- 
 es,sary to employ a private physician in the military 
 service, the Surgeon-General.'the Medical Director, 
 or, in emergencies, the Commanding OHicer of a de- 
 tachment may do so by a written contract at a stated 
 compensation. An Acting Assistant Surgeon receives 
 the (juarters of an Assistant Surgeon of the rank of 
 First Lieutenant, is furnished wiili fuel in accordance 
 with the laws and regulations relating to commis- 
 sioned ollicers, and when traveling under orders, the 
 same traveling allowances as may be i)re.scribed for 
 commissioned officers of the Army by laws and regu- 
 latioas in force for the time; an(f when .serving west 
 of the Mississippi Uiver, one daily ration in kind. 
 He further receives, at the expiration of his term of 
 service, traveling allowances as aforesaid, y;«- iictiial 
 irarel only, to the i)lacc of making the contract, pro- 
 vided his contract shall not have been annulled for 
 misconduct or neglect of duty. When a private 
 
 physician is required to fumi.sh medicines, he is al 
 lowed as compeu-sation 25 to M p(>r cent on the sunv 
 paid for his services, as may be determined by the 
 Surgeon-General. In all cases, contracts are made 
 in quadruplicate, two copies of which are forward- 
 ed, through the Meilical Director, to the Surgeou- 
 General with the prescribed oath of office; one copy 
 lieing retained by the officer making the contract, and 
 one copy by the physicijin contracted with. 
 
 The following is the form of Contract with a Pri- 
 vate Physician for service as an Acting iV,s.sistant Sur- 
 geon, U. S. Anny; 
 
 Ttiis contract, entered into tliis — day of . IS—, at 
 
 in tfie State* of , between . of tlie I'nited 
 
 States Arm.v, and Dr. , of , in tlie Stutf of 
 
 . witntsseth: That for the consideration liereinafter 
 
 mentioned the said Dr. promises nnd agrees to 
 
 perform the duties of a medical officer. uKreeabl.v to .\rmy 
 
 Ke;,'ulations. at [or elsewhere U*)l. [and to furnish the^ 
 
 proper meilicines c^)! ; and the said promises and 
 
 agrees, on beiialf of the United States, to pay. or causi* to be 
 
 paid, to the Sivid Dr. , the sum of dollars 
 
 tor each and every month he shall continue t<"> pei-form the- 
 services above stattni. Wlien on duty at a post or station 
 where there are public (juarters belon^n^ to the United 
 States, he sliall receive tile (piarters in liind all<iwe(l Viy law to 
 an Assistjint Surgeon of tlie rnnkof First Lieutenant; when on 
 duty at a post or station where tliere are no public quarters, 
 he shall receive the coniiiiutati'.in tV>r quartei-s ulloweti by law 
 to an Assistant Surgeon of the ranlv of Kii-st Lieutenant: he 
 shall be furnisheil with fuel in aeeordanee with the laws and 
 regulations relutiii^ lo eoiiiinissiouetl ollleers, and when trav- 
 eling^ uniler oriiers. the same traveling; allowances prescribed 
 for cominissiinied ollicers of the Army by laws au<l regula- 
 tions in force for the time: and when sening west of the 
 Mississippi Kiver he shall receive one daily ration in kind. 
 
 [And if the said Dr. shrill be required to f nmisb 
 
 his medicines, he shall be coinpens.iteil therefor at the rate 
 
 of per cent on his monthly pa\'. to lie determined by the 
 
 Surgeon-iJeneral (3*).] And it is furthermore agreed, that at 
 
 the exijiralion of his term *tf service, the said Dr. 
 
 shall receive traveUn;; allowances, as aforesaid, for actual 
 travel only, to the place of mnkiuf,' tlie contract: provided 
 said contract is not annulled for miscoiuiucl or ne;;lect of 
 duty, in which case no travelln^r allowances will be fiirnishe<l. 
 All of which shall he ills full eouipensation, and in lieu of all 
 allowances and emoluments. This contract to continue at 
 least if not sooner tenninated by the (ieneral com- 
 manding the Mllit.ii-y lijvision or Department, tiie Medicaf 
 Director, or the Sur^'eon-( ieneral. 
 
 It is furthermore expressly agreed and understood that, in 
 conformit.v to the requirements of Section 3711 of the Revised 
 Statutes, no member of. or ilelegate to. Congress shall be ad- 
 mitted to any share or part in this contract, or to any l>eneflt 
 to arise therefrom. 
 
 In this contract (1*) (2*) (8*) ha^ been stricken out. 
 
 [Seal.] 
 
 [Seal.] 
 
 Signed, sealed, and delivered in the presence of 
 
 The accoimts of Contract Physicians arc paid by 
 Paymasters, and are made out in the ordinary form 
 of an officer's pay-account, \ouchcd for by a certifi- 
 cate thereon by the Commanding (Ifiicer that it is cor- 
 rect and according to contract, and that the sernces 
 have been duly reiidend. wliich certificate he does 
 not make unless the contract has been ajiiiroved by 
 the Medical Director of the Department or by the 
 Surgeon-General. The pavracnis are made tinder the 
 same rules that govern in the payment of officers at 
 the same station. See Coiitrad Siirr/ionn. 
 
 ACTING SIGNAL OFFICER.— An ofiieer temporarily 
 serving as a .Signal ( )flierr. W'lieii an officer is detach- 
 ed from his regiment for Signal duty, lie inimediate- 
 Iv reports for orders to tlie Chief Signal Officer of the 
 Army, and thereafter is relieved from sucli detail 
 only by orders from the Adjutant-General of the 
 Army. When it is necessary to employ ollicers on 
 Signal duty in the field, they may be" temiiorarily 
 assigned by ordere of the Dipartnieiit Commander, 
 but will not lie part of the Deparlnient Staff. For 
 this purpose ollicers who liavc been regularly instruct- 
 ed by the Cliief Signal Officer of the .\i'iiiy are .se- 
 lected if praeticalile. The senior Acting Signal Officer 
 of any comniand is the Chief of theSigiial P:irties 
 serving in tliat comniand. Orders and inslruclions 
 affecting their duties are transmitted through him. 
 He is ri'sponsilile th;it his officers and nun arc fullv 
 instructed and properly perform their duties, ife 
 keeps hunself iniormetl of the position of the Army
 
 ACTINOMETEE. 
 
 19 
 
 ADAPTEK. 
 
 and of the enemy, and, under the instruction of the 
 (General Commanding, establishes his stations to the 
 greatest advantage. He takes care, by inspections 
 and timely requisitions, that his parties are wull sii]i- 
 plied with c(iuiiiments. He makes reports of his 
 operations in the JieUl fiom time to time to the Gene- 
 ral Commanding, and, with his assent, forwards cer- 
 tified copies of these reports to the Chief Signal Otficcr 
 of the Army. He makes the usual returns and monlh- 
 !}• statements, and at the end of each month a report 
 to the Chief Signal Otficcr of the Army of the condi- 
 tion of his party, and all matters pertaining to its 
 duties. 
 
 ACTINOMETEE.— An instrument used in the lulx)- 
 ratorj- anil in powder-factories to measure the heat of 
 the sun's rays; at first a common thermometer, the 
 bulb blackened with nitrate of siher; then one with 
 a large bulb filled with blue solution of ammonia and 
 sulphate of copper, enclosed in a box with a plate- 
 glass top, the expansion of the liquid to indicate the 
 amount of heat. Prof. .John \V. Draper of New York 
 next discovered that ecjual volumes of chlorine and 
 hydrogen form chlor-hydric acid in direct proportion 
 to the actinic intensity of the light and the time of ex- 
 posure. Subsequently Bunsen and Roscoe hit upon 
 the Siime plan. There are other aclinic reactions; as, 
 in a solution of chloride of gold and oxalic acid, the 
 gold precipitates on exposure to actinic rays. 
 
 ACTION. — 1. An engagement or battle between op- 
 jxising forces; or some memorable act done by an 
 otticcr, soldier, or detachment. The term is com- 
 monly used in artillery exercise when guns are 
 brought into or change position with the view of at- 
 tacking an opposing object. 2. In its large and gen- 
 eral sen.se, a judicial proceeding before a competent 
 tribunal for the attainment of justice; and in this 
 sense it is applied to pnMcdure, whether criminal or 
 ciril. In its more limited acceptation, it is used to 
 signify proceedings in the eitil courts, where it 
 means the form prescribed by law for the recovery of 
 a right or what is one's due. No action can be 
 maintained by a citizen against a govermiient without 
 the government's express consent; except in rare spe- 
 CRil cji.ses no suit can be brought by a citizen against the 
 United States; relief must besought by petition or in 
 the Court of Claims. State Courts do not ordinarily 
 contest acts of foreign slates or sovereigns for any- 
 thing done or omitted in their public character. Here 
 negotiation takes the place of suit. Modem statutes 
 have much simplified proceedings under this title, and 
 many okl forms havelH-en abandoned. In New Vork 
 an effort lias been nia<lc to avoid all distinctive forms; 
 tliere every other than a criminal is a civil action, 
 haWng no other specific name; the design of the code 
 being to give by this action every kind of relief 
 whicli can be sought in civil causes. 
 
 ACTIVE SER'VICE.— Duty against an enemy; oper- 
 ations in bis jjrtsence. At present nctive serrke de- 
 notes serving on full pay, on the active list, in con- 
 tradistinction to those who are virtually retired, and 
 placi(I on the retired list. 
 
 ACTO — ACTON.— A kind of defensive tunic, made 
 of (luiltcd leather or other strong material, fonnerly 
 worn under the outer dress and even under a coat of 
 mail. 
 
 ACT OF GKACE.— In Great Britain, an Act of Par- 
 liament fia- a general and free pardon to deseilers 
 from the service and others. 
 
 ACTS OF HOSTILITY.— Proceedings of a diplomat- 
 ic, commercial, or military character, invohing a 
 state of war between two or more nations. This was 
 exemplified in 1870 in the alterc-ation between Count 
 Bcnedctti, the French anibas.sador, at the Court of 
 Berlin, and the King of Prussia at the Kui-saal of 
 Ems. This is an instance of the first-named act 
 of hostility. The second is shown in the case of the 
 embargo laid on British shipping by the first Napo- 
 leon after the peace of Amiens in 180;J. The third 
 consists in the invasion of a friendly territory or firing 
 on armed vessels of a friendly nation. A further act 
 
 of hostility of a civil character is the forcible deten- 
 tion of the subjects of a friendly nation, which was 
 exemplified in the seizing of non-belligerent British 
 suljjects residing in France in 1803. 
 
 ACTUAEIUS. — A name given by the Konums to 
 ofiicers ( barged with the supplying of proWsion-s to 
 troqps. 
 
 AD ACTED. -A'term applied to stakes or piles driven 
 into the earth by large malls shod with iron, as in se- 
 curin<r ramparts or pontons. 
 
 ADAMS BREECH-LOADEE.— The distingviishing 
 feature of this invention is the u.se and application of 
 a piston ftjr the purpose of loading, cleaning, and 
 cooling a cannon from the breech. A rod passes 
 through the breech or rear end of the gun and is 
 fastened to a head or metallic piston, the circiunfer- 
 ence of which is equal to the bore of the Ciumon. 
 Water is ailmitted at the breech to fill the bore when 
 the piston is forced towards the muzzle. Mm the 
 bore is cleaned and cooled, the new cartrtdge is at- 
 tached to the piston and drawn back to the breech, 
 in which condition the gun is loaded and ready to be 
 again discharged. 
 "ADAMS CntTEE.— This invention was made while 
 the inventor was endeavoring to make two cutters, 
 having exacth" the same dimensions, for the Rodman 
 pressure-gauge, ha\ing iis a model a pressure-gauge 
 designed for use with muskets. The knife-edge of this 
 model was of the usual pyramidal form of the Rodman 
 Cutter, and was .78 inch in length, llr. Adams found 
 that it w;is a mechanical impossibility to so file the 
 faces of this pyramid as to have the two cutting or 
 indenting edges identical in form and dimensions. 
 He accordingly conceived the idea of turning a bev- 
 eled edge Willi a circular profile upon the perimeter 
 of a steel disk, as this could be accurately done in a 
 lathe or mill, thus securing the perfect agreement of 
 all cutters taken from that disk, and at the same time 
 diminishing l)oth the cost and time of fal)riealion. 
 He took the Rodman Cutter above mentioned, and 
 foimd by trial a circle which would pa.ss through the 
 three angular points of the edge. This circle, whose 
 dianieter he found to Ix' 2.88 inches, he assumeil as the 
 one which should form the cutting edge of the new 
 series of cutters to be fabricated. The steel disk was 
 .233 inch thick. It was pierceel with a central hole 1 
 incli in diameter for convenience of adjustment to an ar- 
 bor of a lathe or mill. The bevels \\\K>n the two sides 
 were cifual. Hence the cuttingeilge itself is an arc of a. 
 circle with a diameter equal to 2.88 inches, and is formed 
 by the intersection of two right cones, turned bitse to 
 base (bases circular), and having a common axis. This 
 makes the bottom of the cut, or indentation in the chop- 
 per block, an arc of a circle, and the limiting lines of 
 the same indentation upon the surface of the block 
 arcs of two equal hyperliolas. The cutter-block is rcc- 
 tansular in shape, 1.18 inches long, .74 inch wide, and 
 .74 Inch thick. A groove is planed in one of the longer 
 sides .2 inch deep, and sufficiently wide to receive the 
 indentinir edge. On the opposite side is drilled a bole 
 .4 inch deep and .5 inch in diameter, for the reception 
 of the larger end of the piston. In Uie bottom of this 
 hole a smaller one is countersunk for a small screw 
 which projects into the cuIter-gT(X)ve and serves to 
 hold the indenting .segment in position after insertion. 
 This segment projects .3 inch from the cutter-block 
 and is eng-aged .2 inch in that block. See Buitott, 
 Dt/namnmi'ttr. Circular Cutter, and PreMuro-yaugc. 
 
 ADAFTEE. — A g\m-metal bush, used when shells 
 having the obsolete Jloorsom-gauge fuse-hole are 
 fired with fuses which are not adapted to this fuse- 
 hole. The pattern adajiter now in use is known as 
 the "G.S. adapter," which screws into the Jloorsora 
 fuse-hole. There are two distinct adapters, one for 
 spherical shell, the other for rifled shell. V\< to the 
 vear 1807 all shells for the larger rifled ordnance 
 down to the 40-pdr. L.S. and the 20 pdr. S.S. conunnn 
 shell were made with theMoorstmi or naval fuse-hole. 
 Since then a'l new shells have been lapix-d with what 
 is termed the G.S.-gauge fuse-hole, and shells already
 
 ADASOA. 
 
 20 
 
 ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 in sen'ice whicli bavc not this sizctl liole receive the 
 Q.S. lulaptor. Tbu shape of the inside of the adapter 
 is couinil, the outside cylindrical. 
 
 A0AB6A. — A Sjianisli-MiKirish targe, made of sujv 
 pK- lealhir, and ;W l)y S** inches. It was used about 
 the close of the sixkrntU century. 
 
 ADDISCOMBE SEMINARY.— .:Vn In.stilution pear 
 Croydon. Surrey, Knirland. for the eduoition of 
 youni; gentlemen intended for the military service of 
 the East India Company. Closed in 18t!l. Sec 
 C<i<!,f. 
 
 ADIT. — A nciirly horizontal pa.s.ejige opened for the 
 purix)se of draining a mine; it serves ineidenlully to 
 explore the nK'k through which it pa.sscs; when tilled 
 with water, often used a.s a canal liy which the pro- 
 ducts of the mine may lie transported. Water raised 
 from a depth greater than that reached by the adit is 
 discharged through it, saving the cost of raising still 
 farther to the top of the shaft. An adit opens in 
 Cornwall ift the level of the sea, and extends inland 
 alwut 30 miles, liraining the district of Gwennap. It 
 meets some shafts at the depth of 400 feet. The 
 " Ernest Aucust " adit in the Ilartz, completed in 
 1864, is 13 miles long. The "Joseph II." adit at 
 Schemnitz, in llung-ary, is 12 feet high, 10 feet wide, 
 extends 12 miles to the valley of the Gran, and is used 
 as a canal and a railway. 
 
 ADJOURN. — To suspend business for a time, as 
 from one day to another; said of Slilitiiry Courts. 
 Adjaurnmeiit tciVwut delay {sine die), indefinite post- 
 ponement. 
 
 ADJUTANT. — As the derivation of the word im- 
 plies {iidjiimir, to help). Adjutant is llie title of a 
 l{e"imental StafT-officer who as.sists the Commanding 
 Olhcer of a garri.son or regiment in all the details of 
 duty. He receives orders, and promulg-.ilcs them to 
 the several companies ; he inspects escorts and guards 
 before proceeding on their duty ; attends to the drill 
 of recruits, is accountable for the keeping of the 
 regimental books, and ought to note every infraction 
 of established rules. lie is accountable to the Com- 
 manding Ofticer for the correctness of the regimental 
 books, and is bound to brinjr to his notice all in- 
 fraction of rules or orders. From the f(jregoing it 
 will be seen that the duties of an Adjutant are un- 
 remitting. Agreeably to the Queen's Kcgidations, 
 no officer is eligible for the appointment of Adjutant 
 in the British service who has not obtained a tirst- 
 class certificate at the School of Musketry, imless the 
 regiment is on service abroad, and even tlien inider 
 certain restrictions. An Adjuiant, generally liolding 
 the rank of Captain, is appointed to each brigade of 
 artillery, to divisions of artillery of two or more 
 batteries det;iclied from their heiuhjuarters, and as his 
 duties are somewhat dilTerent to tJiose of a line or 
 cavalry regiment, it may not be out of place to detail 
 them. The duties, then, of an artillery brigade Ad- 
 jutant are, to a great extent, confined to his ofTice, as 
 the several biilteries composing his brigade are often 
 stationed far from their headciuarters. In his office 
 are kept the books and records of the brigade ; from 
 it lie circulates to detached batteries all ordei-s re- 
 ceived from the Commanding Officer and higher 
 authority. He jirepares correspondence on (juesiions 
 relating to the claims, services, enlistments, dis- 
 charges, etc., of the men of his brigade; and when 
 acting as the SlafT-offieer of the Hoyal Artillery in the 
 division, he has to prepare all local returns" which 
 are .suliniittcd to tlie Genend Officer Commanding. 
 He has, liesides, to attend to the usual duties of the 
 guards, prisoners, cnurts-martial. etc. As regards 
 drill. Commanding Officers of batteries carry out or 
 work their own flrills independently, and recruits are 
 trained at Woolwich, or at the centers of suli-divisions 
 of districts. The Adjutant is responsil)le to the 
 <'omman(ling Officer for the slate of exactness with 
 whicli the reirinienlal t)<K)ks are kepi, and for the 
 correctness of llie duly rosters. He is to give his 
 afl<ntion to everylhin^' ,ip|)<rlaining to the discipline 
 of his brigade, bringing to the notice of the Com- 
 
 manding Officer any irregularity or deviation from 
 
 I the estrdilished rules and regulations. In fact, 
 nolhiiiL' should escape his attention and observation. 
 ADJUTANT-GENERAL.— The principal organ of 
 file Coinniander of an Army in publishing orders. 
 I The same organ of the Commander of a Division, 
 ' Brigade, Geographical Division, or Department, is 
 I styled Assi.stant Adjutant -General. In the United 
 ' States ser\ice, the main duties of the office of Ad- 
 I jutant-General are to publish orders, write out and 
 issue instruelions, receive and care for returns, keep 
 account of the state of the army and the position of 
 forces, regulate details of the si>rviee, carry on corre- 
 I spondence, preserve order ; and in active war to 
 ] establish camps, supervise hospitals, muster and in- 
 sjiect troops, form Jiarades and line of battle, and 
 care for prisoners and deserters. In the Britisli ser- 
 vice the Adjutant-General keeps an account of the 
 ' streuglh of each regiment, dislril>ules the orilers of 
 the (lay to the Brigade-Majoi-s, and sees the troops 
 drawn'up for action. The Adjiitaiit-Qeneral of the 
 Forcai is an officer of high rank at the Horse-Guards. 
 To him all cominunic;itions are addres.sed regarding 
 leave of absence, discharging, recruiting, etc. Be- 
 sitles the Ailjutant-General at Ihe Horse-Guards, there 
 are Deputy and Assistant Adjutants-General for 
 special miiilarv districts. 
 
 ADJUTANT- GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT. — All 
 General Orders which emauale fidiii the Head- 
 quarters of the Army; the orders of detail, of in- 
 struction, of movement, and all general regulalions 
 for the Army, are communicated to the troops 
 through the "office of the Adjutant-General. The 
 ! record of all military apjiointmeuts, promotions, 
 resignations, deaths, and oilier casualties ; the registry 
 of all commissioned officers ; the tilliug up and dis- 
 irilmtion of their commi.ssions, and the preparation 
 and issue of the Army Register, pertain to the Ad- 
 jntant-Generars Office. This Office is the repository 
 for the records of the War Department which relate 
 to the personnel of the military establishment, and t<i 
 the military history of every coinmissioiieil officer 
 and soldier of the Hegular and Volunteer forces in 
 the service of the United States. In this office the 
 recruiting ser\"ice is conducted ; the names of all 
 ' enlisted soldiers are enrolled, their enlistments and 
 descriptive lists are entered, and all deaths, dis- 
 charges, desertions, etc., are recorded; the general 
 returns of the Army are consolidated ; the monthly 
 returns of regiments and posts and the muster- 
 rolls of companies are preserved , the inventories of 
 j the effects of. deceased oflici'rs and soldiers are 
 entered , and the annual returns of the militia, re- 
 quired by law to be submitted to Congress, arc pre- 
 pared. The Adjutant-Genenil's Department, as or- 
 ganized in the I nited States ser\'icc, consists of one 
 Adjutant-Genend, with the rank of Brigadier-Gen- 
 enil ; two Assistant Adjutanl-Generals, with the rank 
 of Colonel , four Lieutenant-Colonels ; and ten 
 Jlajors; also, idiout four hundred enlisted clerks and 
 I messengers. The officers are generally on duty with 
 j General Officers who command Corps, Divisions, 
 i De])arlmenls. etc. The apiiointments to the lowest 
 ' gi'ade arc selected from the Captains of the Armv. 
 ADMINISTRATION.— Tbeaim of a system of admm- 
 islration is lo si'iure the performance of public duties, 
 I either directly, minislerially, or Ihrouixh the interven- 
 i tion of sub-agenls. Il is exercised over individuals 
 or things, in civil mailers, in courts of law, in politi- 
 cal iKjdies, in the army and in the navy, and in gene- 
 ral in iMjiiuinrid! mailers of government. Adminis- 
 j Iration coitfists in estalilishing the ways and means of 
 1 public receipts and expenditures; in watching over 
 such employments; in lli<' eolleelion. care, and distri- 
 Imtion of material and money; and in rendering and 
 I auditing accounts of such employments. Army Ad- 
 j ministration alsoemliRices in war the means by wliich 
 an anny is supported in foreign countries by a General 
 in campaign, when without regular siip])lies. without 
 I resorting to pillage. The wars of the French Hevolu-
 
 ADHISSI0K3. 
 
 21 
 
 ADOBES. 
 
 tion brought into use REQnsmoNS, a moderate kind 
 of marauding, weighinsr more bea^nly upon countries 
 than upon individuals. Requisitions are, however, 
 an uneeitoin and unequal means of supply, and only ' 
 enable an army to live from hand to mouth, and ( 
 although practicable in offensive wars, are only jus- 
 tifiable in rapid movements, where time does not 
 admit the emploj-ment of more certain means of sup- 
 ply. The system is less o<liou.s than pillage. Bona- 
 parte skillfully adopted another method, in harmony 
 with the spirit of wars of invasion, and al.so more re- 
 liable as a means of supixjrt. He substituted himself 
 in place of the supreme authorities of the invaded 
 countrj-, and exacted pecuniary contributions, paj-ing, 
 or promisini; to pay, for all provisions and other sup- 
 plies needed for his army. Some writers think that 
 even this mcxlified systein can only succeed in gigan- 
 tic operations, where tin armj- upon a new soil succes- 
 sively gives reix>sc to that previously occupied. Such 
 a system was, however, well executed by Marshal , 
 Suchet in Spain, and a similar system was also ma- 
 tured and published in orders by General Scott while [ 
 in Mexico. A treaty of peace, however, soon after 
 was made, which put an end to military- operations, ; 
 and the system was therefore only jiartiaUy executed. 
 But with a sutticient army in a fertile countri,-, the 
 experience of the world has shown that if the iuhabi- | 
 tants are protected from injuries, they will very gene- I 
 rally sell to the best paj-masters. It is therefore the 
 interest of an invading army not to interfere ^^ith the 
 ordinary avocations of citizens, and such is the mod- 
 ern usage. Bonaparte thought that an entire revolu- ; 
 tion in the habits and education of the soldier, and 
 perhaps also in those of the otiicers, was essential to 
 the formation of a veritable self-subsisting army. 
 Such an army (he said) atnnot exist witli present 
 ovens, magazines, administration, wagons, etc., etc. 
 Such an army will exist when, in imitation of the 
 Romans, the soldier shall receive his corn, shall per- 
 sonally carry bis mill and cooking utensils, cook bis 
 own bread, etc., etc., and when the present frightful 
 paper admini.stration has been dispensed with. He 
 added that be had meditated upon all those changes, 
 but a jK'riod of profovmd i)eace was neces.siiry to put 
 them in practice. If he bad been constrained to keep 
 a large army in peace, he would have emploj'ed it 
 upon the public works, and given it an organiztition, 
 a dress, and a mode of subsistence altogether special. 
 If such a scheme be practicable, no approach to it yet , 
 exists. The French have made some progress in de- 
 veloping a system of administration suited to a large 
 army, but hardly a step in the direction pointed out 
 by Xapoleon. The French administrative ser\ice is 
 a powerful means of mo%Tng armies in unforeseen 
 emergencies. Its foresight provides resources, and 
 the adversan' soonest ready has the greatest chance 
 of success. \ot a century since, the French Govern- 
 ment required six months' preparation before an army 
 could move; now, in the language of General La- 
 martjue, " The cannon is loaded, and the blow may 
 be given at the same moment as the manifesto, and, 
 if necessary, the blow may precede it." Ordinary 
 army administration consists in the organization and 
 other means by which various administrative duties 
 arc performed, necessarj- to provide for the wants of , 
 troops, and for all the foreseen demands of a state of 
 war, includiuL' l;ibor and the supplies for garrisons, 
 sieges, etc. Such duties embrace subsistence-magn 
 zines, daily rations, forage, dress, encampments, bar- 
 racks, hospitals, transportation, etc., etc., the admin- 
 istrative duties of Engineers, and of the Ordnance 
 Department, estimates, accountabihty. jiayments, re- 
 cruiting, and in general the receipt and proper appli- j 
 cation of monev. The Secretary of War, under the | 
 orders of the President, is the bead of militarj- ad- , 
 ministration in the United States. The object of 
 such administration is to provide, through the re- 
 sources placed by law at his disposition, for the con- 
 stant wants, regiJar or accidental, of all who com- 
 pose the army. Good administration embraces a 
 
 foreknowledge of wants, as well as the creation, oper- 
 ation, and watchfulness of the ways and means neces- 
 sary to satisfy them; the payment of expenses, and 
 the settlement of accounts. Army administration is 
 divided into several branches determined by law. 
 These different branches constitute the administrative 
 service of an army, the operations of which should be 
 so regulated that the Secretary of AVar will be always 
 informed of the condition of each, and l)e able to ex- 
 ercise, subordinate to law, a complete financial con- 
 trol over each. The Adjutant-General of the army 
 and the heads of administrative corps have each Ix'en 
 assigned a burotu in the War Department, under the 
 direction of the Secretary of War, for the manage- 
 ment of the administrative duties with which they 
 have lieen respectively charged. Administration and 
 Command are distinct. Administration is controlled 
 by the head of an Executive Department of the Gov- 
 ernment, under the orders of the President, by means 
 of legally-appointed administrative agents, with or 
 without rank, while Command, or the discipline, 
 military control, and direction of military ser\ice of 
 officers and soldiers, can be legally exercised only by 
 the military hierarchy, at the head of which is" the 
 constitutional Commander-in-Chief of thearni)-, navy, 
 and militia, followed by the Commander of the 
 Army, and other military grades created by Con- 
 gress. 
 
 ADMISSIONS.— In a military sense, the Judge-Ad- 
 vocate is authorized, when he sees proper, to admit 
 what a prisoner expects to prove bj- absent witnesses. 
 
 ADOBES. — Unburnt bricks made from earth of a 
 loamy character containing about two thirds line 
 sand mixed intimately with one third or less of 
 clayey- dust or sand. The adobe imdcr the action of 
 the svm becomes a compact mass. Upon the Indian 
 frontiers in Xew Mexico, in Mexico, and in Central 
 America, adobe houses and adobe defences against 
 the Indians are common structures. An adobe eigh- 
 teen inches long, nine inches wide, and four inches 
 thick is the best average size for moulding and for 
 building. They are sometimes made sixteen inches 
 long and twelve inches wide; in such cases they are 
 all laid as headers ; but with the cighteen-inch adobe 
 they afford the means of binding the wall strongly by 
 alternating headers and stretchers, as in brick-laying. 
 In the hot spring and summer sims two or three days 
 iminlerrupted diying is sufficient at the first; the 
 adolxs are then carefully turned up on edge, so as to 
 expose the under or still wet face to the southern and 
 western sunshine. They s1k)IiU1 t)e left in this posi- 
 tion from a week to tifieen days to dry thoroughly, 
 when, if not wanted for immediate use, they may be 
 stacke<l on edge and covered from the weather. 
 HoiLses in New Mexico are seldom built over one 
 slorj- high. This enables the builder to place on the 
 roof-covering at once, it nece.s.sarj-. But in all cases 
 intervals in the work must be allowed, or the house 
 will not only be unsafe, but, if inmiediately occupied, 
 damp and disjigieeable. The inside plastering with 
 mud is most frequently done Ixfore the roof is cov- 
 ere<l in, so as to dry with the wall. If the wall must 
 Ix' left unfinished through the fall rains or the winter, 
 the top of it is covered with a bushy weed called 
 car/iaiiill/i, and this is covered with earth, to exclude 
 water and protect it till the ensuing ye;n'. If door 
 and window frames are at hand, the Mexicans prefer 
 to put them in as they build; but oftener they leave 
 g!ips for doors arwl windows, unfilled with the 
 frames, till the whole is finished. The adolx-s are 
 laid with mud mortar made from the earth at the 
 base of the wall; the holes thus fonned are readily 
 filled again with the rubbish from the house when 
 completed. When the wall is ready to receive the 
 roof-covering, hea\'y joists are laid, about two feet 
 apart, on the top of the walls, strong enf)ugh to bear 
 near a foot of earth all over the roof; the joists, as 
 they rest upon the wall, are supported upon boards, 
 or plates as they are called, to distribute the weight 
 of the roof and prevent the joists from crushing into
 
 ASTAHCE. 
 
 22 
 
 ADVANCED-POSTS. 
 
 the walls. Acrcss the joists, and over the whole roof, 
 avcmjrinjr alKrnt two inches in diameter, poles are 
 now pliieiHi, tlie largest on the liijiliesi si(le of the 
 roof to bt'irin llie sIojk', and on this is placed a close 
 covering of the cachanilUi, which is aromatic and 
 keeps out bua^: it is evergreen, and a plant of the 
 most suitable length to till the interstices in the poles. 
 Small willow brush is often used in the absi'nce of 
 cafhaniUii. The eartli-covering of the roof is now 
 put on, ex-tending all ninnd tlie moi to the parapet 
 above the joists, which is only one half the width of 
 the wall l)elow; this brings the dirl roof to coverover 
 one hidf the width or thickness of the wall, by which 
 leaks in the room below are jjrevented. An adobe 
 bouse, if well .secured, is warmer in winter and cooler 
 in s\mimer than one of wood or brick. The brick 
 is cold and damp; the adolw is dry and a much 
 worse conductor of heal — no furrowing or lathing is 
 neces.sary — and the rough inside can be whitewashed 
 or slai>ped with plaster. The durability of adol)e 
 walls is extraordinary. The Pecos Clmrcjj, not far 
 from Santa Fe, is more than one liunBred years old; 
 its mud walls (adolH') are as tirm to this da.v as a rock, 
 and tliev cannot be less tlian lifly feet high. 
 
 ADVANCE— ADVANCED.— Aiiy portion of an army 
 which is in front of the rest. The term is ligura- 
 tively ap]ilied to the promotion of officers and sol- 
 dicr'i. 
 
 ADVANCED COVERED-WAY.— A terre plein on the 
 exterior of the advanced ditch, similar to the first 
 covered-way. 
 
 ADVANCED DITCH.— An excavation beyond the 
 glacis of the enceinte, having its surface on the pro- 
 longation of that slope, that an enemy may liud no 
 sheltir when in the ditcli. 
 
 ADVANCED-GUARD.— To keep an eneiny in ig- 
 norance of the state of our forces and tlie cliaracter 
 of our position is one of the most indispensable duties 
 in war. It is in this way tliat we oblige liini to take 
 every possible i)recaution in advancing; forcing him 
 to feel his w<iy, step by step, and to avoid risking Ids 
 own safet^v in hazarding those bold and rapid move- 
 ments which, when made against a feelile or an un- 
 prepared enemv, lead to the most brilliant results. 
 This object is elYected by placing between the ]iosition 
 occupied by tlie main force and tlie presumed direc- 
 tion of tlie enemy a body detached from the main 
 force, but acting .always with relVrence to it, termed 
 an Admiiced-Giiind. This term is used for any body 
 of troops so separated from the main body, whatever 
 its strength and composition, :inil whether the troops 
 be in position or on a march. For a large force the 
 advanced-guard is necessarily composed of troo|)s of 
 all arms; its strength being "proportioned to tb.at of 
 the main force; the more or less resistance of an in- 
 dependent character it may be required to make; 
 and the greater or less e.xlenl it may be found neces- 
 sar\- to embrace, by its advanced-posts, on the front 
 and flanks, to watch and anticipate every movement 
 of tlie enemy. The i>roi^ortion of the advanced- 
 guard to the main boily may vary from a third to a 
 tifth of the total force. In armies of some strenirlli, 
 or large mrps d'uriiue, particul.trly when' tlie nature 
 of the country requires a wide developnieiit of ad- 
 vanced-posts, the larger proportion is deiiiaiided; as 
 at least one lliinl or even one lialf of its strength will 
 be required for the advanced-post service. In h small 
 force of two or three thousand men, one tifth will 
 usually be all that can be well spared for the same 
 pur|K>.ses. Our puriiose, in all cases, should be to 
 keep the eneiiiv in a stale of uncerlainty as to our 
 actual force and movements; and Ihiscan'be elTecled 
 only by keeping {(.nstanlly between him and our 
 mam IkxIv a force of sullicieni strength to otTcr an 
 obstinate resistance, if necessary, to every allenipt he 
 may openly make to gain information; "and even to 
 act offensively against him, when occasion otfers, so 
 as to keep him in doubl as to llie actual chaiaclcr and 
 number of llie troops before him; the old iiiililaiy 
 axioni being id ways kept in mind, that " u iiicvnl oji- 
 
 portunely drawn freqiiently keejts another back in iU 
 I sdibbard." In all defensive iiositions the advanced- 
 I guard and its advanced-posts should retire slowly but 
 circumspectly, so that the main bodv may have time 
 ' to take all its defensive measures. In the offensive, 
 the attack of the advanced-guard should be ilecidcd 
 and vigorous; pressing upon the enemy at every 
 ])oint; and leaving nothing undone to demoralize 
 liim, tiy the confusion which .so often follows from 
 an impetuous onset. Whilst in position the advanced- 
 guard should take advantage of the natural or other 
 obstacles on its front and flanks which are within 
 supporting distance; to strengthen itself, and gain 
 sui)|Mirts for ils advanced-posts. In this way il.s meaiLS 
 of resistance, whether acting offensively or otherwise, 
 may be greall.v augmented. Ground of this charac- 
 ter taken uji by the troops should not be abandoned 
 without very cogent rea.sons for it; since, should cir- 
 cumstances bring about a forward movement, it 
 might cost more to regain what was given up than 
 to iiave maintained it obstinately at lirst. The ground 
 to be taken u]) by an advanced-guard and embraced 
 ■nnthin its advanced -posts should be carefully chosen. 
 To take position where the movements of the enemy 
 can be well watched, whilst our own troops are kejit 
 concealed and not liable to a sudden attack either in 
 front or flank, are the di'sidirnia in such cases. If, 
 in following this guide, it should lead to a develop- 
 ment of advanced-posts which would be too weak at 
 any jxiint for a tolerable resistance, there remains but 
 the alternative to retire slowly before the enemy, — 
 taking care that be do not slip behind the outposts 
 and their supports. — upon some central point to the 
 rear, where the advanced-posts, united to the troojis 
 in reserve, may make a good stand, and from which, 
 if the chances are favorable, lliey may advance upon 
 the enemy and make him pay dearly for his temerity. 
 In all affairs of advanced-guards great circums|)ecti6n 
 is to be shown, both liy the officer in command of the 
 advanced-guard, in throwing forward fresh troops to 
 strengthen a jioint assiiled, as well as on the part of 
 the General-in-Chief, in sustainingtheadvanced-guard 
 by weakening his main body. These are points that 
 cau only be decided on the spot. The safer rule, in 
 all cases, is not to weaken the main defence, or main 
 attack, bv detaching from it to sujiport a feeble 
 point. If the force engaged, under such circum- 
 stances, does not suffice for its own defence, it is best 
 for it to fall back in time and, taking position with 
 the main liod.v, endeavor, by their combined efforts, 
 to lurn the scales of victory in their favor. The 
 duties of advanced-guards being so much more fre- 
 quently to feel and occiii\v an enemy, preiianitoni- to 
 some decisive blow by the main body, than to engage 
 him with a view to follow up any advantage gained, 
 it follows, as a matter of course, that they should be 
 composed of the most efficient and active light troojis 
 at the General's dispo.sal. Such troops, in the hands 
 of a bold, energetic, but prudent leader, will be the 
 right arm of an army: prompt on all occasions; 
 never taken at fault, the.v keep the enemy constantly 
 occupied; harass him with fatiguing precautions to 
 secure his flanks and rear; whilst tlieir own f.irce is 
 keiit relieved from these annoyances, and always fresh 
 for .■uiv irri'iil eiiirrirriicv. 
 
 ADVANCED-LUNETTES.— Works resembling bas- 
 tions or ravelins. Inning faces or flanks. They are 
 formed u]X)n or beyond the glacis. 
 
 ADVANCED-POSTS.- Positions taken up by a force 
 in .idvani e nf the main body of an army, and in such 
 a situation that they shall be within ea.sy comniunica- 
 tioii of it and of one another. The duties of the ad- 
 vanced-posts are the .same whether the troops are 
 .stationary or in movement. They are: 1. To keep a 
 good lookout for the enemy, and when in his im- 
 mediate ]iresencc to take all means to be accurately 
 informed of his strength, ])osition, and movements; 
 2. Should the enemy advance, to lioM him in check 
 long enough to give the main Ixxly anijile time to be 
 prepared lor his attack. By a faithful discharge of
 
 ADVAHCED-WOBKS. 
 
 2.'^ 
 
 AEBODTNAHICS. 
 
 these duries, ihe whole army can, at all times and 
 under all circumstances, be kept in a state of readi- 
 ness for action without subjecting the soldier to any 
 fatigue beyond the ordinary physical endurance of "a 
 well-developed manhood; as but a small portion, 
 comparatively, of the force present is required to 
 watch over the safety of the rest, and can therefore 
 be frequently relieved, so that every one may have 
 time sufficient for the repose demanded after extraor- 
 dinary exertions. Tlie object being to secure the 
 front and tlanks of the jxisition occupied by the 
 main body from any attempt either to rcconnoitcr or 
 attack it, the detachments which form the advanced- 
 posts must be so distributed as to embrace all the 
 avenues by which the enemy can approach the posi- 
 tion. The system adopted, in most services, to ellect 
 this object consists of two or three concentric lines 
 of posts, disposed in a fan-shaped order. The ex- 
 terior line, which forms the Outposts, embraces a 
 ■wide circumference, and by means of a chain of 
 Sentin^U, posted in advance, prevents any one from 
 penetrating to the rear between the posts without 
 iieing seen. The second line, which is one of Grand- 
 Guards, embraces a narrower circumference than the 
 line of outposts, occupying the more important*nve- 
 nues from (he outposts to the interior, so as to be in 
 a position to support the outposts in case of necessity, 
 and to receive them if driven in. The interior line 
 consists of several strong detachments, termed Picket*, 
 posted upon the main avenues to the position. They 
 serve as supports to the two exterior lines, upon which 
 they rally if forced to retire Ix'fore the enemy. Be- 
 sides these dispositions for security, Patrols are kept 
 up Ix't ween the line of posts, to keep the one informed 
 of the stale of the other; and also between the out- 
 posts and chain of sentinels, to see that the duties of 
 the latter are well performed; and to search any 
 ground not brought well under the eyes of the sen- 
 tinels. The whole, in this way, forms a connected 
 system for observing the enemy and for mutual sup- 
 jiort in case of attack. The ground taken up by the 
 advanced-posts will depend on the capabilities which 
 its natural features offer for defence; on the number 
 and character of the approaches it presents to an 
 ■enemy for attacking the front or Hanks of the position 
 occupied bv the main Ixxiy; and upon the facilities it 
 may afford for communication between the posts. 
 See O'lt /Mists. 
 
 ADVANCED-WORKS.— AVorks placed beyond the 
 covered-ways of the enceinte and its outworks, but 
 connected with them in a general system of defence, 
 are termed adranrtd and dttac/ied trorks. The term 
 advanced-irorks is api)lied to such works as, placed 
 beyond the outworks, are still under the fire of either 
 the enceinte or the outworks, so that the ground in 
 advance of them will be swept by this tire; their 
 ditches tlanked by it; and their inferior .so exposed 
 to it that, if the work were .seized by an open assault, 
 the a.ssailant could be driven from it by this fire. 
 Advanced-works are placed in positions which the 
 assailant must neccssjirily make himself master of 
 before he can apjjroach nearer to the main work; or 
 on poinis which overlook ground that cannot l)e 
 swejit by the fire of the enceinte; and sometimes on 
 poinis which, inaccessible lo the assailant, give good 
 position from which a fiank-tire can be brought to bear 
 upon ground over which the a.ssailant will be obliged 
 to make his apjiroaches. Restricted to the.se pur- 
 poses, an advanced-work may be of great value in 
 prolonging the defence; and every precaution should 
 Ix; taken to secure it from a surprise, and to give its 
 garrison a s;ife means of communication with the 
 main work upon which they can retire when forced 
 to abandon their work. When there are fidl and 
 strong garrisons, advanced-works, by judicious com- 
 bination with those in their rear, may greatly enlarge 
 the field of action of the garrison, by keeping the as- 
 sailant at a distance and annoying him by I'requent 
 .sorties in larnre boriiis. See D>tached-Works. 
 
 ADVANTAGE-GEOUND.— That ground which af- 
 
 fords the greatest facility for annoyance or resist- 
 
 ! ance. 
 
 ADVEESAEY.— A term generally applie<l to an 
 enemy, but strictly an opponent in single combat. 
 
 ADVISING TO DESEET.— A crime punishable with 
 dealh or otherwise as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 The Articles of War pro\ide that any officer or 
 
 I soldier who ad\-ises or persuades any other officer or 
 soldier to desert the serWcc of tlie United States 
 
 i shall in time of war suffer dealh or such other pun- 
 ishment as a Court-Martial may direct, and in time 
 of peace any punishment excepting death which a 
 
 I Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 ADYNATI. — An ancient name for invalid soldiers 
 receiving ]>eusions from the public treasurv. 
 
 I AEEN. — A tree which grows in the ilaclras Presi- 
 dency at Coimbatore. It is very hard, heavy, and 
 
 I durable underwater. It is .said to be found "in all 
 the teak-forests of India and Burmah. A cubic foot 
 of unseasoned wood weighs from .seventy to seventy- 
 three i>ounds. It is used in the Bombay Gun-car- 
 riage Agency fbr shafts, handspikes, ;mil yokes. 
 
 £GID£. — A name, according to Homer, for a pro- 
 tecting covering woun<l around the left arm in the 
 absence of a shield: used by Jupiter, Minerva, and 
 Apollo. 
 
 £GIS. — The shield of Jupiter, which had been 
 fashioned by Hephaestus (Vulcan). When .lupiter 
 was angry, lie waved and shook the *gis, making a 
 sound like that of a tempest, by which the nations 
 were overawed. The legis was the .symbol of di\-ine 
 protection, and became, in course of time, the exclu- 
 sive attrilmte of Jupiter and Minerva. 
 
 aiNEATOEES.— In military antiquity, the musi- 
 cians in an army, including "those who sounded the 
 trumpets, horns, etc. 
 
 aiRAEITJM MILITAIEE.— The war-treasury of 
 liome. founded by Augustus. In addition to other 
 revenues, the one-iiuudfedth part of all merchandise 
 sold in Rome was paid into it. 
 
 JEEO. — A basket used by the Roman soldiers for 
 atrrviuL' earth to constnict fonirieations. 
 
 I AEEODYNAMICS.— That branch of science which 
 treats of air and other gases in motion. It examines 
 first the phenomena of air issuing from a vessel, 
 which correspond in manv rcsiu-cts with those of 
 water. Much depends, as in the csise of water, upon 
 the nature of the orifice, whether a mere hole in the 
 side of the vessel, or a lube or adjutage. Another 
 subject of aerodynamics is the motion of air in long 
 tubes, where the resistance of friction, etc., has to be 
 a.scertained. That resistance is found to be nearly in 
 proportion lo the square of the velocity, to the length 
 of the lulx", and inversely to its width. Aerody- 
 namics examines also the velocity of air rushing into 
 a vacuimi, of wind, etc. The instrument used for 
 the latter purpose is called an anemometer. Air is 
 found to rush into a void space at the rate of from 
 1300 to 14(X) feet [K'r second. One of the most im- 
 portant inquiries in aerodynamics is the resistance 
 
 ' offered to a Inxly moving in air, or — which is the 
 same thin.L' — the ])ressure exerted by air in motion 
 upon a bo<iy at rest. The law may be staled, with 
 sufficient accuracy for practical jiurjioses, as follows: 
 T/i( nsistancf or prtssure is propurtioiml to tlie square 
 of the relociti/. We might conclude from rea.son, 
 without experiment, that such would be the case; for 
 if one IxkIv is moving through the air four thnes 
 faster than another of the s;ime size, not oidy will it 
 encounter four times as many particles of air, Ijut it 
 will give each of them four times as great an impulse 
 or sh(x-k, and thus encounter 4x4, or sixtec'n times 
 as much resistance. This resist;mce is gi-eatly in- 
 creased by another circumstance, especially with great 
 velocities'. The air in front of the mo\ihg body be- 
 comes accumulated or condensed, and a partial or 
 even entire vacuum is formed behind it. With a 
 velocity of 1700 feet jwr second, for instance, the re- 
 sistimee is found to be alxmt three times as great as 
 the simple law of the square of the velocity would
 
 ASSOKIINOSCOFE. 
 
 24 
 
 AOAVE. 
 
 give. By the operation of these hiws of resistance, a 
 heavy body let fall with a parachute attached to it. 
 comes, after a certain time, to move with a velocity 
 approaching more and more nearly to a uniform mo- 
 tion. 
 
 AEROKLINOSCOPE.— An instnuncnt to show differ- 
 ences of iKiroinelric pressure at remote stations. It 
 consists of a vertical axis 30 feet liiirh, tuniinfr on a 
 pivot, oirrying at the lop a horizontal arm. of which 
 the inclination can he varied acc<)r<Ung to the differ- 
 ence of Itiirometric pressure at diffcR-nt siiUs of the 
 station; the amoiuit of dip being indicated by a .slid- 
 ing rod held in jiosition by graded notches at the 
 lower part of the axis, each notch corresponding with 
 one millimeter in i>ressure. It is used in the weather 
 service. 
 
 AEROSTATICS. — That bnmch of science which 
 treats of the equilibrium ;ind pressure of air and other 
 gases, and of the methods of measuring it by the ba- 
 rometer and other instruments. The expansive force 
 or pressure of atnio-spheric air varies with lime and 
 place. In a nuilium condition of the atmosphere, 
 and near the sea-level, barometrical observations give 
 the pressure or weight equal to that of a colunui of mer- 
 cury 30 inches high, or of a column of water about 
 34 feet high. Tliis makes the mean pressure of the 
 atmosphere nearly l.T ltis. on every scjuju'e inch. This 
 meiui pressure of the atmosphere is generally taken as 
 the tmit or measure of expansive or elastic forces gen- 
 erally: any jiarticular pressure is said to be equal to 
 so many atmospheres. Aerostatics also investigates 
 the phenomena of the compression of gases; in other 
 words, the relation between tlie elasticity and the 
 density or volume of a gas. According to the law of 
 Jlariotte, the expansive force of one and the same 
 IxKly of giis is proportional to its density; or, which 
 is the same thing, the e.^iansive force of a body of 
 gas under different degrees of conjpre.ssiou varies in- 
 versely ius the space wliich it occupies. If its elastic 
 force, at one stage, be measured by oO lbs., when 
 compressed into half the space that force will be 100 
 lbs. Connected with this is the investigation of the 
 variation of density and pressure in the several verti- 
 cal strata of the atmosphere. It is obvious that the 
 weight of the atmosphere must diminish as we a.scend, 
 as part of it is left below; and it results from Marl- 
 otte's law that, at ditTerent distances from the earth's 
 surface, increasing in arithmetical progression, the at- 
 mospheric i)ressure diminislies in geometrical progres- 
 sion. This principle furnishes the means of measuring 
 heights by the barometer. The elastic force of air 
 ancT other gases is very much increased by heat, and 
 consequently, when allowed, they expand. It is foinid 
 that a rise of tem]K'ralure of 1 of Falircniieil causes 
 any gas to expand fl^ of its own bulk; and this ex- 
 pansion is uniform. If adding 10 to the temiierature 
 of a body of gas increases its biUk 3 cubic inilies, an 
 addition of 20' will give an increase of 6 inches; of 
 .50', I.') inches; and so on. This law was discovered 
 by Gay-Luss;ic, and has been verilied by subsetiuent 
 investig-ators. Both it, however, and that of .Mariotte, 
 can be loitki-d upon as only nearly true, and that 
 wilbin {Tiiiiiii limits. 
 
 i:KUMNULA. — A wooden pole or fork, introduced 
 among the Honians by Consul JIarius. Each soldier 
 was provided with one of these poles, wliieh had at- 
 tached thereto a siiw, hatchet, a s:ick of wheat, and 
 baggage. The soldier was compelled to carry it on a 
 march. 
 
 AFABUAR. — A color-lx-arer of the ancient Ice- 
 landers. ICvery wur-ve.ssel had one of these officers 
 aboanl, who commanded the soldiei-s. The Aiabuars 
 were selected for this dutv for their liravery. 
 
 AFFAIR. — An action or engagement not of suffl- 
 cienl nia,'nitude to Ik' termed a battle, but usually of 
 more inipnrlimce than askirmish; as, the affair of out- 
 post, iir the affair of rearguard. 
 
 AFFAHER. — To b( sicirr .i jilace so closely as to 
 Btiini' llii- ;;arrisiin and inhaliilanls. 
 
 AFFIDAVIT.— In military law, an oath duly sub- 
 
 .scribed iK'fore any ]ierson authorized to administer it. 
 In the United !Sta"tes. Judges, .fustices. Notaries, Com- 
 missioners, and Coinmissiomtl Ollicers have authority 
 of law to take atliilavits. All the States appoint Com- 
 missioners in other Slates (residents of such olher) to 
 exercise the power. By Mew York law, affidavits may 
 be taken anywhere for usi' in New York, if the ix-rson 
 takinsr is authorized at the time and place to do so. 
 Generally the aulhoritv of foreign otiicials to take 
 affldavit.s nnist be certified or veritied in court. When 
 a Judge takes an affidavit in court his signature must 
 be authenticated. Ministers and Consuls abroad have 
 power to take affidavits, and so have British Consuls 
 and nearlv all similar officers. No particular fonn of 
 affidavit is prescrilu'd. An affi(la\"it of merit is one 
 made by a defendant, which sets forth that he has 
 stated his ea.se to counsel and is by him advised that 
 he has a good defence to the pending action on its 
 merits. This is required to protect plaintiffs from 
 delay by frivolous shows of defence, but does not 
 always cffuet the purpose. 
 
 AFFIRMATION. — A substitute for swearing, or 
 taking an oath. In most of the States a witness may, 
 at his own ojilion, either swear or affinn, and with 
 the* same legal effect. In the act of affirming the 
 right hand is raised while the formula is .spoken. 
 Formerly, in England, no e\-idence could be given 
 except upon oath; but the prixilcge of making a sol- 
 emn affirmation, instead of swearing on the Bil)le, has 
 been extended to tjuakers, Moravians, and Separatists 
 in all eases; and to jiersons alleging conscientious mo- 
 lives in ci\il proceedings. Before native Courts-Mar- 
 tial in India, evidence is given on solenm affirmation. 
 For Quakers and Mora\"ians the formula is: "I do sol- 
 emnl}', sincerely, and Indv declare and affirm." In 
 the ease of Separatists this affirmation further bears to 
 be emitted " in the presence of Almighty (Jod. " The 
 penalties of per.jury are imposed on those who shall be 
 proved to have aftiiTned falsely. A later statute h.os 
 extended the privilege of substituting an affirmation 
 for an oath to all persons who refuse to be sworn from 
 conscientious motives — the Judge being satufied that 
 the moiins are roiimentious. 
 
 AFFORCIAMENT.— An old term for a fortress or 
 stronixliold: now obsolete. 
 
 AFRANCESADOS.— A name given to the Spaniards 
 who upleld llie oalh of allegiance to King Joseph 
 Bonaparte; also called Joscphins (in the Peninsular 
 War). 
 
 AGA— AGHA.— The Turkish title of a superior 
 Military Commander; also of the higher officers of the 
 seraglio. 
 
 AGAVE. — -V genus of plants belonging to the natural 
 order Aimin/l/ideif. and having a tubular perianlh with 
 6-partile limb, and a triangular, many -seeded inferior 
 capsule. Tliev are herbaceous plants, of remarkable 
 and beautiful ajiiHariince. There are a muulK'r of 
 species, all natives of the warmer parts of America. 
 Bv unscientitic persons they are often confounded 
 with aloes. The agaves ha\e either no proper stem, 
 or a veiT short one. bearing at its summit a crowded 
 head of larire, tlesliy leaves, which are spiny at the 
 margin. From the midst of these shoots up the 
 straight, upright scajx'. 24 to 30 feet high, and at the 
 base often 1 foot in diamelir, along which are small, 
 appres-sid, lanceolate bractea", with a tenninal pani- 
 cle, often bearing as many as 4000 tlowers. In South 
 America these i>lants often tlower in the eighth .vear, 
 but in our hothouses not until thev have reached a 
 very advanced age; whence arises the srardeneiN' fable 
 of their lloweriiig onlv once in a hundred .vears. After 
 flowering,' the plant always dies down to the ground, 
 but the root coni inning to jive si'nds up new shoots. By 
 maci-ralion of the leaves, which are 5 to 7 feet lon.ff, 
 are obtained coarse fibers, which are used in America, 
 under the name of >iiii;/>iei/. for the manufacture of 
 thread, twine, ropes, hammocks, etc. This fiber is 
 also known as pita flax. It i.s now jiroduced to some 
 extent in the sduih of Europe. It is not very strong 
 or durable, and if exposed to moisture it soon decays.
 
 » U>iij.1iiiJpEa'» « ofOm-nirich W
 
 A6EKA. 
 
 25 
 
 AIOBEKO&S. 
 
 The ancient Mexicans employed it for the preparation 
 of a coarse kind of paper, and tlie Indians vise it for 
 oakum. The leaves, cut into slices, are used for 
 feeding eaitle. A species known as Agave mej-icarui 
 is particidarl}" descrilxd by Hutnlx)ldt upon account 
 of its utility. When tlie innermost leaves have been 
 torn out, a juice contin\ics to tlow for a year or a year 
 and a half, which, liy inspissation, yields sugar; and 
 which, when diluted with water and subjected to four 
 or live days' fermentation, becomes an agreeable but 
 intoxicating drink, called pulque, to which the Mexi- 
 can Indians not unfrequently sacrifice both fortune 
 and life. 
 
 AGEMA. — A kind of soldier}-, in the ancient mili- 
 tary art, chiefly in the Macedonian anny. The word 
 is Greek, and denotes vehemence, to express the 
 strength and eagerness of this corps. 
 
 AGENCY. ^A certain proportion of money which is 
 ordered to be subtracted from the pay and allowances 
 of the British Army for trans;icting the business of 
 the several regiments etjmprising it. 
 
 AGENT. — In the Uritish service, a person author- 
 ized by the government to manage the monetar}' 
 affairs of regiments in the army, as a kind of military 
 banker. In early times, persons were employed to 
 effect the purchase and sale of commissions in the 
 British army (the only army in which this strange 
 system of purchase existed), without much reference 
 to honesty or litness; but to prevent pernicious traf- 
 ficking, no one wa.s sifter 1809 permitted to manage 
 these tninsactions except the authorized Army Agent, 
 under a heavy penalty. The Agents were also bound 
 down bj' restrictions, in relation to any pecuniary ad- 
 vantage derivable by themselves from the sale and 
 piircha-sc. Their business, however, is now confined 
 to the regular expenditure of governmeht money. 
 Every regiment has an Agent, selected by the Colonel, 
 and empowered bj- him to be his representative in the 
 monetary arrangements of the Corps. The Colonel is 
 respoiisiiile to the Crown for the honestv of the Agent; 
 but the Agent is in many ways reg-arded a.s a ser\-ant of 
 the public. When money is wanted for the regular 
 expenses of the regiment, the Agent applies to the 
 War Office; whereupon the Secretary of State for War 
 issues an order to the Paymaster of the forces to ad- 
 vance the reepiisite sum; the Paymaster docs so, and 
 takes a receipt from the Agent. There is an annual 
 settlement of accounts txitween the Paymaster and the 
 Agent, each one paying or recei\nng, according to the 
 side on which excess or deticicncy may appear. The 
 Agent then distributes the pay and other charges of 
 the regiment. The tendency of recent alterations has 
 been greatly to reduce the public functions of the 
 Agents, who now onlv receive £l-'i,000 from the State, 
 while in 1S.58 they "had £40,000. The percentage 
 allowed to Agents for their trouble in pacing the full 
 pay of otlicers was allowed for by tlie St;itc, and was 
 included among the annual army estimates; but the 
 officer generally bore this charge in relation to half- 
 pay and allowances. The Agent conducted all corre- 
 spondence, and sent all the reciuisite notices concerning 
 paj' and pa^inent; the Colonel of the regiment took 
 no" part in "the matter. The details of the system 
 varitd considerably at different times, and in difTercnt 
 portions of the British dominions. Sometimes the 
 Agent received twoiience in the pound on the amount 
 of pay; sometimes three halfpence in the pound, with 
 an addition vaiying from sixpence to one shilling per 
 day for each company of infantry or troop of cavalr\-; 
 sometimes (in Ireland" and in the Colonies) a lixed an- 
 nual s;dary. When the Colonels of regiments pro- 
 vided themen's clothing, under a system now alxin- 
 doned, the Agents were very intiinatc'ly mi.xed up with 
 the transactions; but at present the "duties of those 
 Agents are limited to the following: applying monthly 
 to the War Office for the money required for each 
 regiment; receiving that money; applying part of it 
 to the iiayment of officers; disl)ui-sin;: the regimental 
 paymasters' bills for the cost of the expenditure: pav- 
 ing s'-ldiers" remittances for the benefit of their fami- 
 
 lies; settling the effects and credits of soldiers. Many 
 experienced government officers have recommended 
 the abandonment of the svstcm, and the paying of all 
 moneys by the War Office direct, as a measure of 
 simplitieation and economy. 
 
 AGGER. — The middle part of a militarj- road raised 
 into a ridge, with a gentle slope on each side to make 
 a drain for the water and keep the way dry. The 
 term also denotes a work or fortilication used both 
 for the defence and attack of towns, camps, etc., 
 termed among the moderns, lines. Agger is also 
 used for a bank or wall erected against the sea or 
 some great river to confine or keep it within bounds, 
 and called by modern writers a sea-wall. 
 
 AGIADES.— A kind of pioneers in the Turkish 
 armies, or ir'her field Engineers, employed in forti- 
 fying the camp, etc. 
 
 " AGIEM-CLICH. — A very crooked saber, rounded 
 near the point; an arm much in use in Persia and 
 Turkey. 
 
 AGMEN.— The name given by the Romans to an 
 army wluii on the march. 
 
 AGMINALIS. — The ancient name given to a horse 
 which carried liagg-age, equipments, etc., on his 
 l)aek; now termed paek-horee. 
 
 AGUEKRI. — A term frequently ai)plied to an offi- 
 cer or soldier who is known to be experienced in war. 
 
 AIDE-DE-CAMP. — An officer who niiiy be regarded 
 as a kind of superior confidential attendant upon a 
 General in active service. The Aide-de-Camp is the 
 organ of the General. He carries all orders on the 
 field of battle: these he is to deliver in the plainest 
 terms, so as to be distinctly understood; and when so 
 understood, the orders are to lie as implicitly obeyed 
 as if the General himself were present and speaking. 
 As an example of the importance of this matter may 
 be adduced the brilliant but disastrous light-cavalry 
 charge at Balaklava in the autunui of 1H54. Lord 
 Ha.glan sent a message, partly verbal and partly 
 written, to the Earl of Lucan cf)ncerning a particu- 
 lar piece of strategy at a certain time and place; the 
 message was misconceived, and the Earl of Cardigan 
 was directed to make a military movement perfectly 
 hopeless in its character, resulting in a very serious 
 cavalry loss; although the incident iiresented a tine 
 display of heroism united vnih discipline. An Aide- 
 de-Camp also acts as Secretary to the General, and 
 assists him in his correspondence when he has not 
 specifically a Military Secretary. He aids likewise 
 in dispensing the courtesies of the General's house or 
 tent. Generals arc much accustomed to ai)point their 
 sons or other relations to this confidential post. Aide- 
 de-camps vaPi' in number according to the rank of 
 the General Officer. In the British service, before an 
 officer can be appointed as Aide-de-Camp, he must 
 have been two years with his regiment, and must 
 pass an examination. Aide-de-camiis are not re- 
 moved from the list of their regiments; and, most 
 commonlv, are Captains. Besides these Aide-de- 
 Camps to Generals, the Queen has the power to 
 appoint any numlicr of Aidc-de-Camps to herself, in 
 her capacit"y of nominal Head of the Army. There 
 are no particular duties attached to the office; but it 
 is much sought after, both as an honor, and as con- 
 ferring on the holder the rank of Colonel in the 
 Army. There arc six who receive daily pay as Aide- 
 de-Camps, and who take it in turn "to attend the 
 Queen on Slate Occasions. In the year 187(5 there 
 were no fewer than 33 military Aide-ile-Camps to the 
 Queen, of whom 8 were Peers of the Kealm; Vmt 
 of the ;i;{, only 19 belonged to the army; the rest, ex- 
 cept two of the marines, Wng militia officers, whose 
 appointments are purely hoiiorarv. In addition to 
 all the above, there are"naval Aide-dc-Camps to the 
 Queen. 
 
 AID-MAJOR.— The French name for the Adjutant 
 of a Riirinieiit. It is still in use. 
 
 AIGREMORE.— A term used by the artificer in the 
 laboratory to express the charcoal in a state fitted for 
 the making of powder.
 
 AIOITILLX. 
 
 26 
 
 AIR-BED Ain) PILLOW. 
 
 AIGUILLE. — An instrunu'iit us«><l by Engineers to 
 piene ft nuk fi)r the Kxljrnienl of jxiwder, lus in a 
 mine, when hlnstinj; or l)lo\vinir up is Ij l>e i'fft>ctt'<l. 
 
 AI6UILLETTE. — A deronilion, consisting of bul- 
 lion fonls luui loops, wliieli wa.s formerly worn on 
 the right .shoulder of a General Ollieer, but is now 
 chietly eonlined to rjiHeers of the Life-Guards and 
 Horso-Guarils in England, iiml to officers of the Ad- 
 jutanlGt-ueral's Department, Aide.s-(ie-C'ara|), and Ad- 
 jiitnnl.s of rei^iiuents in the United Stales Army. The 
 Aiguillelle, lu-stead of being iK'rmanently attached to 
 the slioulderkni>t, may be maile separate so as to be 
 attiiched to the coat underneath the knot by means of 
 a strap or tongue pivs.sing through the lower fastening 
 of the knot. Aides-de-Camp a1id the .Military Secre- 
 tary, who have increa»ed nmk, wear the Aiguillettc 
 with the uniform of the General Staff. Aiiles-de- 
 Canip to Major- and Brigjidier-Gcnerals wear the 
 Aiguillettc with the uniform of their regiments and 
 corps. See Shoulder kn/it». 
 
 AILE. — A Fri'nch term denoting a wing or flank 
 of an army or fortitication. 
 
 AILETTES. — Apix'udages to the armor worn by 
 knights in the thirteenth century. They were some 
 times made of leather, covered with a kind of cloth 
 calleil ctirdii, and fastened with silk laces. The form 
 was .sometimes circular, sometimes pentagonal, cru- 
 ciform, or lozenge-shaped, but more usually square. 
 Sometimes they were not larger than the |)alm of the 
 hand; in other instances as large as a shield. In most 
 instances, the Ailettes were worn behind or at the 
 side of the shoulders. Whether the purpose of these 
 api)endiiges was as a defense to the shoulders in war, 
 as an ensign or mark to inilicate to the followers of 
 the knight his place in the tield, or as armorial bear- 
 ings, is not now clearly known; but the lirst suppo- 
 sition is the most probable. .lUlettes are figured on 
 many effigies, monumental brasses, and stained win- 
 dows in cathedrals and old churches. 
 
 AIM. — A word of command for bringing a masket, 
 piece of ordnance, or any other missive weajion to 
 Its proper line of direction with the object intended to 
 be struck. To aim a musket, raise the piece with 
 both hands, and support the butt tirmly against the 
 right shoulder, the left elbow down, the right elbow 
 as high as the shoulder, the boily inclining slightly 
 forward; incline the head upon the stock so that the 
 right eye may quickly perceive the notch of the rear- 
 sight, "the front sight, and the object aimed at; the 
 left eye closeil, the right thumb c.\'tended along the 
 stock, the fore.inger on the trigger. When recruits 
 are formetl in two ranks, the iront-rank men lower 
 the right elbow slightly, in order to facilitate the aim 
 of the rear-r.ink men. Each rear rank man in aiming 
 carries the right foot about eight inches to the light, 
 toward tlie left heel of the man next on the nlrht, 
 inclinini; the upper part of the Ixxly forward, bend- 
 mg slightly the right knee. 
 
 The meii. in squaiLs of frcrai twelve to twenty, are 
 first insirueled in the principles of ainuiig, which may 
 be taught in-doors. To this end a tarsrel is made, 
 having a black circle si.x inches in diaiiietcr for the 
 center; exterior to it are foiu- concentric rings, alter- 
 nately white and black, each ring from Iwo to four 
 inches wide. The target is posted at various distances 
 from a table, tri|)od, or other support, on which rests 
 a .siuidbag, the upper surface of which should Ik; at 
 the height of the shoulder. In (he first laisons, a 
 small while wafer will tx- pasted over the center of 
 tlie targc-t. The wafer and s;ind-b;iir being arranged, 
 the iiLstructor, who is always a commissioned officer, 
 inilenis the siuid-bag sliijbily, and, |ila(ing the mus- 
 ket on it, auas it accuratelyat the target! lie then 
 rc(|uires the men sefiaralely to examine the aim, caus- 
 ing them to close the left eye. He next deranges the 
 piece and cau.ses the men successively to direct it on 
 the wafer, verifying each aim, and "denmging it be- 
 fore the next man steps forwanl. The instructor 
 next aims the piece alx)ve, Ix-low, to the right (jr left 
 of the target, and requires the men to stale the error 
 iuid cora'tl it These lessons mv repeated at different 
 
 distances, the instructor cxj^sing faults and requir- 
 ing the men to correct them. To aim at objects 
 Ix'yond the voint-bhiiik, the instructor commands: 
 (1) At three hundred (or m many) yards, ("2) Aim. 
 At the lirst command, the men stize the slide between 
 the thumb and forefinger, open the leaf to the front, 
 and move the slide until the ujiper line coincides with 
 the distance marked on the leaf; the leaf is then 
 placed at right angles to the axis of the piece. At 
 the command aim, the men aim through the notch in 
 the slide. an<l the front-sight. After tiring, the leaf 
 is turned back to its i>roper position. 
 
 Having taught the jirinciples of aiming, tlie instruc- 
 tor next imprt'.sscs upon the minds of the men that 
 accuracy of lire depends on pulling the trigger 
 steadily The piece being in the position of ready, 
 the instructor directs each man to place the fore- 
 finger on the trigger, so that the second joint shall 
 touch the right side. The trigger is pulled by a 
 steadily-increasing pressure of the finger in the direc- 
 tion of the axis of the piece, the breafh always being 
 held from the commencement of the |iressure till the 
 hammer sliikes. The men hanng become accus- 
 tomed to the pressure necessary lb discharge the 
 piece, are next required to aim "it carefully, either 
 sittina; or standing, and to pull the trigger. pre,serving 
 the aW, keeping the right eye still directed on the 
 object. If the trigger be pulled by a convulsive 
 motion, tlie muzzle will be moved to the right. 
 After learning to pull the trigger without deranging 
 the aim, the men are taught to support the recoil by 
 pressing the butt firmly against the shoulder with the 
 right hand; the left hand supjiorls the weight of the 
 piece, and steadies it in aiming, The trigger is pulled 
 as before. If the particular rifle carries higher or 
 lower than the average, it must be remedied bj- aim- 
 ing with a fine or a coarse sight. The men are next 
 given blank cartridges to accustom them to the noise 
 of the piece and further confirm them in the principles 
 of ainiiiur and tirins;. See Manual of Anita, Fig. 16. 
 
 AIM-FKONTLETT— A piece of wood hollowed out 
 to fit the muzzle of a gun so as to make it level with 
 the breech, formerly in use among gunners. Wooden 
 front-sights on a similar principle are still used on 
 board shij) in case of emergency, as when an accident 
 occurs to the pro(ier metal sights. 
 
 AIHING-DSILL. — A military exercise of great im- 
 porlaiKe as a ])reliminary step in teaching mt-n to aim 
 lii'earms. 
 
 AIMING - STAND.— An instrument employed in 
 teaching the theory of aiming with a musket. It 
 usually consists of" a tripod with a ileviee mounted 
 upon it which holds the gun and allows it to l>e 
 poinl<(l in anv direction. 
 
 AIR-BED AND PILLOW.— Air-beds, now much 
 used as a jiart of the field equipment, were known as 
 early as the beginning of the eighteenth century, but 
 being made of leather were very exiK-nsive. It was 
 
 Air-Bed. 
 only after the invention of air-light cr ilacintosh cloth 
 that it became possible to use air in this way at a 
 moderate cost. An air-bed as usually made consists 
 of a sjick in the form of a mattress, di\ided into a 
 number of compartments, each air-tight ; a projec- 
 tion at one end forms a bolster. Each compart- 
 ment has a valve, through which the air is blown 
 in by a bellows. The advantages of such beds 
 in point of cleanliness, coolnc.s.s, lightness, and elas- 
 ticity are quite ob\ious. The\- are sjiecially valu- 
 able in cases of sickness in thi- field, imd in'adding 
 to the comforts of troops subjected to rapid move
 
 AIB-C0HFBES80B. 
 
 27 
 
 AIB-C0MPEES80B. 
 
 jnent'! with limited means of transportation. The 
 ail'-pillow is another contrivance of the same Idnd. 
 I{ecently, vulcanized In- 
 dia-rubber, instead of 
 cloth, hiis been used in 
 the fabrication of such 
 articles. The chief draw- 
 back to these contrivan- 
 ces is the liability to 
 beinj: spoiled by a rent 
 or other injury. For use 
 in localities where water 
 is jilenliful, these articles 
 are constructed so as to be tilled with water; but the 
 air-tillinir is more satisfactory in all respect.s 
 
 AIB-COHFRESSOB. — \n obvious mode of employ- 
 ing air as a motive power is to compress it and then 
 apply it in the manner of hi,i;h -pressure steam. Al- 
 though compressed air has been used for working 
 small engines in confined situations, such as tunnels, 
 it is not at all likely that it will ever come into extcn- 
 
 Air-PUlow. 
 
 this caloric, which cannot be kept from escaping, is 
 practically a i>art of the bulk of the air, it follows that 
 the loss of power from this cause will increase with the 
 pressure or tension of the air. Kven were it possible- 
 to prevent the escape of the heat by covering the ves- 
 sels and pipes with some non-<'onducling substance, it 
 would not be practicable to use the hot air In thesiime 
 way as steam is us»(l, becau.se the lulnicalius material 
 necessary to keep the piston and slide-valves from 
 " tearing" wovdd be deconip(jsed by the high tempera- 
 ture. In steaiu-engines there is always a small quantity 
 of water in the cylinders and slide-valves, arising from 
 the coudens;iiion of a iMirlion of the steam, and this 
 suffices to lubricate the jiiston and valves. It is well 
 known that when steam is triijii rlietitid so highlj' as 
 to prevent a slight condens;ition in the cylinder and 
 slide-valves, they are very rapidly destroyed. Air 
 rises in temperature when very much c6mpres.sed, 
 and we cannot use it until its temperature falls; and 
 as this in\-olves a great waste of power, it follows that 
 where economy is of great consequeuce, air camiot be 
 
 Burleigh Air 
 
 sive use, owing to the great waste of power attending 
 it. This waste arises from two caasas: first, the 
 friction due to forcing the compressed air along a 
 great length of pipe; and secoiully, the loss from the 
 uis.sipaliou of the great heat wliich results from its 
 compression. If, say, 100 cubic feet of air is com- 
 pressed into 1 cubic foot, it will bec'omc very hot, and 
 although it is very easy to keep in the air, it is im- 
 possible to keep in the" heat. In spite of every pre- 
 caution, the heat will (ind its way through the vessel 
 in which the air is confined, and Ihrougli the pi|X's in 
 ■which it is being transmitted, and Ibis is equivalent 
 to a portion of the air itself leaking out, Ix-oiiise 
 when the air is permit led to expand in working the 
 engine, it will not attain the bulk it originally had of 
 100 cubic feet. The greater the original couiiiression 
 of the air, the hightT its temperature will rise; and as 
 
 Compressor. 
 
 used as a mode of transmitting mechanical power. 
 Indeed, no flxiid can l)c economically used for trans- 
 mitting jxiwer for any great distance. We liave ju.st 
 seen that eompre.s.sed air is very unsuitable: steam is 
 even more wasteful, because it condenses into water in 
 long pipes. AVater itself loses much of its force from 
 friction in jiassing through long pipes, unless they are 
 of very large size; and in ajiiilying it to bydnudic 
 cranes, where the weiirht to be raiseil varies, great 
 waste of power arises from the fact that the cylinder 
 in which the ram works has to Ix- tilled every lime 
 the crane is worked with water at the full pivssuri'of 
 600 or 700 pounds to the scpiare inch, even when a 
 pres.sure one tenth of that amo\uit would suffice to 
 raise the weight. In short, the power actually used 
 in working an hydraulic' crane is always the maximum, 
 even when the weiAt to be raised is a minimum. It
 
 AIS-CYLINDEB. 
 
 28 
 
 AIB-ENOIKE. 
 
 %t*f» !\» much iKiwor to lift a liun(lrc<lwi'iL'lit ns it docs 
 to lift a tmi. Till' I'Xirfinu luuiiliiK'ss uikI other pnit- 
 tinil atlvanlu'Tcs itossfsst-d Iiy the hvilniulic cnines 
 fcave a hirire liahiiice iu their favor, notwithstaiuliiij? 
 their waste of |K)\ver. In horinjr tlie Mont C'enis tun- 
 nel, air was eoinpn'ssed at the mouth of the tunnel by 
 the alninilant water-power easily obtainable there, 
 anil forced alonj; to the working face ihrouj^h small 
 iron pipes, for working the borinjiinachines. The 
 tunnel through the Hoosac Mountain in Mjissiu-husetts 
 has alse) ticeu liored by compressed air working the 
 nx'k-tlrills. The drawing represents the liurleigh 
 Air-C'ompn'ssor useil in tliat work. It consists of a 
 steam-engine connecting by means of a crankshaft 
 with two single-acting air-pumi)s. Want of space 
 will not p<Tmit a description of this beautiful machine 
 in detjiil; nor is it necessary. It is a compactly built, 
 clost'-working machine, whose lines of motion are all the 
 same, and whose action is such, and the play of the 
 various part.s so nicely balance(l, that the strain upon 
 tlicm i.s equalized, counttr.icted, and brought within 
 it.«elf. By a nice adjustment of the cranks in their 
 relation to each other, the greatest power of the en- 
 gine is applied at the exact point of 
 greatest resistance, so as to produce the 
 best results at the least cost. The air, 
 ■when compn"S.sc<l, is taken into a 
 tank, or air-chamlKT, and thence car- 
 ried to any desired point in pipes, in 
 the sjmie manner that steam is carried. 
 Connection between the permanent 
 pipes and drills upon the carTia":es is 
 made by flexible rubber pipe, which is 
 uncoupled when the carriage is run 
 tnck for a blast. In reference to 
 this machine, it may tx' added that 
 drilling by compressed air is only one 
 of the uses to which it may be ap- 
 plied, and to which it will eventually 
 be made available: such as llie ven- 
 tilation of buildings; transmitting mes- 
 sages, packages, or passenger-cars in 
 pneimiatic tubes; driving street-cars; 
 or supplying a very convenient and 
 perfectly Siife motor for numing ma- 
 chinery. The feasibility of compress- 
 ing air at any convenient point, and 
 conveying it in iron pii>es exactly as 
 gas or water is carried along the streets 
 of our cities, to I)e tap|)ed and used 
 wherever required, has alrea<ly been 
 demonstrated, and it cannot be doul]led 
 that ere long the plan will come into 
 general use. It thus constitutes an 
 efficient, handy, and safe power; 
 makes no dirt or obnoxious gases; 
 but, when exliausled into a room^ after doing its ■work 
 in the nuubines, furnishes the most ample and de- 
 sirable ventilation. In this manner, i)ower may be 
 airried a great distance at comparatively small" ex- 
 pciise. At the IIoosjic Timnel the Burleii:h Hock- 
 Drill Comp.any have carried it over three miles with 
 no material loss of power. 
 
 AIR-CYLINDER.— A pneumatic buffer used in 
 America to absorb the recoil of large gims. For 
 lOinch Lims, one cylinder is used ; for IS-incb gvms, 
 two. They are jilaced between the cbas.sis-rails, to 
 which they are firmly secured bv diagonal braces. 
 A piston traversing the cvlinder'is attached to the 
 rear transom of the top cafriaire. When the gun re- 
 coils the piston-head is drawn backwards in the 
 cylinder, and the recoil is absorbed bv the compres- 
 sion of Ihi' air behind it. Small hole's in the piston- 
 head allow the air to slowlv esc^ipe while the gun is 
 brought to re.st. The Hydraulic BulTcr, liirirclv used 
 abroad, operates in tlie sjune way, water being used 
 insli ail of air. See I'luumatif. li'iiffcr. 
 
 AIR-DRILL.— A drill driven bv the elastic pics.sure 
 of condensid air, and emploved in mining and 
 tunneling. The construction usually resembles thu 
 
 reciiirocaling steam-engine, compressed air being 
 
 substituted for the steam ; the drill slock is attached 
 
 to the pishinrod. See Piittimatic Drill. 
 
 AIR-ENGINE.— It is a well-known law, applicable 
 
 to all tliermo-dynamic engines, tlial (presupposing 
 
 the merely mechanical i)art of tlie machine to be pei- 
 
 fect) the heat converted into work bears the s;ime 
 
 proiHirlion to the total heat given to the fluid that the 
 
 range of temperature liears to the highest abmluU 
 
 temperature of the fluid. Thus, sujiposing an engine 
 
 to receive steam at the temperature of 275 F. and 
 
 discharge it at that of 120 F., the fraction of heal 
 
 , . , . . , .„ , 275 - 120 
 
 which It can convert into work will be „-,^,— ; -7;.- , or 
 
 275 + 461 
 
 alxiul 21 iK-r cent of the total heat of the fluid. This 
 
 proportion would be, of course, greatly reduced in 
 
 practice.'owing to imperfeclions in the machinery; 
 
 but these being equally likely to occur in all prime 
 
 movers, we need not consider them here. The 
 
 U>we»t limit of temperature available Ix-ing prjictiadly 
 
 constant, flxed either by the temperature of the 
 
 atmosphere or that obtainable in a condenser, it 
 
 follow s that greater economy can only be looked for 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 in the direction of increase of initial temperature. In 
 ordinary steam-engines, in whirh the iiressure and 
 temperature increase sinuiltaneously, the latter is 
 limited by the former, which in its ttirn is kept, by 
 considerations of safety, comparatively low. When, 
 however, xii prrfieated steam (steam to which additional 
 heat has l)een imparted ■without the corrcsjionding 
 addition of pressure) or heated air is used, the tem- 
 perature is limited only by the power of the metals 
 composing the machine to resist the destructive action 
 of beat, or the chemical action of the fluid at that 
 temperature. Heated air possesses the advantage 
 over superheated steam as a motive power, that 
 with it an explosion, in the usual sense of the word, 
 is rendered almost impossible, and that, if one were 
 to occur, it would be comparatively harmless. It 
 also, of course, enables the boiler to be dispensed 
 with. 
 
 Air-engines, in their principal working parts, are 
 very similar to ordinary steam-engines. The heated 
 air is introduced into a cylinder, as in Fig. 1, in 
 which works a lightly-fitting piston, which is thus 
 com])elle(l to move up and down, and transfers its 
 motion to a revolving shaft by means of a piston and
 
 &IB-FTTBNACE. 
 
 29 
 
 Ais-omr. 
 
 connecting-rod in the usual manner. The morion of 
 tbc piston results in all cases from the expiinsion of 
 the heated iiir ; tlie air is heated by means of a 
 furnace, is introduced below the pisto^i, raises it, and 
 then is allowed to escape into the atmosphere. Air- 
 engines are almost invariably single-acting ; they are 
 sometimes worked simply by healed air, and some- 
 times with the air which, having piissed through the 
 furnace, is mixed with all th(^ gaseous products of 
 combiLstion. The latter metliod has the immense 
 advantage that it utilizes the heat which would other- 
 wise be rejected iiUo the chimney. The totiil effi- 
 ciency of tlie machine is thus increa.sed, although 
 tbc etliciency of llie engine proper, between the given 
 pair of temperatures, remains the sime. 
 
 The more heat carried away by the discharged 
 air (the higher its temperature, in other words) the 
 smaller evidently is, caleris paribus, tlie range of 
 temperature of the machine, and the less, therefore (as 
 already exi^lained), will be it.s etliciency. The dis- 
 rinctive principle of the Jlcssre. Stirling's air-engine 
 consists in utilizing a great part of this wasted heat, 
 and thus economizing fuel. This is effected by 
 means of a " regenerator, " or, more properly, " econo- 
 mizer," consisting of a chamber tilled with metallic 
 sieves of wire-gauze, through which the hot air is 
 
 "-^^ — -^ - :: .^ 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 made to pass o«<(farrf« from the cylinder, after having 
 performed its work on the working jiiston of tlic 
 engine. As much of the heat of Ilie escaping air is 
 taken up by the regenerator and its li mjK raiiire tlnis 
 reduced, the range of temperature of the machine is 
 correspondingly increa.sed. Tlie fresh air entering 
 the cylinder for the next stroke was compelled to 
 pass inwards through llie regenerator, and abstracted 
 from it the heat left in it. In ibis way it did not 
 re([uirc to receive so much heat in the fmnace as 
 would otherwise have been the case, and thus econo- 
 mized fuel. This method of pivveiiling waste of heat 
 was first discovered bv the Kev. Dr. Stirling, wlio 
 obtained a patent for it in 1816. In working with 
 air at the ordinary pressure of tlie atmosiihere, how- 
 ever, the engine was found to require to be of large 
 dimensions as ciimpared to a slenm-engine of the 
 same power: and in order to obviate this objection. 
 compres.sed air was used. Several other difficulties 
 were successfully surmounted bv the JIes.srs. Stirling, 
 and cventunlly two impro\e(l ingines were con- 
 structed, one of which was tested to fully 40 horse- 
 power. This latter engine did all the work of the 
 Dundee Foundry Company regularly for upwards of 
 three years, during which period they employed no 
 Other motor. At Uie end of this period it was laid 
 
 aside, principally owing to the repeated failure of 
 one of the heating vessels. 
 
 Captain Ericsson, in his attempt to introduce his 
 caloric engine in the ship which bore his name, ex- 
 perienced precisely the s;ime ditliculties and dis- 
 appointments, and tried nearlj' the same remedies, as 
 the Mcssi-s. Stirling. There .seems little doubt, how 
 ever, that he actually believed his " regenerator" was 
 to make the same lieat do work over and over again — 
 to be a kind of perjietual motion — and unrler these 
 circumstances it is not to be wondered at that his 
 machines {notwithstanding some not verj' creditable 
 maneuvering on tlie part of their upholilers) entirely 
 failed, and that in two years they were replaced by 
 steam-engines. Air-engines have recently been con- 
 structeil, in whicli the solar rays, concentrated by 
 means of au arrangement of mirrors, are utilized as 
 the source of heat. These have been called Solar 
 Engines. 
 
 The improved Roper Engine, shown in section in 
 Fig. 2, is regarded as a most .satisfactory power for 
 the light work of the Arsenal and Foundry. It is not 
 an experiment, but a reliable power within the range 
 of the sizes manufactured, laiilt in a strong and sub- 
 stantial manner by skilled mechanics, and has [iroved 
 by years of constant use that it reallj- possesses the 
 advantages claimed for it. Coal and air are the 
 agencies employed in a way which insures the most 
 perfect economy of the former and greatest ex- 
 ]iansion of the latter. The air ai the temperature of 
 the surrounding atmosphere is drawn into the air- 
 pump and then forced directly into the fire, which 
 biuns in an air-tight furnace ; combustion and ex- 
 pansion ensue, and as a result of the expansion of 
 the air and gases produced by combustion a pressure 
 is olitained in the fire-box, which is admitted to the 
 cylinder and exhausted through valves, as a steam- 
 pressure would be operated. The furnace is lined 
 with hea\'>- fire-brick, and as the air is brought in 
 cont;icl w ith the fire, and not hot iron jjlates, there 
 are no healing siu-faces to be destroyed by use. 
 
 During the past few years a number of small 
 steam-engines have been placed in some of the 
 Arsenals, being from their low price attractive to 
 the managers. But however small such an engine 
 may be, or however skillfully made, the fact remains 
 that a steam-boiler re(juires the constant attention of 
 an experienced man, and, as shown by frequent ex- 
 plosions, is dangerous under the most favorable 
 circumstances. Any inexperienced jxTson can, with 
 a few instructions, lake care of an air-engine as well 
 as the best engineer, and in such a short time that 
 his other duties would .scarcely be interfered with. 
 The wages of an engineer is a large item where a 
 small iimount of jiower is used, and is in many ca.ses 
 more than the power is actually worth. When this 
 sum is added to tlie amounts saved in fuel and in- 
 surance, the result will show that an air-engine will 
 I)ay for itself in a very short time, while the satisfac- 
 tion of having a power which is in jmy case absolutely 
 safe is a point not to be overlooked. No water being 
 used either to make steam or condense air, the trouble 
 and expense of keeping ])ipes in order is avoided, and 
 there is no moisture about the engine to cause rust 
 when not in n.sc. The exliaust air can be conducted 
 away in pipes, and used to warm rooms, heat japan- 
 ninL'-dveiis, or other industrial uses. 
 
 AIR-FURNACE. — A foundPi- term used to signify a 
 fun.ace having a natural draft, no blast. 
 
 AIR-GUN. ^^iVn instniment resembling a musket, 
 used to discharge bullets or darts by the force of 
 compres-sed air instead of gmipowder. Various forms 
 of construction lune been adopted. Tlic most usual 
 plan is to insert a condensing sj-ringe in the stock of 
 the gun. The piston of this syringe is worked by an 
 apparatus which pa.sses llirough to tlie exterior of the 
 gim; and this woriiing causes a small body of air to 
 be condensed into a cliamber. The chamber has a 
 valve opening into the Ijarrel, just beliind the place 
 where the bullet li lodwd. The mn is loaded from
 
 AIB-HOIE. 
 
 30 
 
 AIB-METEB. 
 
 the muzzle, as ordinary muskets or fowling-pieces; 
 and there is at tlial lime just 1)i'hind it a small tody 
 of highly compressed air. ready to rush out at any 
 opening. This opportiuiily is afforded by a move- 
 ment of the trigger, which opens the valve; the air 
 rushes forth with such impetuosity as to propel the 
 bullet. By a certain management of the trigger, two 
 or three bullets, succe.ssi\ely and separately intro- 
 ducetl, can be tired oil — if tiring it can be called — by 
 one mass of condensed air. Another form of Air-gun 
 contains sevend bullets in a recejitaele or channel ; 
 under the barrt'l; by the movement of a cock or level ' 
 one of these bullets can readily be shifted into the i 
 Iwrrel; and thus several successive discharges can be 
 made after one loading — on a principle somewhat 
 analogous to that of the revohing pistol. Some 
 varieties of Air-gun have the condensing syringe de- 
 tached, by which means a more powerful conden.su- 
 tion of air may he produced; this done, the air- 
 chamber is replaced in its proi)er position behind the 
 bullet in the barrel. Those Air-gims which present 
 the external aiipearance of stout walking-sticks, and 
 are thcuce called Air-Cimes, have a chainlier witliin 
 
 Air-Gun. 
 
 the handle for containing condensed air, which can 
 be unscrewed and subjecled to the action of the con- 
 densing syringe. One inventor has devised a form of 
 Air-gun with two barrels — one of small bore for the 
 reception of the bullets, and another of larger bore for 
 tlie reservoir of condensed air; the condensing syringe 
 being within the stock of the gun. An attemiu has 
 more recently been tnade to combine the action of 
 elastic springs with that of compressed air in an Air- 
 gun; springs of gutta-percha, or of vulcanized India- 
 niblier, are employed in substitution of or in co-opera- 
 tion with a condensing syringe. No form of Air-gun 
 hitherto made has had power enough to propel a 
 bullet to any considerable distance, and therefore the 
 instrument is scarcely available in war; there are, 
 however, circumstances in which such an arm may be 
 useful — seeing that there is no expense for giuipowder, 
 no noise, no smoke, no vui]ile!is!\nt odor. The Air- 
 gun was known in France more than two centuries 
 ago; but the ancients were ac(iuainted with some 
 kind of apparatus, by which air was made to act upon 
 the shorter arm of a" lever, while the larger arm im- 
 pelled a bullet. The drawing represents an Air-gun, 
 operated in the following mamier: Place the hollow 
 of the riL'ht hand against the breech (B), the nuizzle 
 (M) upon the lloor or against some linn object, and 
 pash the barrel into the cylinder (C) as far as possible, 
 or until the trigirer catches the piston and holds it. In- 
 sert the dart or bullet well into the barrel at the open- 
 ing (A), and draw out the banx-l forward as far as it 
 will go. To make the trigirer jnill off easier, lighten 
 the set-screw in it. To pull olT harder, loosen it a 
 little. Should the gun lo.se its force and require 
 cleaning, lake it apart, wipe clean the piston and in- 
 side of cylinder, and return the parts to their places 
 ns iK-fore. If the barrel works hanl. or does not slip 
 freely, appiv a drop of tfihi oil aroimd it at the open- 
 ing (A) and guard-slot (G). See Qiiackcnbusk Air- 
 gun. 
 
 AIE-HOLE. — 1. A hole or ca\nly in a gun-casting 
 produced by bubbles of air in the liquid niil.il; also, a 
 vent-hole in a moidd for casting. L'. A dniught-hole in 
 a furnace. It is sometimes guarded by a register, but 
 more frequently stopped by u luting or plug of clay. 
 
 AIRING-STAGE.— A platform on which jwwdeii 
 etc., is dried liy exjxjsure to sim and air. 
 
 AIR-HETER. — An apparatus for measuring the 
 quantity of air passing along a pipe, or piiKsiug into 
 or from a chamber. There are various fonns: tho 
 fan, rotating spiral vane, expanding bag, cylinder and 
 piston, revohing partiallv submergccl nieter-wheel, 
 etc., — all more or less used in Arsc^nals, Hospitals, ami 
 Lal)oralories. The drawing represents the Ca.sella 
 Air-meter, s|iceially adapted for measuring the veloc- 
 ity of currents of air pa.ssing through mines, and the 
 ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public build- 
 ings. The graduations for each instrument are ob- 
 tained by actual ex]ieriment-by mcaas of machinery 
 made for llic purpose, so that the indications of all 
 are as comparable w ith. each other as the weight or 
 mea-sure of ordinary substances. The indications 
 are shown lij means of the large dial and hand, and 
 live smaller ones, as shown in the drawing. The 
 whole circumference of the large dial is di\ided into 
 100 parts, and represents the nunilierof feet up to 100 
 traversed liy the current of air. The five smaller dials 
 arc each divided into ten parts only, one revolution of 
 
 Si 
 
 each being equal to ten of the preceding dial, and 
 representing lOtX), 10,000, 100,000, 1,000,000, and 
 10,000,000 respectively. By means of the large dial 
 the low velocity of 'fifty feet per minute may be 
 measured, and by the smaller ones continuous registra- 
 tion is extended up to 10,000,000 feet, or equal to 
 1893 miles, being practically 1)eyond what the most 
 extended observations can acipiirc, w hilst jeweUing in 
 the most sensitive parts insures the utmost delicacy 
 of action. By moving a small catch backwards or 
 forwards the "work is put iu or out of gear w ithout 
 affecting the action of the fans; this prevents the in- 
 
 Air- !^ieter. 
 jurious effect of stopping them suddenly, and enables 
 the observer to begin or end his observations to a 
 second. A small handle with universal joint accom- 
 panies the instrument, and may be screwed in at the 
 ba.sc; by putting a stick through this it may 1k' raised 
 or lowered to any recpiired height and used in any 
 position. To use the Air-mcter.Vrile down the posi- 
 tion of all the hands. For this purpose pla<'e the in- 
 strument before you, with the on the outer circle 
 facing you. The first circle on the left hand indicates
 
 AIE-PUMP. 
 
 31 
 
 AIS-BE8I8TANCE. 
 
 hundreds of feet, the nest tliousands, the third tens of 
 tboasamls, the fourth hundreds of thousands, and tlie 
 last circle to the right of I lie m;uks millions. Be- 
 gin to write down the position of the hands with the 
 million circle, and then go round from right to left, 
 always writing down the lower of the two numbers 
 if the hand is between two. Let us say that the hand 
 on the million dial is at 0, the one-hundred-lhousand 
 hand between 2 and 3, the ten-thous;md between 7 
 and y, the thousand between 1 and 2, the hundred at 
 5, and the large hand which marks units and lens at 
 73. The million hand would Ix; omitted as it has not 
 reached 1. and the remaining numbers would rim 
 271,573. The instrument is then put in the current 
 to be measured, and when removed after a given 
 time is read in the s:ime way; the first being deduct- 
 ed from the second reading gives the velocity (un- 
 corrected) in feet during the time. A simple table 
 accompanies each Air-meter, by means of which (in 
 strict observations) allowance may he made for the 
 difference caused by inertia at high and low veloci- 
 ties. f>ee Aiieni'mieti r. 
 
 AIE-FUHF. — An instnmient for removing the air 
 from a vessel. The cs.sential part is a hollow lirass 
 or glass cylinder, iu which an nir-tight piston is made 
 
 rendered less than any a.ssignablc quantity; and prac- 
 tically the process is limited by the elastic force of 
 the remaininjr air being no longer sufficient to open 
 the valves. The degree of rarefaction is indicated 
 by a 'jdiKjf on the iirinciple of the barometer. By 
 means of the partial vacuum formed by the air-pump 
 a great many interesting experiments can be per- 
 forineil, illustrating the etfect.s of atmospheric pres- 
 sure and other mechanical properties of ga.ses. — The 
 air-pump was invented by Otto Guericke, in 1654; 
 and though many improvements an<l varieties of 
 structin-e have been since devised, the piinciple of all 
 is the same. Two barrels are generally used, so as 
 to double the effect of one stroke. In some air- 
 pumps, stop-cocks turned by the hand take the i^lace 
 of valves, and in others the entrance of the connect- 
 ing tube into the cylinder is .so contrived that the 
 valve through the piston is not re((uired. The air- 
 pump is used with much frequency in the Laboratory 
 and Arsenal. That used in connectiou with the den- 
 simeter is of the ordinary construction. The jirecau- 
 tions to be observed in using the i)ump are: 1. Al- 
 ways keep the piston-rod and pis^Ion well oileii. 2. 
 Keep the cocks, and the coimections of the tube, air- 
 tight. 3. Screw down the vacuum-gauge case se- 
 curely Iiefore commencing to e.vhaust. The 
 vacuiun-gauge will show whether air is ad- 
 mitted, and the leak may be located by 
 the hissing sound made by the air rushing 
 in. 
 
 AIR-RESISTANCE.— This suh.icct, with ref- 
 erence to [irojectiles, is of the highest imjiort- 
 ance in the science of Ballistics. The resistance 
 increases in a high ratio '.vith the velocity. 
 AVithout this resistance a musket-ball would, 
 at an angle of 25 , be thrown seventeen times 
 further than with it. Hutton's experiments 
 led him to believe that the resistance of the 
 air increased a little more rajiidly than the 
 square of the velocity. The French experi- 
 ments have led to an expression invohing the 
 square and the cube of the velocity. It is of 
 the following form for spherical projectiles: 
 
 p = 0.0005213 !r Re' 
 
 Kn^J 
 
 534-5' 
 
 in which 
 
 Air-Piimp. 
 to move up and down by a rod. From the bottom 
 of the cylinder a connecting tube leads to the space 
 ■which is to be exhausted, which is usually I'ormed 
 by placing a bell-glass, called the receiver, with edges 
 groimd smooth and smeared with lard, on a flat, 
 smooth plate or tal)le. When the piston is at the bot- 
 tom of the barrel, and is then drawn up, it lifts out 
 the air from the liarrel, and a porlion of the air un- 
 der the receiver, by its own expansive force, pa.sses 
 through the connecting tube and occupies the space 
 jbelow the piston, which woidd otherwise be a vac- 
 uum. The air in the receiver and barrel is thus mre- 
 fled. The piston is now forced down, and the effect 
 of this is to close a valve placed at the mouth of the 
 connecting tulx- and opening inwards into the barrel. 
 The air in the barrel is thus cut off from returning 
 into the receiver, and, as it becomes condensed, forces 
 up a valve in the piston, which opens outwards, and 
 thus escapes into the atmosphere. When the piston 
 reaches the bottom and begins to a.scend again, this 
 valve closes; and the same process is repeated as at 
 the lii-st a.scent. Each stroke thus diminishes the 
 quantity of air in the receiver; but from the nature 
 of the process it is evident that the exhaustion can 
 never be complete. Even theoretically there must 
 always be a portion left, though that portion may be 
 
 p represents the resistance of the 
 air in pounds weight; n, the ratio of the 
 circumference to the diameter; R, the dia- 
 meter of the projectiles in feet; r, the velocity 
 in feet per second; and 6, the density of 
 the air at the lime of observation. For ordinary- 
 purposes . may be taken as unity. For elonga- 
 ted projectiles the coefficient 0.000.5213 = A is 
 replaced by 0.0003475; but in some instances the 
 former coefficient has been found to be the n^ire 
 correct even for elongated projectiles. The resistance 
 of the air gives rise to a ballistic coefficient C, pecu- 
 liar to each projectile. This is calculated from the 
 formuliB 
 
 r-lJ^ _2IU) 
 2-/ AtR5 " 3 gX' 
 
 in which g. A, ;r, R arc the same as before; P, 
 weight of projectile in poimds; D, the density of the 
 jirojectile; and A, its apjiropriate value, according as 
 the projectile is spherical or elongated. The coelli- 
 cient C is one of the data required in finding the 
 multipliers B (a point), D, etc., used in the formuhe 
 for the trajectory in the air. Colonel ilajefsky, of 
 the Russian artillery, has proposed a formula involv- 
 ing the sfjuarc and the fourth power <if the velocity, 
 w hich is said to give residts even c'oser to practice 
 than the French formula- above detailed. The fol- 
 lowing table, calculated by the formula', will give an 
 idea of the amount of the resistance of the air:
 
 AIB-SHAFT. 
 
 32 
 
 ALBICSNBES, 
 
 
 BniBTANCB IK LSa. ATOIBOUPOI8 
 
 Velocltr of ProjoctUee. 
 
 !M-|Hlr. 
 Shot. 
 
 l«-pdr. Musket ' 10-inch 
 Shot. Bullet. C.Sliell. 
 
 1600 fe«t 
 
 4n 
 
 S43 
 
 ant 
 
 150 
 88 
 4S 
 18 
 
 803 
 
 7 
 
 
 1400 •• 
 
 31C 
 147 
 95 
 S6 
 S8 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.3 
 
 
 
 
 1000 " 
 
 800 •■ 
 
 eoo " 
 
 400 " 
 
 462 
 
 fm 
 
 189 
 56 
 
 On examinintr the aVtove, it nppoars that the re.sist- 
 ance deiTciusfS very rapidly willi the velocity. lu 
 effect, at a velix-ityOf HlKl feet ilie resiBtanee is less 
 than one tiflh of "that corresponding to the double 
 veU)cily of KiOO feel. • Comparatively to the a4-pdr. 
 nnindshot, the resistance to the li-jMlr., one half its 
 weiitht. is onlv ahout two thirds of the former; that 
 to tile invisket-bullet, weijrhini; jj^ of the siime round 
 shot, is 1ml the liSih part. The Ill-inch common shell, 
 weifrhinj; nearly four times as much, meets with a 
 resistance « hicli is only three limes that of the 34-pdr. , 
 despile the iufeiiorily" of its density. At a velocity 
 of ItilKJ feet per secoiid, the resistance opposed to the 
 2-J-lwlr. shot is 479 Ihs. , or twenty limes ils own weight ; 
 at a much smaller velocity of fiilO feet per second, the 
 rcsislan<-e to projectiles is slill in ))roportion to their 
 weight; thus, nearly double for thei4-pdr., more than 
 double for the 10-pdr. , nearly len times for the musket- 
 bullet, anil nearlv half as great again for the 10-inch 
 shell. 
 
 AIR-SHAFT. — A shaft in a mine, usually vertical 
 or nearly so. by which the mine is ventilated. 
 
 AITCH PIECE. — In mining, the part of a plunger- 
 lift in which the clacks are fixed. 
 
 AKETON. — A quilted leathern jacket worn under 
 the armor of knights in the thirteenlh and fourteenth 
 centuries: also written Hacqueton. See Gambesnn. 
 
 AKINDSCHI.— A sort. of Turkish cavalry, employed 
 during the war between the Turks and the Gerinan 
 EiniK'rors. 
 
 ALA. — A word signifying the wing of nn army; 
 also sometimes used to designate a brigade of cavalry 
 occupying a position, in battle, on eitlier wing. 
 
 ALACAYS. — A name given by the ancients to a kind 
 of soldiery, and afterwards to servants following an 
 army. 
 
 aLaoE. — A mounted guard of the Byzantine Em- 
 perf)rs, doing duty in the P;ilace of Constanfinople, 
 and defending, in case of danger, the person of the 
 EmiK-ror. 
 
 ALAIBEG.— A Turkish commander of regiments of 
 levied Iroops. 
 
 ALANDA. — The name of a li'gion formed by Julius 
 Ca-sar from the Ixst warriors of the Gauls. 
 
 ALABES. — The name given by the Homans to troops 
 which were placid on the wings of an army. These 
 troops were generally funiisli(<l by the Allies. 
 
 AJ.ARH. — In miliiary malkrs, the word alarm has 
 a more delined meaning than mere terror or fright. 
 An ;ilanii, among soldiers in an army, is not .so much 
 a daiigiT as a warning agtiinst danger. An alarm, 
 signiliid by llie tiring of a gun or ihe beating of a 
 dnim, difinics to an army or camp llml the enemy is 
 susp^'ckd of iiiliniling a sudden surprisi', or that Ihe 
 surprise has actually been in;idc. There is an dUinii- 
 po»l In cam]) or g.irrison arrangements, to which the 
 irofips are directed to hsisten on any sudden alarm 
 being given. 
 
 ALARM GUN. — A irun prepan'd to give an alarm. 
 Fonuirly, in Ibe Briii^h wrviee, Ihrce guns were 
 placed in front of a c.imp, one hunilrcd )\i<es from 
 the arlillery-|M)sls, ready In lie fired, as an .'dann lo 
 the Irrwip-i, in ease of a sudden allark by Ibe enemy. 
 
 ALARM POST.— A jilace designated on the arrival 
 of a force JMio a new (juarler, camp, or bivouac, where 
 the men are lo repair in case of any sudden aliirni by 
 day or nighl. The parade is genendly looked u|M)n 
 as the alarm-ixisi; olHccrs and men .siiould proceed 
 thcrcready anued,on the alarm l)eing sounded, should 
 
 no other place be appointctl. When an army is in 
 the Held, there are two alarm-signals: 1. For general 
 coneenlration, on which everyb(Mly acts according lo 
 inslruclions; 2. Partial, when regiments reasseiidile 
 at llieir own rendezvous. The second alanii-signal 
 shouUl be frequently practised, for it is ven,- impor- 
 tjuil to know how loiig it takes to get the men together 
 at any hour. It is ordered in the Queen's Regulations 
 thai ;dlhough a regiment or a division may remain for 
 oidy a single niglu in a quarter, yit an alanu-ijost, or 
 place of a.ssembly, is invariably lo l)e established in 
 each regiment, and the Inxips are to Ix? made ac- 
 qnainled wilh ils ixf-ition, and otlicei's commanding 
 regimenls with that of the brigade to which they be- 
 long. 
 
 ALAY. — A Turkish ceremony on the assembling of 
 the forces at the breaking out of a war; essentially n 
 public display of the sacred standard of Mohammed, 
 which may l)c looked upon only by Moslems and 
 touched oiily by Emirs. Once when thcslandard had 
 been shown" Ihe rule was forgotten, but when remem- 
 bered all the Christians who had innocently looked 
 at the banner were slaughtered. 
 
 ALEESIA. — In antiquity, a kind of shield; other- 
 wise niori' frequcnlly called diTniiuina. 
 
 ALBIGENSES.— A name apjilied loosely to the " her- 
 etics, " lielonging to various .'iects, that abounded in the 
 sotilh of France about the beginning of the thirteenth 
 cenlury. The chief sect was the Calhari; but they 
 all agix'cd in renouncing the authority of the Poi)es 
 and the discipline of the Koman Church. The name 
 arose from the circiunstance that the district of Albi- 
 geois in Langucdoc — now in the Department of Tarn, 
 of which Albi is the capital — was the first point against 
 which the crusade of Poiv Innocent III., 1209, was 
 directed. The iinmediale iirctence of ihe crusade was 
 the murder of Ihe papal legate and inquisitor, Peter 
 of Ca.stelnau, who had been commissioned to extir- 
 pate heresy in the dominions of Count Kaymond VI. 
 of Toulouse; but its real object was to rlcprive the 
 Count of his lands, as he had become an object of 
 hatred from his toleration of the heretics. It was in 
 vain lliat he had submitted to the most humiliating 
 penance and flagellation from Ihe hands of the legate 
 Milo, and had purchased Ihe pap.il absolution by great 
 sjicritices. The legates Arnold (Abtot of Citeaux) 
 and Milo, who directed the expedition, took bj- storm 
 Beziei-s, the capital of H:iymond's nephew, Roger, and 
 massacred 20,000 — some .s;iy 40,000 — of the inhabi- 
 tants, Catholics as well as herclics. " Kill them nil," 
 said Arnold; "God will know his own!" Simon, 
 Count of Monlforl, who conducted the war under Ihe 
 legates, jtroceeiled in the sinie relenlless way ^\ith other 
 places in the territories of I{;iyniond and his Allies. 
 
 i Of the.se, Roger of Beziei-s died in prison, and Peter 
 1. of Aragon fell in battle. The coutiuered lands 
 were given as a reward to Simon of .Monlforl, who 
 never came into quiet poss(>ssior, of the gift. At the 
 siege of Toulouse, lils. lie was killed by a stone, and 
 Counts l{jiymond VI. and VII. disputed the posses- 
 sion of their territories with his son. But the papal 
 indulgences drew fresh crusiiders from every province 
 of France to continue the war. Raymond VII. con- 
 tinued 10 struggle bravely against the legates and 
 Louis VIII. of France, l<i whom Monlforl had ceded 
 bis jiretensions, and wlio fell in Ihe war in 1220. Af- 
 ter hundreds of lhous:inds h:id perished on both .sides, 
 a jieace was concludid. in 1229, at which Raymond 
 
 I purchased relief from Ihe ban of the Church by im- 
 mense sums of nionev, gave uji Narbonne and several 
 lordships to Louis Ix., and had to make his .son. 
 in-law, Ihe brother of Louis, heir of his other pos- 
 ."^es^ions. These provinces, hiiherto inde))endenl, were 
 
 i thus, for the tirsl lime, joined lo Ihe kingdom of 
 Fr;ince; and Ihe Pojjc sanctioned Ihe acquisition in 
 
 j order lo bind Louis more tirnily lo the papal chair 
 and induce him more readily to admit the inquisi- 
 tion. The herclics were banded over lo the prosely- 
 tizing zeal of Ihe Order of Dominicans and tho 
 
 I bloody tribunals of the iuquisiiiou; and both u.scd
 
 AlBrNI-BRANDLIN GUN. 
 
 33 
 
 ALSEB. 
 
 their utmost power to brini; the recusant Albigcnscs 
 to the stjike, and also, by intiicting severe puuishmetil 
 on the penitent converts, to inspire dread of incurring 
 the Churcli's displeasure. From the middle of the thir- 
 teenth century, the name of the Albigcnscs gi-aduallj- 
 disjippears. The renuianis of them took refuge in the 
 East, and settled In ISosnia. 
 
 ALBINI-BRANDLIN GUN— The system of altera- 
 tion which has been adopted in the Belgian service 
 is known as the Albini-Brandlin. It is peculiarly 
 fitted for transforming small-arms to breech-loaders, 
 and, with the exception of tlie locking and firing ar- 
 rangement.s, closely resembles what is known a.s the 
 Springfield system of tliis country. The parts are 
 shown in the drawing. The breech-block, V, is 
 hinged at its forward end, and in opening swings up- 
 ward and forw;ird. The recoil is taken on the rear 
 portion of the receiver by the vertical part, x t. At 
 the centre of this i>art is the hole, d b, through which 
 pa-sses the locking-bolt, .t p s. This locking-bolt is 
 jointed to the hanuner, and pushed forward by it 
 when the lock is si^rimg so as to penetrate the recess, 
 /, of the brceeh-blnck smd hold it securely in yihicQ at 
 the moment of tiring. At the Siime time that the 
 
 Albini-Brandlin Gun. 
 
 locking-bolt enters the recess it strikes against the 
 head of the firing-pin, z s, the point of which im- 
 pinges ag-ainst and explodes the primer of the car- 
 tridge. As the firing-bolt does not lock the breech- 
 block when the hammer is at half or full cock, the 
 spring catch-pin, k [/, is provided, which penetrates 
 the recess, t, and prevents the block from getting loose 
 under ordinary disturbing causc.s. The firing-pin, 
 e s, is i>ro\ided with a spiral spring to push it back 
 and keep its point below the face of the block at all 
 times except when pressed by the loeking-lx)lt; this 
 spring is kept in place by the screw-nut, » s. ? s. The 
 forward guard-screw, a b s, penetrates into the rear 
 portion of the receiver, thereby securing the barrel to 
 the stock. The extr:>ctor is formed of two lever- 
 disks, e, pivoted to the hinge-pin and outside of the 
 ears of the hinge. Each disk is provided with a hook- 
 point, g, which passes through a cut in the receiver 
 and barrel and takes hold on opposite sides of the 
 head of the cartridge beneath the rim. When the 
 breech-block is thrown forward to open the breech, 
 its upper and forward edge strikes against the short 
 arm of the extractor-disks and pushes them down- 
 ward; at the same time the opposite or long arm is 
 thrown to the rear, carrying with it the cartridge- 
 -shell. To throw the shell clear of the receiver the for- 
 ward motion of the breech-block should be verv quick 
 toward its close. This extractor is very efticient, in- 
 asmuch as it gets a double hold on the rim of the ciir- 
 triflge-shell. See Stiiall-(iriM. 
 
 ALCAIDE— ALCAYDE.— A Moorish title, applied by- 
 Spanish and Portuguese writ ers to a military officer hav- 
 ing charge of a fortress, prison, or town. It is to be dis- 
 tinguished from Alcalde, which indicates a civil oiBccr. 
 
 ALCANTARA.- The Order of Alcantara, a relig- 
 ious order of .Spanish knighthood, was founded (1156) 
 as a military fraternity for the 
 defense of Esti-emaduni against 
 the Moors. In 1197 Pope Ce- 
 le.stine III. raised it to the rank 
 of a religious order of knight- 
 hood ; bestowed great privi- 
 leges on it. and charged it with 
 the defense of the Christian 
 fai'th, and the maintenance of 
 eternal war with the infidel. 
 Alphonso IX., having takea 
 the town of Alcantara, ceded 
 it in 1218 to the Order of Cala- 
 trava ; but the knights of this 
 order, imablc to hold it along 
 with their other great posses- 
 sions, yielded it to the knights 
 of St. Julian, who transferred 
 it to their seat, and henceforth 
 were known by its name. At Or'Jer of Alcantara, 
 length the grand-mastership of the order wa.s, by 
 Pope Alexander VI., united to the Spanish crown in 
 1495. The order is still richly 
 endowed. The knights, who 
 follow the rule of St. Benedict, 
 take now only the vows of obe- 
 dience and " poverty, having, 
 since 1540, been absolved from 
 that of celibacy. A special 
 vow binds them to defend the 
 immaculate conception of the 
 Vugin. At their nomination 
 they must prove four genera- 
 tions of nobility. For a time 
 the knights of" Alcantara ac- 
 knowledged the s\iperiority of 
 the knights of Calatrava, but 
 they were latterly absolved from 
 it. Both the costume, how- 
 ever, and the cross are still 
 the s;ime, with the exception 
 of the color, which is green. 
 The crest of the order is a pear- 
 tree. 
 ALCOHOL. — A term of Arabic origin, implying the 
 pure sjiirit obtained by distillation from all liquids 
 which have .suffered the vinous fennentatiou. Alco- 
 hol is transparent, colorless, and infiammuble. It 
 iniites easily with resins, camiihor, antimony, and 
 volatile oils. It is known as " spirits of wine." Its 
 specific gravity on becoming absolute alcohol is from 
 .796 to .800, and it lx)ils at 176°. It is used in the 
 preiiaration of laboratory stores, such as fulminate of 
 mercury, tpiick-inatch, shell-lac to form varnish for 
 I)erciis.sion-caps, etc. 
 
 ALDEB. — A genus of plants of the natural order 
 liHulaceir. The genus consists entirel)' of trees and 
 shrubs, natives of cold and temperate climates; the 
 flowers in terminal, imbricated catkins, which appear 
 before the leaves; the male and female flowers in 
 scpanitc catkins on the same jilant; the male or bar- 
 ren catkins loose, cylindrical, pendulous, having the 
 scales 3-lobed, and each with three flowers whose 
 perianth is single and 4-partite; the fertile catkins 
 oval, compact, having the scales .sub-trifid, and each 
 with two flowers de.stitute of perianth; styles, two; 
 fruit, a compressed nut without wings. The com- 
 mon alder is a native of Britain and of the northern 
 parts of Asia and America. It has rounilish, wedge- 
 shai>ed obtuse leaves, lobed at the margin and ser- 
 rated. The bark, except in very young trees, is 
 nearly black. It succeeds best in moist soils, and 
 helps to secure swampv river-banks against the effects 
 of floods. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet. Its 
 leaves are somcwliat glutinous. The wood is of an 
 orange-j'ellow color, not verj- good for fuel, but af- 
 fording one of the best kinds of charcoal for the 
 manufacture of gunpowder, upon which account it
 
 ALDERSHOTT CAMP. 
 
 34 
 
 ALGEBRA. 
 
 is often grown us coiipici'-wood. Great numbers of 
 small :il(ler-trees are usc'd in Sct)tland for makiiii; 
 staves fur Kirnls. The wikkI is also eniployeil liy 
 turners and joiuei-s; but it is partieularlv valuable on 
 iiccouut of its pro|HTly of reniainin;; for a long time ' 
 imder water williout deeay, and is tlierefore used for 
 tlie piles of bridges, for pumps, sluices, pilKS, cogs 
 of mill-wheels, and similar purposes. i 
 
 ALDEKSHOTT CAMP.— When England imd France 
 deelanii war against Uu.ssia in 18.j4, in relation to 
 Turkish iifltnirs, the liril isli army was knowu to 1 le in an 
 unsiUisfactory slate; thirty-nine years of peace had al- 
 lowed manv miportant elements in military organiza- 
 tion to fall into a state of iuellieiency. Among others, 
 the power of acting well togi'ther in brig;uK>s and di- 
 \isions had scjircely been taught to the .soldiers, who 
 liad been familiar with little more than thetliseipline 
 and tactile of Italtalions and companies. To remedy 
 in part these def(<is was the object held in view in 
 establishing the Camp at Aldcrshott. It was to be a 
 permanent camp, with barracks and huts, instead of 
 mere canvas tents; and was to Ix- pro\'ided with all 
 Uie appliances for a military school, valuable to otli- ' 
 cers as well as to privates. A dre;iry waste, on the 
 confines of Surrey, Hants, and Berks, called Alder- j 
 shott heath, was pur(li;ise<l bv the government as the 
 locality for the new camp. 1"he area was 7tK)3 acres, ; 
 and the purchase'-piice about £130,000. The spot 
 was deemed suitable as being distant from any thick- \ 
 \y inhabited district; as being within easy reach of 
 three or four stations on the Southwestern and South- 
 eastern nulways; and as being conveniently placeil 
 for the quick transmission of troops to any part of 
 the southern coast. The camp was ready for the re- 
 ception of troops in lyii.'i. At first, no brick stnic- 
 tures were attempted. The soldiers were accommo- 
 dated in wooden huts, each furnishing living and 
 sleeping room for about twenty-five men. When the 
 camp was inaugiu-ated, in April of the year last 
 named, by a review at which the Qiu-en was present, 
 there were 18,000 troops, regulars and militia, tempo- 
 rarily stationed there. The huts for each regiment 
 were groupcfl ajiart, for the better maintenance of 
 regimental discipline. Each hut had a range of iron 
 bedsteads on either side, capable of l)eing doubled up; 
 and a long table through the middle, in a line with 
 two doors at the ends of the huts. The officers' huts, 
 though of coiusc superior in construction and conve- 
 nience, were as simple as they could well be. The 
 cooking was i)erformed in hvit.s especially .set apart ! 
 for that purpose, pro\ided with eflicient cooking ap- J 
 paratus. The wooden huts have gradually been su- 
 perseded by brick barracks, at a co.st of more than a 
 quarter of a million sterling. The Ba.singstoke Canal, 
 rvmning directly across the heath, has occasioned a 
 division into Xorth Camp and South Camp; but each 
 of these is susceptible of a good deal of extension. 
 Reviews and sliam fights are frequently I'.eld, at 
 tome of which the Q"'''"D ^^^ In-en present, and 
 there are various important ojierations carried on 
 daily, and knowni to very few besides those imme- 
 <iiately concerned. There are many square miles of 
 plain, heath, shrub, morass, valley, and hill surround- I 
 inir tlie camp, on which soldiers, and csiiecially the I 
 militia regiments, are exercised in the various evolu- 
 tions and strategic movements eonnccteil with the 
 battle-ficjd and siege-works. It is no child's play; the 
 men are often severely worked, and giiin a foreta.ste 
 of some of the fatigues of military life. On other 
 days they are exercised in various (piiet duties of ' 
 tents and huts, barracks and kitchens, intended to 
 teach them many of the useful knacks in which 
 French soldiers are acknowledged to be more skilled 
 than the English. Different regiments, regulars as 
 well as militia, artillery as well as cavalry and infan 
 try, take it in turn to experience camp-life at Alder- ■ 
 shot. There are usually about from lO.tKtO to 1.5,000 ' 
 troops at the camp, comprising infantry, cavalry, ar- 
 tillery, and militia. The Authorities some years ago I 
 purchased or lenised a jwrlion of forest-laud" between I 
 
 Aldereliott and 'Winchester; camping amingementa 
 of a temporary kind are made, and the troojis are 
 oei-.isionally exenised w ith a tough march of a dozen 
 miles. A thriving town has spiiing up near the camp. 
 An unfortunate circumstance is that the barracks have 
 bivn l)uilt at the very edge of the ground IK-Ionging 
 to the government; lus a consequence, private six'cu- 
 lators built bi'Cr-housesand hauntsof dissipation close 
 to the barracks, greatly to the demoralization of the 
 .soldiers; and it is not easy to buy u]) lhe.se ix-ople, 
 t)wing to the rise in value of the land. Some al- 
 leviation has arisen from the operation of the Con- 
 tagious Diseases Acts of 18t)G and 1809. 
 
 ALDIONAIEE. — A sort of equerry, who in the 
 army \vas kejjt at the expense of his master. Under 
 Charlemagne, the Aldionairei were of an inferior 
 rank. 
 
 ALEM.— The imperial standard of the Turkish 
 Empire. 
 
 ALEMDAB. — An official who carries the green ban- 
 ner of Mohammed when the Sultan assists in cere- 
 monies of .solemnity. 
 
 ALERT. — In militate' phraseology an expression 
 made use of to signify that an outpost has been 
 threalciicd or attacked. Thus, "We have had an 
 alert, " is a military phrase. A bugle-sound is also 
 so namid, which is given by wav of warning to put 
 soldiers on their guard, and to keep them vigilant. 
 This warning is also sounded by an outpost which 
 may Ix' attacked in the night, to give notice to the 
 one that is destined to support it. The word is frc 
 quenti y used by old writers to express a sudden alaiiu 
 caused by a merely harassing attack of the enemy. 
 
 ALEUROMETEE.— An instrument invented about 
 1849, by JI. Boland, a Parisian baker, for determin- 
 ing the quality of the gluten in different specimens of 
 wiieaten fiour, and their consequent adaptation for 
 bread-making. A tube of about six inches in length 
 is divided into two parts, of which the smaller one, 
 about two inches in length and holding a given 
 amount of gluten, is screwed on to the longer tube, 
 which is fitted with a piston having a graduated stem. 
 The apparatus is then exposed to a moderate degree 
 of heat, when the gluten expands, forcing up the 
 l)iston, the amount of expansion being indicated by 
 the distance the stem jirofrudes from the tube. It 
 was found that gluten obtained from flour of good 
 quality would expand to four or five times its original 
 bulk, and had the smell of wann bread, while that 
 of bad flour became viscid, with a tendency to adhere 
 to the tube, and in some instances emitting an un- 
 pleasiint odor. This instrument is indispensjible to 
 purchasing-officers of the Subsistence Department. 
 
 ALFERE — ALFEREZ. — Standard-bearer ; ensign ; 
 comet. The old English term for ensign; if was in 
 use in England till the civil wars of Charles I. 
 
 ALGEBRA. — A branch of pure mathematics much 
 used in the solution of problems of gunnery. The 
 name is derivwl from the Arabs, who call the science 
 nl-gehr iral mokabaUi — i.e., supplementing and equal- 
 izing — in reference to the transposition and reduction 
 of the terms of an equation. Among the Italians in 
 early times it was called arte maggiore, as having to 
 do with the higher kinds of calculation, and still 
 offener riyiila cic la com, because the unknown quan- 
 tity was denominated com, the " thing; " hence the 
 name of eossike art, given to it by early English 
 writers. The term algebraical is generally used some- 
 what vaguely, to denote any cxpre.s,sion or calcvdation 
 in which signs are used to "denote the operations, and 
 letters or other synilx)ls are put instead of numlx'rs. 
 But it is p<Thaps Ix'tter to restrict the name algebra to 
 the doctrine of equations. Literal arithmetic, then, 
 or multiplying, dividing, etc., with letters instead of 
 Arabic ci|ihers, is pro]X'rly only a preparation for 
 algebra; while analysis, in the widest sense, would 
 embrace algebra as" its first part. Algebra it.self is 
 divided into two chief brinclies. The first treats of 
 e(iualions involving unknown quantities ha\ii>g a 
 determinate value; in the other, called the diophan-
 
 ALGER BBEECH-LOASEB. 
 
 35 
 
 AIIEN. 
 
 tine or indtterminate analysis, the unknown quanti- 
 ties hiive no exactly lixed values, but depend in some 
 desrrce u|ion assumption. 
 
 ALGEB BREECH-LOADEE.— A substitute for the 
 Armstrong vent-piece, which must be lifted out of its 
 seat. It consists of a cross-plug forming a continua- 
 tion of the bore when the handle is vertical, and 
 closes the bore, being set up firmly by the breech- 
 screw, when the handle is horizontal. A suitable 
 g-as<-heck might be placed through the hollow screw, 
 m a recess in the cross-plug, by revol\-ing the latter 
 throUL'li half a circle. 
 
 AIGHISI-DI-CAEPI SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 — In this system the curtain forms a tenaille; the 
 main ditch encloses a flat space, and the bastions are 
 small, having orillons and ca.semated flanks, ydth a 
 cavalier iusiere the gorge. See Forlijicatioit. 
 
 ALHAMERA. — The name given to the fortress 
 which forms a sort of acropolts or citadel to the city 
 of Granada, and in which stood the palace of the 
 ancient Moorish Kings of Granada. The name is a 
 corruption of the Arabic Kaf-'at al hamra, " the red 
 castle." It is surrounded by a strong wall, more than 
 
 Entrance to the Court of the Lions— Alhambra. 
 
 a mile in circuit, and studded with towers. The 
 towers on the north wall, which is defended by na- 
 ture, were used as residences connected with the 
 palace. One of them contains the famous UaU of tlw 
 Ambassadors. The remains of the Moorish Palace 
 are called by the Spaniards the C'asa Real. It was 
 begun by Ilinu-1-ahmar, and continued bj' his suc- 
 cessors, 12-48-1348. The portions still standing are 
 ranged round two oblong courts, one called the Court 
 of the Fish-p<iii(}, the other the Court of tht Lions. 
 They consist of porticos, pillared halls, cool cham- 
 bers, small gardens, fountains, mqpaic pavemejits, etc. 
 The lightness and elegance of the columns and arches, 
 and the richness of the ornamentation, are unsur- 
 passed. The coloring is but little altered by time. 
 The most characteristic parts of the Casa Real have 
 been reproduced in the "Alhambra Court" of the 
 crj'stal palace at Sydenham. A great part of the 
 ancient palace was removed to make way for the 
 palace l)egim by Charles V., but never finished. It 
 is long since any part of the Moori.sh Palace was in- 
 habited; but it is kept in a state of presenation as a 
 work of art, and as a memorial of the tragic legend 
 of the Al)encerra2es. 
 
 ALI BEY.— A Colonel of Turkish Cavalry; also 
 the rank of a District Commander. 
 
 ALIBI. — A defence resorted to in criminal prose- 
 cutions, when the party accused, in order to prove 
 that he could not have committed the crime with 
 which he is charged, tenders e\'idence to the effect that 
 he was in a different place at the time the offence was 
 committed. When true, there can be no better proof 
 
 of iimocence: but as offering the readiest and most 
 ob\ious op|X)rtunity for false e\idence, it is always 
 regarded with suspicion. In the case of crimes the 
 place of commitling which is immaterial — as, for ex- 
 ample, the act of fabticating the plates, or of throwing 
 off the spurious notes, in a case of forgery — a proof 
 of aUhi is of no avail. 
 
 ALIDADE. — The movable arm of a graduated in- 
 strument carrying sights or a telescope, by which an 
 angle is measured from a ba.«e-line observed through 
 the stationary or level line of sights. It is u.sed in 
 plane tables, theodolites, astrolabes, demi-circles, and 
 numerous other angulometers. Four varieties of the 
 Alidade are in common use. The simplest Alidade 
 consists of a brass rule or .straight-edge, twenty inches 
 long and two to three inches wide, at the ends of 
 which are screwed sight-vanes, like those of the ordi- 
 nary compass; the edge of the ride being chamfered 
 and in line with the slots of the vanes. To another 
 form of simple Alidade is fitted the telescopic sight, 
 having a level, clamp and tangent, and vertical circle 
 reading to five minutes, attached to the telescope, 
 which is also supplied with micrometer wires. The 
 telescope is placed in line with the straight-edge as 
 before. Another style of Alidade is shown in the 
 article "Plane Table," the brass rule being now two 
 inches wide, except where it is expanded one third 
 from the end to i^ceive the base of the column. 
 The column supports the telescope with its attach- 
 ments, the vertical circle being divided on silver and 
 reading to single minutes. The telesco|x; is nine 
 inches long, of a power of 20 diameters, provided 
 with stadia, and adjusted and tised like that of the 
 Transit; it is also in line with the chamfered edge of 
 the rule. In another form of x^lidade, the telescope 
 is precisely the same as that used on the best Tran- 
 sits, being also supplied w ith level, clamp and tan- 
 gent, vertical circle on silver reading to single minutes, 
 and micrometer wires for measuring distances. It is 
 placed on the brass rule precisely like that of the one 
 last described, and is adjusted and used in the same 
 manner. In using tlie plane tabic the tripod is set up 
 firmly, and the table covered with |)aper, |)laeed upon 
 the flange of the socket, and secured by the screws, 
 ee; the nut, rf, being now loosened, the table is moved 
 by the pressure of the hand on different part.s of the 
 board, until the levels on the plate will come into the 
 centre on any part of the table. The nut, (/, is then 
 screwed u]) and the table made firm; any i)lace on 
 the paper can then be assumed as the starting-point, its 
 position over a given point on the ground being de- 
 termined by the pliunbing-bar and plimimet. From 
 the given point on the paper, sights can then be taken 
 to different corners of the field, and lines drawn on 
 i the paper along the edge of the Alidade, .and thus a 
 miniature of the tract be traced on the paper, the 
 I bearing of any line being ascertained bj' applying 
 I the .side of the compass-plate to the edge of the Ali- 
 j dade placed on that line. The table cim be moved 
 horizontally either by hand on releasing the screws, 
 \ee, or by a tangent-screw. See Plane Table and T?ie- 
 odolitf. 
 
 ! ALIEN. — The citizen of one State, when resident 
 in jmother, unless naturalized, is an alien. The con- 
 dition of an alien does not nece.ssjirily result from 
 foreign birth. The son of a natiu~al-born or natu- 
 ralized Englishman is not an alien, w herever he may 
 be born. This privilege even extends to the second 
 generation on the father's side; and thus a man w hose 
 paternal grandfather was an Englishman is an Eng- 
 lishman himself, unless either his father or grand- 
 father be liable to the penalties of felony, have been 
 attainted of treason, or be .serving in the army of a 
 Prince at war with England, ;it the periotl of his birth. 
 Neither is this privilege affected by the fact that the 
 mothers of such persons were foreigners. The chil- 
 dren of aliens born in England, except in the case of 
 a hostile invasion, are natural-born subjects; but the 
 children of Englishwomen by aliens are idiens, unless 
 born within the British doiiiinions. The allegiance
 
 ALIGNUENT. 
 
 36 
 
 ALLEZT7E£a 
 
 due by an iilic-n or stranger to the Prince in whose 
 donlinious be resides is usually c-jiUetl /<«•<// or Ujiijxj- 
 rary allfijitmce. It diflers from niilunil iiUc^ianee 
 chietly in this, that wluTfiis natunil alleirianc-e is per- 
 IM'lual and unalTected by chanirc of residence, local 
 allfL'iaiKc (casis when the stmnger transfers himself 
 to aiiiiiliiT kiiiL^Ioni. 
 
 ALIGNMENT.— A term used in military tactics, 
 equivalent to in linf. Thus, the alii^nmenl of a bat- 
 talion Ls effected when the men are dniwn u|) in line; 
 the alignment of u camp is a rectilinear arraiiftement 
 of the tents aca>rdinjr to some prearranircd plan. 
 The instructor tirst teaches the recruits to align them- 
 selves man t)y man, the better to comprehend the 
 priucipli-s of aliinnnenl: to this end, he advances the 
 two men on the right three or more yards, and hav- 
 ing ali.snwl them^ commands: (1) By file, (2) Right 
 (or leji), (3) Dress, (4) Front. At the command, 
 dress, the recruits move up successively, in (|iiick 
 time, shorteinng the last step so as to find themselves 
 about six inches behind the alignment; each recruit 
 then moves on the line, which must never be psissed, 
 taking steps of two or three inches, casting his eyes 
 to the right so as to set- the coat-buttons of the second 
 man from him, keejiing his shoulders square to the 
 front, and touching with his elbow that of the man 
 on the right without opening his arms. At the com- 
 mand, front, given when the rank is well aligned, 
 tlie recruits cast their eyes to the front and remain 
 firm. The recruits ha\ing learned to align them- 
 selves man by man, the instructor next aligns the 
 squad by the commands, (li Right (or hft), (2) Dress, 
 (3) Front. At the command, dress, the entire rank, 
 except the men established as a basis, moves forward, 
 and dresses up to the line, as prc^^o^^sly explained. 
 The instructor verities the alignment by placing him- 
 self outside the right flank, and orders forward or 
 back such files as may be in rear or in advance of the 
 line; this done, he commands, front. Alignments to 
 the rear are executed on the same principles, the re- 
 cruits .stepping back a little beyond the line, and then 
 dressing up, by short steps of two or three inches. 
 The comands are; (1) Byjik, right (or left) hackirard, 
 (2) Drkss, (3) Front; or, (1) Right (ot left) backward, 
 (2) DuKss, 1 3) Front. 
 
 ALKALIES. — The word alkali is of Arabic origin, 
 kali tieing Iho name of the plant from the ashes of 
 which an alkaline substance was tirst procured. The 
 name now denotes a class of substances ha\ing simi- 
 lar properties. The alkalies proper are four in num- 
 ber — potash, soda, lithia, and ammonia. The tirsi 
 three arc oxides of metals; the last is a compound of 
 nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, and, being in the 
 torm ot a gas, is called the volatile alkali. Potash, 
 being largely present in the ashes of plants, is called 
 the vegetahle alkali; and soda, predominating in the 
 minend kingdom, is designated the mineral alkali. 
 The (ilkaliiie earths, as they are called — lime, magne- 
 sia, baryta, and strontia — are distinguished from the 
 former by their carbonates not being soluble in water. 
 The distingnishjug property of alkalies is that of 
 turning vegetable l)lues green, ami vegetable yellows 
 reddish brown. Blues reddened by an acid" are re- 
 stored by an alkali. The alkalies have great altinity 
 for acids, and combine with them, fonning sidts, iii 
 which the peculiar qualities of both alkali and acid 
 are generally destroyed; hence they are s:iid to neu- 
 tralize one another! In a pure state alkalies are 
 extremely caustic, and act as corrosive poisons. Com- 
 bine<l with carljonic acid, especially as hicarbonates, 
 Ihej; are used to correct acidity in"the stomach; but 
 the injudicious and continui'd use of them is attended 
 with great evil. 
 
 ALLECRET—ALLECEETE.— Light armor used by 
 both cavalry and infaiilrv in the sixteenth century, 
 especially by tlie .Swi.ss. It consisted of a bieast-pla'te 
 and gussets, often reaching to the middle of the thigh, 
 and Miinelinus helow the knees. 
 
 ALLECTI MILITE8.— A name given bv the Romans 
 to a body of men who were dmfted for military service. 
 
 ALLEGIANCE.— It is but recently that foreign gov- 
 ernments have come to recognize the right of persons 
 to chan.ire their alle.giance as well as their residence. 
 The I' tilted States afwa.vs held it to l)e a natiinil right, 
 and our legislation so recognizes it. The dillerence 
 wius strikingly manifest in the War of 1H12, when the 
 Prince Ke.seiit proclaimed that every native-l)orn 
 Briton taken prisoner while lighting for the Ameri- 
 cans should hv sh(jt for treiuson, to wluch President 
 Madison replied that if any naturali7.ed American of 
 the United States shoukl siUTer death in such man- 
 ner he would execute two British prisoners. There 
 were no executions of the sort which England had 
 threatened. Very recently the (piestion has been dis- 
 cvissed as to the "right of "a govermnent to subject to 
 military service men who were once its citizens but 
 were afterwards citizens of another country; and late 
 decisions tend to show tlial most governments are 
 abandoning the old claim, "once a citizen always a 
 citizen." For instance, Germans naturalized in the 
 United States on retuniing to Germany were formerly 
 required to enter the army; but now they pleaJl 
 American citizenship, and with success. Allegiance 
 is often transferred en masse, as on the treaty of 
 peace in 1783, when Biitish subjects who should so 
 elect became Americans; also, when Louisiana and 
 Florida were i)urchased and Texas was aimexed; no 
 inqiury was made about allegiance, but the offi- 
 cial transfer made the Creoles and the Texans as com- 
 pletely citizens owing allegiance as though bom 
 vukUt the United States flag. The law of Congress, 
 Julv, 1868, very clearly sets forth the extent and obli- 
 gations of alle.iriance. The preamble states that the 
 right of expatriation is natural and inherent in all 
 people and indispens;ible to the enjoyment of rights 
 to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that, 
 recognizing this right, our government has received 
 emigrants from all nations and given them citizenship 
 and protection; that it is necessary for the mainte- 
 nance of public pciice that the claim of foreign alle- 
 giance as to such adoiited citizens shoidd be promptly 
 and firmly disavowed; and therefore it was enacted 
 that any declaration, ojiinion, order, or decision of 
 any otticer of this government which denies, impairs, 
 restricts, or cjuestions the right of expatriation is in- 
 consistent with the fundamental principles of the gov- 
 ernment; that all naturalized citizens of the United 
 States, while in Foreign Stales, are entitled to, and 
 shall recei\e from this government, the same protec- 
 tion of person and property that is accorded to na- 
 tive-born citizens in like circumstances. This broad 
 declaration of our rights and duties was followed 
 in May, ISTO, by the tijritish Parliament in an act re- 
 vising all British laws on alienage, expatriation, and 
 naturalization — the government for the first time rec- 
 ogiuzing the right of subjects to renounce allegiance 
 t<rthe Cromi. 
 
 ALLEN BRAKE. — A contrivance for checking vio- 
 lent recoil. It consists of a wooden wedge, shod 
 with iron, attached to the bracket inunediatel.v in 
 rear of the truck by jointed bars of iron, the uppc r of 
 whidi are bolted to the bracket, while from the joint 
 another bar iiasses horizontally through the axle-tree 
 arm, forming the linch-pin. The wedge rests upon 
 the ground in rear of the truck, following it as the 
 carriage is nm up, but on recoil the truck overtakes 
 and rides upon the wedge. A rope-lanyard isattached 
 to the wedge and an iron cleat upon the side of the 
 carriage, so that, if it is wished not to use the brake, 
 the weilge can be secured so as not to come into action 
 on recoil. See Ilrake. 
 
 ALLEZOIR. — A frame of timber firmly suspended 
 in the air with strong cordage, on which is jilaced u 
 piece of ordnance with the muzzle downwards. In 
 this situation the bore is rounded and eidarged by 
 means of an instrument which has a ver*' shar]) and 
 strong edge made to traverse the Ixire bv force of ma- 
 chinery or horses, and in a horizontid direction. 
 
 ALLEZURES.— The metal taken from cannon and 
 other gims by boring.
 
 ALIIAOE. 
 
 37 
 
 ALLOT. 
 
 ALLIAGE. — A term iised by the French to denote 
 the composition of metals used for the fabrlcntion of | 
 cannon, mortars, etc. i 
 
 ALLIANCE. — In a military sense, a treaty entered 
 into by Sovireisn States for their mutual safety and ' 
 defence. In this st^use, alliances may be divided into 
 such as are offensive, where the contracting pjirties 
 oblige themselves jointly to attack some other power; 
 and into such as are defensive, whereby the contract- | 
 ing powers bind themselves to stand by and defend 
 one another in c;ise of being attacked by any other' 
 power. Alliances are various!}' distinguished accord- 
 ing to their object, the parties in them, etc. Hence 
 we read of equal, unequal, triple, quadruple, grand, 
 offensive, defensive alliances, etc. See Treaty. 
 
 ALLIGATI. — A name given by the Romans to pri- | 
 soners of war and their captors. A chain was at- 
 tached to the right wrist of the prisoner and the left I 
 WTist of the warrior who captured him. I 
 
 ALLOCHTIO. — An oration addressed by a Roman 1 
 
 themselves vdih baggage-animals and equipment in 
 the tield. The term Alloirance is also applied to the 
 amount of rations, forage, etc., scr\'ed out jx'riodically 
 to anv one man or to a bodv of men. See AUoirnuetK. 
 ALLOWANCE OF QUAKTERS.— In the United 
 States army, in allolnient of i|U:irters, ollicers have 
 choice according to rank, but the Commanding Offi- 
 cer may direct the officers to be lodged convenient to 
 their troops. An officer may select quarters occupied 
 by a junior; but, ha\'ing niade his choice, he must 
 abide by it, and cannot again at the post displace a 
 junior, unless himself displaced by a senior. The set 
 of rooms to each quarters will "ix; assigned by the 
 (.Quartermaster, under the direction of the Command- 
 ing OthciT; attics are not counted as rooms. Officers 
 caimotclioose rooms in different sets of quarters. The 
 following table shows the number of rooms, the 
 quantity of fuel, and the allowance or cooking and 
 heating stoves to be supplied for the use of officers in 
 Public Quarters and BaiTacks: 
 
 Rooms 
 
 Cords of 
 
 wood per 
 
 moDtb. 
 
 O 
 
 [=4 
 
 B< 
 
 Increased 
 
 allowance 
 
 from Sept, to 
 
 April, both 
 
 inclusive 
 
 
 
 }ror 
 quarter?. 
 
 iS a* 
 
 go be 
 
 For 
 office 
 
 The General ("allowed by law for tjuarters and fuel, $125 per month). 
 
 The Lieutenant -General or a Major-General 
 
 A Brigadier-General or Colonel 
 
 A Lieutenant-Colonel or Major 
 
 A Captain or Chaplain 
 
 A Lieutenant 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 .0 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 u 
 n 
 u 
 1 
 I 
 
 General to his soldiers to animate them to fight, to 
 appea.<e sedition, or to keep them to their dutv. 
 
 ALLODIAL.— Independent; not feudal. The Allo- 
 dii of the Romans were bodies of men employed in 
 any emergency, in a manner similar to our volunteer 
 associations. 
 
 ALLONGE.— A pass or thrust with a rapier or small 
 sword, frequently contracted into lunge; also a long 
 rein u.sed in the exercising of horses. 
 
 ALLOWANCE.— Money granted in addition to the 
 regular pay of an officer or soldier for some particular 
 purpose, or to a regiment to meet certain expenses. 
 For instance, what is tenned ColnnrVt Alloiranee is 
 granted to General Officers in the British army when 
 selected by the Commander-in-Chief to till the post of 
 "Colonel of a Regiment"; this takes place when 
 vacancies by death occur. In the Indian Stalf Corps 
 the Colonel's Allowance is granted to each officer 
 after a stated period, viz., thirtj'-eight years' serrice, 
 
 Erovided he has served twelve years in the rank of 
 lieutenant-Colonel. Lodging Alloitance is granted to 
 Officers, Xon-commissioned Officers, and men, when 
 accommodation cannot be pro\'ided for them in bar- 
 racks; it includes fuel and light allowance. The two 
 latter allowances are granted to Officers, irrespective 
 of Lodging Allowance. Agreeably to a late warrant, 
 the allowance granted to Non-commissioned Officers 
 has been fixed as follows: Class I., Is. 9(?. a day; 
 Cla.ss II., \s. a day; Class III., 6rf. a day. A Non- 
 commissioned Officer on the married roll continues to 
 receive lodging, fuel, and light allowance for the 
 1)enefit of his wife and family when he may be in 
 hospital or temporarily separated from them, on ser- 
 vice, provided no married soldiers' quarters become 
 available for their use. Horse AW/tranee is granted 
 to Officers when forage has not been issued by the 
 Commissariat. Contingent Allowance is granted for 
 any particular expenditure pennitted by the regula- 
 tions. Serrant^' Alloirance is given to certain Officers 
 who are not allowed soldier-servants. I^eld Allow- 
 ance is pas.sed to Officers to enable them to provide 
 
 ALLOWANCES.— In the British amiy^and to vari- 
 ous degrees in the armies of other countries — mifitary 
 officers, besides their rcognized pay, receive certain 
 allowances for siJccial duties or when placed under 
 exceptional circumstances. Williout detailing the 
 actual amotmt of these allowances, it may be well to 
 enumerate the principal modes in which they arise. 
 An officer commanding and paying a troop or com- 
 pany receives a contingent allowance as an indemni- 
 fication for the expense of repairing arms, swords, 
 and scabbards; for burials; and for the debts of 
 soldiers who become non-effective. A kind of general 
 average is struck for the probable amount of these 
 charges. An officer on duty in the United Kingdom, 
 in a situation entitling him to \x lodged at the public 
 expense, and whose lodging is not other^vise paid for 
 by the ptiblic, receives an allowance as "lodging- 
 money," varj-ing in amoimt according to his rank. 
 An oliicer marching with troops in the United King- 
 dom, on a route determined by competent authority, 
 if unable to mess with his regiment or detachment on 
 a particular day, receives an allowance in compensa- 
 tion. An officer sent on permanent or temporary duty 
 from one jilace to another receives a travelling allow- 
 ance of so much per mile. An officer serving on a 
 court-martial receives an allowance of so much per 
 day, besides a travelling allowance if the place be 
 distant. An officer temporarily detached on duty, 
 where he cannot join bis regimeiual mess, has an 
 allowance for me.ss-money. Besides those here 
 enumerated, there are allowances for detention at 
 ports of embarkation, etc., and others of a minor 
 kind. .See Allownnre and Miletige. 
 
 ALLOT. — A mixture of two or more metals, either 
 nalund, or produced artificially by melting them to- 
 gether. The mixture has often different properties 
 ?rom the component metals, and Iwars a distinct 
 name. Thus, bell-metal is an alloy of copper and 
 tin; tombak, of copper and zinc; bra.ss, of copper 
 with a larger proportion of zinc, etc. Alloys are 
 generally harder than the metals that compose them.
 
 ALLUMELLE. 
 
 38 
 
 ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH INSTRUMENT. 
 
 for alloying the precious 
 jxissosti the ilensily which 
 
 and this L« the motive 
 
 metals. Alloys seldom . . , 
 
 theor\- or calculation from the siiecific g-nivil v of their 
 constituciit.s would indicate. Thus, many alloys pos- 
 sess a greater density than the mean density of their 
 constituents, while others have a Ic-vs density. The 
 increase in density of the alloy indicates that the 
 metals have contracted ; in other words, that the 
 metallic molecules have approached each other more 
 closely: while the decrease in density denotes a 
 separation of the molecules to greater dLstanccs from 
 each other. 
 
 Allots Alloys 
 
 which exhibit a greater ] which possess a less den- 
 
 dcnsitv than the mean 
 
 sitv 
 
 th 
 
 m the mean 
 
 densitv 
 
 of the metals 
 
 densitv 
 
 of the metals 
 
 composing them. 
 
 compasing them. 
 
 Gold and zinc. 
 
 Gold 
 
 and silver. 
 
 " " 
 
 tin. 
 
 
 
 iron. 
 
 4< .4 
 
 bismuth, 
 antimonv. 
 
 a 
 
 
 lead, 
 copper. 
 
 If tl 
 
 cobalt. 
 
 " 
 
 
 iridium. 
 
 Silver " 
 
 zinc. 
 
 (( 
 
 
 nickel. 
 
 " " 
 
 tin. 
 
 Silver 
 
 
 copper. 
 
 4( (( 
 
 bismuth. 
 
 Iron 
 
 
 bismuth. 
 
 II II 
 
 antimonv. 
 
 " 
 
 
 antimony. 
 
 Copper " 
 
 zmc. 
 
 (I 
 
 
 lead. 
 
 II II 
 
 tin. 
 
 Tin 
 
 
 lead. 
 
 i< 
 
 palladium. 
 
 II 
 
 
 palladium. 
 
 II II 
 
 bismuth. 
 
 " 
 
 
 antimony. 
 
 Lead " 
 
 antimonv. 
 
 Nicke 
 
 " 
 
 silver. 
 
 Platinum 
 
 and molyb- 
 
 Zinc 
 
 
 antimonv. 
 
 denum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Palladium and bismuth. 
 
 
 
 
 The strength or cohesion of an alloy is generally 
 greater than that of the mean cohesion of the metal's 
 contained therein, or even of that of the most co- 
 hesive of its constituents. Thus, the breaking weight 
 of a bar of copper or tin (meaning the longitudinal 
 strain it can bear) is verj' much lower than the break- 
 ing weight of a bar composed of an alloy of tin and 
 copper. The following table represents the 
 
 Cohesion of Metals. 
 
 Bar t in. 
 square 
 breaks with 
 lbs. 
 
 Malacca tin 3,211 
 
 Bismuth 3,008 
 
 Bar 1 in. | 
 square 
 breaKswithl 
 lbs. 
 
 Barbary copper. . . .22,.570 
 Japan " ....22,.570 
 English ^lack tin.. 20,272 
 " tin-plate... 6,t5.50 
 Banca tin 3,079 
 
 Zinc 2,689 
 
 Antimony 1,060 
 
 Lead 885 
 
 ■When any two of the above metals combine together, 
 thcv generally — though not alwaj-s — yield an alloy 
 which is much stronger than we should expect; thus 
 the 
 
 Cohesion of Alloys. 
 
 Bar 1 ia. 
 
 10 parts of copper and 1 part of tin. 
 
 g II .. J II 
 
 6 " " 1 " 
 
 4 II 11 1 I. 
 
 2 II « 1 « 
 
 1 " " 1 " 
 
 4 " Engli.sh tin and 1 
 
 4 " banca " " 1 
 
 4 ' " 1 
 
 4 " English tin " 1 
 
 4 1 
 
 8<iuare 
 jrields wi 
 lbs 
 
 yields with 
 
 ..32,093 
 .36,088 
 .44,071 
 .3.^,739 
 . 1,017 
 . 72.') 
 
 lead 10,607 
 
 antimony 13,480 
 
 bismuth 16,693 
 
 zinc 10,2.'>8 
 
 antimony 11,333 
 
 The power of conducting clectricnl currents is not 
 so great in an allov as the mean conducting power of 
 its comi)onents. 'The conijKisition of the more com- 
 monly occurring and commercially important alloys 
 is as follows: Plumber's .solder, 1 tin and 2 lead; 
 soft solder, 2 tin and 1 lead; common pewter, 4 tin 
 and 1 lead; guunutal, 9 copper and 1 tin; bronze, 9 
 
 copper and 1 tin and zinc; cymbals and Chinese 
 gongs, 4 copper and 1 tin; beri-metal, 3 copper and 
 1 tin; s|)ecuhmi-metal, 2 copper and 1 tin: pot-metal 
 or cock-metal, 2 cojiper and 1 lead; gilding-metal,' 16 
 copper and 1 to IJ '•"""• Mannheim gold— pinchbeck 
 or bath-metal, 16 copper and 4 zinc; Bristol brass, for 
 soldering, 16 coi)per and 6 zinc; ordiiiiiry brass, for 
 ca.sting, 16 copper and 8 zinc; Jlunlz sheathing-metal, 
 16 copper and lOj zinc; spelter-solder for copper and 
 iron. 16 copper and 12 zinc; spelter-solder for bras.s- 
 work, 16 copper and 16 zinc; Jlosaic gold, 16 copper 
 an(l 16i zinc; hardest silver-solder, 4 silver and 1 
 copper; hard silver-solder, 3 silver and 1 copper; soft 
 silver-solder, 2 silver and 1 copper; German silver, 
 100 copper, 60 zinc, and 40 nickel; type-metal, ordi- 
 narv, 1.J lead, 4 antimony, and 1 tin, or 14 lead, .i 
 antimony, and 1 tin — small types, 4 lead and 1 anti- 
 mony — large types, 6 lead and 1 antimon_v; stereoty))c- 
 metjil, 48 lead, 6 antimony, and 1 tin; Britannia 
 metal, .W tin, 4 antimony, 4 bismuth, and 1 copper. 
 
 ALLUMELLE. — A thin and slender sword which 
 was used in the Jliddle Ages to pierce the weak 
 parts or joints of annor. 
 
 ALLY. — A term implying, in a military sense, any 
 nation united to another under a treaty either offeii- 
 sive or defensive, or both. 
 
 ALMADIE.— A kind of military canoe or small ves- 
 sel, about 2.5 feet long, made of the bark of a tree, 
 and used by the negroes of Africa. Almadie is also 
 the name of a long boat used at Calcutta, often from 
 80 to 100 feet long, and generally 6 or 7 broad; they 
 are rowed with from 10 to 30 oars. 
 
 ALMAN-RI'TETS.— A sort of light armor derived 
 from Genuany, characterized by overlapping plates 
 which were arranged to slide on rivets, by means of 
 which flexibility and e;ise of movement were pro- 
 moted. 
 
 ALTISCOPE. — An invention consisting of an ar- 
 rangement of lenses and mirrors in a vertical telescope- 
 tube, by means of which a person is able to overlook 
 objects" intervening between himself and the object 
 he desires to see. When the sections of the tube are 
 extended, the view is received upon an upjjer mirror 
 placed at an angle of 43 , and reflected thence down 
 the tube to a lower mirror, where it is seen by the ob- 
 .server. The image is magnified by lenses intervening 
 between the mirrors. The telescopic tubes are so 
 connected that each in turn acts upon the ne.xt in the 
 series, as it comes to the end of its own range, and 
 thus the desired elevation is arrived at. The means 
 of extension are a winch and cords. 
 
 This contrivance affords a means for training guns 
 to a given angle with the axis of the vessel, or on an 
 object, while the gunner remains beneath the deck. 
 There is at laclied beneath the deck, to the pintle of 
 the pivoted gun, a graduated index-plate, by which 
 its horizontal bc;iring may be read. A telescopic 
 Iu1)e, with two rectangular bends and with reflecting 
 mirrors at the angles, is .so placed as to be used from 
 beneath the deck; two of these may be so situated as 
 to form a base of sufficient length to obtain, by 
 simultaneous observation, the distance by triangula- 
 tion. The uppir iind lower limbs of the telescopic 
 tube are par.dlel; the upper one is presented towartls 
 the object, the other to the eye. The image of the 
 f)bject after bein-r twice reflected reaches the ej'e of 
 the oliserver, wliose pei-'-on is not exiiosi'd. 
 
 ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH INSTRUMENT.— Al- 
 titude, in astronomy, is the height of a heavenly body 
 above the horizon. It is measured, not by linear dis- 
 tance, but by the angle which a line drawn from the 
 eye to the heavenly body makes with the horizontal 
 line, or by the arc of a vertical circle intercepted be- 
 tween the body and the horizon. Altitudes are taken 
 in observatories by means of a telescope attached to a 
 graduated circle which is fixed vertically. The tele- 
 scope being directed towards the Ixxly to be observed, 
 the angle which it makes with the horizon is read off 
 the graduated circle. The Altitude thus observed 
 1 must receive various corrections — the chief being for
 
 ALVJS.. 
 
 39 
 
 ALTTK. 
 
 parallax and refraction — in order to get the true Al- 
 titude. At sea, the Altitude is taken by means of 
 a sextant, and then it has further to be corrected for 
 the dip of the \Tsible horizon below the true horizon. 
 The correct determination of Altitudes is of great im- 
 portance in most of the problems of astronomy and 
 navigation. 
 
 The Azimuth of a heavenly body is the angle 
 measured along the horizon between the North or 
 South point and the point where a circle, pas-sing 
 through the zenith and the body, cuts the horizon. 
 The word comes from the Arabic, and is said to be 
 
 From Oebbie & Bairie's " Masterpieces of the U. S. International Exhibition, 1876, 
 
 derived from a word signifj-ing a quarter of the 
 heavens. It is usual to measure the Azimuth we.st- 
 ward from the point most remote from the elevated 
 pole, beginning at 0° and returning to it at 360°. 
 Thus, in northern latitudes, where the north pole is 
 elevated, the Azimuth is measured from the south 
 point, so that the east point, for instance, has an 
 Azimuth of 270\ Azimuth circles are those which 
 extend from zenith to nadir, cutting the horizon at 
 right angles, or those in which all the points have the 
 same Azimutli. 
 
 An Altitude and Azimuth Instrument consists 
 essentially of a vertical circle with its telesco|ie so 
 arranged as to be capable of being turned round 
 
 horizontally to any point of the compass. It thus 
 differs irom a Transit Instrument, which is fixed in 
 the meridian. The drawing represents one of these 
 instruments, made by Fauth it Co., which was on 
 exhibition in the International Exhibition at Philadel- 
 phia. It is of superior construction, and differs from 
 other instinments of this class in many important 
 particulars. Although not a " repejiting instrument," 
 strictly speaking, and, therefore, not liable to the 
 defects inherent to repeaters, yet both the horizontal 
 and vertical circles can be shifted for position, so as 
 to bring a different part of the graduation under the 
 microscopes. The circles 
 are divided on silver into 
 five-minute spaces, reading 
 by micrometer microscopes to 
 single seconds. The standards 
 radiate out from the centre, 
 and are higli enough to let the 
 telescope swing through. The 
 pivots of the telescope axis 
 rest on agate, and are made of 
 phosphor-bronze; a delicate 
 striding level, reading to 
 seconds, over the pivots, is pro- 
 vided; illumination tjirough 
 pivots; the horizontality of the 
 microscopes for the vertical 
 circle is controlled b}- a cham- 
 bered level reading to seconds. 
 Both circles are entirely free 
 of clamps and tangent screws, 
 these being attached to a 
 collar, so as not to produce 
 any strain. — See Tluodolite 
 and Transit Instrument. 
 
 ALUM. — A whitish, astrin- 
 gent, saline substance; pro- 
 perly it is a double salt, being 
 compo.sed of sulphate of 
 potash and sulphate of alu- 
 mina, which, along with a 
 certain proportion of water, 
 crystallize together in octahe- 
 drons or in cubes. Its foim- 
 ula is KOSO3 + A1,0=3S03 + 
 24HO. Alum is soluble in 
 eighteen times its weight of 
 cold water, and in its own 
 weight of hot water. The 
 solution thus obtained has a 
 peculiar astringent taste, and 
 is strongly acid to colored test- 
 papers. When heated, the 
 crystals melt in their water of 
 crystallization ; and when the 
 water is completely driven off 
 by heat, I here is left a spongy 
 white ma.ss, called burnt or 
 anhydrous alum. Alum is 
 much u.sed as a mordant in 
 dyeing. This property it owes 
 to the alumina in it, which 
 has a .strong attachment for 
 te.xtile tissues, and also for 
 coloring matters ; the alu- 
 mina thus becomes the means of fixing the color 
 in the cloth. The manufacture of the colors or 
 paints called lakes depends on this property of 
 alumina to attach to itself certain coloring mat- 
 tere. Alum is also used in the preparation of leather 
 from skins, and, in medicine, as a powerful astringent 
 for arresting bleeding and mucous discharges. Its 
 use in the making of bread, to gi\e a wliite appear- 
 ance and more pleasing consistence to bread made 
 from inditTerent flour, is highly objectionable. The 
 pota.sh in alum can be replaced partly or altogether 
 by soda or ammonia ; the alumina by oxide of 
 chromium or sesquioxide of manganese ; or the sul- 
 phuric acid by chromic acid or peroxide of iron,
 
 ALUUIMIUH. 
 
 40 
 
 AMBULANCE. 
 
 without altering the form of the crystals. There are 
 thus soiia, anunouia, chrome, etc., alums, forming a 
 genus of siilts of which common alum is only one of 
 the s|Mcies. The more imiwrtant members of the 
 cla.ss. expressttl in symbols, are : 
 
 KO{>U, + iVl,0,3SOj + i4no, ixitash alum. 
 
 NaOSO, + A1,0,-'S0, + ->4Hl), soiia alum. 
 
 NH.OSO, + Al30j3SOi + 24110, ammonia alum. 
 
 KOSO, + Cr,0$SSOs + 24HO, chromic iwtash 
 alum. 
 
 Fe()SO,+Al,0,3SO,+a4HO, ferrous alum. 
 
 ALUMINIUM.— A white metal, somewhat resem- 
 bling silver, but possessing a bluish hue which re- 
 minds one of r.inc. It is very malleable and ductile, 
 in tenacity it approaches iron, and it takes a high 
 polish. W'hen healed in a furnace, it fuses, and can 
 then Ix' ca.st in moulds into ingots. Exix).sed to dry or 
 moist air, it is imaltenible, and does not oxidize as 
 lead and zinc do. Cold water has certainly no action 
 upon it, and in the majority of experiments hot water 
 has not sensibly affected it. 8iili)liuretled hydrogen, 
 the gas which so readily tarnishes the silver in house- 
 holds, forming a black film on the surface, does not 
 act on aliuniniura, which is foimd to preserve its 
 appearance under all ordinary circumstances as per- 
 fectly as gold does. AVhen f usid and cast into moulds, 
 it is a soft metal like pure silyer, and has a density of 
 2.5(5 ; but when hammered or rolled it becomes as 
 hard as iron, and its density increases to 2.67. It is 
 therefore a veiT light metal! Ijcing lighter than glass, 
 and only one fourth as hea%-y as silver. This prop- 
 erty was taken advantage of by Napoleon III., who 
 ordered the eagles siu-mounting the standards of the 
 French army to be made of aluminium instead of 
 silver ; and thus the same-sized eagle was reduced to 
 one fourth of its former weight. Aluminium is very 
 sonorous ; and when a rod or small bell made of it 
 is struck, it gives out a yerj- sweet, clear, ringing 
 sound. Aluminium forms with copper several 
 light; very hard, white alloj-s ; also a yellow alloy, 
 which, though much lighter than gold, is very 
 similar to it m color. By itself, aluminium is used 
 for jewelry, small statuettes, and other works of art. 
 It is also em|)1oyed for the tubes of field-glasses 
 Its bluLsh color can be whitened by hydrofluoric and 
 pho.sphoric acids, and also by a heated solution of 
 pt)tash. On the whole, considering its valuable pro- 
 perties, this metal has not received such extensive ap- 
 plication in the arts as might have been expected. 
 
 ALUMINIUM-BEONZE.— An alloy of copper and 
 aluminium, having great strength and hardnes-s. 
 Hee ('fiitit'tti'Mttala. 
 
 ALUM-LEATHER.— A leather much used in the 
 Annory, tanned by a comixjsilion of aliun and salt. 
 Three jxitinds of .sj\lt and four of alum are used to 
 one hundred and twenty middle-sized skins, which 
 are placed in a tumbling-box with a sufficient quantity 
 of water, and treated in the usual manner. Alum 
 was first used ius a tanning agent by the Saracens. 
 
 ALUBE. — An old term for the gutter or drain along 
 a battlement or i)arapel wall. 
 
 AMAZONS. — According to a very ancient tradition, 
 the Amazons were a nation of women, who sufTerecl 
 no men to remain among them, but marched to battle 
 imder the command of their Queen, and formed for 
 u long time a formidable State. They held occa- 
 sional intercourse with the men of the neighboring 
 States. If boys were born to them, they either sent 
 them to their fathers, or killed them. But they 
 brought up the girls for war, and burned off thevr 
 right breasts, that they might not be prevented from 
 bending the bow. From this custom they received 
 the name of Amazons; that is, " breaf<tles,s." Such 
 is the ordinary tale; the origin of which is perhaps to 
 Ik.' aeeounte<l for by sui>i>osing that vagui' reports, ex- 
 aggerated and ]K)eticjdly embellished, had reached 
 the Greeks of the peculiar way in wliicli the wom<-n 
 of various Caucasian districts liveil, performing inili- 
 tjirv iluties which elsi-where devolved on husbands, 
 and also of the ntmicroiLS examples of female hero- 
 
 ism which, travellers inform us, still distinguish the * 
 women of that ri'gion. In later times, however, the 
 word Amazon has been supixjsed to have some con- 
 nection w ith the Circa.ssian word " Mazji," signifying 
 thenuK)n, as if the myth of the Amazons had taken 
 its origin in the worship of the moon, which pre- 
 vailed on the borders of Asia. Three nations of 
 Amazons have been mentioned by the ancients. 1. 
 The Asiatic Amazons, from whom the others branched 
 off. These dwelt on the shores of the Black Sea, and 
 among the mountains of the Caucasus, especially in 
 the neighborhood of the modern Trebizond, on the 
 river Themiodou (now Termeh). Thev are .said to 
 have at one lime subdued the whole of Asia, and to 
 have built Smyrna, Ephesus, Cumas and other cities. 
 Their Queen, Hipiiolyte, or, according to others, 
 Antiope, was killed by Hercules, as the ninth of the 
 lalxirs imposed on him by Eurystheus eonsLsted in 
 taking from her the shoulder-belt bestowed on her by 
 ikiars. On one of their expeditions the Amazons came 
 to Attica, in the time of Theseus. They also marched 
 imder the command of their Queen, Penthesilea, to 
 a.s.sist Priam against the Greeks. Tlicy even appear 
 upon the scene in the lime of Alexander the Great, 
 when their Queen, Thalestris, paid him a visit, in 
 order to become a mother by the Conqueror of Asia. 
 2. The Sciplhiim Amazons,"who, in after-times, mar- 
 ried among the neighboring Scrthians, and withdrew 
 further into Sarmatia. 3. The African Amazons, 
 who, under the command of their Queen, Myrina, 
 subdued the Gorgons and Atlantes, marched through 
 Eg)'pt and Arabia, and founded their capital on the 
 lake Tritonis, but were then annihilated by Hercules. 
 AMBULANCE. — A military term which is some- 
 what differently applied in "different countries. In 
 France, !Ui ambulance is a portable hospital, cue of 
 
 ' which is attached to every division of an army in the 
 field, and provided with all the requisites for the 
 medical succor of sick and wounded tr<K)ps. Such 
 an ambulance is stationed at some spot removed from 
 immediate danger; and soldiers are sedulously em- 
 ployed after a battle in seeking out those who have 
 
 I fallen, and conveying them to the ambulance. Baron 
 
 i Larrey, during the great wars of the first Napoleon, 
 brought this de])artment of medical business to a high 
 degree of efficiency, and set an exanijile to the rest of 
 Europe. When England engaged in war with Rus- 
 .sia in 1854. the ambulance arrangements, like many 
 others relating to the anny, were in a very imperfect 
 state. In the English army, ambulance, strictly 
 speaking, means a field-hospitid with all its wagons, 
 litters, tents, cooking-canteen, etc. ; but sometimes the 
 name is applied to a four-wheeled wagon or a two- 
 wheeled cart fitted up for the reception of wounded 
 men. When Lord Raglan was alwiit to be .sent out 
 with the anny. Dr. Guthrie, Pn-sideiit of the College 
 of Surgeons, devised a new form of ambulance-cart; 
 while Dr. Andrew Smith, Director - General of the 
 Army and Ordnance Medical DeparlnienI, inventctl 
 a new ambuliiiice-wagon. In the (Julhrie cart, the 
 badly wounded were laid on it at full length, while 
 those slightly burl sjit in front and rear and on the 
 sides. A sirctcher was slung from the top for the ac- 
 
 I commodation of the former. The back-board was let
 
 AMBULANCE COBFS. 
 
 41 
 
 AMBUSCADE. 
 
 down for cases requirinjr amputation. The hospital- 
 chests were lashed underneath. After the battle of the 
 Alma, the English were almost entirely destitute of 
 means for convening their wounded do«iJ to the 
 beach; but the French had for this purpose a large 
 number of enmleti, .suggested to them by their experi- 
 ence in Algeria. Each of these consists of two ea.sy- 
 chairs, slung, like panniers, across the back of a mule, 
 as shown in the drawing on page 40. These were espe- 
 cially available along tracks where no wheel-carriage 
 could pa.ss. These cacolets have since been adopted 
 in the English army, as well as improved hand-litters, 
 wheeleil litters, or barrows, and ambulance-wagons on a 
 more modem model than those of Smith and Guthrie, 
 but having the same general character. The Ameri- 
 can war, the wars of 1866 and '70, and, above all, the 
 growth of volunteer aid-societies under the influence 
 of the Geneva Convention of 1866 (which gave to the 
 wounded and their attendants the pri\nleges of ncu- 
 trality), have largely developed the ambulance equip- 
 ments of ever)- European army. Evcrv international 
 exhibition now contains an immense number of de- 
 signs for the safe transport of the wounded. The 
 most remarkable step taken in this direction has been 
 the organization of railway ambulances. Trains of 
 carriages either built for the purpose, or adapted from 
 the ordinary rolling-stock, can now be fitted up as 
 mo\ing hospitals, with their stall of surgeons and at- 
 tendants; and by means of these railway ambidances 
 the wounded can be safely and rapidly removed from 
 the encumbered field-hospitals to the permanent hos- 
 pitals of the great cities of their own country. All 
 the fittings for thus adapting railway trains "to hos- 
 pital purposes are now kept pcrmanentlj- in store in 
 many of the countries of the Continent. 
 
 The following are the rules for a uniform system of 
 ambtilances in the annics of the United States: The 
 Medical Director, or chief Medical officer, of each 
 army corps shall, under the control of the Medical 
 Director of the army to which such army corps be- 
 longs, have the direction and supervision of all am- 
 bulances, medicine and other wagons, horses, mules, 
 barne.ss, and other fixtures appertaining thereto, and 
 of all officers and men who may be detailed or em- 
 ploj-ed to assist him in the management thereof, in 
 the army corps in which he may be .serving. The 
 Commanding Officer of each army corps shall ditail 
 officers aud enlisted men for service In its ambulance 
 corps upon the following basis, viz.: One Captain, 
 ■who shall be Commandant of said ambulance corps ; 
 one Fii'st Lieutenant for each division; one Second 
 Lieutenant for each .brigade; one Sergeant for each 
 regiment; three privates for each amliulance, and 
 one private for each wagon. The officers and non- 
 commissioned officers of the ambulance corps shall be 
 mounted. The officers, nou-conunissioned officers, 
 and privates detailed for each array corps shall be ex- 
 amined by a board of Medical officers of the same as 
 to their fitness. Such as are found to be not qualified 
 shall lie rejected, and others detailed in their stead. 
 There shall be allowed and furnished to each army 
 corps two-horse ambulances, upon the following basis: 
 Three to each regiment of Infantry of five hundred 
 men or more; two to each regiment of Infantry of 
 more than two hundred and less than five hundred 
 men; and one to each regiment of Infantry of less 
 than two hundred men; two to each regiment of 
 Cavalry of five hundred men or more; and one to each 
 regiment of Cavalry of less than five hundred men; 
 one to each battery of Artillery, to which it shall be 
 permanently attached; to the headquarters of each 
 army corps, two such ambulances; and to each divi- 
 sion train of ambulances two army -wagons. Am- 
 bulances shall be allowed and furnished upon the 
 same basis to divisions, brigades, and commands not 
 attached to any army corps. Each ambulance shalt 
 be provided with such number of stretchers and other 
 njipliances as shall be prescribed by the Surgeon-Gen- 
 eral. 
 
 During the late war in America, much attention 
 
 was given to the subject of ambtdancCs, and many 
 forms were proposed pos.ses.sing merit, as was demon- 
 strated by their successful use in the Franco-German 
 war of 1870. The drawing shows a form of am- 
 bulance used in the United States with satisfaction. 
 The two stretchers shown are detjjchable, and may 
 be placed inside the wagon when moving over level 
 roads, or maj' be removed and transported by men 
 when moving over rough and rockj' country, or when 
 it becomes necessary to take the wagons apart in 
 
 order to get them up or dowTi very steep places. The 
 stretchers are so constructed with hinges and hooks 
 as to be folded into a verj' small space when not 
 needed, and to permit the supports to be used as 
 handles. In the United States service, litters are 
 adopted or authorized by the Secrefjiry of War, in 
 lieu of ambulances, when judged necessary, under 
 such rules and regulations as may be prescribed by the 
 Jlcdical Director of each army corjis. See Guthrie 
 Ainhidancecart. 
 
 AMBULANCE CORPS. — A body of men usually 
 unknown in peace-time, but formed on the outbreak 
 of war to attend upon the sick and wounded. The 
 personnel of such a body in England would be taken 
 from the Army Hospital Corps; and the ambulance 
 cariiages attached to the transport would form the 
 niii.t:'n'r!. 
 
 AMBULATOB. — An instrument, sometimes called 
 Perambulator, for measuring distances. The term 
 is often erroneously applied to a velocipede and to a 
 traction engine, whose mode of propulsion is by oscil- 
 lating bars whose feet come in contact with the 
 ground in somewhat similar manner to the natural 
 action of the legs of anunals or of man. See OdimieUir. 
 
 AMBUSCADE. — In planning an ambuscaile, we 
 should be well acquainted with the enemy's force, 
 ami the state of discipline shown by it. The position 
 chosen for the attemjit must be favorable to the con- 
 cealment of troops, and if practicable it should be 
 reached by night, every precaution being taken to in- 
 sure secrecy. The best positions are those where the 
 enemy is enclosed in a defile or village and has not 
 taken the proper precautions to secure himself from 
 an attack. By seizing the outlets of the defile by in- 
 fantry, in such cases, and making an impetuous 
 charge of cavalry into it, the enemy may be com- 
 pletely routed. Ambuscades may frequently be at- 
 tempted with success in the affairs of advanced- and 
 rear-guards ; by pushing the enemy vigorously and 
 then falling back, if he offers a strong resistance, so 
 as to drawhim upon a point wiiere troops are posted 
 in force to receive him. To trace anything more than 
 a mere outline, as a guide in operations of this kind, 
 which depend upon so many fortuitous circum- 
 stances, would serve but little useful jiurpose. An 
 active, intelligent officer, with an imagination fertile 
 in the ex-]X'dients of his profession, will seldom be at 
 a loss as to his best course when the occa.sion ofTers ; 
 to one without these qualities, opportunities present 
 themselves in vain. See Ambush and Surprise.
 
 AMBUSH. 
 
 42 
 
 AM£8 QVV. 
 
 Sect! 
 
 AMBUSH.— AnoUier name for Aml)uscn(ic. In 
 former days, whin soldiers fought hand to hand 
 more freii'ueutlv than at present, Uie ambush was 
 much rcsorletl "to ; l)ut the tactics of modern times 
 render it less availalile. It was bv an amliiish on 
 the iMirl of the revolted Sepoys that so many Brit- 
 ish soldiers were killed anil wounded in thai adven- 
 ture which Wiis known, during the wars of the In- 
 dian Mutiny, a-s the " Disjister at Arrah," in July, 
 18.">7. An "ambush is neither an "attack" nor a 
 "surpri.sc," in military language; it is something 
 more sudden and unexpected than either. See Sur- 
 prite. 
 
 AM£. — A French term, similar in its import to the 
 word dmiiilK-r. as applied to cannon, etc. 
 
 AMENDE HONOKABLE.— In the old aniiies of 
 Frani-e, this expression signitied an apology for some 
 injurj' done to another, or sjitisfaction given for an 
 offence committed ag-ainsi the rules 
 of honor or military etiquette, and 
 was also applied to an infamous kind 
 of punishment inflicted upon traitors, 
 liarricides, or .sjicrilegious jiersons. in 
 the following manner: The offender 
 being delivered into the hands of the 
 hangman — his shirt stripped off, a 
 rope put atwut hLs neck, and a taper 
 in his hand — wiis led into the Court, 
 where he liegged pardon of God, the 
 Court, and hfs Country. Sometime^ 
 the punishment ended there; but 
 often it was only a prelude to death 
 or banishment to the galleys. The 
 amende hoiioraltle prevails jet in some 
 parts of Euro|je. 
 
 AMENTAT.E.— A sort of lance used 
 by the Komans, which had a leathern strap attached to 
 the center of it. 
 
 AMENTUM. — A leathern strap used by the Romans, 
 Greeks, and Galicians to throw lances." It was fast- 
 eneil around the second and third tingers, and a knot 
 was tied on it, which at the throwing of the lance 
 loosened itself. 
 
 AMEEICAN BLOCK-HOUSE.— In the more recent 
 1)lock-houseserectcd in the United States for the protec- 
 tion of bridges, railroad -station-;, etc., the sides and roof 
 are constructed with a double thickness of logs eight- 
 een inches in iliameter, hewn to a face of eight inches 
 where they are in contact. The inner logs are placed 
 upright, the outward horizontal. A space is left in 
 the outward ca.sing sufficient for the tire from the 
 loopholes made through the inner. The horizontal 
 logs alx)ve the loop-holes are held up by short up- 
 rights, niortisi'd into them and into those just below. 
 The ceiling is covered with earth, as .shown in the 
 section, three feet thick at the ridge and sloping to- 
 wards the eavi~i to about six or nine inches, where it 
 is confined by a pole-plate. The earth is protected 
 from the weather by a lx)ard roofins. Tin or sheet- 
 iron ventilators are made through the roofing and ceil- 
 ing, and a brick flue to receive the pipe of' the stove 
 used in cold weather. Some of these structures are 
 built in the fonn of across, consistinsr of a sf|uare cen- 
 tnd chamber, twenty-four feel on a side, and of four 
 wings of the s;ime form and dimensions when the 
 block-hou.se is for cannon. An embrasure is pierced 
 in each of ihe three sides of each wing lo serve a sin- 
 gle gun. The cheeks of the embra.sures are faced 
 with loi.'s, and the mouth is secured bv a musket- 
 proof shutter will) a loop-hole in it. The" embrasures 
 are below Ihe level of ihe loop-holes, allowing these 
 to he used whenever necessary. Arrann-ements for 
 magazines and store-rof.ms are" made under the floor 
 of the blockhouse in Ihe most secure parts. The en- 
 trance to the blockhouse may be either throutrh a 
 po>leni, the bottom of which is on the level of that of 
 the ditch, a nimj) leading from this level outwards, a 
 iloor projH'rly secured, and steps, forming the inner 
 communications; or il mav be arranged with a plank 
 thrown across the ditch on the sjime level as the nat- 
 
 ural ground, Ihe enlrance to the door being masked 
 by a double siockade, leaving the .same pas-sage-way 
 as that of the doorway. Loop-holes in the door and 
 sides of Ihe building sweep this passage. 
 
 The block-hou.se" is sometimes arranged with two 
 stories, Ihe comers or the sides of the upper storj- pro- 
 jecting over the sides of the lower. Either of these 
 "melhods is sufficient for the defence of the lower 
 storv; but Ihe first is the best to procure a fire in the 
 direction of its angles. It can only be useil, however, 
 as a defence arainsi infantry. When artillery caimot 
 be brought to l)ear against the top of the block-house, 
 it may Ih? constructiil like an onimary Boor, and be 
 covered with nine or twelve inches of "earth to guard 
 agiunst fire. The application of wood lo the jiurposcs 
 of defence is one of panunount importance in our 
 country. A block-house, surrounded by a defensive 
 stockailc, is impregnable to the attack of infantry if 
 
 =: — 
 
 " 
 
 ^ - 
 
 = — 
 
 — ' 
 
 
 = 
 
 r^ 
 
 f"'«y ' 
 
 l^i^ 
 
 4 J 
 
 ■i*» i''S 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 P&i'^:i>a*. 
 
 [mb 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 properly defended, and is therefore peculiarly suitable 
 to either wooded or mountainous positions, where a 
 tniin of tirtillery cannot be taken williout great labor, 
 owing to the impediniints thai may be thrown in its 
 way, l)y rendering the roads impassable from olistruc- 
 tions easily obtained. In positions covered by exten- 
 sive earthen works, such as those that would be re- 
 quired for the defence of the towns on our seaboard, 
 and which would be occupied during a war, a defen- 
 sive arrangement of the barnicks for the troops, so 
 that they might serve, in case of the main works be- 
 ing forced, as rid lying-points, under cover of which 
 the main body of troops may retreat with sjifety, is a 
 subject that conunends itself to the serious attention 
 of the engineer. From the details already entered 
 into, an efficient combination for this purpose will 
 suggest itself to the reader, without entering further 
 into particidars. See Btockhouw. 
 
 AMERICAN FLAG.— On Ihe 14lh of June, 1777, the 
 Continental Congress resolved that the Flag of the 
 United Colonies should show thirteen stripes of red 
 and white idlernaling, to represent the mmiber of the 
 Colonies, with thirteen stars in a blue field. This be- 
 came the Flag of the United Slates, and a star is added 
 for every Slate added lo Ihe Union. The width of the 
 Flag should Vie two thirds its length. Seven of the 
 stripes, beginning with the outermost, iirc red. The 
 blue field, or union, is square and has Ihe w idlh of 
 seven stripes. The United Stales Heveniie Flag has 
 sixteen vertical stripes, alternately red and white, with 
 a white union bearing the National Arms in dark blue. 
 See Ftniji. 
 
 AMES GUN.— A wToiightiron rifled gim made on 
 the liiiilliiii jirinciple. Bars of WTOught-iron are bent 
 aroimd a mandrel iind their ends are welded so as to 
 form rings. After turning them in a lathe, two or 
 more of these rings are fitted one within another to 
 form a disk. These disks are then welded in succes- 
 sion to a concave breech-i>ieee. The .shape of the 
 gun is that of the Dahlgren. The trunnions are at- 
 tached by being screwed into the body of the gtm. 
 These guns have shown remarkable endurance. One 
 was fired 16:i0 limes with a :i7-iiotmd rifle-shot and 3i 
 pounds of powder. The chambirs have shown some
 
 AMICUS CTTEIJE. 
 
 43 
 
 AKNESTT, 
 
 stretching at the welds, and with this a weakness to 
 resist longitudinal strains. The latter is effectually 
 overcome by employing Dahlgren's breech-atrap. See 
 Ordnawe. 
 
 AMICUS CUSI.E. — Counsel, or at least Amici Curife 
 (Friends of the Court), are allowed to prisoners in all 
 cases; but no jx-rson is permitted to address the Court, 
 or interfere in any manner with its proceedings, ex- 
 cept the parlies themselves. 
 
 AMMUNITION. — Sometimes this name is given to 
 cannon and mortars, as well as to the pro.jectiles and 
 explosive substances employed with them; but more 
 usuallj' ammunition is considered to apply to the lat- 
 ter — such as shot, shell, gunpowder, cartridges, fuses, 
 wads, grenades. Muskets, swords, bayonets, antl 
 other small-arms are sometimes, but improperly, in- 
 cluded under this tenn. The Royal Laboratoiy at 
 Woolwich is the place where ammunition is chietl}' 
 prepared for the British army and navy. The can- 
 non-balls mav be cast at some of the great iron foun- 
 dries in the S^orth; the shells mav be cast t)r forged in 
 the shell-factory at "Woolwich; the muskets may be 
 made at Birmingham, and the ritles at Entield; the 
 bullets at the shot -factories; the gunpowder at Wal- 
 tham Abbey — and so on; but the " making uj)" of the 
 ammunition is mostly conducted at the estal)lishment 
 above mentioned. In the United States, ammunition 
 is prepared at the various Arsenals and by numerous 
 private Manufacturing Companies. Bags of serge, in 
 enormous number, are cut out and made, and tilled 
 to form the cartridges for large ordnance. Bags or 
 tubes of paper are madetind tilled to constitute blank 
 cartridges for small-arms; while the ball-cartridges 
 are enclosed in thin copper cylinders. The tubes and 
 combiLstibles for war-rockets and fuses are also manu- 
 factured. The cartridges for small-arms (ritles, mus- 
 kets, carbines, and pistols) are made in millions; since 
 it is on those that the main offensive operations of an 
 army depend. It has been calculated by the Wool- 
 wich Authorities that a British array of (iO.OOO men, 
 comprising a fair average of infantry, cavalry, artil- 
 lery, and engineers, ought to be provided with no less 
 than 18,000,000 ball-cartridges for small-arms, for six 
 months' operations. These would require 1000 am- 
 munition-wagons and 3600 horses to convey them 
 all at once. It is therefore deemed better that, mider 
 any such circumstances, there shouUl be established 
 eritrepJts for suppljing the troops from time to time. 
 The wagons constructed for this kind of serWce vriU 
 carry 20,000 rounds of small-arm ammunition each; 
 the cartridges are packed in boxes, and the wagons 
 are drawn by four horses each. Several wagons are 
 organized into an "equipment," under the charge of 
 a detachment of artillery; and there arc several such 
 equipments for an army of the magnitude above men- 
 tioned — one for each division of infantry, a small por- 
 tion for the cavalry, and the rest in reserve. It has 
 been laid down that an army of 60,000 men ought to 
 have 2,680,000 cartridges with them, besides those in 
 reserve; and that the conveyance of such a quantity, 
 with a few forges and stores, would require 150 am- 
 munition-wagons, 830 men, and 704 horses. The 
 equipment would return to the entrepot for a new 
 supply when needeit. In the Peninsular War, and 
 at Waterloo, the English used two-horse carts, carry- 
 ing about 10,000 rounils of small-arm ammunition 
 each; but a superior kind of wagon has been since 
 introduced. In the field, an infantry soldier usually 
 carries about 60 rounds, put in compartments in his 
 pouch. When the word ammimition is used in connec- 
 tion with artillery matters, the "fixed" ammunition 
 comprises the loaded shells, cartridges, and carcasses; 
 whereas the "imfixed ' are the unfilled case-shot, 
 grape-shot, and shell. During peace, the Woolwich 
 laboratory serves out little less than 1,000,000 lbs. of 
 gunpowder annually, in ammunition for the army 
 and navy, for puriioscs of exercising, saluting, etc. 
 The chief kinds of anmiunition will l)e found briefly 
 described under their proper headings. See Ammu- 
 nition-boxes, Breaking up Ammunition, Cartridge, 
 
 Center-fire Metallic-eam Cartridge, Field and foun- 
 tain Ammunition, Fixed Ammunition, Metallic Am- 
 munition for Small-eirmn, Paj)er Ammunition for 
 Snuill-arm.1, Preserration of Ammunition and Fire- 
 irorku. Siege and Garrison Ammunition, Stand of 
 Ammunition, and Stnt/tjud Ammunition. 
 
 AMMUNITION-BOXES.— Packing-bo.xes for field- 
 ammunition are made of well-seasoned stuff (generally 
 white pine), 1.2.i inch thick, dovetailed with the 
 tenon on the ends. The top of the box is fastened 
 with six 2-inch screws; the box has two handles of 11- 
 inch rope, attached to brackets at the ends. The 
 boxes are painted on the outside different colors to 
 indicate the contents of the box. Those containing 
 shot are painted olive; shells, bUiek; spherical cjuse- 
 shot, red; and canisters, a light drab. The kind of 
 ammunition is marked on each end in large white 
 letters. The place and date of fabrication are marked 
 on the inside of the cover. The boxes are packed as 
 follows: 
 
 For Smooth-bore Grxs. — Shot, »pherieal case and 
 c/inistcrs, fixed. — Laid in two tiers across the bo.v, the 
 shot or canisters alternating with the cartridges at each 
 side. The shot or canisters of the upper tier rest on 
 those of the lower and not on the cartridges. Canis- 
 ters are packed in the same manner, omitting the 
 strips of wood in the bottom of the box. 
 
 For 12-PDU. MorxTAtN-HOwixzER. — Shells and 
 case-shot, fixed. — Placed upright, tbe balls down, rest- 
 ing on strips of wood as for the other howitzer. 
 Canisters are packed in the same manner, resting on 
 the bottom of the box. 
 
 For Rifled Grxs. — Shells and case-shot. — Placed 
 upright, the balls down, resting on strips of wood as 
 for the howitzer. The iron part of the balls rests 
 against strips of wood 4 inches wide and .25 inch 
 thick, nailed to the side and ends of the box at the 
 bottom, and similar strips placed between the rows of 
 the balls to prevent the soft metal cups from bearing 
 against the box or against each other and being 
 bruised; the cartridges are placed on top of the pro- 
 .iectiles. Canisters are packed in the same manner as 
 the case-shot, omitting the strips of wood on the bot- 
 tom of the box. 
 
 In all the lioxes the small stores are placed in the 
 vacant spaces on top of the ammunition. A layer of 
 tow is placed in the bottom of each box, and the 
 whole contents are well packed in tow, filling the box 
 so as to be pressed do^vn by the cover. About three 
 pounds of tow are required for a box. See Ammuni- 
 tion and Miidi'inn Am m u nition-box. 
 
 AMMUNITION-CHESTS.— Chests placed on field- 
 limbers and cais.sons for the transportation and safe- 
 keeping of ammunition. The limber has one and 
 the caisson has three such chests, which will seat 
 twelve earmoneers if necessary. The interior com- 
 partments of the ammunition-chests vary according 
 to the nature of the ammunition with which they are 
 loaded, 
 
 AMMUNITION-SHOES.— Shoes made for soldiers 
 and sailors in the British service, and particularly for 
 use by those frequenting the magazine, being soft and 
 free from metal. 
 
 AMMUNITION-WAGON.— A carriage employed for 
 the transportation of ammunition. The points essen- 
 tial in the .general construction of field-artillery car- 
 riages appl.v equally in that of the ammunition-wagon, 
 so far as the traveling conditions are concerned. It 
 need only lie observed that the general form of a lim- 
 ber-carriage can be most effectively retained in the 
 ammunition-wagon by substituting a perch for the 
 trail of the giui-carriage, and furnishing it with an 
 eye in front for an attachment to the limber-hook. 
 Tfhe arrangement of the ammunition-bo.xes on the 
 platform of the body must be such as to insure the 
 center of gravity of' the entire load falling between 
 the wheels and limber-hook, the pressure oil the latter 
 being regulated with iiarticular reference to stability 
 anil ease of draught. 
 
 AMNESTY.— In act of pardon or oblivion, and tlie
 
 AHOBCE. 
 
 44 
 
 AHPHITHEATSB. 
 
 effect of it i< tlmt the ciimes and offences agjiinst the 
 State, siH'cilied in the aet, are so obliterated that tliey 
 can never ajjaiu be eharired asiiinst the guilty parties. 
 The amnesty may be either absolute or qualilied witli 
 cxeeptious. Instances of the latter are to be found in 
 ancient and modem history: thus, Thntsybulus, when 
 he overthrew the oliirarihy in Athens, caused an 
 amnesty to lie proe'lainied, from the oix-ration of which 
 the thirty tyrants, wlio had formed the olijrarchy, : 
 and some few persons who had actetl imder them, 
 were cxcludi'd. Apiin, Bonaparte, on his return 
 from Elba in 181"), "issued a decree, which was pub- 
 lished at Lyon, declaring an amnesty, from the Ix-ne- 
 tiLs of which he excepted thirteen pers^ins whom he 
 named. In the absence of specific statutes on the 
 subject, the exercise of amnesty in the United Stales 
 was assumed to lie with the President. Washington, 
 without participation by Congress, granted amnesty, 
 or pardon, to persons who took part in the " Whisky 
 Rebellion." John Adams proclaimed full pardon of 
 those eug-aged in the House-tax Insurrection, and , 
 Madison\lid the sjime in the case of the Barataria 
 Pirates. During the Rebellion, Lincoln and Johnson 
 issued four or live proclamations of amnesty, one of 
 the latest luing so broad in its conditions that it raised 
 in Congress the .question whether the President had 
 the right to such action, and the J udiciary Committee of 
 the Senate, in February, 1809, decided that he had not. 
 Amnesty is so closely connected with " pardon" and 
 " reprieve" that it is difficult to distinguish them. In 
 one mes.s)ige President Lincoln a.sscrled his exclusi\e 
 authority under the Constitution, and his independ- 
 ence of Congress in respect to the pardoning power, 
 oven more emphatically than in the proclamation. In 
 1862 Congress had passed an Act giving full power 
 to the President, but he considered the Act unneces- 
 sary, claiming that the Constitution gave him the 
 necessary authority. Then, in 1867, the Act of 1862 
 was repealed; ancf all amnesty proceedings were re- 
 manded to their original basis in the Second Artich' 
 of the Constitution, until further defined in later 
 amendments. The Suiireme Court had decided in 
 the case of Garland that for pardon the President's 
 power was perfect; yet that is not held to include 
 general amnesty. But in 1868 the Fourteenth Amend- 
 ment to the Constitution, prohibiting rebels from 
 holding certain offices unless their disabilities should 
 first "be removed by a vote of two thirds of each 
 House," seemed to diminish the range of executive 
 authority. Still, the Supreme Court has held in 
 several cjvses to the absolute power of the President 
 to grant amnesty and pardon, and that neither Con- 
 gress nor any authority less than an express change 
 of the Federal Constitution can reverse, abridge, or 
 direct that power. The Court, through Chief-Justice 
 Cha.se, says: "It is the intention of the Constitution 
 that Ciich of the great co-ordinate departments of the 
 government, the legi.slative, the executive, and the 
 judicial, shall Ik- in its sphere independent of the 
 others. To the executive alone is entrusted the power 
 of pardon, and it is granted without limit. Pardon 
 includes amnesty. It blots out the offense jiardoned, 
 and removes all it.s penal consequences." 
 
 AMOBCE, — .iVn old military' word for fine-grained 
 jjowdor, such as was sometimes used for the piiming ' 
 of great-.guas, mortjirs, and howitzers; as also foi' 
 small-arms, on account of its rapid inflammation. The 
 term is also applied to a port-fire or quick-match. [ 
 
 AHOBCEB. — A French word meaning to decoy, 
 aiul used in the sense of making a feint in order "to 
 deceive thc> cncmv and draw him into a snare. 
 
 AMORCOIB.— An instrument used by the French 
 for priming muskets; also a small copper lx)x in which 
 are placed the jiercussion-caps. 
 
 AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL.— This central politico- 
 religious (,'ourt of several Grecian tribes was held 
 twice a year. In spring, the members as.sembled in 
 the temple of Al)ollo, at Delphi ; in autumn, in the 
 temple of Ceres, at the village of Anihela, near Ther- 
 mopylui. Their purpose was twofold : 1. To deter- 
 
 mine queslmns of International Law ; 2. To preserve 
 the Religious Institutions of the Greeks. As there 
 were many Amphictyonies in the early days of Greek 
 history — of which, however, by far the most impor- 
 tant was that which forms the subject of our article — 
 it has generally been supjiostd that they originated 
 out of a desire for social union, and were, conse- 
 quently, a result of the national instinct for civilize 
 tion. " I^ike the 01ymi>ic games of a later period, 
 their tendency was to develop a spirit of brotherhood 
 where it was greatly required. The restless Greek 
 intellect, in its application to political life, had natu- 
 fjUy an excessive and iierilous lo\e of individualism, 
 outof which rose themunerous strifes and animosities 
 of the various States. These Coimcils, on the other 
 hand, were calculated to exert a wholesome central- 
 izing influence. They knit together, for a time, the 
 distracted tribes in a bond of common interest and 
 piety. Like the Olympic games, tco. they became 
 the occasion of vast gatherings of the Greek peoples, 
 who crowded thither for every variety of purpose, 
 .sacred and secular ; and thus a feeling of tinity and 
 pure national patriotism was, temporarily at least, ex- 
 cited in the popular mind. The special origin of the 
 Amphictyonic Council or League is unknown, though 
 we know that it was composed of twelve tribes. The 
 ancient writers differ in the names of these ; but the 
 list given bj- the orator ^Eschines, though containing 
 only eleven, is perhaps the .safest to adhere to : the 
 The.s.s;ilians, Bo?otians, Dorians, lonians, Perrhte- 
 bians, Magnetes, Locrians, (Eta>ans, Phthiols, Ma- 
 lians, and Phocians. Probably the remaining tribe 
 was the Dolopiaus, who are mentioned in other ac- 
 counts. It has been justly concluded that the great 
 preponderance of the northern tribes, who were of 
 the old Pelasgic race, ])ioves the antiquity of the 
 Council. It must have been older than the descent 
 of the Dorians u]ion the Peloponnesus, or the emi- 
 gration of the lonians to the coasts of Asia Minor. 
 Each of the twelve tribes sent to the Amphictyonic 
 Council two members. These twent}-four Repre- 
 sentatives possessed equal authority, although some of 
 the tribes were ^ery small and hardly independent. 
 They bound themselves by an oath that " they would 
 destroy no city of the Amphietyons, nor cut off their 
 streams in war or peace ; and if any should do so, 
 they would march against him and destroy his cities ; 
 and should any ]iillage the property of the god, or be 
 privy to, or plan anything against, what was in hi^ 
 temple at Deliihi, they would take vengeance on him 
 with hand, and foot, and voice, and all their might." 
 It is only right to state, what indeed most people 
 would naturally conclude for Ihemsflves, that so ex- 
 cellent an oath was very indifferently kept. In the 
 primitive period of Greek history, it, in all likelihood, 
 exerted the beneficial and civilizing influence of 
 which we ha\e sjiokcn ; but it opposed only a feeble 
 check to the passions and ambition of a more power- 
 ful age. The members at times connived and even 
 took part in many political crimes, and thus violated 
 their oalh. 
 
 AMPHITHEATER.— A sp.acious building, generally 
 elliptical in form, used In? the Romans for exhibiting 
 gladiatorial combats, figlils of wild beasts, and other 
 spectacles. The Amphitheater differed from a theater 
 for dramatic performances in this, that whereas the 
 theater had oidy a semicircle of seat? fronting the 
 stage, the Amphilhealer was entirely surrounded by 
 them ; and hence the name of Amphitheater. Till "a 
 late period at Rome, these erections were of wood, 
 and merely temi>orary, like a modern race-stand. 
 They seem, however, to have been of enonnous size, 
 as Tacitus mentions one, during the reign of Tiberius, 
 which gave way and caused the death or injury of 
 50,000 spectators. Amjihitheaters of stone had begun, 
 however, to be erected at an earlier period than this, 
 the first having l)een lnult at the desire of Augustus. 
 The Flavian Am]ihit heater at Rome, knowuas the 
 C'olosseum, which was begun by Vespasian, and 
 finbhed by Titus 80 x.d., ten years after the destruc-
 
 AHFIITUDE. 
 
 45 
 
 ANALYSIS OF POWDEB. 
 
 tion of Jerusalem, was probably the largest stnicture 
 of the kind, and is fortunately also the best prc- 
 ser\ed. It covers about five acres of ground, and was 
 capable of containing 87,000 persons. Its greatest 
 length is 620 feet, and its greatest breadth 513. On 
 the occasion of its dedication by Titus, 5000 wild 
 beasts were slain in the arena, the games having 
 lasted for nearly 100 days. The exterior is about 160 
 feet in height, and consists of three rows of columns, 
 Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, and above all a row 
 of Corinthian pilasters. Between the columns there 
 are arches, which form open galleries throughout the 
 whole building ; and between each alternate pilaster 
 of the upper tier there is a window. There were 
 four tiers or stories of seats, corresponding to the four 
 external stories. The first of these is supposed to 
 have contained twentj'-four rows of seats, and the 
 second sixteen. These are .separated by a lofty wall 
 from the third story, which is supposed to have con- 
 tained the populace. The podium was a kind of 
 
 Colosseum. 
 
 covered gallery surrounding the arena, in which the 
 Emperor, the Senators, and Vestal Virgins had their 
 seats. The building was covered bj' a temporary 
 awning or wooden roof, called relarium, the mode 
 of adjusting and fastening which has given rise to 
 many antiquarian conjectures. The open space in 
 the centre of the Amphitheater was called arena, the 
 Latin word for sand, because it was covered with 
 sand or saw-dust during the performances. The 
 taste for the excitement of the Amphitheater which 
 existed at Rome naturally spread to the provinces, 
 and lar^e amphitheaters were erected not only in the 
 provincial towns of Italy, as at Capua, Verona, 
 Pompeii, etc. , but at Aries and Nismes, in France ; 
 and even in England, at Cirencester, Silchester, and 
 Dorchester. 
 
 AMPLITUDE. — In gimnery, the range of a shot, or 
 the horizontal right line, which measures the distance 
 over which it has passed. 
 
 AMPOULETTE.— A wooden cylinder which con- 
 tains the fuse of a hoUow projectile. 
 
 AMPUTATION. — A surgical process of frequent 
 necessity on the field of battle. The amputation of a 
 limb was in ancient times attended with great danger 
 of the patient's djing during its perfonnance, as 
 Surgeons had no efiicient means of restraining the 
 bleeding. They rarely ventured to remove a larce 
 portion of a linib, and when they did so they cut m 
 the gangrened parts, where they knew the' vessels 
 would not bleed ; the smaller limbs they chopped off 
 with a mallet and chisel ; and in both ca.ses had hot 
 irons at hand with whicli to sear the raw surfaces, 
 boiling oil in which to dip the stump, and various 
 resins, mosses, and fungi, supposed to possess the 
 I>ower of arresting hemorrhage. Some tightly ban- 
 daged the limbs they wished to remove, so that they 
 mortified and dropped off; and others amputated 
 
 with red-hot knives, or knives made of wood or horn 
 dipped in vitriol. The desired power of controling 
 the hemorrhage was obtained by the invention of 
 the tourniquet in 1674 by a French Surgeon, Morell. 
 The ancient Surgeons endeavored to save a covering 
 of skin for the sttmip bj' having the skin drawn 
 upwards by an assistant, previously to using the 
 knife. In 1679 Lowdham of Exeter suggested cut- 
 ting semicircular flaps on one or both sides of a 
 limb, so as to preserve a fleshy cushion to cover the 
 end of the bone. Both these methods are now in use, 
 and are kno^Ti as the " circular" and the "flap" opera- 
 tions : the latter is more frequently used in this coun- 
 try. A flap amputation is performed thus: The pa- 
 tient being placed in the most convenient position, an 
 assistant compresses the main artery of the limb with 
 his thumb, or a tourniquet is adjusted over it. An- 
 other assistant supports the limb. The Surgeon with 
 one hand lifts the tissues from the bone, and, trans- 
 fixing them with a long narrow knife, cuts rapidly 
 downwards and towards the surface of the skin, form- 
 ing a flap ; he then repeats this on the other side of 
 the limb. An assistant now draws up these flaps, and 
 the knife is carried round the bone, dividing any 
 flesh still adhering to it: The Surgeon now saws the 
 Iwne. He then, v\ith a small forceps, seizes the end 
 of the main artery, and drawing it slightlv from the 
 tissues, an assistant ties it with a thread. All the 
 vessels being secured, the flaps are stitched together 
 with a needle and thread, and a piece of wet lint is 
 laid over the wound. An expert Surgeon can remove 
 a limb thus in from thirty to sixty .seconds. 
 
 AMUSETTE. — A .stocked gun mounted on a ST;\-ivel, 
 and carrying a ball or charge of buck-shot of from 8 
 to 32 ounces' weight. The amusittt' invented by the 
 celebrated Marshal Saxe carried a half-pound leaden 
 ball. 
 
 ANABASH. — Expeditious couriers, in anticjuity, 
 who canicd dispatches of great importance in the 
 Roman Wars. 
 
 ANACABA. — A sort of dnim much used by the 
 Oriental cavalrv and mounted troops. 
 
 ANACLETICUM.— A particular blast of the trum- 
 pet, in the ancient art of war, whereby the fearful 
 and flvinsT soldiers were rallied to the combat. 
 
 ANAL"ySIS OF PO'WDEE.— In the inspection of 
 gunpowder, the following is the usual process of 
 analyzing: Pulverize 75 grains, place in a glass 
 beaker \rith eight ounces of distilled water; stir 
 rapidlj' with a glass rod ; when clear, test with litmus- 
 paper for acids and mth turmeric for alkalies. Wash 
 repeatedly to remove all the sulphur and charcoal, 
 and examine the residuum \%itli a microscope for 
 coarse particles of either or foreign substances. De- 
 termine the amount of moisture by placing 45 grains 
 of powder, ground fine, in a "watch-crj-stal, dry 
 thoroughly, and cover the crystal with another. The 
 weight of dish and cover being known, the loss of 
 weight due to moisture contained in them is found. 
 
 Put the 45 grains of dry powder in a pipette, hav- 
 ing a wad of heated asbestos in the nan-ow part ; 
 verify the weight of the pipette and wad ; insert the 
 pipette into a hole in the cork of a small weighed 
 flask ; treat the powder with 50 c.c. of rectified bisul- 
 phide of carbon, remove the pipette and cork, recork 
 the flask, and distil off the bisulphide of carbon for 
 future use. A sand-bath is used duiing distillation, 
 which must proceed very .slowly, the flask being 
 raised abo%"e the sand, which must not become too 
 warm. The percentage of sulphur is calculated from 
 the weight thus obtained. One tenth per cent is 
 added to the amount of sulphur, as that quantity 
 generally remains in the powder after the treatment 
 with the bisulphide of carlwn. 
 
 The pipette containing the residue is fixed in a small 
 weighed flask, the ]iortion above the crook being wrap- 
 ped in muslin. The tube of the flask is connected 
 with an air-pump by a rubber tube, and the contents 
 of the pipette treated with 40 c.c. of distilled water; 
 work the piunp carefully to allow the water to enter
 
 AKASCHY. 
 
 40. 
 
 ANCHOR-SOCKET. 
 
 the flask by drops ; to pi-cvcnt crvslallizjition of tlio 
 ilissolviil niter in the narrow part "of the pipette, cold 
 water is tirst us»-<l, then warm, and lastly hot. Dreneh 
 the muslin on the pipette with water of the.sjime teiu- 
 pcniture as that for dis.solviug the niter. When the 
 tittsk coMtiiius40 c.c. of the niter solution, remove the 
 pipette and evainiratc the water on a sand-bath, re- 
 moving the flask oeciisioiially, and cool as the solution 
 becomes s;itunited. When the niter is crj-stallized, it 
 is healeil until it and the flask are quite drj- ; the 
 weight of the niter is then tjiken. 
 
 The aslx-stas wad and a large part of the charcoal 
 are puslied out of the pipette by a wire into a watch- 
 gla.ss ; the pipette lUid watch-glass and contents dried 
 and weighed ; the weight of the pipette, watch-glass, 
 and al)sestos being known, that of the charcoal is ob- 
 tained. The weight added to the sulphur is of course 
 detlucted. See Giinjmiriltr And Inxjxtlinn of Powder. 
 
 ANARCHY. — The state of society without any regu- 
 lar goNernment, when a country i.s torn by the strife 
 of parlies, and no law or authority remains. Com- 
 plete anarchj- is neccssjirily rare and of short dura- 
 tion; but conditions approaching to it often arise after 
 revolutions and gross abti.ses in government: and in 
 such ca.<cs it is apt to become, as in the South Ameri- 
 can States, a chronic or permanent evil, attended with 
 constant national decay. 
 
 ANCHOR. — An iron instrument composed of a long 
 shank, ha\ ing a ring at one end to which the cable is 
 fasteneil, and at the other branching out into two 
 arms or flukes tending upwards with hooks or edges 
 on each side; its use in an army equipment is to moor 
 transports, boats, pontoons, and rafts. It is also a 
 good hold for a capstan. The weights of anchors vary 
 according to the particular use they are put to. 
 
 ANCHOR-BALL. — A contrivance" for siiving life in 
 casi's of shipwreck. It consists of a ball having sev- 
 eral hinged prongs fitting in slots, which are intended 
 to catch in the rigging of a stranded vessel. The 
 ball is fired from a mortar, and carries a light line by 
 which a stout rope maj' be carried ashore from the 
 vcssi'l. The French use a ball for this purpose hav- 
 ing a harjxKjn pa.ssing through it, on the rear end of 
 which a line is woxmd. The term anc/iorJxill is also 
 applied to a carcass or incendiary ball affi.xed to a 
 gnipnel by which it is intended to adhere to and fire 
 a vessel. 
 
 ANCHOR-ROCKET.— An 8-centimetcr rocket (8"" An- 
 kerrakete), used bv the Germans for life-sa\'ing pur- 
 poses, composed of a body, anchor-head, base, rocket- 
 stick, and chain. The case, or rocket-lwdy, is made 
 of sheet-metal, .06 inch in thickness. The anchor-head 
 is made of iron. The front end is sub-spherical in 
 form, connected with the convex curves of the arms 
 
 by re-entrant tangent-curved stirfacps. The short 
 shank in rciir of the lieail forms a cylindrical tenon 
 that fits the front end of the rocket-ca.se, to which it 
 is secured by screws. The arms and flukes are four 
 in munlxr. The former are triangular-prismoidal in 
 outline, and are placed at right angles to each other. 
 The arms arc furnished with the usual palmate flukes, 
 which are well adapted for " holding." The rear end 
 of the rocket-case is reinforced on the inside for 1..5 
 inch of its length by a cylindrical iron ring. The latter 
 furnishes a seat into which the screws that attach the 
 
 base are turned. The ba.se is tripodal in form, the 
 legs joining a cylindrical ring at the front end. The 
 conjunction of "the legs, or ribs, at the rear end forms 
 a seat into which is .screwed the rocket-stick. 
 
 When prepared for use and ready for packing the 
 rocket-case is filled with composition and the rear end 
 of the case closinl with a water-proof cay) to iirotect 
 the contents from the efTccts of moisture. This rap 
 is jilaced 1.3 inch towarils the front from the rear edge 
 of flic l)as!il ring. A fuse, 2.7 inches in length and 
 ..5 inch in diameter, passes through the cap and con- 
 nects with the rocket composition. The projecting 
 fuse is liable to be broken off in himdling if great care 
 is not e.\erci.sed, as the operator will involuntarily 
 thrust his hand between the ribs to grasj) the rocket 
 in picking it up or carrying it. The fuse is steadied 
 in its iwsilion by a strap of laboratory pai)er attached 
 to one of the ribs in the same manner as in the ."> '" 
 rocket. The fuse is coated w ith shell-lac varnish. 
 
 The rocket-»^fA', technically so called, is a hollow 
 cylindrical tube of sheet-metal, with a diameter about 
 equal to that of the wooden stick for the 8'"' life- 
 saving rocket. It is constructed by taking a strip of 
 sheet-metal of the necessijry length and width, curv- 
 ing it and fastening the edges to.scther with twenty* 
 three iron rivets. The front end is filled with an 
 iron plug extended to the front as a frustum of a cone, 
 1.125 inch in altitude, from which j.rojects the male 
 .screw, 2.2.5 inches long, that enters the ba.se of the rocket 
 when susst-mbled for use. The rear cud is furnished 
 with an iron loop ha\ing flattened arms that are 
 riveted to the tube. This loop serves as the ix)int of 
 attachment for the rocket-chain. The rocket-chain 
 is made of the best wiought-iron. The rocket-case, 
 ba.sc, and "stick" form the s/iank of the quadripal- 
 mate anchor. The usual anchor slock is absent in 
 this combination. The anchor-rocket, rocket-stick, 
 and chain are all painted black. 
 
 The following are the principal dimensions and 
 weights: 
 
 Total lengtli of 8'" anclior-rocket. . 
 Kocket case: 
 
 Len>;tlt 
 
 Exterior diameter 
 
 Interior diameter 
 
 Anclior-head; 
 
 Total length 
 
 Piameier. excluding: arms 
 
 Lengtli of tenon-shank 
 
 L)iameter of tenon-shank 
 
 Arms: 
 
 Depth near shank 
 
 Width under side near shank. 
 
 Depth near Ihike 
 
 ^Vidth under side near fluke... 
 
 Spread of (hikes 
 
 Length of palms 
 
 Width of palms 
 
 Base- ring: 
 
 Length 
 
 Exterior diameter 
 
 Interior diameter 
 
 liase: 
 
 T.ilal length 
 
 Diameter, front end 
 
 Diameter, rear end 
 
 Length <»f. embracing case 
 
 Depth of rihs. front end 
 
 Depth of ribs, rear end 
 
 Width of ribs 
 
 Rocket-stick: 
 
 T»»tal length 
 
 I.rf'ngih of sc/ew 
 
 Diameter of screw 
 
 Hockel-chain: 
 
 Total length 
 
 Uing: 
 
 Exterior diameter 
 
 Interior diameter 
 
 Links: 
 
 I..ength 
 
 Widlh 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Total length of rocket and stick.. 
 
 Average weight of anchor-rocket 
 
 Average weight of rocket-stick and chain. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 38.15 
 
 Centi- 
 
 84.19 
 
 20.15 
 
 51.17 
 
 3.22 
 
 8.17 
 
 3.1 
 
 7.87 
 
 6.5 
 
 16.51 
 
 8.85 
 
 8.50 
 
 1.85 
 
 4.69 
 
 8.1 
 
 7.87 
 
 1.4 
 
 3.55 
 
 1.2 
 
 3.04 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.03 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.03 
 
 15.5 
 
 39.36 
 
 3,75 
 
 9.5t 
 
 3.75 
 
 9.51 
 
 1.6 
 
 3.81 
 
 3.1 
 
 7.87 
 
 2.87 
 
 7.28 
 
 9.4 
 
 23.87 
 
 3.75 
 
 9.51 
 
 1.8 
 
 4.57 
 
 1.4 
 
 3.55 
 
 0.75 
 
 1.90 
 
 O.HO 
 
 2.03 
 
 0.40 
 
 1.01 
 
 39.875 
 
 99.96 
 
 2.25 
 
 5.71 
 
 0.875 
 
 2.21 
 
 123.0 
 
 812.41 
 
 1.5 
 
 3.81 
 
 0.7 
 
 
 1.5 
 
 3.81 
 
 0.75 
 
 1.90 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.5(1 
 
 70.275 
 
 178.47 
 
 Lbs 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 87.875 
 
 16 »S 
 
 9.0 
 
 4.08
 
 ANCIENT. 
 
 47 
 
 ANEMOHETES. 
 
 The German iUichor and Life-saving Rockets are 
 packed securely in tiu-liiietl boxes. The boxes are 
 made of hard pine, planed smooth on both sides, with 
 the corners dovetailed. The bottom, sides, and ends 
 are lined with tin. The top is not lined and is screwed 
 to the sides and ends. A label ou the inside of the 
 cover of the box bears printed on its face a list of the 
 contents of the box in the German laucuage. A 
 similar label is pasted on the end of the box. The 
 rocket-boxes are oiled •but not painted. Bottom, 
 middle, and top clamps at each end hold the rockets 
 in place. A strip of felt separates the rockets from 
 the clamps. See Chandler Anchor-shot, German Life- 
 sating Rocket, Life-sacing Rockets, Lyle-Emery Grap- 
 ple-shot, and Rockets. 
 
 ANCIENT. — A term formerly used to express the 
 grand ensign or standard of an annv. 
 
 ANCIENT AND HONORABLE ARTILLERY COM- 
 PANY. — The tirst regularly organized military com- 
 pany in Amta'ica, formed in 1637, and copied from 
 the Honorable Artillery Company of London, dating 
 from 1537. The Boston Company was chartered 
 June. 1638, has always been vigorously sustained, 
 and is noted for the eminent citizens in its member- 
 ship. It has an annual parade, sermon, and dinner, 
 formal and dignified. A third and elaborately illus- 
 trated history of the Company has been recently pub- 
 lished. See Artillery Corps and Honorable AriilUry 
 Company. 
 
 ANCILE. — A kind of shield, in antiquity, which 
 fell, as pretended, from heaven, in the reign of Numa 
 Pompilius; at which time, likewise, a voice was heard 
 declaring that Rome would be mistress of the world 
 as long as she should preserve this holy buckler. 
 
 ANCONY. — A foundry term for a piece of partially 
 wrought liar-iron, partly finished in the middle, but 
 unwrought at the ends." 
 
 ANDABATa:.— In military antiquity a kind of 
 gladiators who fought hoodwinked, wearing a style of 
 hebnet that covered the eyes anil face. They fought 
 mouuleil on horseback, or on chariots. 
 
 ANDREW.— The Order of St. Andrew, or The 
 Thistle, is a Scottish order of knighthood, named 
 after the Patron Saint of 
 Scotland. Nisbet, with 
 pardonable partiality, 
 prefers it to all other 
 orders, purely military, 
 " chiefly for the antiqui- 
 ty of it, which gives it 
 ip a place and precedency 
 over all other orders 
 now in l)eing. " He then 
 proceeds, after Bishop 
 Lesley, to recount the 
 story" of the St. An- 
 drew's cross having ap- 
 Star of the Order of the Thistle. Peared in heaven to 
 Achaius, king of Scots, 
 and Hungus, king of the Picts, as a .sign of the vic- 
 tory which they should gain the following day over 
 Athelstane, king of England; and their subsequent 
 vow, when the prophecy was fulfilled, to bear it on 
 their ensigns and banners. It is frequently said to 
 have been recognized as an order of kniijhthood in 
 the reign of James V., and, after a periocl of abev- 
 ance, to have been revived by James II. of Great 
 Britain in 1687. For the actual facts of the c;ise see, 
 however, the article Thistle. The Star of the Order 
 of the Thistle is worn on the left side. It consists of 
 a St. Andrew's Cross of .silver embroiderv, with rays 
 emanating from l)etween the points of the cro.ss, "in 
 the center of which is a thistle of gold and green 
 upon a field of green, surrounded by a circle of 
 green, bearing the motto of the order in golden char- 
 acters. The badge or jewel is worn pendent to the 
 collar, or to a dark-gieen ribbon over the left shoulder, 
 and tied under the arm. It consists of a figure of St. 
 Andrew with th'e cross enamelled and chased on rays 
 of gold; the cross and feet resting upon the groimd 
 
 of enamelled green. The collar is of thistles, inter- 
 mingled with sprigs of rue. By a statute passed in 
 May, 1827, the order is to consist of the Sovereign and 
 sixteen Knights. The letters K. T. are placed after 
 the names of knights of the order. The motto is 
 Nemo me impmu lacesset. Nisbet, diHerjug from Sir 
 George Mackenzie, ])refers lacesset, as " having more 
 of daring ,i.nd gallantry." See Thistle. 
 
 ANELACE. — A short .sword of tlie fifteenth century, 
 so called because it was worn fastened to a ring, "it 
 had a blade very broad at the top, but gradually 
 tapering towards the end till it came into a point like 
 a tongue, which foiTn seems to have been copied from 
 the ancient pnra-onium. 
 
 ANEMOGRAPH.— An instrument u.scd in target- 
 practice for measuring and recording the direction 
 and force of the wind. Sec Anemometer. 
 
 ANEMOMETER.— An instrument for measuring the 
 strength and velocity of the wind. A simple anemo- 
 meter and one mucli used in ballistics is the Robinson 
 hemispherical-cup instrument, shown in Fig. 1. It 
 consists of four hollow hemispheres or cups fi.xcd to 
 the ends of two horizontal iron rods crossing each 
 other at right angles, and supported on a vertical axis 
 which turns freely. The cups revolve with a third 
 of the wind's velocity, and the instrument is so con- 
 structed that five huudretl revolutions are made whilst 
 a mile of wind ptisses over it. The revolutions are 
 registered by a system of wheels similar to those of 
 
 Fig. L 
 
 an ordinary gas-meter. The difference between two 
 readings gives the number of revolutions pa.ssed over 
 during the intervening time, from which the miles 
 can be calculated, and the rate per hour. 
 
 Dr. Robinson entertained the theory that the cups 
 (measuring from their center) revolved with one third 
 of the wind's velocity, and this theory ha\'iug been 
 supported by experiment, allowance has been made 
 in graduating the wheels so that the true velocity is 
 obtained by direct observation. 
 
 The first dial indicates hundreds of thousands of 
 revolutions or miles, according to mode of division; 
 the second, tens of thous;mds; the third, thous;mds; 
 the fourth, hundreds; and the fifth, tens. Should the 
 index point between two figures, the lesser of the two 
 is to be taken. Whenever the index of the first dial 
 is found to have passed zero (0), a cross or stiir is to be 
 prefixed to the next reading. The number of thou- 
 sands of revolutions made during a month is ascer- 
 tained by subtracting the first reading from the last, 
 and prefixing to the figures thus obtained a figure 
 corresponding to the mmiber of stars in the column. 
 Every thousand revolutions represent two miles of 
 wind, and the number of miles which have passed 
 in a month is ascertained, therefore, by multiplying 
 by 2. 
 
 To ascertain the velocity of the wind for a short
 
 AKHHOSCOFE. 
 
 48 
 
 ANEROID BAROMETEB. 
 
 period: Take two rcaUiiip; of uU thf dials with an in- 
 terval of twelve minutes. The difftrcure of these 
 readiiiirs, dividitl by ten. is the velocity of the wind 
 in miles [kt hour, l^ressnre-anemometcrs are of very 
 
 Fig. a. 
 
 great importance in meteorological observatories. Of 
 these, the most complete is that invented by Osier. 
 In this instrument, the force of the wind is ascertained 
 in a ditlercut way from the hemispherical-cup anemo- 
 
 Fio. & 
 
 meter. A bra.s,s plate one foot square is suspended by 
 means of springs, and Ijfing attached to the vane of the 
 Instrument, is maintained at right angles to the di- 
 rection of the wind. This plate, by the action of the 
 wind, is beaten hack upon the springs, and in bo domg 
 
 causes a iicncil to move backwards and forwards 
 on a sheet of pajier jilaced below it. This sheet of 
 pajHT is made to pas.s under the ]Hncil in a ilirection 
 at right angles to its oscillation, and by mesms of 
 clock-work moves at a uniform rate, .so that the force 
 of the wind at any particidar time of thetiay is record- 
 ed with perfect accuracy. A ]X'ncil in connection 
 with the vane, and moving in the .s;inie transverse line 
 as the former, records the changes in the direction of 
 the wind; and a third pencil, gui<led by a rain-gauee, 
 registers the (|uantity of niin that ha-s fallen, "fhe 
 Lind anemometer, shown in Fig. 2, is verj- c-onvcnient 
 for rough purjioses. It consists of a gla.ss siphon, 
 with parallel limbs, mounted upon a vertical rod, on 
 which it moves freely l)y the action of the vane which 
 surmounts it. The upper part of one of the limbs is 
 bent outwanl to the wind. Between the limbs is 
 a scale, graduated from to 3 in tenths, the zero 
 being in the center of the scale. In use, the tube 
 is tilled with water to the zero of the scale, and ex- 
 posed to the action of the w ind, by which the water 
 is depressed in the one limb and riiised in the other. 
 The sum of the elevation and (lcpres,sion is the height 
 of the eu'.unui which the wind is capable of sustain- 
 ing. The Beckley anemometer, shown in Fig. 3, is a 
 motlilication of that of Robinson. The hemispherical 
 cups act by a vertical a.\is upon two graduated con- 
 centric circles, the inner one representing five miles, 
 divided into tenths, and the outer one having one 
 hundred di\isions, each of which is equivalent to five 
 miles. At the top of the dial is a tixed index, which, 
 as the toothed wheel revolves, marks on the inner 
 circle the miles (up to five) and the hundredths of miles 
 the wind has traveled, while a movable index, which 
 revolves with the wheel, indicates on the outer circle 
 the pas.sagc of every five miles. If, when placing the 
 instrument, the hands stand at 0, the next reading will 
 show the number of miles the wind has traveled; but 
 should they stand othcnvisc the reading may be noted 
 anil deducted from the second reading, thus: Suppose 
 the fixed index points to 2..") and the movable index 
 to 125, the reading after twelve hours may be 200 on 
 the outer circle and 3.0 on the inner circle; these 
 added together give 203. By deducting the previous 
 reading, 127.5, we have the true reading, viz., 75.5 
 miles as the distance traveled by the wind. 
 
 ANEMOSCOPE.— An instrun"ient for showing the 
 course or direction of the wind. It is related that 
 Audronicus Cyrrhestes built an octagonal tower at 
 Athens, having at each side a statue of the god to 
 whom the wind blowing from that quarter was dedi- 
 cated; and in the middle of the tower was a small 
 spire having a cojiper Triton, which, being put in mo- 
 tion by the wind, pointed to the deity from whom it 
 proceeded. The custom of putting vanes on church- 
 steeples is at least as old as the middle of the ninth 
 centurj"; and as these vanes were freijuently made to 
 resemlJlc a cock, the emblem of clerical vigilance, 
 they received the name of wealher-cocks. The 
 anemoscope may be combined with the anemometer, 
 tints indicating "both the direction and the force of the 
 wind. Latterly the anemosco|ic has been made self- 
 reeonliiiL', and now in most ob.servatoiies needs no 
 watching, every movement. of the wind being written 
 down; the force or pressure and the velocity in miles 
 per hour bein.e also recorded. This is done bv pencils 
 which ])ress lisihtlv upon a cylinder coverecl with a 
 sheet of paper ilivided into horizontal hour-lines, the 
 lines moving at the rate of half an inch an hotir, a 
 complete revolution of the cylinder occuining twenty- 
 four hours. Lines marked by the pencils show by 
 thiir relation to the graduated lines the direction of 
 the w ind at aiiv mumenl of the day. 
 
 ANEROID BAROMETER.— An "instrument for in- 
 diealing ainiospherie i)iessure. Invented about the 
 beginning of the present century, it was not until 
 al)out 184K that the difficulties involved in the con- 
 struction of such an instrument were overcome, and 
 llie present serviceable form devised by M. Vidie. 
 Since that time the aneroid has continued substantial-
 
 &m:BOID BABOMETER. 
 
 49 
 
 AKEBOID BABOHETEB. 
 
 iv the same; improvements beinc rather in the direc- 
 tion of more perfect workmanship in its parts, and in 
 the more perfect adaptation of its metals, than in any 
 change of form. 
 
 As" shown in Fig. 1, the aneroid consists of a fiat 
 cylindrical vacuum-box, the upper surface of which 
 is corrugated in order that it may yield more readily 
 to exteiTial prcs^iiuc. The lower surface of the va- 
 cumn-chamber is tirmly fixed at the center to a strong 
 foundation-plale, whilst at the center of the upper 
 surface is a niolallic pillar, M, which acts upon a pow- 
 erful steel spring, R. The varying atmospheric pres- 
 sure causes the surface of the vacuum-chamber to rise 
 and tall: these movements are transmitted to the 
 spring, and thence by two levers, I and m, to a metal- 
 lie axis, ;•. From the latter rises a lever, t, to whose 
 extremity a chain, s. is attached, which turns a drum 
 the axis of which liears the index-needle. A firm 
 spiral spring keeps the chain constantly in proper 
 tension. By this arrangement of multipl>-ing levers, 
 a very small movement of the surface of the vacuum- 
 
 chamber causes a large deviation of the needle; 
 
 rOf 
 
 an inch causing it to move through a space of three 
 inches. Compensation for temperature is effected, as 
 in chronometers, by an adjustment of brass and steel 
 in the main lever, by whose unequal expansion and 
 contraction the liability to eiTor from change of 
 temperatui'c is overcome. The dial is graduated 
 
 indispensable; and from its greater delieacj-, he can 
 often prepare for a change in weather a considerable 
 time before the mercurial barometer gives evidence of 
 an impending storm. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents the mining and surveying aneroid, 
 designed for the purjjose of readily ascertaining slight 
 variations in gradients, levels, etc. Besides extreme 
 sensitiveness, the speeialtj- claimed for this instru- 
 ment is an arrangement of "the scale of altitudes which 
 aflmits of subdivision by a vernier, hitherto imprac- 
 ticable, owing to the altitude scale in ordinary- use be- 
 ing a grailually diminishing one, to which a vernier 
 cannot be applieil. In the present instrument the 
 action has l)een so adjusted as to give accurate 
 readings upon a regular scale of altituiles, the baro- 
 metrical scale of inches ha\"ing been made progressive 
 so as to alfortl the correct relative readings with the 
 scale of altitudes. For mining purposes the entire 
 circle of the dial is graduated to represent 6 inches of 
 the mercurial column, i.e., from 27 inches to 33. 
 This scale will register about 2000 feet below sea-level 
 to 4000 feet abnre; the finest di\'isions, hundredths of 
 the altitude scale, represent 10-feet mea.surements, 
 which can be again subdivided by the vernier scale to 
 single feet. Tbe vernier scale is moved by a rack- 
 work adjustment, and a magnifying-lens which ro- 
 tates on the outer circumference of the instrument 
 facilitates the reading of minute quantities. For sur- 
 face-surveying purposes, where it Ls not required to 
 be used beloit sea-level, the instrument is made with 
 the scale divided from 2.5 to 31 inches, thus giving an 
 altitude scale of 5000 feet above sea-level only, and 
 
 arbitrarily to correspond with the mercurial barome- 
 ter, after the instnmient is tested under the air-pump 
 to find the range. It is apparent, therefore, that the 
 aneroid can never be used as an independent standard, 
 but must be frequently compared with the mercurial 
 barometer. When so compared, however, and ad- 
 justed by a mercurial standard, the aneroid pos.se.sses 
 several advantases over the former. It is extremely 
 portable and can be carried in any way, or subjected 
 to any motion without danger of disturbance of its 
 indications. It is not at all liable to get out of order; 
 is not easily broken; and lastly, it is very much more 
 sensilire than the mercurial barometer. The late Ad- 
 miral Fitzroy, Mr. Glaisher the aeronaut, and many 
 other authorities, testify to the extreme .sensibility of 
 the aneroid; the former jiarticularly noting " its 
 quickness in showing the variations of atmospheric 
 pressure." Even in observatories, therefore, where 
 mercurial standards are in use, the aneroid is most 
 valuable in its capacity of giving earlier indications 
 than cim be obtained from the more sluggish mercurial 
 columD. To the seaman, who has often extreme diffi- 
 culty in using the barometer from the pumping of the 
 mercury caused by the vessel's motion, the aneroid is 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 with this open scale and the assistance of the vernier 
 the same minute readings can be e;isily taken. 
 
 From its portability, sensitiveness, and the ease with 
 which approximate altitudes may be ascertained, the 
 aneroid barometer is very valuable to the engrineer. 
 In preliminary surveys and reconnoissances it has 
 been found extremely useful, and for these purposes 
 it is largely employed. Carrying one of these little 
 instruments, the size of which need not exceed two 
 or three inches in diameter, the engineer, riding 
 rapidly over a country-, can speedily and with ease 
 procure the data for the determination of the line of a 
 survey. Holding an aneroid in his hand, the traveler 
 seated in the railroad-car can mark the clumges of 
 elevation as his train moves; the mountain-climber 
 can note, step b.v ctep, his gain in altitude: and the 
 miner, with the new mining aneroid, can mea.sure his 
 descent in single feet. For h_v-psometrieal work it is 
 especially important that the aneroid should l>e abso- 
 lutely accurate; that its compensation for effect of 
 temperature on the metallic works be perfect, and 
 that its indications should lie identical with tho.se of 
 the mercurial column. The importance of coinpen- 
 sation, particularly for pocket-aneroids, is evident
 
 &HOAR£B. 
 
 50 
 
 ANOEL-SHOT. 
 
 when it is rcnu'nihoreil that the chiiiij:e from a room 
 to the cxteriiul atmos|)hei-e may freiiueiilly involve a 
 iliffereiiee in temp»'n\ture of fnlm 30 to 50 F., a dif- 
 ference which, without pro|XT comix-nsition, may 
 move tlie iieetllc throiiirh a space etjiial to one hnn- 
 dretl or more feet. It is alst> necessary lliat the aneroid 
 be tested for corresiKindence willi the mercurial col- 
 umn. For this purposi^ there is an api)araliis specially 
 ammired, hy which the aneroid and a stanilanl nier- 
 curiai barometer are subjected to identical chanjies of 
 atmospheric pressure. Side by side the two barome- 
 ters are moved through the cntiix; ninjre from nor- 
 mal nressure to complete vacuum. If the .scale of 
 the aneroid Ix' accuralcly diviiled and in accord with 
 the instrument itself, the needle will move tenth bv 
 tenth with the mercurial lolumn, in perfect coinci- 
 dence. The be^t results, in all problems of altitude, 
 with the aneroid barometer are obtained by the use of 
 the following table jirepared by Sir G. Airy, late As- 
 tronomer Royid of England. "To use this table (sir- 
 ranged for temperature of 50° F.), take the read- 
 ing in inches of the barometer scale at the lower and 
 upper stations. Find in the table the heights in feet 
 corresponding to the barometer readings; .subtract 
 them, and the remsiinder will be the height required. 
 When the mean tempeniture is above or below 50 F., 
 the following correction must be applied: add to- 
 gether the temperature of the upper and lower sta- 
 rions. If the sum is greater than 100 F., iiicreuie the 
 height by f^,',,^ part for everj- degree of the e.\ces.s 
 above 100'; if the sum is le.ss than 100 , diministi the 
 
 height bv 
 
 part for everj* degree less than 100 \ 
 
 The complete formula is 
 
 T and t are the observed temperatures; IT and 7i are 
 the heights in feet taken from the table. 
 
 )■ 
 
 of time elaiise.s I)etween two observations, engineers 
 are now accustomed to u.sc two matched barometers, 
 one of which is kept in cami>, where observations are 
 taken at staled intervals, whilst the other is obser\'ed 
 at corresponding times in the tield. A correction can 
 thus be applied for atmospheric o.scillation. Where 
 one barometer only is u>id, observations may be made 
 repeatedly and the mean taken: or where it is incon- 
 venient to take the higher elevation more than once, 
 the lower reading can be taken afttr a.s well as before 
 the higher, l)y which method a partial correction ma^' 
 be obtained. See Ba roiiuUr and Baromctrograph. 
 
 ANGAREB. — A portable Ix-dstead is a great lu.xurv 
 in the tieUl, raising the sleeper above the damp soil 
 and the attacks of most creatures that creep on it. In 
 tours where a few luxuries can be carried it is a veiy 
 projier article of baggage. It is essential where white 
 
 ants are numerous. A very comfortable bed, shown 
 in the drawing, is made on the principle of a tennis- 
 player's rac'(i\iet; being a framework of wood, with 
 strips of raw-hide lashed across it from side to side 
 and from end to end. It is the Anijureb of Upper 
 Eg}-pt, and may be readily constructed in the field. 
 See Camp-Ill (htead. 
 
 ANGARIA. — According to ancient military writers, 
 a guard of soldiers posted in any place for the security 
 of it. .iVngaria, in e'wW law, implies a service by com- 
 pulsion; as, furnishing horses and wagons for convey- 
 ing corn and other stores for the army. 
 
 
 Aneroid.' 
 
 
 Aneroid,, 
 
 
 Aneroid, 
 
 1 
 
 Aneroid, 
 
 
 Aneroid, 
 
 
 Aneroid, 
 
 
 Aneroid, 
 
 
 Aneroid. 
 
 H'ght 
 in 
 
 or Cor- 
 reeled ; 
 
 H^Kht 
 
 or Cor- 
 rect e<l 
 
 Hght 
 
 or Cor- 
 rected 
 
 H'Kht 
 in 
 
 or Cor- 
 rected 
 
 H'ght 
 iu 
 
 .or Cor- 
 rected 
 
 H'Kht 
 in 
 
 or Cor- 
 rected 
 
 «'r 
 
 or Cor- 
 rected 
 
 ='r 
 
 or C'or- 
 recti*d 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Barome- 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Barome- 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Barome- 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Barome- 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Barome- 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Bai'ome- 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Barome- 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Bni-cme- 
 
 
 ter. 
 
 
 ter. 
 
 
 ter. 
 
 
 ter. 
 
 
 ter. 
 
 
 ter. j 
 
 
 ter. 
 
 
 ter. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft- 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 
 31.000 
 
 1500 
 
 29-310 
 
 3000 
 
 27.709 
 
 4500 
 
 26.282 
 
 6000 
 
 24.875 
 
 7600 
 
 23.543 
 
 9000 
 
 22.282 
 
 10500 
 
 21.089 
 
 50 
 
 30.943 
 
 1550 
 
 29.286 
 
 3C60 
 
 27.718 
 
 4550 
 
 26 2.M 
 
 6050 
 
 24.829 
 
 7550 
 
 23.500 
 
 9050 
 
 22.241 
 
 11550 
 
 21.060 
 
 100 
 
 80.SS6 
 
 1600 
 
 29.233 
 
 3100 
 
 27.667 
 
 4600 
 
 26.186 
 
 6100 
 
 24.784 
 
 7600 
 
 23.457 
 
 9100 
 
 22.200 
 
 10600 
 
 21 012 
 
 150 
 
 30.831) 
 
 1650 
 
 29.179 
 
 ! 3150 
 
 27.616 
 
 4650 
 
 28.1.38 
 
 6150 
 
 24.7:i8 
 
 7650 
 
 23.414 
 
 9150 
 
 22.160 
 
 10660 
 
 20.973 
 
 200 
 
 30.773 
 
 170O 
 
 29.128 
 
 3200 
 
 27.566 
 
 4700 
 
 20.090 
 
 6200 
 
 24.693 
 
 7700 
 
 23.371 
 
 9300 
 
 22.119 
 
 10700 
 
 20.935 
 
 250 
 
 80.717 
 
 1750 
 
 29 072 
 
 ! 3250 
 
 27.515 
 
 4750 
 
 26.042 
 
 0250 
 
 24.048 
 
 7750 
 
 23.328 
 
 9250 
 
 22.079 
 
 10760 
 
 20.896 
 
 300 
 
 30.6«1 
 
 1800 
 
 29.019 
 
 . 3300 
 
 27.465 
 
 4800 
 
 25.994 
 
 6300 
 
 24.603 
 
 7800 
 
 23.285 
 
 9300 
 
 22 038 
 
 10800 
 
 20.868 
 
 350 
 
 30 cot 
 
 1 1850 
 
 2S.966 
 
 3350 
 
 27.415 
 
 4S.W 
 
 25.917 
 
 6350 
 
 34.557 
 
 7850 
 
 23.242 
 
 9350 
 
 31.998 
 
 10850 
 
 20.820 
 
 400 
 
 30.548 
 
 1900 
 
 28.913 
 
 3400 
 
 27. SW 
 
 4900 
 
 25.899 
 
 6400 
 
 24.512 
 
 7900 
 
 23 200 
 
 9400 
 
 21.957 
 
 10900 
 
 20.782 
 
 450 
 
 30.493 
 
 1950 
 
 28.860 
 
 34.50 
 
 27.314 
 
 49.50 
 
 25.852 
 
 64.50 
 
 24.407 
 
 7950 
 
 23.157 
 
 9450 
 
 21.917 
 
 10960 
 
 20.741 
 
 500 
 
 30 4:)6 
 
 3000 
 
 28 807 
 
 3500 
 
 27.204 
 
 5000 
 
 25.804 
 
 6500 
 
 24.423 
 
 8000 
 
 23.115 
 
 9500 
 
 21.877 
 
 11000 
 
 20.706 
 
 550 
 
 30.3S1 
 
 3050 
 
 28.754 
 
 3550 
 
 27.214 
 
 .5050 
 
 25.757 
 
 6660 
 
 21.378 
 
 8050 
 
 23.072 
 
 9560 
 
 21.837 
 
 11050 
 
 20.668 
 
 600 
 
 30.3-i') 
 
 3100 
 
 28.701 
 
 I 3600 
 
 37.104 
 
 5100 
 
 35.710 
 
 6600 
 
 24. -m 
 
 8100 
 
 23 030 
 
 9600 
 
 21.797 
 
 IIIOO 
 
 20.630 
 
 650 
 
 :so.ati9 
 
 3150 
 
 28.649 
 
 3650 
 
 27.115 
 
 51.50 
 
 25.663 
 
 66.50 
 
 a4,3&'< 
 
 8150 
 
 22.988 
 
 9650 
 
 21.757 
 
 11150 
 
 20.692 
 
 700 
 
 30 314 
 
 3300 
 
 28.596 
 
 1 3700 
 
 27-065 
 
 5300 
 
 25.816 
 
 6700 
 
 24 241 
 
 8300 
 
 22.946 
 
 9700 
 
 21.717 
 
 11200 
 
 20 554 
 
 750 
 
 30.159 
 
 3250 
 
 28.544 
 
 , 3750 
 
 37.015 
 
 .5250 
 
 25 569 
 
 67.50 
 
 34.300 
 
 S3.50 
 
 22.904 
 
 9750 
 
 21.677 
 
 11250 
 
 20.517 
 
 600 
 
 30.103 
 
 3300 
 
 38.491 
 
 3)*00 
 
 20.966 
 
 5.300 
 
 25.522 
 
 0800 
 
 24.155 
 
 S.3tX) 
 
 22 862 
 
 9800 
 
 21.638 
 
 11300 
 
 20.479 
 
 850 
 
 30.lVi,S 
 
 3:150 
 
 28.439 
 
 3850 
 
 36 910 
 
 53.50 
 
 25.475 
 
 6850 
 
 24.111 
 
 8350 
 
 22.820 
 
 9850 
 
 21.598 
 
 11350 
 
 20.441 
 
 900 
 
 39, an 
 
 3100 
 
 28.387 
 
 3900 
 
 36.867 
 
 MOO 
 
 25.428 
 
 6900 
 
 24.067 
 
 8400 
 
 22.778 
 
 9900 
 
 21.658 
 
 11400 
 
 20. 4 W 
 
 950 
 
 39. WW 
 
 3450 
 
 28 3-35 
 
 3950 
 
 26.81S 
 
 5450 
 
 25.382 
 
 6950 
 
 24 023 
 
 8450 
 
 22.7.36 
 
 9950 
 
 21.519 
 
 11450 
 
 20 367 
 
 lOOO 
 
 89.NS3 ' 
 
 S.'WO 
 
 2S.283 
 
 4000 
 
 26,769 
 
 5.500 
 
 35.335 
 
 7000 
 
 23 979 
 
 8.5<XI 
 
 22.695 
 
 10000 
 
 21.479 
 
 11500 
 
 20.329 
 
 1050 
 
 39.S3S 
 
 3.550 
 
 38.2:)1 
 
 4050 
 
 20.720 
 
 5550 
 
 2.5.289 
 
 : 7050 
 
 3:1 n:i5 
 
 8550 
 
 23 6.53 
 
 10050 
 
 21.440 
 
 11560 
 
 20.292 
 
 1100 
 
 3'a.774 
 
 3600 
 
 28.180 
 
 4100 
 
 26.671 
 
 5600 
 
 25.242 
 
 7100 
 
 38.891 
 
 8000 
 
 32.611 
 
 10100 
 
 21.401 
 
 11600 
 
 20.255 
 
 1150 
 
 29.719 
 
 3650 
 
 28.128 
 
 4150 
 
 26.633 
 
 5650 
 
 25.196 
 
 7150 
 
 33,847 
 
 8(i50 
 
 32.570 
 
 10150 
 
 21. .361 
 
 11660 
 
 20.218 
 
 laoo 
 
 29.6«o 
 
 3700 
 
 28.076 
 
 4200 
 
 26 573 
 
 5700 
 
 25.150 
 
 7200 
 
 23 803 
 
 8700 
 
 23.539 
 
 10300 
 
 21 .332 
 
 11700 
 
 20.181 
 
 fao 
 
 29 610 
 
 2750 
 
 28.025 
 
 4350 
 
 26.524 
 
 ' .5750 
 
 25.104 
 
 7250 
 
 23 760 
 
 87.50 
 
 22.487 
 
 10350 
 
 31.283 
 
 11750 
 
 20.144 
 
 1300 
 
 29 .'m6 
 
 3800 
 
 27.973 
 
 4300 
 
 26.476 
 
 ! 5800 
 
 25.058 
 
 7300 
 
 2.3.710 
 
 880t) 
 
 22.440 
 
 !0:i00 
 
 31.244 
 
 11800 
 
 20.107 
 
 l.'KO 
 
 39.503 
 
 3850 
 
 27.922 
 
 4:j.50 
 
 20.43; 
 
 5850 
 
 25012 
 
 7:J50 
 
 33 673 
 
 8850 
 
 22.405 
 
 io:)50 
 
 21.205 
 
 11850 
 
 20.070 
 
 1400 
 
 39.448 
 
 2900 
 
 27.871 
 
 4400 
 
 38.379 
 
 MKX) 
 
 24. %6 
 
 7400 
 
 21.629 
 
 8900 
 
 22.301 
 
 10400 
 
 21.166 
 
 11900 
 
 20 033 
 
 1450 
 
 39.394 
 
 29.-,0 
 
 27.820 
 
 ' 4450 
 
 36 330 
 
 5950 
 
 24.920 
 
 7450 
 
 23 .586 
 
 6950 
 
 22.323 
 
 10450 
 
 21.128 
 
 11950 
 
 19.996 
 
 1500 
 
 29.340 
 
 1 
 
 3000 
 
 27.769 
 
 4500 
 
 36.383 
 
 6000 
 
 24.875 
 
 7500 
 
 23 543 
 
 9000 
 
 23.W83 
 
 10500 
 
 21.089 
 
 12000 
 
 19.959 
 
 It .should be borne in mind that all aneroids vary in 
 their readings with the position in which they are 
 held, reading somewhat higher in a horizontal posi- 
 tion with face up than when vei-tical. As they are 
 tested and adjusted in a horizonttd i«)sition, it is bet- 
 ter that they should be uniformly read from the hori- 
 zontal dial. Before a reading is taken, the face 
 should b(' tapped slightly with the linger to bring the 
 needle fairly into equilibrium. As there may be con- 
 siderublc atmospheric variation if any groit" interval 
 
 ANGELIAPHORI. — An ancient name for the recon- 
 noitring parties of the Grecian arinv. 
 
 ANGEL-SHOT.— A shot formed of two hemispheres 
 or spheres connected by a chain. It was invented by 
 Admiral DeWitt, in 1066, and was formerly much 
 employed for carrying away rigging in naval actions. 
 It was sometimes tired from a cannon with two 
 slightly diverging barrels united at the breech, form- 
 ing a single chamber, and discharged through a sin- 
 gle vent.
 
 ANGLE. 
 
 51 
 
 ANGLE SHEARING-MACHINE. 
 
 ANGLE. — The opening or inclination of two lines 
 that cut or meet one another. If the lines are straight 
 the angle is rectilinear. The magnitude of an angle 
 deiJenus, not upon the length of fhe lines or legs, but 
 upon the degree of their opening. If the legs are 
 supposed closed, like a pair of compasses, and then 
 gradually opened till theyciime into one straight line, 
 they form a series of gradually increasing angle-s; 
 when half way between shut and straight they con- 
 tain a rig)d angle. Any angle less than a right angle 
 is calleil atntf, and one greater is allied o'jluse. An- 
 gles are measured by degrees, of which a right angle 
 contains 90. The angle made by two cui-ved lines 
 (curriliitear) is the same as the angle made by the 
 tangents to the two curves at the point of intersection. 
 Angles made by planes with one another can also be 
 reduced to rectilinear angles. When three or more 
 planes meet at the same point, the angular space in- 
 cluded between lUem is called a solid mirjlc. The an- 
 gles most frequently referred to in fortilication, gun- 
 nerj', etc., are: angle of arrival, angle of clearance, 
 angle of defense, angle of departure, angle of depression, 
 angle of descent, angle of dish, angle of dispart, angle 
 of elevation, angle of fall, angle of fire, angle of inci- 
 dence, angle of inclination, angle of loci:, angle of pro- 
 jection, angle of reflection, angle of sight, angle of spiral, 
 dead angle, diminis/ted angle, flanked angle, interior 
 flanking angle, re-entering angle, salient angle, and 
 terminal anqle. 
 
 ANGLE OF AREIVAL.— The angle included be- 
 tween a tangent to the trajectory at the crest of the 
 parapet and a horizontal line. Supposing small an- 
 gles proportional to their tangents, we hare these 
 simple relations: 1. At the same distance from the 
 crest, the fall of the projectile is proportional to the an- 
 gle of arrival ; 2. For the same angle of arriral, tfie 
 fall of the projectile is proportional to the distance from 
 the crest. 
 
 ANGLE OF CLEARANCE. — In gunrery, the angle 
 of elevation obtained when the top of the tangent 
 scale and dispart sight and the notch on the muzzle 
 are in line. 
 
 ANGI-E OF DEFENSE.— In fortification, the angle 
 formed by a line of defense and a flank. The angles 
 of defense should never be less than yO and never 
 more than IJO . 
 
 ANGLE OF DEPARTURE.— In gunnery, the actual 
 angle which the shot's path on leading the muzzle of 
 a gun makes with the true horizon. This, when there 
 is mndage, may differ sensibly from the angle of in- 
 clination, and appears also to do so in the lighter 
 rifled guns, where the shots are observed to rise, from 
 the muzzle being slightly thrown up. This rise is 
 cau.sed from the " jump" of the irun. 
 
 ANGLE OF DEPRESSION.— In gunnerj", the angle 
 given to a piece of ordnuice when laid under metal, 
 or at an aUL'le below the iiorizon. 
 
 ANGLE OF DESCENT.— In gunner)', the angle 
 which the tangent to the trajectory makes with tiie 
 horizon at the height of the crest of the parapet or 
 other object to be cleared. It is rather less than the 
 terminal anirle. 
 
 ANGLE OF DISH.— The measure of the dish of a 
 wheel, being the angle made by the spokes of the 
 wheel with tlie jilane of its face. 
 
 ANGLE OF DISPART.— The number of degrees the 
 axis of the bore would point above the object aimed 
 at when laid bv the surface of the gun. 
 
 ANGLE OF ELEVATION.- In gunnery, the angle 
 between the a.vis of the gun and the visual line from 
 the sight on the tangent scale to the object. It has 
 no reference to the horizon or to any natural level. 
 
 ANGLE OF FALL.— The angle which the tangent 
 makes at the point of fall with" the terre-plein. The 
 size of this angle will determine the kind of ricochet. 
 It will be grazing if the angle is 4° or less, and 
 phmging when it is comprised "between 6' and 10\ 
 
 ANGLE OF FIRE.— In gunnery, the angle which 
 the axis of the barrel makes with the horizontal line; 
 lon account of the balloting of the projectile, the angle 
 
 of fire is not always equal to the angle of departure, 
 or projection. 
 
 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE— In gunnery, the angle 
 which the tangent lo the trajectory makes with the 
 actual surface struck at the point of descent. 
 
 ANGLE OF INCLINATION.— In guimerj-, the angle 
 which the axis of the gun forms with the true hori- 
 zon, or the angle shown by a correct spirit-level. 
 This is, consequently, the angle recorded when guns 
 are laid bv the quadrant. 
 
 ANGLE OF LOCK.— The angle included between 
 the stock and the plane of the wheel, when the wheel 
 touches the lock-plate in turning. The angle of lock 
 with the .5 track is a little more than 50'. 
 
 ANGLE OF PROJECTION.— In gunnerj', the angle 
 which the tangent makes with the horizontal at the 
 muzzle. See Anqlc of Dtjxirture. 
 
 ANGLE OF REFLECTION.— The angle intercepted 
 between the line of direction of a body reljonnding 
 after it has struck against another body, and a per- 
 pendicular erected at the point of contact. 
 
 ANGLE OF SIGHT. — In gunnery, the angle included 
 between the line of sight and line of tire. Angles of 
 sight are divided into natural and artilicial angles of 
 sight, corresponding to the natural and artificial lines 
 of sight which enclose them. See Pointing. 
 
 ANGLE OF SPIRAL.— This angle, sometimes called 
 the angle of rifling, differs in different guns, de- 
 pending principally on the length, weight, imd muz- 
 zle-velocities of the projectiles fired from them. It is 
 measured at any point of the groove, in guns rifled 
 with increasing twist, by the angle which a tangent to 
 the groove at that point makes with a line in the bore 
 parallel to it-s axis; and in guns rifled with uniform 
 tirist, by the angle which the groove itself makes 
 with a line in the bore parallel to its axis. In guns 
 rifled with increasing twist, the angle of spiral at the 
 muzzle is called the flnal angle of rifling, and that at 
 the breech end of the rifling is called the initial angle 
 of rifling. 
 
 ANGLE OF THE CENTER.— In forliflcation, the 
 angle formed at the center of the polygon Iiy lines 
 drawn thence to the points of two adjacent bastions. 
 
 ANGLE OF THE EPAULE.— In fortilication, the 
 angle formed by one face and one flank of .the bas- 
 tion. 
 
 ANGLE OF THE FLANK.— In fortification, the 
 ansle formed bv the flank and curtain. 
 
 ANGLE OF THE LINE OF DEFENSE.— In fortifl- 
 cjilion, that angle made by the flank and the line of 
 defense. 
 
 ANGLE OF THE POLYGON.— In fortification, the 
 angle formed by the meeting of two sides of the poly- 
 gon: it is likewise called the polygon angle. 
 
 ANGLE OF THE TENAILLE.— In fortification, the 
 angle made by two lines tichant, — that is, the faces of 
 the two bastions extended until they meet in an angle 
 towards the curtain, — and Is that which always carries 
 its point towards the outworks. 
 
 ANGLE OF TRACTION.— In draught, the angle 
 which the plane of the traces makes with the road on 
 which the carriage is mo%ing. Artillery carriages 
 ha\ing sometimes to move over the worst de.'^cription 
 of roads, the angle of traction must be slightly in- 
 clined upwards, as the vertical com|X)nent of the pull 
 will then a.ssist the wheels to surmount obstacles; the 
 weight being transferred to the shoulders of the horse 
 incre;i.smg the pressure of his feet upon the ground, 
 thus giving him a firmer hold, and enabling him to 
 exert with ease a stronger pull, while the resistance 
 against which he contends is at the same time dimin- 
 ished. 
 
 ANGLE SHEARING-MACHINE.— A machine of 
 frequent use in the Armory and Foundry. The same 
 principle involved in lever shearmg and punching 
 machines obtains in this useful tool. Angles which 
 have been curved or bent before shearing mid while 
 resting on tresUes may be readily trimmed. The 
 blades have no shear given to their edges: but by 
 punching the angle off with a cut extending over all
 
 ANGON. 
 
 ANGULAR BASE OF OPERATIONS^ 
 
 parts of the iron with a unifonii pressure, the pieee 
 cut off Ls not l>cut out of sbiipe. This is au iiiiporlant 
 fesitiia- in the machine, as it enables il to be ust'd in 
 ciitliuj: up ancles to lenirlh without ilistortinjr the 
 enils eut olT. Very nuieh more niiiiil work can be done 
 when the plates are moved by a spaeiiij: <le\iie than 
 when laid out with a template and pa.ssed Ibmufrh the 
 machine by hand; aecordingly, dividinir-nuuhines 
 can l)e adapteil to the shearers and |iunebei-s to enable 
 the sheets to Iw spaei-)! mechanically, makintr proper 
 allowance for the dilTeriMiee of diameter or circum- 
 ference of o\iler or inner sheds in cylindrical work. 
 
 The drawinj; shows a Duplex Angle Shear, as made 
 by \\'illiam Sellers «.t Co. This is a most perfectly 
 
 hand cutting. The bars are punched off at one 
 
 stroke, so as not to distort the crop ends by any .shear- 
 ing motion of the blades, and the machine is powerful 
 enoudi to cut 6 inches by () inches by 1 inch angles, 
 and io make the cut at any angle required in bridge 
 structures from ;{() included anirle to scpiare. The 
 machine is provided willi u'uiding tables for the 
 angles to rest on, and llie enlire machine, carrying 
 its" guiding tables with it, is made to swing on a 
 center, so that the presentation to the madiiue of the 
 angle to be cut is always in the siune right line. This 
 arrangement is very economical of room, as the irons 
 taken from the pile are ijresenled in line with the jiile. 
 the machine being turned to the reijuircd angle of 
 out, eillier to the right or the left hand. 
 Pulley on the machine is lit! inches 
 diameter, l".* inches face, and should 
 make :jUO revohitions per minute. The 
 . machine must be ]il;iced under the 
 driving pidley of the line, and the belt 
 is so carried by guiding pulleys on the 
 machine and near to the line driver as 
 ■will permit the vibration of the ma- 
 chine to its required angle of cut. See 
 Ltnr Slu(triii(i-iii(irliine, Poieer Shears, 
 and Shi (triny-ni(tr]iiiie, 
 
 ANGON.— A bariied spear used by 
 many early nations. The Franks, in 
 the seventh ccntinv, employed angons 
 both for thrusting and hurling. The 
 staves were anued with iron, so as to 
 leave but little of the wood uncovered ; 
 thelieatl ha<l two barbs. When hurleil 
 or thrust at an ojiiionent, the head 
 of the angon became ti.xed in the liesh 
 by means" of the barbs. This form of 
 spear was much adopted by the Anglo- 
 Saxon ;uid other Teutonic nations 
 
 ANGUIS.— A flag adopted by the Ro- 
 mans, which was carried at the head 
 of a cohort (the tenth part of a Roman 
 legion, consisting of GUO men) ; this 
 flag resembled a serpent in shape, and 
 was more commonlv called draco. 
 
 ANGULAR BASE OF OPERATIONS. 
 — If the base is angular, the angle may 
 be towards the enemy or away from 
 him. If it is salient, as in the drawing, 
 it is plain au enemy, EE, moving he- 
 
 Angle Shearing- Machine. 
 
 contrived machine, and very effective in operation. 
 The great weight of the machine is earned on a set of 
 anti-frielion rollers. This enables the machine to be 
 turned to the required angle of cut, thus setting the 
 blades to the angle, and not swinging the bars to be 
 sheared to the same angle. This "is a very important 
 matter, as invohnng great economy in armory-room. 
 There are two .shearing slides to carry the movable 
 or upper blades, and tluvse are at an angle of iX) to 
 each other, so its to cut the angles as they lie on their 
 flat with one leg vertical, and to make the cut at any 
 required angle of oblique division, from aO angle to 
 90 . The nuichine, as represented, is operated by a 
 heiivj' crank, which works either one of two diagonal 
 flides tanking the cutting blades for right- or leftr 
 
 yond the salient -A, would have his 
 conununications threatened from A, 
 and would also be liable to a flank 
 attack. A base of this form is weak at the salient. 
 The smaller the angle at A, or the farther this front 
 is advanced beyond IJ and C, the weaker will the 
 base be. The .s'alient must therefore be strengthened, 
 and made perfectly safe. A ba.se of this form is, 
 however, more favorable for an army acting on the 
 defensive than for one acting offensively. For an 
 army acting within the angle BAC can move from 
 one part of the line to another, to reinforce any part 
 of the line, more quickly than one on the exterior 
 can. If the base instead of being .salient is drawn 
 back behind B and C, that is, forms a re-entrant, it 
 will be more favorable for an army acting offensively 
 than for an enemy acting defensively. For an army 
 proceeding from u base of this form can threaten or
 
 ANGULAE VELOCITY. 
 
 53 
 
 ANNEALING FURNACE. 
 
 fieize the communications of its opponent without ex- 
 posing; its own. 
 
 ANGULAE VELOCITY.— The velocity of a body ro- 
 tatinir round a tixed point, wliicb is measured by the 
 circular arc described by any point of the body at 
 some unit of radial distance, usually one foot from the 
 axis of rotation. The velocity of any particular point 
 of a rotatory body may be found liy nudliplying its 
 angular velocity by the radial distance of tlie ]ioint 
 from the axis of rotation ; and vke rer»i, the angular 
 velocity may be founil by dividing the velocity of any 
 known point bv its radial distance. 
 
 ANGUSTICLAVE.— A robe or tiuiic embroidered 
 ■with purple studs or knobs, and with narrow purple 
 stripes, worn by Roman knijrhts. to distinsuish tliem 
 from members of the Senatorial! order, who wore a 
 garment with bnmd stripes, called /nliin daetis. 
 
 ANIME.— A sort of ancient cuirass, also called 
 brigawline. It was used in Italy until the seventeenth 
 century, under the name of anima or nnimetta. 
 
 ANlbCRATER.— The highest military rank of the 
 Laeeda'monians ; one who conmianded the whole 
 anny during the al)scnce of the king. 
 
 ANIPPUS.— A name commonly applied to the light 
 cavalry of the Grecians. 
 
 ANISOCYCLE. — An ancient machine of a spiral 
 form, like the spring of a watch, used for throwing 
 arrows to a great distance. 
 
 ANJON.— An ancient battle-a.xe frequently em- 
 ployed for missile purposes. 
 
 ANNALS. — A species of military history, 'wherein 
 events are related in the chronological order in which 
 Ihey hapjiened. They differ froiii a perfect history in 
 being merely a relation of what passes every year, as 
 a journal is of what passes every day. 
 
 ANNAMALLY. — The name of a forest in the south- 
 ern part of India, which yields good teak timber ; the 
 wood is made use of for ordnance purposes in the 
 iladras Prcsidenev. 
 
 ANNATINa:.— transport-ships (.so called by Julius 
 Ca'sar) in which were transported provisions," etc., to 
 nrmies and tleets. Also calli-d ('(irhitir. 
 
 ANNE. — The Order of St. Anne was originally 
 established in Holstein, and carried with the Princes 
 of that country into Ku.ssia. It was made a Russian 
 Order in Kitli, and is now widelv ditlused. 
 
 ANNEALING.— When steel, " after ha\'ing been 
 raiseil to a very high temperature, is suddenly cooled 
 by immersing it in pure water, brine, or mercury, it 
 becomes excessively hard and brittle, and while in 
 this condition eaniiot be worked in anv way. To 
 remedy this difflcidty, the steel is reiieateil, and 
 allowed to cool very gradually, by which process it 
 regains the properties of softness and malleability. 
 This process of heating and slow cooling is called An- 
 nenlin;;. Care must lie taken not to overheat the steel, 
 as that injures the metal by burning out some of the 
 carbon. The steel is cooled in various substances, 
 such as powilered lime, sand, cast-iron borings, dry 
 saw-dust, or warm ashes; the .sole object being to 
 make the cooling as slow as possilile, and also to pro- 
 feet the steel from the air. In the annealing of ca.st- 
 iron the heat recpiires to be kcjit uji much longer than 
 with steel, ;uul the iron must be well supported to 
 prevent lis warpiuic or lireaking. AVlien annealed it 
 is nuieh more uniform in temper, and less liable to 
 alter its figure by any subsequent exposure to a 
 moderate heat. 
 
 This property of becoming soft and mallealile on 
 ^bcing heated .and slowly cooled is common to nearly 
 all metals. Copper being the most marked exception. 
 In working this metal the opposite course has to be 
 pursued ; that is, it is made softer and more flexible 
 by plunging it when redhol into cold water. When 
 it is required rerjj soft and the surface clean, a small 
 quantity of sulphuric acid is mixed with the water. 
 The tetnpering of steel is really a process of anneal- 
 ing. The steel is placed in an oil-bath, or surrounded 
 by a metallic mixture which has a low fusins-point ; 
 and according to the temperature to which it" is sub- 
 
 jected, a steel with various degrees of softness and 
 strength is obtained. Parke's table of metallic mix- 
 tures capable of being used in the tempering or an- 
 nealing of instruments made from steel is as follows : 
 
 Alloy. 
 
 ' ■ 1 Fusing- 
 
 Lead. Tin. poiut " F. 
 
 Lancets 7 parts 4 parts 430 
 
 Razors 8 '* 4 " 44s 
 
 Penknives 8i " 4 " 450 
 
 large 10 " 4 " 470 
 
 Scissors, shears 14 " 4 " 490 
 
 Axes, plane-irons 19 " 4 ** 590 
 
 Talile-knives 30 •• 4 '• 530 
 
 Watcli-spi'ings, swords 48 '• 4 •• 550 
 
 Large springs, augers 100 " 4 " 558 
 
 The theory of annealing is verj- imperfectly under- 
 stootl. A certain rearrangement 'of the atoms of the 
 glass or metal no doubt takes place, and an absorption 
 of heat occurs. It is possible that as the crystalline 
 structure is indicative of brittleness, and the tibrou-s 
 texture characteristic of strength, that the pass;ige of 
 glass or metal from a brittle t"o a nou-l)rittle material 
 may be due to the development of a fibrous structure, 
 ■where a crystalline one was originally present. See 
 St-eel and Teinperinr/. 
 
 ANNEALING FURNACE.— A furnace employed at 
 Arsenals f(ir annealing copper or brass shells, cannon- 
 primer tulles, etc. The Annealing Furnace in use at 
 Frankford Arsenal consists of the furnace proper, con- 
 structed of boiler-iron, lined with tire-lirick, and 
 arranged with flue and cold blast for draught and heat ; 
 of an annealing retort, cylindrical in shape, with 
 closed ends of hemispheiical form. From these ends 
 project trunnions which revolve on friction rolls at- 
 t;K-hed to the furnace. The left tmnnion, looking 
 toward the furnace, is hollow, and subserves several 
 useful ]iuri)oses. It is a iiecp-hole for obser\ing 
 the degree of heat to which the charge is being 
 raised, an outlet for the smoke into which the oil 
 on the shells is converted, a means of obtaining 
 samples for test, and of emptying the charge wheii 
 sufficiently annealed. The annealing accomplished 
 
 Annealing Furnace. 
 
 in this tight-jointed receptacle possesses several ad- 
 vantages over the old jilan. In the latter the cylin- 
 drical vessel used was pierced ■(vith holes and revolved 
 with its charge o\er a charcoal Are. The surface of 
 the shells became considerably oxidized from ex- 
 posure to the atmosjihere and took u]) some dirt, as 
 ashes from exterior surroundings, during the Jirocess. 
 By the new ])l;m the charge is i)rotected from the 
 direct action of the tire, and the gases and smoke 
 generated and exi)anded inside the retort flow out 
 through the hollow trunnion. By the old method 
 charcoal was neees.s;u'v as a f\iel to guard against the 
 sulphur and other gases which would be generated 
 from burning anihi-acite coal. Anthracite coal is used 
 with the new retort, and the shells are annealed with 
 less oxidation of their surfaces, and consequently re- 
 quire less pickling anil cause less wear upon mar
 
 ANNEAU D'OR. 
 
 54 
 
 ANTHRACITF. 
 
 chiner)' and tools in the continued process of drawing. 
 Ten lluuisiiiui sliells ortliirly tliousjind cannon-prin\er 
 tulx's is a full chiirire fur iIil' retort. A cnuie lakes 
 Ihe retort fniin the funiaee and deposits it upon a 
 cnidle from wliieh it is readily emptied. The retort 
 with full ihari^^' \vuit;hs al«iut tioO pounds. The fur- 
 nace has a biniied wrouLilit-iron cover, which is lowered 
 over the retort durini; the oi)eration of annealing ami 
 raised when the retort is removed ; also a himred j 
 tluc, which tits into an openim: in the cover conneet- 
 ing it with the draft. The drawing on the preceding 
 page shows the general construction and operation of 
 the furnace. 
 
 ANNEAU DOR. — A gold ring. In accordance with 
 the example nt the ancients, Francis 1. of France in- 
 stituted a military recompense in the shajic of au 
 aniuau for all who distinguished themselves in any 
 militarv enterprise. 
 
 ANNULAR-BIT. — A boring-bit which cuts a circular 
 chiinnil, but does not ruui the central portion. WacLs 
 and other articles in the armory are made by a tool of 
 this kind. 
 
 ANNUNCIADA.— 1. The Religious Ordvr of the 
 Heavenly Annunciation, or of the Xuns of tlie Annun- 
 ciation of -Mary, was instituted by Victoria Fornare 
 at Genoa in lOf<2, after the rule of St. Augustine. 
 All the convents of the order in France, Germany, 
 and the Xelheilands have disiipjK'ared since the French 
 Revolution. Some still exist in Italy. 2. Another 
 Order of the Annunciation, or of Xuns of Mary's an- 
 nouncement or the ten virtues, was endowed l)y John 
 of Valois at Rourges in l.'iOl, after its sejKiratioD from 
 Louis XII. In l.jl-t it was placed under the authori- 
 ty of the Fninciscans. This order, which extended 
 to tifty convents for the reception of poor gentle- 
 women, was broken up at the Revolution. 3. The' 
 Order of Knights of the Annunciation in Savoy, ordine 
 suprema dell' annnnciala, 
 known originally as the 
 order of the neck-chain, 
 or collar, was in^li^uted in 
 1300 by Amadeus VI., 
 Duke of Savoy. It re- 
 ceived statutes from Am- 
 adeus VIII. in 1409; was 
 renewed in 1.518 under 
 tlie name ef the Holy An- 
 nimeiation; and in 1720 
 was raised by Victor 
 Amadeus to be the tirst 
 order of the kingdom of 
 Savoy. The King is always Grand ilaster. The 
 knights, who, since 1720, arc not limited in number, 
 must be of high rank, and already admitted to the 
 Orders of St. Mauritius and .St. Lazarus. They com- 
 pose only one cla.ss. The decoration is a gold medal, 
 on which is represented the ^Annunciation, surrounded 
 by love-knf)ts. It is usually worn suspended by a 
 simple jiold chain; but the iiroper collar or chain of 
 the order is composed alternately of love-knots 
 and roses. On the roses arc engraved the let- 
 ters F E R T, which some interpret FortUudo 
 ejus lihodum tcnuit, in allusion to the defense of 
 Rhodes by Amadeus I., and which others hold to 
 signify Fnipjw*. inlrtn. rompeH iwm. Since 1080 the 
 knights wear on the left breast a star embroidered in 
 gold. The four supreme ollicers of the order — the 
 Chancellor (always a Bishop or Archbisho])), the Sec- 
 retary (usually the Jlinister of Foreign AJfairs), the 
 Almoner (u.sually the King's First Almoner), and the 
 Treasurer — wear the decoration round the neck, sus- 
 pended bv a sky-blue riblxjn, accompanied by a star 
 on the left breast. 
 
 AN8JE— AN8E.— The handles of certain kinds of 
 ancient orduam-e. Small |>ieees of light weight in 
 tended to be movcrd from place to place by hand, 
 such as life-sjiving guns, are provided with aiiMe. 
 These handles, especially in some foreign cannon, are 
 cast ill llie li'nn nl ilolpliins and .serpents. 
 AN8PESSADE.— A term originally used to denote 
 
 Star of tlie Onier of the An- 
 nunciation. 
 
 dismounted horsemen who were obliged to serve 
 temporarilv in the infantry, and who bi-oke off the 
 lops of their lances so as to reduce their length to that 
 of the halberds of the sergeants. Also, a non-com- 
 missioned othcer who acts subordinate to a corporal ; 
 a lance-corporal. 
 
 ANTECESSOEES— ANTECURSORES.— Light cav- 
 alrv of the Unmans, which formed Ihe advanceilguard 
 of an army while on Ihe march. 
 
 ANTE-MURAL. — In fortification, an outwork con- 
 sisting iif a high strong wall with turret.s, for the de- 
 fense of a gate. 
 
 ANTEPILANI. — Soldiers of a Roman legion who 
 composed the fust and second ranks in line of battle, 
 and who were accordingly placed in front of the 
 third rank. The tirst rank was called haatati, 
 the second priiieipea, and the third pilani or 
 triarii. 
 
 ANTESIGNANI.— A name given to the soldiers of 
 the Roman army who protected the coloi-s, etc. ; ac- 
 cording to some authorities they were Ihe hnslati or 
 prinri/iia, and ;iccu!\ling to otheis they were a select 
 detachment consisting of picked soldici'S. 
 
 ANTESTATURE.— "a small intrcnchnicnt or work 
 formed of palisades or siicks of earth. 
 
 ANTHONY.— 'I'he military order of the Knights of 
 St. Anilionv was instituted by Albert, Duke of Ba- 
 varia, Holland, and Zealand," when he designed to 
 make war against the Turks in 1382. The knights 
 wore a collar of gold made in the form of a hermit's 
 girdle, from which hung a stick like a crutch, with a 
 little bell, as they are represented in St. Anthony's 
 pictures. 
 
 ANTHRACITE.— A mineral substance of the nature 
 of coal, but consisting of carbon with a minimum 
 ainoimt of hydrogen. It is of a black color, con- 
 choidal fracture, and imperfectly metallic luster 
 (hence called r/hnice-coa\). It burns slowly and with- 
 out flame, and hence is sometimes called blind-coal. 
 Its vegetalile origin cannot be doubted. AVhcre strata 
 of common coal have been broken through by trap- 
 dikes, the coal next the trap is found to be anthracite, 
 with a gradual transition into the ordinary state; 
 hence geologists look upon anthracite as natural coke, 
 formed by heat or other process from ordinary coal. 
 Anthracite is used as fuel like coke. It is apjilied in 
 many places to Ihe burning of lime and bricks, the 
 reduction of iron, etc. Iloccurs cxten.sively in Ire- 
 land, and in some of the coal-fields of England. Scot- 
 land, and the Conlinen; of Europe; but on the largest 
 saile in the United Slates. 
 
 In 1776, anthracite from near Wilkcsbarre, Penn., 
 was fioated down the Susquehanna to Carlisle, and 
 was used in the Goveriuiient Arsenal. In 1.S03, 100 
 tons were brought from Summit Hill to I'hiladel- 
 phia, and were .sold to the City (Toveriiment for use 
 in the piuuping-works, but the eiigiiieei's did not 
 know how to burn il, and it was broken up to gravel 
 the walks in the yards. In 1S12 two ark-loads were 
 sold at the falls of the Schuylkill at |21 l)er ton. A. 
 morning was wasted in futile attempts to burn this 
 coal, and at noon Ihe workmen and their employer, 
 discouraged at their ill-luck, shut up the furnace and 
 Went to dinner. On their return they were astonished 
 to find a roaring fire, the furnace-doors re<l-hol, and 
 the furnace itself in danger of melting. From that 
 day dates the successful use of anthracite in America. 
 Tlie development of this interest is shown m the fol- 
 lowing table: , 
 
 Anthracite is the purest form of natural carbon ex- 
 cept the di.iiii'iud. Tlic c.irbim v.iries from '.)') per 
 cent, in specimens picked from die best veins, toSOor 
 85 per cent. Coal containing less than 80 per cent of 
 carlion is not clas.scd as anthracite. The volatile mat- 
 ter present is water, oxygen, hydrogen, and nilro^n; 
 the a.sh contains oxide of iron, iron pyrites, silica, 
 alumina, lime, etc. Pennsylvania anthracites have 
 usually xVi to 1)4 jkt cent of carbon, li to 7 per cent 
 of volatile matter, and 1} to 7 Jier cent of ash; tha
 
 ANTI-COREOSIOK. 
 
 00 
 
 AFABEJO. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wtomii.g Rkoios. 
 Luzerne aod Sullivan Cos. 
 
 Lehigh Regios. 
 
 Cirbon, Columbia, and 
 
 Luzerne Cos. 
 
 ScBi-vxKiLL Region. 
 
 Schuylkill. Nortliuuilier- 
 
 laud. Columbia. Dauphin. 
 
 and Lebanon Coi>. 
 
 All the Re- 
 gions. 
 
 
 Shipments. 
 
 Total prod't. 
 
 Shipmente. Total prod't. 
 
 Shipments. 
 
 Total prodr. Total prod't. 
 
 
 
 10.000 
 
 16.800 
 
 146.760 
 
 862.635 
 
 3.151.846 
 
 7.279.543 
 
 ]3..3'JO.0(IO 
 
 ""25.110 
 
 221.023 
 
 781.050 
 
 1.628.:ill 
 
 1.9i9..'-)23 
 
 4.550.0OO 
 
 3.000 
 
 29,110 
 
 265.230 
 
 920.009 
 
 1.879.071 
 
 2.313.989 
 
 4.S25,000 
 
 "78,293 
 454,518 
 1.650,101 
 3,-H8.708 
 5.65.3.8*5 
 9.125.000 
 
 
 In 1829 
 
 7.<m 
 
 122.800 
 
 732,910 
 
 2.731.236 
 
 6.068.369 
 
 12.575.000 
 
 87.29.3 
 545.446 
 1,942,16,8 
 3,979,809 
 6,782.146 
 9,670,000 
 
 133 203 
 
 18.39 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1859 
 
 9.010.726 
 16,375,678 
 27,825,000 
 
 1869 
 
 1879 
 
 
 
 153,863.765 
 
 172,944,369 
 
 :i.5S0.C96 
 
 80.087.227 
 
 154.090,548 
 
 174.3o6.-236 
 
 427,987,882 
 
 density- varies from 1.4 to LG^i. Anthnrite was de- 
 rive J irom Ijitumiuous coal by heat actiiijruuder great 
 pressure-, and probably eaased by pre.ssure in" the 
 geological changes which threw the anthracite regions, 
 as in ea.stern Pennsylvania, into great mountain-waves. 
 The heat drove off all volatile matters which it would 
 develop from the bituminous coal , and loft the more 
 stable m-iterial behind as a natural coke, differing 
 from artilicial coke only in it.s superior density. The 
 loss of vegetable matter by decomposition in the for- 
 mation of bituminous coal is estimated at about three 
 fifths of the material, and in the production of an- 
 thracite at about three fourths 
 
 the added compression 
 leaves the resulting bulk about one tifth or one eighth 
 the original mass. It follows, then, that to produce a i table: 
 
 The Area axd Co>'texts dj Coal of the Anthracite Basins of Penxstltakia. 
 
 vein of imthracite 30 feet thick, '.J40 feet of vegetable 
 matter must have existed. The coal-fk-posits, as 
 found in the anthhicite formation near Pottsville in 
 the Schuylkill valley, include 15 groups, with 30 
 beds or veins more than '2 feet thick, and 20 seams 
 less than 2 feet. The thickest, or mammoth vein, is a 
 single bed from 20 to 70 feet thick, in some places 
 di\ided into three layers by seams of slate. About four 
 fifths of the present' production of anthracite comes 
 from this vein. The aggregate thickness of the coal- 
 veins at this point is 113 feet, of which 80 feet may be 
 profitably mined. 
 
 The possibilities of the production of anthracite 
 in America may be gathered from the following 
 
 Field. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Square 
 miles. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Feet of 
 coal. 
 
 QoiSTiTY OF Coal. 
 
 I Per 
 
 Per A., I Total quantity, cent, 
 tons. I tons. 
 
 Wvoming.. 
 
 Lenigh 
 
 Schuylkill. 
 
 Total. 
 
 186 
 43M 
 215 
 
 118,300 
 88,000 
 137.500 
 
 19 
 aOH 
 
 34.580 
 36.833 
 43.500 
 
 4.097.730.000 
 1.03O. 1-30.000 
 6.-i56.-2.iO.0OO 
 
 99 
 55 
 
 sriH 
 
 284,000 
 
 Hii 
 
 116,935 
 
 11..384.100.000 
 
 Field. 
 
 Tons sold to end 
 
 of 1877. 
 
 Tons mined, in 
 eluding waste. 
 
 Tons remaining. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 Tons available, 
 allowing waste. 
 
 Per 
 cent. 
 
 Wyoming. 
 
 Lehigh 
 
 Schuylkill. 
 
 151,473,872 
 72,422,-227 
 137.776,238 
 
 60 per ct. waste. 
 
 378.689.680 
 65 per ct. waste. 
 
 -206,910.302 
 65 per ct. waste. 
 
 430,766,703 
 
 3,719.040,320 
 
 833,-209,698 
 
 5.805.483,897 
 
 Total . 
 
 381.0r4.3K 
 
 1.0:S6.-366.685 
 
 10.347.733,315 
 
 S6 
 
 100 
 
 50 per ct. w-aste. 
 
 1.839.5-20.160 
 60 per ct. w-aste. 
 3-29.-283.879 2 
 60 per ct. waste. 
 
 2..322.193.318.8 
 
 41 
 
 7 
 52 
 
 4.510,997,338 
 
 See Coal and Ojk'e. 
 
 ANTI-COEEOSION.— A lacker formerly applied to 
 iron tnivci-sir.g-|iliitf(:iiiis, gun-carriages, and the out- 
 side of guns. It has been superseded by Pulford's 
 magnetic paint. 
 
 ANTIMONY. — A metal of a gray or leaden color, 
 and very brittle. It is found in mines with galena, 
 or the sulphuret of lead, from which it is easily dis- 
 tinguished, the antimony occurring in fine streaky 
 fibrous crystalline mas,ses of a radiated texture, 
 whereas sulphuret of lead is of a snuioth, shiny, lami- 
 nated nature. Antimony is found in Cornwall, 
 France, Spain, Boi-neo, Nepal, the Straits, and Siam, 
 and is commonly a.ssocialed with iron, zinc, quartz, 
 silver, sulphate of baryta, and carbonate of zinc. It 
 fusi's at alxiut 800 Fahr., and volatilizes very per- 
 ceptibly at a somewhat higher temperature. It is one 
 of the ingredients used in the detonating composition 
 of friction-tubes, and stars for signal-rockets. When 
 mixed with lead, it has the property of hardening bul- 
 lets. Sulphide of antimony enters into those compo- 
 sitions employed to give a strong light. It is particu- 
 larly well suited for that purpejse, for being decom- 
 posed at a comparatively, low temperature, the metal 
 is set free and disseminated through the flame in a 
 state of incandescence, causing the intensity of the 
 light to be considerable: moreover, the heated parti- 
 cles, coming in contact with the atmosphere, are 
 thereby oxidized, forming a white smoke which is 
 ven' favorable to the reflection of light. 
 
 ANTUSTEIONES.— A body-guard of the Kings or 
 Chiefs of the ancient Germans, which was composed 
 of volunteers. 
 
 ANVIL. — 1. An iron block, with a smooth, flat 
 steel face, on which malleable metals are hammered 
 and shaped. Anvils are of all sizes, from the tiny 
 articles used by watchmakers to the immense ma.sscs 
 for trip-hammer work in great iron-foundries. The 
 common an\-il of blacksmiths has a cone or horn at 
 one end, and a socket for a chisel in the other. The 
 best anvils are made of cast-iron, faced with steel, the 
 steel iK'imr placed at the bottom of the mould and the 
 iron poured upon it. 2. The resisting cone, plate, or bar 
 against which the fulminate in a metallic cartridge is 
 exploded. 3. An archaism for the handle or hilt of 
 a sword. ANo. a small pennon on theend of a lance. 
 APAREJO.— The pack-saddle used in the American 
 military ser\-ice. It consists of a strong leather sack, 
 about two feet wide and from 55 to 60 inches long, 
 according to the girth of the animal. -X. seam run- 
 ning from the front to the rear of the aparejo divides 
 it into two equal jiarts, each of which is composeel of 
 
 , a double layer of hide, with sufficient .space between 
 to introduce a suitable stutflng of hay. gnLss, moss, 
 fiber, etc. These side flaps, when f.istened together 
 at the top, fonn a ridge within which the back-bone 
 of the animal rests free from friction or pressure. On 
 the inside of each flap is left a circular hole through 
 
 1 which the stuffing material can at any time be reached.
 
 APASEJOCINCHA. 
 
 56 
 
 APPASTI8. 
 
 The cnrffiil jiacker should keep thi; stiilliii!; evenly 
 distributed, or so as to vary with the conforiuatiou of 
 the Imek of the particular animal, as portions of it 
 are constantly shifting and workiuir up into lumps, 
 in consetiuenee of the travel. The drawings show 
 the interior and exterior of the ajtarejo. To gel up 
 the aparejo, or to give it evenness and stilTness, small 
 ash, rose, or willow sprouts from ^ to J of an inch in 
 
 /. 
 
 — — 
 
 
 i JtiLsidp. 
 
 1 1 o 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 ■ - -— — 
 
 ::^ 
 
 
 ) y-::::::::::::::::: 
 
 
 24 inches. 
 
 ff i/tdes. 24 inrAes. 
 
 
 
 
 ; iV-OTU. : 
 
 
 1 
 
 o o o o 
 
 ; &vir. '; 
 
 o o o o o o 
 
 
 Outside 
 
 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 diameter, and as long as possible -n-ithout springing 
 (any tough and elastic wood will answer), are placed 
 inside of it and at equal distances apart — about 2 
 inches. On the inside of these, and towanis the ani- 
 mal, coarse grass or hay (such as is light and tough 
 anil will not break up) is placed layer after lajer un- 
 til the sides are as full as possible. The corners 
 should be stuffed as hard as possible by means of a 
 sharp stick. Serious trouble is often experienced on 
 
 FiQ. 2. 
 
 long and toilsome marches from loss of tie.sh, caus- 
 ing the aparejo to tit badly and cause a sore'back. 
 Great care must be taken tJi make gooil all deficien- 
 cies in the slulfing, and when the aparejo is too larire 
 to be adapted to a thin animal bv slutting, a portion 
 should be cut out of the center. Straw ]iaiN are use- 
 ful for protecting the hips and withers when placed 
 
 under the cinches of tho.so animals carrying rough 
 loatls. \Vhen the aparejo is stuffed it shoidd be put 
 on the animal for which it is intended, and the crup- 
 l>er adjusted. Fig. 2 represents the animal siiddled 
 with the crupper in ])roper position. The shajie of 
 the ajiarejo enables all loads to Ije nicely balanced, 
 (^ne hundred pounds on one side may be made to 
 ride with fifty pounds on the other without straining 
 the animal. It presents much more surface for 
 jire.ssurc to the animal than any other fonu of 
 pack-sjiddle. The lower corhtrs secure the 
 lash-ro]>e and jtreveut it slipjiing when on the 
 road. By removing the hay or stufling from the 
 sides a sore back ma\' be easily remedied, and by 
 pro]X'rly adjusting the tilling, the ajiarejo may 
 be made to perfectly lit a Ijadly .shaix-d back. 
 These may be cited as some of its advantages. 
 See Piickiiiq. 
 
 APAREj'O-CINCHA.— A girth made of hide 
 or strong canvas, about six feet long and twenty 
 inches w ide, and folded so as to bring the edges 
 in the centre of the cincha. A semicircle of 
 strong leather pierced with several holes is 
 stitched on one end, and two loops of strong 
 leather on the other. See Jlammer-cluth and 
 Packing. 
 
 AF£X. — The tip, point, or summit of any- 
 thing. The Romans .so named the crest ofa 
 helmet, or the part whereon the horse-hair plume 
 was attached. 
 
 APHEACTI.— In the ancient military art, open 
 vessels, ^viihout decks or hatches, furnished only 
 at head and stern with cross-planks, whereon the 
 men stood to fight. 
 APOBATES. — A name given by the ancients to 
 warriors who fought mounted on chariots; they were 
 also called Aiakibata or Parahales; they were gen- 
 endly leaders who fought in this manner. Their 
 armor and arms consisted of helmet, breast-armor, 
 lance, ja\elin, sword, and shield. These warriors 
 occasionally alighted from the chariots to attack their 
 aiUersaiies on toot. 
 
 APOLOGY. — In a military point of view, an apology 
 maile and accepted debars the otlicer who accepts 
 from bringing forward the matter as a substantive 
 accusation. The law declares that no officer or sol- 
 dier shall use any reproachful or i)ro\(>king .speeches 
 or gestures to another. Any officer who so offends 
 shall be put in arrest. Any soldier who so offends 
 shall be confined, and required to a.sk pardon of the 
 party offended, in the presence of his Command- 
 ing Officer. 
 
 APOMAQtJE. — A word, among the Grecians, 
 signifyiiii; tlicise soldiers who were disquali- 
 fied lor niilitary service from physical disa- 
 bility or otlit-r causes. 
 
 APOMECOMETEK.— An instrument used for 
 measiu'ing heights, constructed in accordance 
 with the iirinciples which govern the sextant, 
 \\-/.. : As the angles of incidence and reflection 
 are always equal, the rays of an ol)ject being 
 thrown on the plane of one mirror are from 
 that rellected to the i>lane of another nurror, 
 thereby making both extremes of the vertical 
 height coincide exactly at the same point on 
 the horizon-gla.ss, so that by measuring the 
 ba.sc-line we obtain a result equal to the al- 
 titude. The eye of the observer when in po- 
 sition will be at the lower end of the hypo- 
 ihenusc, tmd the summit of the object at 
 ihe other. Keeping the line of \ision, 
 which forms the base, exactly horizontal, 
 the observer approaches the object till the 
 images coincide, when the ba.se will agree in 
 length with the peqiendicular, and the measured 
 lanirth of the former will cive the height of the 
 latter. 
 
 APPAKEILIES.— In fortification, those slopes tiiat 
 lead to the platfonn of the liaslion. 
 APPASTIS. — A war tax which was Ie\ied in ancient
 
 APPEAL. 
 
 57 
 
 APPOINTING POWEE. 
 
 times upon the inhabitants of conquered countries. 
 Also kncwn as Pactis. 
 
 KWZIlL. — Any ofticer or soldier who may think 
 himself wion;:ed liy his Colonel or the Commanding 
 Officer of his regiment, and after due application to 
 hira is refused redress, may appeal to the next higher 
 commander, who is to examine into said complaint 
 and take proper measures for redressing the wTong 
 complained of, and transmit, as soon as possilile, to 
 the Dcjiartment of War a true statement of such 
 complaint, with the proceedings had thereon. If any 
 inferior otiicer or soldier shall think himself wn)nge<l 
 by his Captain, or other officer, he is to complain 
 thereof to the Commanding Oflicer of the regiment, 
 who is required to summon a Regimental Coiirt-ilar 
 tia! for doing justice to the complainant; from which 
 R(v:;imental Court-Martial either party may, if he 
 thiidis himself still aggrieved, appeal to a General 
 Court-Martial. But if upon a .second hearing the ap 
 peal .shall appear vexatious and groundless, the per 
 son so appealing shall bo punished at the discretion 
 of the said Court-ilartial. 
 
 The wrongs here alluded to have reference chiefly 
 to matters of accounts between the Captain, or Com- 
 mander of the company, and the soldier, relating to 
 clothing ami other supplies, as well as to pay; and 
 the Regimental Court, in examining into such trans 
 actions, may be considered more as a Court of Inquiry 
 than a Court Martial, or it maybe \-iewed as an Arbi- 
 tration Board, called on to adjust and settle dilTer 
 ences arising in the scltlcments of accounts between 
 the Captain and his men. One reason why a power 
 of appeal is <leclared to be a matter of absolutu right 
 to inferior oHicers or soldiers complaining of being 
 wronged by their officers doubtless is, that a Regi- 
 mental or Garrison Court-Martial has not the power of 
 inflicting any punishment ou Commissioned Officers. 
 It can do no more than express its opinion that the 
 comijlaint is just, or the conti-ar}', and, where it is 
 practicable and proper, relieve the sufferer as to any 
 existing grievance; but the injiuT complained of, 
 however rtairrant, nnist still have remained unre- 
 dressed, as far as punishment is concerned, if an ap- 
 peal to a Cicneral Ccuirt-JIartial had not been declared 
 to be a matter of right to the part)' aggrieved. 
 
 APPEL. — A smart stroke with tlie lilade by a fencer, 
 on the sword of his antagonist on the opposite side to 
 that which he engaged, genemlly accompanied wixh. 
 a stamp of the foot, and used for the purpose of pro- 
 curing an opening. 
 
 APPOINT. — To fix by a decree, order, command, 
 resolve, decision, or mutual agreement. In the 
 United States the President, by and with the advice 
 and consent of the Senate, appoints and commissions 
 all Commissioned Officers of the Anny. Appoint- 
 ments to the rank of General Officer are made by se- 
 lection from the Army. xVll vacancies in the grade 
 of Second Lieutenant are filled b)' appointment from 
 the graduates of the Military Academy, so long as 
 any such remain in service unassigned; and any va- 
 cancies thereafter remaining are filled by promotion of 
 meritorious Non commissioned Officers of the Army. 
 Vacancies remaining after exhausting the two classes 
 named are filled b)' appointment of persons in c\\\\ 
 life. But appointments of ci\i!ians, except such as 
 are regular graduates of the ^Military Acadcnn- who 
 have been honoial)ly discharged from the ser\-ice,are 
 made in time of i>eiice only when more vacancies ex 
 ist in the Army than will be required in the assign- 
 ment of the ne.xt graduating cla.ss. To insure the sa- 
 lection of proper CandidattK for Promotion from the 
 grades of Xon commissioned Officer, Company Com- 
 manders report to their Regimental Commanders, by 
 the first of Februari- in each year, such as, in their 
 opinion, by education, conduct, and ser\"ices, seem to 
 merit advancement, and who have served not less 
 than two years in the Army. The reports set forth a 
 description of the candidate, his length of serWce as 
 Non-commi.ssioned Officer and as Priv.ate Soldier, his 
 character as to fidelity and sobriety; his age, physical 
 
 qualifications, and mental abilities; the extent to 
 which his talents have been cultivated, and his fitness 
 generally to discharge the duties of a Commissioned 
 Ofiicer " If recommended ou account of meritorious 
 services, the particular .services referred to are stated 
 in detail. A qiuilified Board is annually a.ssembled 
 to make a iirelirainarj' examination into the claims 
 and (qualifications of such Non-commissioned Officers, 
 and the report of this Board is forwaided to the Seo 
 retary of AVar. 
 
 Whenever the public service may require the ap- 
 pointment of a ci\ilian to the Army, a Board of Offi 
 eers is instituted, before which the candidate is 
 authorized b}- the Secretary of War to appear for 
 examination into his physical abilil_v, moral charac- 
 ter, attainments, and general fitness for the service. 
 As^i rule, promotions of Xon-connnissioned Officers to 
 the rank of Second Lieutenant will not be made if the 
 candidate is under twenty -one or over thirty years of 
 age, nor if the candidate at the time of his ajipoint- 
 ment is married. The limits of age in cases of ci\-il- 
 ian candidates are twenty and thirty years. 3Icrito- 
 rious Xon -commissioned Officers of the Anny recom- 
 mended for appointment receive a certificate to that 
 effect from the Adjutant-General of the Army, and are 
 known in the scrxice as "Candidates for Promotion," 
 and have the title of " Candidate" prefi.xed to thatlof 
 their rank on all rolls, returns, orders, and correspon- 
 dence. They are entitled to wear on each sleeve of 
 their coat a singlestripe of gilt lace, Init are entitled to 
 this privilege so long only as they maintain the spe- 
 cially honorable position of "Candidate." The priv- 
 ileges of a candidate terminate with the calendar year 
 next succeeding that in which he receives his " Certi- 
 ficate," unless his recommendation is continued by 
 the succeeding Boards of Examination. Candidates 
 who become ineligible by reason of over-ago are en- 
 titled to wear the candidates' stripe on the left sleeve 
 only, so long as they maintain the same standing and 
 good conduct as Xon-commissioned Officers in the 
 sen'ice as at their examination. "Candidates" who 
 think themselves wronged in the loss of that position 
 have a right to trial by General Court-Martial on aj)- 
 pcal, within two months, to the Department Com- 
 mander; and no Xon-commissioned Officer, while hold- 
 ing the privileges of a " Candidate," can be brought 
 before a Field officers' Court, or a Garrison or Regi- 
 mental Court-Martial. All vacancies in established 
 regiments and corps to the rank of Colonel are filled 
 by promotion according to seniorit\', except in case 
 of dis;\bility or other incompetency. Pi'omotions to 
 the rank of Captain are made rcgimentally; to Major 
 and Lieutenant -Colonel and Colonel, according to the 
 arm, as Infantry. Artillery, etc.; and in the Staff De- 
 jiartments, and" in the Engineers and Ordnance, ac- 
 cording to Coqis. .Suspension from rank prevents an 
 officer's promotion to a higher grade, but will not 
 otherwise i)rejudico his relative advancement by 
 seidority in tlie grade occupied for the time being. 
 See PriHiintion. 
 
 APPOINTE.— This word was applicable to French 
 soldiers only during the old monarchy of France, and 
 meant a man who for his service and extraordinary 
 bravery received more than common pay. There 
 were likemse instances in which officers were dis- 
 tinguished bv beintr stvled Offi'vrs AppointfS. 
 
 APPOINTING PO'WTER.— it lias been contended by 
 advocates of executive <lisc:\.'u m that anny appoint- 
 ments are embraced in the power granted to the 
 President in the second section of the Conslitulion, to 
 nominate and, bv and -n-ith the ad\ice and consent 
 of the Senate, appoint "all other oflicers of the 
 United States whose appointments are not herein 
 otherwise provided for and which may be estab- 
 lished by law. But the Congress may, by law. vest 
 the appointment of such inferior officers as they think 
 proper in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, 
 or in the Heads of Departments. " If due regard, 
 however, be paid to the worils, " irhost npiMintiinnts 
 are not herein otherwise 2>rovided for," the pretension
 
 APPOINTMENT. 
 
 58 
 
 APRON, 
 
 set up in favor of executive iwwcr will receive no 
 support from the terms of the Ctmstitution. The 
 powers gniiiled to t'on^ess to ni/jff ami support 
 iirraies, ami to make all niUs for the gortrnmiitl and 
 ngulalion of tlie laiul ami naval forces, are necessa- 
 rily so comprehensive in character as to embrace all 
 means which Conjrn'ss, accoriliug to circumstances, 
 may deem proper and necessary in order to raise 
 armies, or to ifovern them when raised. Hules of ap- 
 pointment to ofllce, rules of promotion — another form 
 of app<iintnunl— and all rules whatever in relation to 
 the land and naval forces, s;ive the aiipointnunt of 
 the CommiUider-in-Chief of those united forces, who 
 is designated by the fonstitution, are hence within 
 the competency of Consrress. 
 
 It is true that this i;reat power vested in Coniri'ess 
 has been exercised by them, in most cases, by skiving 
 to the President a large discretion in appointments 
 nnd other matters connected with the army. I5ut the 
 principle itself — that supreme command is vested in 
 Cona^ress — has been often a.ssertcd in our military leg- 
 islation. Contemporaneously with the foundation of 
 the government laws have been passed giving to gen- 
 eral and other ollirers the right of apiioinimem to 
 certain offices; in other cases the President has been 
 confined in his selection to classes designated by law; 
 again, rules have been made by Congress for the 
 promotion of ollicers, and in 1S46 an anny of vol- 
 unteers was raised by Congress, the officers "of which 
 Congress direct(?d .should be appointed according to 
 the laws of the States in which the troops were raised, 
 excepting the General Ollicers, who were to be ap- 
 pointed by the President and the Senate — a clear 
 recognition that the trofips tlius raised were United 
 States trooi^ and not militia. See Appoint. 
 
 APPOINTMENT.— Office, rank, or emploj-mcnt. 
 Also, the equipment, ordnance, f urnitiu-e, and ncces- 
 sarv articles of an iu-mv. 
 
 APPOINTMENTS.— the militarj' accouterments of 
 officers or soldiers, such as belts, sashes, swords, etc. 
 In the English .service the iip]iomtm<'iit,im the mounted 
 branch consist of accouterments, saddle, etc., making, 
 with the Xon-commi&sioned Officer, a total weight for 
 the horse to caiTV of alx)ut 18 stone. 
 
 APPOINTON.— A sort of poniard which was exten- 
 sively used in ancient times. 
 
 APPREHEND. — In a military sense, the seizing or 
 confining of any person; as, to' apprehend a deserter, 
 etc. 
 
 APPRENTI. — Formerly in the Frcncli service there 
 Were appreiiti or soldiers among the arlillerv, who 
 served for less pay than the regular artillerymen, 
 until they became perfect in their profession,"when 
 they were admitted to such vacancies as occurred in 
 their respective bnmches. 
 
 APPROACH.— The route by which a fortified place 
 or military position can be approached by an attack- 
 ing force. 
 
 APPROACHES.— The sviccessors of Vauban fol- 
 lowed up, as far as iiracticable, the methodical stages 
 in conducting the attack founded upon his long exjK'- 
 rience, and which consisted in a single or a double 
 connected attack; approaching the points assiiiled by 
 as many lines of commimicalion, directed upon them, 
 ns circumstances seemed to demand, and protecting 
 these approaches l)y three continuous main lines of 
 trenches, termed the parallels, and several portionsof ' 
 parallels, termed denii jiandlels, placed between the 
 second and third parallels, all of them so placed ns to 
 be in good tactical relations to each other. 
 
 The approaches were visually run in zigzag direc- 
 tions towards the si\lienls of the defences, crossim: 
 the lines of the capitals of tliese sjdients; the front of 
 each approach gnulually contracting as it was ad- 
 vanced towards the .-^dient; and each bovau of the 
 approach receinng such a direction as niit to expose 
 it to an entilading tire from any jioint of the defences 
 within cannon-range. The drawing shf)ws the jiro- 
 file of the apprr)ach. In addition to the communica- 
 tions between the parallels, two or more lines of ap- 
 
 proaches were mm, from the positions selected for the 
 depots of the trenches, to jioints of the first pandlel 
 convenient for the supplies for this and the other lines 
 of wt)rks. These were also usually run in the direction 
 of the capitjds of some two or more of the sidients. 
 
 Besides giving the boyaux directions imfavorable 
 to an enfilading fire from the defences, each one is 
 extended some ten or twelve yards back, to the rear 
 of the one behind it, so that shoidd the besieged en- 
 deavor to take up a temporar\- i)osi(ion. exterior to 
 his maui defences, each boyau would still be covered 
 by the portion of the one in advance of it run to the 
 rear, not only from an enfilading but from any sUmt 
 reverse views, except from poinds so far beyond the 
 defences as to make their temporary occupation very 
 perilous to the besieged, from their exposiu-e to open 
 assaults. 
 
 The positions given to the approaches along the 
 c;ipitals are not obligatory; but will generaliy be 
 foimd to offer more advantages than any'olhei" that 
 
 The Profile of the Approach. 
 
 could be given them on ground entirely unobstnicted. 
 In the first place, the capitals are the shortest lines 
 from the parallels to the salients of the defences. In 
 the secontl, by running the boyaux across the capitals, 
 and gradually diniinisliing the extent of their front, 
 the entire approach will be belter flanked by the fire 
 of the parallel in its rear; will be in a iw.sirion to re- 
 ceive but little if smy of the fire which is delivered 
 from the two faces of the salient upon which it is rim; 
 will be out of the line of fire of the batleries enfilad- 
 ing these two faces; and will usually be in the most 
 favorable position to defile each boyau from the fire 
 of the besieged. 
 
 The front occupied by each a]>proach will depend 
 upon the length given to each boyau. As a general 
 rule, the boyairx shoidd not receive a greater length 
 than 100 yards, in order not to expose too long a line 
 to tempt the besieged to enfilade it, and the approach 
 may be started at the first parallel with a front of 60 
 yards, which .should be gradually narrowetl, so as to 
 have a front of about 30 yards at the position of the 
 third pnndlel. 
 
 APPROPRIATIONS.— Annual appropriations, origi- 
 nating in the Lower House of Congress, are made for 
 the support of the United States army. The Eng- 
 lish army is raised by the Queen, and maintained by 
 annual apiiroiiriations l)y Parliament; the system for 
 the support of armies is much the same throughout 
 Europe. In the Uniteil Stales the term appropria- 
 tion is also used by Post and Kegimental Coimcils of 
 Administration in the expenditure of funds. 
 
 APPUI. — A staj- or supiwrt. In military tactics, 
 Xhe }xnnU (Vappuiare such parts of Ihe field of battle 
 as are suited to give support or shelter. As the wings 
 of an anny (like the extreme sides of a chess-board) 
 are the weakest points of resistance to attack, they 
 especially reipiire support or protection, and are 
 placed, when it is jKissible, in localities which serve 
 to obstruct the attacking forces. Lakes, morasses, 
 woods, streams, and steep decli^^ties may thus servf 
 as p)in t» d'appii i. 
 
 APRON. — This word is employed both in military 
 and in shipping affairs. The apron of a cannon is a 
 piece of sheet-lead which covei-s tlie toueh-hole. lied by 
 two pieces of white rope. In ship-buiMing, the apron 
 is a piece of curved linilier fixed behind the lowei 
 part of the stem and just above the foremost end of 
 the keel; its chief use is to fortify tlu' stem and con 
 ncct it more firmly with the keel. " The name of aproD 
 is also given to the i>lank-flooring raised at the en
 
 AftUEDUCT. 
 
 59 
 
 ABCH. 
 
 trance of a dock, a little higher than the bottom, to 
 fonii an iibutnu'iit asainst wliich the gates may shut. 
 
 AftUEDUCT. — Au artiticial course" or channel by 
 which water is conveyed along an inclined plain. 
 When an aquetluct is carried across a valKy it is 
 usually raised on arches, and where elevated ground 
 or hills intervene a passage is cut, or, if ncces-sarj', a 
 tunnel bored for it. Aqueducts were not imknown to 
 the Greets; but there are no remains of those which 
 they constructed, and the brief notices of them by 
 Pausanias, Herodotus, and others do not enable us to 
 form any distinct notion of their chanicter. The 
 aqueducts of the Romans were amongst the most 
 magniticent of their works, and the noble supply of 
 water whieli modern Rome ilerives from the three now 
 in use, of which two are ancient, gives the stranger a 
 very vivid conception of the vast scale on which the 
 ancient city must have been pro\ided with one of the 
 most important appliances of civilization and refine- 
 ment. wliLH nine were employed to pour water into 
 its baths and fountains. 
 
 AftUILA.— The principal standard of a Roman 
 legion. The standard of Romulus is said to have 
 consisted of a handful of hay, straw, or fern, aftixed 
 to a pole or spear; whence the company of .soldiers I 
 who served under it was called Manipulus. This [ 
 primitive standard was soon superseded by the figures i 
 of animals. In 104 B.C. the Eagle was permanently 
 adopted: it was made of silver or bronze, and was 
 represented with expanded wings. 
 
 AQUILIFER. — A name given"" by the Romans to the 
 officers who carried the Eagles of the lesions. 
 
 ARBALEST— ARBLAST—ARCUBALEST.—xV wea- 
 pon much in use during the feudal times. Its recog- 
 nized position among militaiy arms may be dated 
 from about the period of Richard I. The smaller 
 kinds of arbalest were bent by pressing the hand on a 
 small steel lerer called the""goat's foot;" but the 
 larger kinds were bent by placing the foot in a looj) or 
 stirrup at the end of the central shaft, and drawing 
 the cord upwards with the hand. At a later period 
 the bow was made very strong, often of steel; in this 
 form it required a mechanical contrivance, called a 
 "moulinet." to liend it. Sometimes ordinary arrows 
 ■were used with the arbalest, but more usually arrows 
 of a shorter and stouter kind, called " canials" or 
 "quarrels," were employed; these had a four-sided 
 
 Arbalest. 
 
 pyramidal form of head. Occasionally stones and 
 leaden balls were shot from the larger arbalests. The 
 Arbalestiers, or Cross-bowmen, carried a quiver with 
 fil'ty arrows as an armament in some of the battles of 
 the thirteenth century. They were an essential com- 
 ponent of armies of that period, taking up their posi- 
 tion in the van of the battle array; some were mounted, 
 some on foot, and they occ;t.sionally wore armor. The 
 supi'ly of arrows or quarrels was carried after them to 
 the battle-tield in carts. The arbalest continued to be 
 a favorite weapon in England throughout the thir- 
 teenth century; but in the fourteenth it gave way to 
 the long-bow, which was found to be a more con- 
 venient weapon in battle. 
 
 ARBALESTINA. — In the military system of the 
 iliddle Ages, the arbalestina was a small window or 
 wicket through which the Cross-bowmen shot their 
 quarrels or arrows at an enemy besieging a fortified 
 place. 
 
 AKBALETRIEE D'UNE GALEEE.— That part of a 
 galley where the Cross-bowmen were placed during an 
 engtigenient. 
 
 ARBRIER.— A short bow adjusted to a staff, and 
 fixed at right angles to it, near one extremity. It was 
 the Arblaat in its elementarj' form. 
 
 ABC. — Any part of a curved line. The straight 
 line joining the ends of an arc is its chord, which is 
 always less than the arc itself. Arcs of circles are 
 siiiiihtr when they subtend equal angles at the centers 
 of their respective circles; and if similar arcs belong 
 to ciiual circles, the arcs themselves are eqiuil. The 
 length of an arc is readily foimd if the angle which it 
 subtends at the center of the circle is known, and also 
 the length of the whole circumference. Let the whole 
 circumference be 100, and the angle of an arc 50", 
 the length of the arc is 
 
 360' : 50' : : 100 : -^^^ = 14 nearly. 
 
 ARC A JALET. — A small cross-bow, used in ancient 
 times to throw bullets, etc. 
 
 ARCH.^An arrangement of bricks, stone.s, or other 
 materials over an open space, by which they are made 
 not only to support each other by nuitual pressure, 
 Init to sustain a superincumbent weight. We have 
 the excellent authority of Sir G. Wilkinson for stat- 
 ing that the arch was "known to, and used by, the an- 
 cient Egyptians; and that the Assyrians were acquaint- 
 ed with its jmnciples is placed beyond doubt by the 
 arched gateways so frequently represented in their 
 bass-reliefs. The arch is generally sujiposed to have 
 been unknown to the Greeks— a" sujiposition which 
 becomes very improliable if we hold it to be proved 
 that it was used by nations with whose works they 
 must have been familiar. But that the Greeks did 
 not employ it generally in their architectural struc- 
 tures is certain; and as it is not less certain that the 
 Romans did, it is to the latter people that the nations 
 of modern Euro|5e are indebted for their acquaintance 
 with its great utility. The introduction of the arch 
 by the Ronums gradually effected a complete revolu- 
 tion in the architectural forms which they borrowed 
 from the Greeks. The predominance of horizontal 
 lines gave way by degrees, till, a.s the Romanesque 
 pa.ssed" into the Gothic'style, it was superseded by the 
 segments of a circle, placed generally more or less 
 in a perpendicular direction. In its earliest applica- 
 tion by the Romans, the arch did not spring from the 
 
 Triumphal Arch of Constantino at Rome. 
 
 entablature of the columns, but was generally placed 
 behind them, and rested upon separate imjiosts. Sub- 
 sequ(Mitlv this arrangement was departed from, and 
 the areh'assumed the position which it has since re- 
 tained above the columns; sometimes having an en- 
 tablature interpo.sed, and sometimes rising directly 
 from the capital of the cohmm or pier, as in the Ro- 
 manesciue. Before mentioning very briefly the ilif- 
 ferent forms of the arch, it seems na"tural to refer to 
 a veiy simjile structure, frequently met with in those 
 early" edifices in our own coimtry which we are in the 
 habit of designating as Saxon. It consists of two 
 stones, their lower ends resting on rude piers, their 
 tops leaning asrsiinst each other, and thus forming 
 two sides of a 'tri:uisle, which is capable of supix)rt- 
 ins a modentte supciincumbent weight. The me- 
 chanical principles on which the arch depends, 
 thouu-h here very imperfectly employed, seem suffi- 
 ciently called into play to suggest their more exten- 
 sive application; and it is not impossible that out of 
 this rude construction the arch, in its later and more
 
 AKCHZKS. 
 
 60 
 
 ARCHEBS. 
 
 elaborate forms, mi<:bt liavc ilevcloped itself amonijst 
 ourselves witlumt liiiils from fon-isrii soiiiees. Of ilie 
 areb itself, tlie fulkiwiim' viiri;ili<>ns of form iii:iv he 
 eiiumeniliil: the semieirilc. the t^irnionl, the ellipst', 
 which were tlii' only loniis iiiiployeil l>y the an- 
 cients, ami which alone were known in mediieval 
 architecture up to the time at which the pointed arch 
 was introcluixil. Of tlu-*. the stilteil arch aiul the 
 borseshoearcli are moilitications, in l)olh of which the 
 center or (xiint from which the arch is <lcs<TitK-d is 
 above the line nf the impost, but in the former of 
 which the moulilini.'s arc continueil downwards verli- 
 odly; whilst in the latter they are slightly inclined 
 inwards, or the curve is prolonged till it meets the 
 impost. The horseshoe-arch belongs peculiarly to 
 Anibian architecture, not only from its having origi- 
 natetl simultaneously with tlie faith of the Prophet, 
 but /rom its continuing to be used exclusively by his 
 followers. Next in iK)int of time, though far .sur- 
 pa.ssing all the others in beauty aiul variety, is the 
 pointed arch, the origin of which is still a sub- 
 ject of anticiuarian controversy. The greater or 
 less aeuteness of the pointed arch depends on the po- i 
 silion of the two center points from which its curved 
 sides arc described. Of the foil-arches, or arches in 
 which the forms of a leaf are imitated, may be men- 
 tioned the trefoil, the ciuqucfoil, and the jiolyfoil, the 
 latter being met with in Arabian and Homanescjue 1 
 buildings. At a later period of Gothic architecture, 
 with the decorated style, the ogee arch was intro- 
 duced, and the Tudor or four-cornered arch appeared 
 about the commencement of the iJcrjiendicular style. 
 AVhen tirst introduceil, the projwrtions of this arch 
 were bolil and effective; but it was gradually de- 
 pressed till the principle of the arch was lost, aiid its 
 very form was again nieigcd lirst in two and then in 
 one flat stone or lintel over an opening. With the 
 last form of the Tudor arch we thus reach almost the 
 point of dejiarlure in the construction of the arch, and 
 complete our enumeration of its forms. The sides 
 of an arch are termed hatinchea or Jlanks, and its 
 highest part is called the eroirn. The wedge-shaped 
 stones, bricks, or other materials cf which an arch is 
 constructed are cjilled Tous»nrs ; the uppermost one 
 of all is callcil the keystone; the lowest, whith is placed 
 immediately over the impost, the spriiigir, or spring- 
 ing-stone; the under or lower side of the voussoirs, the 
 iiitmdoa; the ui>iH;r side, the e.tiru(!os or baek: 
 Arc'hes are variously constructed and employed in 
 military architecture" 
 
 ABCHEES. — Archers are soldiers whose weapons 
 are the bow and arrow. Atnong the ancients special- 
 ly eminent in this mode of warfare, we may particu- 
 larize the Thracians, Cretans, Parthians, aiid Numi- 
 dians; among the moderns, the Arabians, Germans, 
 and Saracens. The Emiieror Frederick II. employed 
 Saracenic archers with great effect in his Lombard 
 campaign; and to them is ascribed the Wetorv at t'or- 
 tenuova in \-iii7. The archers belonged to the light 
 troops, and their ijrovincc was to open the battle. ' 
 The Emperor Leo c-spi-cially lauded the dexleritv of 
 the Arabian archers. In later aires the bow came to ' 
 be employed in Kngland, where the archers wore liu'ht 
 armor, a .short sworil, and a ((uivcr with tweutvor 
 more arrows. At tirst these archers fousiht in small ' 
 groups; in later years, in larire mas-scs. At the battle 
 of Cressy they formed in divisions of 4000 men, 200 
 in line and 4(MJ deep. The archers decided the fate 
 of the day in s<-veral battles— such as Crcssv and 
 Poitiers (i:i.".fl), Airincourt (1415), Crevaut (1423), ' 
 Verneuil (1424), lual Koveniav (1429). The French 
 archers never C(|ualk-d the KiiL'lish. in spile o{ the 
 Piiins diaries VI. and Charies VII. t(Mik with them. 
 The latter org-ani/.ed in 144H the FninenrcherK, to 
 which corps every (larisli had to cimtribute one man; 
 but this measure was attended ^^^th so little success ' 
 that the king Wius induced to take Scottish archers ' 
 into his i)ay, to make any liead asrainst the English. ! 
 'Hie French anhers wiVe a coat of buffalo-hide 
 lined with sip, ml- linen, and were accompanied bv | 
 
 shield-bearers. In this manner '2000 hovnwen with 
 their shield-liearers fought under the Count de Foix at 
 the siege of Bayoime iii 1451. The archers miiver- 
 sjiUv belongeil to the cliU- of the troops, and received 
 higlier |>ay than the rest. At one period the arbalest, 
 or cro.ss-lKnv, wits more in favor than tlie long-bow. 
 Long after the discovery of gun])owder we tind the 
 bow and arrow still used; as, for example, at the siege 
 of Capua in 1500, and the siege of Peinelmrg in 1502. 
 Xay.even in 1572 Queen Eliziibeth iiromised to place 
 at the disiK).s;il of Charles IX. GOlK) men, of whom the 
 half were archers. In a treatiseon martial dis<ipline, 
 by Ralph Smithe, written in the time of tJueenKliza- 
 lieth, we h;ive a picture of the English archer two 
 centuries after Chaucer's time: " Captens and officers 
 should lie skilful of that most noble weapon the long- 
 bow; and to see that their soldiers, according to the^r 
 draught and strength, have good bo wes, well nocked, 
 well strynged, everie strynge whippe in their uocke, 
 and in the niiddes rubbed with wax bni.ser, and shnt- 
 ting-glove, some spare strj-ngcs trymed as aforesjiid; 
 every man one shefe of arrows, with a case of leather 
 defensible agiiinst the rayne, and in the same four- 
 and-twenty arrowes, whereof eight of them should be 
 lighter than the residue, to gall or a.stonyethe enemyc 
 with the liailshot of light arrowes Ix'forc they shall 
 come within the danger of their harquebus shot. Let 
 every man have a brigandine or a little coat of plate, 
 a skull or hufkyu, a maule of leade of Jive foote in 
 lengthe, and a ]iike. and the same hanging by his 
 girdle with a hook and a dagger." Among the Asi- 
 
 Archenr .Apparatus. 
 
 atic Turks, the Persians, the Tartars, and other na- 
 tions of the -East, as well as the American Indians, 
 the bow and arrow are still used as weapons of war. 
 In Europe they arc nearly abandoned for military 
 purposes. 
 
 Although archers arc still included among the 
 fighting-men of barbarousaiid semi-barbarous nations, 
 archery is now nothing more than a pastime, encour- 
 aged by Archery Clubs or Societies. In this sen,se, 
 however, archery is experiencing a revival, being 
 healthful as an outdoor exercise, even if no further 
 useful. During the reign of Charles II., archery was 
 much patronized by the Court, Tothill Fields being the 
 chief .scene of e.\ercise. After his reign archery fell 
 into desuetude for about a century. In 1776, a Mr. 
 Aston revived archery in the neighborhood of Lon- 
 don; and very shoHly there were several Toxopholite 
 or Archery Societies formed. The system surWved 
 till 1793, when another period of inactivity super- 
 vencil, lasting till IH14. In this last-named year arch- 
 eiy was revived in Yorkshire, and has since gone on 
 extending every year. A recommendation to the 
 sixirt is that ladies can lake iiait in il — one of the few 
 open-air pastimes of which this can be Siiid. In the 
 modern exercise of archery thee are several varieties 
 of contests between the antagonistic parlies; but the 
 usual variety is target-shootiiiL'. In archery -matches 
 a numlK-r of prizes are generally awarded, the princi- 
 pal being for the greatest iiumlie:- of arrows shot into
 
 AECHGAYE. 
 
 61 
 
 ARCHIBALD WHEEL. 
 
 any part of the target, and for the nearest approach 
 to the exact center. The target has a gold spot in the 
 center, a red ring around this, then a 
 hlue ring, then a bhick, and outside of 
 all a white ring bordered with green. 
 The merit of the shooting consists in a 
 near approach to the exact center, or 
 " gold. " Two target.s are generally used 
 in a match, on opposite sides of the field, 
 each by one party. The apparatus most- 
 ly usecl at these archery -meetings is: 1, 
 tie bow, varying in weight according to 
 the strength of ^he person who is to use 
 it; 2, the arrow; 3, the quiver, a tin 
 case for holding arrows not immediately 
 in use; 4, the pouch; o, the belt forliolil 
 ing the arrows actually in use. The 
 tassel of the belt serves to clean the 
 arrows when dasty. 6, the brace, 
 buckled round the left arm, to protect 
 it from being hurt by the .string when 
 shooting; 7, the shooting-glove, formed 
 to protect the three lingers used in 
 drawing the string. Besides these ar 
 tides and the target, archers are some- 
 times provided ^\ilh a large case called 
 an ' ' ascham ," fitted up with the necessary 
 drawers and compartments for the recep- 
 tion of the bow, arrows, string, and other 
 neccs-sary accouterments. In archery -competition the 
 total number and value of each person's hits are regis- 
 tered on a scoring-card. The shots are usually pvuic- 
 tured on a card with a pin, as being preferable to 
 pencil or ink-marks; and the mode of ascerttuuiug the 
 value of the hits, which is increased in projiortinu as 
 they reach the center, will be seen by tiie following 
 example: 
 
 tion at the center and rim, and clearly exhibits the 
 
 joints and the position of bolts. The size of the 
 
 Names. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Red. 1 Blue. 
 
 Black, jwhite. 
 
 Total. 1 Value. 
 
 A 
 
 . 
 
 
 1 
 
 u. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 119 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 1-26 
 
 
 
 1 ••■ 
 
 •1 • • ■ • 
 
 90 
 
 It appears by the card that A has 3 in the gold, 4 
 in the red, 6 in the inner white, 10 in the black, and 
 13 in the outer white, making a total of 3o. The real 
 value of thcic is ascertained by multiplying the hits 
 in the gold by 9; in the red by 7; in the blue by 5; in 
 the black by li; and by leaving without alteration the 
 number in the white or outer. By this process it will 
 appear that As numbers, according to the rahn' of 
 each circle, amount to 119, and B's to 90; hence 
 A is the winner by 39. But A's tottil might have 
 been less than B's, and still he might have been the 
 winner, proviiling the shots had lain more towards 
 the gold than B's. As an instance of the skill wiiich 
 long and careful practice may insure, >[r. Horace A. 
 Fonl, who has written an excellent work on archers', 
 on one occasion, out of 144 shots, made 143 hits — 765 
 score; on another, 144 shots, 137 hits — 809 score; and 
 on another, 70 shots, 75 hits — 555 score. 
 
 AECH-GAYE.— A lance used by the Gauls and 
 Franks, which consisted of a sharp-pointed piece of 
 iron attached to a light wooden handle. Also known 
 as Lmife-f/ai/e. 
 
 ARCHIBALD -WHEEL.— An iron - hubbed wheel 
 used on the wagons and gun-carriages of the United 
 States army. The wheel is noted for its strength, 
 endurance, and independence of climatic changes. 
 Fig. 1 represents a lateral section of the hub of this 
 wheel, exposing the axle, bolts, and the method of 
 construction. A is the axle; B, the back of the hub, 
 which is also the axle-box; C, the front or loose 
 flange; DD, the bolts through spokes and flanges; 
 EE, the spokes; F, the brass cap; G, the axle-hut; 
 a small screw at the outer extremity, is removed 
 when oiling the axle. Fig. 3 shows the construc- 
 
 spokes in these wheels is, as a iiile, the same as the 
 diameter of the axle. In case of accident, the wheel 
 may be readily repaired, its construction being so 
 
 Fig. 
 
 simple. Duplicate spokes, hubs or boxes, and axles 
 should, if practicable, be kept on hand for the 
 purposes of repair. 
 To replace a box and that portion of the hub at-
 
 A.BCHIBALD WHEEL. 
 
 02 
 
 ARCHIBALD WHEEL. 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 tached: Unscrew and remove the front hub-ljand, 
 take off the hub-nuts, and the box will easily drive 
 out. The new box Ls as easily put on again, after 
 which screw on the front hub-band. The tire Ije- 
 ing on will hold the wood part so that it cannot 
 
 move while the hub is being taken off. This bub or 
 box is as tinn and true on the wheel as was the 
 first one. The change can be made by anybod}', an(l 
 in a few moments. 
 To repair a spoke: Take off the tire and felloe on
 
 &BCHIIALS WHEEL. 
 
 63 
 
 ABCHIBALD WHEEL. 
 
 the injured spoke (and in taking off this felloe it 
 is not ueces.sary on account of the peculiar dowel 
 used to start off any other felloe), take out only the 
 bolt that pa-sses through the injured spoke, saw off 
 this spoke as close to the hub as possible, and bore 
 or dig out the .spoke, drive in the duplicjito spoke as 
 far as possible, and arrange the tenon at the felloe 
 so that the tire may press the spoke about ' inch farllier 
 into the hub, and after the tire is on put in the hub- 
 bolt. 
 
 The followini^ is the approximate weight per set of 
 each size and style of bed of axles fitted for Archi 
 bald Wheels, with beds long enough to weld up 4 
 feet 6 between axle-collars (shorter beds will weigh 
 less, and longer beds more) : 
 
 SIZE. 
 
 DRAWN 
 
 PLATFORM. 
 
 SQUARE. 
 
 i\4 inch. 
 
 65 U>S 
 
 82 lbs. 
 
 90 lbs. 
 
 jH " 
 
 80 •• 
 
 95 " 
 
 105 " 
 
 
 95 " 
 
 115 " 
 
 125 " 
 
 113 '• 
 
 135 " 
 
 145 " 
 
 2 •• 
 
 135 " 
 
 150 " 
 
 165 " 
 
 
 155 " 
 
 185 " 
 
 190 " 
 
 2M ;; 
 
 175 " 
 
 305 " 
 
 210 " 
 
 315 " 
 
 2.55 " 
 
 360 •• 
 
 oa^ •* 
 
 255 " 
 
 310 " 
 
 315 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 3iO " 
 
 375 " 
 
 .•i90 " 
 
 It is noticeable how much less these weigh than the 
 same style of axles irit/i bares for wood-hub wheels. 
 
 The drawing on the opposite page shows the ma- 
 chine with which this wheel is manufactured, and a 
 reference to same will assist in a i)erfecl understand- 
 ing of the structure and endurance of the wheel. 
 The machine acts to force into close contact the flat 
 surfaces of the spokes at their inner ends, and thus 
 compact them, so that their faces fonn true circular 
 planes, upon which the inner faces of the bub-flanges 
 rest It will be seen from the cut here printed, rep- 
 resenting the machine, that it occupies two consecu- 
 tive floors, A strong circular plate of cast-iron, 
 about seven feet in diameter, having its upper sur- 
 face faced off true, is placed horizontally level with 
 the floor of the shop. Arranged at equ?'. distances 
 around its outer edge are a number of levers, B, 
 equal to the number of spnkes to be set in the wheel, — 
 sixteen in this case, — having their fulcrums securely 
 bolted to the plate. The long arms of the lever radi- 
 ate from the plate about three feet all around; the 
 short arms are formed into cams or rolling inclines, 
 acting upon sliding pins of cast-iron, which move 
 freely in a radial direction, in guides formed in the 
 fulcrum-blocks. When the long arms of the levers 
 are raised, the sliding pins are pressed outward by a 
 spring, until they bear upon the cam-shaped short 
 arms of the levers at the point nearest the fulcrum or 
 center of motion of the lever. When the long arms 
 of the levers are lowered, their sliding-pins are forced 
 inward by the cams, and unite in pressing inward the 
 wheel properly placed in their embrace. The levers 
 are all actuated with rapidity, uniformity, and cer- 
 tainty, by means of wrought-iron rods, C, extending 
 downward from the ends of the levers, converging to 
 a vertical column, D, under the center of the plate, 
 much as the braces of an umbrella extend downward 
 from the ribs to the stick. A screw is cut upon the 
 central column, D; and a nut, E, answering to the 
 slide upon an umbrella-stick, raises or lowers all the 
 levers at once with great facility and with any re- 
 quired power. Motion is given to the nut by means 
 of beveled gears, and open and cross belts with fast 
 and loose pulleys, so arranged that, at the upward 
 an<l downward "limits, the belts are thrown automati- 
 cally upon the loose pulleys, and the motion of the 
 nut and levers stopped. Any required motion, either 
 up or down within the range of the screw, can be ob- 
 tained with great delicacy and convenience bj- a ship- 
 per, F, actuated by a shipping-rod, G. The felloes 
 and spokes, ha\ing been perfectlj' shaped and com- 
 
 pletely finished by machinery, are first put together 
 by dri\ing the sjjokes into the felloe or rim, one at a 
 time ; the felloe being held firmly by a vi.se, H, 
 sjjecially constructed to prevent s|)l"itting of the fel- 
 loe or twisting of the spoke, so that an exact fit is ob- 
 tained at this important point. The felloes with their 
 spokes are then placed in the press, when the perfection 
 of the fitting is shown by the perfect joint made by 
 the spokes when they meet in tlie circle, to be curved 
 and embraced by the hub, and by the coincidence of 
 the half-holes in the contiguous sides of the spokes, 
 A, which together form the holes for the eight bolts 
 that are finally to hold the hub -plates together. 
 TemporaiT bub-plates, I, — one above and one below, 
 — with a powerful screw in their center, liold the 
 ends of all the spokes tridy in the plane of the cir- 
 cular ijlate while undergoing the pressure of the le- 
 vers. The extent of this pressure is a.seertained by 
 marking carefully with a sharp iiencil around the 
 circumference of the upper temporary hub-jilate after 
 the spokes have been brought to a close, firm joint; 
 and then the pressure is put on till the joint of the 
 felloes closes up firmly. Another similar mark be- 
 ing made, upon removal of the temporary hub-plate, 
 it is found that a space of a quarter of an inch is 
 made between the two pencil-marks — a reduction in 
 diameter of half an inch. Now, as the difference in 
 circumference corresponding to a difference in diam- 
 eter of half an inch is 1..5708 inches, this divided by 
 16 (the number of spokes) gives .098 of an inch, 
 or siihstantudly one tenth of an inch, as the Uiieral com- 
 pression of each spoke. This is by no means the limit, 
 but is regarded sufficient to secure the spokes against 
 being loosened by shrinkage in any climate, antl this 
 pressure is what gives this wheel its enormous 
 strength and durability. The hub, 00, is firmly 
 bolted together while the wheel is in the press, and 
 holds the spokes securely, the bolts fitting snugly in 
 both spoke and hub. The felloes spring apart a little 
 when taken from the press, but only a little; and the 
 tire easily makes that all firm again. 
 
 So great is the facility with which this machme is 
 operated, that one man with an assistant easily puts 
 together a set per hour, including the time of adjust- 
 ing machinery for the difference in diameter of the 
 wheels. 
 
 The great point in this wheel, made in this man- 
 ner, is the thorough compactness of the hub-ends of 
 the spokes, though the other ends of the sjjokes and 
 the joints in the felloes receive scarcely less benefit. 
 By observing an old wheel it will be .seen that the 
 sjiokes are bedded into the felloes and hub. This is 
 done by degrees, and is unavoidable in wheels made 
 in the usual way. The only way to keep such a 
 wheel together is to reset the tire, so as to take up the 
 looseness caused by the .slow crushing and grinding 
 process. This is all prevented in the Archibaltl 
 process of manufacture, by putting on a pressure at 
 every joint of more than ten times the amount the 
 wheel will e\er be called upon to sustain in actual 
 use, and at a time when the wheel is so held as to re- 
 ceive this pressure without possible injury to it. One 
 tenth of this pressure from a tire would ruin the 
 wheel, but the tire when properly put on will hold all 
 this pressure and remain on tight until worn out. 
 The hvd) holds all the pressure of the spokes within 
 it independently of the tire. Wheels made by this 
 method are perfectly round and true. The pressure 
 distributed about the rim can be varied from zero to 
 one hundred tons, if required. There are reasons 
 whj' iron-hubbed wheels made in this manner should 
 be far superior to wheels with wooden hubs. The 
 spokes cannot crush into the hub. as they will ilo into 
 wooden-hubs whether driven full size into a ver.v 
 large hub, as was the practice fifty years since, or, as 
 at i)resent, into a smaller hub, the spokes having ten- 
 ons and shoulders. With wooden hubs the spokes are 
 weakened just where they need the greatest strength; 
 while in the iron-hubbed wheel the spokes are more 
 than twice as large at the hub as a wooden-hub
 
 ASCHITONNEBEE. 
 
 64 
 
 ARMAMENT. 
 
 wheel of correspondiujr size. A wliccl made on this 
 pliin will not shrink, anil iis the bii.s*'s of the sixikcs 
 are as tirnily compressed airiiinst each other ii-s it is 
 ]Kissiljle for wooil lo lie, and held hy uietallic tlansres 
 lirmiy boiled tojri'ther, it is apparent that such a 
 wheel possesses the advunliige of the most pi'rfect 
 liKlhoil of iciM-lnirtion yet devised. See W/ieil. 
 
 ARCHITONNERRE.— A machine made of copi>er, 
 which threw iron bullets with great force ami noise; 
 it was used in ancient times, and was the invention of 
 Archimedes. 
 
 ARCHITRAVE.— The master-beam, or chief sup- 
 p<.)rter, in any pari of a subterraneous forlitication. 
 
 ARCO. — a" metal composed of TO parts of pure cop- 
 per, ','7 parts of zinc, and 3 parts of lead. It is used 
 for the brass-work of small-arms. 
 
 AREA. — A term in malhemalies meaning quantity 
 of «(i r/iitr. The calculation of areas, or mensuration 
 of surfaces, is t)ne of the ultimate objects of geometry-. 
 The measuring luiit is a sijuare inch, a square foot, 
 etc., ac-cording to the unit of length. As a figure is 
 thus measured by finding an equivalent for its sur- 
 face in ngiians, the process is sometimes called the 
 qiKulmture of the figure. In a military sense, arm is 
 the superficial contents of anj' rampart or other work 
 of a fortilication. 
 
 AREOMETER.— An instrument, called also Ilydro- 
 meter, which is allowed to float fieely in liquids to 
 determine their specific gravity or that of solid iKjdics. 
 The delicacy of the instrument depends on the dis- 
 tance of the divisions on the scale, or on the thinness 
 of the stem compared with the bulbs. An instniment 
 possessing this advantage cannot be made to serve 
 both for liquids heavier and lighter than water, for 
 the stem would be of an inconvenient length; and 
 it is usual to construct two Areometers — one marked 
 with the water-point at the top anil the scale (Uscending 
 to .JO, for fluids heavier than water; and the other with 
 the water-point at the liottora and the scale ascend- 
 ing to 150, for fluids lighter than water. The scale 
 is generally marked on a slip of paper, which is fixed 
 inside the stem. t)n some Areometers the divi- 
 sions are not at equal ilistances, but are so drawn as 
 to give at once, without table or calculation, the 
 specific gravity of the rtuid in which they are pUiced. 
 Although very desirable, in practice they do not 
 possess the accuracy of the Areometer with equally- 
 divided scales, becau.se the graduation of them is at- 
 tended with considerable dillicully. No fonn of 
 Areometer can be made to determine specific gravi- 
 ties with perfect accuracy, and such instriuuents arc 
 only useful where a ready and good approximation is 
 all that is needed. They are, in consequence, em- 
 ployed chiefly to ascertain the specific gravity of the 
 various liquors and solutions wliich occur in the arts 
 and manufactiires, anil very frequently they are gni- 
 duated with reference to sjiecial li(iuids, as spirits, 
 wine, milk, lirine, etc. The alcoholometer or l.ydro- 
 meter of Sikes is an instnunent of this latter descrip- 
 tion, and is in genend use in the excise for estimating 
 the strength of spirits. The peculiar feature of Areo- 
 meters with weights is that, instead of a scale, they 
 have only one mark on the stem, to which the Areo- 
 meter is in all cases sunk. One of the 
 -_,<—- t)est -known instruments of this kind is the 
 11 L j Areometer of Nichol.son. It consists of a 
 i °f^ 1 '"""** tube, BC, alx)Ut 1 inch in diameter, 
 I T \ dosed above and Ix'low by conical ends, 
 to the upixT of which a wire is fixed, 
 ( .irrying on the top of it a cup. A, cap- 
 able of containing the weights; and to 
 the lower a hook is atlached. from 
 which hangs the cup, I). The lower 
 )iart of the cup. 1), is also ])rovided with 
 a hook, and the whole instniment is kept 
 vertical, partly by the weight of the cup 
 and partly by the weight of the ball, E, 
 suspended from it. (»n the wire, a notch, 
 W, is made, to serve as the mark or 
 or lixed point to which the Areometer is sunk. The 
 
 specific gravities of liquids are determined by Nichol- 
 son's Areometer in the following way: The weight of 
 the ^Vreometer it.self is first ascertained — let it lie in a 
 given case 2(X)0 gniins; it is then iiul into water at 
 ' the tempemture of (50 V. . and weights (say oOO gnuns) 
 put in, till it is sunk to \V. It is now removed to the 
 1 liquid under examination; and if the weight reijuircd 
 I to sink the instrument now to the standard -point be 
 only 100 grains, we have the sjiecific gravity of the 
 liquid equal to fjoo. "r Is- I" '"'''' fluids the Siime 
 volume has been displaced, and that is in each ca.se 
 1 equal to the weight of the Areometer; but the weight 
 I of the Areometer in the second case was 2000 + 100, 
 and in the fonncr 2000 + 500; hence the above result. 
 Nicholson's Areometer is seldom used for finding the 
 specific gravity of fluids; its use' is almost entirely 
 restricted to ascertaining that of small solid su1)>lauces. 
 The following example will show how this is done: 
 If in the cup of the Areometer already mentioned, 
 when placed in water, the solid be put, and only 440 
 grains be then necessary to bring the instrument to 
 AV, 60 grains is manifestly the weight of the solid, 
 because .500 grains were needed without it to do the 
 same thing. The solid is next placed in the lower 
 cup, D, and if 400 grains are now needeil to sink to 
 the standard-point, the solid has thus lost 20 grains of 
 its weight by being immersed in the water. Accord- 
 ing to the principles of Archimedes, these 20 grains 
 are also the weight of a volume of water equal to that 
 of the solitl; so the specific gravity of the solid is Sj), 
 or 3. By reversing the cup, I), which is furnished 
 with perforations, to allow free passiigc to the air, 
 and attaching the weight, E, to the handle of it, the 
 specific gravity of substances lighter than water may 
 also be determined by this instrument. The other 
 forms of weight-arcomctei-s are those of Fahrenheit, 
 Tralles, and Charles. See Hydrometer and Specific 
 G rarity. 
 
 AREOSCOPE. — An instrument used for analyzing 
 the air of barracks, hospitals, etc. It is principally 
 emplo\'ed by the English 3Iedical Corps. 
 
 ARES. — The god of war in Greek mythology, and 
 corresjionding to the Roman Mars. 
 
 ARGENT.— The French word for silver; always 
 used in English Heraldry to signify that metid. In 
 eugra%'ing shields it is left white. 
 
 AEGOULET. — An ancient dragoon. Also an in- 
 ferior sort of musket made at Liege for trading with 
 the negroes. 
 
 ARIES. — The battering-ram. so called because the 
 metallic head was .sometimes fashioned like the head 
 of a ram. As a means of battering walls it is said to 
 have been invented by Artemanes of Calzomeue, a 
 Greek architect, about 441 B.C. It is described by 
 Josephus, who states that it was sometimes sujiportcd 
 on the shouldei"s of men who advanced on a run; at 
 other times it was slung from a frame, and operated 
 by ropes. Philip of M;icedon is said to have been tlie 
 first to place the frame on wheels, at the siege of 
 Byzantium. Plutarch informs us that Mark Anton)', 
 in the Parthian war, made use of an aries 80 feet long. 
 Vitrvnius sajs they were sometimes 106 to 120 feet in 
 length. 
 
 ARM. — 1. An instrument of warfare; a weapon of 
 offence or defence. 2. Any particular divsiription or 
 ela.ss of troo|is. The Artillery, the Cavalry, the In- 
 fantrj', and the Engineers are each an arm of the ser- 
 vice. The word used figuratively denotes power. 3. 
 That portion of an axletree about which the wheel 
 revolves. See AxU tree-arm. 
 
 ARMAMENT. — All arrangements made for the de- 
 fence, with iiiuskclry aiul artillery, tielong to what is 
 termed the artuanont. The annament with mus- 
 ketry is complete when the banquette and the interior 
 and superior slo]>es are properly arr.inged to enable 
 the soldier to deliver his fire with elTcct, and to 
 mount on the parapet to meet the enemy with the 
 bavonet. For this last ])urpose stout pickets may be 
 dnven into the interior slope, about midway from the 
 bottom and three feel apart, or a narrow plank may be
 
 AKMAMENTARY. 
 
 65 
 
 ARMED WHIP. 
 
 laid aloug this slope. The amiamcnt with artillery 
 is, ill like mnniicr, comjilote when snitaMe means are 
 taken to allow the gvuis to tire over the parapet or 
 throuirU openings made in it, and when all the re- 
 quired aeeessories are provided for the service of the 
 guns. The armament with artillery is a subject of 
 great imiiortance, because it is not equally adapted to 
 nil classes of works. E.xperienee has demonstrated 
 that the most efficient way of employing arlillery is 
 iu ]>rolectinff the colUHeral salients by a well-directed 
 flank- ^md cross-lire which shall not leave untouched 
 a single foot of grountl within its range over which 
 the enemy must approach. It has, moreover, shown 
 that a work with a weak proSle affords but litlle 
 security to artillery within it; for artillery eaun<it de- 
 fentl itself, and such a work can be too easily ciuTied 
 by assaidt to offer any hope of keeping the enemy at 
 a ilistance long enough to allow the artillerv to pro- 
 duce its full etfcct. The proper positions for arlillery 
 are on the flanks and sdients of a work, because from 
 these i>oinls the salients aro best protected and the 
 approaches best swept; and the guns should be col- 
 lected at these points in batteries of several pieces, for 
 experience has shown that it is only by opening a 
 heavy, well-sustained Sre on the enemy's colunrns 
 that an efficient check can be given to them. If oidy 
 a few tiles are taken off, or the shot passes over the 
 men. it rather inspires the enemy with conlidencc in 
 his safety, and with contempt for the defences. 
 
 When, in the defence of a work, from the indica- 
 tions without there is no longer any donbt respecting 
 the real point of attack selected, all the disposalile 
 artillery will be brought forward and placed in bar- 
 bette, in the best positions on this jKiint and the col- 
 lateral works for sweeping the ground over which 
 the trenches must be pushed. In the mean time em- 
 brasures, platforms, and traverses should be prepared 
 on the most suitable positions, to place the artillery 
 under shelter from the enHlading batteries so soon as 
 they are ready to open lire. Every disposable gun, 
 except the reserve pieces, should, both at this time 
 and whilst the besiegers' batteries are still incomplete, 
 be idaced in positions to bear upon the points occu- 
 pied by them, with mortars of long range placed 
 wherever they will be well masked and can throw 
 their shells with the most effect against these points. 
 The traverses, to cover from en!ilaile views, should 
 be shot-proof g-abionades, and be placed so far apart 
 only as to allow the least room for two guns be- 
 tween them. The tcrre-pleins of the barbettes should 
 be cut down and their parapets somewhat raised, to 
 admit of eiubrasures for the guns along them. The 
 tire of the defences should be concentrated on a few 
 of the principal batteries rather than scattered over 
 all, because, by delaying the progress of these, the 
 others, if the besiegers act prudently, will not open 
 their tire until all are ready. 
 
 AEMAMENTARY. — A tcnn sometimes employed 
 to denote an armoiy, magazine, or arsenal. 
 
 ARMA SHOT. — An expression meaning to roll rope- 
 yarns aliout a cross-bar shot in order to facilitate ram- 
 ming it home, and also to prevent the ends catching 
 any accidental inequalities in the bore. 
 
 ARMATURA.— In ancient military history, the fixed 
 and established military exercises of the Romans. 
 Under this heading is understood the throwing of the 
 spear, javelin, shooting with bows and arrows, etc. 
 Armatura was also an appellation given to the sol- 
 diers who were light-armed; as, also, a name given to 
 the soldiers in the Emperor's retinue. 
 
 ARMATURE. — 1. Armor worn or used for the pro- 
 tection and defence of the body. "3. The term arma- 
 ture is applieil to the luecesof soft iron that are placed 
 at the extremities or poles of magnets to preseiwe their 
 magnetic power. When magnets are allowed to re- 
 main any length of time without such appendages, in 
 consequence of the liisturbing influence of terrestrial 
 magnetism they lose considerably in strength; but 
 when they are provided with them their magnetism 
 is kept in a state of constant activity, and "thereby 
 
 shielded from this disturbance. The reason of this 
 is found iu two facts well knowni in the science of 
 magnetism; viz., that when a piece of soft iron is 
 brought iiuo contact with the extremity of a magnet 
 it is itself induced to becoine magnetic, iind that the 
 unlike poles of two different maghet.s powerfully at- 
 tract each other. Referring to the figure, the north 
 pole, X, of the horseshoe-magnet, KHS, acting on 
 the armature, .<«, induces it to be- 
 come a magnet, ha\ing its south 
 pole, s, next to N, and its north 
 pole, 71, at the opposite extremity. 
 The pole, S, by virtue of its mag- 
 netic affinity powerfully attracts 
 the north pole, n, thus formed, anil 
 adds its own inilueing influence to 
 heighten the magnetic ccndition 
 pre%iously uulueed iu the armature 
 by the Jioie, X. The armature, from 
 the combined action of both poles 
 of the horseshoe -magnet, is thus 
 converted into a powerful magnet, 
 with its poles lying in an opposite 
 direction to that of the primary 
 poles. The original magnet is, in conscciuence, 
 Inought into contact with one of its own nuiking, 
 the exact counterpart of itself — a condition highly 
 favorable to the maintenance of its strength. It is 
 due to the s;ime mutual attractions that a much larger 
 weight can be suspended from the armature thus 
 placed than what the single poles can together sus- 
 tain. Bar-magnets may be armed iu the same way 
 by laying them at some distance parallel to each 
 oilier, with their imlikc poles towards the same parts, 
 and then connecting their extremities by two |)ieces 
 of soft iron. When a magnet, such as a compass- 
 needle, is free to take up the position required by the 
 magnetism of the earth, the earth itself plays the part 
 of an armature. 
 
 AKM-CHEST.— A portable locker for holding arms, 
 and alfortUng a ready supply of pistols, musket.s, or 
 (.ihcr weapons. Also' used in the military service for 
 the transportation of rifles, revolvers, etc. 
 
 ASME BLANCHE.— Literally, white arm. Arms 
 used in hand-to-hand conflicts, such as swords, bayo- 
 nets, foils, etc. 
 
 ARME COURTOISE.— An arm used in tilts or tour- 
 naments during the Jliddlc Ages. It was a kind of 
 sword with a ring or knot placed at the tip of the 
 blade to prevent it causimr a dangerous wound. 
 
 ARMED EECONNOISSANCE. — Reconnois-sances 
 made in the neighborhood of an enemy require to be 
 done imder the protection of a projicr detachment, 
 the strength and composition of which ■\\ill depend on 
 the object to be attained. If the oliject be to gain 
 secretly a knowledge of the enemy's whereabouts and 
 strength, then a detachment of light cavalry, con- 
 ducted by a trusty guide through circuitous by- 
 ways, and mo\iiig with celerity', but with proper pre- 
 cautions against falling into an ambush or having its 
 retreat cut off, is usually resorted to. The details for 
 this will be found tmder the head Patrols. When 
 an enemy's position is to be reconnoitred with a view 
 to force him to show his hand, by causing him to call 
 out all his troops, then a large detachment of all 
 arms, adecjuate to the task of pressing the enemy 
 vigorously, and also of withdrawing with sjifety when 
 pressed in turn, must be thrown forward. Under the 
 shelter of either of these forces, the officer charged 
 with the reconnoissance takes the bcwt tiioment and 
 best point of view for carefully ascertaining the dis- 
 positions made by the enemy. A good time will be 
 at early dawn, when troops, in most ser\ices, are all 
 made io stand to their arms. The points which the 
 officer must exhibit most attention in finding out are 
 those oceu]iied by the liatteries, and all those in any 
 wav intrenched. See Fi</<i-K(rriceiiTn\ HiTuniMismnee. 
 
 ARMED 'WHIP.— A kind of hand-flail or knout, 
 with three, four, or six chains. This weapon is fre- 
 quently called Scorpion.
 
 ARMES DE JET. 
 
 66 
 
 ARHOB. 
 
 ABHES DE JET. — Missive wcaixius ; offensive arms 
 or iiistriiiiiems which act li_v iiropiilsion, whether l)y 
 the force of jxuvder. sleam. wind, or niecliaiiism. 
 
 AHMET.— A helinet or headpiece eoiisistius of a 
 plolmlar iron eaji, whidi spreads ont witli a hirge 
 hollowed pmjeelion over llie back of the neck, and in 
 front has a piece formed like part of a bowl, so as to 
 cover the month and chin. 
 
 ABMGAUNT.— That which is worn out by military 
 SlTviee : as, an annpmnt steed, etc. 
 
 ABM -GUAHDS.— Hollow plates of metal to be buck- 
 led over the mail, and adjusted to the outer surface 
 of the upper arm autl to the front of the lower arm, 
 which bore the appropriate name of arm-guards or 
 gardes-ljras. 
 
 ABMIGEB.— Formerly an armor-bearer, as of a 
 kuiirhl ; an esquire who bore his shield and rendered 
 other services. In later use. one next in degree to a 
 kiii^'ht. and entitled to a coat of arms. 
 
 ARMILAUSA.— A military uniform coat woni by 
 the Uom.iiis over their armor. 
 
 ABMILUDIA. — A name given by the Komans to 
 the exercises of arms, and also applied to the day on 
 which these exercises look ]ilace. 
 
 ARMimSTRIUM.— The name given by the Romans 
 to a military festival whi<-h took place on the lyth of 
 October annually. After review, the .soldiers offered 
 up .sacrifices for the success of the Homan arms. 
 
 ABMISTICE.— A cessation of acti%'e hostilities for a 
 period agreed upon between belligerents. It must be 
 agreed upon in writing, and duly ratified bj' the high- 
 est authorities of the contending jiarties. If an ar- 
 mistice be declared, without conditions, it extends no 
 further than to require a total cessation of hostilities 
 along the front of both belligerents. If conditions be 
 agreed upon, they shoidd be clearly expressed, and 
 must be rigidly adhered to by both parties. If either 
 party violates any express condition, the armistice 
 may be declared null and void by the other. An 
 armistice may be general, and valid for all points and 
 lines of the belligerents ; or special, that is, referring 
 to certain troops or certain localities only. An armis- 
 tice mjjy be concluded for a definite time ; or for an 
 indefinite time, during which either belligerent maj' 
 resume hostilities on giving the notice agreed upon to 
 the other. The motives which induce the one or the 
 other belligerent to conclude an annistice, whether it 
 be ex^x•eted to be jireliminary to a treaty of peace, or 
 to jirepare during the armistice for a more vigorous 
 prosecution of the war, does in no wa)' affect the 
 character of the sirmistice itself. An armistice is 
 binding upon the belligerents from the day of the 
 agreed commencement ; but the officers of the armies 
 are responsible from the day only when they receive 
 official information of its existence. Commanding 
 Olficers have the right to conclude armistices biinling 
 on the district over which their command extends, 
 but such annistice is subject to the ratification of the 
 superior authority, and ceases .so soon as it is made 
 known to the enemy that the annistice is not ratified, 
 even if a certain time for the elapsing between giving 
 notice of cessation and the resumption of hostilities 
 should have been stipulated for. It is incumbent 
 n\n>n the contracting parties of an armistice to stipulate 
 what intercourse of iiersons or trallic between the 
 inhabitants of the territories occupied by the hostile 
 armies shall be allowed, if any. If nothing is stipu- 
 lated, the intercourse remains suspended, as during 
 actual hostilities. An armistice is not a jiartial or a 
 temporary peace ; it is only the suspension of mili- 
 tary o|)erations to the extent agreed upon by the 
 parties. When an armistice is concluded between a 
 fortified i)lace and the army besieging it, it is agreed 
 by all the authorities on this subject that the besieger 
 mu.st cease all extension, perfection, or advance of 
 his attacking works, as much .so as from attacks 
 by main force. But as there is a diirerence of 
 0])inion among martial jurists whether the besieged 
 have the right to repair Ijicaches or to erect new 
 works of defence within the place during an ar- 
 
 mistice, this point should be determined by express 
 agreement between the parties. So soon as a capitula- 
 tion is .signed, the capilulator has no right to demolish, 
 destroy, or injure the works, arms, stores, or aimnu- 
 nitiou in his posses.sion, during the time which 
 elapses between the signing and the execution of the 
 capitulation, unless otherwise stipulated in the same. 
 When an armistice is clearly broken by one of the 
 parlies, the other ]5arty is released from all obligation 
 to observe it. Prisoners taken in the act of breaking 
 an annistice must be treated as prisoners of war, the 
 officer alone being resi>onsible who gives the order for 
 such a violation of an armistice. The highest author- 
 ity of the belligerent aggrieved may demand redress 
 for the infraction of an armistice. Belligerents 
 sometimes conclude an armistice while their plenii>o- 
 tentiaries are met to discuss the eonditit)ns of a treaty 
 of peace: but pleni|)Otentiaries may meet without a 
 preliminary armistice ; in the latter case, the war is 
 carried on without any abatement. See Capitiikilion 
 and 'J'nii'i. 
 
 ABMLET. — A protecting sleeve of leather or metal 
 worn on the forearm, and used as a shield for the 
 arm or as a covering for that jiortion of the cotit- 
 sleeve 
 
 ARMOR— ARMOUB.— A general name for the ap- 
 paratus for ]iersonal defence, as contradistinguished 
 from arms or weapons of offence. Little of it is worn 
 by soldiers at the present day, seeing that hand-to- 
 hand confiicts, in w hich it is especially .serviceable, 
 are rather exceptional in modern warfare. It was be- 
 fore the invention of gunjiowder that armor — often 
 called in England by the name of /lar/iess — was 
 especially used. All the ancieiU nations who occupy 
 a place in history were accustomed to adopt one or 
 other of the defensive clothing or imiilements which 
 collectively come under the denomination of armor. 
 Leather armor was sometimes worn; but brass, iron, 
 and other metals were preferred. Some of the more 
 luxurious leaders had much silver and gold in their 
 armor. In the Bible, shields, helmets, breast jilates, 
 and greaves are meiUioned among the articles of 
 armor borne or worn by the Israelites and their op- 
 ponents. The classical writers — Homer, Xenophon. 
 Herodotus, Livy, Tacitus, Varro, etc. — sujiply abun- 
 dant evidence of the use of annor among the nations 
 concerning whom they wrote. It is believed that the 
 earlv Britons bore little or no other armor than shields. 
 The Anglo-Saxons were more fully jiro^ided. At 
 different times before the Norman Conquest they aji- 
 pear to have had four-cornered helmets; loricie made 
 of leather; scale-armor; leathern helmets; wooden 
 
 j shields covered with leather; sheep-skin shields: coni- 
 cal caps or helmets of metal; pectorals or neck-guards; 
 
 I breast-guards of undressed hide; flat-ringed annor; 
 byrnes or tunics of overlaiiiiing pieces of leather; 
 
 I close-fitting cuirasses of leather, and sometimes of 
 strong linen; leg-guards of twisted woollen cloth; 
 shields of various sizes, from half a yard to a yard 
 and a half in length; and casques having more or less 
 resemblance to the anciciU helmets. When the Danes 
 were in Britain they had at first no other annor than 
 leathern neck-pieces, which descended .some way over 
 
 ] the shoulders and chest; and greaves or shin-pieces for 
 the legs. In the time of Canute or Kmite, however, 
 they adojileil a kind of armor which Sir Saiiuiel 
 jMeyrick su|iposes them to have borrowed from the 
 Norsemen or Norwegians. It comprised a tunic, with 
 a hood and long sleeves; pantaloons which covered 
 feet as well as legs; and sugar-loaf-shaped helmets or 
 skull-caps, with attached pieces which hid nearly the 
 whole face exce))t the eyes. All these were probably 
 made of leather; but most of the surfaces were 
 strengthened by macles or masclcs, a perforated net- 
 work of steel. 
 
 With William the Conqueror came in the kinds of 
 armor which were at that time prev.alent among the 
 kiuglits and soldiers of the Continent of Europe, and 
 which became afterwards more or less combined with 
 the armor previously known in England. William
 
 ABMOK-BEAREB. 
 
 67 
 
 ARMORED DEFENSES. 
 
 liirasclf occasionally wore a hauberk of ring-armor. 
 This kind of annor was much worn during his 
 reign, the rings lu'ing usua!l_v attached to a founda- 
 tion of leather. One curious variety of ring-armor. 
 called tlie haubergeon, had the tunic and breeches all 
 in one piece. The helmets were generally conical, 
 with a nasal or nose-guard descending from the front. 
 A distinct ring-armor, caUed hose, was often worn on 
 the legs. The shield was generally kite-shaped, unlike 
 the oval shield carried bj- the Anglo-Saxons. Gradual 
 changes in these various portions of armor were made 
 between the reigns of William, Rufus and John. 
 Under Henry III., wc find stitched and padded 
 hauberks and chau.sses, called "ou%Tages de pour- 
 pointerie"; suits of ring-armor; greaves or shin-pieces 
 of steel; poleyns or knee-guards; vambraccs or arm- 
 guards; jacks, jaques, or jackets, made of leather. 
 
 Suit of Armor, 
 presented by the Emperor Maximilian to Henry VIII. 
 
 and worn over the ring-armor; interlaced ring-armor 
 of oriental invention, not requiring to be stitched to 
 an.v garment or foundation; helmets, visors, and skull- 
 caps of various forms; and chanfrons, or armor for 
 the head and face of horses. During Edward III.'s 
 reign iron plate-armor was much ased bj' troopers, in 
 the various forms of helmet, Ijreastplate, gauntlet, and 
 greaves. In the fourteenth century chain-mail fell into 
 disuse, and was succeeded liy plate-armor; this last- 
 named kind became more and more complicated, and 
 reached its greatest pitch of elaboration in the reign of 
 Richard III. During the times of Henry VII. and 
 Till, the armor was .sometimes fluted, often elabo- 
 rately engraved, and even damascened or inlaid with 
 gold. Under James I. the knightly ideas of the feudal 
 times gave way, and the use of armor declined; a 
 knight armed cap-<i-pie was a rarity. Charles I. tried 
 to re\'ive its use, but he had few followers; and the 
 days of Cromwell mav be regarded as the last in which 
 armor was worn to any considerable extent by the 
 regular soldiers. Helmets and cuirasises are still worn 
 by the three regiments of Household Cavalrs' (Life- 
 guards and Horse-Guards), but more for show than for 
 service. 
 
 ARMOR-BEARER.— One who carries the armor of 
 another; an Armi;rer; an Esquire. 
 
 ARMORED DEFENSES.— The first time that a rifled 
 gun was fired at armor for land-works was in 1800, 
 when an 80-pdr. Armstrong gun fired ^\Tought-iron fiat- 
 headed shot, and a 40-pdr. fired cast-iron shot, at two 
 iron embrasures (8 inches and 10 inches thick) fixed in 
 a masonry -work at Shoeburyness. This trial brought 
 out the advantages arising from the use of iron for 
 strengthening works, and the disadvantage of ha\ing 
 splayed sides in an iron embrasure. From that time 
 esperiment.s against armor followed each other rapidly. 
 In 1861 comparative trials were made between 
 wrought-iron armor-plates backed with rigid ma- 
 terials, such as cast-iron and granite, and similar 
 plates backed with limber, cork, India-rubl)er, layers 
 of wire, and other substances. From these it was 
 gathered that while the hard materials improved the 
 resisting power of the armor, they led to its being 
 more injured by cracking and to the giving way of 
 iastenings. Other trials were made with wroughtr 
 
 iron plates inclined to the horizon at various angles, 
 from which it was concluded that a mass of armor 
 placed ujiright will offer as much resistance as the 
 sjune mass dis|)()sed at any inclination so as to cove' the 
 same vertical area. Even icool was exjierimented ujKjn 
 as to its power of resisting cannon-shot. Xext. s<inie 
 shields, 6 inches and 10 inches thick, composed main- 
 ly of boiler-plates i inch thick, riveted and .screwed 
 together, gave very indifferent results; and two other 
 heavier casemate-.shields, of very opposite construc- 
 tion, made of massive slabs of rolled iron, laid one in 
 front of the other, and crossing at right angles, with 
 lead between them, were tried, in 18(J2-3, with good 
 results. In the Warrior target, composed of 4i inches 
 of rolled-iron plates on 17 inches of wood, backed by a 
 thin iron skin, we see the advantage of timber backing, 
 the weakness of joints in armor, and the disadvantage 
 of joining armor-plates to each other by means of 
 tongues and grooves on their edges. In other of 
 these ship's targets the question of providing a com- 
 pound backing of wood and iron insteatl of wood 
 alone is practically solved in favor of the former, and 
 the disadvantage of doing away with qll wood in the 
 backing is also proved. Up to 1863, the heaviest gun 
 used in exiieriment was a lOi-mch rifled gun, throw- 
 ing a cylindrical shot of about 300 lbs. , T\ilh a muzzle- 
 velocity of about 1320 f.-s. There were also a 7-inch 
 Whitworth (130-pdr.)and a large 13-inch smooth-bore 
 Ilorsfall gun. But shortly afterwards a 23-ton gun 
 of 13.3 inches' caliber, capable of piercing a ship's side 
 stronger than that of the Wairior at two miles' range 
 with a shot of 600 lbs., called for a corresponding ad- 
 vance in the strength of armored structures, ^'on- 
 sequentl}- H.Jf.S. Hercules was protected with 9-inch 
 armor at her water-line; and a target representing her 
 at this part, with a very massive backing of teak and 
 iron .stringers, ribs, and skin, afforded effective 
 resistance to the gun above referred to at 700 yards 
 range, and would have done so at much shorter 
 ranges. This trial showed the advantage of giving 
 depth or thickness to shot-resisting structures. A 
 method of holding on armor-plates by continuous 
 irons turned over their edges instead of by bolts was 
 also tried, but there were objections to it. 
 
 Turning again more particularly to the protection 
 of land-works, the following exiierience was gained 
 about this time — that is, in 1865. Two complete ma- 
 sonry casemates, with ports in iron shields, were built 
 at Shoeburj-ness. The masonry was 14 feet thick, con- 
 sisting, generally, of a face of 6 to 8 feet of stone, with 
 brick-work behind it, and the side walls and vaulting 
 of the casemates were of brick. The shield of one was 
 a compoimd structure 12 feet long, 8 feet high, anil, 
 altogether, 21 inches thick (including 7 inches of 
 wood); that of the other was made out of a solid rolled- 
 iron plate 7 feet high, 6 feet wide, and 13+ inches thick. 
 After the mounting, working, and firing of a 23-tou 
 and a 13-ton gun in the casemates, as well as on the 
 roofs, had proved the work to be suitable in arrange- 
 ment for such guns, the front of the work was attacked 
 by a batterj' of 7-ineh, 8-inch, 9.22-inch, and 10-inch 
 guns, at ranges of 600 and 1000 j-ards, firing steel and 
 cast-iron shot, some with hemispherical and some 
 with elliptical heads. The general result of this trial 
 was that after 33 hits the work began to become un- 
 tenable, after 54 hits its fire would have been virtually 
 silenced, and after 86 hits, of which 22 were on iron, 
 the masonr)' front was destroyed, but the shields still 
 afforded a fair amount of protection. The aggregate 
 of all the blows delivered came to 200,000 foot-tons, of 
 which 52,000 were on iron. Among many other 
 trials that took place alwut this time were those which 
 brought out the excellent qualities of chilled cast-iron 
 for battering projectiles, as proposed by CajUain (now 
 Sir W.) Palliser, and also the advantages of the pointed 
 (ogival) over the l)lunt (hemispherical) head. For 
 these experiments iron annor, placed both directly 
 and o))liquely to the line of fire, was used; chilled 
 iron, in consequence of these results, almost entirely 
 superseded steel for battering projectiles, for a time at
 
 ABHOS£D DEFENSES. 
 
 68 
 
 AEHORED DEFENSES. 
 
 least. Next in onlcr came a scries of trials of plates 
 of steel, iiiulof steel ami iron eoinl)ineci; some were 
 of thin layers of steel and iron weUleil tojfcther, others 
 of sundwiehes of sleel between rolled iron, olhers of 
 faces of steel welded to Iron, and others of steel and 
 iron in reverse order to this; lint none of these com- 
 peted sneeessfully with a simple soft rolled-iron phile 
 in resistinir ehilled-iron >hot. !>(mie plates made 
 entirely of steel were tried about this time, as they 
 had been also years before, l)ut none of them stood at 
 all well. The dillievilly of treating sleel iu large 
 ina.sses, and es|X(ially of weldin'T these masses of 
 sleel and iron together, had evidently not been mr.s- 
 tered up lo this time. In consequence of the grov.- 
 inn; jiowers of battering-ordnance, it now became 
 evident that land-works would re(|uiie walls of con- 
 sidtnible lhi(knes.ses of armor; but there were two 
 main reasons why very thick armor-iilates should not 
 be used in them." In the tirst place, the manufacture 
 of a very thick plate is not so complete as that of one 
 of modenite thickness, or at least to make it as com- 
 plete would involve an enormous increase of co.st in 
 plant and manufacture; and next, the thicker the 
 plates the deeper the joints must be. and therefore the 
 more points of undue weakness will the armor ])re- 
 sent. It therefore became important to see whether 
 the required protection could not be gained without 
 the use of very thick plates. Against doing this was 
 the prevailing opinion, based chiefly on theoretical 
 considerations, that a single plate of given thickness 
 would offer something like twice the coniliined resist- 
 ance of two plates each of half that thicliness, or 
 about three times the resistance of three plates, mak- 
 ing up the sjime total thickness, and so on. This view- 
 was entirely disputed liy those who had to ileal with 
 these questions otMcially. 
 
 In 1871 two targets representing portions of the 
 walls of ships' turrtts were tried at Shoeburyness. 
 The one was protected by single 14-inch plates, the 
 other by two thicknesses of armor, 8-inch and (i-inch 
 respectively, with 9 inches of timlier between them. In 
 other respects the targets were similar. After receiv- 
 ing the same amount of battering the armor of both 
 was taken off, and the effect upon the inner skin of 
 the two-plate target was unmistakably less than that 
 on the single-plate slniclnre. It may also be men- 
 tioned that, more recently still, a structure composed 
 of three thicknesses of 6i inches of iron proved rather 
 superior to a solid IGi-inch plate in stopping the 818-lb. 
 shot of the service 38-ton gun, striking with a velocity 
 of aljout 141.5 f.-s. To settle the best proportions, 
 quantify, and best nature of material to Ijc inferposeil 
 between armor-plates, a series of careful exiicriments 
 was set on foot, and the result was that a uniform 
 spacing of alnait 5 inches (to be slighilv modified 
 under certain circumsfances) between tne different 
 plates in all sfructures was decided upon; and also, 
 although an iron concrete, made liy workinir up to- 
 gether cast-iron borings, asphall, liifiuuen, anil pitch, 
 gave the best result, mainly on account of its great 
 weight, yet brick-work in "asphalt. I'ortlaml-cemenf 
 concrete, and hard wood proved so satisfactory that 
 these materials have been adopted, as circumsiances 
 required, in all armored walls. It may be well to 
 mention here a very rcmarka1)le result "that was ob- 
 tiiined in the course of the early trials with plate- 
 iipon-plate sfrucfures. When V()id spaces were left 
 between the jilati's of these sirnctnres it was found 
 that the heads of Ihe Palliser shells collaliscd coni- 
 I)lelely under the work fhey had fo do in penefrafing 
 them, and, naturally, the effect jiroduced u|)on the 
 target was thereby very much reduced. In one case 
 a chilled shot from the 8S-(on gun, which was capa- 
 ble of i)iercing litj inches of armor, was found stick- 
 ing in a finely divided state airainst a lO-inch idate 
 after having i)assid through oidy a 4 in<li jilale a few- 
 feet in front of if; and on another occasion, a 4*-inch 
 l)latc, set up 18 inches in front of a masonry" wall, 
 with a void space between them, so far reduced fhe 
 effect of a chilled cast-iron projectile from the 38-ton 
 
 gun, at 50 yards, that it broke up on first striking the 
 jrranite, and was afterwards ilug out in pieces at ii 
 depth of only about 3 feet ti inches from the original 
 front of fhe masomy. Hepcated and well-iironouneed 
 instances of this utfer desfruclion of chilled projec- 
 files from this cause have been gained and carefully 
 investigated, with a view fo fuming flu- principle to 
 some account in defence-works; bin parfly on account 
 of certain dilliculfies of detail, and mainly on account 
 of fhe action nof being produced lai steel projectiles, 
 fhe idea of using void spacing in practice has been 
 marly given up. The ne.xf trials on a large scale 
 were those of 18ti8, at Shoeburyness. In fhe.se, a 
 casemate having a front of 22 feit by 14 feet, reiire- 
 senfing a portion of the iron fort which was then in 
 course of construction for fhe position behind Plym- 
 outh breakwater fort, stood 37 rounds from the 12-inch 
 gun of 2.") tons, charge 76 lbs. pellet-pow-der, the 10- 
 inch gun of 18 tons, charge 60 lbs. H. L. G. , and the 
 l.")-inch Hodman gun of 19 Ions, charge 100 lbs. 
 American (equivalent fo 83J lbs. English) powder, at 
 200 yards' range; and alfhough if was of course con- 
 siileialily damaged i>y this fire, if w-as, at fhe end of 
 if.pronomiccd fo be defensible. This trial led fo s<-me 
 important additions being made fo fhe front wall of 
 file fort itself as it went on. The roof also of this 
 casemate was tested by fhe lire of 13-inch mortars at 
 1000 yards, but fhey jirovctl quite iiowerle.ss against 
 it. Only a few shells, howeycr.sfnick if out of nearly 
 300 rounds. Ailjoining ihis casemate was another 
 embodying several kinds of cellular consti-uclion in 
 its iron front, with fhe object of comparing fhe re- 
 sistance of moderately thick solid (ilates with that of 
 thinner front plates su]iporfed l)y cellular compound 
 backing; but in no instance did fhe latter conslrvic- 
 tlon prove itself sujierior fo fhe other. This result 
 was borne (nit liy the trial of another shield in 1868. 
 The support giyen fo armor by massive piers of 
 masonry and concrete, cased in thick boiler-plate, 
 proved very satisfactoi-j-. 
 
 If may be w-ell here fo notice briefly fhe matter of 
 holding on armor-plafes, on which so nnich of course 
 depends, and we may begin by sjiying that of fhe iii- 
 numerable contrivances- for this object nothing has 
 been found equal fo that of a simple screwed wroughf- 
 iron liolt fitted with nuls. The sleps by which the 
 ]ii-esenf pattern of armor-lwlt for forlificalions has 
 been arrived at maybe thus described: At firsl a bolt 
 with a dee]) V-shapeil screw-thread was used, but in 
 the early stages of the trials a .shallow round-cut 
 thread was sulisfifufed for this with great advantage. 
 Also a gradual and slight cone was ado])|ed in lieu of 
 fhe abruiif and spreading cone used at first in the 
 heads of these bolls. IS'e.vf, 8ir W. Palliser's valu- 
 able suggestion that part of the shank or stem of an 
 armor-bolt should l)c reduced lo fhe lesser diameter 
 of fhe thread led fo an immense iinproveiuenf, and 
 this has been since extended fo the whole length of 
 the stem, leaving Ihe thread a jilus or raised fjiread, 
 thus facilitating fhe extension of fhe niaferi.d of fhe 
 bolt throughout its whole length instead of locally in 
 short lenglbs. Then C'alitain English projKised, first, 
 the rounding of fhe bearing siu-face of a common 
 hexagon mif, and affenvard the use of a spherical 
 nut seated in a cup-shaped hole in the armor or in a 
 .special Clipped washer; with these imiirovemcnfs and 
 that of fhe enlargemcnf of the holes through which 
 the bolt lies to pass (all of which have for their object 
 fhe relief of the bolt from cross-strains, and the inser- 
 tion of a due in'oportion of elastic material fo be 
 squeezed wh<-n the bcilf is put under tension) all diffi- 
 culfies with bolls have disapiieared. and instead of 
 their being sources of weakness they really, in most 
 cases, give assistance to fhe armor. The special 
 washers are of fhe following make: First, a circular 
 wa.sher is ni;ide by coiling and welding a l)ar li inch 
 by i inch, and this is cu))pe<l to suit the .sjiherical nut 
 of the bolt. To slreiigllien Ihis piul :in outer coil of 
 unwelded bar of about fhe same section is screwed 
 around it; as this outer coil has to expand after the-
 
 AEMOKED DEFENSES. 
 
 69 
 
 ARMORED DEFENSES. 
 
 inner coil may have given way, and as in doing so it 
 would naturally umsind it.self and open out, this 
 tendency to separation has been met by making the 
 thiead by which this outer coil is screwed on to the 
 inner of quicker pitch tlian that of its own coils, and 
 thus as it unwinds it actually becomes more and more 
 tightly squeezed together. 
 
 AH other trials of this period may now be passed 
 over until we come to that of the casemate-shield set 
 up at Shoeburyness in 1870, which embodied all the 
 c.K])erience gained from tlie previous twelve jx'ars of 
 c.vperinient. The guns used were the 12-inch of 25 
 tons, the 10-inch of IH tons, the 9-incli Whitworth 
 gun of 14i tons, and tlic l.>mch Rodman of 19 tons, 
 at 200 yards. Some rounds were tired obliquel}', but 
 most of them were fired direct at the face of the 
 shield. The shield, which presented a front of 13 
 feet by 8 feet, received 17 blows, equivalent to 
 90,000 foot tuns, and, except in one or two mat- 
 ters of detail which were svLsceptilile of easy im- 
 provement, it stood the trial remarkably well, and 
 proved that it posses.sed a great margin of strength 
 for these and even more powerful guns. In 1873 a 
 plate-upon-plate target, rcijreseuting 17 inches of 
 armor altogether, slo]iped a Palliser shot fired direct 
 at it from the 35-ton 12-inch gim with 110 lbs. of P. 
 powder; and a similar target with 13 inches of armor 
 stopped a shot from the same gun, striking it at an 
 angle of 60° with its face. In 1861 the ciqiola of the 
 Trasty was tried off Sheerness. It was in the form 
 of a truncated cone, covered with 4.V inches of armor, 
 and resisted fairlj" well the guns of those days. The 
 cupola was not damaged in its machinery throughout 
 the trial. Next, in 1806, one of the turrets of the 
 Royal Sovereign, carrying armor in thickness 5* to 
 10 inches, was tried at Spithead with the 12i-ton gnns 
 of H.M.S. Bellerophon. The tuiTct was a good deal 
 injured, but the turning machineiy remained in 
 working order. In 1872 the turret of the Glatton 
 was tried at Portland with the fire of a 12-inch 25-ton 
 gun of II. M.S. Hotspur, at 200 yards' range. The 
 armor was 14 inches thick, and it received two Pal- 
 liser shots, fired with 85-;b. charges, one of which 
 grazed first on the glacis. There was some damage 
 done inside the tuiTet, but the goat, rabbit, and fovil 
 which had been placed inside were unharmed, and 
 the turret turned freely after the trial. In 1870-1-2 
 some lengthened trials were made with shot and shell 
 impinging upon ship's decks, which gave some de- 
 cided residts, namely, that a iS-inch mortar shell at 
 4200 yards' range would go easily througli a strong 
 ship's deck covered with i ;-incli plating and 4i-inch 
 wood planking, and that at 2800 yards it would go 
 through it if covered with 1-inch plating; that 9-inch 
 lice shell from the 12-ton gun striking at an angle of 
 8 is too much for a similar deck covered with 1<- 
 inch plating at short range, but the same deck will 
 just turn a 9-inch «/iot at fhe same angle. Also, that 
 a strong deck covered with 3-inch plating and 4 inches 
 of oak was only just proof against 10-inch shells fired 
 with battering charges from the IS-ton gim and strik- 
 ing at an angle of 10'. The rule that roughly held 
 good a few years back, that battering gims could not 
 at the shortest range do more than pierce iron armor- 
 plaies equal in thickness to their own caliber, lias 
 been quite upset in the last year or two by practice 
 from the new hmg guns, with bores of 23 and more 
 calibers in length. Thus a 6-inch gun of less than 4 
 tons' weight, ;-rnd an 8-inch gun of less thau 12 tons, 
 have pierced within an inch of double their caliber in 
 thickness of solid iron plate; and calculations tend to 
 show that the long B. L. guns of 9.2-inch of 18 tons, 
 the 10.4-inch of 3(i tons, and the 12-inch of 43 tons' 
 weight achieve fully as much as this. 
 
 Speaking generally, the service-gims were always 
 capable of doing somewhat more than is indicated by 
 the old rule above mentioned, and if with the im- 
 proved powders of the present day their charges can 
 with safety be increased to the extent which we 
 belie'V'e has been proix»sed for them — as, for instance, 
 
 90 lbs. P^ for the 10-inch 18-ton gun, 110 lbs. P- for 
 the 11-inch 25-ton gun, and 160 lbs. P- for the 12i- 
 inch 38-ton gun — then these guns will be nearly if 
 not quite able to pierce at short range a thickness of 
 solid iron equal to li times their caliber. While upon 
 this subject, we may say that no great advance has 
 been made in late years toward determining a /mr for 
 the resistance of armor, nor do we think that lor 
 practical pm|X)se.s — whatever may be the ca.se from 
 a scientific jioint of \iew — much good will come of 
 inquiry in this direction. The conditions and effects 
 are altogether too variable and unceilain for the con- 
 struction of mathematical formula;. For instance, in 
 recent practice, under apparently similar conditions 
 of projectiles and plates, there has been an imac- 
 coimted-for variation of effect of something like 5 per 
 cent plus or minus. But we can, by buildiug upon 
 results obtained with one gim, say within a little 
 what another gun will do, and so construct tables of 
 penetrations for all velocities, or, in other words, for 
 all ranges. Thas, with the average service condi- 
 tions of weight and length of battering projectiles, a 
 shell of goocl cjuality with a velocity between 1050 to 
 11.50 f.-s7 will pierce solid iron equal in thickness to 
 its own caliber; with a velocity between 1500 and 
 1650 it will pierce iron of a thickness equal to one 
 and a half times its calilicr; and with a velocity be- 
 tween 2000 and 2200 it will pierce solid iron equal in 
 thickness to double its caliljer. To obtain the latter 
 degree of perforation at the muzzles of the latest guns 
 the powder-charges must, we believe, be equal to at 
 least one half the weight of the shot. At GfuTe, in 
 1876, a Whitworth 35-tou gun of 12-inch (maximum) 
 caliber, fired with 120 Ibs^P. powder, is reported to 
 have sent a fiat-headed steel shell of 808 lbs. through 
 two 8-lnch plates; but the experience with flat heads 
 would not lead us to exjiect so much effect upon a 
 well-constructed two-plate target of this thickness. 
 In 1877 a target composed of four 8-inch rolled-iron 
 plates, with layers of 5 inches of teak between them, 
 was set up at Shoeburvncss for the trial of the 80-ton 
 gun of the pattern made for H.M.S. Inflex-ible and 
 for the turret on Dover Pier. Two rounds were fired 
 — one befiire and one after the gun had been cham- 
 bered. The Palliser projectiles weighed 1700 lbs. 
 The range was 120 yards. In the one case the shot 
 was fired with 370 lbs. P- powder, and struck with a 
 velocity of 1495 f.-s. and total energy of 26,400 foot- 
 tons; in the other, 425 His. P- powder gave a striking 
 velocity of 1585 f.-s., and an energy of nearly 30,000 
 foot-tons. In neither case was the" target perforated, 
 though as the shot hail got their noses an inch or two 
 into "the back plate, it was a good deal cracked and 
 bulged behind. Had (be plates been 7 inches instead 
 of 8 inches thick, probably the last shot, at any rate, 
 vv'ould have got through. 
 
 In 1869 a chilled crst-iron casemate front, egg- 
 shaped (thickness of metal about the port 27 inches), 
 underwent a considerable trial, at Tegel, with 72- 
 pdrs. and 96-pdrs., and it stood fairly well. The 
 indents were very .slight, but the material, as usual, 
 was extremely brittle, and, to adopt the expressive 
 lamruage of a'report quoted in the professional papers 
 of the Corps of Engineers, U.S. Anny, it was "pretty 
 well cracked up." " The next trial of chilled cast-iron 
 armor was at JIagdebvug, in 1874, against a very 
 massive rounded target made by Grlison, and al- 
 though, both from the form of tlie structure and the 
 hardness of the material, individual shot were very 
 effectuallv turned off it, yet repeated blows caused 
 serious injury. Still, the Germans and Belgians have 
 adopted this" mode of const rvicti<»n for liolh shields 
 and turrets — especially for a number of 21"" and 28"" 
 breech-loading muzzre-pivolinir guns ft)r the defense 
 of the mouths of rivers. Si .me of the other European 
 Powers also are usins it, to a greater or less extent, 
 for both inland and coast fortresses. The chief ad- 
 vantaire of this material is I'lat it can be made of any 
 shapeT and therefore roimded and sloping surfaces 
 can be presented to the shot; and it affords also a
 
 ARMORED DEFENSES. 
 
 70 
 
 ARMORED DEFENSES, 
 
 certain facility for varying at will the thickness of 
 the metal in the ililTereut parts of a wall. 
 
 As early as in 18.")!) armor-plates of milil steel and 
 steely iron, anil iron anil steel eonibineil, and various 
 kinds of steel plates tempered in oil and water, had 
 lieen tried, siud all failed in a preater or less degree 
 when they came to stand the test of sliul-hlows. So 
 tile matter of steel armor rested until the Italians, in 
 18T(), iKjldly re-openeil the question liy seltinjj up two 
 armor-iilates (made by M. Schneider, of Creusot) of 
 soft forged steel 21J inches thick, for trial at Spezia. 
 The plates were about 1 1 feet long and 4 feet 7 iuilics 
 wide, antl they were backed with massive oak, cover- 
 ing a strong iron skin well sujiportcd in rear. For 
 comparison with these, three iron ])lalesof nearly the 
 same dimensions as the steel jilates, and similarly 
 supported, were tried at the Siuue lime, as well as two 
 plale-iipou-plate targets, each consisting of iron plates 
 11.8 inches and 9.8 inches thick, with V2 inches of 
 wooil between them and backing of timber anil iron 
 behind them. We must also mention two targets 
 composed of 8-iiich wroughl-iron (ilates backed by 
 blocks of chilled cast-iron of " Gregoriiii" metal, 14 
 inches thick. In one of these the chilled blocks 
 touched the front armor, in the other 13 inches of 
 wood were interposed. In all the targets there was 
 the same total thickness of 4 feet 4 inches, made tip 
 of about 22 inches of armor and ;{() inches of timber 
 and skin. The general resull of the trial was this: 
 One steel plate was a good deal cracked, and had ils 
 enil knocked away by two blows from a lO-inch and 
 one from an ll-inch gun, throwing chilled cast-iron 
 projectiles; and the fimrth roimd from the 100-ton 
 gun with a 2000-11). chilled cast-iron projectile, strik- 
 ing with a velocity of 1.500 f.-s. and a muzzle-energy 
 of 31,000 foot-tons, dashed the plate to pieces, though 
 it apparently could not (piite perforate it. The other 
 thick steel iilale was completely demolished by a 
 single round from the same 100-lon gun. The lliick 
 wrought-iron plate made in England was much less 
 injured generally by the lighleV guns than was the 
 steel plate, though the indents in it were deeper; but 
 the 100-tou gun sent ils shot Ihrongh all the iron 
 plates, and also broke them in two. TLc " plale-upon- 
 plale" targets did not do so well as the solid plates, 
 and the targets with the chilled-iron backings entirely 
 succumbed lo a single blow on each front the 10(5- 
 ton gun. The results of the trial were seriously in- 
 validated by the narrowness of the plates used, — a 
 width of 4 feet 7 inches l)eing altogether too little for 
 a.plale which is to receive a iT-inch .shot, and on this 
 account these costly and claliorate trials at Spezia 
 Lave afforded much" less useful information than they 
 oudit to have given. The brittleness of the steel, 
 and ils cousequciu incajiacity for resi.stance lo re- 
 jieated blows, is a striking feature of these trials; the 
 failine of the plale-upon-iilate targets, through their 
 being a bad imitation of our construction, is another; 
 the utter collapse of the target with Ibe chilled-iron 
 blocks is a third; and the defective plan of holding 
 armor by .screwing lx)lts into t'.)e backs of plates is a 
 fourth. It is to be regretted, also, that these trials 
 did not give us a more exact measure of Ihe armor- 
 piercing power of Ihe 100-ton gun, which was a 
 counterpart of the four which were to be mounted at 
 Gibraltar and Malta. In 1879 the Italians ai^ain ex- 
 perimented at Spezia upon thick steel plali's\ This 
 lime Ihe i)lales were ni arly 28 inches thick, and were 
 entirely cased in 1-inch i)rale boxes, which dispensed 
 with boiling. They were narrow i)lales, as before 
 (4 feet 7 inches wule and 9 feet lomr), wei;ibl ab<ait 
 20 tons each ; but these plates were so ul lerl v dest royed 
 by a single namd e;icli from chilled-iron o"r steel pro- 
 jectiles from the lOOion gun tiring .").")0 lbs. of Fossano 
 l>owder, that Ihe trials had to be disconlimied with- 
 out telling nuieh mmc than was known before. The 
 forged-steel projectile made by Wbitworlh seems lo 
 have i)enelrated Ihe deepest (21.().") inches) and re- 
 mained enliri', but il was somewhat set up. 
 
 Perhaps the shortest way of giving an account of 
 
 the manufacture of rolled-iron armor will be to say 
 how some one plale in particular has been made, anil 
 we will select for this purpose one of the heaviest 
 ever produced. This was one of the 8-inch plates 
 made for the target to test Ihe 80-ton gun at Slioe- 
 buryness. Its tiuished dimensions were: length, 18 
 feet; width, 10 feet; and ils weight 23 toiLs. For its 
 mauufaclurc 1170 slabs, 30 inches long, 12 inches 
 wide, and 1 inch thick, were made from the puddled 
 ball and bar. These were piled, fuinaced, and rolleil 
 into (i.j plates about !> feet scjuare and from 1 inch to 
 li inch thick, called small molds. These, again, 
 were piled and rolled inlo (luarter-molds, and the 
 Huarter-molds inlo annor-iilale molds, and the iiile 
 for the l.-ist rolling was made up of three molds about 
 10 feet sijuarc, two of 7-iiiih and one of 3-inch thick- 
 ness. As they enlerid the furnace for this last heat- 
 ing the\' Aveighed about 3.5 tons; as tTicy came out 
 after about twelve hours they weighed 3U tons. They 
 were rolled down in the last rolling from 17 inches lo 
 8 inches;. so that in a certain sense this plale may be 
 said to have bten made by rolling a column of iron 
 nearly 100 feet high down to one of only 8 inches 
 high. The tibrous character of a jilate depends 
 largely upon the amount of reduction in Ihe last roll- 
 ing. The rolls are plain cast cylinders; lho.se used 
 in Ihe present case are about 3 feet in diameter, 12 
 feet long, and each one of the jiair weighs nearly 20 
 t(/ns. They are driven by very powerful steam 
 machinery, and made to reverse their rumiing, so 
 that the "plates are sent through one way and then 
 back again, and so on, the rolls being brought nearer 
 together each lime until the plate is brought down to 
 Ihe required thickness. The siiecitic graAity of a 
 good iron armor-plate is about 7.62.5. Armor-plate 
 iron is not made for very high tensile slrenglh, but 
 it is essential that it shoidd draw out well, and re- 
 duce in cross-section some 20 or 30 ])er cent before 
 breaking. As regards chilled cast-iron there is not 
 nuich to be .said further than that Herr Gri'ison. the 
 lirincipal manufacturer of il, runs his blocks for for- 
 titicalions direct from cupolas inlo sand-molds, chill- 
 ing the faies which are to form Ihe fronts of Ihe 
 blocks against ma^sses of cast-iron. Some of Ihe 
 chills are twice the weight of Ihe casting itself; the 
 chill generally extends two or three inches into the 
 metal. Single blocks have been used as heavy as ol) 
 tons. The cost of these Ijlocks may be taken as 
 rather more than half the cost of wrought-iron aniior- 
 I'lates per ton, but then the cast-iron has to be usi-d 
 in masses more than twice the thickness of Ihe 
 wrought-iron whith would give the same protection. 
 All Ihe most successful compound plates have been 
 made of ordinaiy annor-plalc, iron faced with Bes- 
 .senier steel. Of course an i(|ually or even better face 
 might be given by u.sing crucible steel, but the cost 
 and difficulty attending the use of this kind of steel 
 would be enormous. In fact, it may be truly Siiid 
 that but for Ihe Bes.scraer and 31arlin-Siemens pro- 
 cesses it would have been ]iractically out of Ihe ques- 
 tion lo make compound ])lales at all. The most 
 simple and elTective process of m.'mufaeture of these 
 plates is as follows: First, a rolled-iron armor-plate of 
 Ihe usual quality is made, and on il is laifl round ils 
 edges a wriaigiit-iion frame, the thickness of Ihe 
 armor-plate and Ihe depth of the frame depending 
 upon the thickness required in Ihe finished plale. 
 The plate and frame are then placed in an ordinary 
 plate-healing furnace, and when at a welding beat 
 Ihey are brought out an<l molten steel made by the 
 Bessemer process is pcjureil out of large ladles on to 
 Ihe surface of the plate up to the brim of the frame. 
 The mass is then allowed to cool, and is afterward 
 re-heated and rolled down into an armor-plate of the 
 desired Ihiekness. The edue of wrought-iron is after- 
 ward planed off. Instead of having a sinqjle frame 
 round the edges of Ihe plale it has been pro|)osed to 
 sulidivide the surface inlo sijuares, as those of a chess- 
 board, in order that by breaking the continuity of 
 the steel the cracks caused by ^hot-blows may be
 
 AKMOEES. 
 
 71 
 
 ABMOEER'S GAUGES. 
 
 stopped short, and with the same object it has been 
 proposed to subdivide the steel by tine cuts across its 
 face. The successful union of the steel ami iron 
 masses in these plates is verj- marked. A complete 
 fusion seems to take place, and the natures of the two 
 metals so far intermingle that it is sometimes hard to 
 fix upon an exact linewhere the steel ends and the 
 iron begins. 
 
 The drawing represents the turret for two 80-ton 
 ffims at the extremity of the Admiralty Pier at Dover. 
 The work to carry this turret consists of an enlarge- 
 ment of the outerend of the pier. The foundations 
 arc laid at a depth of about 7 fathoms 'below low- 
 water mark, anil the guns are at a level of about 33 
 feet above high water. The structure, therefore, 
 from the bed of the sea to the guns is about 9.5 feet 
 high. Speaking in general terms, the turret consists 
 first of a live ring and rollers of steel running on a 
 path of steel laidon a massive cylinder of masonry. 
 
 depressed to an angle of 14 for loading, which is 
 done under the glacis by steam gear. The turret is 
 turned by a pinion, the vertical shaft shown working 
 into a large ring ■\\ith steel trundles secured to the 
 framework, the "power being given by a set of main 
 engines capable of working up to 300 h.-p., and 
 auxiliary engines of 4.5 or 50 h.-p. For the working 
 and loading^>f the gims there will be another engine 
 of about 30 h.-p. AH the engines and the boilers are 
 in the lower part of the batVcry, some 30 feet below 
 the guns. The magazines are at nearly the same 
 level as the engiues,~and the shell-stores at a higher 
 level. There is a system of communication by signal 
 and speaking from" the gun-ehamber to the engine- 
 room. an<l throughout the battery. 
 
 ARMOBER.— The old meaning of this word has 
 nearly passed away with the system to which it be- 
 loni^Jd. The armor-smiths, or makers of armor, were 
 among the most skilful workers in metal durmg the 
 
 Turret for two 80-ton Guns. 
 
 On this live ring runs a structure of iron framework 
 of the form shown in the diagram, weighing alxuit 
 240 tons. This framework contains the gun-chamber, 
 which is protected by three thicknesses of T-inch ar- 
 mor with two intermediate thicknesses of 2-inch 
 plates, making together a weight of about 460 tons. 
 If to these weights be added that of the guns, car- 
 riages, and the slides on which they stand, the total 
 running weight will be alwut 89.5 tons. This will 
 throw upon each of the 32 rollers of the live ring a 
 pre-isure due to alxiut 38 tons. The outside diameter 
 of the turret is 37 feet, its internal iliameter is 32 feet, 
 the interior height of the gun-chaml)er is 8 feet 8 
 inches, the height of the turret-armor is 9 feet. It 
 will l)e seen that a massive central casting is first held 
 firmly tlown to the masonry, and that inside this there 
 is a thick cylinder of hammered Bessemer steel sur- 
 rmmding tiie built-up wrought-iron cylinder wliich 
 forms the center of the turret framework. AVe draw 
 attention to this part because, of course, the shock of 
 blows on the turret-walls, or, more strictly speaking, 
 the unal)>.orlied part of it, ultimately comes to this 
 part, aiul it has received special consideration on that 
 account. The framework is generally of wrought- 
 iron. The roof of the turret is of strong splinter- 
 proof construction. Over each gun there is a part of 
 it which is removalile to admit of its being got in and 
 out, and a part is made of open Ijars to allow a cur- 
 rent of air to clear otf any smoke that may enter the 
 turret. The gmi-porls admit of 7' of elevation and 
 2 of depression; the turret is capable of all-round 
 fire. The glacis outside the turret is supported by a 
 ring of armor-plates on edge, 5 inches and 3 inches 
 thick, on a strong circle of 2-inch platinir. The 
 muzzles of the guns are brought inside the turret and 
 
 feudal times; but their trade afterwards fell away. In 
 the year 1690 the workmen-armorers of London, in a 
 petition to Parliament, complained that their trade was 
 well-niL'h ruined. Armorei-s. in a somewhat <lilTerent 
 .sense of the word, belong to the British army and navy 
 at the present time. There are armorers to everj' regi- 
 ment, not to make armor, but to repair arms. There 
 is one to each troop of cavalry, and one to each com- 
 pany of infantry. The armorer is paiil one penny per 
 month for taking to pieces and cleaning the lock of 
 each soldier's musket. There is also a regular tariff 
 of prices for every minute detail of repair in the stock, 
 lock, or barrel of muskets, pistols, carliines. and rifies, 
 and ill bayonets and ramrods. A school for training 
 armorer-sergeants has recently been established in 
 London to supply one such artificer to each battalion, 
 who shall have "a certain degree of control over the 
 ten or twelve company-armorers in the battalion. On 
 shipboard the armorer is a warrant -officer, who has 
 charge of all the muskets, pistols, cutlasses, boarding- 
 pikes, etc., which he is expected to keep clean and in 
 ready order. He is a.ssisted by a subordinate called 
 the "armorer's mate;" and both are skilled in the 
 general routine of smith's work. 
 
 ARMORER'S GAUGES.— For verifying the dimen- 
 sions of the various parts of small-arnis are tenijiletsof 
 various sizes and shapes, rings, and cylindrical or 
 conical sauses for interior dimensions. Two hun- 
 dred are embraced in a complete set f<ir the various 
 ;irms made at the Xational ArmoPi-, of which alxiut 
 78 are used for the Springfield rifle alone. Of 
 these, the odibtr-gatige measures the diameter of the 
 : bore. The dimeugion-gauges show the length of the 
 I barrel and its diameter at various distances, the value 
 I in inches and parts being measured by the caliper-
 
 ABMORIAL. 
 
 ARMOR-PIERCING PROJECTILES. 
 
 gauge. Other jriiuges measure the proper dimeusioiis 
 of the bretfb-stTew ami its thread, and those of the 
 couuter-bt)re i>f the barrel which receives it; otheis, 
 agiiiii, the form, illiiieiisious, and position of the 
 sights. A separate gjiuge is required for the lock- 
 plate, and for each separate part of which the lock 
 is comiwsed; as the maiiiDiminj-gaiigt, Dnir-yauye, 
 britiU-gauije, tHinhhrgauijt, /uimnier-gaiigt; etc.; also, 
 piiijres for the various dimensions of the stock, of the 
 bayonet, and of each of the appenilagcs which ac- 
 cohipany the gini. Including the jrauges requiivd for 
 inspecting the various carbines and pistols made by 
 dillerciit firms in the United States, the numlxT wiil 
 exctrd II II HI, 
 
 ARMORIAL. — Belonging to armor, or to the arms or 
 csculilicciM of a faniilv. 
 
 ARMOR piercing" PROJECTILES.— Projectiles in- 
 tended for practice at objects composed of wood, ma- 
 sonry, or earth are mside of cast-iron; but, since the 
 introduction of iron for the defence of ships and for- 
 tifications, a material possessing greater hardness than 
 oriiiiiary cast-iron is required to overcome the resist- 
 ance op|)osed by thick wrought-iron plates. Both 
 clong!ited and spherical projectiles for use against 
 armor should Ix- of the hardest and toughest material 
 possililc. The power of a inojectile to stand up to its 
 work anil deliver its full blow on the target dcpcmls 
 on the s/iape as much as on the gualitg of the metal of 
 which it is composed. 
 
 The resistance of the plate, neglecting friction, acts 
 as a normal to each point of the surface of contact of 
 a spherical projectile; thus, in Fig. 1 it will be seen 
 that the portion of such a projectile included between 
 A and B, which we may term the zone of compres- 
 sion, is subject to a crushing pressure towards the 
 centre, O, but it may be said to be under no tensile 
 strain. AVhile the posterior portion of the projectile 
 is suddenly checked by it in the form of a wedge, 
 when a portion of the work stored \\\> in it (the aniomit 
 depending on the tensile strength of the material of 
 the iirojcctilc) is impressed on the target through the 
 front portion, AOB, while the remainder is carried 
 off improfitably in the fragments into which the pos- 
 terior portion breaks. On examining the projectile 
 after impact, a part very nearly corresponding to 
 AOB in form will be found intact (Fig. i) withthe 
 fractured surface scored and polishetl, while the re- 
 mainder will be dispersed in small fragments. We 
 know that any casting fractures most easily in the 
 direction of a normal to its s\u-face, the crystals set- 
 tling themselves so as to form lines on this "direction. 
 Theoretically, the portion represented by Fig. 1 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 ought to be smaller as the penetration is less — except 
 in the ca.se of the entire I)low Ijcinir too small to over- 
 come the tensile sIrtnLrtli of the metal in the manner 
 described: when the projectile w<aild onlv split ir- 
 regularly, or, in an (Xtrciiie case, remain entire. In all 
 instances ol)viously a great amount of the work stored 
 up in the projictiie is wasted; not that actu.div em- 
 ployed in breakini: it, for such work is clearly the re- 
 sult of the reaction from the tiirunt. l)ut whatever 
 
 ix>wer remains stored up in the fragments after they 
 sever themselves from the mass of the projectile. 
 Since it is im|X)ssililc to jiredict what part of a sphe- 
 rical projectile tired from a smooth-bore gun will 
 come in contact with the target on impact, it isneces- 
 sjuy that the material should be such as will offer the 
 greatest union of hardness, crushing strength, and 
 tenacity; therefore' steel has been resorted to in seime 
 instance's, and may be regarelcel as the culminating 
 point of dcveliipmciit of the smooth-bore projectile's. 
 The Mat-ended form of t longuhd projectiles possesses 
 a peculiar advantage as regards the projectile, and 
 another as concerns the plate. As to the projectiles, 
 it may be seen (Fig. 2) that in direct impact the whole 
 of the resistance ot the target acts in lines parallel to 
 the projectile's axis, which direction is the most favor- 
 able to the i>rojectile retaining its mass ami delivering 
 its full blow on the target; and, again, if the target is 
 to be punched by actual shearing, the flat head is the 
 form Ix'St adapted to effect it. The flat head would 
 probably be best in the case of du-ect tiring against 
 plates composed of hard iron, for it is easj' teT con- 
 ceive of a hard material offering very great resistance 
 to the forcing open of a pointed head, which might 
 
 ^=s= 
 
 Kio. S. 
 
 be punched by the clean shearing of a flat-headed 
 lirojectile. The jjower given l)y rotation of keeping 
 the same jjortiou of a projectile presented to the front 
 is of peculiar \alue in punching annor-plates; it en- 
 ables the head of a jirojectile to be made of any de- 
 sired form, while the jjower of reducing the calibre 
 of a projectile m proportion to its weight, which is 
 perhaps the principal advantage obtaineel by rifling, 
 is also most important here, the depth of penetration 
 being in inverse inoportioii to the circumference. In 
 shells, however, this stability of the axis of rotation 
 tells more fully, for it enables every part of the pro- 
 jectile to be made of such projiortious as will give 
 the maximum power at the moment of impact. The 
 walls of an cloug-atcd shell being chiefly subjecteel to 
 a longitudinal strain, an interior hollow may be made 
 without entailing the great weakness existiiig in sphe- 
 rical shells as comiiared with .soliil shot. Hence it 
 follows that while smooth-bore shells have seldom or 
 never been tired at armor, rifled shells have proved 
 vcrv successful. 
 
 1 here are two causes which contribute to give 
 shells iK'Ctiliar power against iron jilates. The Jirsl 
 is that it is not necessary to weaken the head of a 
 she'll by making a fuse-hole in it; because no fuse is 
 re(|uired, the heat generated on the impact of a pro- 
 jectile against the armor being sullicient to fire the 
 bursting-rtiarge. To such an extent is light as well 
 as heat generated, that on firing at a target after dark 
 a pale flash is seen to follow the impact. The second 
 cause that operates to favor the action of shells is 
 the fact that when the shell has penetrated to a depth 
 of even a few inches l)efore ru]ituie occurs, the sides 
 are supjiorted by lh<' armor around them, and the ex- 
 l)losi(ai, being confineil at the siiles, acts to the front 
 with greatly increased force. 
 
 In a conical head the normal pressures throughout 
 fonn a zone of compression acting as a wedge towarels 
 the body of the projectile, whose angle is the supple- 
 ment of that of the cone of the head. This is better 
 th;in that formed in the spherical head, because the 
 angle is less acute, and because the apex of the
 
 ABHOB-PLAT£S. 
 
 AEM0E-PLATE8. 
 
 wedge, instead of being a fixed point throughout (the 
 center of the sphere), moves along the axis of the pro- 
 
 i'ectile as it enters deeper and deeper into the target. 
 n the ogival head (Fig. 3) it will oasil_v be seen how 
 much superior is the action. In this the wedge is at 
 the commencement slightly acute, but then the resist- 
 ance acts on a small surface and is comparatively 
 small, and the angle increases, (ill, at the junction of 
 head and body, it becomes 180', or a straight line, so 
 that we then have the body of the projectile in much 
 liie Siime condition as the flat-headed bolt dri^ing be- 
 fore it an ogival wedge, which opens the armor by 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 wedging rather than by clipping or punching. It is 
 possible, no doubt, to conceive of a material that 
 might be sheared by the flat projectile more easily 
 than opened by the ogival ; but it would be to contra- 
 dict the results of experience to say that plate-iron 
 was such a substance; and as the softer and more 
 plastic natiu'es of plate-iron have been found to hold 
 their bolts the best, and staml the longest, and so 
 have been univei'sally adopted, the ogival has become 
 obviously the coiTect form of head. 
 
 The effect oi hardening projectiles is probably 
 much greater than is generally supposed; that is, the 
 amount of work gained is much greater than the in- 
 crease of strength of the projectile. It is well known 
 that a very small force nuiy under certain circum- 
 stances determine the performance or non-perform- 
 ance of a very large amount of work. In like man- 
 ner a very slight addition to the rigidity of a projec- 
 tile, by " hardening or otherwise, may detei-mine 
 whether a very large amount of work shall be wasted 
 upon the projectile or expended upon the plate. An- 
 other means of increasing the work done upon the 
 armor-plate in comparison with that done upon the 
 projectile is by increasing the velocity of the latter. 
 That is, a projectile mo\'ing at a low velocity may be 
 smasheil up or flattened against the plate, while the 
 same projectile fired at a higher velocity may go 
 through the same plate almost uninjured. On this 
 princii)le a lead shot may be fired through an 
 iron plate, or a tallow candle through a pine 
 board. 
 
 Late trials have shown a superiority of steel pro- 
 jectiles over those made of chilled cast-iron; and al- 
 though the former are somewhat more expensive than 
 the latter, on the principle that the best is at the same 
 time the cheapest, it would be misplaced economy to 
 leave any means unavailed of to increase the penetrat- 
 ing power of projectiles. The quality of chilled pro- 
 jectiles, from the nature of their manufacture, is 
 nece.ssirily uni'eliable; whereas tliis is not the case 
 with hammered cast-steel, or at least not to the same 
 extent by far, even when large mas.scs are produced, 
 and the ditiiculty of manufacture increases with the 
 calibre. The most essential difference in the be- 
 havior of steel and chilled projectiles on striking the 
 target consisLs in the reaction on the projectile show- 
 ing itself in the latter bv breaking up, while the 
 former art^ only set up. As the breaking up of the 
 chilled shells may take place before the bursting- 
 charge comes into operation, whereby the rending 
 
 effect is considerably prejudiced, this material ap- 
 pears far less adapted for shells than steel. The su- 
 ])eriority of steel in this respect is still further in- 
 crea.sed by the fact that the steel shell can have 
 thinner walls, consequently a larger chamber, and 
 can thus hold a larger liursting-charge than the 
 chilled metal. — See Artitor-platis and Projectiles. 
 
 ARMOR-PLATES. — Armor -plates are made of 
 wrought-iron, steel, wrought-iron and steel com- 
 bined, and east-iron. Wrought-iron has been foun<l 
 a suitalile material for use as armor, owing to its 
 strength, toughness, and malleability. Such plates 
 have been so perfected that they do not break uji, 
 but are penetrated by displacement or crowding aside 
 of the material in the path of the shot. Iron plates 
 are either made of a single solid plate or of several 
 iron plates, interlined with some more elastic mate- 
 rial. The former are called solid plates, and the 
 latter laminated plates. As the result of many ex- 
 periments the following conclu.sious have been ar- 
 rived at rcsi^ecting armor -plates of wrought-iron: 
 1st. The plates should be of soft, tough iron, and, to 
 secure these (jualities, should be free from sulphur, 
 phosphorus, and carton. 2d. Plates made of boiler- 
 iron riveted or screwed together do not give satisfac- 
 tory results. 3d. Plates made up of se\Feral distinct 
 plates bolted^ogether are foimd to comjiare favora- 
 bly with single .solid plates of equal thickness. If 
 the separate layers be well held together, each is 
 forced against the one next behind it, and a continu- 
 ous resistance is offered to the shot during its passage 
 through the mass. If the plates are separated by 
 layei-jTof teak, such a shield stands the racking action 
 of projectiles better than the solid plate, owing to its 
 more elastic nature. 4th. The support given by a 
 rigid backing, such as cast-iron or granite, improves 
 the resisting power of the armor, but leads to its be- 
 ing injured in a greater degree by cracking, and the 
 giving way of fastenings, oth. The resistance of a 
 plate to perforation is materially increased by a back- 
 ing of oak or leak, or a compound backing of wood 
 and iron. A backing of concrete has also been found 
 suitable. Such an elastic backing strains the fasten- 
 ings much less than a rigid one. 6th. A single solid 
 plate has the disadvantage, when compared \vith the 
 laminated, of deeper joints, causing points of undue 
 weakness. Its manufacture is also more difficult, and 
 will not be so complete as that of laminated plates 
 without great increase of lalxir and expense. In la- 
 minated jjlates. the surfaces of the plates should not 
 be in contact, but should be separated by some thick- 
 ness of a softer and more elastic material, such as 
 teak, to prevent their breaking under heavy blows. 
 7th. Rolled plates are superior to those made by ham- 
 mering. 8th. The joints of armor are jioints of weak- 
 ness, and it is disadvantageous to join plates b)' 
 tongues and grooves on their edges. They are best 
 held together by wTought-iron bolts, secured by sphe- 
 rical nuts seated in a cnp-shaped hole in the armor. 
 The stem of the bolt is of less diameter than the ends, 
 leaving a plus thread. The bolt thus tends to .stretch 
 throughout its entire length, rather than pull out of 
 the mit. The enlargemeiit of the holes through which 
 the Ixilt passes relieves it from cross-strains. Bolts of 
 this kind rather add to the strength of armor. With 
 steel or steel-faced armor, however, where it is essen- 
 tial that the outer surface should be unbroken, the 
 bolts are screwed into the back of the plate and nutted 
 up behind. 9th. An inner iron skin is of great ad- 
 vantage, adding solidity to the backing, and prevent- 
 ing the pa.ssjige of many splinters. 
 
 Steel armor-plates possess some decided advantages 
 over those of wrought-iron, viz., greater absolute te- 
 nacity, more perfect homogeneity of structure, and 
 greater resistance to penetration. The disadvantage 
 of steel is that, owing to its crystalline structure, it 
 is liable to crack under repeated blows. Steel armor- 
 plates have been constructed to successfully resist the 
 heaviest gun yet made (1884). In the defensive arma- 
 ment of vessels the main object is to keep out projec-
 
 ABHORT. 
 
 74 
 
 AKM8. 
 
 tiles; and since under ortlinaiy conditions it would 
 Ih? improbablo that the plates would be n-quircd to 
 rcwivi^ sivinil Mows in the Siunc sjiot, i( liiis Iki'h 
 deemed ad\ i^^ible to substitute for wrought-iron either 
 steel or a combination of steel and wroughtiron as a 
 protection apiiust the heaviest guns. Such a plate 
 would arri'sl the projectile, although it might be , 
 rackeil to pieces by long-sustained tire. The advan- i 
 tage of wrouirht-iVon over steel is that the effect of | 
 a blow is localizeil, the jirojectile causing simply a 
 jierforation or indentation, the plate as a whole re- 
 maining intact. With steel intense molecular action 
 is set up by impact, cracks appear radiating from the 
 point struck, and continue to develop for some time 
 after impact. Thus, though a steel plate may not Ix; 
 perforated, it may be considerably shattered. To 
 combine the greater toughness of wroughtiron with 
 the greater hanhiess and resistance of steel, com- 
 pound plates have been introduced. These consist 
 of a wroughtiron foundation-plate with a steel face, 
 the steel being run on the iron plate in a molten 
 state: the whole is then rolled down to about half its 
 original thickness. A modification of this is to have 
 a rolled-steel face-plate attached to the foundation- 
 plate by molten steel, the object being to secure a 
 well-rolled face. The object of weldini' the steel on 
 the iron is, not to prevent the steel froiiJ%racking, but 
 to prevent the fissures from extending through the 
 entire plate, and the iron is intended to hold the sleel 
 in its place after being broken, and prevent its falling 
 off. IJolh chilled-iron and steel projectiles are broken 
 up against these plates, and no experiments yet made 
 have succeeded in destroying the cohesion of the steel 
 face to the iron backing. By the employment of 
 either steel or compound plates, instead of iron, there 
 is a considerable Siiving of weight. In the more re- 
 cent experiments (1882) the hammered steel plate of 
 Schneider it Co. (siiid to contain about 0.45 per cent 
 of carb(in) has been found to compare most favorably 
 with eomixiiind plates. The surface of this steel jilate 
 was chilled in oil to the depth of six inches, and it 
 had been hammered down from a thickness of 7 feet 
 to 18.9 inches. Chilled cast-iron has been extensively 
 employed in land-batteries for the defense of harbors 
 anil mouths of rivers. Its advantages are compara- 
 tive cheapness, great hardness, and the facility with 
 which it can be made into any shape, thus presenting 
 rounded or sloping surfaces to the shot. The main 
 disatlvantage of chilled cast-iron is its brittleness, and 
 though, due to the form and hardness of the armor, it 
 can successfully resist a single blow, repeated shocks 
 crack it to pieces. The Grilson system of protecting 
 sea-coast gims is an example of the application of 
 this kind of annor. The turrets are egg-shaped to 
 deflect the shot, the thickness of metal bemg 27 inches 
 at the end)rasures. Thick coverings of earth protect 
 the annor to some extent. These turrets can be 
 adapted to muzzle-pivoted breech-loading gims. See 
 Ariiinnil Ihf(iiSi«, Ducking, Punclii/ig, and Ilnehing. 
 ABHOBT. — A t)uilding specially iirovided in Arse- 
 nals for the depiisit and preservation of small-arms. 
 An Armory should be very dry and well ventilated. 
 In a damp climate a " dry room" would l)e a desira- 
 ble adjimct, f(jr, with every care and attention, rust 
 will make its aiijiearance if the outir air is not ex- 
 cluded. The repair of the anns in Armories is usu- 
 ally carried out by civilian armorers. The name is 
 also often applied to a collection of ancient annor 
 and weapons — such as those in the Tower of Lon- 
 don, in Sir Samuel Meyrick's Mansion at Goothich 
 Court on the Wye, and in AVarwiek Castle. See 
 
 Arm lull. 
 
 ABM BACK. — A frame or fitting for tne stowage of 
 arms. It is usually vertical, out of harm's way, and in 
 readiness for immediate use. In the conveyance of 
 troops bv sea, arm-racks fonn a ]iarl of the proper ac- 
 commoiLition. Thev are also used in the barrack- 
 rooms. Captain F. ll. I'liipps, of the United Stales 
 Ordnance Diparlmeiit. has siiggeslcd the following 
 description of Ann-rack holding twenty giuis: 
 
 Top. — Made of two 1-inch white-pine lx)ar(ls, glued 
 together, cros.sing grain of wood. Diameter of top, 
 13 inches. Top cut to receive 
 twenty ritlcs. The guns are 
 held in jilace and secureil by a 
 strap of iron 1 inch wide, leather- 
 toveivil, hinged, and seeuri'd on 
 opposite side by pailloik; hinge 
 ami padlock - fastening securetl 
 by irons, as shown iulhe draw- 
 iiig 
 
 pme 
 
 glued together, crossing gT-ain. 
 
 Twenty triangular-shaped p.ar- 
 
 titions of i«)plar. 1 finches wide . . _ .. 
 
 at base by 4j inches long, sep- h 9 
 
 arale butts of rifles. A band r T] 7\ 
 
 of sheet -iron li inches wide, J' U 1 
 
 secured by screws, whose heails '■' ' " 
 
 are filed to prevent removal, surrounds the upper 
 part of ba.sc, the top being flush with the top of parti- 
 tion. Four round pieces of white pine, li. inches in 
 diameter and 3 feet 11 inches in length (total), con- 
 nect top and bottom of frame. A roci of iron, |-ineb 
 diameter, v\ith square head at top and threaded for 
 mit at bottom, binds the whole together. In lieu of 
 the four wooden posts and iron rod a single one of 
 gas-pipe might he substituted. The distance Ix'tween 
 the to|) and bottom is such that the upper band of 
 rifle just touches the imder side of top; and all is so 
 arranged that, without removing the padlock and 
 turning back the straps, no ritie cjin be removed. 
 The three iron feet which support the whole can be 
 screwed to the floor of the barracks. 
 
 Racks for carbines are similarly constructed, differ- 
 ing only in height and in the arraiyrement of top. 
 which, instead of being cut entirely through to re- 
 ceive the barrel, is cut to the depth of only J inch to 
 receive the muzzle of the carbine. This rack is 
 almost identical with the one suggested by ^lajor 
 Comly; the principle is the same, but it is stronger, 
 and its cost reduced about one fourth. 
 
 ABMS. — 1. Instruments of different forms and 
 natures, for attack and defense. The manufacture 
 of arms is of very ancient date, co<val 'vith the 
 world. Necessity drove men to make them, either in 
 defense of themselves against wild animals or against 
 their enemies. The first arms of offense appear to 
 have been made of wood, such as clubs. Arms of 
 stone, bone, and brass succeeded clubs. Subse- 
 ((Ueiitly a variety of arms of iron and steel was intro- 
 duced which comiirised the spear, the lance, the 
 hatchet, the battle-ax, the bow, and several others; 
 and though these arms were in many instances rude 
 and unwiekly, the treatment of iron seems to have 
 been well known; in the manufacture of steel great 
 skill was slK)wn, as the blades of Damascus testify, 
 and which were famed throughout the world. In 
 India the tcmix ring of steel was well known from a 
 very early dale. The arms of the present day in the 
 British service vary according to tlie branch of the 
 army in which they are usi'd. In the infantry, the 
 converted Enfield (Snider) rifle was for .some tiinethc 
 general arm of the service, but has been superseded 
 by the Martiiii-IIeniy rifle. In the cavalry, the 
 sword, lance. carl)ine! and pistol fonn the anns of 
 that branch, the dragoon guards, dragoons, and hus- 
 siu-s being e(|uipped with the carbine and sword, the 
 lancers with the lance and jiislol. In the artillery, in 
 addition to the guns of a balicry. the following arms 
 are provided: for a battery of horse-artillery, a swonl 
 to each man of ;dl ranks, and twelve carbines for sen- 
 try duties; for a battery of field-iUlillery, a sword to 
 each non-commissioned officer, ;uliticer, or trumpeter, 
 and to all gunners a sword-bayonet, with llie addition 
 of twelve carbines for sentry ilulies. IIe;ivy field-
 
 
 GO 
 
 o 
 
 pj 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 .a!
 
 ABHS OF PRECISION. 
 
 75 
 
 ABMS POET. 
 
 batteries are similarly equipped. Garri.son-batteries, 
 all ranks, except trumpeters, are furnished with a 
 complete stand of arms, the trumpeters (ami artiticers, 
 if any) havin:^ a sword-bayonet. 
 
 Arms may be divided into two great clas,ses — those 
 that act by means of gunpowder, and those that do 
 not. Of arms that act otherwise tbiUi by explosion, 
 the greater part have been in use from the earliest 
 times; they include the bow and arrow, sling, pike, 
 spear, lance, d:u-t, javelin, dagger, ax, mace, spiked 
 or knotted club, scythe for chariots, dirk, bayonet, 
 sworil, cutlass, etc., together with such artillery as 
 the ballista, catapulta, and battering-ram. Weapons 
 depending on the use of gunpowder are of two kinds 
 — those that ciui be held in the hand, and those that 
 are too heavy to be portable In the tirst class we 
 find the names of the hand-Citnnon, hand-gun, arque- 
 l)us, haijuebuts, demi-haquc, matchlock, wheel-lock, 
 tirelock, currier, snap-hauuce, caliver, esdopette, pc- 
 tronel, dragon, hand-mortar, dag, tricker-lock, car- 
 bine, fusil, fowling-piece, blunderbuss, pistol, musket 
 or musquet, musketoon, rifle, etc. In the second 
 eliiss, more itsuallj- included under the name of artil- 
 lery, we find the spiingel, war-wolf, bombard, cart- 
 of-war, culverin, demi-culverin, serpentine, falcon, 
 siiker, cannon, howitzer, petard, cannonade, mortar, 
 rifled cannon, war-rockets, etc. The more important 
 of these are briefly noticed under the proper headings. 
 It is needless, perhaps, to add that tiine tenths of these 
 are utterly obsolete. 
 
 2. Arms, Armorial Bearings, or Easigns, are the 
 names given to such devices as when painted on a 
 shield form a coat. These terms in pojuilar speech 
 include all the accompaniments of a shield, viz., the 
 crest, helmet, and, where such exist, the supporters, 
 etc. See HinihJni. 
 
 ARMS OF PRECISION.— Rifled arms of all natures. 
 These arms have a longer range and a more accurate 
 and rapid fire than that derived from the old smooth- 
 bore weapons. The introduction of rifled small-arms 
 of the present form, \iz., breech-loaders, only dates 
 back as far as 1864, when in the unequal struggle be- 
 tween Prussia and the Danes the former first used the 
 needle-gun. This called the attention of the Euro- 
 pean Powci-s to the value of breech-loading rifles. 
 The further value of such arms was again recognized 
 
 Effect of Artillery Fire on Lines of Troops: 0-pdr. and 16- 
 p*tr. M. L. R. Guns; line of targets 45 feet long by 9 feet 
 high. 
 
 Range. 
 
 Nature of Amrcsmox. 
 
 1500 yards. 
 
 3000 
 
 2500 " . 
 
 3000 
 
 i Common shell. 
 ( Shrapnel 
 
 ( Common " . 
 
 } Shrapnel " . 
 
 Common " . 
 
 Shrapnel " 
 
 Common " 
 
 Shrapnel 
 
 Total 
 
 Hrrs. 
 
 9-pdr. 16-pdr. 
 
 ■16 36 
 
 93 
 
 345 
 
 26 
 
 :M 
 
 75 
 
 276 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 106 
 
 131 
 
 13 32 
 
 66 
 
 105 
 
 Front of a company of 50 files, 34 yards long by 5 feet 6 
 inches hi{.-h. 
 
 Front of a double company of 1 file, 63 yards long by 5 
 feet 6 inches high. 
 
 Effect of Infantry Fire, with the Snider Rifle, at the Regula- 
 tion Targets, and the Proportional Effect on Bodies of 
 Troops in different Formations at various Distances. 
 
 SIare aiueo at. 
 
 \ In line 
 
 Battalion - Quarter-column 
 
 f Double company J-coUimu . . 
 
 1 Battalion \ Quarter-company . . 
 
 * ( Double company ^-column . . 
 
 Double company -1 '" '''"' •-•••••■ 
 
 ^ ■' I Company j-columu... 
 
 ^ In line 
 
 Company - Half-company column 
 
 ' Column of sections 
 
 Reeulaeion targets. 300 vds.. 6 ft. X 4 ft. ; 1 
 500 yds., 6 ft, ;■, 6 ft. :" SOO yds., 6 ft. X - 
 8ft ( 
 
 Ranges. 
 
 200 500 800 
 yds. yds. yds. 
 
 96. 
 
 99.81 
 
 99.63 
 
 99.41 
 
 99.23 
 
 95.89 
 
 9.1.77 
 99.1 
 
 98.82 
 
 90. 
 
 98.05 
 97.73 
 97.09 
 96.1S 
 79.93 
 93.99 
 79.:i6 
 95.50 
 94.17 
 
 61 
 
 59. 
 
 95.86 
 
 96.07 
 
 93.8> 
 
 91. s« 
 
 .57.79 
 
 87.32 
 
 .56.57 
 
 90.59 
 
 87.57 
 
 in the war of 1866 between Prus.sia and Austria, whea 
 the latter power met the former with only muzzle- 
 loaders; the result is well known to history — the 
 superiority and rapidity of the Prussian fire was 
 marked. From this period the value of breech-load- 
 ers may be said to have been recognized. France 
 produced her Chas.sepot, and England the converted 
 Enfield, known as the Snider, ultimately the Martini- 
 Henrj-; and now all the Continental Annies are armed, 
 with breech-loaders. Colonel Hamley, in his " Oper- 
 ations of War," ilescribes the change rifles and rifled 
 guns have brought about in the tactics of armies. No 
 longer is the old formation of battalion-columns re- 
 sorted to — tleep columns offering too good a mark for 
 the enemy. The Prussians, therefore, during the war 
 of 1870, finding such formations no longer .safe, di- 
 minished the size of their columns in order that the 
 fire of the enemy might prove less destructive both in 
 front and depth, besides giving a lietter opportunity 
 of taking advantage of the natural cover which aver- 
 age ground iillordS to small bodies. The tables show 
 the result of iiractice made with rifled fleld-guns and 
 rifled small -arms; thus giving the reader an idea of 
 the precision and disjistrous effects of rifled arms. 
 
 ARMS OF SERVICE.— An arm of service may be de- 
 fined to be "a union of combatants having the s;mie 
 mode of action." There are foiu- of these amis in 
 modern armies, viz., Infantrj-, Cavalry, Artillery, 
 and Engineers. These four arms fonn the principal 
 part of a mobilized army, ;md as they, or their repre- 
 .sentatives, are always formed into a line of battle to 
 resist the attack of an enemy, or to make an attack, 
 they are generally known as the " Line of the Army" 
 or "Troops of the Line," to distinguish them from 
 other bodies of men who form parts of an army. 
 These arms are subdi%'ided into fractions, for the 
 purpose of instmction and of supply. The unit for 
 instruction and the unit for supply raaj' be the same 
 or different. The unit of supply, as a general nile, is 
 constant, and is also usually the unit of instruction 
 in discipline. The unit of instiiiction in tactics will 
 depend upon circumstances, and upon the kind of 
 movements which the commander desires to make. 
 The common unit for the four arms, for supplying 
 the men's wants and for instruction in discipline, is 
 the '■ Company." This unit receives, at other times, 
 other names, depending ujjon circumstances. For 
 instance, a battery of artillery is the same as company; 
 the term squndroii of cavalry frequently means a com- 
 pany, etc. 
 
 ARMS OF THE UNITED STATES.— Paleways of 
 thirteen pieces, argent and gules; a chief, azure; the 
 escutcheon on the breast of 
 the American eagle displayed, 
 proper, holding in his dexter > 
 talon an olive-branch, and in 
 his sinister a bundle of thirteen 
 arrows, all proper; and in his 
 beak a scroll, inscribed with 
 this motto : " e plcribus 
 
 UNITM." 
 
 For the erest : over the head 
 of the eagle, which appears 
 above the escutcheon, a glory 
 breaking through a cloud, prop- 
 er, and surroimding thirteen stars, forming a constel- 
 lation, argent, and on an azure field. 
 
 ARMS PORT.— A position in the Manual of Arms, 
 executed as follows: Being at a carry, the instructor 
 commands: (1) .Irrn*, (2) Port. Throw the piece di- 
 agonally across the tH)dy, the lock to the front; grasp 
 it smartly at the same instant with both hands, the 
 right at the small of the stock, the left at the lower 
 band, the barrel sloping upward and cros.sing opposite 
 the point of the left shoulder, the butt proportionately 
 lowered. The palm of the right hand is above, and 
 that of the left under, the piece, the nails of Initji hand;, 
 next the body, lo which the elbows are closeil. The 
 position of arms port may l)e taken in advancing to 
 an attack. It is likewise used by sentinels in receiv- 
 
 ^^lt*';<^,^^
 
 ARMSTRONG SUNS. 
 
 76 
 
 ARMSTRONG GUNS. 
 
 bag or holding communicntions. In challengiiiir, and 
 rcceiWnp the countcrsiirn, si-nlincls taku ihu iH).sitiou 
 .of c/iar;/e bai/'nitts. il7 Oirn/, (2) Ahms. Hcsuine 
 "the cari-y Avi'th the right haud. (Twoi. DiDp the 
 Ufl haiii'l bv ihi- side. See MaiiiKil of Arms, Fig 10. 
 ARMSTRONG GUNS.— The built-up gun cou.sirue- 
 tiou of Great Britain, the germ of whieh is to be 
 found in the eniled welded system of Sir AVilliaiu 
 Armstrong, introtiueed to the artillery world in 1852 
 in the form of a breeeh-loading cauiion, but pa.ssing 
 from that date through numerous and important 
 changes, especially the thiekening of the eoils and the 
 introduction of tempered steel lining tulxs, is the one 
 which is still adhered to, in it.s genenil principles, by 
 the ordnance constructors, both ])ublic and private, 
 of the English nation The failure of the Armstrong 
 breeeh-loading guns, and the subsequent introduc- 
 tion of muzzle-loading cannon in lieu thereof, in 
 1869. did not change, however, one of the es.sential 
 features of the present coustniction — the employment 
 of coiled welded wrouglit-iron sections — but led to 
 the moditied form of their production known as the 
 Frascr system, and the introduction of comparatively 
 thin oil-tempered steel tubes for the interior lining. 
 The most prominent guns produced under this new 
 system, which tirst attracted universiil attention on 
 account of their great comparative power, were the 
 25-, 35-, and 3S-ton guns; but these, as is well known, 
 ■were fjuickly superseded by the 16-inch 80-ton gun, 
 and it, in its turn, by the largest of, as yet, con- 
 structed ordnance — the 100-ton guns of the Ann- 
 strong model, shown in section in the drawing. 
 
 the nearest approach to it is far from perfect, and 
 theoretical advantages have to give way largely to prac- 
 tical considerations of nianufact\ne. Again, we may 
 arrive at a similar result by em))loying metals varying 
 in elasticity or in tenacity for the several ]iarts, those 
 possessing the largest amount of strength constituting, 
 of course, the inner ])ortions, so that where the gi'cal- 
 est stress is felt it will Ik- borne by the stronger ma- 
 terial. These two methods are sometimes called re- 
 spectively those of initial tmsion anil of ruryitig 
 etiUHU'ritici. They may be, ami freciuently are, both 
 emi)loyed in the mauufactur<' of a gun, as in the case 
 of the so-called AVoolw icli guns " 
 
 The longitudinal strain is ])roridcd for by the thick 
 solid-bottomed .steel lulx', and the breech-plug .screwid 
 into the wrought-iron coiletl tube, sui)erimiiosing the 
 inner tube, brings into play (in the latest model) the 
 strength resulting from locking the lube and (jthcr 
 parts together. The construction, bricHy. we know 
 is a steel tube, over which is shrunk coiled wrought- 
 iron tubes; the majority of the larger calibers, e.\cel)t 
 the 100-ton gun, having only two layers of wrought- 
 iron tubes; the latter more ]ierfcctly brings into use 
 the principles of initial tension,' by having the 
 wrought-iron casing subdi\nded into three instead of 
 two jiarts. On theoretical considerations, the large 
 number of coils employed in the original Annstrong 
 construction enabled the designers more perfectly to 
 carry out the idea of initial tensions by shrinkage; 
 j'ct its expcnsiveness led to its abandoimient, and the 
 substitution of larger and, in consequence, fewer coils; 
 thus more imperfectly applying the piinciples which 
 
 Armstrong Gun. 
 
 The theoretical consideration that the ratio of the 
 capacities for work of two tubes is only n]iproxi- 
 niati\ely directly as their thicknesses, or, generally 
 speaking, that a thin tube has more relative strength 
 than a thick one to withstand interior bursting .strains, 
 is the essence of the theory of the built-up guns of 
 the English model, and it is practically carried out 
 in their present constructions; the inference to be 
 drawn being that a homogeneous structure, having no 
 subdivisions in its walls, does not bring into play the 
 full .strength of the entire thickness while imder stress; 
 and that "guns constructed homogeneously, however 
 thick, cannot long sustain jiressurcs exceeding the 
 ten.sile strength of the metal employed. Sanctioning 
 the soundness of the theory that only by built-up con- 
 structions the most powcrfid jmd yet relialile gims 
 can be produced, the next point for consideration is 
 the arrangement of the dilTerent nu-tals entering into 
 the fabrication, so that the stronger metal (steel) shall 
 form the walls surrounding the bore, and that the 
 superimposed layers of wrought-iron shall be so placed 
 on that each ])arl, from the bore to the exterior, 
 shall be, as far as pos.sible, under strain in accordance 
 with its capacity for work, considered in reference to 
 tangential strains. The F.nglish aulhoritics state: 
 "This object we may obl.iin by emjiloving a single 
 metal for the several portions, and so disjjosing the 
 various layers over each other that the iimer layers or 
 tubes are compressed by those outside them, while the 
 e.xterior tubes are at the sante time \>u\ into a state of 
 tension, the inner layers being thus strengthened at 
 the expense of the outer portions of tlii^ metal. In 
 this case we obtain the whole strength of all the lay- 
 ers except a jiart of that of the outer and unsujiported 
 ring It must not, however, be for one moment siuv 
 posed that this theoretical perfection is ever reached; 
 
 it was sought to follow as the true ones in making 
 gims. Although economy, the object of the change, 
 was attained, yet it is doubtful, from the large masses 
 employed, if the result is more than a very rough a]i- 
 proximation to the assertetl theories of construction. 
 The broad differences in the physical properties of 
 wTought-iron and steel, i.e., differences in elasticity 
 and ductility and tensile strength, render problematic 
 cal the jxi-fect co-operation of the two metals, under 
 rtjMiitid strains such as obtain in the use of guns; and 
 it would seem that the more elastic and less extensi- 
 ble steel, in imparting its stress to the adjacent iron 
 n'peait'd/i/, woidd eitlarge the latter by degrees, .so 
 that eventually it would form but an imperfect sup- 
 port to the former, which wouM in that case more or 
 less bear, in the system, the burden of the work in 
 resisting tangential strains; and that its rupture under 
 severer treatment would be finally the resul;. The 
 manner in which this system in niamifacture is prae 
 tically carried out needs only, in view of the full de 
 scripiion printed for public use, be but generally 
 stated. 
 
 The ttibcs are generally of Firth's production, and 
 are furnished under contract to the Woolwich Arsenal. 
 They are solid ingots which are first roughly bored 
 and turned, and tbeif ten)pered in rape-oil. The 
 jiickets or coils, shnmk over the steel tube, in the 
 heaviest natures, range in number according to the 
 length of the gim. Generally two layers of coils 
 cover the breech ]iart, all assembkd in accordai;ce 
 with the princiiile of initial tension. The details of 
 construction are fidly given in English text-books, 
 and need r.ot be alluded to here. The lOO-ton gun — 
 the latest Engli.sh nnizzleloading construction — gen 
 erally speaking, differs from inferior calibers by the 
 large number of shoulders provided on the steel tube.
 
 ASHSTRONG GUNS. 
 
 77 
 
 AEMSTEONG GUNS. 
 
 the latter being made in two parts, united together 
 by a wrought-iron exterior band, and in the greater 
 number of subdivisions of the jacliets, or rather that 
 the bauds are relatively' narrower tlian on other fab- 
 rications; besides, three layers obtain at breech, ren- 
 dering it a more thoroughly built-up gun construc- 
 tion. " Pour of these giins— made by Sir William 
 Armstrong & Co., Newcastle-on-Tyne — now form 
 part of the arraameut of Great Britain and her Colo- 
 nies, and now await their emplacements to be pre- 
 pared for them at Malta and Gibraltar. Wc are in- 
 formed that "guns have already been designed and 
 could be readily made at Woolwich which would sur- 
 pass the latter flDK-tongun] in power toas great an ex- 
 tent as they themselves surpassthe ii8-ton ser\ice-gun." 
 
 The English Government establishment, however, 
 has not produced any muzzle-loading constructions 
 higlier than the .SO-ton g\m, a gun, from the large 
 facilities and perfected machinery of W^oolwich, giving 
 us the best exhibit of the Armstj-ong-Fraser system. 
 That no recent attempts, however, to introduce "higher 
 natiu'es of muzzle-loading guns have been made is 
 fully justified by the important developments of 
 Krupp's exiJeriments at Meppen in August, 1S79, and 
 by the disasters occurring on board the English iron- 
 clad the " Thunderer' in the same year; the first calling 
 attention to the presumed superiority of breech-load- 
 ing guns — since accorded — in affording less exposure 
 to men; reiluced size of embrasures, securing greater 
 rapidity of tire; increased length of bore, and hence 
 greater power; anil also affording greater facilities 
 for bore examinations, and permitting an ease in load- 
 ing not afforded in long-bored muzzle-loading guns; 
 and the latter exhibiting the dangers arising from the 
 possibilities of double charging, and the cumbcrsome- 
 ness and complications of loading de\nces necessary 
 for the use of muzzle-loading guns, more especially 
 in the naval service, where economy of space is a mat- 
 ter of vital im|iortance. Although the developments 
 at Meppen anil the Thunderer misfortune only oc- 
 curred a few years ago, yet such was the moral effect 
 that imme<liate steps were instituted to develop breech- 
 loading guns of 12-inch caliber and lower natures. 
 
 Tlie principal dimensions of the Woolwich and 
 Elswick gims are as follows: 
 
 Woolwich. 
 
 Total leugfth of gun without carrier.in. 
 
 Calilier " 
 
 Bore: 
 
 In calibers " 
 
 In inches ** 
 
 Total capacity cubic " 
 
 Chamber: 
 
 Diameter '* 
 
 Length " 
 
 Capacity cubic " 
 
 Piameter in rear opening *' 
 
 Rifling: 
 
 Twist in calibers 
 
 Length in. 
 
 Number of grooves " 
 
 10. 
 
 26 
 
 318 
 
 S.O.'iT 
 
 15 5 
 ,58.3.5 
 120 
 
 Elswick. 
 
 13, 
 
 26 
 312 2 
 «,T34 
 
 14.3 
 ST. 43 
 1T8 
 12.4 
 
 220 .30 
 50 
 
 These con.structions (of the .same caliber, 12-inch) 
 ditfer very little from each other in their main fea- 
 tures, such as mode of construction, principal dimen- 
 sions, breech fermeture, and length of bore, the only 
 important variations being in the lengths and diame- 
 ters of chambers, and their capacities; the Elsnick 
 gun ha%'ing a less diameter and a greater length for 
 this partoJ the bore, and also a greater capaeity than 
 the Woolwich pattern; this latter feature increasing 
 the air-space in the chamber of the former over the 
 latter when eqtial charges are used. It also, for tlie 
 sjime diameter of the exterior, gives a stronger gun 
 (both using the same metals) in its walls. A tabu- 
 lated statement of these points of difference may be 
 here inserted: 
 
 Pon-der-chamber. 
 Elswick: 
 
 Length in. 86.25 
 
 Diameter " 14.3 
 
 Capacity.. cubic " 13,178 
 
 Powder-chamber. 
 
 R fr F ' 
 
 Length in. 58.35 
 
 Diameter .. . . " 16.5 
 
 Capacity, cubic " 10,120 
 
 The Woolwich authorities have established 17.1 
 tons per square inch as the senice-limit for pressures, 
 yet Armstrong for his constructions reaches 2.5 tons 
 per square inch, iuid in his lO.l.i-inch wire gun a 
 pressure of 34 tons per .scjuare inch has obtained. 
 Cast-iron alone, or cast-iron in combination with 
 wrought, or with wrought-iron and steel, or with steel 
 alone, in guns for, say, one calil)er and a half thick- 
 ness of walls, cannot endure the diambering, and in 
 consequence the increa.sed charges, which construc- 
 tions made of stc-el aloue, or steel in combination with 
 wrought-iron, can sustain; and hence any plan using 
 the inferior metal looking to a rividry with the supe- 
 rior modern constructions which ignore the use of 
 cast-iron would l)e a risk too hazardous to assume, 
 and when the pressures reach, in guns using cast-iron, 
 a limit of, .say, not exceeding 3.5, OfW to 37,000 pounds 
 for a gun one and one half calibers thick, the .service- 
 limit should be regarded as reached, and the charges 
 and chambering should be so regulated as to keep 
 within these limits, which should be established as the 
 limits of safety. 
 
 In steel guns a little less than one caliber is re.crardcd 
 as sufficient thickness of walls; and a caliber and one 
 quarter, about, is used over the chambers of the 43- 
 ton guns composed of steel and wrought-iron. In 
 steel-tubed guns, surrounded by a wire and a part 
 steel and part wrought-iron jacket, the thickness of 
 walls given over the chamber is but eighty-five one- 
 hundredths of a caliber. These figures illustrate the 
 vast difference in the eyes of European gun construc- 
 tors between the use of pure steel and the combina- 
 tion of steel and wrought-iron, and more especially 
 in any construction in which cast-iron jjlays a promi- 
 nent "part. It would seem, therefore, independent of 
 the recognized fact of the inferiority of cast-iron in 
 strength, that the important element of weight would 
 become largely a factor for consideration in jud.iring 
 of constructions using this metal, either alone or in 
 combin;ition with ofhci-s. In fact, as much power 
 can be secured from a 43-ton (12-inch) gun (steel and 
 iron) as from a 12-inch 55- to 60-ton gun (built-up) of 
 cast-iron and steel. 
 
 In a 44-ton (13-inch) wire gun we have the remark- 
 able exhibit of a yield of 27,460 foot-tons muzzle- 
 energy, or, saj', 637 foot-tons per ton of metal. The 
 cast-iron and steel constructions (60 tons) alluiled 
 to above only give 359 foot-tons per ton of metal. 
 The 10.15-inch wire gun recently constructed has 
 been tested, and the distinction between it and the 
 last-mentioned gun is more pronounced in favor of 
 wire than the 13-inch: the resulting muzzle-energy 
 gi\-ing 760 foot-tons per ton of metal. The pressures 
 are relatively higher in attaining these results, yet the 
 strength of the combination is believed to warrant a 
 large increase over the ordinarj- standard pressure 
 adopted for the guns of the English service. Admit- 
 ting that about 27,600 foot-tons muzzle-energy can be 
 attained with a 13-inch of a weight of, say, 44 tons- 
 (wire), we find tliat it takes 50 per centum more 
 weight (60 tons) in a gun (12-inch) using cast-iron to 
 attain a much less muzzle-energy corres]ionding to 
 the difference in calibers. The force of this testi- 
 mony regarding weight is evidently, as far as it goes, 
 against the use of cast-iron; and when we consider 
 the question of its emplojTuenf, pure and simple, this 
 objection of increased weight necessary in the struc- 
 ture becomes a subject of the first itiiportance, and 
 one alone which at the threshold of the consideration 
 of the problem of gim construction should lead us to 
 doubt if it shoidd be employed at all if we desire to 
 attain a high standard in power and endurance in our 
 future heavy ordnance armaments. 
 
 Independent of strength and increased 'weight, cast- 
 iron guns of heavy natures require a cumbersome and 
 expensive plant, consisting of deep pits, large fur- 
 naces, powerful cranes, and heavy and powerful 
 lathes, etc., whereas in the built-up .steel, and .steel 
 and WTOught-iron systems, also wire guns, the numer- 
 ous parts which go to make up the whole can, from
 
 ARMSTKONG PEBCUSSION-FUSE. 
 
 78 
 
 ASHT. 
 
 their companitivc lightness, l>e hamlleii in thedifTor- 
 ent operations of construction with far greater case 
 and less expense thiui obtain in the production of ho- 
 mojicneous masses consisting of but one piece, as 
 found in systems where east-iron enters either solely 
 or largely into the fabrications. On the score of 
 economy, it nuiy be doubtful if any material advan 
 luge results in the use of cast-iron. Eugli.sh models 
 cost abtiut 14 cents per pound. To gain equal powers 
 we woulil require, according to the ideas of construc- 
 tors in cast-iron, at least a (iO-tou gun to jxjrfonn the 
 siunc work as a 43-ton gun of steel and wrought-iron. 
 If we estimate cast-iron at 12 cents jjer pound, we 
 have a cost of :|1(),128 for a pure cjLst-iron gun of 6t) 
 tons; and admitting 14 cents per pound for wrought- 
 jron and steel, we have a cost for a 43-tou gun of 
 ^i:{.4S4.8t). If a net prolit of '2'> per centum for 
 manufacturers is added to this latter tigure, which is 
 government cost, we have even then a less expensive 
 construction than pure cjwt-iron in that country. See 
 Umlt-ttp ^iii/is and fJnfmntre. 
 
 ARMSTRONG PERCUSSION - FUSE.— This fuse is 
 nseil with lireech-loading rilled guns, and is placed be- 
 low a time-iuse or i>lug which closes the top of the 
 shell. It consists of IJiree part.s — body, iwllct, and 
 guard. The boily is made of gun-metal, and is cast 
 with a bottom through which a tire-ho!e is drilled, and 
 primed with a ]ierforatcd iiellet of mealed powder, 
 l)rotected by a brass washer. The top, which is 
 fitted in, hiis a steel point projecting down from it.s 
 center, and four holes through it closed by a thin 
 brass washer; these holes were intended to allow of 
 the tlanie from a time-fuse pa.s.sing into the pellet and 
 so isiuiling the charge before impact. The body has 
 a rim round it at the top to prevent its being placed 
 in tlie shell head downiwards. The pellet (equal parts 
 of leail and tin) has four pro.iections or feathers out- 
 side, two rather hiirher than the others. It is driven 
 with composition like a tube, but has a percussion- 
 caji at the top, protected by a thin brass disk, which 
 can be pierced if driven on to the steel point above by 
 a violent shock; the cap has three holes at the bottom 
 for the passage of the flame from it to the composi- 
 tion below. The guard is supported in the ujiper 
 part of the body on the feathers of the pellet, prevent- 
 ing any forward movement of the latter. On impact, 
 I)assing the guard, the pellet continues its forward 
 motion; the cap, striking on the steel point, is fired; 
 the flame ignites the composition in the pellet, blows 
 out the waslier of the fire-hole in the Ijottom of the 
 fuse, passes into the shell and explodes it. See Fuxe. 
 ARMSTRONG PROJECTILE. — But one kind of 
 projectile is used in the Armstrong breech-loading 
 guns for the field-service, and this is .so constructed as 
 to act as a shot, shell, or case-shf)!, 
 at pleasure. It consists, as shown 
 in Fig. 1, of a very thin ca.st-iron 
 shell, snugly inclosing forty -two 
 segment-shaped pieces of cast-iron 
 (B B), liuilt up so as to form a cylin- 
 drical ea\'ity in the center (D), which 
 contains the bursting-char,geand the 
 concussion-fuse. The exterior of the 
 shell is thinly coaled with lead (C ('), 
 which is applied by placing the shell 
 in a mold and po\u'ing it in in a melt- 
 ed state. The lead is also allowed to 
 percolate among the segments, so as 
 to (ill up the interstices, the central 
 ca\ity being kcjjt open by the inser- 
 tion of a steel core. In this stale the 
 projectile is so compact that it may 
 be fired without injury; while itsre- 
 sist.ance to a l)ursting-chargc is so 
 small that less than one otmce of 
 powiler is required tobui-st it. When 
 the projectile is to Ix' fired as a shot, 
 it requires no preparation; but the 
 expediency of using it otherwise than as a shell is 
 ■doubted. 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 To make it available as a shell, the bursting-tube, 
 the concussion- and time-fu-ses, are all to lie inserted; 
 the bursting- tube entering first, and the timefuse 
 being screwed in at the ajiex. If the tinie-fusi' In.' 
 correctly adjusted, the shell will burst when il reaches 
 within a few yards of the object; or, failing in this, 
 it will burst l)y the coucussion-fu.se when il strikes 
 the object or grazes the groiuul near it. If it be re- 
 tjuired to act as a canister-shot upon lui enemy close 
 to the gun, the regulation of the timefuse niust be 
 turned to llie zero of the scale, aiul then the shell will 
 bui'st on leaving the gun. The explosion of one of 
 lhe.se shells in a closeil chamber, where the pieces 
 could be collcclcd, resulted in the following number 
 of fragments: 100 pieces of cast-iron, 90 ])ieces of 
 lead, and 12 pieces of fuse, etc. — making in all 217 
 pieces. 
 
 The Armstrong jirojectiles for the muzzle-loading 
 guns have rows of brass or copper studs projecting 
 from their sides to fit into 
 the .irrooves of llic gun, 
 which are constructed on 
 thi' fill II n t princi])le. Fi,;:. 2 
 represents a 10 -inch Arm- 
 strong .shell for penetrating 
 arnior-i)lates; It is made of 
 wrought-iron or low steel, 
 with very thick sides. There 
 is no fuse, the explosion re- 
 sulting from the heal gen- 
 erated by the impact, and 
 the crushing in of the thin 
 caj) which closes the mouth 
 of the powder-chamber. The 
 sides and bottom of the shell Fio. 2. 
 
 being thick enough to resist 
 
 crushing by the impact, and also to resist the ex- 
 plosive force of the bursting-charge, its effect will, 
 after jienelralion, be expended on the backing of the 
 armor, or the decks which the annor is intended to 
 screen. Such projectiles are called " blind shells." 
 See Pirijediles. 
 
 ARMY. — An army may be defined as an armed 
 force imdcr regiflar military organization, employed 
 for purposes of national offense or defense. It may 
 comjirise the whole military men employed by the 
 state, or only a jiortion under a particular com- 
 mander. Wiien an armed force is under no con- 
 stitulid authority, and imperfect in its organization 
 and discipline, it cannot be said to be worthj' of the 
 name of an army, and may be little better than a 
 horde of banditti.' Of this nature are the flibush ring 
 expeditions in which certain portions of the citizens 
 of the I'nited States frequently engage. Through 
 long ages of experience, the principles of mililarj- or- 
 ganization, and the laws to which armies are spe- 
 cially amenable, have gradually reached a hi.irh ilegree 
 of perfection. The iirimitive wars among barbarous 
 jHople are always stealthy, depending on the forest 
 and the wilderness for llieir tactics, and considered 
 successful if an enemy can be attacked iniawares, 
 despoiled, and carried "into slavery. After a time, 
 war advances to the position of an art, and is con- 
 d\icled by men who have received a certain training. 
 An army becomes an instrument not only for van- 
 qiushing enemies, but for seizing countries. Even 
 then the highest ijosilion of an army is not reached; 
 for the defense of a country requires more military 
 skill, i)eiha))s, and a better organization of troops, 
 than an attack. 
 
 Ancient Akmies. 
 
 Egnptiiins. — The most extraordinary conqm^ror 
 among the Egyptians, Sesostris, or Hhamses, lived 
 sixteen centuries before the Christian Era; and al- 
 though the evidence for his deeds of valor is very 
 fjuestionable, tlure is rea.son to believe that the or- 
 ganization of his army can be jiretty accurately 
 traced. Ilis father, Anicnophis, laid the foundation 
 for the military glory of Sesostris. When the latter
 
 ABMY. 
 
 r9 
 
 ABUT. 
 
 was bom, Amenophis caused all the male children 
 who -nere bom ou the same day as his son to be set 
 apart as a special body, to be reared for a military 
 life; they were taught everj-thing that could strengthen 
 their bodies, increase their courage, and develop their 
 sldll as combatants and leaders; and were to consider 
 themselves boimd as the chosen dependents or com- 
 panions of the young Prince. In due time Sesostris 
 became king of Egj-pt; and then he formed a sort of 
 militia, distributed as military colonists, each soldier 
 having a portion of land to maintain himself and his 
 family. When this militia had been drilled to mili- 
 tiry efficiency, Sesostris headed them as an anny for 
 military conquest in Asia, and placed the chosen 
 band above mentioned as officers over the different 
 sections of the arm}-. Persians. — In the great days of 
 the Persian Empire, the flower of the army consisted 
 of cavalrv who were ilistinguished for their bravery 
 and impetuosity of attack. The infantrj' were little 
 better than an anned mob. The war-chariots, too, 
 though calculated to strike terror when dashing into 
 hostile ranks, were available onlj' on level ground. 
 As to the numbers of men composing the great Per- 
 sian army, the statements are too wild to be trust- 
 worthy. Allowing for all exaggeration, however, it 
 Js certain that the Persian armies were very large. 
 AVhen Darius was opposed to Alexander the Great, 
 his army was set down at various numlx;rs — from 
 750,000 to 1,000,000 men. The king was in the 
 center, surrounded by his courtiers and body-guard; 
 the Persians and Susians were on the left; the Syrians 
 and Assyrians on the right. The foot-soldiers, form- 
 ing the bulk of the anny, and armed with pikes, 
 axes, and maces, were formed in dee]) squares or 
 masses; the horsemen were in the intervals between 
 the squares, and on the right and left flanks; and the 
 chariots and elephants in front. Lafedanionians. — 
 The Greeks Introduced many important changes in 
 armies both in the organization and in the maneuvers. 
 Ever}- man, in the earlier ages of the country- at 
 least, was more or less a soldier, inured to a hard life, 
 taught to bear arms, and expected to light when 
 called upon. The leading men in each State paid at- 
 tention to organization and tactics in a way never 
 before seen. It was not a standing army', but a sort 
 of national militia, that gained Marathon, Plataa, 
 and Jlycitle. So far as concerned the arrangement of 
 armies, the Lacediemonians invented the phalanx, a 
 particular mode of grouping foot - soldiers. This 
 phalanx consisted of eight ranks, one behind another; 
 the front and rear ranks being composed of picked 
 men, and the intermediate ranks of less tried soldiers. 
 The number of men in each rank depended on the 
 available resources of the commander. These men 
 were mostly armed with spears, short swords, and 
 shields. Athitiium. — The Athenians made a greater 
 number of distinctions than the Lacedffmoniaas in 
 the different kinds of troops forming their anny. 
 They had hea\"y infantry, constituting the men for 
 the phalanx, and anned with spears, daggers, corse- 
 lets, and shields; light infantry, employed in skir- 
 mishes and in covering the phaian.x, and armed mth 
 light javelins and shields; a sort of irregular infantr)-, 
 who, with javelins, bows and arrows, and slings, 
 harassed the enemy in march, and performed other 
 services analogous in some degree to those of sharp- 
 sliooters in a modern army. It is recorded that Jlil- 
 tiades, the Athenian hero at Marathon, invented the 
 " double-quick march," to increase the momentum of 
 a phalanx when rushing on the enemy. Macedo- 
 nians. — Philip of >Iaccdon, the father of Alexander 
 the Great, having the sagacity to see that he could 
 not vanquish his neighbors so long as he adopted the 
 sjime formation and tactics as themselves, set about 
 inventing something new. He resolved to have a 
 standing army instead of a militia; to have at com- 
 mand a set of men whose trade was fighting, instead 
 of citizens who were traders and soldiers by turn. 
 As a further change, he made the phalanx "deeper 
 .and more massive than it had been among the Lace- 
 
 diemonians. He brou^'ht into use the Macedonian 
 l)ike, a formidable weapon twenty-four feet in length. 
 With a iihalanx sixteen nmks iii depth, four rows of 
 men could present the points of their long pikes pro- 
 truding in front of the front-rank, forming a bristling 
 anay of steel terrible to encounter. Besides these 
 heavy infantry, there were light troops marshaled 
 into smaller l)odies for more aciive maneuvers. Philip 
 organized three kinds of cavalry — heav}-, anned with 
 pikes, and defended by cuirasses of iron-mail; light, 
 armed with lances; and irregular. Thebans. — This 
 nation introduced the army'formation of columns 
 much deeper than broad, or having more men in file 
 than in rank. A new kind of tactics was introduced 
 in accordance with this formation; the movement 
 being intended to pierce the enemy's line at some one 
 l)oint, and throw them into confusion. lionians. — 
 These aljle waniors initiated changes in amiy matters 
 which hail a ^ride-spread influence on the nations of 
 the ci\ilized world. About the period 200 B.C., every 
 Roman, from the age of seventeen to forty-six, was 
 liable to be called upon to serve as a soldier; tlie 
 younger men were preferred; but all were available 
 up to the middle time of life. They went through a 
 very severe drilling and discipline, "to fit them alike 
 for marching, fighting, camping, working, c;irrying, 
 and other active duties. Ever)- year the Senate de- 
 creed the formation of legions, or army corps, deput- 
 ing this duty to the Consul or Praetor. Magistrates 
 sent up the names of eligible men, and Tribimes 
 selected a certain number from this list. The Roman 
 legion, in its best days, had many excellent military 
 qualities — great facility of movement; a power of 
 presen-ing orilcr of battle unimpaired; a quick rally- 
 ing-power when forced to give way; a readiness to 
 adapt itself to varj-ing circumstances on the field of 
 battle; a fonnidable impetuosity in attack; and a 
 power of figliting the enemy even while retreating. 
 The hea\-j' infantry were armed with javelins, heavy 
 darts, pikes, and swords; the lighter troops with 
 bows and arrows, slings, and light javelins; while 
 the defensive armor comprised shields, cuirasses, hel- 
 mets, and greaves. Those ancient nations which h;id 
 no distinctive features in their armies need not be 
 noticed here. 
 
 3IEDI.EVAL AbMIES. 
 
 The downfall of the Roman Empire marked the 
 dividing-point between ancient and mediteval times 
 in military matters, as well as in otlier things that 
 concern the ex-istence of nations. The barbarians 
 and semi-barbarians who attacked on all sides the 
 once mighty but now degenerate Empire gradually 
 gained possession of the vast regions which had com- 
 posed it. The mode in which these conquests were 
 made gave rise to the feudal system. What all had 
 aided to acquire by conquest, all demanded to share 
 in proportiotLs more or less equal. Hence arose a 
 division of the conquered territory; lands were held 
 from the Chief by feudal tenure, almost in independent 
 sovereignty. When European kingdoms were gradu- 
 ally fonnetl out of the wrecks of the Empire, the mili- 
 tary arrangements put on a peculiar form. The king 
 could not maintain a standing army, for his Barons 
 or feudal chieftains were jealous of allomng him too 
 much power. He could only strengthen himself by 
 obtaining their aid on certsiin terms, or by allowing 
 them to weaken themselves in intestine broils, to 
 which they had always much proneness. Each 
 Baron had a small army composed of his own militii^ 
 or retainers, available for battle at short notice. The 
 contests of tliese small armies, sometimes combined 
 and sometimes isolated, make up the greater part of 
 the wars of the Middle Ages. Of military tactics or 
 strateg}-, there was very little; the campaigns were 
 desultory and indecisive; and the battles were gained 
 more by individual valor than by any well-concerted 
 plan. One great exception to this milit^irr feudality 
 was furnished by the Cmsades. So far as concerns 
 armies, however, in their organization and discipline.
 
 ARH7. 
 
 80 
 
 ABKT. 
 
 these expeditions effectetl but little. Tlir military 
 foix'es whicU went to the Holy Laud were little better 
 than armed uiobs, upheld by fanatieism, but not at 
 all 1)V science or discipline. Numbei-s and individ- 
 ual bravery were left to do the work, combination 
 and forethought beinii disregarded. A much greater 
 motive power for change, during the Middle Ages, 
 was the invention of guniwwder. When men could 
 fight at a greater distance than before, and on a sys- 
 tem which brought mechanism to llie aid of valor, 
 everything connected with the military art under- 
 went a revolution. Historically, however, this great 
 change was not very apparent until after the period 
 usually denominated the Middle Ages. The art of 
 making gotxl cainu)n and hand-guns grew up gradu- 
 ally, like other arts; and armies long continued to 
 depend principally on the older weapons — spears, 
 darts, arrows, axes, maces, swords, and daggers. Dur- 
 ing the greater part of the fourteenth and fifteenth 
 centuries, the chief armies were those maintained by 
 the Spaniards and the .Moors on one European battle- 
 ground, by the English and the French on another, 
 and by the several Italian republics on a third. In 
 those armies the cavalrv were regarded as the chief 
 arm. The knights and their horses alike were fre- 
 quently covered 'nnlh plate- or chain-armor; and the 
 offensive weapons were lances, swords, daggers, and 
 battle-axes. A kind of light cavalry was sometimes 
 formed of archers on smaller horses. As to army 
 formation, there wa.s still little that could deserve the 
 name; there was no particular order of battle; each 
 Knight sought how he covdd best distinguish himself 
 by personal valor; and to each was usually attached 
 an Esquire, abetting him as a second during the con- 
 test, bometimes it even happened that the fate of a 
 battle was allowed to depend on a combat between 
 two Knights. No attempt was made imtil towards 
 the close of the fifteenth century to embody a sys- 
 tem of tactics and maneuvers for cavalry; and even 
 that attempt was of the most primitive kind. Xor 
 was it far othervvise with the foot-soldiers; they were 
 gradually becoming acquainted with the use of fire- 
 arms; but, midway as it were between two systems, 
 they observed neither completely; and the anny in 
 which they served presented very little definite or- 
 ganization. 
 
 Modern Abmies. 
 
 The formation of Standing Armies may be said to 
 have introduced the modern milit«ry system. 'When 
 the remarkable ex]iloit of Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Are) 
 had enabled Charles VII. to check the \-ictorious 
 progress of the English in France, he set about re- 
 modeling his anny. By gradual changes, and amid 
 great difiiculty, he converted his ill-governed forces 
 mto a disciplined standing army. During the reign 
 of his son, Charles VIII. (14S3-98), the consequences 
 of this change made their appearance. Charles con- 
 ducted a well-appointed .nrniy into Italy (1494), in 
 support of some pretensions which be had to the 
 throne of Naples. The change made by Charles 
 VII. was not simply that of substituting a compact 
 standing army for an ill-organized medley of feudal 
 troops and of mercenaries; feudalism itself gave way 
 under the intlueiice of this combined with other re- 
 forming agencies. 80 far as concerned the actual 
 formation and discipline of the standing army above 
 noticed, a few changes were from time to time intro- 
 duced: pistols and carbines were given to the cavalry; 
 cuirasses were worn l)y the lieavv troopers; and new 
 evolutions were introduced. "During the Thirty 
 Years' War (1618-48), Gustavus Adolphus and Wal- 
 lenstein adopted opposite modes of dealing with 
 ma.sses of infantry: the former spread them out to a 
 great width, and only six ranks in depth; whereas the 
 latter adopted a narrower front, with a depth of 
 twenty to thirty ranks. Frederick the Great, in the 
 next centun,', introduced a most complicated system 
 of tactics and drilling; insomuch that when he 
 could maneuver, he nearly always won his battles; 
 
 but when the result depended on bold and unex- 
 pected onslaughts, he was more frequently a loser 
 than a wimier. The great military leader in the 
 early part of the i)resent century, N'apoleon Bona- 
 parte, made a larger use than any previous European 
 general of the methiKl of moving masses of troops 
 with great celerity, beating the enemy in detail be- 
 fore they could combine in one spot. " It is desirable 
 to present, in the most condensed form, a few statis- 
 tics of the actual armies of Euro|'e; leaving to other 
 articles all details concerning sjiecial armies. 
 
 Fniiux. — A law passed in 1873 enacts that every 
 Frenchman, with a few sjjecified exceptions, is liable 
 to personal service in the anny, and forbids substitu- 
 tion. Every Frenchman not declared unfit for mili- 
 tary service, or sjx'cially exem|>ted therefrom, nuist 
 be f(jr five years in the active aniiy (composed of 
 those who have reached the age of twenty years), for 
 four years in the reserve of the active aiiny, for five 
 years in the tenitorial army, and for .six years in the 
 reserve of the territorial army. By the law of July 
 24, 1873, France is divided, for militarj- purposes, 
 into eighteen regions, each occupied by a corjis 
 d'armee, containing two di\isions of infantry, one 
 brigade of cavalry, one of artillery, one battalion of 
 engineers, one squadron of the military train. When 
 the present reorganization is comiileted, the aclire 
 army will be composeil of l.'iG regiments of infantry 
 (line, light. Zouaves, Algerian tirailleurs, etc.), 25 
 single battalions, and 298 companies (depots, etc.): 
 making in all, for the infantry, 279,986 men; of 
 cavalry, 67 regiments in PVancc, 3 in Algiers, 13 
 depots of these regiments, and a Cavalry School, com- 
 prising 67,888 men; artillery, 40 regiments and 17 
 companies, with 58,096 men; engineers, 4 regiments, 
 liaN-ing 13,551 men; of the military train, 11,486 men; 
 in all, for the active anny, 441,007. On the war- 
 footing this number would 1^ increased to 1,104,735, 
 without taking account of sanitarj- corps, gendarmes, 
 etc. Including the territorud arniy, its reserve force, 
 and the reserves of the active armv, the total military 
 force of France is 2,505,000. The Budget of 1876 
 provided for 490,321 men, including gendarmes, etc. 
 
 Oermani/. — By the Imperial Constitution, April 16, 
 1871, the Prussian obligation to serve in the army is 
 extended to the who'.e Empire. Every German c.i]ia- 
 ble of bearing arms is bound to be in the standing 
 army for seven years, as a rule from the end of his 
 twentieth to the beginning of his twenty-eighth year. 
 Of the seven years, three must be in active .sefnce, 
 and four in the reserve. Then he must serve for five 
 years in the landwehr. The whole of the land forces 
 of the Empire form a united army, all the troops 
 being bound unconditionally to obey the Emperor in 
 warand peace. The army of the German Empire 
 consists of eighteen corps d'armee; viz., the corps 
 d'armeeof the guard, thirteen Prussian corjis d'armee 
 (Nos. I. -XL, XIV. — comprising the troops of Baden 
 — and XV.), the corps d'armeeof Saxony (XII.), of 
 Wurtemberg (XIII. ), two of Bavaria (I. and ID, and 
 the division of Hesse. In time of peace the German 
 anny has: (1) of infantiy, 146 regiments of the line, 
 2fi iKittalions of chasseurs, with 4687 commissioneil 
 and non-commissioned officers of the landwehr, 
 amomifing to 274. 71 1 men ; (2) of cavalry, 93 regiments, 
 containinir 65.513 men; (3) of artillery, 35 regiments of 
 mounted, 13 of foot artillery, having 45,439 men; (4) 
 of engineers, 19 battalions, 9568 men. In all, with 2056 
 staff oflicers, military train, etc., 17,036 officers, 
 401,6.59 men. On the war-footing, this force is in- 
 creased by the following additions: field -troops, 
 16,976, oflicers, 676,486 men; depot-troops, 4431 offi- 
 cers, 245,793 nu-n; garrison - troops, 9599 oflicers, 
 3.54,247 men. Total of the German army in time of 
 war: 31,006 oflicers and 1,276,526 men, with 287,746 
 horses. The maximum number of troops employed 
 by Germany in the war with France was 1,350,787 
 men and 263,735 horses. 
 
 AiiKfrid. — The militarj- forces of the Austro-IIun- 
 garian Empire are divided into the standing army.
 
 AEMY ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 81 
 
 ARMY CORPS. 
 
 the lantlwclir, and the lanilsturm. Subjects of the 
 Empire are universally liable to service. The term 
 of service is ten years, three of which the soUlier 
 must spend in aciive service, beiiijc afterwards en- 
 roUeil for seven years in the army of reserve. He is 
 still further liable to serve two years in the landwehr. 
 The regimenls if the standiug army are tuuler the 
 coutrorof the Jlinister of War for the Empire, while 
 the landwehr is controlled by the Austrian and 
 Hnnjrariaii .Ministers of National Defense. The 
 EmpL-ror-King is the supreme chief of the whole of the 
 military and tuival forces of the Empire. The Aus- 
 trian infantry constitutes «0 regiments of the line, 
 with 14S,480" men; the chasseurs, 40 battalions, with 
 21,4.">1 men ; of the cavalry there are 41 ngiments 
 (dragoons, hussars, lancers)," 43,9'J3 men; of artillery, 
 13 regiments of Held - artillery and 13 battalions of 
 fortress-artillery— in all, 28,69.5 men. The engineers 
 and pioneers make three regiments, 8898 men. The 
 sanitary troops and military train have .")T48 men. 
 The ntiscellaneous establishments (schools, maga- 
 zines, etc.) number 2.j,174. In all, for the active 
 army in time of peace, 284,43.5 (of whom 253, .513 arc 
 combatants). On the war-footing these mnnbers arc 
 thus augmented: infantry, 485,680; fhasseurs, .59,340; 
 cavalry. .58,671; artillery, 70,614; engineers, 24,.502; 
 Mnitary troops and military train, 4.5,727. Then the 
 Austrian lan<hvelir (infantry, chasseurs, and cavalry) 
 comprises 3()6U men in peace, 145,045 in war; and 
 the Hungarian lan<hvehr ithe Houveds) 13,591 in 
 peace and 206,707 in war. The total of the Aus- 
 trian militarv forces in peace-time is therefore 301,- 
 695; in war, "1,137,401. 
 
 lii/sxiii. — According to a law of militarj- reorgani- 
 zation, the Russian forces are to 1)e raised by annual 
 conscription, to which all are liable who have com 
 pleted their twenty-Srst year and are not physically 
 incapacitated. Substitution is prohibited. The period 
 of ser\ice is fifteen years — six in active ser\nce and 
 nine in the reserve. The Russian military forces are 
 comjiosed of regidar ond irregular troops. The 
 regular troops comprise 164 regiments of infantry, 
 2.81,012 men; cavalry, .52 regiments. 42,444 men; 
 artillery, 33,021 men; engineers, 9819 men; train, 
 4617 men. Total of field-troops in time of peace, 
 370,913. In war as follows: infantry, 568.2.53 men; 
 cavalrv, 47,379; artillerv, 40,846; eiisineers, 13,306; 
 train, "21.329— total, 69l",113. With local and other 
 troops (in fortresses, etc.), and reserve troops, the 
 Russian army in Europe amounts, on the peace-foot- 
 ing, to 19,103 officers and 508,674 men; in war, 22,- 
 87i officers and 879,755 men. The army of the 
 Caucasus amounts in peace to 125,643; in war, to 
 167,841. The army of Turkestan to 22,906; of 
 Siberia, from 25,000 to 27,000. Besides some thou- 
 sand troops as gendarmes and in various military es- 
 tablishments, there is a grand total for the regular 
 Russian army of 33,000 officers and 733.000 meii; on 
 the war footing, 39,380 officers and 1,213,2.59 men. 
 In ;iddition there are the irregular troops, comprising 
 abcnit 190.000 men, chiefly cavalry. 
 
 Denmark. — AM able-bodied young men twenty-one 
 years of age are liable to .serve eight years in the reg- 
 ular army of Denmark and eight years in the reserve. 
 Denmark has thirty-one battalions of infantry (guards. 
 line, reserve), comprising 26,750 men; five regiments 
 of cavalrv, with 2122 men; two regiments and two 
 battalions of artillery, with 6523 men; two battalions 
 of engineers, with 580 men. The total, line and re- 
 serve, is 1031 officers, 35,975 men; on the war-foot- 
 ing, .52,656 men. 
 
 ifwe^en and Norwai/. — There are five classes of 
 soldiers in Sv.-eden; the enlisted troops, the national 
 militia (indelta), the conscription troops (bevaering or 
 landvaern). the militia of Gothland. ;md the volun- 
 teers. Of the soldiers of the line there is a total of 
 35,640 men; of the reserve (landvaern). 86,101; of 
 the Gothland militia and volunteers, 1.50,830. Nor- 
 way has an army of its own, divided into the troops 
 of the line, with reserve, military train, the landvaern. 
 
 the civic guards, and the landstorm. The troops of 
 the line are 12,000 in lime of peace; in time of war 
 not more than 18,000 without the assent of the Storth- 
 ing. 
 
 Holland. — The anny of the Netherlands is formed 
 partly by conscription and partly by enlistment; and 
 there is besides a militia. The European army has, 
 of infantry, n22officei's and 43.690 men; eavali-y, 184 
 officers and 431.S men; engineers, 1035 men; artillery, 
 421 officers and 10,610 men. With the staff, etc., the 
 total force is 62,068 otlicers and men. There is be- 
 sides in the East Indies a force of 27,659 officers and 
 men. 
 
 Belgium. — The standing army is formed by con 
 scription. Substitution is pennitted. The legal 
 period of service is eight years. Belgium has 7t,000 
 infantry (16 regiments), 8848 cavalrj' (7 regiments and 
 2 squadrons), 14,513 artillery (6 regiments), 2486 
 engineers. In all, and without officers, 99,847. 
 
 Ttali/. — The Sardinian law of conscription forms 
 the basis of the Italian militarv system. The infantry 
 of the line under arms on the peace-footing ninnlier 
 86,017; the bersadieri, 16,818; depots, li..560; the 
 cavalry, 18,449; the artillery, 19.732; engineers, 3027; 
 carbineers, 20,915; administrative troops, etc., 7047, — 
 giving a total of 183,205. On the war-footing, these 
 several forces are so increased as to give a total of 
 •541.575; and with the addition of "the provincial 
 militia, 74:3,6.56. 
 
 Spain. — The army of Spain was reorganized in 1868 
 after the model of that of France. The active army 
 has 60,000 infantrv, 9000 cavalrv, 2500 epgineers, anil 
 8500 artillery, making a total of 80,000 men. The 
 reserves increase this mnnber to 216.000. There is be- 
 sides an army of 54.500 in Ctdia, 9400 in Porto Rico, 
 and of 9000 in the Philippines. 
 
 Switzerlantl. — The federal armvhas 1269 endneers, 
 8401 artillery, 1942 cavalry, 60i-8 tirailleuis,' 65,991 
 infantry, and 364 of a sanitary corps. In all, 84,045. 
 There are, besides, of the reserves, 51,102; the land- 
 wehr, 65,562, — si\ing a total available military force 
 of 201, .578. 
 
 Tiirhtj. — In 1871 the Turkish regular army had 
 infantry' to the number of 72.000; cavalry, 9000;" artil- 
 lery, 9.^00; engineers, 1600; with 1200 miscellaneous 
 troops amounting to 93,31)0. Before the war of 1877 
 it was proposed that by 1878 the regular army sliould 
 be increased to 152^000. The irregulars (Ba.slii- 
 bazouks, Spahis, etc.) are about 70,000. And the 
 contingents which the Dependent States are bound 
 to furnish are severallv: Upper Albania, 10,000; Bos- 
 nia, 30,000; Egypt. l.i.OOO; Tunis and Tripoli, 4000. 
 
 AH the various matters relating to the formation, 
 organization, discipline, arms, equipments, duties, 
 and tactics of arnues, will be found succinctly treated 
 under appro|iriate headings. Sec British Army, East 
 Inilia Arm'i. and Uit'tfd Stales Army. 
 
 ARMY ADMINISTRATION. — The whole of the 
 operations connected with the raising, clothing, pay- 
 ing, maintaining, antl controlling of the British army 
 are included in the term Army Administration. They 
 are distinct matters from military command and dis- 
 cipline. The Sovereign has the supreme command of 
 the British army; but the Secretary of State for War 
 is her responsible representative in all that concerns 
 administration — the Commander-in-Chief being her 
 representative in matters relating to military command 
 and disr-ipline. The Secretary is the org-an throutrh 
 whom the w ishes of the Sovereign are reconciled w ith 
 the wishes and intentions of Parliament. Until the 
 war with Russia in 1854, the Administrative Depart- 
 ments were much scattered; their defective orgiiniza- 
 lion led in great part to the miseries suffered by the 
 Bintish troops in the Crimea; but now they aie all 
 consolidated under the Secretary of State for War. 
 
 ARMY CORPS. — When an anny is very large, three 
 or four di\isions are joined together and form an 
 Ann// Corps. The officer commanding an army corps 
 should be of a higher grade than he who commands 
 a division. This" grade, in the U. S. army, would be
 
 ABMY ESTIMATES. 
 
 82 
 
 ABHT MUTUAL-AID ASSOCIATION. 
 
 that of LieuUnant-Oeneral. An army con's is most 
 gfiicrally comiX)swl of all arms of se'rnce, and is, to 
 all intents and purposes, an anny complete in itself. 
 Two or more army corps, or armies, would be under 
 the command of the lienernl, or of a " Gencral-in- 
 C/iitf." It is to Ix' observed that the functions of 
 Greneral Officers are to command armies, or fractions of 
 an army greater thim a regiment, when mobilized. 
 In time of ix-aec, when the regiments arc not fornud 
 into brigades or ilivisions, but arc distributed over 
 dLstricts of country, the function of the General is to 
 commiuid the trc>o|)s in these districts, which are then 
 designated by the terms " military ilcpartments." See 
 Corps d'Arm-i. 
 
 ARMY ESTIMATES.— In the spring of every year, 
 the BrilisU Government ha\ing formed a plan con- 
 cerning the extent and appliances of the military force 
 for thiit year, the War Office .sends to the Treasury a 
 series of accounts .setting forth the probable cost of 
 everything required. The accounts arc called the 
 Anny Estimates. If they are approved by the Treas- 
 ury, the Chancellor of the Exchequer adverts to these, 
 along with other estimates, in his annual "financial 
 statement," made to the House of Commons in his 
 capacity as Guardian of the Public Pui-se. In prcpar- 
 injj the Aruij' Estimates the Secretary of State for 
 ■W ar applies to the heads of aU the deijartmcnls mider 
 him for detailed accounts of their probable require- 
 ments. Another functionary then incorporates and 
 adjusts these into a whole; they are submitted to the 
 Treasury; and, if approved, are presented to the House 
 as the Army Estimates. Should the Commons grant 
 the money, the Accountant-General of the War Office 
 makes the requisite drafts or demands from time to 
 time ; and the Treasury authorizes the Paymaster- 
 General of the forces to honor these drafts. The 
 money itself is in the Bunk of England; this estab- 
 lishment receives a certain aimual sum from the gov- 
 ernment for managing such financial matters. 
 
 The Anny Estimates are drawn up in conformity 
 with a model which differs little from year to year. 
 There are certain great headings, each comprising 
 many minor di\asions, viz.: 1. Regular forces (4 
 votes); 2. Auxiliary and resen-e forces (4 votes); 3. 
 Ordnance establishments and manufactures, and pur- 
 chases of stores (4 votes); 4. Works and buildings 
 0)arracks, fortifications, etc.); 5. Educational estab- 
 lishments (schools, libraries, etc.); 6. Administration 
 of the army; 7. Non-effective services (half-pay, retir- 
 ing allowances, pensions, etc.). The various items 
 arc more or less sifted by the House of Commons; 
 and any one or more of them can be refused alto- 
 
 f ether, or granted in diminished amount. The Army 
 istiraates for 1879-80, which may be cited here as an 
 illustrative example, refer to the period from April 1, 
 1879, to March 31, 1880. The total nimiber of men, 
 including the staff of tlic militia forces, on the home 
 and colonial establishment of the army, and exclusive 
 of those serving in India, was 13o,625. The total 
 number serving in India was 62,653, which are 
 charged against the Indian Treasury. The horses 
 were 26,218, of which 10,830 were for'indian ser\ice. 
 Without going into any detiuls, we will simplj' give 
 the amounts mider the six great headings: 
 
 1. Resiilar fnrces-pay and allowances £4.944.200 
 
 2. Aiixiliar)- anil reserve forces 1,258,500 
 
 3. Ordnance services (provisions, clothing, 
 
 arms, storesi 6,5.31.000 
 
 4. Works and building 853,300 
 
 5. Various senices (education, administration, 
 
 etc. 1 . . 483,900 
 
 6. Non-effective services 2,625,800 
 
 £15,645,700 
 
 Similar annual estimates are made for the support of 
 ncarlv all nthor nrmics of the world. 
 
 ARMY FRONT.— The great majority' of the tactical 
 formations for infantry proposed are practically use- 
 less because of an improper connection iK'tween the 
 total number of infantry in the army, the number of 
 infantry there should be to each pace of front, and 
 
 the nonnal order in which the infantry will move 
 
 under lire. Let A = the total number of infantry in 
 an ;irmy; F, the numlxr of nu n in the front line" P, 
 the number of |)aces in that front line; »«, the number 
 of infantry which late cx|)erience shows there ought 
 to be to each pace of the front; and 2n, the number 
 of jiaces in the nonnal interval Ixtween skinnishcrs 
 (front rank men) when mo%ing under tire, ;i being the 
 conse(iucnt interval Ixtween skirmishers, when" the 
 front ami rear ranks are on the same line, in one rank. 
 Then 
 
 mP = A; and P = n (F - 1); 
 
 , _ A+WiB 
 
 whence F = — ■ . 
 
 mn 
 
 Since m, n, and in n are always insignificant in com- 
 parison to A, F, and P, practically speaking 
 
 P=^ 
 
 ni 
 
 and F: 
 
 Suppose the army in the field consists of 45,000 in- 
 fantry; from the above, it appears that its front 
 should be 12,000 paces (nearly 6 miles) in extent, and 
 should be occupied l)y 4000 men. In this case in has 
 been taken as 5 and n as 3, iiraclically a useful inter- 
 val. Such brief and iniictieal rules'as these will at 
 once enable officers in time of war to so place their 
 troops and make such dispo.sition of divisions, bri- 
 gades, etc., in any position, as lo act offensively or 
 defensively and, at the same time, hold in haml troops 
 to turn the enemy's flank, or to prevent the enemy 
 from tuniing his ov\-n. Nothing definite can be laid 
 do^^■n as to the distance between the different lines of 
 skirmishers, supports, etc., as everything depends on 
 the nature of the giound. 
 
 ARMY HOSPITAL CORPS.— A body of men re- 
 cruited from the ranks of the English army for the 
 purpose of looking after the sick and wounded, and 
 for carrying out such instructions as maj- be given to 
 them by the Medical Officers with reference to diet 
 and treatment, and in administering of medicines 
 ordered, and giving such necessary attendance as the 
 sick require. The men act as bakers and cooks, and 
 perform all duties which render them useful to the 
 patients. 
 
 ARMY HYGIENE.— In the En^'lish army, a branch 
 of the Sledical Department having for it.s object the 
 sanitary condition of the army, whether in quarters 
 or in the field. 
 
 ARMY LIST. — The name of a publication issued 
 monthly by authority of the War Office. It contains 
 the names of all Commissioned Officers in the British 
 Army. Then come the General and Field Officers of 
 the dying-out Indian Anny. Next Uie names of all 
 Officers who hold niilitarj' honors or Staff Aii]X)int- 
 ments. The bulk of the work, however, is taken up 
 •with an enumeration of all the regiments in the 
 Queen's Anny, and all the Officers in each regiment, 
 arranged according to the numerical rank of the regi- 
 ments. To this are added lists of the Officers of the 
 Rifle Brigade, Colonial Coips, Royal Artillery, Royal 
 Engineers, Royal 3Iarines, Control, and Amiv Medi- 
 cal Department; and of Officers retired on full-jiay 
 and on half-pay. Next follow the Officers of the 
 Militia, Yeomanrj', and Volunteers; and then the 
 Militia and Volunteer Officers of the several Colonics. 
 A fidl index, an obituary, a list of tlie ch;uiges 
 gazetted during the past month, and of the new 
 regulations, complete the work. A larger work of 
 similar but non-official character, Hart's Armi/ List, 
 by a more condensed arrangement of type gives all 
 the information contained in the oflicial list and much 
 in addition. 
 
 ARMY MUTUAL-AID ASSOCIATION.— A Mutual- 
 Benefit Society of otlicers of the I'niled States army, 
 organized January 13, 1879. Its object is to aid the 
 families of the deceased members in a prompt, sim- 
 ple, and substantial manner. Any person actually 
 holding a commission in the army may become a 
 member of this Association, provided he is trader fifty 
 
 i
 
 ABMY MUTUAL-AID ASSOCIATION. 
 
 83 
 
 AEMY MUTUAL-AID ASSOCIATION. 
 
 years of age, can procure a surgeon's certificate of 
 good health, and is unobjectionable to the executive 
 committee. The initiation-fee is an amount equal to a 
 half-dollar for each full year which the candidate 
 shall have completed on admission. For the purposes 
 of a.ssessment, on the first of January of each year the 
 members are distributed into nine classes, according 
 to their respective ages (iletcrmined by the last pre- 
 ceding birthday) at date of cla.ssitication, and the as- 
 sessment of the members of the several classes is as 
 follows: 
 
 Class. Assessment. 
 
 1. Under thirl V years $8 00 
 
 2. Thirty to tliirty-flve years 2 50 
 
 3. Thirty-Hve to forty years 3 00 
 
 4. Forty to forty -tlve years 3 50 
 
 6. Forty-five to fifty years 4 00 
 
 6. Fifty to flfty-Hve years 4 50 
 
 7. Fifty-five to si.\ty years 5 00 
 
 8. Sixty to sixty-five years 5 50 
 
 9. All over sixty-five years 6 80 
 
 The officers of the As.sociation consist of a President, 
 a Vice-president, and a Secretary, who is also Treas- 
 urer; all of whom are elected from the members, by bal- 
 lot, at an annual meeting, and hold their offices for two 
 years and until their successors are qualified. At all 
 of the meetings of this Association, ten members, rep- 
 resenting a majority of the whole number, constitute 
 a quorum for business. There is an Executive Com- 
 mittee, consisting of the President, Vice-president, and 
 Secretary, and of two other members, elected at the 
 annual meetings, and holding their offices for one 
 year and until their successors are qualified. A ma- 
 jority of the Executive Committee constitute a quorum 
 for business. The Executive Committee has general 
 supernsion over the affairs of the Association; passes 
 upon all applications for membership; prescribes 
 forms; audits all claims and accounts, and decides 
 all questions that may arise in connection therewith; 
 and directs the Treasurer to draw his drafts for all 
 payments. They attend generally to the government 
 and financial affairs of the Association, and have 
 power to fill all vacancies in the Committee until the 
 succeeding election. Thej' meet on the first Mon- 
 day of each month, or oftener upon the call of the 
 President. The Executive Committee is also empow- 
 ered, during the lifetime of a member, to revoke or 
 annul his certificate of membership, if it should be 
 made apparent that the same was issued upon a pal- 
 pable mistake or omission in the declaration of the 
 applicant, or upon an insufficient inquiry l)y the Med- 
 ical Examiner as to the condition of his health at the 
 time of his application. The Executive Committee 
 also have power to terminate the membership of any 
 officer who may be dropped from the arnij- for de- 
 sertion, dismissed liy sentence of Court-Martial, or 
 who resigns to avoid trial by Court-Martial ; and the 
 Committee have the further power to require, as the 
 condition of continued membership, a new and thor- 
 ough medical examination by a Medical Officer of the 
 army in the case of anj' one who the Committee ma}' 
 have good reason to believe shall have become ad- 
 dieted to habits of intemperance or immorality calcu- 
 lated to seriously impair his risk. The Executive 
 Committee may at any time, in the name of the Asso- 
 ciation, take measures to procure incorporation for it, 
 or jietition Congress for such legislation as would in 
 their judgment facilitate the collection of the Assess- 
 ments, and the custody and disbursement of the funds 
 of the Association, through the Pay Department of the 
 army and the Treasury, or otherwise, as in the judg- 
 ment of the Executive Committee maj' seem most ex- 
 pedient. Upon the death of a member the Treasurer, 
 under the direction of the Executive Committee, with- 
 draws from the credit of each member in the special 
 reserve fund the amount of one a.ssessment upon him, 
 or when necessary levy an extra as.sessnient, and the 
 money thus obtained is disposerl of as follows: The 
 Treasurer, with the least possible delay, pays to the 
 beneficiary or beneficiaries the net benefit, which is so 
 much of such aggregate assessment, after deducting 
 
 five per centum for expenses, as shall not exceed a 
 maximum of either twenty-five hundred dollars or a 
 total of three dollars per capita of the membership 
 when the death occurs. Any surplus acquired from 
 one aggregate assessment so taken or levied upon a 
 death in excess of these limitations is accunmlated in 
 the general reserve fund until the same shall be suffi- 
 cient to pay a future benefit, when no assessment is 
 appropriated or levied therefor; but such surplus, or 
 so much as may be necessary, is applied to such bene- 
 fit, and the remainder, if any, carried forward for a 
 lilie purpose. No benefit is jjayable by this Associa- 
 tion upon the suicide of any member who has not 
 been a member in good standing for more than one 
 year, imlcss the Executive Committee shall be fully 
 convinced that such suicide was induced by insanity. 
 In case of any one who, having been a member, aiid 
 having paid all his assessments and dues for more 
 than one year, shall have committed suicide, the fact 
 of insanity shall be presumed in the absence of con- 
 vincing evidence to the contrary. The decision of 
 the Executive Committee entered upon the minutes of 
 their meeting is, however, finally binding upon all 
 concerned in every case. An)- member may change 
 the person or persons designated as beneficiaries by 
 filing with the Secretary a certificate setting forth the 
 fact. Assignments of the benefit to others than wid- 
 ows, children, or other relatives are not, however, 
 to be encour.aged, and will not be accepted unless ap- 
 proved by the E.xecutive Committee. The meetings of 
 the Association are held at Washington, D. C. The 
 annual meetings aie held on the second Tuesday in 
 January of each year, at which time the Executive 
 Committee audit "the accoimts of the Treasurer, and 
 submit a report of the transactions of the Association 
 for the preceding year. The proceedings of these 
 meetings, accompanied by the reports and a list 
 of the members, are promptly published for the in- 
 fonnation of the Association. Special meetings are 
 called upon the vvTitten request of ten or more mem- 
 bers, and at all meetings the absent members may 
 be represented by proxj', in writing, given to those 
 attending. In order that members may have timely 
 notice of the numerical strength of the Association, 
 and be informed of the basis upon which the num- 
 ber of assessments for each yc9.v is computed, the 
 Executive Committee cause to be published in the two 
 military newspapers which have the largest army cir- 
 culation, as early in the beginning of each year as 
 practicatjle, a notice which gives the total member- 
 ship of January 1st, and the number of a.ssessments 
 payable by each member. 
 
 It is proposed that additional groups, not exceed- 
 ing two, may be formed whenever one hundred mem- 
 bers of the Parent- Association (having signified their 
 desire to join the same) have been duly accepted by 
 the Executive Committee. Of the additional groups 
 authorized to be formed, the first group formed is 
 designated and known a.s Group B, and the second as 
 Group C. For purposes of assessment members of 
 Groups B and C are separately classified, and the as 
 sessment of members is as follows: 
 
 Class. Assessment. 
 
 1. Under thirty years S4 00 
 
 2. Thirty to thirtv-flve years 5 00 
 
 3. Thirtv-five to forty years 6 00 
 
 4. Forty to forty-five years 7 00 
 
 5. Forty-five to fifty years 8 00 
 
 6. Fifty to fifty-five years 9 00 
 
 7. Fittv-flve to sixty years 10 00 
 
 8. Sixty to sixty -five years 11 00 
 
 9. Sixty-flve to seventy years 12 00 
 
 10. Seventy years and upwards 13 00 
 
 The fimds of the Parent-Association are not in any 
 case whatever, or in any manner, either temporarily 
 or otherwise, applicable to or to be used in the payment 
 of the expenses or liabilities of the groups; and the 
 expenses, liabilities, and benefits of Grou|is B and C 
 are borne by the members thereof respectivel.v, and 
 the records," accounts, and funds of each group are 
 kept separate and distinct, and in no case are the
 
 AEMY OF OBSERVATION. 
 
 Si 
 
 ABMT OBOANIZATION. 
 
 funds pcTtaiuing to one group applied to or used in 
 pajnuent of the expenses, luibilities, or benefits of any 
 other group. The membi-rsUip, classes, and assess- 
 ments, January 1, IS*!, wea' as follows: 
 
 Class. Memtx'rsliip. Ass.'ssments. Amount. 
 
 1 ... 105 S-' 00 $iIO 00 
 
 a 131 •-> 50 3-'r 50 
 
 3 133 3 00 3U9 l« 
 
 4 a02 S 50 TOT 00 
 
 6 167 4 00 608 00 
 
 6 90 4 50 405 UO 
 
 7 38 5 00 140 00 
 
 8';;; is 550 ssoo 
 
 sTJ ?a.9J4 50 
 
 ARMY OF OBSERVATION.— The question of mov- 
 ing out to meet a relieving array involves, f lequeutly, 
 the question of raising the siege. If the besieging 
 army is strong enough to permit it, a force is usually 
 detacheil to watch the movements of the relie\ing 
 army, while the main body remains prosecuting the 
 siege operations. This iletaclied boily is known as 
 an "Army of Observation. No important siege should 
 be undertaken where there is danger from a heavy 
 succoring force from without, unless the besieging 
 force is "of sufiicient strength not only to keep the 
 garrison within their works whilst the ordinary siege 
 operations are pushed forward, but to detach a force 
 of sufficient strength to observe the movements of any 
 body that may seem large enough to threaten the be- 
 sieging force and to holil it in check long enough, if 
 attacked, to concentrate the entire force on some 
 favorable defensive position. 
 
 AEMY ORGANIZATION.— Napoleon, at the period 
 of the preparations for his descent upon England, 
 had a moment of leisure which he could bestow upon 
 his military organization. Then, for the first time, it 
 is believed, was introduced a systenuitie organization 
 of grand masses, tenuetl Army Corjis; each one com- 
 prising within itself all the elements of a complete 
 ann}-,"and apt for any emergency. Since then this 
 has served as a t\ije io France and other European 
 States in their organization. An army is now com- 
 posed of one or more army corjis, made up of infan- 
 try and cavalry; an artillery equipage, comprising 
 several batteries; several artillery parks of reserve; 
 with a grand one to which is attached a biidge-train. 
 Each army corps consists of one or more Divisions; 
 each division of several Brigades; the brigade com- 
 prising two Regiments. Two batteries of foot-artil- 
 lery, of si.K pieces each, are attached to each infantry 
 division; and one of horse-artillery, of the stuiie 
 strength, to each division of heavj- cavaliy. Besides, 
 for each army corps of infantr}- there is a reserve of 
 several batteries; and a few served by foot-artillery. 
 In some cases, one of the batteries of reserve is served 
 by the horse-artillery. A company of engineer troops, 
 tenned Suppers, is generally attached to each infantry 
 division; and to each infantry army corps a brigade 
 of light cavalry, with a comjiauy of Poidnniers, 
 which has charge of the bridge-train. In France, 
 each brigade is commanded by a Murcchal ck Camp, 
 a grade corresixinding to our Brigadier-General ; each 
 division by a Lkutenant-Oenerai, which corresponds 
 to our Major-General; and an army coqjs by a Mare- 
 chnl de /<>•««<;«'. The particidar organization of the 
 General Staff, and the iliffereiit arms of ser\ice, would 
 lead to details of no importance here. The propor- 
 tion, however, of each ;irm of an army to the others 
 is a subject of great interest, as upon tiiis depends, in 
 a great degree, the more or less of e,\cellcnce in the 
 military institutions of a State. The infantry, from its 
 powers of endurance, il.s capabilities for battle in all 
 kinds of ground, and its independence of those casual- 
 tics by which the other arms may be completely 
 paralyzed, is placed as the ./t>«< rtrw ,• and upon it is 
 basctf the strength of all the others. It generally forms 
 about four fifthi of the entire force. In all i5l:Ues 
 where the militarj' art is justly appreciated the cav- 
 alrj' arm is placed in the simnd rmik to the infantry. 
 To it an army is often indebted for turning the scales 
 
 of victory-, and giving a decisive character to the 
 issue. To it, the iut'aiUry, when e.\hau.sted by fa- 
 tigue, or broken, often owes its safety, and through 
 the re.s|iite gained by its charges finds time to breathe 
 and re-form. Without it, much of advaiue(i-po.st 
 duty, patrols, and detachment service reiiuiring great 
 celerity would be but badly performed. But the 
 arm of cavalry by it.self can ellect but little, and, in 
 many circumstances, does not suflice even for its own 
 safety. The smallest obstacles are sutfieient to render 
 it powerless; it can neither attack nor hold a post 
 without the aid of inf;intry; and at night is alarmed, 
 and justly so, at every phantom. The iirojiortion 
 borne by the cavuliy to the infantry should vary with 
 the features of the s<.at of war; being greater in a 
 champagne than in a broken or mountaincniscoimtry. 
 The proi)ortion of om- fourth of the infaiUry for the 
 first, and one xLvth for the last, is generally admitted 
 by received militaiy authority as the best. The ar- 
 tilleiT is ])laced third in rniik among the anus. Its 
 duties are to support and cover the other arms; keep 
 the enemy from approaching too near; hold him in 
 check when he advances; and prevent him from 
 (lebouchiiifi at particular points. To perform these 
 duties it is considered that an allowance of one piece 
 for each thousand men of the other anns, and one in 
 reserve, forms the proper quota of this arm. It is to 
 be remarked, however, that this proportion supposes 
 the other arms in an excellent state of organization 
 and discipline. In the contrarj' case, the quota of 
 artillery must be increased; for it inspires poor troops 
 with confidence, as they rely upon it to keep off the 
 enemy, and to cover tlieir retreat. But here arises 
 another disadvantage, as artillery is uticiiy incapable 
 of defending itself, and therefore, when present in an 
 over-proportion, it nutst necessarily sustain great 
 losses in guns and the other matiriel. The arm of 
 engineering, although requiring more science and a 
 higher gi'ade of talent for its duties than any other, 
 takes the last place in tactical considerations. To it is 
 intrusted all that pertains to ojiposing passive obstacles 
 to an enemy's advance, and rcmo\ing those which he 
 may have raised. To it is assigned that most difficult 
 of all tasks to the soldier, patient endurance of manu.-il 
 toil, and a disregard of everything InU the work in 
 hand, whilst exposed to the enemy's fire. The pro- 
 portion of engineer troops will depend in a great 
 measure upon the character of the operations imder- 
 taken; being most in sieges, and least in those <lepend- 
 iug mainlj' on maneuvers. In the French ser\ice 
 the engineers are one half the strength of the artillcrj' 
 — a large number, but rendered necessary by the pecu- 
 liar military position of that coimtry. The troops 
 which compose the three princiiial arms are generally 
 subdivided into two classes, /«(((•// and lii/ht ; partly 
 arising from the nature of their weapons, and jxirtly 
 from their destination on the field of battle. This 
 subdivision is less marked in the infantry than in that 
 of the other arms; for although in most foreign 
 armies a portion of the mfantiT caiTics a sal)er 
 with the musket, still this additional weapon is of 
 rather questionable utility; for the musket is the one 
 which, under all circumstances of attack and defense, 
 will be resorted to. All infantry now receive the 
 same instruction; but whether a portion of it ought 
 not to be reserved esjiecially for the duties consigned 
 to light troops is still a dispute<l point. One thing is 
 certain, that perfection is more easily reached by con- 
 fining the indivi<hial to one branch of his art than by 
 requiring him to make himself conver.sant with the 
 whole. Still it might be often found inconvenient, 
 at the least, if infantry were not able to perform all the 
 fimctions required of it. The .service of light infantry 
 often demands great individual address, intelligence, 
 and well-develo)ied physical ])owers — a combiuntion 
 of (pialilies not easily found, and seldom, indeed, with- 
 out careful habitual training. Whereas, in infantry 
 of the line, the ((ualities of the individual are of less 
 importance, as results here depend almost solely upon 
 the action of the mass. The habitual order of battle-
 
 AEMY KEGISTEE. 
 
 85 
 
 AEMY EEGTTLATIONS. 
 
 of light infantry is the dispersed order ; and whether 
 acting oirensivclv or defensively, it depends for its 
 results upon the effect of its tire, resortinLT to the close 
 order, iiiid usinjc the bayonet only exceptionally. As 
 each individual, although immediately supported by 
 his own tile-closer, and those on his right and left, is 
 still often thrown upon his own re-ources, being 
 obliged to take cover where he can most conveniently 
 find it, he must be a good marksman, cool, deliberate, 
 and circumspect; since it may become necessjiry to 
 keep an enemy occui)icd hours and even days to- 
 gether, pressing on him at one moment and yielding 
 to him the next, or hold with tenacity, and disputing 
 inch by inch some particular point, as it may suit the 
 views of the General in command. In infantry of the 
 line, as success depends uijou the action of the mass, 
 ensemble, coolness, and determuialion should charac- 
 terize all its movements, whether it delivers its fire in 
 line, forms In column to attack with the bayonet, or 
 throws itself into square, to await the charge of the 
 enemy's cavalry. The duties of light infantry are to 
 open an engagement, and, after it is fairly got imder 
 ■way, to keep it going; tiu-ning it to advantjige if suc- 
 cessful, otherwise breaking it off. In it.s relations to 
 the infantry of the line, it should cover the flanks of 
 the latter; clear the way for its advance by rooting 
 the enemy out of all covers, and then holding them 
 if requisite. Upon it devolves all advanced-post, de- 
 tachment, and advanced- and rear-guard ser\ice. To 
 the infantry of the line is confitlcd everything where 
 firmness is the essential requisite; as the attack or de- 
 fense of kej'-points, the formation of all supports and 
 re.serves, whether on the field or in the attack and 
 defense of posts. There is a third class of infantry, 
 termed rifltiiwn, which does not form a part proper 
 of the arm of infantry; partaking, when properly 
 constituted, more of the character of partisan than of 
 regular troops; being chosen only from that jiortion 
 of a population whose habits lead them to a daily use 
 of fire-arms and give them an unerring aim. As an 
 auxiliary in the defense of particular localities, where 
 they are secure from the attack of the bayonet, or of 
 cavalrj-, and can deliver their fire with that delibera- 
 tion winch their weapon demands, rifiemen will often 
 be found invaluable; as nothing is more dreaded by 
 troops generally than this lurking and often in\'isible 
 foe, whose whereabouts is only divined by the de- 
 struction he deals around him. In cavalry, the dis- 
 tinction between heavy and light is more strongly 
 marked, and the functions of each more clearly de- 
 fined than in infantry. The cuirasskrs, from their 
 defensive armor and hi ;ny s;iber, which in both man 
 and horse adl for great physical jiowers, constitute 
 tlie true heavy cavalrj". The dnigimns and hnitsiirs 
 Ijelong to the light, and the landers indifferently per- 
 form the functions of either. The most essential 
 qualit}' of all cavalry, which distinguishes it from all 
 other arms, ami gives it the faculty of taking an enemy 
 frequently at disjidvantage, is that of celerity. If to 
 this the rider unites boldness, and even, when called 
 for, recklessness, it makes of this arm a truly fearful 
 cue. Cavafry. to attain its ends, should unite several 
 e.s.sential conditions; horses and weapons in good con- 
 dition; sutficient depth of ground both in front and 
 rear to g-ather speed for the charge, or space for rally- 
 ing; to be led boldly but skillfully into action; have 
 its fiauks covered against a surprise; ami be followed 
 by a support, or reserve, to cover the retreat, or se- 
 cure from the effects of confusion the line charging, 
 if brought up imexpectedly by the enemy. As the 
 functions of liea\-y cavalry are to bear down all op- 
 position and iiresent an impa.ssiible wall to the ene- 
 my's efforts, its duties are confined to the battle-field; 
 there, placed in the reserve, it is held in hand until 
 the decisive moment arrives, when it is launched 
 forth to deal a blow from which the enemy hopelessly 
 struggles to ri'cover, either to achieve viclory or to 
 fend off utter defeat. To light cavalry are intrusted 
 the important duties of securimr from surprise the 
 flimksof the heavy; to watch over the safety of horse- 
 
 artillery, and to perform the ser\ices required of them 
 by infantry di\isions, and those of detachment service 
 in general. The artillery, which hatl for a lon^ pe- 
 riod, and even still, preserves the character of emment 
 respectaljilitv. hasof late years begun to infuse a dash 
 of the dare-ckvil spirit of the cavalier into its ranks. 
 If it has not yet taken to charging literally, it has, on 
 some recent occasions, shown a well-considered reck- 
 lessness of obstacles and dangers, fully borne out by 
 justly deserved success. The distinction between 
 light and heavy in this arm ari.ses not only from the 
 difference of caliber in thi' pieces, but also in a differ- 
 ence of their tactical ai)i)licatiou. The heavy field- 
 caliber is reserved for batteries in position, and is sel- 
 dom shifted during the action. The light field-cali- 
 ber are served either by foot- or horse-artillery, and 
 follow the movements of the other arms. Improve- 
 ments both in the iimU'riii and the tactics of artillery 
 have lieen very marked within late years. Formerly, 
 considered only in the light of an au.xiliary on the 
 battle-field, artillery now aspires, and with indispu- 
 table claims, to the rank of a piincipal ann. The 
 tactical applications of artillery on the field deijend 
 on the caliber. To the heavy are assigned tlie duties 
 of occupying positions for strengthening the weak 
 points of the field of battle; for securing the retreat 
 oftheaiTuy; for defending all objects whose jiosses- 
 sion might be of importance to the enemy, as villages, 
 defiles, etc.; and for overturning all passive olistacles 
 that cover the enemy, or arrest the progress of the 
 other arms. The light pieces, served by foot-artillery, 
 follow the movements of the infantry; covering the 
 flanks of its position, preparing the way for its onset, 
 and arresting that of the enemy. It is of this that 
 the principal part of the artillery in reserve is com- 
 posed. The horee-artillery is held in hand for de- 
 cisive moments. When launched forth, its arrival 
 and execution should be uuex|iected and instanta- 
 neous. Ready to repair all disasters and partial re- 
 verses, it, at one moment, temporaiily replaces a bat- 
 tery of foot, and at the next is on another point of 
 the field, to force back an enemy's column. In pre- 
 liaring the attacks of cavalry, this arm is often indis- 
 pensable and always invaluable; l)rought with rapid- 
 ity in front of a line, or opiwsile to squares of infan- 
 try, within the range of canister, its well-directed 
 tire, in a few discharges, opens a gap, or so shakes 
 the entire mass that the cavalier finds but a feeble 
 obstacle where, without this aid. he would in vain 
 have exhausted all his powers. See Army. 
 
 AEMY EEGISTEE.— The official list of the United 
 States army, iiublished annually, showing the jiosi- 
 tion. rank, and duties of ollieers, regiments, com- 
 panies, etc., with the primiotious and casualties dur- 
 in<r the precedinir twelve months. 
 
 AEMY EEGULATIONS.— A book .-o called, pnb- 
 lished in the name of the President of the United 
 .States "for the government of all concerned." The 
 Constitution pro\-ides that "Congress shall have 
 power to make rules^ for the go\'ernment and rff/nlii- 
 tion of the land and naval forces." The only Acts 
 of Congress in force authorizing the President to 
 make regulations better defining the powers and 
 duties of offieei's are contained in the 5th section of 
 the Act of March ;i, 1813, and the 9lh section of the 
 Act approved April 26, 1816. The first of these acts 
 is an act for the better organization of the General 
 Staff of the array, and the second relates (with the ex- 
 ception of the last section, concerning forage and 
 private servants) to the same subject. By the 5th 
 section of the Act of 1813 it is provided, "That it 
 shall be the duty of the Secretary of the War Dei)art- 
 ment, and he is hereby authorized, to prepare gener-al 
 regulations better defining and prescribing the re- 
 spective d;ilies and powers of the several officers in the 
 Adjutant-General, Inspector-General, Quartcrmaster- 
 Genend, and Commissiry of Ordnance Deparlmints, of 
 the Topographicid Engineers, of the Aides of Generals, 
 and generally of the General and Regimental Staff; 
 w^hich regulations, when approved by the President of
 
 AEMY KESERVE. 
 
 86 
 
 ABHT WORK CORPS. 
 
 the Unitc<l Slntcs, shall be a'speetod nnd obeyed until 
 altered or revoked by the siime autliorily. And the 
 said gi'nenil reijulation?;, thus prepareil and approved, 
 shall be laid before Congress at their next session." 
 
 Remarking here that the regulations to be pre- 
 pared and approved refer oiity to the powers and 
 duties of the otlicers of the several Stall Departments 
 enumerated in the Aet. it follows that no other regu- 
 lations made by the President can derive any force 
 whiitever from this Aet. Tlie 9lh section of the Act 
 of isiti therefore only continued this then e.visting 
 power of the President in providing " That the several 
 otfieers of the Stalf shall respectively receive the pay 
 and emoluments, and retain all the privileges, .secured 
 to the Stair of the army by the Act of Jlarch 3, 1813, 
 and not incompatible with the pro\Tsions of this Act; 
 and that the regulations in force before the reduction 
 of the army be recognized, as far as the same shall 
 be found api>licable to the service; subject, however, 
 to such alterations as the Secretary of War may 
 adopt, with the approbation of the President." It 
 would seem, therefore, that whatever may be con- 
 t;uned in the President's army regulations "of a legis- 
 lative character concerning officers of the army not 
 belonging to »5taff Departments must, if valid, be a 
 legitimate deduction from some positive law, or de- 
 pend for its legality upon the exercise of authority 
 delegated to the constitutional Commander-in-Chief or 
 other -Military Commander, in the rules made by Con- 
 gress for the government of the armj'. Congress has 
 delegated to the President authority to prescribe the 
 uniform of the army; authority to establish the 
 ration; and besides the aiithority given by law to 
 other Military Commanders, he also has been autho- 
 rized to relieve, in special cases, an inetficient Military 
 Commimder from duty with any command; to assign 
 any senior to duty with mixed corps, so that the com- 
 mand may fall by law on such senior in rank; to 
 limit the discretion of Comnwnding Officers in special 
 cases, in regard to what is needful for the ser\-iee; 
 and hence also he has been given authority to carve 
 out siiecial commands from general commands in 
 particular cases. These are all-important functions, 
 but they do not authorize special eniiiit to be made 
 general rules, and it is much to be regretted that the 
 lines of separation between regulations and the orders 
 of the Commander-in-Chief have not been kept dis- 
 tinct. 
 
 ARMY RESERVE.— A force, under the present 
 organization of the Hritish anny, composed of men 
 who have enlisted for twelve years, a portion of which 
 service, viz.. six and not less than three years, must 
 be passed with the colors, the residue being spent in 
 the reserve. This condition of serWce is known as 
 " short ser\ice." Other soldiers arc eligiljle to enter 
 the reserve force, viz. . those who have exceeded the 
 first term of their engagement, say men after thirteen 
 or ffiurteen years' service, and who do not exceed 
 thirty-four years in age. I'nder the system which 
 now obtains, a considerable reserve force may be ex- 
 pected to be formed, and it is estimated that with an 
 army of 180. (X)0 men. of whom three fourths are to 
 serve only six years with the colors, there will accrue 
 by 1882 a largo reserve of trained men, all under 
 thirty-two years of age. 
 
 Tlie Army Enlistment Act of 1867 formed a body of 
 men called ihe enrolled pensioners and others into two 
 classes: First class, not exceeding 20,01)0 men, liable 
 for service anywhere, and consisting of men who are 
 ser\ing or have served in the army, and whose .service 
 does not exceed first term of enlistment. Second class, 
 not exceeding 30.000, liable for service in the United 
 Kingdom only, consisting of persons already enrolled, 
 out-pensioners. The Act of 1870 has ni(")dilied Ihe 
 above, and the result has Ijecn that enrollment for 
 second class, except for pensioners, has been sus- 
 penfled. (Second cla.ss therefore consists entirely of en- 
 rolled pensioners, who are called out for twelve days 
 annually, under S. O. of Pensioners, and numlier 
 about 15,000.) Enrollment in the first class is en- 
 
 couraged, and men are eligible to enter this class up 
 to the age of thirty-four; the retaining fee amounts 
 to t'G JKT annum (but no claim to future pension), 
 and all men enlisted under short service arc to be 
 pa.ssed into this class, w'ho will ultimately be the 
 reserve of the standing arm}'. 
 
 ARMY SCHOOLS.— The colleges, academies, and 
 schools relating to military matters may be grouped 
 into three cla.sses — those intended to increase the 
 military' efficiency of the officers and men; those for 
 impartmg military know ledge to jjersons not yet in 
 military .service; and those which bear relation to the 
 ordinary school-tuition of soldiers of the rar.ks and 
 their children. The principal of tho.se in the first 
 group are the Uoyal Military College at Sandhurst, 
 the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, the School 
 of Instruction at Chatham, the Department of Artil- 
 lery Studies at Woolwich, the School of Artillery at 
 Shoebuiy, the School of Musketry at llythe, the Royal 
 Artillery Institution at AVoolwich, and the United 
 States Artillery School. The chief among the second 
 group are the Royal Military Asylum (better known 
 as the Duke of York's School), the Regimental 
 Schools, the Garrison Schools, and the United States 
 Military Academy. Chelsea College or Hospital is 
 an Asylum for veterans, not a school of instruction. 
 Most of these educational establishments will be 
 found most briefly described in this work, either 
 under the names of the places w here they e.xist, or of 
 the arm of the service to which tliev belong. 
 
 ARMY SERVICE CORPS.— A l)raneh of the Control 
 Department, in England, officered from the Supply 
 and Transport Sub-department. The officers of this 
 corps rank as follows: Commissary-Major, Deputy 
 Comnus.sary-Cai)tain, xissistant Commissarv-Lieuten- 
 ant. The corps consists of clerks, tradesmen, me- 
 chanics, skilled laborers, drivers, etc., who are re- 
 quired for the various duties connected with the 
 supply, store, |iay, and transport service. 
 
 ARMY 'WAGON.— A wagon designed for the use of 
 foot-soldiers on the plains, and so constructed that the 
 men can quickly jump off the seats when attacked, 
 and spring back again at once. The term is also ap- 
 plied to wagons for stores and ammunition. 
 
 ARMY 'WORK CORPS.— When the British generals 
 engaged in the Crimean War, in the latter months of 
 18.>t, kne^v that the siege-army would need to winter 
 outside Sebtstopol, grave dilficulties were presented 
 to their notice. The distance from the landing-place 
 at Bulaklava to the front of the siege-camp was not 
 less than eight miles; and the only road was a mud- 
 track, almost impassable in w ct weather. How to get 
 the heavy guns, the shot ami shell, the provisions and 
 the general stores up to the front was a question not 
 eas}- of solution. The British soldiers were too few 
 even for the ordinary military duties, and yet they 
 were called upon for services of an extra and arduous 
 nature. When these facts became known in England, 
 a suggestion was made that an " Army \Vork (^'orjis" 
 should be formed, to consist of strong and efficient 
 railway excavators. Cornish miners, and well-sinkers; 
 that these should liave with them all the tools and 
 appliances for making roads and digging wells; and 
 that they should be accompanied by traveling work- 
 shops and skilled artisans, to eiTeet that which might 
 require more skill than physical lalKir. The inunedi- 
 ate necessities of I.,orcl Raglan, in regard to bringing 
 up supplies, were met Ijy the construction of a rail- 
 way from Balaklava to the heights outside SebastoiK)!, 
 by special contract with Messrs. Peto 6c Brassey; but 
 the large amount of bodily labor continually needed 
 for various services led to the formation of the Army 
 Work Corps. The raising and organization of this 
 force were intrusifd to Sir .loscph Paxton. As soon 
 as he had obtained 1000 efficient men he sent them 
 out; and their value was so soon felt by Lord Raglan 
 that other detachments gradually followed, u.ail the 
 corps compriscil 'ATM) men in Ihe latter months of 
 1855. The men were jiaid well and they worked • 
 well; and as their engagement related only to the
 
 AENAOtJTS. 
 
 87 
 
 ARKEST IN OBDER OF TRIAL. 
 
 special duties connected with the sieKecamp, the 
 country was not s;iddled with any burden after the 
 need for these services had ceased. They did not re- 
 quire to be drilled for their duties, lilce sappers; and 
 they were ready for work at once, as artisans or 
 laborers. There were some cases of disagreement 
 between the men and their employers, after the whole 
 of the British had returned from the Crimea, in a 
 matter of wages due; but this was a question of de- 
 tail, and did not affect the usefulness of the corps. 
 The experience gained has been valuable, as showing 
 in what way, under special circumstances, ordinary 
 workmen and laborers may be employed as assistants 
 to a militarv force 
 
 ARNAOUTS — AENOTJTS.— A corps of Ureclan 
 militia organized during the war of Russia against 
 the Porte in 1769. 
 
 ARftTTEBUS.— The first form of hand-gun which 
 could fairly be compared with the modern musket. 
 Those (if earlier date were tired by applying a match 
 by hand to the touch-hole; but about the time of the 
 battle of ^Morat, in 1476, giuis were used having a con- 
 trivance suggested by tlie trigger of the arljalest or 
 cross-bow, l)y which the burning match could l)e ap- 
 plied with more quickness and certainty. Such a gun 
 was the arquebus. Many of Ihe Yeomen of the Guard 
 were armed with this weapon, on the first fcrraa- 
 tion of that corps in Hs.j. The anpiebus being 
 tired from the chest, with the butt in a right line 
 with the barrel, it w;is diflieult to brhiir the eye 
 down low enough to take good aim; l)ut the Ger- 
 mans soon introduced an improvement by giving 
 a hooked form to the butt, which elevated "the bar- 
 rel; and the arquebus then 
 obtained the name of the 
 haqiubiit. Fre(juently wx'M- 
 ten Arqucbuse, Harquebus, 
 and Hiirqiichiise. 
 
 ARQUEBUSADE.— Shot of 
 an artiuebus. Also distilled 
 water from a variety of aro- 
 matic plants, as rosemary, 
 millefoil, etc., applied to a 
 bruise or wound; .so called 
 because it was originally used 
 as a vulnerary in gun-shot 
 wounds. 
 
 ARQUEBUSIERS.— Soldiers 
 armed with the arqueljus and 
 haquelnU. The former were 
 common in the English army 
 in the time of Richard III. , 
 
 Arquebusier. *^[j'f"^'' ^'^ *''''' °^ "'^"■■•'' 
 
 ARRAY.— Order of battle, as an anny in battle 
 itiTiiji; disposition in regular lines. 
 
 ARRAYER. — A title given to certain military officers 
 in England in the early part of the fifteenth century. 
 There were two of tlieni in each county, sometimes 
 called Commissaries of Musters. Their duties were 
 set forth in an ordinance of Henry V.. from the 
 terms of which it ajipears that the Arrayers were 
 Army Inspectors, or, rather, Militia Inspectors, and 
 in some sense precursors to the modem Lord-Lieu- 
 tenant of Counties. 
 
 ARREST. — 1. A French word, similar in its import 
 to the Latin word Ritlnticuhiiii. It consisted of a 
 small piece of steel or iron which was formerly used 
 in the construction of tire-arms to prevent the piece 
 going off. A familiar phrase among military men 
 m France is, Cepixtokt e.it en arret. — " This pistol is 
 in arrest," or " is stopped." 
 
 2. The temporary confinement of officers in bar- 
 racks, quarters, or tents, pending trial by Court- 
 Jlartial, or the consideration of their imputed offenses 
 previous to deciding whether they shall or shall not 
 be tried. Private soldiers are usually jilaced \mder 
 guard, and non-commissioned officers are placed in 
 arrest in quarters. None but Commanding (.)lBcers 
 have power to place officers under arrest, except for 
 
 otTenfcs expres-sly designated in the Twenty-fourth 
 Article of War. Officers are not put in arrest for light 
 offenses. For these the censure of the Commaudmg 
 Officer will, in most cases, answer the purpos<'s of 
 discipline. An officer in aiTest may, at the tliscretion 
 of his Commanding Officer, have larger limits assigned 
 him than his tent or quarters, on written application 
 to that effect. Close confinement is not to be resorted 
 to unless under circumstances of an aggravated char- 
 acter. In ordinarj- cases, and where inconvenience to 
 the service would result from it, a Medical Officer is 
 not put in arrest until the Court-Martial for his trial 
 convenes. The arrest of an officer or the confinement 
 of a soldier is reported to his immediate Conmiander 
 as soon as practicable. All prisoners under guard, 
 without written charges, are released by the Officer of 
 the Day at guard-moimting, unless orders to the con- 
 trary be given by the Commanding Officer. On a 
 march, Field-officers and Xou-commissioncd Staff- 
 officers in arrest follow in rear of their respective regi- 
 ments. Company officers and Non-commissioned 
 officers in ; rrest follow in the rear of their respective 
 companies, unless otherwise specially ordered. An 
 officer under arrest does not wear a sword, or visit offi- 
 cially his Commanding or other Superior Officer, unless 
 sent for. In case of official business he makes known 
 his object in writing. Whenever officers are ordered 
 in arrest, oi' for trial, from their proper stations to other 
 military posts, they may, during the time they remain 
 at such posts under arrest, awaiting trial or sentence, 
 be allowed to occupy public quarters provided there 
 arc any vacant that can be assigned to them w ithout 
 infringing upon the rights of other officers regularly 
 stationed on duty at the post. Under these circum- 
 stances they forfeit any and all claims they may have 
 hafl to quarters in kind, or commutation therefor else- 
 where. See ii'>tfi Artii-I,' nf Vuir. 
 
 ARRESTE OF THE GLACIS.— In fortification, the 
 junetinuof the talus wliich is formed at all the angles. 
 
 ARREST IN ORDER OF TRIAL.— Before an officer 
 or soldier, or other person subject to military law, 
 can be brought to trial, he must be charged with 
 some crime or offense against the Rules and Articles of 
 War, and placed in arrest. The Articles of War direct 
 that whenever any officer shall be charged %\ith a 
 crime, he shall be arrested and confined in his bar- 
 racks, quarters or tent, and deprived of his sword by 
 the Commanding Oflicer. And that " Non-commis- 
 sioned officers and soldiers, charged \vith crimes, shall 
 be confined until tried by a Court-Martial, or released 
 by proper authority." The arrest of an officer is gen- 
 erally executed through a Staff-Officer; by an Adjutant, 
 if ordered liy the Commanding Officer of a regiment; 
 or by an officer of the General Staff, if ordered by a 
 Superior Officer; and sometimes by Ihe officer with 
 whom the arrest originates. On being placed in 
 arrest, an officer resigns his sword. If this form be 
 sometimes omitted, the custom is invariably ob- 
 served of an officer in arrest not wearing a sword. 
 By the custom of the army, it is usual, except in 
 capital cases, to allow an officer in arrest the limits 
 of the garrison or even greater limits, at the discre- 
 tion of the Commanding Officer, who regulates his 
 conduct by the dictates of propriety and lunuanily. 
 A Non-comunssioned officer or soldier is confined m 
 charge of a guard; but, by the custom of the serWce, 
 the Non-commissioned Staff and Sergeants may be 
 simply arrested. The Articlesof Wardeclare "that no 
 officer or soldier who shall be put in arrest or imprison- 
 ment .shall continue in his confinement more than eight 
 days, or until such time as a t'otu-t-Martial can be con- 
 veniently assembled." The latter part of this clause 
 evidently allows a latitude which is cajiable of being 
 abused; bin, as in a free country there is no wrong 
 without a remedy, an action miglil be brought against 
 the offender in a Civil Court, if the mode of redress 
 for all officers and soldiers who conceive themselves 
 iniured bv their Commanding Officer lie not sufficient. 
 
 It is declared by the Articles of War that " no officer 
 commanding a guard, or Provost-marshal, shall re-
 
 ARRICK PROJECTILE. 
 
 88 
 
 ARROW-POISONS. 
 
 fuse to receive or keep any prisoner commiltcd^o bis 
 charge by any officer beloiiirinjr to the forces of the 
 United Slates: pro\ide<i, the officer committing shall, 
 at the same time, deliver an account in writing, 
 signed by himself, of the crime with which the said 
 prisoner is charged ;" and it is iilso deciared that 
 •• no officer commanding a guard, or Provost-marshal, 
 shall presume to relea.se any prisoner committed to 
 his charge without proper authority for so doing, 
 nor shall he sutler any person to escape, on the pen- 
 alty i)f Ix'ing punished for it by the sentence of a 
 Court-Martial. Kvery officer or Provost-marshal to 
 who.se charge prisoners shall be committed shall, 
 within tweun-four hours after such commitment, or 
 as soon as he shall be relieved from his guard, make 
 report in writing, to the Commanding Officer, of their 
 names, their crimes, and the names of the officers 
 who committed them, on the penalt.y of being pun- 
 ished for disolicdience or neglect, at the discretion of 
 a Court-Martial." Thus the liberty of the citizen un- 
 der military law, so far as is consistent with the ends 
 of justice, seems to be guarded with precautious little 
 inferior to those which secure personal lilxily under 
 the civil laws of the State. The penalty of an officer's 
 lireaking his arrest, or leaving his contincmcnt before 
 he is set at liberty by his Commanding OfUcer, or by 
 a Superior Officer, is declared to be cashiering I>y sen- 
 tence of a General Court-Mailial. A Court-Martial has 
 no control over the nature of the arrest of a prisoner, 
 except as to his personal freedom in Court; the Court 
 cannot, even to facilitate his defense, interfere to 
 cause a close arrest to be enlarged. The officer in 
 command is alone responsible for the prisoners under 
 his charge. Individuals placed in an-est may be re- 
 leased, without being brought before a Court- jiartial. 
 by the authority ordering the arrest or by superior 
 authority. It is not obligatory on the Commander 
 to place an officer in arrest on ajiiilicatiou to that 
 effect from an officer under his command. He will 
 exercise a sound discretion on the subject. But in 
 all applications for redress of supposed grievances in- 
 flicted by a Superior it will be his duty, in case he 
 shall not deem it i^ropcr to order an investigation, to 
 give his reasons, in writing, for declining to act; these 
 reasons, if not satisfactory, the complaining party 
 may, should he think fit so" to do, forward to the next 
 Common Superior, together with a copy of his appli- 
 cation for redress. An officer has no right to demand 
 a Coui-t-JIartial, either on himself or on others; the 
 General-in-Chief or officer competent to order a Court 
 being the judge of its necessity or projiriety. Nor 
 has any officer who may have been placed in arrest 
 any right to demand a trial, or to persist in consider- 
 ing himself tmder arrest, after he shall have been re- 
 leased by proper authority. An officer under arrest 
 will not inake a visit of etiquette to the Commanding 
 Officer or other Superior Officer, or call on him, unless 
 sent for; and in ease of business, lie will make known 
 his oliject in writinL'. It is considered indecorous in 
 an nlliicr in arn-^l to ajipear at public places. 
 
 ARRICK PROJECTILE.— This projectile consists 
 of a cast-iron liody ha\ing a conical base, to which is 
 attached a sabot combined of .ai annular key and a 
 concave and convex disk. Upon discharge, the ring 
 is flattened out against the base of the ijrojeetile, and 
 
 \ fT 
 
 V^ 
 
 Arrick Projectile. 
 
 tflkes the impression of the grooves, communicating 
 rotation to the projectile; at the same time the annu- 
 lar key is driven forward upon the base, filling the 
 space iK'tween the ]irojeeti[e and the lands, and is 
 claimed to center the base of the projectile. The 
 sabot is prevented from turning on the projectile by 
 
 a series of flanges cast on the base, which fit into 
 rece.s.ses on the sabot, and from stripping I>v means of 
 a strong bolt screwed into the base of the shot. See 
 A'.r;xi iiiiing Prujeetiks. 
 
 ARROW.— 1. In fortification, a work placed at the 
 .salient angles of the gliicis, communicating with the 
 covered-way. 2. A missile weapon of defense, 
 straight, slender, pointed, and barbed, to be ^ot with 
 a bow. See ,!;•<■/(( /•.». 
 
 ARROW-POISONS.— The ingredients selected for 
 the preparation of toxic compounds vary greatly in 
 different localities, vegetal jjoisons iiredominatiug in 
 the warmer regions, while the organic are preferred 
 in the colder latitudes. This is attributable to the 
 fact that poisonous plants are scarce in the northern 
 portions of the continents, and that organic poisons de- 
 teriorate rapidlv in the tropics. There are numerous 
 instances also in which the alleged poison is of the 
 most harmless natiue, the belief in its potency being 
 based mainly ujion the amount of dancing and devil- 
 try performed liy an awe-inspiring Shaman. The 
 first grouii, to which reference will fie made, consists 
 of three poisons preimred by the Moqui of Arizona. 
 The first of these is called Tiki le-li-wi — ])oison-oint- 
 ment. Poison given internally to cause death, 
 whether in powder or li<iui(l, has no <lefinite name 
 beyond its being " bad medicine." The " poison-oint- 
 ment" is prepared in thi-^ wise: A rattlesnake is tor- 
 mented until it biles itself, when the Priest of the 
 " Snake Order" dli)s the arrow-point, as well as a 
 short portion of the shaft, into the blood obtained 
 from tlie serpent. It is stateil that a wound from 
 such an arrow will cause death in from three to four 
 days under ordinary circumstances, and in a nuich 
 shorter time if the victim has been fasting for a day 
 or two, a condition in which an Indian is frequently 
 found even in times of peace. The second variety is 
 l)repiired from the hmnble-bee, which, after being 
 maddened by being disturbed in the nest and struck 
 at by withes and branches, is killed. The insects 
 are then gathered and crushed in a primitive stone 
 mortar, where the mass is thoroughly macerated, after 
 which the arrows are anointed in a manner similar 
 to the ])receding. Wounds are not liable to cause 
 dangerous results, although they become exceedinglj' 
 inflamed and very painful, the effects being attril)ut- 
 able to the presence of formic acid. The third ^ ariety 
 is (Prepared by crushing a number of large red ants — 
 a variety found all over the northern elevated area.s — 
 iu a siniilar manner as the preceding, and in which 
 the ;irrows are dipped. This poison is not necessjirily 
 a fatal one, though instances have been given on " In- 
 dian authority." The Indians state that if a man be 
 wounded wilii an arrow freshly poisoned he will be 
 debilitated (after the first symptoms of excitement are 
 o\er), from which he may rot recover for several 
 weeks or perhaps a month. The last two substance 
 7ii;iy 1)C prepared by any one of the tril)e, as they are 
 used in hunting, but the first named is prepared only, 
 as has been stated, by tlie Priest of Tlie Snake Order, 
 and is used in warfare with neighboring Indians only. 
 The Apaches, occui\ving the habitable areas of Ari- 
 zona, immediately south of the 3Ioqui Pueblos, |)re- 
 l>are a poison composed of the venom of the rattle- 
 snake mixed with the decomposed liver of a deer or 
 :intel(>iie. A rattlesnake is searched for at one of the 
 lir:irie-dog towns, and when discovered is si'cured 
 to the ground by means of a forked stick so as to pre- 
 vent its escape and yet not to injure it. An as.sistant 
 then pierces a deer's liver, which has been i)rociueil 
 for the pur]Kise, and upon inserting a short pole, 
 thrusts it towanl the serpent, who repeatedly buries 
 its fangs. In this manner the venom is secured, and 
 when the snake refuses to bile ;(gain it is destroyed. 
 The liver is then placed upon a t;dl. uitright pole, 
 where it is allowed to deeom|iose. after which it i~ 
 crushed in a small dish, when the arrows are dijiped 
 into the mass and allowed to dry. Poisoned arrows 
 are carried in double quivers, and tied together with 
 a black band or piece of cloth to distinguish them
 
 AEBOW-WOOD. 
 
 89 
 
 ABS£NAL 
 
 from hannk'ss ones. Serpent-venom is employed by 
 tlie Siris of western Sonora. After a small excava- 
 tion has Ijcen niaile in the ground a cow's liver is in- 
 troduced together with centipedes, scorpions, and a 
 rattlesn:dic. After teasing these creatuies for a while 
 with the hope that the liver might receive most of 
 the venom discharged during tlieir an^y struggles, it 
 is remove<l and crushed into a jelly, mto which the 
 aiTows are dipped. 
 
 Apache anows which have been properly besmeared 
 with poison are readily distinguished from the ordi- 
 nary weapons by the dark reddish-brown coating over 
 the anterior portion of the sliaft immediately back of 
 the arrow-head. The latter also presents the same 
 appearance at times, though were this tlie only por- 
 tion to which poison had been applied there would 
 be dillicul'y in identification, as the arrow-point-; are 
 generally secured to the end of the shaft by the liberal 
 application of mesquite-gum, after whicli the sinew- 
 threads are apjilied for greater security. The Sho- 
 shone and Bannock Indians of western Xevada pre- 
 pare poison in the following manner: An antelope 
 or a deer is entrapped or caught by wounding it, when 
 a rattlesnake is brought and made to bite it. The an- 
 imal is immediately killed ami the blood collected in 
 a vessel procured for tlie purpose. Into this the ar- 
 rows are dipped and afterward allowed to dry, when 
 they are ready for u-se. It is probable that the snake- 
 venom exerts no influence in this instance, as the 
 amount absorbed into the system of the animal be- 
 tween tlie moments of being bitten and killed would 
 be very slight indeed. The Pah-Utcs, just south of 
 the Shoshones, remove the heart of a large mammal 
 and place it into a corresponding cavity in the ground. 
 Rattlesnake-fangs, with the poison-sacs, are then 
 ground into a pulp, with a horned toad or two, which 
 mass is then emptied into the cavity of the heart and 
 allowed to decompose. The whole mass is said to dry 
 into a tough ma.ss resembling caoutchouc. This is 
 linally cut into small pieces. In poisons prepared by 
 the combination of serpent-venom and decomposed 
 organic matter it is not positively known which, if 
 not both, of the substances acts as the to.xic agent. 
 Cases thus far observed or recorded have resulted in 
 septicemia and death. One in particular, a mere 
 scratch upon the shoulder-blade, died in great misery 
 in less th in a week, though not before the flesh had 
 literally dropped from the back as far down as the 
 hips. It is probable that the septic poison of the or- 
 ganic matter remains active lor a greater period of 
 time than the serpent-venom, being favored by imme- 
 diate dr_\ing in the drier atmosphere of the extreme 
 western plateaus. Dr. S. Wier Jlitchell's experiments 
 do not demonstrate to what length of time serpent- 
 venom may be kept in a dried state and retain its \iru- 
 lence. Tlie active principle (crotaline) may remain 
 active under favorable conditions for an indefinite 
 length of time, but then the symptoms would be ex- 
 hibited in a manner strikingly similar to those after a 
 fresh wound inflicted by the serpent, which thus far 
 has not been obscn-ed. Professor F. V. Hayden and 
 Colonel James Stevenson have both observed the 
 Blackfeet and Assiniboine Indians procure the pure 
 serpent-venom by causing a secured snake to bite a 
 clean piece of bark. The arrows were applied di- 
 rectly to this without the admi.xture of any other sub- 
 stitnces. Curious suixirstitions exist in connection 
 with this strange custom among various tribes. An 
 intelligent SisseTon Dakota states that his father had 
 been a great Shaman in his time and knew all the 
 " secrets of the plants." He had a poison which, if 
 rublK'd upon a bullet, would cause the bullet to strike 
 the desired object if the gun was merely held in the 
 direction without regard to accurate aim. Though, 
 if the hunter had once raised his weapon and failed 
 to shoot, the biUlet would Ije worthless unless agjiin 
 handed to the Shaman. Another mode of preparing 
 bullets was by drilling small holes into them with the 
 point of a kiiife, into which was spread a paste made 
 of the bark-scrapings of the cactus (Opuutia Jfissouri- 
 
 ense). The Pitt River Indians prei>arc, at times, a 
 mixture of the juice of the wild parsnip and the de- 
 composed liver of a dead dog. This is also prac- 
 ticed by neighboring tribes in California, although 
 the custom appears to have originated with the fonner, 
 as far as can be ascertained at this day. Among the 
 southern Esquimaux the bodj- of a dead whaler is cut 
 into small pieces and distributed among his friends 
 who are of the siuiie profession, each of whom, after 
 rubbing the iwint of his lance upon it, dries and pre- 
 serves his piece as a sort of talisman. The Kiatera- 
 mut, a tribe of the s;ime stock, Iwlieve that to be suc- 
 cessful in whale-hunting the body of a whaler must 
 be procured by murdering him, when the fatty por- 
 tions are removed from the body and boiled, carefully 
 skimming off such fragments as may form a scum, 
 which are then allowed to become putrid. The points 
 of the weapons are grca.H'd wirh this sub.stance, which 
 is considered to give them unfailing success in hunt- 
 ing, both afloat and on shore. Numerous substances 
 of a questionable character are found in all trilws, but 
 their elficacy, in the ca.ses for which they are recom- 
 mended, can never be ascertained, as an Indian will 
 not admit a failure so long as he can escape detection. 
 
 ARROW-WOOD.— A speciesof Vibiirnum, from the 
 long straight stems of which the Indians dwelling be- 
 twc'en the Jlississippi and the Pacific make their 
 arrows. 
 
 ARSENAL. — The name given to a great militaiy 
 or naval repository, where the munitions of war are 
 to some extent manufactured, but more particularly 
 stored until required for use. Every dockyard, every 
 magazine, every armory, is to some extent an Arse- 
 nal ; and therefore the meaning of the word is not 
 quite definite. In France, the chief Arsenals are at 
 Cherbourg, Brest, and Toulon. In England, al- 
 though Deptford is a considerable storehouse for 
 navaT clothing and provisions, and Weedon and the 
 Tower great repositories for military stores, the only 
 establishment vast enough to deserve the name of 
 Arsenal is at Woolwich. This is truly a remarkable 
 and important place. In the spring of 1859, when 
 war was raging in Italy lietwecn the French and 
 Sardinians on one side, and the Austrians on the 
 other, and when an uneasy feeling pervaded the 
 whole countiTi-, there were for a short time more 
 than 10,000 men employed in Woohvich Arsenal. 
 There were at that time nearly 12,000 pieces of 
 iron ordnance in store, of wliich 7000 were of 
 modern make and of heavy caliber. This store was 
 supplementary to that which is always kept at the 
 dockyards of "Woolwich, Chatham, Slicerness, Ports- 
 mouth, Plymouth, and Pembroke. There were re- 
 sources at "the Arsenal for bringing forward, fitting, 
 and issuing these reserve guns at the rate of 200 per 
 week, or double this number on an emergency: and 
 many hundreds were within a brief period shi|iped 
 thence, to strengthen the forts in the Jlcditenauean, 
 in the Colonies, and around the coasts. All the shot 
 and shell used down to the ix?riod of the Crimean 
 War were ordered of private makers: but the charge 
 was so enormous during the early months of that war 
 that the government resolved to"try the manufacture 
 at Woolwich: this was done, witli a very manifest 
 saving of expense. It has been calculated that the 
 Arsenal, when at full work, could produce large shot 
 and .shell with six times the rapidity with wliich 
 those missiles were used by the British outside Se- 
 bastopol during the eleven months' siege. These ob- 
 servations do not ajiply to rifles or muskets; none of 
 these weapons are mad"e at Woolwich. There have 
 been times, however, during the year 18o9, when 
 nearlv a hundred million rifle-bullets were in store at 
 the Arsenal. The Arsenal is di\ided into two great 
 sections, of which the one is the depot for the storage 
 of arms and all military equipments, whether for 
 land or naval service: tlie other being occupied by 
 the manufacturing departments. The latter com- 
 prise the Gun Factories, where all cannon are made; 
 the Carriage Departments, for gun-carriages and all
 
 AB8ENIC. 
 
 90 
 
 ARTESIAN WELLS. 
 
 means of tmnsport; and the Laboratory, whence 
 come all cartridges, shot, shell, bullets, and warlike 
 weaixins. 
 
 In the Uniteil States, Armories and Arsenals were 
 not estjiblished until after the Revolutionary War; 
 but powder was manufactured in Virginia in 1776. 
 General Washington chose Springtield. Mass., in 
 1777, as a suitable location tor an Arsenal, and small- 
 arms were raanutactured l>efore 1787: an Arsenal was 
 also built ill Carlisle, Pa., about the s;ime time. The 
 erection of an ^Vrniory was begiui at Harper's Ferry in 
 1795, and Congress onlered three or lour more to be 
 built in the same vear, still more in 1808, and agstin 
 after the War of 1812, Congress adopted the plan of 
 lia\ing an Arsenal in each State. In 1847 the United 
 Stales ha<l 'i Armories and 17 Arsenals; in 1860, 
 23 in all, 9 of which were enlarged during our 
 Civil War, the Springtield Armory alone having ca- 
 pacity to complete 1000 muskets per day. The iate 
 General Hwlman, in connection with the Ordnance 
 Department, made great improvements in the art of 
 casting cannon cooled from within, and the introduc- 
 tion of mammoth grain powder for use in large guns 
 is due to him. Recently it has l)cen decided to con- 
 centrate all manufacture of arms in three or four 
 places, where all the regular operations are to be 
 carried on. 
 
 The Arsenals and Armories now established are as 
 follows, to wit: Beuicia Arsenal, Benicia, Cal.; 
 Kennebec Arsenal, Augusta, Me.; Watertown Arse- 
 nal, Watertown, ila-ss.T Fort Union Arsenal, X. JI.; 
 Springtield Armory, Springtield, Mass.; AVatervliet 
 Arsenal. West Troy, N. Y.; Indianapolis Arsenal, 
 Ind. : Xew' York Xrsenal, Governor's Island, New 
 York Harbor; Pikesnlle ^U-senal, Pikesville, JId. ; 
 Rock Island Arsenal, 111.; Franktord Arsenal, Phila- 
 delphia, Pa. ; San Antonio Arsenal, Tex. ; Washing- 
 ton Arsenal, Washintgon, D. C. ; Fort Monroe Arsenal, 
 Old Point Comfort, Va.; Augusta Arsenal, Augusta, 
 Ga.; Jefferson Barracks Arsenal, Mo.; Vancouver 
 Arsenal, Vancouver, W. T. ; Allegheny Arsenal. Pitts- 
 burg, Pa. 
 
 The principal manufacturing operations of the 
 Ordnance Department arc now performed at the fol- 
 lowing Arsenals, to wit: Watt'i'town, engaged in the 
 production of sea-coast carriages and projectiles for 
 lieavy guns; Springfield Armory, in the manufacture 
 of small-arms; Watcrvliet, in' the manufacture of 
 leather-work; Frankford Arsenal, in small-arm am- 
 munition; and Fort Monroe Arsenal, in sea -coast car- 
 riages and on experimental duties. The remaining 
 Arsenals are either engaged in small repairs or arc 
 simply storage-depots for the care and preservation, 
 issue "and receipt, of ordnance and ordnance-stores. 
 It is believed that, except small-arras and small-arm 
 ammunition, the more important ordnance and ord- 
 nance-stores, more especially those for field and siege 
 artillery, and those to be provided for the use of our 
 sea-coast defenses, such as cannon, heavy sea-coast 
 carriages, projectiles, an<l ammunition, and other 
 stores and appliances for their service and maneuver, 
 also harness and the more elaborate articles of leather- 
 work, should all be made at one grand Arsenal of 
 Construction. Sec Ariimry. 
 
 AESENIC— The name applied in popular language 
 to a well-known poisonous substance, arsenious acid; 
 but. strit-tly speaking, the term is restricted to the 
 metal, of which the symlxil is As and the equivalent is 
 75.0. The metal arsenic is rarely foimd free in nature, 
 but in a state of combination it occurs largely. 
 The metal is generally jirciiared from arsenious acid 
 (AsOi) by mixing it with iis own weight of charcoal, 
 placing the mixture in a well-covered crucible, and 
 subjecting the whole to heat, when the metal set free 
 by the charcoal rises, and condenses in the upper part 
 or cover of the crucible. Metallic arsenic is very 
 brittle, can easily be reduced to powder by hammer- 
 ing, or even pounding in a mortar; and when a fresh- 
 ly "cut surface is examined, it |)resents u brilliant dark 
 ateel-gray luster, which, however, readily tarnishes 
 
 on exposure to the air. Tlie met;il, as such, is not con- 
 sidered poisonous; but when introduced into the 
 animal system, it is there faintly acted upon by the 
 juices, and in part dissolved, at "the siune time exhibit- 
 nig poisonous properties. When heated in the open air, 
 it burns with a peculiar bluish liame, and emits a 
 characteristic alliaceous odor. The only use to which 
 the metal ai-scnic isajiplied in thciirls is in the manu- 
 facture of leaden shot of the various .sizes, when its 
 presence in small quantity in the lead renders the lat- 
 ter much more brittle than it ordinarily is. Of all the 
 eomiiounds of arsenic the most important is the one 
 already alluded to, viz., arsenious acid, which is an 
 oxide of arsenic. With sidi)liur, arsenic forms two 
 iin|iortaut compoimds: realyar (AsSji, a red, trans- 
 parent, and brittle substance, wliich is emjiloyed in 
 the manufacture of the .signal-liirht called White Iiulitiii 
 Fire; and orpimcnt (AsSai or kinf/'n i/il/oir, n cheap 
 pigment of a yellow color. With hydrogen, arsenic 
 forms arseniuretted hydrogen (AsHs), a very poison- 
 ous iras. 
 
 ARTESIAN ■WELLS.— The Artesian Well so fre- 
 quenlly sunk by the Jlilitarj' Engineer has of late 
 been the subject of .several .special re])orts from the 
 office of the Chief of Ordnance, United States Army. 
 Usually they are perpendicular borings into the 
 ground, through which water rises, from various 
 depths, according to circumstances, above the surface 
 of the soil. The possibility of obtaining water in this 
 way in a particular district depends on its geological 
 structure. All rocks contain more or less water. 
 Arenaceous rocks receive water mechanically, and ac- 
 cording to their compactness and purity part with a 
 larger or .smaller proportion of it. A cubic yard of 
 pure sea-sand can contain, in addition to the quantity 
 of drj- sand which occupies that space, about one 
 third of its bulk of water. It would part with near- 
 ly the whole of this into a well sunk in it, and regu- 
 larly pumped from. Chalk and -j'.her rocks, com- 
 pascd of fine particles, closely compacted together, 
 contain as large a proportion of water. From the ex- 
 istence, however, of numerous crevices in chalk 
 through which the water freely flows, and from the 
 general presence of a larger quantity of water than 
 the porous I'ock is able to retain, wells sunk in chalk 
 often yield water. There is yet a third class of rocks, 
 which are perfectly impervious to water : such are 
 clays, which arc absolutely retentive, neither allowing 
 water to be obtained from them nor to pa.ss through 
 them. When such rocks occur in basins in alterqat- 
 ing layers, and in such order that pernous beds are 
 inserted between imper\nous ones, it ise\ident that if 
 a perforation is made through the retentive barrier- 
 bed in the lower portion of the basin, the water con- 
 tained in the water-logged strata will rise through the 
 bore to a height depending upon the jiressure of water 
 which has accumulated in the confined skiping sjiace 
 between the two inipeiwious beds. Theie is a luim- 
 ber of porous beds composing the cretaceous meas- 
 ures, resting on the impervious gault, and these, 
 again, are covered by the equallj- impervious series 
 ot the London clay, which form the strata on the 
 surface, and extenil to a considerable deiitli. The 
 edges of the clialk-lieds are largely exiiosi'il in the 
 higher grounds around London; the water falling 
 on the whole area of these exposed edges, sinks into 
 the more or less porous cretaceous beds, and would, 
 in coui'se of time, by continued accessions, till up 
 the basin, were it not prevented by the clay above. 
 By driving a liore through this superior bed. the 
 inferior waterlogged strata are reached, and the 
 subterranean water rises to the siu'face. and tiows 
 continuously, by means of hydrostatic pressure. 
 Many such Wells exist in London and its vicinity; 
 those which form the ornamental foinitains in Trafal- 
 gar Scjuare descend into the upper chalk to a depth 
 of 393 feet. The most famous Artesian Well, per- 
 haps, is that of Grenelle. in the out.skirt.s of Paris, 
 where the water is brought from the gault at a depth 
 of 1798 feet.
 
 AETESIAK WELLS. 
 
 91 
 
 ARTESIAN WELLS 
 
 In California, Colorado, Idaho, and other Western 
 Stat&s, wells are largely used for irrigation, and for 
 supplying water at ililitar)' Posts, inasmuch as there 
 are no rain.s, during certain seasons, in those localities. 
 There are over 1000 of these wells in California alone, 
 most of which are tio-n-ing. Since 1855, there have 
 been 76 flowing wells sunk in the Desert of Sahara, 
 Africa, yielding over 18,000,000 gallons of water daily. 
 Since tlien, a beautiful oasis has lieen formed around 
 each well, liter.iil/ "making the desert to blossom as a 
 rose." 
 
 In 1851 London had ^\j-tesian Wells that supplied 
 over l-.>,000,000 gallons of water daily. The well at 
 Trafalsrar Sqtiare, 393 feet deep, is said to yield 600,- 
 000 gallons of water per day. One at the Grovemment 
 Works in Orange Street yields a larger amount. 
 Hughes writes that a well at Woolwich, 580 feet deep, 
 j.islds 1,400,000 imperial gallons in 24 hours, and an- 
 other near Loudon, oijly 171 feet deep, yields nearly 
 2,500,000 gallons per dav. Wells in tlie counts* of 
 Kent, near London, in 1867 furnished 7,000,000" g'll- 
 lons per day, which was distributed to 34,504 hotises 
 with a population of 240,000. In the vear 18.54, the 
 "BootleWell" in Liverpool yielded "1,100,000 gal- 
 lons in 24 hours. 
 
 The following is a synopsis of a few of the most 
 noted deep wells: 
 
 Wells. 
 
 Fin- 
 ished. 
 
 Depth 
 
 in 
 feet. 
 
 Capacity 
 gallons 
 per day. 
 
 
 1841 
 1860 
 1850 
 
 1875 
 1880 
 
 1.792 
 2.000 
 
 1.8781^ 
 4.170 
 8.199 
 3.843m; 
 8.0ti« ' 
 1.900 
 440 
 
 6.30 
 
 438 
 
 206 
 
 1,110 
 
 35 
 
 500.000 
 
 Passev, France 
 
 a R^uinon 
 
 
 1 s i 
 
 Spermberg. Prussia 
 
 Belcher's Sugar-house. St. Louis 
 Insane Asylum. St. Louis 
 
 
 Near Lake Charles. Louisiana. . . 
 
 93,600 
 
 Charleston, South Carolina 
 
 New Orleans. Louisiana 
 
 United States Mint. Philadelphia 
 Continental Hotel. Phila.lelphia. 
 
 Citv of Waukegan. Illinois 
 
 National Rubber Co., Bristol R. I. 
 
 90,000 
 
 73,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 The Pierce Well-Excavator Company, Xew York, 
 are the contractors with the United State* Govorn- 
 
 socket of a new pattern. A double reamer is some- 
 times used with the drilling-machine, for straigliten- 
 ing crooked holes, but the rtamer shown in Fig. 2 
 is most commonly used for trimming a flat liole and 
 making it round and straight. Fig. 3 represents a 
 wedge or club bit, also used for drilling hard rock. 
 The Z-ltit, Fig. 4, is a combined wedge bit, reamer 
 and double reamer, and with it all the different kinds 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 of work can be done, i.e., drilling rock, earth or sand, 
 and crooked or flat boles can be made straight and 
 round with it. The rods break in drilling, and for 
 raising the portions broken off various ingenious de 
 vices, known as slip-socketx, horn-sockets, jnn-tmckets, 
 grabs, rojie-spears, ro]>e-knire^, rope-grtibs, boot-jacks, 
 etc., have been contrived. The dip-mcket, shown in 
 Fig. 5, and the grabs, shown in Fig. 6, are most com- 
 monly u.sed as tishing-tools for recovering bits, drill- 
 ing-tools, bars of iron, or other things that might acci- 
 dentally or carelessly l)e dropped or lost in the drilled 
 hole. The success of an Artesian Well depends much 
 upon the proper selection of pipe for the well-tubing. 
 Heavy lap-welded wrought-iron pipe, /j inch thick, 
 with screw and collar connections, is best adapted 
 to Artesian Well work. This pipe is used to drive 
 throui:li sanil, clay, i>r other earth formations tmtil 
 
 ment, and are at present sinking a deep well at Da- I 
 vid's Island, New York Harbor. After noticing the 
 important details of the well-boring machinery, we 
 ^^^ll Virieliy describe the manner in which this Com- j 
 pany drills an Artesian Well. Before designing and 
 intro<lucing their highly improved machinery, Arte- 
 .aian Wells in this country were sunk with what is^ 
 termed walkiug-ljeam machines — that is, such ma- T 
 chines as have been and are now used in the oil rc- 
 
 solid rock is reached; the drilling is then continued 
 in the rock, no pipe being required. ^Vll other pipe, 
 usually ^ inch thick, is "used for casing wells after 
 they have been drilled to the required depth and it is 
 necessary to case off salt or mineral waters. Fig. 7. 
 shows a" cement or lerra-cotta pipe or tile that is 
 used in bored wells. These pipes are one to two 
 inches thick, and can be had in almost all countries 
 from 2 to 30 inches in diameter. For bored vella 8 
 
 Fio. 6. 
 
 gions of Pennsylvania for drilling oil-wells. Such an 
 apparatus weighs from 15 to 20 tons. The derrick is 
 usually built 72 feet high. An engine and boiler of 
 about 15 to 20 horse-power is requiretl to operate such 
 a machine. The derrick must be built and taken 
 down for every well. Setting up a walldug-beam 
 machine and getting ready to work requires the labor 
 of four men from two to tAree weeks to build the 
 tower, set the engine and boiler, and get ready for 
 work. 
 In the following drawing. Fig. 1 shows a rope- 
 
 to 12 inches internal diameter is preferable. The 
 joints can be made water-tight by using hydraulic 
 cement, antl by this means brackish or surface water 
 and foul drainage can be entirely avoided , which is 
 of vast importance in most places, often preventing 
 sickness and many fatal diseases. Fig. 8 represents 
 a style of pimcheil, rolled and titled sheets of iron, 
 that can be used to advantage for well-casing, water- 
 pipes, and many other i)urpo.ses. Thus is a desirable 
 style when transportation is an object, as the piping 
 can, in all sizes of common or ^vanized iron, be
 
 ASTE8IAN WILLS. 
 
 92 
 
 ARTXSIAN WELLS. 
 
 nested ami packed very close, in rolls weigliins; from 
 100 to 3(K) pounds, and" fitted eitlier with tliinse^ sleeve 
 and nipple, or lug slip joints. Wlieu it is desired to 
 use wood easing for drilk'd wells it is well to make 
 tlie strips quite narrow, and if the casing is to Ik- 
 driven verj- hard it will facilitate the work by putting 
 n hoop around the bottom or making a sheet-iron 
 
 the jack. Care must be taken to set the drill-jack 
 so that when the drill, etc., are hung up on the 
 machine they will hang parallel with the mast. Use 
 the longest piece of tumbling rod on the ground ne.xt 
 to thehoi-sc-power. This can lie laid over two stakes 
 driven in the ground crosswise, thus: X, or on a 
 block of wood near the center joint. This lies about 
 
 
 band, 4 or (j inches wide, and riveting it around the 
 bottom section to prevent jamming or spreading. 
 
 In drilling the well, we will suppose the earth 
 above the rock to e<|u;d or exceed 50 feet. Having 
 located the site, set the drill-jafk and horsepower in 
 pijsitioii, as shown in the accompanyir.ir engraving. 
 The horse-power may be used ou either side of 
 
 four inches from the ground. Before attaching the 
 horses the bull-wheel should be turned overwitli the 
 cogs upward, and every cog on the large bull-\\ heel 
 ing should be rubbed full of soft tallow or common 
 a.xle-grease. Stake the horse-power down very linn 
 and solid, attach the hoi-ses to the horse-power, and 
 walk them aroimd it for half an hour, or until they 
 get accustomed to the motion of the jiower and to 
 walking in a circle. Isext attach the tumbling-rods, 
 start the horses very slow and steady until thev get 
 used to the revolving of the tinnbling-rods and the 
 main shaft of the machine, then pass ihe diill-rope from 
 the .sj.ool down under the roller at the foot of the mast, 
 then through the pulley of the dri'l-lever, then over 
 the top ot mast-pulley and down to the ground. 
 Screw the Z-bit into the auger-stem, to which 
 
 Fig, 1. 
 
 Via. 8. 
 
 also screw the rope-socket, tie the end of the rope very 
 securely into the rope-.socket, ])lace the crank on the 
 ratchet-wheel shaft, and wind tlie tools u]) so they will 
 swing above the ground. Oil every jniUey, join-iial, or 
 bearing abo\it the machine, where there is any fric- 
 tion; also every link in the winding-chain. The pul- 
 ley in Ihe mast head and the pinion-wheels of the 
 lor.se-power should be well oiled every two or three 
 hours. When the well is to l)e drilled through earth, 
 throw out alxnit one foot in depth wilh a shovel. If 
 the ground is frozen this can be done with a drill, 
 the same as if rock. Throw two buckets of water iu 
 the hole. Put the swiveleil pulley on Ihe drill-lever 
 at the hole nearest to Ihe from of ihe machine, .so as 
 to get the shortest stroke in starling. Lei the horses 
 walk aroimd slowly and steadily at tirst, then push 
 the lever-catch shifter at the left-hand side of Ihe bot- 
 tom of the machine. This will release the drill-lever, 
 and Ihe drill will work up and down. 
 
 Theman in charge of the machine must turn the 
 drill aroun<l about one tiflh of a revolution every 
 stroke. As Ihi- drill chcips the clay or earth, ancl 
 ndxes il into the cDnsislency of mush or soft mud, 
 the drill can be lowered gradually by raising the pawl 
 of the ratchet-wheel. Let the ratchet-wheel move
 
 ARTICLES OF WAR. 
 
 93 
 
 ARTICLES OF WAR. 
 
 one notch at a time, as one notch of tlie ratchet-wheel 
 allows the tirill to settle about an eighth of an inch. 
 After tlic drill has workeil down about two feet, 
 the lever-catch shifter at the left-hand side of the 
 machine is then raised and drawn forwanl with the 
 left foot. This causes the catch to hold the diill- 
 lever do^l^n, and the churning motion of the drill is 
 stopped. Then throw the clutch-lever (on the left- 
 hand side of the jack) outward from the machine; 
 this throws the clutch in gear, and the drilling-tools 
 are raised from the well. When the tuol-; are raised 
 to a proper height and out of the hole, throw the 
 clutch out ami let a .Siuid-pump down to the bot- 
 tom of the liole, and churn up and down very qiuckly, 
 about four inches, twenty times. This will fill the 
 sand-pump. Then bear down on the belt-tightener 
 and the machine will raise the Siind-pum]] out. Re- 
 peat this two or three times, then throw in two more 
 buckets of water. Let the drill down in the hole by 
 raising the pawl of the ratchet-wheel tip hard against 
 the rim of the ratchet-wheel, to let the ratchet-wheel 
 turn by friction against the arm of the pawl. This 
 lets the drill down to the bottom of the hole. Then 
 continue the churning of the drill as before. Every 
 time the hole is sand-pumped more water should be 
 thrown in. After a depth of ten feet is drilled, four 
 feet in depth of water ma)' be kept in the hole. 
 
 The drilling may be continued in this manner 
 imtil the rock, gravel, or quicksand is reached. If 
 the latter (ills the hole a.s fa.st as taken out, a tube can 
 be made out of boards 6 inches in 
 diameter for very short distances, 
 or piping can be used, where the 
 depth of gravel , etc. , above the rock 
 is more than 25 feet. This is placed 
 in the drilled hole, and driven 
 down through the stratum of sand 
 or gravel bj- using the auger-stem 
 (or drill-rod) for ;i driver. A hole 
 7 or 8 inches in diameter can be 
 easily drilled in earth with a 6-inch 
 Z-bit, by using plenty of water and 
 swaWng the drill-rope a little each 
 way as the drill makes its down- 
 ward stroke. When the rock is 
 reached the hole can be cleaned 
 otit with the sand-pump, and the 
 hcile is of proper size to guide the 
 tocils in drilling the rock. The 
 drilling can then be continued to 
 any required djpth, care being 
 taken to keep the bit an eighth of 
 an inch smaller than the internal 
 diameter of the pipe. The process 
 of drilling in solid rock is very 
 simple, care only being taken to 
 keep the drill-bit full size, not feed- 
 ing the drill down too fast, keeping 
 the rope tight, and drilling on what 
 is called tLie "spring of the rope," 
 thus making a straight hole. Have 
 3 to 6 feet of water in the hole while drilling, turn 
 the drill si.\ to eight times in one direction, about one 
 fifth of a revolution each stroke, then backward to 
 cause the drill to cut a round hole. 
 
 In drilling wells for water, where 5 to 10 bar- 
 rels of water per day is recpiired, it is usually neces- 
 Siirj- to continue the drilling tmtil there is from 10 to 
 20 feet of water in the drillecl hole. If oO or 100 barrels 
 of water per day is needed, usually a depth of 30 or 40 
 feet of water will furnish the required amount. The 
 capacity of the well can be tested with the machine 
 any time by the use of the sand-|iump, as it can bo 
 filled and emptied three to four times per minute; it 
 holds from three to five gallons of water, and a con- 
 tinued use of same for one or two hours will show 
 the capacity of well. If it rims into the well as fast as 
 taken out, it will not be necessary to continue the 
 drilling any farther. For prospecting for mineral, 
 oil, or coal, the drilling may be continued if there 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 should be 100 to 500 feet of water in the hole. The 
 drilling is done the siime as if there was no water, 
 with the advantage that it is not neces.sary to throw 
 any in the hole. The sand-pump works the same 
 in a great depth of water as it would if there was but 
 6 feet of water. If it is desired or necessary to make 
 the well as economically as possible, "pipe can 
 be used, made of sheet-iron about ,',; inch in thick- 
 ness, a half-inch smaller than the drilleil hole. This 
 usually costs, or can be made, for 20 cents or 30 cents 
 per foot. This pipe is used by placing it in the hole, 
 so the bottom end of it will come about 4 feet below 
 the bottom of the hea\'y pipe that wa.s first used. If 
 it is necessary to shut off sand, the bottom end of this 
 pipe may be flanged outward a little, and a few 
 buckets of cement thrown down outside of the pipe, 
 which settles around the pipe above the flange, and 
 the result is that a water-tight connection is made 
 with the rock. This effectually shuts off all surface- 
 water or sand. The drilling can be commenced in 
 the bottom of an old well, without removing the 
 stones, or interfering with the walls, or getting into 
 the well, in which ca.se a common scjuare wood box. 
 6 inches inside, can be used in the bottom of an old 
 well for a guide to start the tools straight. If this 
 machine is used, it is not advisable to use an excava- 
 tor or boring tools in earth above the rock, as this 
 machine will drill in earth as rapidly as boring can 
 be done with the excavator or borer. 
 
 An enlarged view of the well-auger inventetl and 
 used by the Pierce ^^'ell-Excavator Company is 
 shown in Fig. 9. The most practical size is 12 to 
 IT inches in diameter, and ^ilh reamer attachment 
 will bore a 24- to 30-inch hole. The peculiar shape 
 and construction of this patent borer enables it to 
 bore through frozen ground, hard-[ian, ^. "^late, as 
 well as clay and gravel. Side-draught is impossible. 
 The cutters penetrate with a draw-cut, making a 
 straight hole. The outer corners of the cutters being 
 farthest from the center, no friction can come upon the 
 sides of the borer. The pods or barrel of the auger 
 being 2 inches less in diameter than the cutters, air 
 and water pass I)ehind them, avoifling suction when 
 raising the borer from the well. This borer has all 
 the combined advantages of a claj'- and boulder- 
 auger, as it will take up stones half as large as the 
 diameter of the hole, and wellj can be put in without 
 the aid of other tools or attachments for boring. All 
 of the above points are essential in a successful well- 
 boring tool. Before the invention of these augers, 
 borers were made for the same purpose, constructed 
 in such a manner that when fillecl with earth the hole 
 was entirely filled, and they could not be withdrawn 
 without great suction, as the air and water could not 
 pass below the auger when withdrawing it from the 
 hole. Pijies and tubes have been used for air-pas- 
 sages in earth-borers, but they were failures, as they 
 became cloirfrt.il with mud. See WtU-horinfi. 
 
 ARTICLES OF WAR.— There can be no doubt that 
 the prerogative to command and reuulatc the whole 
 military force of the kingdom, whether consisting of 
 the feudal tenants, or of the militia, or of paid troops, 
 resided in the Crown of England. Nevertheless the 
 power of the Sovereign was restricted by a provision 
 that he should exercise his military jurisdiction only 
 " according to the laws and usages of the realm." In 
 the reign of Edward VI., however. Parliament as- 
 serted authority over military matters by passing an 
 act for the government of the army; various offenses, 
 its losing, selling, or fraudulently exchanging horses 
 or armor; desertion; detaining the pay of soldiers; 
 and taking rewards for granting them discharges, 
 were put under the jurisdiction of the Civil Magis- 
 trate. It was also pro%-ided that the Act should be 
 read once a month by every Field-Ofiicer to the sol- 
 diers under his command, and once a (piarter by the 
 Grovernor or Captain of evcrj' garrison or fortress. 
 At this period, however, there was no standing army, 
 the feudal system was still in force, every man in the 
 reahn was more or less a soldier; military law was ac-
 
 ARTICLES OF WAB. 
 
 94 
 
 AKTICLES OF WAH. 
 
 cordindv restricted to such persons as were actually 
 serving in the field, the process of ciWl judicature 
 being obviously inapplicable to their case— but di- 
 rectly the soldier ceiLsed to belong to the force in 
 actual campaign, the civil jwwer stepped in and 
 claimed cognizjuice of his offenses. 
 
 Until the Civil War in the reign of Charles i., it is 
 probalile that no regular permanent Code of Rules or 
 Articles for enforcing military discipline was in exist- 
 ence; the ruling authority had promulgated its orders 
 for the government and regulation of the army i-.s oc- 
 casion rtHiuired. Each war, each expedition, had its 
 own edict, which fell into disuse again uimn the dis- 
 banding of the army, which inevitably followed the 
 ccssjitiou of hostilities. The experience of ages and 
 the precedents of former wars, therefore, enabled the 
 authorities to frame a-sufticiently comprehensive code 
 in ca.se of need; accordingly, soon after the outbreak 
 of the Civil War, the neces.sities of the case compelled 
 the Parliament to enact Ordinances or Articles of War. 
 The tirst complete " iMwesand Ordiiutufes of Warre" 
 (as he called them) were issued by Essex, the Com- 
 mander-in-Chief of the Parliamentary Army in 1642. 
 These Articles are remarkable and interesting, as un- 
 doubtedly forming the groundwork of those now in 
 use. Two years after the publication of Essex's Ordi- 
 nances, on the marching of the Scottish army into 
 England, soon after the ratitication of the solemn 
 league and covenant, " Articles of War" were issued 
 for its government. These Articles, although very 
 dis-similar to those of Essex, considering that both 
 were in force in the Siiine kinadom at the same time, 
 and were applicable to armies fighting on the Siune side, 
 nevertheless treat mainly of the same offenses. The 
 form of judicature established consisted of two 
 Courts of Justice, called " Councils of War," the one 
 superior and the other inferior. The Superior Court, 
 also called the "Court of War," took cognizance of 
 the more serious offenses, and likewise heard appeals 
 from the decision of the Lower Court, called the 
 "llartial Court." No trace of the constitution of 
 these Courts is now to be found except that "the 
 Judges were sworn to do justice." Within a few 
 months of the promulgation of the latter (August, 
 1644), the .Siime Parliament that was the author of the 
 petition of right pas,scd an ordinance estal)lishing a 
 system of martial law, apiilicable not only to soldiers, 
 but to all persons alike. By this Ordinance, the Earl 
 of Essex, C'a])tain-(ieneral of the parliainenlary forces, 
 together with lifly-six others named therein (among 
 whom were peers, members of the House of Com- 
 mons, gentry, and officers of tlie army), were consti- 
 tuted " Conimissioners," and any twelve of them au- 
 thorized to hear and determine all such causes as 
 "belong to military cosrnizance," according to the 
 Articles mentioneii in the Ordinance, and to proceed 
 to the trial, condemnation, and execution of all offen- 
 ders agaiast the .sjiid Articles, and to inflict upon them 
 such punishment, either by death or otherwise, corjx>- 
 rally, as the said Commissioners, or the major part of 
 them then present, should judge to appertain to jus- 
 tice, according to the measure of the offense. Under 
 cover of this ordinance, which, after one refusal liy 
 the peers, was subseijuently renewed, Parlianieiit 
 proceeded to issue a variety of orders for the conduct 
 of the war and the retrulationof the army; and many 
 persons were tried by Court-Martial and executeil. 
 After the expiration of this last ordinance, the abso- 
 lute executive power, in all matters of military law, 
 fell into the hamls of Cromwell, who claimed it as 
 his right, in virtue of his office of General in (liicf. 
 "The General." says Whitlocke, "sent his order to 
 several garrisons to bold Courts Martial for the punish- 
 ment of soldiers olTeniling against the Articles of War; 
 provided that if any be sentenced to lose life or limb, 
 then they transmit to the Judge-Advocate the ex- 
 aminations and proceedings of the Court-Martial, 
 that the (Jeitrnil'ii pleasure may be known thereon." 
 On one occasion, deeming it necessary, for the s;ike of 
 'discipline, to make an immediate example, Cromwell 
 
 seized several officers with his own hand, called a 
 Court-Martial on the field, condemned them to death, 
 and shot one forthwith at the head of his regiment. 
 It will iluis Ix' seen that the administration of mar- 
 tial law was almost invariably in the hands of the 
 most considemiile power in the State — it alternated 
 between King and Parliament, and between Parlia- 
 ment and Dictator, as each became uppermost in the 
 realm. Vn the restoration of Charles II., the army, 
 with the exception of about five thousand men, con- 
 sisting of General Monk's regiment called "the 
 Coldstream," the first regiment of foot, the roval reg- 
 iment of Horse-Guards, called the " Oxford Ijluesr" 
 and a few other regiments, was disbanded. The 
 force kept on foot was the first permanent military 
 force, or " Standing Army," known in England; and 
 from it the present anny dates its origin. 
 
 A statute [lassed in the reign of Charles II. , enti- 
 tled "An Act for ordering the forces in the several 
 counties of this kingdom^" recites that, "within all 
 his Majesty's realms and dominions, the sole and su- 
 preme power, government, command, and disposi. 
 tion of the militia, and of all forces by .sea and land, 
 and of all forts and places of strength is, an<l by the 
 laws of England ever was, the undoubted right of his 
 Slajesfy, and his royal predecessors, kings and 
 queens of England." With the exception of some 
 slight encroachment on the part of the Crown, ami 
 protests on the part of the Parliament, matters re- 
 mained in very much the same state till the Revolu- 
 tion, at which period military law assinned a perma- 
 nent and definite form, as it now exists. The only 
 allusions to the military jiowcr of the Crown, in the 
 Bill of Rights, are, "that the raising and keeping of a 
 standing army in time of peace, irithmit consent of 
 Ptirliament, is contraiy to law;" and that "subjects, 
 if Protestants, may have arms for their defense, suit- 
 able to their conilition, and as allowed by law. " 
 In the first year, however, of the reign of William 
 and Mary, British regiments, jealous of the supjiosed 
 preference shown by William for his Dutch troojis, 
 mutined at Ipswich. The king supjircssed the mu- 
 tiny with a strong hand, at the same time communi- 
 cating the event to Parliament. Parliament, anxious 
 to devise mesms for the convenient application of a 
 code of laws for the regulation and management of 
 the anny, and at the same time determined to place a 
 check ujion the exercise of the military power of the 
 King, jiassed. on the 3d April. 10S9, for a period of 
 six months only, the first Mutiny Act, the preamble 
 of which is as follows: "Whereas, the raising or 
 kee])ing a standing army within this kingdome, in 
 time of peace, unlesse it be with the consent of Par- 
 lyamenf, is against law; and whereas it is judged nec- 
 essary, by their majestyes and this present paiiya- 
 nient that, during this time of warr. severall of ilie 
 forces which arc now on foote should be continued 
 and others raised, for the .safety of the kingdome, 
 for the common defence of the Protestant religion, 
 and for the reducing of Ireland. And whereas no 
 man can be prejudged of life or limb, or subjected to 
 any kinde of jiunishment liy niartiall law, or in any 
 other manner than by the judgment of his peeres, and 
 according to tlie knowne and established lawes of 
 this realine; yet, nevertheless, it being requisite for 
 retaining sucli forces as are or shall fie raised dur- 
 ing this exigence of affaires in their duty, that an ex- 
 act discipline be observed; and that .soldiers who 
 shall mutiny or stirr up sedition, or who .shall desert 
 their majestye's service, be brought to more exem- 
 plary anil s]ieedy punishment than the usual formes 
 of law will allow." The Act provides for tlieassem- 
 bliui: and constitution of Courts-Martial, for the oath 
 of members, for the punishment of desertion, mulinv, 
 sedition, false musters, etc.; for the regulation of bil- 
 lets; and is ordered to be read at the head of e\ery 
 regiment, troop, or comjiany, at every muster, "that 
 noe soldier may pretend ignorance." No power is, 
 however, reserved to the Sovereign to make Articles 
 of War. This Act was renewed soon after its expira-
 
 ABTICLES OF WAR. 
 
 95 
 
 ABTICLES OF WAS. 
 
 tion; and with Uie exception of aliout three years only, 
 \iz., from 10th April, 1698, to 20th February, 170"l, 
 has been annually re-enactefl (with many alterations 
 and amendments) ever since. 
 
 Under the Constitution of the United States, Con- 
 aress onlj' can make rules of goyemment and regula- 
 tion for the land forces, and those rules, commonly 
 called Articles of War. were originally borrowed 
 jointly from the English Mutiny Act annually passed 
 by Parliament, and their Articles of War e-itablished 
 by the king. The existing Articles for the govern- 
 ment of the army of the United States, enacted April 
 10, 1806, are substantially the same as those origi- 
 nally borrowed July 30, 1775, and enlarged by the 
 old Congreas from the same sources, September 20, 
 1776. The Act consists of but three sections. The 
 first declares: "The following shall be the Rules 
 and Articles by which the armies of the United 
 States shall be governed;" and gives one hundred and 
 one articles, all noticed in these pages. Each Article 
 is confined, in express terms, to the persons compos- 
 ing the army. The second section contams the only 
 exception in the cases as follows: " In time of war, 
 all persons not citizens of, or owing allegiance to, 
 the United States of America who shall be found 
 lurking, as spies, in or about the fortifications or en- 
 campments of the annies of the United States, or any 
 of them, shall suffer death, according to the hno and 
 •usage of nations, by sentence of a General Court-ilar- 
 tial." The third section merely repeals the previ- 
 ous Act for governing the army. The Articles of 
 War, therefore, are, and under the Constitution of 
 the United States can be, nothing more than a code 
 for the government and regulation of the army. Or, 
 in other words, within the United States these Arti- 
 cles are ' ' a system of rules superadded to the common 
 law for regulating the citizen in his character of a 
 soldier, " and applicable to no other citizens. Beyond 
 the United States another code is essential ; for al- 
 though armies take with them the Rules and Articles 
 of War, and the custom of war in like cases, in a 
 foreign country the .soldier must be tried \r; some 
 tribunal for offen.ses which at home would be pun- 
 ishable by the ordinary courts of law. It is impo.ssi- 
 ble to subject him to any foreign dominion, and 
 hence, in the absence of rules made b.y Congress for 
 the government of the army under such circumstances, 
 the will of the Commander of the Troops, ex necessitate 
 rei, takes the place of law, and the declaration of his 
 will is called ilartial Law. The most casual reader of 
 our Articles of War will be struck by the fact that 
 whereas the Mutiny Act of Great Britain is annually 
 subjected to the supervision of Parliament, and al- 
 tered or modified according to circumstances, yet the 
 Rules and Articles of War pa.ssed in 1806 have re- 
 mained upon our statute-Vwok from that day to the 
 present without any general revision. Another fact 
 equally important is that while the king of Great 
 Britain not onlj- commands but gocerns fhe British 
 army, and therefore modifies the government of the 
 army at his pleasiue, the President of the Unitetl 
 States is simply the Commander of our army, under 
 such rules for raising, supporting, governing, and 
 regulating it as Congress may appoint. The neces- 
 sity of attention to the military establishment on the 
 part of Congress is therefore manifest, and it is most 
 earnestly to Ix.' hoped that, in their wisdom, they will, 
 at some early day, fulfill their constitutional obligations 
 of raising, governing, and regulating armies: 1. By 
 establishing' a system of reci-uiting which will bring 
 into the ranks soldiers who will make good officers; 
 
 2. By pro\nding that all commissioned otlicers shall 
 be appointed from enlisted soldiers, or from military 
 academies, and making rules precisely regulating the 
 manner in which such appointments "shall be made; 
 
 3. In making rules for a system of promotion partly 
 by seniority and partly by merit; 4. In passing other 
 remunerative laws, such as prize-money, field-allow- 
 ances, indenmification for losses, etc.: 5. In accu- 
 rately defining the powers, rights, and duties of all 
 
 oflicers and soldiers; 6. In providing remedies for 
 wrongs, including appeals to federal civil courts, to 
 determine the true exposition of militarj' laws in dis- 
 pute; and 7. In revising the penal code, and better 
 adapting it to a system of government which will pro- 
 vide rewards for good conduct, and not simply i)un- 
 ishments for bad. 
 
 The Armies of the United States are governed by 
 the following Rules and Articles. The word otflcer, 
 as used therein, is understood to designate commis- 
 sioned officers; the word soldier is understood to in- 
 clude non-commissioned officers, musicians, artificers, 
 and privates, and other enlisted men, ai;d the convic- 
 tions mx^ntioned therein are understood to be convic- 
 tions by Court- Martial. 
 
 Aktici-e 1. Every officer now in the Army of the 
 United States shall, within six months from the pass- 
 ing of this Act, and every officer hereafter appointed 
 shall, before he enters ujwn the duties of his office, 
 subscribe these Rules and Articles. 
 
 Art. 2. These Rules and Articles shall be read to 
 every enlisted man at the time of, or within six days 
 after, his enlistment, and he shall thereupon take an 
 oath or affirmation, in the following form: " I, A. B., 
 do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will bear tnie 
 faith and allesiance to the United States of America; 
 that I will serve them honestly and faithfully against 
 all their enemies whomsoever; and that I will obey 
 the orders of the President of the United States, and 
 the orders of the officers appointed over me, accord- 
 ing to the Rules and Articles of War." This oath may 
 be taken before anj- commissioned officer of the army. 
 
 Art. 8. Every officer who knowingly eidists or 
 musters into the military service anj- minor over the 
 age of sixteen years without the wTitten consent of 
 his parents or guardians, or any minor under the age 
 of sixteen years, or any insane or intoxicated persons, 
 or any deserter from "the military or naval serWce of 
 the United States, or any person who has been con- 
 victed of any infamous criminsil offense, shall, upon 
 conviction, lie dismissed from the service, or suffer 
 such other pimishment as the Court-Martial may 
 direct. 
 
 Art. 4. Xo enlisted man, duly sworn, shall be 
 discharged from the serWce without a discaarge in 
 writing, signed by a field-officer of the regiment to 
 which he belongs, or by the commanding officer 
 when no field-officer is present; and no discharge 
 shall be given to any enlisted man before his term of 
 service h^s exijired, except by order of the President, 
 the Secrctarj- of War, the commanding oflicer of a 
 department, "or by sentence of a General Court- JIariial. 
 
 Art. 5. Any officer who knowinglj- musters as a 
 soldier a person who is not a soldier shall be deemed 
 guilty of knowingly making a false miister, and 
 punished accordingly. 
 
 Art. 6. Any oflicer who takes money, or other 
 thing, by way "of gratification, on mustering any regi- 
 ment, troop^ battery, or company, or on signing 
 muster-rolls, shall be dismis.sed from the service, and 
 shall thereby be disabled to hold any ofiice or em- 
 ploTOieut inthe service of the United States. 
 
 Art. 7. Every officer commanding a regiment, an 
 independent tro"op, batterj-, or company, or a g-arri- 
 .son, shall, in tlie beginning of every month, transmit 
 through the proper channels, to the Department of 
 War, an exact return of the same, specifying the 
 names of the ofticers then absent from their posts, 
 with the reasons for and the time of their absence. 
 And any officer who, through neglect or design, omits 
 to send "such returns shiill, on conviction thereof, be 
 punished as a Court-JIartial may direct. 
 
 Art. 8. Every officer who knowingly makes a false 
 return to the Department of War, or to any of his 
 superior officers authorized to call for such returns, 
 of the stjite of the regiment, troop or company, or 
 g-arrison under his command; or of the arms, am- 
 munition, clothing, or other stores thereunto belong- 
 ing, shall, on conviction thereof before a Court- 
 Jlartial, be cashiered.
 
 ARTICLES OF WAB. 
 
 96 
 
 ARTICLES OF WAB. 
 
 Art. 9. All iniMic stores taken frotii the euemy 
 shall l>e seeureil lor the service of the United States; 
 and for ue.L'lect thereof the commanding ofHcer shall 
 be aiiswerahle. 
 
 AuT. Ul. Everj- officer comniandiiis; a troop, bat- 
 tery, or company is charged with the arms, accouter- 
 ments, amminiition, clothhisr, or other military stores 
 belonirini; to his ccminiuiul, and is accoimlalile to his 
 Colonel in case of their being lost, spoiled, or damaged 
 otherwise than by unavoidable accident, or on actual 
 service. 
 
 Art. 11. Every officer commanding a regiment, or 
 an independent troop, battery, or company, not in the 
 tield. may, wlien actually quartered with such com- 
 mand, grant furloughs to the enlisteel men, in such 
 nmnliers and for such time as he shall deem con- 
 sistent with the good of the service. Every officer 
 commanding a regiment, or au independent troop, 
 battery, or comi)any, in the tield, may grant furloughs 
 not exceeding thirty days at one time, to five per 
 centinn of the eidisted men, for good conduct in the 
 line t)f duty, but subject to the approval of the com- 
 mander of the forces of which said enlisted men form 
 a pari. Every compiiny olticer of a regimcMt, com- 
 manding any troop, battery, or company not in the 
 field, or conimandiug in aiiy garrison, fort, post, or 
 barrack, may, in the absence of his tield-officer, grant 
 furloughs to the eidisied men for a time not exceed- 
 ing twenty days in six months, and i.ot to more than 
 two persons to be absent at the siuue time. 
 
 Art. 12. At everj- muster of a regiment, troop, 
 battery, or company, the conmianding officer thereof 
 shall give to the mustering officer certificates, signed 
 by himself, stating how long absent officers have^Jeen 
 absent and the reasons of their alisence. And the 
 commanding olticer of every troop, battery, or com- 
 pany shall give like cerliticates, stating how long 
 absent non-commissioned officers and private soldiers 
 have been absent and the reasons of their absence. 
 Such reasons and time of absence shall be inserted in 
 the muster-rolls opjiosite the names of the respective 
 absent officers and soldiers, and the certificates, to- 
 gether with the muster-rolls, shall be transmitted liy 
 the mustering officer to the Department of War, as 
 speedily a.s the distance of the place and muster will 
 admit. 
 
 Art. 13. Every officer who signs a false certificate 
 relating to the ai)seuce or pay of an officer or soldier 
 shall be dismissed from the ser\ice. 
 
 Art. 14. Any officer who knowingly makes a fal.se 
 muster of man or horse, or who signs, or directs, or 
 allows the signing of any master-roll knowing the 
 same to contain a false muster, shall, upon proof 
 thereof by two witnesses, before a Court-Martial, be 
 dismissed from the ser\-ice, and shall thereby be dis- 
 able<l to liold .my office or employment in the .service 
 of the United States. 
 
 Art. 1~). Any officer who, willfully or through 
 nejilect. suffers to be lost, spoiled, or "damaged any 
 military stores belonging to the United States shall 
 make good the lo.ss or damage, and be dismissed from 
 the ser\ice. 
 
 Art. 16. Any enlisted man who sells, or willfully 
 or throuiih neglect wastes, the ammunition delivered 
 out to him shall be punished as a Court-.Martial mav 
 direct. 
 
 Art. 17. Any soldier who sells or. through neglect, 
 loses or spoils his horse, anns. clothing, or accouter- 
 ments. shall suffer such stoppages, not exceeding one 
 half of his current iiay, as a Court-Martial mav deem 
 sufficient for repairing the loss or dama'.'c, arid shall 
 be punished by confinement or -luch other corjioral 
 punishment as the Court may direct. 
 
 Art. 1H. Anv officer eominanding in anv garrison, 
 fort, or barracks of the United Slates who. for his 
 private advantage, lays any duty or imposition upon, 
 or is interested in, the sale of any \ictuals, liquors, or 
 other necessaries of lif(; brought into such giuaison, 
 fort, or Iwrracks for the use of the soldiers, shall be 
 dismissed from the service. 
 
 Art. 19. Any officer who uses contemptuous or 
 disrespectful words against the President, the Vice- 
 President, the Congress of the Uinted Stjites, or the 
 Chief Magistrate or legislature of any of the United 
 States in which he is quartered, shall be tlismissed 
 from the service, or otherwise janiished, as a 
 Court-Martial may direct. Anv soldier who so 
 offends shall be punished as a Court Martial may 
 tlirect. 
 
 Art. 20. Any officer or soldier who behaves him- 
 self with disrespect toward his Commanding Officer 
 shall be punished as a Courl-Marlial may direct. 
 
 Art. 21. Any officer or soldier who, on any jire- 
 fense whatsoever, strikes his Superior Officer, or 
 ih'aws or lift.s up any weaiion, ov offers any violence 
 against him, being in the execution of his office, or 
 disobeys any lawful command of his Suiierior Officer, 
 shall suffer death, or such other punishment as a 
 Coiu-t-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 22. Any officer or soldier who begins, excites, 
 causes, or joins in any nuitiny or sedition, in any 
 troop, battery, company, party, post, detachment, or 
 guard, shall suffer de:ith. or such other punishment 
 as a Court-Martial may dirf'ct. 
 
 Art. 23. Any officer or soldier who, being pres- 
 ent at any nmtiny or sedition, does not use his ut- 
 most endeavor to suppress the same, or, having 
 knowledge of any intended mutiny or sedition, 
 docs not, without delay, give information thereof 
 to his Commanding Officer, shall sidTer death, or 
 such other punishment as a Court-Martial may di- 
 rect. 
 
 Aht. 24. All officers, of what condition soever, 
 have power to part and quell all quarrels, frays, and 
 disorders, whether among persons belonging to his 
 own or to another corps, regiment, troop, battery, or 
 company, and to order officers into arrest, and non- 
 commissionetl officers and soldiers into confinement, 
 who take part in the same, until their proper Sujierior 
 Officer is ac<iuaiuted therewith. And whosoever, 
 being so ordered, refuses to obey such officer or non- 
 commissioned officer, or draws a weajjon upon him 
 shall be punished as a Court-JIartial may direct. 
 
 Art. 25. No officer or soldier shall use any re- 
 proachful or provoking sjieeches or gestures to an- 
 other. Any officer who so offends shall be put in ar- 
 rest. Any soldier who so offends shall lie confined, 
 and required to ask jiardon of the party offended, in 
 the presence of his Commanding Ofiicer. 
 
 Art. 26. No officer or soldier shall send a chal- 
 lenge to another officer or soldier to fight a duel, or 
 accept a challenge so .sent. Any officer who so of- 
 fends shall be dismissed from the service. Any sol 
 dier who so offends shall suffer such corporal piinish- 
 mcnt as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 27. An.y officer or nonconunissioned officer, 
 commanding a guard, who, knowingly and willingly, 
 suffers any "person to go forth to fight a duel, shall 
 be punished as a challenger; and all seconds or pro- 
 moters of duels, and carriers of challenges to Sght 
 duels, shall be deemed principals, and punished ac- 
 cordingly. It shall be the duty of any officer com- 
 manding an army, regiment, troo]), l)alterj-, com- 
 pany, post, or detachment, who knows or has reason 
 to believe that a challenge has been criven or ac- 
 cepted bv anv officer or enlisted luan under his com- 
 mand, inimediately to arrest the offender and bring 
 him to tiial. 
 
 Art. 28. Any officer or soldier who upbraids an- 
 other officer or ".soldier for refusing a challenge shall 
 himself be punished as :i challenger; and all officers 
 and .".oldiers are hereby discharged from any disgrace 
 or oianion of disiidvantage which might arise from 
 their having refused to accept challenges, as they 
 will onlv have acted in obedience to the law, and 
 have clone their duty as good soldiers, who subject 
 themselves to discijiline. 
 
 Art. 29. An\' officer who thinks himself wronged 
 bv the commanding officerof his regiment, and, upon 
 diie application to" such commander, is refused re-
 
 AKTICLES OF WAR. 
 
 97 
 
 ARTICLES OF WAR 
 
 dress, may complain to the General commanding in the 
 State or Territory where such re^ment is stationed. 
 The general shall examine into ssiid complaint ami 
 take proper measures for redressing the wrong com- 
 jilained of; and he shall, as soon as possible, trans- 
 mit to the Department of War a true statement of 
 such complaint, with the proceedings had thereon. 
 
 Art. 30. ^Vny soMier who thinks himself wronged 
 by any ollieer may complain to the commanding offi- 
 cer of his regimeiit, who shall summon a Regimental 
 Court-Martial for the doing of justice to the complain- 
 ant. Either parly may ajipeal from such Regimental 
 Court-Martial to a General Court-Martial; but if, upon 
 such second hearing, the appeal appears to be ground- 
 less and \e.\atious, the party appealing shall be ptm- 
 ished at the discretion of s:nd General Couri-Martial. 
 
 Art. 31. Any oflicer or soldier who lies out of his 
 quarters, garrison, or camp, withtxit leave from his 
 sui>erior officer, shall be punished as a Court-JIartial 
 may direct. 
 
 Art. 32. Any .soldier who absents himself from his 
 troop, battery, company, or detachment, without 
 leave from his Commanding Officer, shall be punished 
 as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 33. Any officer or soldier who fails, ex- 
 cept when prevented by sickness or other necessity, 
 to repair, at the fixed time, to the place of parade, 
 e.'cercise, or other rendezvous appointed by his Com- 
 manding Officer, or goes from the same, without 
 leave from his Commanding Officer, before he is dis- 
 missed or relieved, shall belsunished as a Court-Mar- 
 tial may direct. 
 
 Art." 34. Any soldier who is found one mile 
 from camp, without leave in writing from his Com- 
 manding Officer, shall be punished as a Coiut-Martial 
 may direct. 
 
 Art. 35. Any soldier who fails to retire to his 
 q\iarters or tent at the beating of retreat shall be pun- 
 isheil according to the nature of his offense. 
 
 Art. 3G. No soldier belonging to any regiment, 
 troop, battery, or company shall hire another to do 
 his dutj' for him, or be excused from duty, except 
 in CJises of sickness, dis;ibility, or leave of absence. 
 Every such soldier found guilty of hiring his duty, 
 and the persou so hired to do another's duty, shall be 
 punished as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 37. Every non-commissioned officer who con- 
 nives at such hiring of duty shall be reduced. Every 
 officer who knows and allows such practices shall be 
 punishetl as a Court-ilarlial may direct. 
 
 Art. 38. Any offioer who is found drimk on his 
 guard, party, or other duty shall be dismissed from 
 the service. Any soldier who so offends shall suffer 
 such punishment as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 39. Any sentinel who is found sleepuig upon 
 his post, or who leaves it before he is regularly re- 
 lieved, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as 
 a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 40. Any otiicer or soldier wlio ciuits his guard, 
 platoon, or di\ision without leave from his Superior 
 Officer, except in case of urgent necessity, shall be pun- 
 ished as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 41. Any officer who, by any means whatso- 
 ever, ocaisions false alarms in camp, garrison, or 
 quarter*, shall suffer death, or such other punishment 
 as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 42. Any officer or soldier who misbehaves 
 himself before the enemy, runs away, or shamefully 
 abandons anj- fort, post, or guard, which he is com- 
 manded to defend, or speaks words inducing others 
 to do the like, or casts away his arms or ammunition, 
 or <iuits his post or colors to plunder or pillage, shall 
 suffer death, or such other pimishment as a Court- 
 Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 43. If any commander of any garrbon, fort- 
 ress, or post is compelled by the officers and soldiers 
 under his command to give up to the enemy or to 
 abandon it, the officers or soldiers so offending shall 
 suffer death, or such other pimishment as a Courl- 
 Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 44. Any person belonging to the armies of 
 the United States who makes known the watchword 
 to any person not entitled to receive it, according to 
 the rules and discipline of war, or presumes to give 
 a parole or watchword differr'nt from that which he 
 received, shall suffer death, or sucL other punish- 
 ment as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 4-"). Whosoever relieves the enemj- with 
 money, vietuals, or ammunition, or knowingly har- 
 bors or protects an eneni}', shall suffer death, or such 
 other pimishment as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 4(5. Whosoever holds correspondence with, 
 or gives intelligence to, the enemy, either directly or 
 indirectly, shaU suffer death, or such other punish- 
 ment !is a Court- Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 47. Any officer or soldier who, ha\ing re- 
 ceived pay, or having been duly enlisted in the ser- 
 vice of the United States, deserts the same, shall, in 
 time of war, suffer ileath, or such other punishment 
 as a Court-Martial may direct ; and in time of peace, 
 any punishment, excepting death, which a Court- 
 Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 48. Every soldier who deserts the service of 
 the United States shall \x liable to serve for such 
 period as shall, with the time he may have served 
 pre\"ious to his desertion, amount to the full term of 
 Ids enlistment; and such soldier shall be tried by a 
 Court-Martial and punished, although the tenn of 
 his enlistment may have elapsed pre\ious to his Iwing 
 apprehended and tried. 
 
 Art. 49. Any officer who, having tendered his 
 resignation, quits his post or proper duties without 
 leave, and with intent to remain permanently absent 
 therefrom, prior to due notice of the acceptance of 
 the same, shall be deemed and punished as a de- 
 serter. 
 
 Art. 50. Xo non-commissioned officer or soldier 
 shall enlist himself in any other regiment, troop, or 
 company mthout a regular discharge from the regi- 
 ment, troop, or company in which he last sen'ed, on 
 penalty of being reputed a deserter, and suffering 
 accordingly. And in case anj' officer shall know- 
 ingly receive and entertain such non-conunissioned 
 officer or soldier, or shall not. after his being dis- 
 covered to be a deserter, immediately confine him 
 and give notice thereof co the corjis in which he last 
 .served, the s;iid officer shall, by a Coiirt-JIartial, be 
 cashiered. 
 
 Art. 51. Any officer or soldier who advises or 
 persuades any other officer or soldier to desert the 
 service of the United States shall, in time of war, 
 suffer death, or such other punishment as a Court- 
 Martial niiiy direct; and in time of peace, any punish- 
 ment, excepting death, which a Court-Martial may 
 direct. 
 
 Art. 52. It is earnestly recommended to all officers 
 and soldiers diligently to attend divine serWce. Any 
 officer who behaves indecently or irre\ jrently at any 
 place of divine worship shall be brought bofore a 
 General Court-ilartial, there to be publicly and 
 severely reprimanded liy the President thereof. Any 
 soldier who so offends shall, for his first offense, for- 
 feit one sixth of a dollar; for each further offense he 
 shall forfeit a like sum, and shall beconfinol twenty- 
 four houi-s. The monej' so forfeited shall be de- 
 ducted from his next pay, and shall be applied, by 
 the Captain or senior officer of his troop, l)attery, or 
 company, to the use of the sick soldiers of the same. 
 
 Art. 53. Any officer who uses any profane oath 
 or execration shall, for each offense, forfeit and pay 
 one dollar. Any soldier who so offends shall incur 
 the penalties pro\ided in the preceiling Article; and 
 all moneys forfeited for such offenses shall be ap- 
 plied as therein provided. 
 
 Art. 54. Everj' officer commanding in quarters, 
 garrison, or on the march shall keep good onler, and, 
 to the utmost of his power, redress all abuses or dis- 
 orders which may be committed by any officer or 
 soldier under his command ; and if," upon complaint 
 made to him of officers or soldiers beating or other-
 
 &BTICLES OF WAB. 
 
 98 
 
 ABTICLES OF WAB. 
 
 wise ill-treating any person, disturbing fairs, or mar- 
 kets, or coininitting any kind of riot, to the disquiet- 
 ing of the citiz.ens of tlic United States, he refuses or 
 omits to si-e justice ilone to the offender, and repara- 
 'ion made to the party injured, so far as jtart of the 
 offender's pay shall go toward such reparation, he 
 shall be dismissed from the service, or otherwise 
 ptinished its a Court-Martini may direct. 
 
 Akt. '>'i. All otlicers and soldiers are to behave 
 themselves orderly in quarters and on the march ; 
 and whoever commits any waste or spoil, either in 
 walks or trees, parks, warrens, lish-ponds, houses, 
 gardens, grain-tieMs, inclosurcs, or meatlows, or 
 maliciously destroys any property wliatsoever belong- 
 ing to inhabitants of the United States (unless by 
 order of a General OtHcer commanding a separate 
 army in the field), shall, besides such penalties as he 
 may be liable to by law, be punished as a Court-Mar- 
 tial ma.v direct. 
 
 Akt. 56. Any offlcer or soldier who ooes violence 
 to any person bringing provisions or other nccessjiries 
 to the camp, garrison, or ipiarters of the forces of the 
 United States in foreign parts shall suffer death, or 
 such other punishment as a Court-JIartial may direct. 
 
 Akt. 57. Whosoever, belonging to the Armies of 
 the United States in foreign parts, or at any place 
 within the United States or their Territories during 
 rebellion against the supreme authoritj' of the United 
 States, forces a safeguard, shall suffer death. 
 
 Art. 58. In time of war, insurrection, or rebel- 
 lion, larceny, robbery, burglary, arson, mayhem, 
 manslaughter, murder, as.sault and battery with an 
 intent to kill, wounding, by shooting or stabbing, 
 with an intent to commit murder, rape, or assault 
 and battery with an intent to commit rape, shall be 
 punishable by the sentence of a General Court-Martial, 
 when committed by persons in the militarj' service of 
 the United States, and the punishment in any such 
 case shall not Ix- less than the pimishment pro\ided 
 for the like offense by the laws of the State, Terri- 
 tory, or District in which such offense may have been 
 committed. 
 
 Abt. 59. When any officer or soldier is accused of 
 a capital crime, or of any offense against the person 
 or property of anj- citizen of any of the United States, 
 wiiich is punishable by the laws of the land, the 
 commanding officer, and the officers of the regiment, 
 troop, battery, company, or detachment to which the 
 person so accused belongs, are required, except in 
 time of war, upon application duly made by or in 
 behalf of the party injured, to use" their utmost en- 
 deavors to deliver him over to the ci\il magistrate, 
 and to aid the officers of justice in aiiprehcnding and 
 securing him, in order to biing him to trial. If, 
 upon such application, any offlcer refuses or willfully 
 neglects, except in time of war, to deliver over such 
 accused person to the civil magistrates, or to aid the 
 officers of justice in apprehending him, he shall be 
 dismissed from the ser\ice. 
 
 Akt. 60. Any person in the military service of the 
 United States who makes or cau.scs to be made any 
 claim against the United States, or anv officer thereof, 
 knowin;: such claim to be false or fraudulent ; or 
 
 AVho presents or causes to be presented to any per- 
 son in the ci\il or military service thereof, for ap- 
 proval or payment, any claim against the United 
 States or any offlcer thereof, knowing such claim to 
 be false or fraudulent ; or 
 
 Who enters iiUo anv agreement or conspiracy to 
 defraud the United States by obtaining, or aiding 
 others to obtain, the allowance or payment of any 
 false or fraudulent claim ; or 
 
 Who. for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding others 
 to ol)tain, the approval, allowance, or pavment of any 
 claim against the United States or jigaiiist any officer 
 thereof, makes or uses, or procures or ad\"ises the 
 making or use of, any writing or other pajier, know- 
 ing the same to contain any false or fraudulent state- 
 ment ; or 
 
 Who, for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding others 
 
 to obtain, the approval, allowance, or payment of 
 any claim agaiast the United Slates or any officer 
 thereof, makes, or procures or ad\ises the making of, 
 any oath to any fact or to any writing or other paper, 
 knowing such oath to be falsi' ; or 
 
 Who, for the imrposeof obtaining, or aiding others 
 to obtain, the ajjproval, allowance, or pajTiient of any 
 claim against the United States or any officer thereof, 
 forges or counterfeits, or proctires or "advises the forg- 
 ing or counterfeiting of, any signature upon any 
 writing or other paper, or uses or procures or ad\ises 
 the use of, any such signature, knowing the sjmie to 
 be forged or counterfeited; or 
 
 Who, ha\ing charge, possession, custody, or con- 
 trol of any money or other projierty of the United 
 States, furnished or intended for the military service 
 thereof, knowingly delivers, or causes to be deliver- 
 ed, to any person having authority to receive the 
 same, any amount thereof less than that for which he 
 receives a eertiticate or receipt; or 
 
 Who, being authorized to make or deliver any paper 
 certifying the receijit of any property of the "United 
 States, furnished or intended for the militarj- service 
 thereof, makes, or delivers to any person, such writing, 
 without ha\ing full knowledge of the truth of the 
 statements therein contained, and with intent to de- 
 fraud the United States; or 
 
 Who steals, embezzles, Iciowingly and willfully 
 misappropriates, a]ii lies to his own use or benefit, or 
 wrongfully or knowingly sells or disposes of any 
 ordnance, arms, equiimients, ammunition, clothing, 
 subsistence-stores, money, or other propertj' of the 
 United States, furnished or intended for the military 
 service thereof; or 
 
 Who knowingly purchases, or receives in pledge 
 for any obligation or indebtedness, from any .soldier, 
 officer, or other person who is a part of or employed 
 in said forces or senice, any ordnance, arms, equip- 
 ments, ammunition, clothing, subsistence-stores, or 
 other property of the United States, such soldier, 
 offlcer, or other person not having lawful right to sell 
 or pledge the same, — 
 
 Shall, on conviction thereof, be punished by fine or 
 imprisonment, or by such other punishment as a 
 Court-iSIartial may adjudge. And if anj- ]>crson, 
 being guilty of any of the offen.ses aforesaid while 
 in the militar}- service of the United States, receives 
 his discharge or is dismissed from the service, he 
 shall continue to be liable to be arrested and held for 
 tiial and sentence by a Court-Martial, in the same 
 manner and to the same extent as if he had not re- 
 ceived such discharge nor been dismissed. 
 
 Akt. 61. Any officer who is con\icted of conduct 
 unbecoming an offlcer and a gentleman shall l)e dis- 
 missed from the service. 
 
 Art. 62. All crimes not capital, and all disorders 
 and neglects, which offlcers and soldiers may be 
 guilty of, to the jirejudice of good order antl military 
 discipline, though not mentioned in the foregoing 
 Articles of War, are to be taken cognizance of by a 
 General or a KegimciUal Garrison, or Field-Offlcers' 
 Coiirt-^Martial, according to the nature and degree of 
 the offense, and punished at the discR'tion of such 
 Court. 
 
 Art. 63. Al\ retainers to the camp, and all persons 
 serving with the Armies of the United States in the 
 field, though not enlisted soldiers, are to be subject to 
 orders, according to the nilcs and discipline of war. 
 
 Art. 64. The offlcers and soldiers of any troops, 
 whether militia or others, mustered and in jiay of the 
 Uiuted States, shall, at all times and in all places, be 
 governed by tlie Articles of War, and shall be subject 
 to be tried by Courts-JIartial. 
 
 Art. 65. Offlcers charged with crime shall be ar- 
 rested and be conlined in their barracks, quarters, or 
 tents, and be deprived of tlieir swords by the Com- 
 manding Officer. And any officer who leaves his con- 
 lincmcnt before he is set at liberty by his Commanding 
 Officer shall be dismissed from the service. 
 
 Art. 66. Soldiers charged with crimes shall be
 
 AETICLES OF WAK. 
 
 99 
 
 ASTICLES OF WAB- 
 
 confined until tried by Coiirt-JIartial or released by 
 proper authority. 
 
 Art. 67. No provost-marshal, or officer command- 
 ing a guard, shall refuse to receive or keep any 
 pri-soner committed to his charge by an officer belong- 
 ing to the forces of the United States; provided the 
 officer committing shall, at the Siime lime, deliver an 
 account in writing, signed by himself, of the crime 
 charged ag-ainst the prisoner. 
 
 Akt. 68. Every officer to whose charge a prisoner 
 is committed shall, within twenty-four hours after 
 such commitment, or as soon as he is relieved from 
 his guard, rejiort in crating, to the Commanding 
 Officer, the name of such prisoner, the crime charged 
 against him, and the name of the officer committing 
 him; and if he fails to make such report, he shall be 
 punished a.s a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 69. Any officer wlio presumes, without proper 
 authority, to release any prisoner committed to his 
 charge, or suffers any prisoner so committed to e-scape, 
 shall be punished as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 Art. 70. No officer or soldier put in arrest shall be 
 continued in continemeut more than eight days, or 
 until such time as a Court-Martial can be assembled. 
 
 Art. 71. When an officer is put in arrest for the 
 purpose of trial, except at remote militarj' posts or 
 stations, the officer by whose order he is arrested shall 
 see that a copy of the charges on which he is to be 
 tried is served upon him within eight days after his 
 arrest, and that he is brought to trial ^ntliin ten days 
 thereafter, unless the necessities of the service prevent 
 such trial; and then he shall lie brought to trial within 
 thirty days after the expiration of s;iid ten days. If 
 a copy of the charges be not served, or the .arrested 
 officer l)e not brought to trial, as herein required, the 
 arrest sliall cease. But officers released from arrest, 
 under the provisions of this Article, may be tried, 
 whenever the exigencies of the senice shall permit, 
 within twelve months after such release from arrest. 
 
 Art. 72. Any General Officer, commanding the 
 Army of the United States, a separate army, or a 
 separate department, shall be competent to appoint 
 a General Court-Martial, either in time of peace or in 
 time of war. But when any such commander is the 
 accuser or pro.secutor of any officer under his com- 
 mand, the Court shall be appointed by the President, 
 and its proceedings and sentence shall be sent directly 
 to the Secretary of War, by whom they shall be laid 
 liefore the President, for lus approval or orr'ers in the 
 case. 
 
 Art. 73. In time of war the commanaer of a 
 division, or of a separate brigade of troops, shall be 
 competent to appoint a General Court-Martial. But 
 when such commander is the accuser or prosecutor 
 of any person under his command, the Court shall be 
 appointed by the next higher commander. 
 
 Art. 74. Officers who may appoint a Court-Martial 
 shall be competent to appoint a Judge- Advocate for 
 the same. 
 
 Art. 75. General Courts-Martial may consist of any 
 number of officers from five to thirteen, inclusive; 
 but they shall not consist of less than thirteen when 
 that number can be convened without manifest injury 
 to the service. 
 
 Art. 76. When the requisite number of officers to 
 form a General Court-Martial is not present in .any 
 post or detachment, the Commanding Officer shall, in 
 cases which reiiuire the cognizance of such a Court, 
 report to the Commanding Officer of the Department, 
 who shall thereupon order a Court to be a.sscmbled 
 at the nearest post or department at which there may 
 be such a requisite number of officers, aud .shall order 
 the party accused, with necessary witnesses, to be 
 transported to the place where the said Court shall be 
 assembled. 
 
 Art. 77. Officers of the Re^lar Army shall not be 
 competent to sit on Courts->I;irtial to trj' the officers 
 or soldiers of other forces, except as provided in 
 Article 78. 
 
 Art. 78. Officers of the Marine Corps, detached 
 
 for service with the Army by order of the President, 
 may be associated with officers of the Regular Army 
 on Courts-Martial for the trial of offenders belonging 
 to the Regular Army, or to forces of the Marine 
 Corps so detached ; and in such cases the orders of 
 the senior officer of either corps, who may be present 
 and duly autliorized, shall be obeyed. 
 
 Art. 79. Officers shall be tried only by General 
 Courts-Martial ; and no officer .shall, when it can be 
 avoided, lie tried by officers inferior to him in rank. 
 
 Art. 80. In time of war a field-officer ma}' be de- 
 tailed in every regiment, to trj' .soldiers thereof for 
 offenses not ca]>ital ; and no soldier, serving with his 
 regiment, shall be tried bv a Regimental or Garrison 
 Court-Martial when a field-officer of his regiment may 
 be so detailed. 
 
 Art. 81. Everj- officer commanding a regiment or 
 corps shall, subject to the provisions of Article 80, 
 be competent to appoint, for his own regiment or 
 corps, Courts-Martial, consisting of three officers, to 
 try ofjfenses not capital. 
 
 Art. 82. Every officer commanding a garrison, 
 fort, or other place, where the troops consist of dif- 
 ferent corps, shall, subject to the provisions of Article 
 80, be competent to Appoint, for such Garrison or 
 other place, Courts-Martial, con.sisting of three officers, 
 to try offenses not capital. 
 
 Art. 83. Regimental and Garrison Courts-Martial, 
 and field-officers detailed to try offenders, shall not 
 have power to try capital cases or commissioned 
 officers, or to inflict a fine exceeding one month's 
 pay, or to imprison or put to hard labor any non- 
 commissioned officer or soldier for a longer time 
 than one month. 
 
 Art. 84. The Judge- Advocate shall administer to 
 each member of the court, before they proceed upon 
 any trial, the following oath, which shall also be 
 taken by all members of regimental and garrison 
 courts-martial: "You, A. B., do swear that you vdW 
 well and truly try and determine, according to evi- 
 dence, the matter now before you, between the United 
 States of America and the prisoner to be tried, and 
 that you v.-i\\ duly administer .jusrice, without par 
 tiality, favor, or affection, according to the provisions 
 of the Rules and Articles for the government of the 
 Armies of the United States, and if any doubt should 
 arise, not explained by said Articles, then according 
 to your conscience, the best of your imderstanding, 
 anil the custom of war in like cases; and you do 
 further swear that you will not divulge the sentence 
 of the Court until it shall be published by the proper 
 authority; neither will you disclose or discover the 
 vote or opinion of any particular memljer of the 
 Court-JIartial, unless required to give c\idence there- 
 of, as a witness, by a Court of Justice, in a due course 
 of law. So help you God." 
 
 Art. 8.5. When the oath has been administered to 
 the members of a Court-Martial, the President of the 
 Court shall administer to the Judge-Advocate, or per- 
 son officiating as such, an oath in the following fonn: 
 " You, A. B., do swear that you will not disclose or 
 discover the vote or opinion of any iiarticular member 
 of the Court-Martial, unless required to give evidence 
 thereof, as a witness, by a Court of Justice, in due 
 course of law; nor divulge the sentence of the Court 
 to any hut the proper authority, until it shall be duly 
 disclosed by the same. So help you God." 
 
 Art. 86. A Court-Martial may punish, at discre- 
 tion, any person who uses any menacing words, 
 signs, or gestures in its presence, or who disturbs its 
 proceedings by any riot or disorder. 
 
 Art. 87. All members of a Court-JIartial are to be- 
 have with decency and calnmess. 
 
 Art. 88. Members of a Court-Martial may be 
 challenged by a prisoner, but only for cause stated 
 to the Court. "The Court shall detciinine the relevancy 
 and validity thereof, and shall not receive a challenge 
 to more than one member at a time. 
 
 Art. 89. When a piisoner, arraigned liefore a Gen- 
 eral Court-Martial, from obstinacy and deliberate de-
 
 ARTICLES OF WAE. 
 
 100 
 
 ARTICLES OF WA^ 
 
 sign stands mute, or answers foreigu to the purpose, 
 tbe Court may proceed to trial and judgment, as if 
 the jirisoner had pleaded not guilty. 
 
 AliT. UO. The .liidiie- Advocate, or some person de- 
 puted tiy him. or liy the General or otticer command- 
 ing the Army, deliiehment. or gamson, shall prose- 
 cute in the name of the United States; but when the 
 prisonei- has made his plea, he shall so far consider 
 himsell' counsel Utv the prisoner as to object to any 
 lewling question to any of the witnesses, and to any 
 question to the prisoner, the answer to which miglJt 
 tend to criminate himself. 
 
 Aut. 91. The depositions of witnesses residing be- 
 yond the limits of the State, Territory, or District in 
 winch any Military Court may be ordered to sit, if 
 taken on reasonable notice to the oiiposite party and 
 duly aulhenticaletl, may be read in evidence before 
 such Court in cases not capital. 
 
 Aut. i)'i. All i>ersons ax ho give evidence before a 
 court-marlial shall be examined on oath, or affirma- 
 tion, in the following form: '■ You swear (or affirm) 
 that the evidence you shall give, in the ca.se now in 
 hearing, shall be the truth, the whole truth, and 
 nothing but the truth. So help you God." 
 
 Abt. 93. A Co\irt-3Iartial shall, for reasonable 
 catise, grant a contiiuiance to cither party, for such a 
 time, and as often, as may appear to be jiist: Pnnided, 
 That if the prisoner be in close contiuemeut, the trial 
 shall not be delayed for a ]ieriod longer than si.My days. 
 
 Art. 94. Proceeding-s qf trials shall be carried on 
 only between the hours of eight in the morning and 
 three in the afternoon, e.\ceiiting in ca.ses which, in 
 the ojiinion of the officer appointing the Court, require 
 immediate example. 
 
 Aut. g.j. Members of a Court-Martial, in giving 
 their votes, shall begin with the yoimgest in com- 
 mission. 
 
 Art. 96. No person shall be sentenced to suffer 
 death except bv the concurrence of two thirds of the 
 members of a General Coin1-Martial, and in the cases 
 herein expressly mentioned. 
 
 Art. 97. No person in tbe military service shall, 
 under the sentence of a Conrt-Martial, be punished by 
 conlinement in a penitentiary imless the offense of 
 which he may be convicted would, by .some statute 
 of the United States, or l)y some statute of the State, 
 Territory, or District in which such oflense may be 
 committed, or by the common laws as the same ex- 
 ists in such State, Territory, or District, subject such 
 convict to such punishment. 
 
 Art. 98. No person in the military service shall be 
 punished by flogging, or by bfixnding, marking, or 
 tattooing on the body. 
 
 Art. 99. No officer shall be discharged or dis- 
 missed from the service except by order of the 
 President, or by sentence of a General Court-JIartial; 
 and ill time of peace no officer shall be dismissed ex- 
 cept in pursiumce of the sentence of a Court-Martial, 
 or ill mitigation thereof. 
 
 Art. IUO. When an officer is dismissed from the 
 service for cowardice or fraud, the sentence shall 
 further direct that the crime, punishnient. name, and 
 place of alKidc of the delinciuenl shall be published in 
 the newsiiapcrs in and about the camp, and in the 
 State from which the olfcnder came, or where he 
 usually resides; and after such imblication it .shall be 
 scandalous for an officer to associate with him. 
 
 Art. 101 . When a Court-Martial suspends an officer 
 from command, it may also suspend his jiay and 
 emoluments for the sjinie time, according to the na- 
 ture of his offense. 
 
 Art. 102. No person shall be tried a second time 
 for the same offense. 
 
 Art. 103. No person shall be liable to be tried and 
 punished by a General Court-^NFartial for an offense 
 which ap))ears to have becncomniillcd iikhc than two 
 years before the issuing of the order for such trial, 
 unless, by rea.soii of having absented himself, or of 
 some other manifest impediment, he shall not have 
 been amenable to justice within that period. 
 
 Art. 104. No sentence of a Court-Martial shall be 
 carried into execution until the whole proceedings 
 shall have been apjiroved by the otticer ordering the 
 Court, or by the officer commanding for the time 
 being. 
 
 Art. 10.5. No sentence of a Court-Martial inflicting 
 the iiunishmeut of death shall be carried into execu- 
 tion until it shall have been contirmed by the Presi- 
 dent; except in the cases of persons convicted, in time 
 of war, as spies, mutineci's, deserters, or murderers, 
 and in the cases of guerrilla marauders convicted, in 
 time of war, of robbery, burghiry, arson, rape, as.siull 
 with intent to commit rjipe, or of violation of the 
 laws and customs of war; and in such accepted cases 
 the sentence of death may be carrieil into execution 
 ujion contirmation by the Commanding General in the 
 Field, or the Commander of the Department, as the 
 case may be. 
 
 Art. 106. In time of peace no sentence of a Court- 
 Martial directing the dismissal of an officer shall be 
 carried into execution until it shall have been con- 
 tinued by the President. 
 
 Art. 107. Nosentenceofa Court-Martial appointed 
 by the commander of a division or of a sejiarate 
 brigade of troops, directing the dismiss;il of an officer, 
 shall be canied into execution until it shall have 
 been continued by the General commanding the Anny 
 in the Field to which the division or brigade belongs. 
 
 Art. 108. No sentence of a Court-Martial, either in 
 time of peace or in time of war, respecting a General 
 Officer, shall be caiTied into execution until it shall 
 have been contirmed by the President. 
 
 Art. 109. All sentences of a CourtiMartial may be 
 continued and carried into execution by the otticer 
 ordering the Court, or by the officer commanding for 
 the time being, where continuation by the President, 
 or by the Commanding General in the Field, or Com- 
 mander of the Department, is not required by these 
 Articles. 
 
 Art. 110. No sentence of a Field-Officer detailed to 
 trj' soldiers of his regiment shall be carried into 
 execution until the whole proceedings shall have been 
 appfoved by the Brigade Commander, or, in case there 
 be no Brigade Commander, by the Commanding OtK- 
 cer of the post. 
 
 Art. 111. Any officer who has authoiiiv to carry 
 into execution the sentence of death or of dismi.s,sjd 
 of an officer may suspend the siime until the pleasure 
 of the President shall be known; and in such ca.se 
 he shall immediately transmit to the President a coi^y 
 of the order of sus]iension, together with a copy of the 
 proceedings of the Court. 
 
 Art. 11"2. Every officer who is aulhorized to order 
 a General Court -^larlial shall have power to pardon 
 or mitigate any iiunishnient ailjudged by it, except 
 the punishment of death or of dismissal of an officer. 
 Every officer commanding a regiment or garrison 
 in w hich a Regimental or Garrison Court -Martial may 
 be held shall have power to jiardon or mitigate any 
 punishment which such Court may adjudge. 
 
 Art. 113. Every -Judge-Advocate, or person acting 
 as such, at any General Court-Martial, shall, with as 
 much expedition as the tipporlunity of time and dis- 
 tance of place may permit, forward the original pro- 
 ceedings and sentence of such Court to the Judge- 
 Advocate-Geueral of the Army, in whose office they 
 sh;dl be carefully preserved. 
 
 Art. 114. Every party tried by a Genend Court- 
 Martial shall, ujion demand thereof, made by him.self 
 or by any person in his behalf, be entitled to a copy 
 of tlie proceedings and sentence of such Court. 
 
 AitT. 11.5. A Court of Inquiry lo examine into the 
 nature of any transaction of, or accus;itioii or iinpu- 
 talioii against, any officer or soldier, may be ordered 
 by the I'lvsideiit or by any CnMiiuaiidiiig Officer; but, 
 as Courts of Iiuiuiry may lie iicrvcrleil lo dishonorable 
 inirposes, and may be employed, in the handsof weak 
 and envious Comniandaiils, as engines for the destruc- 
 tion of military merit, they shall never be ortiered by 
 any Commanding Officer, except upon a demand by
 
 ABTIFICE. 
 
 101 
 
 ARTIFICIAL LIUBS. 
 
 the ofBcer or soldier whose conduct is to be inquired 
 of. 
 
 Art. 116. A Court of Inquiry shall consist of one 
 or more officers, not exceeding: {hrcc, and a Recorder, 
 to reduce the proceedings and e\idencc to writing. 
 
 Art. 117. The Recorder of a Court of Inquiry shall 
 administer to the memhei's the following oath: "You 
 shall well and truly examine and inquire, according 
 to the evidence, into the mailer now before you, 
 without partiality, favor, affection, prejudice, or hope 
 of reward: so help you God." After which the Presi- 
 dent of the Court sliall administer to the Recorder the 
 following oath: " You, A. B., do swear that you will, 
 according to your best abilities, accuratelj' and im- 
 partially record the proceedings of the Court and the 
 evidence to be given in the case in hearing: so help 
 you God." 
 
 Art. 118. A Court of Inquiry, and the Recorder 
 thereof, shall have the s;inie power to summon and 
 examine ^^■^tnes.ses as is given to Courts-Martial and 
 the Judge- Advocates thereof. Such witnesses shall 
 take the s;ime oath which is taken by witnesses lief ore 
 Courts-Martial, and the party accused shall be permit- 
 ted to examine and cross-examine them, so as fully to 
 investigate the circumstances in question. 
 
 Art. 119. A Court of Inquiry shall not give an 
 opinion on the merits of the case inquired of imless 
 specially ordered to do so. 
 
 Art. 120. The proceedings of a Court of Inquiry 
 must be authenticated by the signatures of the Re- 
 corder and the President thereof, and delivered to the 
 Commanding Officer. 
 
 Art. 121. The jiroceedings of a Court of Inquir}' 
 may be admitted as evidence by a Court-Martial, in 
 cases not capital, nor extending to the dismis.sal of an 
 officer. Procidul, That the circumstances are such 
 that oral testimony cannot be obtained. 
 
 Akt. 122. If, upon marches, guards, or in quar- 
 ters, different Corps of the Army happen to join or do 
 duty together, the officer highest in rank of the Line 
 of the Army, Marine Corps, or Militia, by commis- 
 sion, there on duly or in quarters, shall oonimand the 
 whole, and give ordei-s for what is needful to the ser- 
 vice, unless otherwise specially directed by the Presi- 
 dent, according to the nature of the case. 
 
 Art. 123. In all matters relating to the rank, du- 
 ties, and rights of officers, the same rules and regula- 
 tions shall apply to officers of the Regular Army and 
 to volunteers commissioned in, or mustered into, said 
 sernce, under the laws of the United States, for a lim- 
 ited period. 
 
 Art. 124. Officers of the militia of the several 
 Slates, when called into the ser\ice of the United 
 States, shall on all detachments, Courts-ilartial, and 
 other duty wherein they may l)e employed in con- 
 jimction with the regular or volunteer forces of the 
 United States, take rank next after all officers of th(5 
 like grade in sjiid regular or volunteer forces, not- 
 withstanding the commissions of such mililia officers 
 may Ix; older than the commissions of the s;»id offi- 
 cers of the regular or voltmteer forces of the United 
 States. 
 
 Art. 125. In ca.se of the death of any officer, the 
 Major of his regiment, or the officer doing the 
 Major's duty, or the second officer in command at 
 any post or g-arrison, as the case may be, shall im- 
 mediately secure all his effects then in camp or quar- 
 ters, and shall make, and transmit to the otiice of the 
 Department of War, an inventor}- thereof. 
 
 Art. 126. In case of the death fo any soldier, the 
 Commanding Officer of his troop, battery, or com- 
 pany shall immediately secure all his effects then in 
 camp or tjuarters, and shall, in the presence of two 
 other officers, make an inventory thereof, which he 
 shall transmit to the office of the Department of War. 
 
 Art. 127. Officers charged wilh the care of the 
 effects of decea.sed officers or soldiers shall account 
 for and deliver the same, or the proceeds thereof, to 
 the legal representatives of such deceased officers or 
 soldiers. And no officer so charged shall be per- 
 
 mitted to quit the regiment or post tmtil he has de- 
 posited in the hands of the Commanding Officer all 
 the effects of such deceased officers or soldiers not so 
 accounted for and delivered. 
 
 Art. 128. The foregoing Articles shall be read and 
 published once in everj' six months, to every garrison, 
 regiment, troop, or company in the service of the 
 United States, and shall be duly observeil apd olxjyed 
 by all officers and soldiei-s in said service. 
 
 All persons who, iu time of war, or of rebellion 
 against the supreme authority of the United States, 
 are found lurking or acting as spies, in or alx)Ut any 
 of the fortiacations, posts, quarters, or encampments 
 of any of the armies of the United States, or else- 
 where, are triable by a General Court -Martial, or by a 
 Military Commission, and on con\-ict ion thereof suiler 
 death. ' 
 
 ARTIFICE. — Among the French, a tcnn vmder- 
 stood as comprehending everything which enters the 
 composition of fire-works, as the sulphur, saltpeter, 
 charcoal, etc. See Fire-work^. 
 
 ARTIFICER.— 1. One who makes fire-works, or 
 works in the artillery laboratory and prepares the 
 shells, fuses, grenades, etc. 2. A military mechanic, 
 such as a carpenter, blacksmith, or mason. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL LIMBS.— From the days of the Ger- 
 man knight Gijtz von Berlichiugen, artificial arms 
 have been made which have been marvels of ingenu- 
 ity. Even the arm of that famous knight, still on 
 exhibition in a Gorman museum, is a jiiecc of mechan- 
 ism so intricate in the combination of its motions as to 
 have been without a rival for nearly five hundred 
 years. All modem improvements belong to the 
 present decade. 
 
 The tendency of the manufacturers — modem as 
 well as ancient — has been to make an arm wiXh 
 every motion of the natural; iu this they have suc- 
 ceeded—that is, so far as patterning after G5tz and 
 liroducing an article very primitive in its construc- 
 tion, too complicated to be durable and too intricate 
 to be serviceable. Until man becomes capable of com- 
 bining art with nature and harmonizing the artificial 
 memljer with the nervous system, in short, giring it 
 life, he will fail in supplying the loss in all its detail. 
 Anj- amount of machinery will not accomjilish it; and 
 the more complication he has, the more distant begets 
 from the most useful substitute. A glance at the 
 anatomy of the human arm reveals it as a marvel of 
 mechanism. What a combination of movements, 
 and what unlimited control man has over itl Each 
 finger has its three joints, with every joint under con- 
 trol. The hand has its wrist, enabling it to conform 
 to any angle. The forearm has the ulna and the 
 radius, enabling the hand to rotate. Withal, what 
 marvelous strength each finger and joint commands, 
 all operated by sinews and muscles, each joint sup- 
 plied -n-ith cushions and a lubricating sac, whose 
 function it is to reduce friction to the minimum. 
 The parts of this wonderful machine are hinged to- 
 gether with such nicety that the engraver is enabled 
 to etch the finest plate," or the brawny smith to wield 
 the heaviest sledge. 
 
 Does the reader think that the hand alone does this 
 variety of work? — Operates voluntarily by an intelli- 
 gence of its o\\'n? Sever the brachial nerve, and we 
 will have a member as dead and limpsy as an empty 
 coat-sleeve. Remove the arm from the Ixxly and 
 irritate the nerves or contract tlie muscles, and we 
 will have a motion as awkward and spasmodic as may 
 be observed in an ai-tificial arm with jointed fingere. 
 nence all the dexterous movements we observe in 
 the nomial hand depend upon some power outside 
 of itself, and that power is the mind. If we look a 
 little deeper ui the physiologj- of the natuml arm and 
 hand we will observe "that nature has made a curious 
 pro\-ision for one of its failings. Every joint suffers 
 wear from attrition, and were it not for this provision 
 they would soon become loose and rattle as bad as a 
 worn-out gudgeon. Not a drop of blood flows through 
 the avenues of the hand that docs not carry with it
 
 ASTIFICIAL LIMBS. 
 
 102 
 
 ARTIFICIAL LIMSS. 
 
 fresh material to supply the wasted parts. From 
 the first iK'at of the heart of the child not yet born, 
 until man has ceased to lie an animate beinij, this 
 human repair-shop is in active operation and knows 
 no rest. This cui-sory glance at tlie natural arm 
 will fix in the mind three facts: tirst, that ihe hand 
 is a delicate piece of mechanism of great strength; 
 second, that it is in concert with and operjiteil by the 
 hTUnan will; and third, that it suffers wear, but is 
 constantly undergoing repairs by the action of the 
 circulatory system. 
 
 With these facts well impressed, we maj' make a 
 comparison with the arliticial arm. What a disparity! 
 It ainnut be connecte<l with the miud, nor with the 
 heart. If the joints of tlie lingers are made strong 
 enough to ■vrithstand a small proportion of the strain 
 of the natural hand, it must necessarily be made too 
 
 The Marks Rubber Hand. 
 
 heavy for endurance. If the springs are made stiff 
 enough to have a grasping power of a pound, the 
 exertion to operate them is fatiguing and reudere 
 them impracticable. 
 
 Nothing has tended so much to the very highest 
 development of artificial arms and hands as an 
 accident which happened more than a quarter of a 
 century ago to the celebrated French tenor M. Roger, 
 who lost his right arm above the elbow. It was 
 necessary for his future appearance on the stage that 
 he should have an artificial limb which would ser\e 
 the purposes of histrionic action and peniiit him to 
 grasp a sword and draw it from its scabbard. Such 
 a contrivauce was invented in 184.5 by Van Petersen 
 a Prussian mechanician, and the French Academy of 
 Sciences commissioned MM. Gambey, Payer, Vel- 
 peau, and Magendie to report \ipon it. For "a history 
 of the nature of the limb, the reaJer is referred to the 
 
 Fig. 2.— Applications of the Marks Hand. 
 
 report which appeared in the Comptfs Roidus for that | 
 date. The apparatus, which weighs less than 18 
 ounces, was tested upon a soldier who had lost both 
 arms. By its aid he was enabled to |)ick up a i)en, take 
 hold of a leaf of paper, etc.; and the old man's joy 
 •luring the e.xperimenl was so great that the Academy 
 presented him with a pair of llie.se arms. Van Peter- 
 sen's conceptions have been extended and improved by 
 Messrs. Charriere, the celebrated surgical mechanics 
 of Paris, aided by M. lluguicr, the well-known 
 surgeon. A very marvelous iirm has also been 
 almost simultaneously constructed by M. Bechard, 
 which, by means of a single point of traction, placed 
 in pronation, executes tirst the movement of supina- 
 tion, next in succession the extension of the fingers 
 
 and abduction of the thumb: the hand is then wide 
 open. 
 
 In 1863, Mr. A. A. JIarks, an American of varied ex- 
 perience, invented the rubber hand (Fig. IJ, which was 
 attached to the forearm by means of a spuidle held in 
 position by a set-screw, easily delachiil and replaced 
 by a hook, fork, knife, or brush. The fingers were 
 of soft, elastic rubber, molded to a graceful shape 
 and yielding to i)ressure. Its advantages were its 
 naturalness in appearance anil to the touch, and its 
 great durability. It might fall or strike anything 
 without breaking or impairing it. These "advan- 
 tages alone commended it to favor, and many of 
 them were made. In the course of time an improve- 
 ment was suggested^that of making the fingers 
 ductile, so that they might be made to assume differ- 
 ent positions; by the assistance of the opposite hand, 
 or by pressing the hand against any hard 
 surface, the fingers may be placed in any 
 desired position, each one giving the hanil 
 a new appearance; thus obviating the mo- 
 notony of the old style, and making it more 
 pleasing to the wearing and less observable 
 to the inquisitive. The fingers, when bent, 
 will hold a valise or package of considerable 
 weight, or hold the reins of a horse in driving. 
 Fig. 3 represents the manner in which 
 the hand is now attached to the fore-arm; 
 also the attaclirocnt in the lalni of hand 
 for holding various useful articles. It may 
 be thus described: The hand is held to the 
 forearm by inserting the spindle, D, in the 
 socket, E; it is" then locked by a spring. The 
 hand in this position has a lotaiy motion. A knife, 
 fork, brush, or hook can lie inserted in the palm. The 
 knife or fork will enable the wearer to feed himself 
 without exhibiting his loss; the liook to carry heavy 
 weights and perform lalxirious work; the brush will 
 enable the wearer to wash his opposite hand. By 
 pressing on the button, A, these articles may be re- 
 leased; by pressing on the button, C, Ihe hand can be 
 detached, and any of the articles above named may be 
 used in the socket without the hand. The hook in this 
 po.sition is the most u.seful appendage; it is thereby 
 brought nearer to the stump, and, consequently, under 
 greater control. By it as mucli weight can be carried as 
 the patient's shoulder will endure; shoveling, hauling, 
 and an infinite variety of heavy work can be done. 
 If the patient has suffered an amputation close to the 
 body,' or if his hsmd is unjointed at the wrist, it is 
 more desirable, for obvious reasons, 
 to dispense with the wrist-attachment 
 and depend on the palm-attachment 
 entirely for holding these articles. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents an arm and hand 
 for amputation below the elbow. 
 The hand is dre-ssed with a glove 
 (which is always to be worn), hold- 
 ing a pen in the act of writing. 
 Tliis has been regarded as a won- 
 derful accomplishment, when, really, 
 it is less dittieult than many ser\nces 
 the hand is capable of performing. 
 The joints at the ellww are of 
 leather, thus affording a rotary mo- 
 tion to the forearm which cannot be had T\-ith" steel 
 joints. 
 
 Fig. 4 represents an artificial arm for amputa- 
 tion above the elliow. The joint is adjustable, and 
 can be tightened or loosened as the patient desires. 
 The arm is held to the jxrson by straps or suspended 
 passing over and under the opixisite shoulder. The 
 elbow-joint is ojierated by a leather cord attached to 
 the forearm and iiassing through Ihe upper arm, and 
 att.aeheil by a buckle to the suspender. By urginif Ihe 
 shiiuMcr forward this cord is drawn upon and the 
 fon-inn brought to any desired angle. It is thus seen 
 that the anil and hand are simple in their construc- 
 tion, practical in their application, light, strong, and 
 durable.
 
 ABTIFICIAL 1IM3S. 
 
 103 
 
 ARTIFICIAL LIMBS. 
 
 Artificial legs, having fewer requirements to per- 
 form than artificial arms, are comparatively simple 
 in structure. The ordinary Backet-leg, iu coromon 
 
 Fig. 3. — Arm and Hand for Amputation l>elow tlie Klbow. 
 
 tise amongst the poorer classes, consists of a hollow 
 sheath or bucket, accuratelj- conformed to the shape 
 
 Fi;^- 4. — Arm for Amputation above the Elbow. 
 
 of the stimip, and having — in lieu of the more sym- 
 metric proportions of the leg— a "pin" placed at its 
 
 j mended when expense is an object, as it really fultilb 
 all the conditions excepting external similitude em- 
 , braced by a better piece ot mechanism. It is like- 
 wise occasionally employed with 
 benefit by tliose patients who, 
 from lack of contidence, prefer 
 learning the use of an artificial 
 leg by tii-st practicing with the 
 commonest substitute. As, when 
 the body rests on a single leg, 
 the center of gravity pas.ses 
 through the tuberosity of the 
 ischium, it is essential that the 
 bucket should be so maile as to 
 have its sole point of liearing 
 against this part of tlie pelvis. 
 Of the more complicated forms of artificial leg, 
 four are especially jwpular. The first of these is of 
 English origin, and, owing to its having been adopted 
 by the late Marquis of Anglesea, is known as the 
 Anijhueii-leg. For a description of it the reailer is 
 referred to Gray's work on " Artificial Limbs, " one of 
 the firm of Graj'S having been the constructor of the 
 legs used by the Marquis. This was for a long time 
 the fa.shionable artificial leg. The second leg worthy 
 of notice is that invented by an American named 
 Palmer, and called the Paliiur-hg. From its light- 
 ness and the greater ease of walking with it, it has 
 long superseded the Anglesea leg in America. In 
 thethird of these legs, also invented in America and 
 known as the Bly-leg, the principal faults of the two 
 other legs have been completely overcome. The ad- 
 vantages of this leg are thus simimed up: (1) Adap- 
 tation to all amputations either above or Ijelow the 
 knee. ("2) Rotation and lateral action of the ankle- 
 joint. (3) Power on the part of the patient to walk 
 with ease on any surface however irregular, as, owing 
 to the motion of the ankle-joint, the sole of the foot 
 readily accommodates itself to the uneveimess of the 
 ground, which is an advantage never before possessed 
 by any artificial limb. (4) The ankle-joint is rendered 
 
 A B 
 
 Fig. 5.— The Marks Rubber Legs. 
 
 lower end to insure connection between it and the | perfectly indestructible 
 ground. This form of leg is strongly to be recom- 
 
 ^ by ordinary wear, owing 
 
 to its center being composed of a glass ball resting
 
 ARTIFICIAL LINE OF SIGHT. 
 
 104 
 
 ARTIFICIAL POINT-BLANK. 
 
 in a cup of vulcanite. (.5) The action of the ankle- 
 joint i.s iroate<l by tivc tendons, arninged in accord- 
 ance with the (losiiion assigned to them in a natural 
 leg. These tendons are capable of being rendered 
 tight or loose in a few instants, so that the wearer of 
 the leg has the power of adjusting with precision the 
 exact degree of tension from which he finds the 
 greatest comfort in walking, and also of giving the 
 foot any position most pleasing to the eye. (6) 
 There is"a self-acting spring in the knee-joint, urgmg 
 the leg forward in walking, and imparting automatic 
 motion, thus avoiding tlie kast trouble to the jiatienl, 
 who linds the leg literally and not metaphorically 
 walk by itself, u) At the knee-joint there is a 
 mechanical arrangement representing the crucial liga- 
 ment.s, and affording natural action to fliat articula- 
 tion by which all shock to the stump in walking is 
 avoided. The fourth of the.se legs, contrived bv ilr. 
 Marks, the inventor of the i-ubber hand already de- 
 scribeil, not oidy posses.ses all the valuable I'eatiu'es of 
 the other legs, iiut has novel points of value in addi- 
 tion. lndia"rubl)er is largel)' used in its eonsl ruction. 
 In the drawing (Fig '>), A represents a full-length leg 
 standing erect, to be applied in all cases where amputa- 
 tion occurs above the knee-joint. B represents a leg 
 to be applied where the leg has been amputated below 
 the knee-joint and the stump is flexible enough and 
 sufficiently long to enalile the wearer to use it in 
 walking. It also represents the leg with the heel 
 compressed, and in its position after taking the step 
 and when lirmly i>lanted on the ground. C is termed 
 a knee-bearing leg. It is to be applied where amjiu- 
 tation takes place below the knee, and where the 
 stump is too short or contracted at right angles, so the 
 knee-joint cannot be used iu walking. This figure 
 represents the leg slightly bent at the Ivuee, and 
 bearing well upon the toe, as in the act of lifting it to 
 take the ne.xt advance-step. 
 
 The accompan}-ing drawing (Fig. 6) shows the 
 India-rubljer foot before being applied to the leg. 
 This rubber foot constitutes the main feature in tlie 
 
 Fig. C— Tlie Marks Rubber Foot. 
 
 legs shown in the figures. It is made mostly of India- 
 rubber of a very spongy, light, and elastic character. 
 A piece of willow wood, nearly tilling the rubber heel 
 at the top, or surface, where the leg rests, runs down 
 about one fourth of the distance towards the lower part 
 of the heel: also forward and downwards to the joint 
 at the ball of the foot. This ]iiece of wood is the 
 base upon whifli the foot is built, and is also the 
 medium wli(nl>y the foot is joined lirmly to the leg. 
 "The leg itself is made of light, tough willow in all 
 cases, except the thigh-piece shown in B, and the 
 front part of the thiixli-piece in C both of which are 
 made of leallK-r. The entire leg and foot are covered 
 with tine Iniekskin, neatly coated with a lifelike, 
 waterproof finish, making it both light and strong. 
 It will be seen that there are no movable ankle-joints 
 in these limbs, the necessity for which beimr entirely 
 obviated by the Elastie Hubber Foot, which gives all 
 the motion reiiuired in walking, and also the ease, 
 fimme.ss, elasticity, and reliance absolutely neces- 
 sary in a perfect artitieird leg. The r\ibl)er foot also 
 gives all the required lateral motion to the foot when 
 stepping n|)on sidelini;- or uneven ground. This leg 
 dispenses with all machinery of whatever charactei, 
 and has been in use by the Government, for officers, 
 soldiers, and seamen who lose their limbs in service, 
 for the last twenty years, giving great satisfaction. 
 
 Fig. 7 gives a rear view of the knee-joint of the 
 leg, A. The T-joint is fastened to the upper 
 part or thigh-piece of the leg, and the gudgeons 
 of the T are held in ailjustable, oblique bo.xes, 
 whit:h are eivsily set at any 
 time by the screws passing 
 through the caps into the 
 main leg, so as to keep the 
 joint to work tight ami still, 
 yet free and perfectly flexi- 
 ble, the small projecting bar 
 attached to the T with the 
 button-shaped ball operating 
 upon the s|ural spring, so as 
 to throw the foot forward 
 when bent in walking, and 
 .so as to hold the foot under 
 when bent at right angles in 
 a sitting position. 
 
 In cases of arrested devel- 
 opment of the lower limbs, 
 short-legged i)ersons may be made of the ordinary 
 height by the use of two artificial feet placed twelve 
 or more inches below the true feet, and attached to 
 the legs by means of metallic rods, jointed at the knee 
 and ankle. 
 
 Other parts not entitled to be called limbs can also 
 be replaced by mechanical art — such as the nose, lips, 
 cars, palate, " cheek, and eye. In the present ad- 
 vanced state of plastic surgery, deficiencies of the 
 nose, lips, and palate can usually be remedied by an 
 oix-rafion; cases, however, may occur where an arti- 
 ficial organ is required. Artificial ears are moulded 
 of silver, painted the natural color, and fixed in 
 their place by a spring over the vertex of the head. 
 Loss of an eye causes sad disfigurement; but the 
 artificial eyes of Bois.sonneau, which have been shown 
 in all the recent public exhibitions, completely throw 
 all others iu the shade, and cannot be detected with 
 out the closest inspection. 
 
 In the United States service every officer, non- 
 commissioneil officer, enlisted or hired man, of the 
 land or naval forces of the United States, who in the 
 line of his duty as such, or through disease contracted 
 iti the service as such, loses a limb or the use of a 
 limb, receives once every five years an artificial limb 
 or appliance, or commutation therefor, as be shall 
 elect, under such regulations as the Surgeon-General 
 of the Army may prescribe; and the period of five 
 years shall be held to commence with the filing of 
 the first application after the seventeenth day of 
 June, in the year 1870. The money value allowed as 
 eonnnutatiou is — for legs $75; for arms, feet, and appa- 
 ratus for resection, |oO each. Necessary transpor- 
 tation to have artificial limbs fitted is furnished by 
 the Quartermaster-General of the Anuy, the cost of 
 which is refunded out of any money appropriated for 
 the purchase of artificial limbs. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL LINE OF SIGHT.— In gunnery, the 
 right line from llie eye to the object to be hit, passing 
 fhrouirh llie front an<l rear siiiiifs. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL POINT-BLANK, — Point-blank and 
 point-blank i-aiige are terms foi'inerly supposed to pos- 
 sess great importance in gunnery. The point-blank 
 is the point at which the line of sight inferseets the 
 trajectory the second time; or. more practically speak- 
 ing, it isthal point which, being aimed at, is struck 
 by the projectile. The iKilnml luiiiit-blnuk corresponds 
 to the iHttiinil line ofxir//<l when this line is horizontal, 
 and the distance of tliis point from the nmzzle is 
 called theiioint-blank range. Anartifciul joiiit-ilank 
 is one eorresi>on(liim' to an nrtijicidl liiw nf air/ht. 
 
 To hit an object within the point-blaidi, the piece 
 is aimed below it. To hit an object beyond the jioint- 
 blank, the muzzle has to be raised, which is effected 
 by elevating the notch on the rear-sight along a verti- 
 cid leaf, on wliieh are graduated distances. In this 
 manner artificial point-blanks (corresponding to the 
 artificial lines of sight) are established, the piece being 
 aimed as when at point-blank. See Point-blank.
 
 AETILLEET. 
 
 105 
 
 ABTILLEET 
 
 ASTILLEEY.— The history of artillery may lae said 
 to (late from the discovery of gimpowder, which is 
 popularly attributed to Roger Bacmi and Barthold 
 Schwarz, two Monks of the thirteenth ccnturj', al- 
 though a mixture of niter, chiircoal, and sulphur was 
 used for explosive purposes hy the Chinese during the 
 ninth century. Its introduction into European war- 
 fare is due to the Moors, for mention is made of artil- 
 lery at Cordova in 1280. Ferdinand IV. of Castile 
 took Gibraltar with artillerj- in 130S), and caimon were 
 used at the sieges of Baza, Martos, and Alicante. 
 This arm soon became known throughout Europe. 
 The French availed themselves of it at the siege of 
 Puy Guillaimie in 1338, and the English had Ihree 
 small guns at the battle of Crecy in 1346. In the 
 French War of Independence agaiiLst the En<;Ush, artil- 
 lery was mucli >ised; and in 1428 Joan of Arc is said 
 to have pointed the aims herself. The guns of the 
 fourteenth century were of the rudest design; in the 
 tifteenth century Charles VIII. of France used an im- 
 proved artillery in his Italian campaigns, and to this 
 arm also Louis XII. largely owed his success in Italy. 
 Henry VII. and Henry VIII. of England did much 
 for its advancement. During the sixteenth century 
 l)ni.ss guns and cast-iron projectiles were adopted 
 throughout Europe, while Tartaglia in Italy made 
 great improvements in gunnery and invented the gun- 
 ner's quadrant. During the latter part of this century 
 case-shot, the German hagelku/jel, was invented, and 
 shells were fired from mortars. The first half of the 
 seventeenth century forms an era in the history of artil- 
 lery. Henry IV. of France was among the first to 
 recognize its coming Importance, and occupied him- 
 .self diligently with its improvement. Maurice and 
 Henry Frederick of Nassau made much advancement 
 in it, but it was under the great Swedish warrior, Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus, that artillery first began to take its 
 true position on the battle-field. He attached two guns 
 to each regiment, and may, therefore, be said to be the 
 father of the battalion system of guns; he proved its 
 utility in the celelirated "Thirty Tears' War. During 
 his life he did much to forward the science of artillery, 
 increasing its mobility and its rapidity of fire, and rais- 
 inir the proportion of guns to over six for lOOO men. 
 In^ngland the Laboratory at Woolwich was established 
 in 1672, and a reorg-anlzation of the artillerj' took 
 place in 1682 under Ihe Master-General Lord Dart- 
 mouth. Louis XIV. established a special artillery 
 force, raised in 1(171 a regiment for artillery duty, and 
 in 1690 founded the first artillery schools. The in- 
 ventions of the elevating-screw, the prolongs, and the 
 priming-tube filled with powder, were made during 
 his reign. The Prussian artillerj- was very backward 
 during the first part of the eighteenth ccnturj-, and 
 Frederick the Great did not at first place much value 
 upon its services. Although it contributed much to 
 Frederick's victorj- at Rossliach, it was usuallj' no 
 niiitch for the well-handled Austrian guns, which fact 
 impressed him with the importance of gi\nng more at- 
 tention to this branch. He therefore raised the pro- 
 portion of guns, and established horse-artillery in 
 1759. 
 
 After the Sevcii Years' War the Austrians recog- 
 nized the importance of the artillerj- in modem w-ar- 
 fare, and P^nnce Liehtenstein was commissioned to 
 reorgani7.e it. The experience of Frederick's wars 
 was best utilized by France, and under Gribeauval, in 
 1765, great reforms in the French artillerj- were com- 
 menced. This officer had been sent to Austria during 
 the Seven Years' War, and had held command under 
 Prince Liehtenstein. Struck with the improvements 
 effected in Austria, he strove on his return to build up 
 a complete system, as to both persons and materiel, 
 making a separate provision for field, siege, garrison, 
 and coast artillery. At first his refornis met great 
 opposition, but in 1776 he became First Inspector- 
 General of Artillerj', and was able to carrj- through 
 his improvements. The French horse-artillery dates 
 from 1791, and the last step in the complete organiza- 
 tion of the field-artillery was made in 1800, w-hen the 
 
 establishment of a Driver's Corps (of soldiers) put an 
 end to the old system of horsing by contract. Napoleon, 
 who was a great artillery otfieer^ introduced the tacti- 
 cal combination with brilliant success. To his wars 
 we first look for instances of the important effects 
 produced by this arm in that concentration of fire 
 which m those days was produced onlj- by massing 
 guns. Napoleon III. made artillery a special subject 
 of study; and the great treatise upon it, commenced 
 and mainly written by him, is a standard w-ork on the 
 subject. Since the "war of 1870-71, in which the 
 French artillery proved it.self far inferior to the Ger- 
 man, the French have been activelj- engaged in ex- 
 periments with a \-iew to the introduction of superior 
 guns, and have incre;tsed their force of artillery by 
 120 batteries. Similar progress has been made by the 
 other great European Powers during this cenfurv. 
 The British artillery had greatly deteriorated duriii" 
 the eighteenth ecntury, and w;is hot up to the standard 
 of other countries, but horseartillerv was formed in 
 1793, and a Driver's Corps introduced the following 
 year. At the commencement of the nineteenth century 
 the Prussian artillerj- was powerful rather than mobile; 
 but after the dis;isters of 1806-7 this defect w;us reme- 
 died, and in 1816 further improvement was made. 
 In 1872 the German artillerj' was reorganized, the 
 field-artillery of each armj' corps being augmented to 
 17 batteries, and dinded into two regiments. The 
 Austrian artillerj' has alwavs been pre-eminent both 
 in the excellence of its materiel and in tactical hand- 
 ling on the field. In 1859 rifled guns were intro- 
 duced, and in 1861 gun-cotton was substituted for 
 gimijowder, but was soon aftenvards abandoned. 
 Russia won special distinction in the Naiwleonic wars 
 by the power and good service of its artillery, and has 
 continued to give great attention to this arm. Hav- 
 ing adopted the breech-loading system of Prussia. 
 Russia has increased its field-artillery from three to 
 four batteries per division, with thirty -eight batteries 
 of mitrailleuses added. 
 
 Gtcneral William F. Barry was the organizer of the 
 artillerj- of the Union armies during the Rebellion. 
 The aggreg-ate of field-guns was atout 15,000, ■with 
 40,000 horses and 48,000 men. The number of gvuis 
 of position used in field-works or intrenched lines dur- 
 ing that war was 1200, served by about 22,000 men. 
 There are at present in the Regidar Army of the United 
 States 5 regiments of artillery, w-ith 284 officers and 
 2321 enlisted men. The personal armament of an 
 artilleryinan of the mounted batteries, whether field 
 or siege, is a pistol and salx;r for the sergeants, 
 trumpeters, and drivers; and a stiber onlj' for each 
 cannoneer. Those .serving in the sea-coast fortifica- 
 tions have a rifie-musket and the full equipment of an 
 infantrj- soldier. The matr-riel of a mounted battery 
 of the U. S. field-artillery when on a war-footing is "6 
 guns, 6 caissons, 1 battery-wagon, 1 traveling-forge, 
 and 112 horses; on a peace-footing it is 6 guns, 6 cais- 
 sons, and 80 horses. The ammunition of a field -bat- 
 tery for active service in war is 400 rounds per gun. 
 The organization of a siege-battery in the U. S. serrice 
 is 4 guns, 1 battery -wagon, 1 traveling-forge, and 60 
 horses. The ammunition for the siege-battery is 250 
 rounds per gun. The breeeh-loading principle was 
 adopted in a clumsy waj' at the very outset of cannon 
 constniction. John Owen first ea.st brass cannon in 
 England in 1535, and a year or two later they were 
 manufactured in Scotland; but no long gims for firing 
 hollow projectiles at long range by direct fire were 
 known until Colonel Bomford.of the I'. S. Ordnance 
 Department, invented a cannon in 1812 called a "Co- 
 lUmbiad," which proved very successful. Iron in 
 some fonn is the sole metal in "use for heavj' artillerj'; 
 cast-iron is used for smooth-bore guns and for rifled 
 guns in the United Slates. Palliser invented a gun 
 with a steel interior tube, strengthened by an exterior 
 casting of iron; and his sjstem became very popidar 
 in England; but the inventions of Sir William Arm- 
 strong] improved by those of Fraser, proved far supe- 
 rior, and have been generallj- adopted. Russia, Ger-
 
 ABTILLEBT COLOBS. 
 
 106 
 
 ABTILLEBT COBFS. 
 
 many, and other nations have adopted the Krupp 
 system ^\^th heavy forgiugs of steel injjots. 
 " The defense of war-ships with iron armor has 
 causi-d an iucrc-.ise in the size, weight, and ealilK'rs 
 of scit-coust and naval cannon, and the whole method 
 of gun-construction has been altered. Armstrong- 
 was the first in England to sec the necessity of a 
 change, and his methixl was improveil l)y Whilworth, 
 Fntscr, Palliser, Blakely.and others. Fnmcis Krupp 
 of Essen, Prussia, is the inventor of a new method 
 which proved so successful that it has been introduced 
 in Grcrmiiny, Russia, Austria, Belgium, and Spain. 
 The body of the gun is fabricated from a solid ingot 
 cf low steel worked under heavy steel Immmci-s, and 
 is strengthened by three or more steel tubes shrunk 
 upon the central tube of the gun, the last ring, or 
 tulx' inclosing the breech, being forged in one piece 
 with the trunnions, without a weld. The rings have 
 various lengths, and the gun is diminished in thick- 
 ness towards the muz/le, not by tapering, but liy be- 
 ing turnc<i with concentric steps of diminished heights. 
 Krupp makes all his projectiles and gim-carriages of 
 steel. In the United Stales, Rodman, Dahlgren, and 
 Parrott have devoted themselves to the art of gun- 
 construction. The Rodman gun is of cast-iron; it is 
 cast hollow and cooled from the inside, the exterior 
 being in the mean time kept from rapid cooling by 
 liresbuilt around the gun in the ca.sting-pit. The 
 Dahlgren gun is of iron cast solid, imd cooled from 
 the e.vterior, very thick at the breech up to the tnm- 
 nions, then diminishing in thickness to the muzzle. 
 The Parrott gun, like the Rodman, is of cast-iron, 
 cast hollow, cot)letl from the inside, and strengtliened 
 about the chamber by an exterior tube of wrought- 
 iron bars spirally coiled and shrunk on. It has been 
 suggt'Sted that a Rotlmangun lined with wroughtiron 
 on Palliser's system would prove a highly effective 
 weapon. 
 
 The manner of placing artillery and its cmplojTncnt 
 must be regulated by its relative importance, under 
 given circumstances, with respect to the action of the 
 other arms. In the defensive, the principal jiart is 
 usually assigned to the artillery; and the positions 
 taken up by the other arms will, therefore, be subor- 
 dinate to those of this arm. In offensive movements 
 the reverse generally obtains. In defensive positions 
 the security of the batteries is of the last importitnce. 
 Unless the batteries are on points which arc inaccess- 
 ible to the enemy's cavalry and infantry, they must 
 be placed under the protection of the other troops, 
 and be outflanked by them. As in the defensive, we 
 should be prepared to receive the enemy on every 
 point; the batteries must be distributed along the en- 
 tire front of the position occupied, and on those points 
 from which they can obtain a good sweep over the 
 avenues of approach to it; the guns Ix'ing masked, 
 when the ground favors, from the enemy's view, until 
 the proper moment arrives for opening their (ire. The 
 distance between the batteries should not Ix' much 
 over 6t)0 paces; so that by their tire they may cover 
 well the ground intervening between them, inid af- 
 ford mutual support; the light guns being jilaced on 
 the more salient points of the front, from their shorter 
 range and greater facility of maneuvering; the heavier 
 guns on tile more retired points. Guns of various 
 caliber should not be placed in the Siime battery. A 
 suHicicnt interval should also be left between batteries 
 of different calilier, to prevent the enemy from judg- 
 ing, by the variations in the effect of the shot, of the 
 weight of metal of the batteries. Those positions for 
 batteries should be avoided from which the shot must 
 l>a.ss over other troops lo attain the enemy. And 
 those shoukl Ix' sought for from which a fire can be 
 maintained until the enemy has approached even 
 within giHxl musket-range of them. Where the wings 
 of a position are weak, batteries of the heaviest cali- 
 ber should be placed to secure them. A sufficient 
 number of pieces — selecting for the object in view 
 horse-artillerj' in preference to any other — should be 
 held in reserve for a moment of need; to be thrown 
 
 upon any point where the enemy's progress threatens 
 danger; or to be used in covering the iTtreat. The 
 collection of a large number of pieces in a single bat- 
 tery is a dangerous arrangement, particularly at the out- 
 .set of an eng:ig<.nient. The exposure of so many gims 
 together might i)resent a strong inducement "to the 
 enemy to make an effort to carry the hiltery; a feat 
 the more likely to succeed, as it is dillicult either to 
 wilhilraw the guns or change their position promptly 
 after their fire is opened; antl one which, if succc-isful, 
 nught entail a fatal disaster on the as,sailed, from the 
 lossof-somauy pieces at once. In the outset of offensive 
 movements, good positions .should Ix; selected for the 
 heaviest |)ieces, from which they can maintain a strong 
 fire on the enemy until the lighter pieces and the 
 columns of attack are brought into action. These 
 ]K)sitions shovdd be taken on the tlaiiks of the gi'ound 
 oi-cupied by the assailant, or on the center if more 
 favorable to the end to lie attained. In all ca.ses, wide 
 intervals should be left between the hea^'J' batteries 
 and the other troops, in order that the latter may not 
 suffer from the return-fire which the a.'sjuled will 
 probably o)ien on the batteries. Forthesjime reason, 
 care should be taken not to place other troops liehind 
 a point occui)ietl by a battery, where they would Ix; 
 exposed to the return-fire of the a.s.sailed; when this 
 cannot be avoitled, the troops should be so placed as 
 to be covered by any undulation of the ground, or 
 else be deployed in line to lessen the effects of the 
 shot. The artillery which moves with the columns 
 of attack should be di%-ided into several strong bat- 
 teries, as the object in this case is to produce a deci- 
 sive impression upon a few points of the enemy's line 
 by bringing an overwhelming fire to bear upon these 
 points. These batteries should keep near enough to 
 the other troops to be in safetv from any attempts of 
 the assjuled to capture them. Their usual positions 
 will be on the flanks and near the heads of the col- 
 xunns of attack; the intervals between the batteries 
 being sufficient for the free maneuvers of the other 
 troops, in large bodies. The maneuvers of these bat- 
 teries should be made with promjititude, so that no 
 time may be lost for the action of their fire. They 
 should get rapidly over unfavorable ground to good 
 positions for tiring, and maintain these as long as pos- 
 sible; detaching, in such cases, a few pieces to accom- 
 pany the columns of attack. In all the movements 
 of the batteries, great care should Iw taken not to place 
 them so that they shall in the least impede the opera- 
 tions of the other troops. See Sytiteiii of ArtUltry. 
 
 ARTILLERY COLORS.— In the United States army 
 each regiment of Artillery has two silken Colors. 
 The firs^ or the National Color, of stars and strijx's, 
 as dcscrilied for the garrison flag. The mimber and 
 name of the regiment are emliroidered with gold on 
 the center strii>e. The second, or Regimental Color, 
 is yellow, of the same dimensions as the first, Viearing 
 in the center t«o cannon crossing, with the lettijs 
 U. S. above and the numljcr of tlie regiment below; 
 fringe, yellow. Eacli Colia' is six feet six inches fly, 
 and six feet deep on the uike. The pike, including 
 the sjH'ar and ferrule, is nine feet ten inches in length. 
 Conls and tassels, red and yellow silk iulermi.xed. 
 See Cnfora. 
 
 ARTILLERY CORPS.— The larger weapons, before 
 the invention of gunpowder, were .stimelimes calle<l 
 engines of war, sometimes aHillery, and were worked 
 by strong and rough soldiei-s, who needed no par- 
 ticular apprenticeship to that art. When, however, 
 large bails of iron came to be propelled by the irresis- 
 tible force of gunpowiler. a great revolution gradually 
 took place, though garris<in-guns and siege-guns were 
 improved more rapidly than field-guns. Neverthe- 
 less, field guns changed the whole aspect of military 
 tactics; for it became necessary that an army should 
 form in order of battle at a inucli greater distance 
 from the enemy than in older times. And vhen the 
 cannon were made more rapidly movable, so did 
 tactics vary. Gradually a body of men were set 
 apart to study the force and action of gunpowder,
 
 ABTILLESY HOBSES. 
 
 107 
 
 AETILLEBY PEACTICE. 
 
 the flight and range of projectiles, the weight and 
 strength of cannon, and the maneuvering o? heavy 
 masses. The French were the first to make these 
 researches; after them, the English; and still later, 
 the Germans. During the Thirtj- Years' War an im- 
 portant step was taken in Germany — that of including 
 the artillerymen, who were till then a sort of guild, as a 
 component in the Regular Army. Gustavus Adolphiis 
 in Sweden, Frederick II. in Prussia, and Napoleon I. 
 in France, all attached a very high degree of impor- 
 tance to the artillery as an arm of the ser\ice. After 
 the great wars in the begiiming of the present centurj' 
 nearly all the States of Europe formally recognized 
 the artillery a-s the third great branch of militarj- ser- 
 vice (next after the infantry and cavalry): indeed, 
 some of them, including Russia and Sardinia, have 
 shown a tendency to elevate it to the lirst rank. 
 
 Artillery Corps, or artillerymen, arc divided into 
 land-artillery and marine artillery. The laud-artillery 
 is divided into tield, coast, garrison, and siege artil- 
 lery. The field-artillery is subdivided into horse and 
 foot. There are also the special appellation of reserve, 
 light, and heavy artillerv. In most European States 
 the artillerymen are divided into regiments, battalions, 
 brigades, and companies; but. in Britain the whole 
 form one enormous regiment, which is expanded or 
 contracted according to the exigencies of the ser\'icc. 
 When military men speak of 7/«; field-arlillery they 
 usually include cannon, carriages, horses, ammuni- 
 tion, and stores of every description, as well as the 
 artillerymen. The distinction between hea^'j' and 
 light artillery depends on the size of the cannon and 
 the weight of the shot and shell propelled from them. 
 For obrious reasons the construction of verj' large 
 fjeld-guus is avoided. Military men are not quite 
 agreed as to the precise figures; but there is a general 
 concurrence in opinion that a well-appointed field- 
 force should have two or three artilleiy guns to every 
 1001) infantry, and five or six horse-artillerj' guiLS to 
 every 10(K) cavalry. The proportion is necessjirily 
 affected by the kind of country and the amount of 
 available transport. During the Peninsular War, 
 Wellington had seldom more than 1 gun to every 
 1000 soldiers; when he entered France he had 3 to 
 the 10(K). Napoleon preferred 2 per 1000, with a 
 larger supply of ammunition than had before been 
 deemed necessjin,-; and man)" foreign governme:;ts 
 followed his example. Experienced officers in the 
 British artillery have laid it down as a usefid rule 
 that an army of GH.OOO men. comprising .50,000 in- 
 fantry, 7.500 cavalry, and 2.500 artillery, should have 
 100 pieces of ordnance — viz., 30 for horse-artillery, .54 
 for foot-artillery, and 16 in reserve. See Uomrable 
 Artilhri/ Company. 
 
 ARTILLERY HORSES.— Horses for artillery service 
 should lie not less than nine hundred nor more thiin 
 twelve huiulrcd pounds; age not less than five nor 
 more than eight years; forehead wide; shoulders 
 broad enough to sujiport the collar, but not too hca\'j'; 
 forelegs short, straight, and well under the horse; 
 chest broad and deep, barrel large and increasing 
 from girth to flank; withers elevated, back short and 
 straiglit, loins and haunches broad and muscular; 
 hind-legs short, hocks well bent and under the horse; 
 feet rather large. Special care must Ije taken that the 
 withers are not too sharii, and that the horse is neither 
 sway-backed nor roach-backed. In time of war 
 horses should not be accepted under six nor over ten 
 years of age; young animals, as a rule, are not able to 
 stand the exposure of a campaign. Each horse must 
 he well broken to harness; and in each battery horses 
 of the minimum size and weight should never exceed 
 one third of the whole numlwr. The load allotteil to 
 an artillery horse is less than that usually drawn by a 
 horse of commerce, for the reason that allowance 
 must be made for bad roads, bad forage, rapid move- 
 ments, and forced marches. They are as follows: 
 Light-artillerv horse, 700 lbs., including carriage; 
 heavy field-artillery. H.50 lbs.; siege-artillery. 1000 lbs. 
 The above is based on the rapidity of movement re- 
 
 quired in the different services. An ordinary draught- 
 horse can draw 1600 lbs. 23 miles in a day. Usually 
 a horse can draw seven times as much as lie can carry; 
 hence all material of war should be transported on 
 carriages if pr:icticable. The average march for 
 artillery on good roads is from fifteen to twenty miles 
 per day. With rare exceptions the walk is "the in- 
 variable gait. Long marches or expeditions should 
 be begun moderately, particularly with horses new to 
 the service. Ten or twelve miles a day is enough for 
 the first marches, which over go<id roads may be in- 
 creased to twenty or twenty-five miles when ne(e.s.sarj', 
 after the horses are inured to their work. The care 
 of horses on the march is one of the most important 
 duties of an artillery officer; by consUint atttntion, 
 many horses may be kept in .serviceable condition 
 which would otherwise be disabled for months. Re- 
 veille, ordinaril}-, should not Ik- sounded on the march 
 before daylight, as horses rest better from midnight 
 until dawn than at other times. A halt of from five 
 to ten minutes is made at the end of every hour, for 
 the purpose of adjusting harness, tightening girths, 
 etc. When troops march for the greater part of the 
 day, a halt of from twentj- to forty -five minutes should 
 be made about noon. The march is usually in column 
 of sections: v»hen practicable i. will be in column of 
 platoons at closed intervals; but the front of the 
 column must not be frequently diminished or in- 
 creased, as this unavoidably adds to the fatigue of the 
 horses, particularly of those in rear. When distances 
 are lost in column, they must never be regained by 
 taking the trot; no practice is more fatiguing to horses 
 and more injurious to their .shoulders than the alter- 
 nate trotting and walking so often seen at the rear of 
 artillery columns. The walk will be quickened as 
 much as possible by such carri;iges as have lost dis- 
 tiince, and it is the duty of the Captain to have the 
 gait of the leading guide slackened, or the column 
 halted, so that thej' can close up. See Draught 
 Animals. 
 
 ARTILLERY LEVEL.— An instrument adapted to 
 stand on a piece of ordnance and indicate by a pen- 
 dulous pointer the .lugle which the axis of the piece 
 bears to the horizontal plane. By its means any re- 
 quired antrle of elevation is given "to the piece. 
 
 ARTILLERY MASS. — A concentration of artillery 
 with mobility. It should combine with great mobil- 
 ity a powerful fire, which can be concentrated on 
 some definite point of an enemy's line to be broken 
 through, trasses of Artilhri/ are usually employed 
 after troops have been engaged for some time and 
 the weak points of the enemy's lines '>ave been ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 ARTILLERY PARK. — A collective name given to 
 the whole of the guns, carriages, ammimition, and 
 other appurtenances essential to the working of siege 
 or tield-artiller)'. Besides reserve gvms and carriages, 
 there belong to it the ammunition-w:igons, as well for 
 the infantry and cavalry as for the artillery, the im- 
 plements and materials nece.ss!iry for repairing and 
 completing equipments, harness-stores, field-forges, 
 laboratories, and (in some armies) transport and ijro- 
 vision w.igous. The permn nil oi a park of artillery' 
 consists of artillery officers, non-commissioned ofh- 
 cers, and artillerymen; besides a large numljer of 
 smiths, wheelwrights, saddlers, armorers, drivers, 
 and other mechanics and laborers. Sometimes the 
 term is ;ip|ilied to the place selecte<l, as well as to the 
 vast militarv stores collected there. 
 
 ARTILLERY PRACTICE. — Siege-artillery is gener- 
 ally used against fixed objects on land; the target 
 shouM thei'efore be placed on land. The range for 
 the 4.5-inch gun should be about 2000 yards, and for 
 this distance a target 12 feet scjuare would be suitable. 
 If is made of canvas, or of light boards nailed to up- 
 rights planted in the ground, and is whilew.ished. A 
 circular bull's-eve 4 feet in diameter is iiainted in 
 black in the cc-nter of the target. AViout 100 feet 
 diagonally in front of the target a pit of suitable size 
 for the m"arker is dug, the earth being thrown upon.
 
 ARTILLERY PRACTICE. 
 
 108 
 
 ARTILLERY PRACTICE. 
 
 the side towards the piece. It adds greatly to the 
 security of the marker to have splinter-proof coverinjr 
 for the pit. The nuirker is provided with a disk, 
 about a foot in diameti'r, made of sheet-iron or tliiu 
 board, one side of which is painted black, the other 
 white, and provided with a stall suffieienlly lomj to 
 enable him to ]K)inl the disk to any part of the target. 
 The marker slionld be accompanied by a Magman 
 skilled in signaling, and provided with awhite or red 
 tiag. such as are supplied by the Signal Bureau. At Ihe 
 , l)iece is another tlagman similarly provided. Where 
 it is i>ossible, a hill, situated two or three hundred 
 yards beyonil the target, is advantageous for arrest- 
 ing the projectik-s. Cleared space beyond the target 
 is preferable to woods. 
 
 Firm ground is selected for the gun-platform, 
 which is laid with care and ])rccision. The distance 
 to the target is ascertained either by direct tneasvire- 
 ment. with the teh'mcler, o.r by triangulation. Pre- 
 vious to going out to tire, the Instructor should pre- 
 pare a memorandum-table of elevations for each kind 
 of ])rojcetile to be used, and the time to which fusi's 
 are to be cut for shells. The time of flight is deter- 
 mined by means of a stop--vatch, and the distance at 
 ■which shells burst by the Boulonge telemeter. Care 
 and di'liberalion are exercised in loadingand pointing. 
 When the piece is ready to be tired, a signal is made 
 by the tlagman at the piece to the marker and flag- 
 man at the target, who then screen themselves in the 
 pit. As soon as the projectile strikes, the flagman at 
 the pit rai.ses his flag and the marker proceeds, in case 
 it has struck the target, to cover the hole wi'h his 
 disk; when^a .shell has been tired, the flagman signals 
 whether it has burst short of or beyond the target. 
 An observer at the piece, with a glass, or even with 
 the naked eye, can see upon which side of the target 
 tlie projectile passes, and can form an approximate 
 estimate of the distance to the right or left. 
 
 Fnmi the data thus obtained, errors of pointing and 
 of cutting the fuse may be corrected for succeeding 
 shots. A complete record of each tire is kept an(l 
 entered on a blank form furnished by the Ordnance 
 Department. This record, besides giWug a descrip- 
 tion of the piece, contains the kind and weight of the 
 projectile, the kind of powder and the weight of 
 charge, the elevation and the time of flight, the kind 
 and length of fuse, and the position of the piece, 
 whether above or below the level of the target. In 
 the column of remarks is entered whether the pro- 
 jectile struck the target, and if so, where; or if it 
 missed, to which side, and how far; whether it fell 
 short or went beyond; whether the .shell exploded 
 short, beyond, or did not explode. The direction of 
 the wind, with reference to the line of tire, and its | 
 strength are noted. Those engaged in the firing, par- 
 ticularly the otlicers, should examine and study the 
 ground about the target, oliserving the eflect iiroduced 
 by the striking of the shot; whether they penetrated 
 or ricocheted; the depth of penetration, the character 
 of the craters formed by bursting shells, and of the 
 furrows made by glancing projectiles. Thisinforma- I 
 tion is useful when constructing works of shelter 
 against an enemy, and in the attack upon and demoli- 
 tion of his works. 
 
 When the allowance of ammunition that may he 
 expended admits of it, firing at a horizontal target 
 should be practiced. The object of this kind of tir- 
 ing is to group Ihe shots as closely .as possible on the 
 ground about the target. The rectangular space in- 
 closed by Ihe shots is called the polygon of fire. In 
 actual service, the purpose of such fire is to reach an 
 enemy sheltered behind works or soim> intervening 
 object, as hills or woods. This is accomplished by 
 the drop of iirojecliles tired at long range, or ill short 
 range by reducmg the charge anil giving high eleva- 
 tion. Skill in this, the most diflicult kind of firing, 
 can be acquired only by practice. To obtain the mi- 
 ter (if ii/ipiwt, the target, if an upright one, is divided' 
 into four parts by a horizontal and a vertical line 
 passing through iha center of the huU's-eyc; if the 
 
 target is horizontal, as for mortar-firing, one line is 
 drawn as the trace of the jMane of fire, and the other 
 Ihroughl the <enter of the target at right angles to it. 
 The distance in feet of each shot is nieasined from 
 these lines as co-ordinates, and recorded in a table; as, 
 iiborc or beloir the horizontal line, and to the ri{//it or 
 lift of the vertical line. The table bs of the follow- 
 ing form: 
 
 Distance from Co-ordi- Distance frou Center of 
 NATES. I Impact. 
 
 o 
 
 Vertical. 
 
 Horizontal. | Vertical. 
 
 Horizontal. 
 
 6 
 
 Above Below. 
 
 Right. 1 Left. ! Above Below. 
 
 Right. Left. 
 
 1... 
 
 3.'.'.'. 
 4... 
 5.... 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 1.6 
 8.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 5.4 
 2.4 
 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 9 1 7 
 
 9 
 
 » 
 
 7.8 
 
 7.8 
 
 5-f5 = 1 
 
 2 -^ 6 = 0.4 18 -H 8 = 8.6 
 
 15.6.«-5 = 8.1ii 
 
 The algebraic sum of the distances in each direc- 
 tion, divided by the number of shots, gives the posi- 
 tion of the center of impact in this direction. In the 
 above example, the position of the cenlcr of impact is I 
 fool below and 0.4 foot to the rlLrht of thecenterof the 
 target. To obtain the mean deviation it is necessary 
 to refer each shot-hole to the center of impact as a 
 new origin of co-ordinates; and this is done by sub- 
 tracting" the tabular distance from the distance of 
 the center of impact if both be on the same 
 side of the center of the target, and adding them 
 if on different sides. The sum of all the di-stances 
 thus obtained in one direction, divided by the num- 
 ber of shots, gives the mean deviation in that direc- 
 tion; which in the present case is 8.6 feet vertically 
 and 3.12 feet horizontally. The foregoing afl'ords a 
 measure for the accuracy oi fire of the piece and pro- 
 jectile, but it does not afford so good a test of marks- 
 manship as the Kfriiig. or sum ot the distances of the 
 shots from the point' aimed at. Taiget-practice with 
 the 8-inch siege-howitzer is conducted in the same 
 manner as for siege-guns, but the distance should not 
 exeeetl 1;"'(I0 yards, and the target need not be over 10 
 feet scpiare. Direct, ricochet, and rolling fire should 
 each be practiced with this jiicce. To observe the 
 flight of canister, it is best to fire it over smooth water, 
 with an elevation not exceeding two degrees. 
 
 The target for the 10-inch siege morlar should be 
 about l.">Ot)^yards from the piece. The be*! form for 
 the target is that of a square, inclosing the general 
 trace of a field-work. The sides of the square should 
 be alHiut 100 yards, and the trace marked by stakes 
 driven at distances of about 10 feet apart. "A large 
 cmpi V cask or box. placed upon a posi in the center of 
 the figure, and whitewashed, serves as a iioint to aim at. 
 At a distance of not less than \~>i) yard-< lo the right 
 or left of the target is constructed a strong bomb- 
 proof for the nnirker and flagman. The marker is 
 provided with a number of small slakes which, to 
 make them more conspiiaious, have allached lo them 
 a piece of while or red stuff. When a shell strikes 
 the ground. Ihe marker notes the place with a stake, 
 marking it with a number corresiioncling to Itjc nu:u- 
 ber of Ihe shot. The rules governing the flagman at 
 the bomb-proof and at the piece are the same as those 
 already given for the siege-gim. A convenient 
 method of notifying those at The mortar as to the 
 points at which liie shells .strike is to describe around 
 the center of the target a circle with a radius of about 
 twenty-five yards. Divide llii- circle into twelve 
 (■{pialiiarls, "which mark conspicuously with stakes, 
 being careful to place one of the divisions on the l>ro- 
 longalion of the line passing through the mortar and 
 the Center of the target. Call this jxiinl XII, and 
 number the others around to the right similar to the 
 dial of a clock. 
 
 Suppose the shell falls at the point C (see figure),
 
 AKTILLEEY SCHOOL 
 
 109 
 
 AETILLEEY SCHOOL. 
 
 on the line passing through the center B and I, 
 and at a distance of, saj', twenty yards from the center. 
 The marker steps or otherwise measures this dis- 
 tance, and signals to the piece " One" — " 20." Those 
 at the piece, referring to a similar diagram made 
 wpondujtgram paper, ascertain at a glance the approx- 
 
 imate point at which the shell struck the ground. 
 Firm ground is selected for the platform, and the dis- 
 tance to the target is determined as for siege-^uns, as 
 is likewise the time of flight of shells and the distance 
 at which they cvplode. In order to economize shells, 
 charges surticient only to Mow out the fuse are used, 
 and the shells are afterwards collected. After the 
 tiring is completed, the distance fiom each point 
 where a shell tell to the center of the target is meas- 
 ured, and, if desirable, a diagram made of the target, 
 showing the position of each shot. 
 
 Pre\ious to going out to tire, the Instructor should 
 prepare a memorandum range-table, so that the lirst 
 shots may be approximately accurate. Subsequent 
 shots should be rectified with care; the tendency is 
 always to overdo the correction; as, for instance, 
 when the shell falls short, the addition given to the 
 charge will most likelysend it far beyond; or, should 
 it fall to one side, the correction given to the direction 
 will probably be so great as to cause it to fall a still 
 greater distance to the other side. Under the most 
 favorable circumstances, mortar-firing, as compared 
 with firing from other kinds of cannon, possesses, in- 
 herently, a considerable degree of inaccuracy, and in 
 making corrections care should be observed to dis- 
 criminate between this and faulty gunner}-. When 
 practicable, the charges of powder should be weighed; 
 if ineamnil, uniformity shouUl be observed as to the 
 manner of doing it, .so thai all shall be shaken down 
 in the measure, or all measured loosely. The plat- 
 form should be tested frequently, to see that it does 
 not settle unevenly. The shells should be weigheil 
 and marked with chalk, anil in firing them care 
 should be obsci^ed to commence with the lightest and 
 go up to the heaviest, or rice term. This enables the 
 corresponding variation of the charge to be made 
 with a greater degree of certainty. Target-practice 
 with the 8-inch mortar is conducted as just explained 
 for the 10-inch. 
 
 Target-practice with the Coehom mortar is similar 
 to the foregoing; but the distance lo the target should 
 not exceed 1000 yards, and the target may be smaller. 
 As this piece cari be moved from place to place with 
 ease, and requires nothing more than level and firm 
 ground for a platform, the distance to the target 
 should be varied, thus affording practice such as fre- 
 quently occurs in war-service. Sea-coast mortars are 
 chiefly used against shipping in the defense of har- 
 bors; a floating target should therefore be used. 
 Any floating object, as an empty cask or a spar, 
 anchored to mark the spot, suffices. The distance to 
 the target should be about 3000 yards. The practice 
 is conducted in the .same manner as for the 10-iuch 
 siege-mortar, except that for the purjiose of determin- 
 ing the points of fall, or of explosion of the shells, 
 plane-tables are employed in the manner hereafter ex- 
 plained. As the shells are not recovered after being 
 fired, bursting-charges may be used. 
 
 Sea-coast guns are chiefly used against ships, and 
 are fired over water; hence the target should be floating. 
 For the 15-inch smooth-bore and the 8-inch and Par- 
 rott rifles it shoulil be moored at a distance of about 
 3000 yards; for the 10-inch smoothbore the distance 
 should Ik' about 2000 yards. Plane-tables are em- 
 ployed for the purpose of recording the striking-points 
 of shots or the bursting- distance of shells. The 
 tables are stationed one at each extremity of a line. 
 
 the length of which is accurately determined either 
 by actual measurement or by triangulation from a 
 base-line, the measurement of which h;is been made 
 with care and precision. At every i)ost mounting 
 heavy artillery a ba.se-line should IJe so detennined 
 and permanently marked, to be used for the various 
 requirements of artillery -firing. About 1000 yards is 
 a suitable length for it. The plane-tables are placed 
 so as to have a clear view of the target, of each other, 
 and of the guns. They should, furthermore, Ite so 
 placed that the lines joining them with the target will 
 intersect at as near a right angle as possible This en- 
 ables the position of the shot to be determined and 
 plotted with greater accuracy than woidd be the case 
 did the lines intersect with a very acute angle. The 
 direction of the wind is determined by a \ane at the 
 piece. The most convenient and reliable method of 
 noting it is by referring it to the dial of a watch held 
 in such a position that the line passing through VI 
 and XII will be parallel to the line of fire with the 
 XII towards the target. The (Unction is that from 
 which the wind comes. When coming directly from 
 the front, it is noted as " tirelce o'clock"; when from 
 the rear, as " six o'clock"; when from the right, as 
 " three o'clock"; when from the left, as " nine o'clock"; 
 and when from intermediate points, in a similar 
 manner. The velocity of the wind is determined by 
 an anemometer. When it is practicable to establish 
 telegraphic communication, all of the foregoing opera- 
 tions, so far as signaling is concerned, arc greatly 
 facilitated. 
 
 The target for the Gatling gun is made of light can- 
 vas or ordinar>' muslin, antl is in four or more sec- 
 tions, each section being 8 feet long by 6 feet high. 
 The canvas is nailed to a strong light frame, the up- 
 rights of which extend about 12 inches below the 
 canvas in order that they may be set in the ground. 
 Practice should commence at 200 yards and the dis- 
 tance be increased up to 1000 yards, or more. At the 
 first distance a single section of the target is sufficient, 
 and as the distance increases other sections will be 
 added. Smooth, level, and firm ground should be se- 
 lected for the gun to st;md upon. See Floating Target 
 and Tiirr/it. 
 
 ARTILLERY SCHOOL.— A special school for in- 
 struction and training in artillery. The first school 
 for artillery instruction was estalilished by the 
 Venetians in the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 Soon afterwards Charles V. established similar 
 schools at Burgos and in Sicily. The French found- 
 ed a school of practical artillery in 1675; and in 1679 
 they added to it a theoretical school at Douai. At 
 present France has no fewer than seven such estab- 
 lishments. Saxony had an artilleiy school in 1766; 
 but the other German States were more tardy in this 
 work. In Prussia the artillery and engineer schools 
 are combined, but in most of the European States a 
 separation between these two arms of the science is 
 made. In most schools of artillery the ofl[icers' 
 studies comprise mathematics, as much of physics 
 and chemistry as is necessary to the duties of the 
 artillerist, field and permanent fortification, garri.son 
 warfare, field-tactics, military history and topog- 
 raphy, military surveying aiid sketching, drawing 
 from" the nKxlel, etc. The practical exercises inchide 
 the serving and firing of guns and mortars, the laying 
 out and constructing^of field-batteries, and the opera- 
 tions of the laboratorj- and artillery workshop. 
 
 The headquarters "for artillery instruction in Eng- 
 land are at Woolwich. A R'n'iil Military Academy 
 was established there in 1741, to impart professional 
 instruction to the Artillerists and Engineers belonguig 
 to the Roval Armv. The East India Company sent 
 their Arlillerv Cadets to this academy from the year 
 1798 to 1810;" but afterwards, until 1861, they main- 
 tained a separate establishment at Addiscombe (which, 
 however, was not wholly for artillery). At the pivs- 
 ent day the students in "the academy" are recruited by 
 fair open competition. Thev enter" between the ages 
 I of seventeen and twenty; and they remain two years.
 
 AETILLEKY TKAIN. 
 
 110 
 
 ABT OF WAB. 
 
 or such longer time as may fit them to pass an ex- 
 amination for the Hoyal Artillery or Engineers. The 
 sons of military ollicers are admitted on lower terms 
 than those of other jiersons. The tinaneial eontrol is 
 under the Secretary of Slate for War; but the Com- 
 mander-in-t'hief regulates the discipline and internal 
 arrangements. There are twenty-two Professors and 
 Inslnietors of various kinds. Besides this Royal 
 Military Academy, there is at WiK)lwich a Deptiit- 
 inent of Artillery Studiin. for the instruction of jiniior 
 officers of artillery, and for facilitating their \isits to 
 the forliticatioas and puhlic works of foreign coun- 
 tries. There is also a S<lict CumniitUe, whose duties 
 are not so much educational as e.xiJerimcntal ; it is a 
 small establishment for examining and reporting on 
 the numerous in^•entions relating to artillery brought 
 before the War Office. The Schcol of Gunnery at 
 Shoeburyness, suliordinate to the headquarters of the 
 artillery at Woolwich, is for experiments upon 
 ordnance, gunpowder, and projectiles, and to exercise 
 young artillery officers in the practical and mechani- 
 cal duties of their profession. 
 
 An Artillery School was established in the United 
 States in 1823 at Fortress Monroe, but discontinued 
 six jearS later. The School was re-established in 
 1858, and was again closed when the war began in 
 1861. Near the close of 1867 it was again estab- 
 lished. It is commanded by a Colonel of Artillery, 
 assLsted by a Lieutenant-Colonel and a Major. The 
 instruction is both theoretical and practical; and each 
 of the Artillery Kegiments in the Regular Army has 
 one foot-battery at the School, the "officers of the 
 several batteries being the Instructors. The term of 
 instmction at present is two years for officers and 
 one year for enlisted men. The course of studies for 
 enlisted men comprises mathematics, geography, his- 
 ton,-, tactics, and penmanship. The course of prac- 
 tical exercises comprises as much of that appointed for 
 the school for officers as is essential for enlisted men. 
 
 The following is a summary of the Course of In- 
 struction pursued at the United States Artillery 
 School: 
 
 ABTILLEBT TBAIN.— The guns which accom- 
 pany an army are assembled into an Artillery Train, 
 containing i>ieces of different weights and calibers, to 
 meet the various requirements of a campaign; anil a 
 certain nimilHT of men with officei's are attached to 
 the train, some to serve the guns, others to move and 
 inoinit llicm and effect repaire. 
 
 ART OF WAB.— War, as us\ially defined, is a con- 
 test between Nations, Stales, or parts of Slates, carried 
 on by force. Wars, from the causes for which they 
 are waged, or which have jiroiiuced them, are calletl 
 Wars of (Jpiuion.Wars of Conquest, Civil Wars, Wars 
 of Rebellion or Insurrection, etc. In a military point 
 view wars are usually classed as defensive or offen- 
 sive wars. The Armies of a Nation entering the 
 domairs of another for the puqiose of making war 
 upon il carry on an offensive war, while for the lat- 
 ter nation the war is defensive. To the Science of 
 War belongs a study of those principles which govern 
 all the openilions of war, and which are deduced 
 from a study of the history of wars conducted by 
 great Military Commanders. The Art of War is the 
 practical application of these principles by a General 
 in command of an army. The Art of War is divided 
 into branches, which by most mililary authorities are 
 classed as follows: (a) Statesmanship in relation to 
 war; (A) Strategy; (p) Grand Tactics; (<?) Logistics; 
 ((■) Engineering; ( /) Minor Tactics. The first subject 
 belongs purely to tlie political questions involved in 
 the war, which clearly do not come within the scope 
 of a militarj- work. There is a subject which most 
 clearly is a branch of the Art of War, and which of 
 late yeare has become of the first importance, owing 
 to the short duration of recent wars, \iz., the Organi- 
 zation of Annies. We have lately seen that power 
 which has developed the system of organization to 
 the greatest extent and most highly perfected it con- 
 C|uer in two wars of gicat magnitude in a wonder- 
 fully short period. That Nation which adopts the 
 most perfect plan of organizing its Armies will have a 
 great advantage in future wai-s; for, as time is the 
 most important element in militarj- operations, the 
 
 Month. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 August. 
 
 Septemljer. 
 
 October. 
 
 November. 
 
 December. 
 
 January. 
 
 February. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 Sttdies. 
 
 Practice. 
 
 Mni/ iOth to June Wth. 
 Mathematics: prelimina- 
 ry instruction in Engi- 
 neering; Signaling and 
 Telegraphy. 
 
 June lOfh to July Ut. 
 Preliminary instruction 
 in Artillery Science: Sig- 
 naling and' Telegraphy. 
 
 May iOlh to July ist. 
 
 * Drill, viz.: The Ser- 
 vice and Mechanical Ma- 
 neuvers o( the various 
 kinds of pieces, laying 
 platforms for siege-euns 
 and mortars; firing-prac- 
 tice with field- and siege- 
 guns, howitzers, and siege 
 and sea-coast mortars. 
 
 July 1st to Sejiteinber Isf. 
 
 Artillery Firing-practice. 
 
 • Drill. 
 
 Sept. 1st to Dec. 2Sd. 
 
 Engineering,— 
 
 including Examination in 
 same. 
 
 Sept. 1st to Dec. SSd. 
 
 Engineering, — 
 
 including Examination in 
 same. 
 
 • Drill. 
 
 Jan. Clh to Sept. 1st, 
 ad year. 
 
 Artillery Tactics and 
 the Science ot Artillery. 
 
 Jan. bth to Sept 1st, 
 2d year. 
 
 Artillery Science. 
 
 • Drill. 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 Stcdies. 
 
 Practice. 
 
 Artillery Tactics and the 
 Science of Artillery. 
 
 Artillery Science. 
 • Drill. 
 
 July 1st to September Ist. 
 
 Artillery Firing-practice. 
 
 • Drill. 
 
 Sept. Ut to Jan. 15th. 
 
 Military History, Ge- 
 ography, Infantr.v and 
 Grand Tactics.— including 
 Examination in same. 
 
 Jan. 15th to April 15fh. 
 
 Law and Military Ad- 
 ministration, — incfudiug 
 Examination in same. 
 
 Sept. lattoJan. Kth. 
 
 Infantry, Applied Tactics. 
 
 • DrUl. 
 
 Jan. 15th to April 15th. 
 
 Military Administration. 
 •Drill. 
 
 April lith to May l$t : 
 
 Examination. 
 
 • This practice continues during the term of two years, daily, excepting Saturdays and Sundays, and such periods as 
 are occupied in other practical exercises. Infantry -drill, and target-practice with small arms, at such times as ordered by 
 the Commandant. 
 
 See Military Academy.
 
 AHX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ASPHALT. 
 
 country whicli first places a superior number of dis- 
 ciplined troops in the field is enabled to assume the 
 ofiensive at once, and to advance against an enemy 
 unprepared to meet it. It is, therefore, a subject 
 which will in future demand the first consifleration 
 and the most thorough study; for, onin^ to the 
 facility with which armies are now moved to the 
 place of contest, that nation which is more fully pre- 
 pared has great odds in its favor at the beginning of 
 the war, and a few decisive actions at this time will 
 usually be favorable to it and go far toward ending 
 the conflict. 
 
 For these rea.sons, then, tlie Art of War should more 
 properly be subdivided into the following branches, 
 viz. : («) The Organization of Annies; («) Logistics; 
 (c) Strategj'; ('/) Engineering; (<) Tactics. The Or- 
 ganiz!ili()n of Armies is the building up neces-Siiry for 
 the application of the principles of strategy to them. 
 Logistics is the art of moving and supplyuig armies. 
 Strategy is the art of directing annics upon the 
 theater of war. Engineering is the art of disposing 
 troops and making anangements of obstacles by 
 means of which an inferior force mav successfully 
 resist the attacks of a superior force; and also the art 
 of overcoming and rctnoving all obstacles placed in 
 the way by an opposing force. The following are 
 the duties of Engineers of an army: the construction 
 and maintenance of field-telegraphs, the construction 
 of fortifications, the condiict of engineering opera- 
 tions at sieges, mining, bridging, survejing, recon- 
 noitcring, opening and making roads, choosing posi- 
 tions, sketching ground, etc. The details of these 
 duties will be found in the different ilanuals and 
 Te.xt-books of Engineering. Tactics is the art of put- 
 ting into execution the projects of Strateg)'. An in- 
 timate knowledge of all thc.-c branches is absolutely 
 neces,san,- in order to be a great and successful Gen- 
 eral. The formation of a plan, that is, deciding the 
 nature of the war that will be v.aged; determining 
 the objects to be attained, and the best m.anner and 
 means of attaining them; or, in other 'vords, outlin- 
 ing the general features of a campaign, belong to 
 Strategy. The execution of the plan decided upon 
 belongs to Tactics. The country in which the op- 
 posing annics can come into collision is the province 
 of Strategy. The province of Tactics is the field of 
 battle. The principles of war cannot be violated with 
 impunity. These principles are fixed and are de- 
 termined from the narrative of operations conducted 
 by successful Generals. A study of military histor,- 
 is then necessary for a proper understanding of the 
 principles of war; and as in all other professions, so 
 in war, he who is most proficient in the les-sons as 
 taught by the masters of the >rt will be most succe.s.sful. 
 
 The duties of each arm of the service overlap and 
 blend into one another, and the higher the grade an 
 officer attains, the more requisite it is that he should 
 be acquainted generall}' with the duties of those anns 
 of the service to which he him.self does not belong. 
 By this means alone can we hope to obtain that in- 
 telligent co-operation, that harmonious working of 
 nil branches of the service together, which makes a 
 perfect machine out of the various elements compris- 
 ing an army, and at the s;ime time gives the surest 
 guarantee of success. In armies, as elsewhere, there 
 is a tendency for every one to tliink his own branch, 
 that which he has sttidietl most and knows best, the 
 most important. Such feelings are veiT natural, and 
 in the lower grades often do much good; but as men 
 rise in the service it is desirable that they should know 
 .something of the duties of other branches, and the 
 difficulties others have to contend vvilh. Such 
 knowledge tends to jiroduee cordiality and forbear- 
 ance. Cavalry officers falling into command of 
 mixed forces will not then expect their infautrj- to 
 pdlop, infantiT officers will not -seek to bind the 
 cavalry to the pace of their infantry. A knowledge 
 of the capabilities of other arms will enable officers to 
 use those arms to the best advantage as occasion 
 offers. It shotild, however, be borne in mind that it 
 
 is impossible to lay down fixed rules of action. 
 Nearly even' militari' regulation should be followed 
 by the words "according to the ground and accord- 
 ing to circumstances." Rides are but guides, which 
 must be intelligently, not blindly, followed. Practice 
 and experience alone can decide many points; prac- 
 tice and experience alone can give the power of ap- 
 plying rules; but theory, by which is really meant the 
 experience obtahied by others, Ls not the less impor- 
 tant and valuable. Principles are but guides, which 
 must be revised, examined, and verified after each 
 war, after each discovery that may be brought to bear 
 on the military art. The great success of Gustavns 
 Adolphus, Frederick, Marlborough, Napoleon, Wel- 
 lington, Von Moltke, are but due to careful consider- 
 ation and appreciation of the effects of various dis- 
 coveries on the Art of War. There is no fin.iUtv in 
 the Art of War. 
 
 ARX. — In the ancient military art, a fort, castle, 
 etc., for the defense of a place. 
 
 ARZEGAGE8.— Batons or canes with iron at both 
 ends. They were carried by the Estradiots, or Alba- 
 nian cavaliers, who served in France under Charles 
 VIII. and Louis XII. 
 
 ASAFES. — An inferior class of Turkish soldiers 
 employed in sieges to work in intrenchments and per- 
 form other pioneer dutv. 
 
 ASHLAE— ASHLER.— Building-stone squared and 
 hewn, as distiuguishetl from rubble, or rough stones 
 which are used as they come from the quarry without 
 being dressed. Ashlar is laid in regular courses in 
 fortification, and is of various kinds, according to 
 the stjie of working that side of the stone which is to 
 form the facing of the wall. Thus there are tookd 
 ashlar — the marks of the tooling being either 
 random or in grooves ; pAished ashlar, in which the 
 face of the stone is rubbed smooth; and rustic ash- 
 lar, in which onlv' the joints are accurately hewn, the 
 face of the stone being left projecting irregularly. 
 Quarriers applj' the term ashhtf to squared stones 
 before being hewn. In old doctmients the term ai> 
 pears under a variety of forms, such as achlere, ashe- 
 lar, aslure. and txthir. 
 
 ASKERI MOHAMMEDIZE.— A name given to the 
 Turkish regular troops organized according lo mod- 
 ern tactics. 
 
 ASPECT. — An army is said to hold a menacing as- 
 pect when by advanced movements or positions it 
 gives the opposing enemy cause to apprehend an at- 
 tack. A country is saitl to have a military aspect 
 when its generalsituation presents appropriate obsta- 
 cles or facilities for an army acting on the offensive or 
 defensive. An army is said to have an imposing^ as- 
 pect when it appears stronger than it really is. This 
 appearance is often a.ssumed for the purpose of de- 
 ceinngan enemy, and maj- not improperly be consid- 
 ered as a principal ruse de rpierre. 
 
 ASPHALT— ASPHALTUM.— The name given to a 
 bituminous substance of a solid consistence. It prob- 
 ably owes its origin to vegetable matter which has 
 been subjected to a slow process of decomposition or 
 decay, resulting in the production of a bituminous 
 coal, from which, bv volciuiic agency, the asphalt has 
 been distilled and diffused over the neighboring dis- 
 trict. The largest natural deposit of asphalt is mthe 
 Island of Trinidad, where the plain known as the 
 Pitch Lake is found. The asphalt from Trinidad is 
 largeh' used for ships' bottoms, and is reputed to kill 
 the teredo or borer, which proves itself so very ile- 
 structive to the wood of ships in tropical regions. 
 Asphalt is also found on the shores of the Dead Sea in 
 large quantity, and is known to the Arabs by the 
 nanie or Ilajar Mo'isa, or Moses' Stmie. It likewise 
 occurs in South America at Coxitambo near Cuenca, 
 in Alsace and other parts of the European Continent, 
 in East Lothian and Fife.shire (Scotland), in Shrop- 
 shire, etc. During the manufactine of coal-gas nuich 
 tarry matter is evolved from the retort, and is re- 
 ceived in the coolers or condensers. If this tar be 
 subjected to partial distillation, naphtha and other
 
 ASPIC. 
 
 112 
 
 ASSASSINS. 
 
 volatilf iiialtt'i> escaix', and an aiiiticinl asphalt is k'ft 
 bthiuil, wliich possesses the priiieipal properties ami 
 can l)e emi)loyeil for the iiuiiority of purjioses to 
 wliieh native asphalt is applied. The various kinds 
 of asphalt have a pitchy odor, are of a black or dark- 
 brown color, but do not soil the linsrers; are insoluble 
 in water, sparinirly soluble in alcohol; but are in 
 trreat part dissolved by ether, oil of turpentine, and 
 uaphth:i. Ftiriih'iiin, or rock-oil, is a native liquid bi- 
 tumen, which larirely exudes from crevices in rocks 
 in many districts, aiid is essentially asphalt dissolved 
 iu uaplilha. The specltic jrravity of asphalt is very 
 near that of water, raniring from 1000 to 1100. AVhen 
 set fire to, it burns readily with a smoky fiamo, and 
 is often used in the smaller jras-works as fuel, by 
 being allowed to run very slowly into the furnace- 
 lircsr Asphalt, besides being employed for coating 
 the exterior of ships' liottoms. is also used, in a heated 
 condition, for saturating timber which is intended for 
 piles in the construction of breakwaters, river-lnidges, 
 and other situations where the combined action of the 
 air, water, and minute animals would soon render or- 
 dinary wood rotten and useless. Wooden houses may 
 be preservetl in the same manner by a coaling of as- 
 phalt applied externally; and grouiiJ-flooring placed 
 in damp situations is much tlie better for the spaces 
 between the planks being filled up with asphalt. 
 About 1840 iusphalt began to be generally used for 
 fcot-pavements, and also for floors of cellars and out- 
 houses. For purposes of this nature it is heated in 
 portalile boilers, into which, at a certain stage of the 
 preparation, there is poured a quantity of thoroughly 
 dried .sjiud, gravel, or powdered limestone, which is 
 well mixed with the liquid asphalt. The mixture is 
 then spread on the spot prepared for it, and when 
 cool forms a hard kind of pavement. Of this method 
 of forming footways high expectations were at first 
 formed; but latterly tlie process of asphalting has 
 gone out of use in England, as it is foiuid not to Ije 
 so durable as stone, and therefore, in ordinar\- cir- 
 cumslaiice.>, more costly. In Paris, however, asphalt- 
 ing is still extensively practiced iu the more spacious 
 thoroughfares. The better kinds of asphalt are used 
 in the manufacture of the black varnish which is em- 
 ployeil iu foruung the enamel which coats the variety 
 of leather known as patent leather. 
 
 ASPIC. — An ancient piece of ordnance which car- 
 ried a l'J-i)ouud shot; the piece itself was 11 feet long, 
 and weighe<l -lO.IO pounds. 
 
 ASPIS. — A large round or oblong shield which 
 was used by the heavj' infantry of the ancient Gre- 
 cians. 
 
 ASSAS-BACHI. — A superior officer of Janissaries, 
 who was also Administrator of the Police Depart- 
 ment in (Joustantlnople, and presided over public exe- 
 cutions. 
 
 ASSASSINATION.— The law of war does not allow 
 proclaiming either an individual belonging to the 
 hostile army, or a citizen, or a subject of the hostile 
 government, an outlaw, who may be slain without 
 trial by any captor, any more than the modern law 
 of peace allows such international outlawry; on the 
 contrary, it abhors such outrage. The sternest re- 
 taliation should follow the murder convmitted in con- 
 sequence of such proclamation, made by whatever 
 authority. Civilized nations look with horror upon 
 offers of rewards for the assassination of enemies as 
 relai>ses into barliarisin. 
 
 ASSASSINS.— A military order, a branch of the so- 
 cret sect of the Ismaelites. The secret doctrines of 
 these Ismaelites, who had their headquarters in Cairo, 
 declared the descendants of Isimul, the last of the 
 seven so-called Imaums, to be alone entitled to the 
 califate; and gave an allegoricjil interpretation to the 
 precepts of Islam, which led, as their adversaries as- 
 serted, to considering all positive religions equally 
 right, and all actions morally indifferent. The atro- 
 cious career of the As.sassins was but a natund .se- 
 quence of such tcachin;:. The founder of these last, 
 Hassan-beu-Sabbah-el-llomairi, of Persian descent, 
 
 and imbued with the free-thinking tendencies of his 
 country, hail, about tl." middle of the eleventh cen- 
 tiuy. studied at .Vislipur, under the celebrated Mo- 
 wasek, and had subsequently obtained from Isniaelite 
 DaiK, or religious leaders, a partial insight into their 
 secret doctrines, and a partial consecration to the rank 
 of Dai. But on betaking himself to the centnd lodge 
 at Cairo, he quarreled with tlie heads of the sect, and 
 was doomed to banisiiment. He suceeede<l, however, 
 in making his cscaiie from the ship, and reaching the 
 Syrian coast, after which he returned to Persia, every- 
 wiiere collecting adherents, with the \iew of foimd- 
 ing, ujion the Isniaelite nu)del, a secret order of his 
 own, a species of organized society which .should be a 
 terror to his most powerful neighlwirs. In lilDO Ilas- 
 .s;ui conquered the Fortress of Alanuit, in the Per- 
 sian district of Hudbar; and continued to increa.sc in 
 stren.glh, intimidating Princes and Governors by a se- 
 ries of secret murders, and gaining pos-ession of sev- 
 eral fortitied Castles, with their surrounding territories, 
 both in the mountain-range south of the Ca.spian, in 
 Kuhistan, anil iu the mountains of Syria (.Massiat). 
 The internal coustitulion of the order, wliich had 
 some resemblance to the orders of CInisiian Knight- 
 hood, was as follows: First, as supreme and absolute 
 ruler, came the Sheikh-al-jebai, the Prince or Old Man 
 of the Mountain. Ilis vicegerents in Jebal, Kuhistan, 
 and Syria were the lh:xv Dui-<(l-ke'>/r, or Grand-Priors 
 of the" order. Next came the Dais and Ketiks, which 
 last were not, however, initiated, like the former, into 
 every stage of the secret doct.-ines, and had no autliority 
 as teachers. To the uninitiated belonged tiivt of all 
 the Fedavies or Fedais, i.e., the devoted: a band of 
 resolute youths, the ever-ready and blindly obedient 
 executioners of the Old Man of the Mountain. Before 
 he assigned to them their bloody tasks he used to 
 have them thrown into a st.ite of ecstasy by the iiuoxi- 
 cating influence of the hmlii.-h (the hemp-plant), which 
 circmnstance led to the order being called llashisliim, 
 or hemp-eaters. The word was changed by Euro- 
 peans into Assiissins, and transplanted into the lan- 
 guages of the West w^ith the signilieation of nuuder- 
 ers. The Lasilis, or novices, formed the sixth divi- 
 sion of the order, and the laborers and mechanics the 
 seventh. Upon these the most rigid observance of 
 the Koran was enjoined; while the initiated, on the 
 contrary, looked upon all i>osiiive religion as null. 
 The catechism of the order, placi-d by Has-sin in the 
 hands of his Dais, consisted of seven parts, of which 
 the seco:id treated, among o;her things, of the art of 
 worming themselves into the confidence of men. Jt 
 is easy to conceive the terror v.hich so unscrupulous 
 a .sect" must have inspired. Several Princ-cs secretly 
 paid tribute to the Old Man of the Moimtain. Ha.s- 
 san, -nho died at the age of 70 (1124 .\.D.), ;ippointed 
 as his successor, Kia-Busurg-Omid, one of his Grand- 
 Priors. Kia-Busurg-Omid was succeided in 1138 by 
 his son Jlohammcd, who knew how to inainl:iin his 
 power against Nureddin and Jussuf-Salaheddiii. In 
 1163, Hassiui II. was rash enough to extend the secret 
 privilege of the initiated — exemption, namely, from 
 the positive preie])ts of religion — to the people .nener- 
 ally, ;ind to ;ibolish Islam iii" the Assassin State, which 
 led to his falling a victim to his brother-in-law's dag- 
 ger. Under the rule of his son, :Mohammed II., who 
 acted in his father's spirit, the Syrian Dai-al-kebir, 
 Sinan, became independent and entered into negotia- 
 tions with the Clirisiian King of Jerusalem for com- 
 ing over, on certain cmulilions, to the Christian faith; 
 but the Templars killed his envoys, and rejected his 
 overtures, that tlie.s- might not lo.se the yearly tribute 
 which they drew frcan him. Mohammed was poi- 
 soned bv ilis son Hassan III., who reinstated Islam- 
 ism, and thence obtained the surname of the Xew 
 Moslem. Ha.s.«im was succeeded by Mohammed III., 
 a l>oy of nine years old. who, by his elTetninate rule, 
 led to the overthrow of the order, and was eventually 
 murdered bv the command of his son, Rokn-edilin, 
 the seventh and last Old Man of the .Mountain. In 
 1 1250 the Mongolian Prince Uulagu burst with his
 
 ASSAULT. 
 
 113 
 
 ASSAY FUENACE. 
 
 hordes upon the hillforts of Persia held by the As- 
 sassins, which amounted to about a hundred, captur- 
 ing and destroying tbcin.- The Syrian branch was 
 also put down about the end of the thirteenth cen- 
 turj-, but remnants of the sect still lingered for some 
 time longer in Kuhistaii. In 13.52 the Assa-ssins re- 
 appeared in SjTia, and indeed they are still reported 
 to e.xist iis a heretical sect both there and in Persia. 
 The Persian Ismaelitcs have an Imaum, or Superin- 
 tendent, in the district of Kum, and still inhabit the 
 neighborhood of Alamoot under the name of Hos.se- 
 inis. The Syrian Ismaelitcs live in the distinct of 
 JIassiat or Ma.ssvad. Their Castle was taken from 
 them in 1809 by the Nossaries, but afterwards re- 
 stored. 
 
 ASSAULT. — Assaults arc of two kinds; open as- 
 Sitults antl those made with great secrecy. Whatever 
 be the kind of !i-s.satilt, it should be preceded by recon- 
 noiss;mces, made as full as possible, for the purpose 
 of ascertaining the best and cisiest approaches to the 
 work, the nature and position of the obstacles, the 
 nimibers and kinds of troops composing the garrison, 
 and the strength and positions of the reserves exte- 
 rior to the work, but near enough to take part in its 
 defen.se. Particular attention should also be paid to 
 the positions for the artillery of the attack. These 
 positions should be such that the guns Ciin bring en- 
 filading tires on the principal faces of the work, 
 strong cross fires upou the ix)int of attack, and if 
 possible a sweeping fire on the approaches to the 
 work in rear. An important point to be observed in 
 this matter is to select, if possible, positions from I 
 which the guns will not have to be removed during ' 
 the attack. 
 
 In any a.s.sault, it is necessary that the Officer Com- 
 manding and responsible for the whole operation 
 should be in immediate comnumication with the 
 troops during the assjiult, and lie present with the 
 reserve or supporting party. The troops destined } 
 for this duty should be di\ided into two portions, 
 each equal in strength to three fourths of the garrisoa I 
 attacked: one jxjrtion being the attacking partj', and 
 the osher half the reserve or supporting party. 
 Each column of the attacking party will also be sub- 
 divided into advance, main body, and supiwrt, what- 
 ever may be the number of these columns. The 
 disposition of the attacking party, as it reaches the 
 point of attack, will be regulated by the Engineer ' 
 Officer, under the orders of the Officer Commanding — 
 they having made the necessiirj- recounoissjiiices; the i 
 party must Ije furnished with tools, ladders, and 
 proper implements, adapted to the circumstances of 
 the moment, and accompanied by a detachment of 
 sappers. The disposition of the reserve, equal, as 
 before observed, to the whole attacking force, should 
 be regulated by the officer intrusted with the execu- 
 tion of the as.silult; and this reserve should be accom- 
 panied or not, according to circumstances, by atvalry 
 and field-artillery. When these descriptions of force 
 are present, the former shoidd be placed under cover 
 or out of gun-shot, about 1.500 yards distant: the ar- 
 tillery should be kept in hand until the attacking 
 party is engaged, when the guns should be spread 
 out on the tlanks and open a vigorous fire upon the 
 works; the infantry, brought immediately in rear of 
 the leading attack, should he placed under cover, if 
 l)0.ssil)le, from fire of grape and musketry, and halted 
 imtil the issue of the first a.s.siiult is seeii. It is im- 
 possible to regulate an assault by any minute sugges- 
 tions for the advance, except to observe that it is usual 
 for each column to attack the salient points of the 
 works and lejist defended portions; to throw out 
 skirmishers and firing-parties under anj- cover availa- 
 ble, and keep up a rapid and compact fire upon the 
 defenders; to follow with the Siippers and grenadiers 
 to force all obstructions; and then to advance the main 
 Ixxiy, the supports of each column being judiciously 
 planted in the rear. Eventually, as success occurs 
 and the whole move on, points of security should be 
 taken up, such as the reverse, or the exterior slope of i 
 
 the works; buildings, walls, as well as gorges and 
 flanks, which frequently give cover. Men should be 
 planteil under an officer, with instructions to take no 
 notice of the pell-mell, but to keep tip a heavj- firing 
 in front; employing the sappers in intrenching the 
 position taken up by the supporting party, or in col- 
 lecting wagons, carts, caniages, etc., capable of being 
 made into a barricade. Either on the supix)silion 
 that the success of the a-ssimlt is doubtful, or that 
 there is a check or repulse, the reserve, in ca.se of 
 doul)tful success, to render the attack doubly sure, 
 shoidd move forward imder the Officer Commanding 
 the whole a.ssiiulting force, and relieve the a.s,s;iilanls, 
 who take their places as the reserve as soon as order 
 can be restored; the artillery brought into position in 
 the openings, between the advancing columns, would 
 be directed upon the retreating or resisting forces; and 
 if success is finally complete, the cavalry, iu the event 
 of their lieing employed, will move forward, either 
 through the openings cleared, or by a detour, if a for- 
 tified town, in piu^iiit. 
 
 In the second case — that of a check — the reserve, on 
 the reconnoissance of the Officer Commanding, will 
 either march forward in support of the attack, or to 
 cover the retreat, if further perseverance in the as- 
 s;iult is deemed impracticable — the artillery and cav- 
 alry being warned .as to the intention. In the event 
 of the ;»ssault being repulsed, the reserve, which 
 .should be in echelon, having advanced-guards in 
 front, will allow the retreating paity to move 
 through the intervals, and the advanced-guard will 
 endeavor to check the pursuit; if overpowered, they 
 will fall back on the reserve, and the whole may in 
 that manner retreat until beyond gun-shot, endeavor- 
 ing to make a stand, rejiulse the garri.son, and if ]ios- 
 sible convert failure into success, if the pursuit has 
 been badly conducted and without due caution. As 
 an important rule in all assaults, except in partial at- 
 tacks, as an outwork, or any particular work in 
 which a lodgment is to be inade, the composition 
 of the forces should be by regiments and corps, and 
 not by detachments; and each non-commissioned of- 
 ficer should be pro\ided with the means of spiking 
 a gun, for which purpose even an old nail is sulli- 
 cient. Aiisn lilts, ii fciisibl<; would seldom fail with 
 these precautions, and there are few posts not open 
 toassjiult, by taking the proper opportunity . An officer 
 intrusted with the defense of a place should there- 
 fore exercise the most unremitting %igilance. See 
 
 Afl.irk. 
 
 ASSAY FURNACE.— A furnace with a chamber or 
 miirtle in which the metallic ore or alloy to be tested 
 is expo.scd to heat. Assaying is more generally fol- 
 lowed in the examination of compounds of silver and 
 goUI, but is likewise resorted to in the investigation 
 of ores of iron, copper, tin, zinc, bismuth, antimony, 
 mercury, and lead. In manufactured articles, also, 
 some foreign metal (generally copper) is (iresent, to 
 impart hardness to the metal: ami in Great Britain 
 caeli article is assayed at the fjoldsniitlis' Hall, previ- 
 ously to Ixing sold, so as to determine tlie exact rich- 
 ness of the metal whereof it is made. In the a.ssjiy of 
 compounds containing sUver, the apparatus employed 
 is a cupel, a small basin-shaped vessel made of bone- 
 a.sh; and a miijne, composed of fire-clay, about eight 
 inches in length and three to four inches in diameter, 
 shaped like a miniature railway-tunnel, open at one 
 enil, closed at the other end, and having mnnerous 
 .slits or air-holes along the side. The drawing shows 
 the Judson Assjiy Furnace, much ased in Ordnance 
 Lalwratories. It is constructed in three sections, 
 wiiercby the following advantages are secured: the 
 risk of cracking, by luicqual expansion and contrac- 
 tion, is much diminished: without siicrificing any- 
 thing in strength, the gross weight is considerably re- 
 duced: and the furnace is rendered very portable. 
 The grate is a revolving one. The convenience of 
 this in remo\ing ashes and clinkers is too e\ident to 
 need comment." The muffle-doors and the door for 
 feeding and crucible operations are large. There is
 
 ASSEGAI. 
 
 114 
 
 A88I8TAKT BUBOEOHS. 
 
 a niiiffle-(l(x>r in both front and back in onli-r to use a 
 niuttle oiHii at IhhIi entls. The advantagi's of this 
 Btylc of muffle are the <;reater eonvcnieuee in work- 
 ing the charge, the diniinishiti risk of cracking by 
 unequal expansion and contraction, and the better 
 
 circulation of air over the contents. The ordinary 
 muffle, closed at the back, can also be used as with 
 anj- other furnace. The doors have small holes in 
 them through which the reactions going on within 
 the m\iffle may l)e watched without injury either to 
 the operation or the operator. 
 
 ASSEGAI. — A light projectile spear employed by 
 the K;iltirs. Also written Aumgai. 
 
 ASSEGUAY. — A kind of knife-dagger, used very 
 Commonlv in the Levant. 
 
 ASSEMBLING.— The act of putting in their re- 
 spective places and fastening together the component 
 parts of an article composed of a number of (listinct 
 pieces, so as to form a complete and perfect whole; 
 as the cheeks and stock of a gun-carriage, with their 
 connected parts; the lock, stock, and barrel of a mus- 
 ket, etc. The term is more peculiarly aiiiilicable to 
 the fitting together of jiarts which are liiadc strictly to 
 fixed shapes and dimensions so as to be promiscuously 
 interchangeable. The system of intcrchangeability 
 of parts was first introduced into the French Artillery 
 8er\nce by General Gribeauval, about the year 1705. 
 This system was further simplitied and extended, and 
 was finally applied in the United States Arsenals and 
 Armories to all articles made up of pieces, the im- 
 provements in machinery enabling most articles to be 
 made accurately to pattern without depending on the 
 eve and hand <if the workman. This lias been ear- 
 ned to a ven,' high pitch of improvement by means 
 of the machinery at the Springfield Armory and 
 other manufactories of sniiiU-anns in this country; 
 and the beauty and utility of the system, by which 
 exact equality of dimensions is insured in every one 
 among thousiuids of almost microscopic screws and 
 other .small parts, are particularly exeinitlitied in the 
 ■work of the American walcli and .sewing-niachiiie 
 companies. This system of intcrchangeability and 
 assemblage, which by enabling a large proportion of 
 perfect and scrviccjible articles to lie made up from 
 the part.s of similar articles which have been broken 
 or injured in tisj', instead of permitting them to be 
 cast into the scriip-heap, is one of the most beautiful 
 triumphs of mo<lern mechanism. It has proved it- 
 self capable of adaptation to large a.s well as .small 
 machinery, and is now applied to the locomotives of 
 the I'ciiM^vlv.iniii K-illroad. 
 
 ASSEMBLING BOLT.— A holt used for holding to- 
 
 gether two or more removable pieces, as the cheeks 
 
 and slock of a field gun-carriage. 
 
 ASSEMBLY. — In the conduct of an army, the 
 second beating of the drum or sounding of the bugle 
 before a march, at which the soldiers strike their 
 tents if eneain)ied, roll tliem up, ami stand to arms. 
 
 ASSEB. — An instrument of warfare used by the 
 Romans on their warships; it consisted of a hea\'y 
 pole with an iron head, aiul was used as a battering- 
 ram against hostile ships. Other authorities assert 
 that it was used to destrov the ricrtrins only. 
 
 ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGES.— In the English 
 army, the deteniiinatidn by a Committee of Omeers 
 of the value of the injury done to the barracks each 
 month, in order that stoppages in liipiidation may be 
 made from men who have committed the damage. 
 
 ASSIDUI MILITES.— Roman soldiers who, for the 
 love of arms, sirveii in the army without receiving 
 pav or cmiilumeuts. 
 
 ASSIGNMENT OF PAY.— The assignment of pay 
 by a non-commis-sioned officer or private pre\'ious to 
 discharge is invalid. A transfer subsequent to dis- 
 charire is valid. 
 
 ASSINAIKES — ASSINARIES. — Festivals which 
 were instituted at Syracuse in commemoration of 
 the destniction of the Athenian fleet commanded by 
 Kicias and Demosthenes. 
 
 ASSISTANT. — In the English army, the third 
 grade in any particular branch of the Staff, such as 
 the Qtiartennaster-General's or Adjutant-General's. 
 After the Principal comes the Deputy and then the 
 Assistant. In the United States it is the second 
 grade in the Slatf of the Anny. 
 
 ASSISTANT ADJUTANT-GENERAL.- In the Eng- 
 lish anny, a Field-Otlieer and a subordinate member 
 of the xViljutant-General's Department. An officer of 
 this rank is attached to each division of the army. His 
 duties include the submission of reports on discipline, 
 military duties, training, and efficiency, to the Gen- 
 eral Officer C'onmianding the Division. Through his 
 Department the bulk of the correspondence on arms, 
 accoutemients, ammunition, etc., passes before being 
 sent on to the Control Department. The Adjutant- 
 General of the United States army has similar Assist- 
 ants. 
 
 ASSISTANT SURGEONS.— All candidates for ap- 
 pointment as As,sistant Surgeons must apply to the 
 Hon. Secretarv of War for an invitation to appear 
 before the Medical Examining Board. The applica- 
 tion must be in the handwriting of the Candidate, 
 stating age and birthplace, and be accompanied by 
 testimonials from Professors of the College in which 
 he graduated, or from other Physicians in good re- 
 I)Ute. Candidates must be between twenty-one and 
 twenty<Mght jears of age (without any exceptions), 
 and graduates of a regidar Medical College, e\idence 
 of which must be submitted to the Board before ex- 
 amination. The morals, habits, jihysical and mental 
 qualifications, and general aptitude for the service of 
 each Candidate are subjects for carefid examination 
 by the Board, and a favoial)le rejiort is not made in 
 any case in wliich there is a reasonable dotilit. 
 
 The following is the general plan of the examina- 
 tion: 1. A short es.say. either autobiograjihical or 
 upon some professional sidiject — to be indicated by 
 the Board. 2. Physical examination. This will be 
 rigid, and each Candidate will, in addition, be re- 
 quired to certify "that he labors lUKhr no mental or 
 phi/sical infirniity, nor dinability of an;/ hind, rrhich 
 i can in any jm.c/ interfere with the most cffieienl dis- 
 I c/iaryeqf his duties in any climate." y. Oral examina- 
 tions on subjects of preliminary education, general 
 I literature, and general .science. The Candidate must 
 satisfy the Board in this examination that he possesses 
 a thorough knowledge of the branches taught in the 
 Primary Schools, and a failure to show this will end 
 his examination. Oral examination on scientific sub- 
 jects will include chemistry and natural philosoiihy; 
 and that on literarv subjects will include English 
 literature, history oi the United States, and general
 
 J18SIZE OF ABH8. 
 
 115 
 
 ASTI0HATI8U. 
 
 history — ancient and modern. Candidates possessing 
 a knowledge of tlie higher mathematics, the ancient 
 and modern languages, will be examined therein, and 
 due credit given for a proficiency in any or all of 
 these subjects. 4. Written examination on anatoni}', 
 physiologj', surgery, practice of medicine and general 
 pathology, obstetrics, and disea.ses of women and 
 children. Oral examination on these subjects, and 
 also on medical jurisprudence, materia medica, thera- 
 peutics, pharmacy, toxicologj', and hygiene. Few 
 Candidates pay the attention to hygiene which it 
 deserves; it is made an important subject in tliis ex- 
 amination. 5. Clinical examination, medical and 
 surgical, at a hospital. 6. Performance of surgical 
 operations on the cadaver. The Board dc\'iate from 
 this general plan whenever necessary, in such manner 
 as they deem best to seciue the interests of the scr\'ice. 
 An applicant failing one examination may be allowed 
 a second after one year, but not a third. No allow- 
 ance is made for the expenses of persons undergoing 
 examination. See MetUeal Department. 
 
 ASSIZE OF ARMS. — A law enacted in the reign of 
 Henry II. which enjoined every able-bodied man in 
 the realm to maintain arms, suitable to his rank and 
 ■condition of life, at his own expense. Of this law 
 our militia is the modern offspring, and there can be 
 no doubt that it is incumbent on every British subject 
 now, as it was in earlier times, to give his service 
 when required in defense of his Sovereign and Coun- 
 try. The enforcement therefore of the ballot in the 
 militia would be no hardship. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF GRADUATES OF THE MILI- 
 TARY ACADEMY. — An Association of all Graduates 
 of West Point who comply with the provisions of its 
 Constitution. The Association was organized in 1869. 
 Its object is " to cherish the memories of our Alma 
 Mater and to promote the social intercourse and fra- 
 ternal fellowship of its Graduates." The meetings of 
 the As.sociation are held annually at West Point, 
 ■ about the time that the graduating exercises take 
 place. The oldest Graduate belonging to the Associa- 
 tion is its President. The other officers are appointed 
 annually by the President. At the present time 
 (April, 1884) the Association has 531 members on its 
 rolls. The oldest living Graduate is John T. Pratt, 
 of the class of 1818, living at Georgetown, Ky. The 
 Association endeavors to keep a record of all Gradu- 
 ates of the Academy. After the annual meeting in 
 June, a report is published by the Secretary contain- 
 ing obituary notices of deceased Graduates, together 
 ■with other matters of interest relating to the Military 
 Academv. 
 
 ASTIGMATISM.— An anomaly in the refraction of 
 the eye which, by law, disqualifies a recruit for en- 
 listment in the army. Although this defect is very 
 common, yet not until the Inst few years were its fre- 
 
 FlG. 1. 
 
 •quency and importance fully recognized. Astigma- 
 tism is a condition in which the curvature of the cor- 
 nea varies in the different meridians (Fig. 1). On 
 examining an ordinary lens we find that all parts of 
 
 its surface have an equal curvature (Fig. 2), and so it 
 should be in a normal cornea; but in an astigmatic 
 eye it is not so, since the vertical curvature differs 
 from the horizontal, thus producing a.symmetry of 
 the refractive part of the eye, and, as a result, rays 
 falling on such an eye are not all brought to a single 
 focus, but those in one meridian fall either before or 
 behind the retina, or focal point of the other meridian, 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 thus causing a confused and indistinct picture of the 
 object viewed. Astigmatism is either Myopic or 
 Hypermetropic; it may also be "mixed" — the eye 
 being Myopic in one and Hypermetropic in another 
 of its meridians. 
 
 Vision in astigmatic eyes is usually impaired both 
 for distant and near objects, since at no point can a 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 distinct image be obtained; but the distinguishing 
 feature of this defect is the fact that certain groups in 
 a series of lines and circles arc seen with more dis- 
 tinctness and blackness than any others. (Fig. 3.) 
 Astigmatism has frequently been discovered by look- 
 ing at a clock, it being noticed that wlien the hands 
 were at certain figures, say III and IX, they were 
 seen with difficulty, while when at VI or XII they 
 were distinctly seen. 
 
 In the treatment of Astigmatism, recourse must he 
 had to cylindrical kn»es, as the ordinary lenses would 
 not correct the defect. Since the correcting glasses 
 for Astigmatic eyes are frequently combinations, these 
 lenses are always ground according to formula to
 
 ASTRAGAL. 
 
 116 
 
 ATLAS POWDER. 
 
 correct the defect of each m<li\-i(hml eye, which can 
 only 1)0 lietermineU after careful measurement. See 
 lin'niit». I 
 
 ASTRAGAL. — A small convex moKIin.!; used in the 
 ornameMlul wi.rk of ordnance, and usually connected 
 witli a llal molilini: orriV/*/. 
 
 ASTROLABE.— The "name given by the Greeks to 
 any ciriular in>trument for ohsi'rvinj; the stars. Cir- 
 cular riiiirs, arraniied as in the armillary sphere, were 
 usttl f(pr this purix)si\ A projection of the sphere 
 uiHin a plane, with a jrraduated rim and sights for 
 takim; altitudes, was known as an a.slrolabe in the 
 luiliny days of astroloiry, and was the badjre of the 
 a.slroloLirer. The astrolabe has been su])erstHie<l by the 
 vaoTv iH-rfect instruments of mo<;iern lustronomy. 
 
 ASTYLLEN. — A small dam in an adit or mine to 
 previiH ilic lull passiifft- of the water. 
 
 ASYLUM.— The (X'rsons entitled to the lienelils of 
 the Asylum, or Soldier's Home as it is now called, 
 locateil in the District of Columbia, are: 1. All sol- 
 diers, and discharged soldiers of the army of the 
 United States, who may have served honestly and 
 faithfully for twentj- years. 2. All soldiers, and dis- 
 charged "soldiers of" t'he Kejridar Army, and of the 
 Volunteers, who .served in the war with ile.xico, and 
 were disjibkd by disease or wounds contracted iti that 
 servici' and in the line of their duty, and who arc, by 
 their disiibility, incjipable of further military service. 
 This class includes the portion of the Marine Corps 
 that served with the army in Mexico. 3. Every 
 soldier, and discharged soldier, who may have con- 
 tributed to the funds of the Soldier's Ho"me since the 
 passage of the Act to found the same, JIarch 3, IS.!!, 
 according to the restrictions and provisions thereof, 
 and who may have been disabled by disease or wounds 
 incurred in the service and in the line of his duty, 
 rendering him incapable of militarj' service. 4. 
 Every pensioner on account of wounds or disability 
 incurred in the military service — thouch not a con- 
 tributor to the funds of the Institution- who shall 
 transfer his pension to the Soldier's Home during the 
 period he voluntarily continues to receive its bciietits. 
 No provision is made for the wives and children of 
 those admitted. 
 
 No mutineer, deserter, or habitual drunkard, or 
 person convicted of felony or other disgraceful crime 
 of a civil nature, while in the army or" after his dis- 
 charge, is admitted into the Asylum without satisfac- 
 tory evidence being shown to 'the Commissioners of 
 ■ the Soldier's Home of subsequent service, good con- 
 duct, and reformation of character. The Commis- 
 sioners arc the Adjutant-General, the Commissary- 
 General of Subsistence, and the Surgeon-General. 
 The Soldier's Home has its Governor, Seeretai-j-, and 
 Treasurer apjiointed from the army. See Royal Mill- < 
 tan/ AkiiI'iui. I 
 
 AS YOO WERE. — A word of command correspond- 
 ing to the French remeltez roiis, fre(|ueully used by 
 drill-masters to cause a resumption of the previous 
 position when any motion of the musket or movement 
 of the body has Ix-en improperly made. ! 
 
 ATCHE'TEMENT.- A term nearly equiyalent to ar- 
 morial liearinL's, and often u.sed when speaking of 
 the anns of a deceased person as disi)laved at his 
 funeral or elsewhere. In this sense it isinore com- 
 monly used in its abbreviat<'d fonn of hakhuunt. 
 
 A'TEGAR.— The old English hand-dart, named from 
 the Saxon ni-tun, " to tling," and giir, " a weapon." 
 
 ATHANATI. — A corps of picked soldiers beloniring 
 lo the ancitnt Persian army. lO.tKH) strong, which 
 were called the "Immortals," for the re:i.son tliat as 
 soon as one of the corjjs died another was put in his 
 pla<e. 
 
 ATHLETE. — The name given to a combatant, pu- 
 gilist, wresllt-r, or ninner, in ancient Greece. Ath- 
 letics were studied in Greece as a branch of art, and 
 IchI to several asi-ful rules of diet, exercise, etc., appli- 
 cable to ordinary nuxles of life. BotUlv strength 
 and activity were so highly honored by the Greeks 
 that the athlete held a position in society" totally diller- 
 
 ent from that of the modern pugilist. When he 
 proposed to enter the lists at the Olympic or other 
 public gainis, he was examined with regard to his 
 birth, social ixjsitiou, and moral chanieter. A Ilendd 
 then steppeil forth and called upon anj' one, if he 
 knew aught disgraceful lo the Candidate, to state it. 
 Even men of genius contended for the palm in athletic 
 exercises. Chrysippus and Cleanllies, the famous 
 philosophers, were victorious athletes, or, at least,. 
 agoni»ta\ i.e., iX'r^ons who pursued gymnastic exer- 
 cises, not as a profession, hut for the sake of exercise, 
 just as at the present day wt' have gentlemen-cricketers, 
 amateur-pugilists, etc. The profound and eloquent 
 Plato appeared among the wrestlers in the Islhniian 
 games at Corinth, and also in the Pythian games at 
 Sicyon. Even the meditative Pythagoras i.s said to 
 have gained a prize at Elis, and gave instructions for 
 athletic tndning to Eurymenes, who afterwards gjiincd 
 a prize at the same iihice. So great was the honor of 
 an Olympian victor that his native city was regarded 
 as ennobled by his success, and he himself considered 
 sacred. He entered the c ity through a special breach 
 made in the walls; he was supported at the public ex- 
 pense; and when he died was honored with a public 
 funeral. Euthymus, of Locri in Italy, who had, T\ith 
 only one exception, been regulaiiy \ ietorious at Elis, 
 was honored with a statue, to which, even during his 
 lifetime, homage was jiaid by command of an oracle. 
 Athletic sports were first witnessed at Rome 186 B.C. 
 They were introduced by M. Fulvius, at the end of 
 the -.Etolian War, and became excessively popular in 
 the time of the Emperors. At Rome "the athletes 
 fomied a corporation. 
 
 ATILT. — In the manner of a tilter; in the position 
 or with the action of a man making a thrust. " To 
 run atilt at men. ' 
 
 ATLAS METAL.— The metal used in the manufac- 
 ture of the eases of Hale's rockets and Boxer's life- 
 s;iving rockets. It is a mild steel produced by the 
 Bessemer process. 
 
 ATLAS POWDER,— A nitroglycerine compound of 
 great explosive power, uniting that element in a 
 marked degree with siifety. When not confined it 
 burns quite harmlessly; but when tired by a blasting- 
 cap it explodes with enormous force. In cold 
 weather it hardens and freezes, but resumes its soft, 
 pasty condition when wanned. To secure its full 
 explosive power it must never lie used even in a semi- 
 frozen slate. As the tendency of all nitroglycerine 
 compounds is to decompose when exjiosed for any 
 length of time to the direct rays of the sun, whatever 
 the temperature of the air may be, gre;it care should 
 be taken not to ex]iose this powder, or any other com- 
 pound of a similar nature, to a test of that kind. 
 
 As an industrial agent this powder is stronger, 
 cheaper, and sjifer than most other blasting-compounds. 
 No invariable rule can be laid down as to the diame- 
 ter and length of cartridges to be used under any and 
 all circumstances, nor the anioimt nor gnide of pow- 
 der required for all kinds of work. Jluch « ill have 
 to depend upon the good sense and judgment of the 
 persons using the powder. As a general rule it 
 throws rock less and breaks it more, and extends its 
 effects much deeper than ordinary blasting powder; 
 and those who use it soon learn "not to judge of a 
 blast by first appearances. It frequently happens that 
 a blast which seems to have had no effect proves to 
 have done remarkable execution in cracking and 
 loosening the rock, and Jirci^aring the way for subse- 
 quent blasts. This is especially the case" in tunnels 
 and shafts. 
 
 The powder is put up in cartridges of either 6 or 8 
 inches in length, and from J inch to 2 inches in 
 diameter, is packed in 25-lb. and 50-lb. bo.xes, and is 
 branded as follows: 
 F+, Powder containing 15 p. c. of Nitro-Glycerine. 
 
 E, " " 20 ' 
 
 E+, " " 25 " " 
 
 D, ■' " 30 " " 
 
 D-r, " " 35 " " "
 
 ATMIDOMETEB. 
 
 WJ ATTACK OF TEMPORARY FORTIFICATIONS. 
 
 Powder containing 40 p. c. of Nitro-Glyceriue. 
 43 " " 
 
 C. 
 
 ■c+. 
 
 B, " " 50 " " 
 
 B+, " " 60 " " 
 
 A, " " 75 " " 
 
 Sec Uiff/i Krphnceg. 
 
 ATMlbOMETER. — An instrument used in tlie 
 English Medical Corps for measuring the rate of 
 t'vaporati<in. Also written Admoineter. 
 
 ATMOSPHERIC HAMMER. — A power -hammer 
 driven by the foree of eonipiessed air. In some eases 
 the air is employed merely to lift the hammer; iiidther 
 cases air is also employed as an adjunct in the elfec- 
 tive stroke. In the latter ease the upeniliiin is much 
 like that of the steam-hammer, the main dillerenee 
 beiiijj in the sul)stitutii)n of air for sti'am. 
 
 ATTACH.— To place or appoint. OHicers and Non- 
 •commissioued Officers are said to be attached to the 
 respective army, regiment, battalion, troop, or com- 
 pany with which thev are appointed to act. 
 
 ATTACHE.— The seal and signature of the Colonel- 
 General in the old French service, which were affixed 
 to commissions of officers after they had been dulj' 
 examined. 
 
 ATTACK. — An advance upon the enemy, with a 
 "view of dri\ing him from his position. It may either 
 be an attack in the open field or an attack upon a 
 fortress. In an attack in the open field, the General ; 
 first ascertains the strength and position of the enemy, 
 by means of a reconnoissance or of .spies. He then 
 seeks to discover at what point the enemy c;m make 
 the least resistance; which is generally on one or other 
 tlank. He next arranges to concentrate Ids chief 
 strength upon this partical:ir point, and to mask his 
 real intention by feigned operations in other places. 
 He then attacks witli energy and force, his troops ad- 
 vancing without halt till near enougli to use their 
 weapons with the greatest effect. The more the at- 
 tack has the character of a "surprise," the greater 
 the probability of its success. In order to make this 
 success as much felt as po.ssible, and to be provided 
 also against unforeseen disaster, the attacking body 
 should be followed at a distance by a reserve; a neg- 
 lect of this jirecaution has frequently caused the I 
 entire failure of an attack. Various forms have been 
 devised for the attack; but generally the piirnUii or 
 frontal is the one made use of. Frederick Ih,' Great, 
 tiowever, won most of his battles by the oblique at- 
 tack, in which one wing is more advanced than the 
 other. The tirst Napoleon preferred, by means of 
 his heavy columns, to penetrate and break up the 
 enemy's center. Another mode eomliines an attack 
 on oae flank as well as in front, by two separate 
 corps, so as cither to get into the enemy's rear, or to 
 perplex him as to his retreat. A skillful General will 
 be guided by circumstances in his selection among 
 these severalmodes of operating. An attack by night 
 might act most signally as a surprise; but as this 
 requires a very exact knowledge of the ground, an 
 attack at early "dawn is generally preferred. 
 
 The ditTcrent arms of the service render each its 
 •own kind of aid during an attack. First come the 
 skirmishers, or perhaps whole battalions of light and 
 active troops, whose rifles or long-range gims com- 
 mence the firing. Then come the main body of 
 infantry in heavy column; they halt within musket- 
 shot, lire, and charge with the bayonet— the skir- 
 mishers meanwhile deploj-ing romid to the rear of 
 the column, but holding themselves in readiness to 
 harass the enemy's flanks. English troops esiiecially 
 excel in the attack by bavoni't in line; but other 
 armies, for the most pari, rely more upon the mo- 
 mentum of a compact and heavy cohunn in an attack. 
 There are positions in which the cavalry allack, with 
 its shock and the use of the sword, is more efiicaeious 
 than that of the infantry. The troopers ajiproaeh at 
 a trot, break into a gallijp at a distance of one or two 
 hundred paces from the enemy, and endeavor by 
 their weight and impetuosity to force the enemy's 
 line. There are many foims of cavali-y attack, ac- i 
 
 cording to the nature of the ground and the position 
 of the enemy. The artillery, working at a distance, 
 often begin an attack long before the infantry and 
 cavalry CiUi come uj). harassing and confusing the 
 enemy. At SUO to 1'200 yards' distance, the artillery 
 poui' out shot and shell, and try to silence the enemy's 
 guns, so as to make way for the attack of the infan- 
 try; while the liayonel -charge is being made, the 
 artillery keep in elieek the enemy's cavalrv. If the 
 attack succeeds, the infantry and artillery take up the 
 ground recently occui)ie<l h\ the enemy, leaving the 
 cavalry and ritlemcn to maintain a jmrsuit; butif it 
 f;dl, the artillery and cavalry take up such positions 
 as will cover the retreal of the infantry. 
 
 In an attack upon a fortress, the ojjeration is a part 
 of that of besieging; but \ery often iiitrenchments 
 arc attacked in the open field. Such an attack has 
 the character of a surprise, when the works are ap- 
 proached under cover of night, and an attempt is 
 made to break into them on all siiles. In such case, 
 there is a reserve corps, which is rapidly brought up 
 when wanted; but the attacking corps retire liehind 
 the reserve, if repulsed. The artillery post them- 
 selves on the prolongation of the line of works, and 
 try to dislodge the enemy's guns and gunners; or 
 pour a concentric fire sufticient to breach the works. 
 The infantiy advance as close as will enable them to 
 fire upon the gunners. 'When the enemy's fire is 
 silenced, the engineers (under cover of the artillery) 
 ]iroceed to remove iialisjidcs and all other obstacles, 
 and to bridge over ditches and openings. Then fol- 
 low the operations of the stormiug-partj', analogous 
 to those noticed under Assmilt. 
 
 ATTACK OF TEMPORARY FORTIFICATIONS.— 
 The subject of the attack admits of two natural 
 divisions; the first of whicli comprehends all the 
 preliminary steps taken before the troops are 
 i)rought into action; the second, all the subsequent 
 operations of the troops. An attack is made either 
 by surprise or openly. In both cases exact informa- 
 tion should be obtained of the approaches to the 
 works; their strength; the number and character of 
 the garrison; and also the character of the Command- 
 er. This information may be obtained tlirough spies, 
 deserters, prisoners, and othei'swho have access to the 
 works; but implicit faith ought not to be jilaced in 
 the relations of such persons, as they may be in the 
 interests of the garrison; and ui all cases they shoidd 
 be strictly cross-examined and their different repre- 
 sentations be carefully compared with each other. 
 The best source of information is an exannnalion, or 
 reconn/iisa/ince, made by one or more intelligent offi- 
 cers. This reconnoissance should, if possible, be 
 made secretly; but as this will not be practicable if 
 the garrison .show even ordinary vigilance, it will be 
 necessary to protect the recounoitering officer by small 
 detachments, who drive in the outposts of the garri- 
 son. The object to be attained by the reconnois- 
 Simce is an accurate knowledge of the natural features 
 of the ground exterior to the works; the obstacles it 
 presents, and the shelters it affords to troops advanc- 
 ing; the okstacles in front of the counterscarp and in 
 the ditches; the weak and strong ]iointsof the works, 
 and the interior arrangements for the defense. If the 
 work is an isolated post, information should be ob- 
 tained as to the probability of its being succored in 
 case of an attack; the length of time it mu.st holdout 
 to receive succor; and the means it pos.sesses of hold- 
 ing out. 
 
 A surprise is an unexpeeted attack, for which the 
 a.ssailed are not prepared. It is, perhaps, the best 
 method of assailing an unilisciplined antl careless gsir- 
 rison. for its suddenness will disconcert and cause 
 irremediable confusion. Secrecy is the .soul of an 
 enterpri.se of this nature. To insure it. the garrison, 
 if aware of the presence of the troops, should be 
 deceivetl and lulled into security by false maneuvers. 
 The troops that form the expedition should 1k' kept 
 in profound ignorance of its object until they are all 
 assembled atlhe point from which they aix' to pro-
 
 ATTACK OF TEMPORARY FORTIFICATIONS. Hg ATTACK OF TEMPORiHT FORTIFICATIONS.. 
 
 cccd to the attack. The winter seii«)n is the most 
 favorable for a surprist', whicli should be miwle about 
 two hours lH.'forv ilay, iis this is tlio moineiil when the 
 statrii's are gi'iuTiiUy lausl vijilaul, and the L^Jirrison 
 is in profound sleep; anil the attempt, if at tirst suc- 
 cessful, will be facilitated by the approach of day, 
 and if unsuccessful, the troops can withdraw with 
 safety uiuler the obscurity of night. Should there Ik 
 daniier, from succors amviuir in a short time, the at- 
 tack should lie made S(K)n after miilniirht, when the 
 garrison is asleep, so that the Ircxips may retire before 
 dayliifht, after having attaineil their object. As a 
 genenil rule, the troops for the attack should consist 
 of a storrainir party, divided into an advanced party 
 and its supi>ort, lUid be followed by a reserve of 
 picked nun. Tlie advance of iheslomiinjr party will 
 open the way, and be closely followed by the support 
 in the assault of the parapet, and a reserve of picked 
 men. There should be two jruiiles, one in front of 
 the stormins; party, with the detachment of workmen 
 under the command of an engineer otticcr; tlie other 
 in the rear, under charge of a guard, to supply the 
 place of the tirst. if killed. The workmen should be 
 furnished with axes, crowbars, picka.xes, etc., and 
 sevend bags of powder, of about thirty pounds 
 each, to be attached to palisiidings, fraises, and bar- 
 riers, to blow them down, if the alarm should be 
 given whilst tliev are opening a way through them by 
 other means. All the operations should be carrietl 
 on with dispatch and in silence. Should the sen- 
 tries challenge, they must be secured or bayoneted. 
 Circumstances alone can determine whether it will be 
 ad\i.sable to make false attacks with the true one. 
 They will tiislract the attention of the garrison, if the 
 alann is given, from the true attack; and a false 
 attack has sometimes succeeded when the true one 
 Las failed. When made, one should be directed 
 against the strongest point of the work, as the strong 
 points are usually guarded with less vigilance than 
 the others; and they should all be made at some dis- 
 tance from the true attack; and orders be given to the 
 detach..unts making them to proceed to the point of 
 the true attack, should they succeed in making their 
 way into the work. If theatlack succeed, immediate 
 measures should be taken to place the v.orks in a 
 state of defense, if the position is to be maintained; 
 or else they should be destroyed, as far as practicable, 
 before retreating from them. 
 
 The gcnend arrangements for an open assault com- 
 prehend the operations to gain possession of the 
 works; the measures for maintaining pos,session of 
 them, and following up the first advantage; and, fi- 
 nally, the precautions to be observed in the event of a 
 repulse. An open assjiult may be made citlier with 
 the twiyonet alone, or with the combined action of 
 artillery and the bayonet. The first is the most ex- 
 peditious method, "but it is attended with great de- 
 struction of life; it should therefore only be resorted 
 to against works of a weak character, w"hich are fee- 
 bly g\iarded; or agiunst isolated posts within reach of 
 speedy succor. When tried it will usuallv be best to 
 make the attack just Ix-fore day. If it "is made by 
 dayliL'ht it will.iu most ca.ses, "be well to scour the 
 einiroiis with a few squadrons of cavalry, to pick up 
 patrols and stragglers who might give the alarm, 
 and then push forward rapidly the as.s;iulting col- 
 umns. If the a.s.sjuled seem prepared, liirht troops 
 sliould precede the columns of attack, with orders to j 
 display in front of the counterscarp and open a brisk 
 tire on the a.s.sjnled, for the purpose of diverting 
 their attention from the columns of attack. In an at- 
 tack with artillery, the troops are drawn up in a shel- 
 tered i)Osiiion. or Iwyond the range of the guns of the 
 as.saileil; Imtteries are then established within twelve to 
 six hundred yards of the works, in the most favorable 
 positions to enfilade the faces, and destroy all visible 
 obstacles. The batteries keep up an incessant fire of 
 ball and hollow projectiles, in order to dismount the 
 cannon an<l create confusion amonc the as,sailed. 
 When the tire of the works is silenced, the troops are 
 
 thrown forward, and demonstrations are made on 
 several points, to divert the attention of the assailed 
 from the true ix)int of attack, smd prevent him from 
 couccniniting hLs strength on that point. Several 
 false attacks should be made at the same moment with 
 the real one, and each of them should be sufficiently 
 formidable, in point of numbers, to enable the troops 
 to profit by any success they may obtain. The num- 
 lier and disposition of the troops making the as.sault 
 will depend, in so great a degree, on Icx-al circum- 
 stances, and the arrangements of the assjuled, that 
 nothing more can be laid down under this heail than 
 some genend rules. The attack shoidd be led by a 
 stonning party, composed of picked troops, or of 
 volunteers for the occasion; this party is preceded by 
 a detachment of engineer troojis, pro\ ided with the 
 neces.sary means to make their way through all obsta- 
 cles, to enable the storming party to assault with the 
 bayonet. If the detachment is arrested at the crest of 
 the counterscarji, by obstacles which must be de- 
 stroyed before further progress can be made, the lead- 
 ing files of the storming party may open a Hn on the 
 assailed to divert their tire from the workmen; but 
 I this operation should only be resorted to from neces- 
 sity, as it breaks in on that unity so es.senlial in an 
 operation of this character, and impairs the confidence 
 of the soldier in the bayonet, on which his sole reli- 
 ance, in such ca.ses. should be placed. The stonning 
 party should be provided with light scaling-ladders, 
 planks, fascines, strong hurdles, etc., for the purpose 
 of descending into the ditch; to mount the scarp; to 
 cover trous-tie-loup, small pickets, etc., etc. Another 
 detachment of engineer troops follows in the rear of 
 the storming party; its duties consist in rendering the 
 passages, opened by the first detachment, more acces- 
 sible to the troops, who immediately follow it to sus- 
 tain the storming party. This second detachment is 
 also charged with the care of placing the work from 
 which the assailed has been tlriven in a defensive atti- 
 tude, in order to fnistrate his attempt to repossess 
 himself of it. The tirst detachment should be charged 
 with this duty; for, independenth' of having hand.some- 
 ly acquitted itself in bearing the brunt of the action, 
 it may be required to precede the storming party in 
 the pursuit of the as.sailed to his interior works. The 
 troops destined to support and, if necessary, reinforce 
 the storming part}-, advance in one or two lines, with 
 cavalrj', and some pieces of artillerj- on the wings, to 
 repel sorties. The remainder of tlie troops follow in 
 order of battle, to improve the first successes, or to 
 cover the retreat of the assaulting columns, if re- 
 pul.sed. 
 
 The salients are generally the points on which the 
 storming party advances, unless some natural feature 
 of the ground .should present greater facilities for ad- 
 vancing on a re-entering, or in front of a face. When 
 the ditch is gained, shelter is sought in a dead angle; 
 and if the work is fraised, or resolutely defended with 
 the bayonet, a breach must be made, either by firing 
 beforehand hollow loaded projectiles into the parapet, 
 or by undermining the scarp with the pick. If the 
 intrencliments consist of detached lunettes, an at- 
 tack should be made on their gorge at the same mo- 
 ment with the one in front. When the as.sailed are 
 di'iven from their main works, the stonning party 
 should jiress holly on their rear, and endeavor to 
 enter pell-nicll with them into their interior works, 
 leaving to the troojis which follow them the care of 
 retaining |ios.sessioii of the works gained; but if the 
 intrenchments are suiiported by other troops drawn 
 up in order of battle, the storming party should halt 
 in the works until it is reinforced by the troojis in its 
 rear. There is no danger to be apprehended, in case 
 of a retreat, after an unsuccessful attack on an isolated 
 work. But in an attack on intrenchments, supported 
 by an army, the retreat of the stonning party should 
 lie covere(l by cavalry anil artillery imtil it can find 
 safety l)ehind the main body of the troops drawn up 
 in order of battle to protect it, and to receive the 
 assault of the assailed should he attempt offensire
 
 ATTENTION. 
 
 119 
 
 ATWOOS'S MACHINE. 
 
 operations. In conducting tbi- attack, preparations 
 should be made beforehand for removing all the arti- 
 ficial obstacles that the assailed may have placed 
 before their works to impede the projrress of the 
 storming part\'. This duty is usually intrusted to the 
 detachment of engineer troops, who are provided with 
 axes, picks, and other suitable tools for this purpose. 
 When the obstacles are of a nature to be easily de- 
 stroyed by artillery, it should always be resorted to. 
 Abattis, palisades, fraises, and entanglements, when 
 exposeil, may be readily torn to pieces by opening an 
 enfilading ricochet fire on them. When csmnon can- 
 not be brought to bear on these obstacles, an abattis 
 may sometimes be set fire to, and palLsades, etc., Ije 
 blown in by attaching t)ags of powder to them. 
 Trous-de-loup maj' be pas,sed, either by covering 
 them with jjlank or strong hurdles, or else by direct- 
 ing the men to pass cautiously between them in ex- 
 tended order; small pickets may be broken down, or 
 else fascines may be spread over them so as to form a 
 tolerably stable roadway; fascines may also be used 
 to cover the points of spikes. 
 
 The passiige of the ditch and the assault of the 
 parapet are the most difficult oiierations. If the ditch 
 is not more than six feet deep, it can be leaped into 
 without danger, and the men can nn)unt the scarp 
 readily with a very little assistance from each other. 
 When the width is not greater than twelve feet, the 
 ditch may be crossed by laying thick plank or small 
 scantling "over it. When the depth is over six feet, 
 the storming party is usually pro\ided either with 
 small scaling-ladders for descending into, or with 
 fascines, sand-bags, or other means to till the ditch 
 partly up; or if these means cannot be procured, the 
 detachment dig away the counterscarp into steps, 
 thro^\-ing the earth into the ditch, and thus in a short 
 time form an ca.«y entrance to it. AVet ditches may 
 be filled up either with sand-bags alone, or more ex- 
 peditiously by attaching sand-bags to large fascines or 
 to trusses of hay or straw. The assault of the ]iara- 
 pet is made by the aid of scaling-ladders, or by effect- 
 ing a Ijreach by firing loaded hollow projectiles into 
 the scarj) and parapet, which by their explosion 
 crumble the earth down so as to form an accessible 
 ramp; or else the foot of the scarp is undermined 
 with the i^iek, and the mass of the parapet tiunbled 
 into the ditch. See Asuaiilt and Defense. 
 
 ATTENTION. — A cautionary command addressed 
 to troops preparatorj- to a particular exercise or 
 maneuver. Gurc-a-cous has the same signification 
 in the French service. 
 
 ATTESTATION. — In the English service, a certifi- 
 cate which is granted by a Justice of the Peace within 
 four days after the enlistment of a recruit. This 
 certificate bears testimony that the recruit has been 
 brought before the Justice in conformity to the 
 JIutiny Act, and has declared his a.s.sent or dissent 
 to sucii enlistment, and that (if according to the said 
 Act he shall have been duly enlisted) the proper oaths 
 have been administered to him by the Magistrate, 
 and the sections of the Articles of War against mutiny 
 and desertion read to the said recruit. 
 
 ATTICK BRONZE REINFORCE.— The exact mate- 
 rial of this /itiiip reinforce was never made public, in- 
 asmuch as it was supposed to have a great tensile 
 strength. This method of reinforce was tested on the 
 Xaug-atuck. An old cast-iron 42-pdr. had a hoop of 
 this Broiize Composition forced on by liydrostatic 
 pressure. The gun was first tried witli lOO-lli. (iro- 
 jectiles (James') and 16-lb. charges. The endurance 
 for a wlnle appeared satisfactory, but the gim subse- 
 quenllv liurst after a short service. 
 
 ATWATER GUN.— A .5.8."}-inch (SO-pdr.) hooped 
 gun. experimented with at the Washington Na\y 
 Yard. It is a cast-iron gim, 21 inches in diameter at 
 the breech, with a tier of six wrought-iron hoops, 6X3 
 inches each, shrunk on, and a second tier of five 
 similar hoops over the first tier. Length of bore, 
 12 feet; weight, 11,62.5 pounds. This gim is remark- 
 able in its rifling. It has 12 grooves Jj inch deep, 
 
 and 12 lands of eeiual width at the breech. At 12 
 calibers from the bottom of the chamber the lands 
 are cut away in alternate pairs to i inch below the 
 bottom of the original grooves. Other conditions 
 remaining the same, the nmge of projectiles from 
 this bore is considerably increased. This result is 
 ascrilx'd to varioas causes. Decrease of friction 
 would be better promoted by cutting off the chase 
 altogether. The more i)erfcct combustion of the 
 powder by the au- entering at the side of the shot 
 would also follow, leaving an air-space in the chamber 
 of the gun; in fact, to the sudden and perfect com- 
 bustion thus promoted some authorities attribute the 
 bursting of guns. The inventor rea.sons from the ex- 
 jieriments of Kodnian that the air-pressure in front 
 of the sliot is greater than the gas-pressure behind it, 
 at the point where he cuts the lands away. 
 
 ATWOOD'S MACHINE.— An iustrumeiil for illus- 
 trating the relations of time, space, and velocity in the 
 
 Atwooii 
 
 motion of a body falling under the action of gravity. 
 It was invented l)y George Atwood (or Atrwood), a 
 mathematician of some eminence, who was bom in
 
 AVSITOB. 
 
 120 
 
 AUSTBIAN ABMT. 
 
 1745, educated nt Caniliridge, bwanie Fellow mil Tu- 
 tor of Trinity C'olleire in that university. puMislieii a 
 few treatises "on ineehauics and enjrineerinir, and died 
 in IWT. It is found that a body fallinn; freely passes 
 throufrh 16 fi-el in the lirst seeond, ti4 feet' in the 
 first two seeonds, 144 fi-et in the lirst three seconds, 
 and so on. Now, as these spaces are so large, we 
 should reciuire a machine of impracticable size to 
 illustrate the relations just mentioned. The object of 
 Atwooil's JIachine is to reduce the scale on which 
 gra\-ity acts without in any way altering its essential 
 features as an aiielerating force. The machine ct>n- 
 sists es.senlially of a pulley, movinc on its axis with 
 very little friction, with a" tine silk cord passing over 
 it, sustaininir two equal cylimlrical weights at its ex- 
 tremities. The pulley resis on a square wockIcu jnl- 
 lar, graduated on one side in feet lUid inches, which 
 can be placed in a vertical position bj- the leveling- 
 screws of the sole on which it stands. A pendulum 
 usually accompanies the machine, to beat si'conds of 
 time. " The weight of the cylinders being eijual, they 
 Lave no tendency to rise or fall, but are reduced, as 
 it were, to mjisscs without weight. When a weight 
 is placed on one of the cylinders, the motion that en- 
 .sucs is due oidy to the action of gravity upon it, so 
 that the motion of the whole nmst be considerably 
 slower than that of the weight falling freely. Sup- 
 lX)se, for instance, that the cylinders are each 7i ozs. 
 in weight, and that the weight is 1 oz. : the force act- 
 ing on the system — leaving the friction and inertia of 
 the pulley out of accounts — would be ^V o^ gra^'3'. or 
 tlie whole would move oidy 1 foot in the first second, 
 instead of 16. If the weight be left free to fall, its 
 weight or moving force would bring its own mass 
 through 16 feet the first second; but when placed on 
 the cylinder, this force is exerted not only on the 
 mass "of the bar, but on that of both cylinders, which 
 is 1.5 times greater, so that it has altogether 16 times 
 more matter in the second case to move than in the 
 first, and must, in consequence, move it 16 times 
 more slowly. By a proper adjustment of weights, 
 the rate of motion may be made as small as we 
 please, or we can reduce the accelerating force to 
 any fraction of gravity. The drawing represents the 
 latest pattern of the machine, made by Qvieen &, Co., 
 and employed in experiments to estaljlish the laws that 
 regulate the motion of falling bodies and to illustrate 
 various principles in gunnery. See Falling Bodifs. 
 
 AUDITOR. — The name given to certain otlicers 
 appointed to examine accounts in behalf cither 
 of the government, of courts of law, of corpora- 
 tions, or of private persons. In 178.5 Public Au- 
 ditors were a|)poinled in England imdcr the title of 
 " Commis.sioners for Auditing the Public Accounts," 
 bv which the ))atents of Lord Sondes and Lord 
 Mountstuart, as Aiiditorn of the Imprests, were vacated, 
 the sum of £7000 per annum Ix'ing made payable to 
 each of them for life, in lieu of a percentage which 
 had been ])aid them on the amount of expenditure 
 audited. Many subsequent statutes have been ])assed 
 for the purpose of extending and defining the duties 
 of these Commis-sioners, and regidating the business of 
 the Audit ( )llice. The Commis.sioners of Audit are em- 
 powered to call on all Public Accountants to account 
 for moneys or stores intrusted to them; aii<l shovdd 
 they fail to do so, are recjuired to certify their n.imes 
 to the Hemenibrancer of the ICxclieijuer, and the 
 Attorney-General cif Kiiirlaiid or Ireland, or the Lord 
 Advocate of Scotland, in order that they may be 
 proceeded against as defaulters. These v>roccedings, 
 however, may be stayed for a time by the Lords of 
 the Treasury, by wliom the whole arrangements of 
 the Audit Office are controlled, on the a|)plication of 
 the acctised. The accounts of the Ordnance, of the 
 Army and Navy, and the Land Revenue arc now 
 subjected to examination in the Audit Otlice. In the 
 United Stales, the Second and Third Auditors are 
 offlcials connected with thi' Treasury Department, 
 whose duties consist in examining all accounts re- 
 lating to the pay and clothing of the army, the sub- 
 
 sistence of officers, bounties, premiums, military and 
 hospital stores, and genendly all accoimts of the War 
 Department other than those provided for; also all 
 claims for compensjitiou for loss of hoi-ses and e(|uip- 
 ments of otlicers and enlisted men in the military 
 service of the rnited States, pensions, etc. 
 
 AHGET— AUGETTE.— A kind of small trough used 
 in mining, in which the s)iucis.son or train-hose is 
 laid in straw to prevent the powder from contracting 
 any dain]iiiess. 
 
 AUGUSTAN SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. — In 
 this system, the gorge of the teuailles is occupied by 
 two )iarallel defensive barracks and by casemated re- 
 doubts. Many of the casemates here traced t)ear a close 
 resemblance to the plan of llaxo. This system is so 
 com])licated as to Ix' imi)racticable. ^(.f: Fortification. 
 
 AU6USTICUM.— A bounty that was given by the 
 Roman Emperors to their soldiers upon the latter 
 taking the oath of allegiance for the first time, or 
 upon a renewal of the oath. 
 
 AULIC COUNCIL.— One of the two highest Courts 
 of the old tJerman Empire, co-ordinate with the Im- 
 perial Clwunlier. It came into existence in 1495, and 
 seems to ha\c been at first employed ])rinciiially in 
 prejiaring business matters regarding the Crown-lands 
 anil the Em])ire generally, in order to expedite the 
 decisions of the Imperial Chamber. It soon, how- 
 ever, began to assume or acquire higher fimctions. 
 After 1.502, the States submitted important griev- 
 ances to its independent consideration; but it did not 
 receive a fixed Constitution before 1559. In 1654 it 
 was foitnally recognized as the second of the two 
 Supreme Courts, and ecpial in dignity to the Impeinal 
 Chandjcr. It was composed of a President, a Vice- 
 President, a Vice-Chancellor, and eighteen Councilors, 
 who were all chosen and paid by the Emperor, with 
 the exception of the Vice-Chancellor, who was ap- 
 pointed by the Elector of Mainz. Of the eighteen 
 Councilors, .six were Protest^uits, whose votes, when 
 they were imauimous, could not be set aside by those 
 of the others, so that a religious parity was to some 
 extent preseiTed. The Councilors were divided into 
 three classes — Counts, Barons, and Meu of Learning — 
 all of whom were on a footing of equality, except 
 that the last mentioned received a higher salary, and 
 were usually advanced into the ranks of the nobility. 
 The Council held aloof from politics, but tmder its 
 jurisdiction were placed: (1) all matters of feudality 
 in which the Emperor was immediately concerned; 
 (2) all questions of appeal on the part of the States 
 from decisions in favor of the EmiHTor in Minor 
 Courts; (8) whatever concerned the im]ierial jurisdic- 
 tion in Ital)-. On the death of the Emjjcror, the 
 Council was dissolved, and had to be reconstructed 
 by his successor. It finally ceased to exist on the ex- 
 tinctiim of the old German Empire in 1806. 
 
 AUMACOR.— A title sinular to General-in-Chief, 
 which was given to the Chief of the Saracens during 
 the Ciiisades. 
 
 AUSEN. — A name given by the Goths to their vic- 
 torious Generals. This word in their langu.age signi- 
 fies " more than mortal," i.e.. dcnn-gods. 
 
 AUSTRIAN ARMY.— One of the four great conti- 
 nental armies of Europe, In l)ccend)er, 1S68, the 
 imperial signature was athxed to the law introducing 
 the system of obligatory jiersonal service for every 
 male sid)ject of the Austrian Empire, At jiresent the 
 milit:iry force of Austria is composed of the Standing 
 Army, the Reserve, the Landwelir.and the L;ind.sturm. 
 The latter element means simply a lin'r in iiKisse of 
 the entire male population for the defense of the 
 country in case of invasion. The total liability to 
 military service extends over twelve years, this pe- 
 riod being thus apportioned: three years to the Stand- 
 ing Army, .seven years to the Reserve, and two years 
 to the Landwehr. In countries that have adopted 
 the compulsory service, exemptions are ol)tainal)le 
 under the following social conditions; 1, Being the 
 only son and suiiport of a helpless father or widowed 
 mother; 3. After the death of a father, being the
 
 AU8TBIAN FIELD-GTJN. 
 
 121 
 
 AUTOGENIC PLUMBING APPAEATU8. 
 
 only grandson and support of an infirm grandfather 
 or "widowed grandmother; 3. Being the only sup- 
 port of helpless relations. All serWee of a suljsti- 
 tute or exemption by purchase is abolished. As in 
 Prussia and France, volimleers for one year are ad- 
 mitted. The effective numerical strength of the 
 Standing Army, Reserve, and Landwehr amounts to 
 about 1,100,000 men, of which about ,", are contrib 
 uted by the first two classes, the Standing Army and 
 Reserve, to which Hungary furnishes a quota of nearly 
 330,000. Austria, inclusive of Hungary, is divided 
 into 17 military districts. The Standing Army is 
 composed of 24 divisions, containing 52 brigades of 
 infantry and 19 of cavalry. The infantry of the line 
 consists of 80 regiments; the cavalry of 41 regiments 
 (14 of dragoons, 14 huzzars. and 13 lancers), giving 
 about 36,000 cavalr^Tnen. 'i"he artillery consists of 13 
 regiments of field and 12 battalions of garrison artil- 
 lery, each field-artillery regiment consisting of four 
 4-pdr. foot-batteries, three 4-i)dr. horse-lxitteries, and 
 five 8-pdr. foot-batteries. In the Austrian army, to 
 every 1000 combatant foot-soldiers there are 103 cavalry 
 and 4 field-gims. There are 2 regiments, of ■> battalions 
 each, of engineers, with 4 active and 8 reserve com- 
 panies, and 1 depot battalion of .'5 companies. The 
 transport scrN-ice of Austria is conducted by a Mili- 
 tary TransiKirt Corps, which consists of 36 field-squad- 
 roiis, 22 of which on mobilization are as.signed to the 
 infantrj- di\"isions, 5 to the cavalry, 4 to army corps 
 headquarters, and 3 to general headquarters. There 
 are, besides, the Intendance and a Hospital Corps. The 
 Emperor is the supreme head of the Austrian army, 
 ■which he governs througli a Minister of War and an 
 Inspector-general. The mode of olficering the Aus- 
 trian army is as foUows: 1. By passing, as a Cadet, 
 through a Military College; 2. Rising from the 
 ranks. (1) Cadets are trained at public cost, and re- 
 main ten years in active serxnce from the date of 
 their leaving the Academy. After the aspirant has 
 practiciUly learned every duty of the private and non- 
 commissioned otficer, he attends the school which is 
 established at the headquarters of every division. 
 He goes then through a course of eleven months, fol- 
 lowed by an examination. If successful, he performs 
 the duties of an officer, though still not commis- 
 sioned, and receives his commission when a vacancy 
 occurs. (2) The preparation for promotion is also 
 regimental, amd in this mamier non-commissioned 
 otticers of good character and antecedents, and of 
 sufficient attainments, may obtain a commission. Pro- 
 motion goes right through, arm by arm and rank by 
 rank. It is by seniority and non seniority. The for- 
 mer depends on the confidential reports giving testi- 
 mony of the individual's efficiency, and the latter is 
 followed every sixth step below tield-rank and every 
 fourth step above it. There is an examination twice 
 a vear for promotion. See Army. 
 
 AUSTRIAN FIELD-GUN.— A muzzle-loading rifled 
 gun made of bronze. There are two sizes, the 4-p(h-. 
 and the 8-pdr. ; the former for horse-artilleri-, the lat- 
 ter for field-batteries. The projectiles are iron-ribbed, 
 not studded, for taking the rilling. The Austrians 
 are about to change their bronze guns for steel of 
 their own design; tlie proof lately of one of their guns 
 answered all that was required of it. The gun ex- 
 perimented on was an 8. T-ceutimeter steel cannon, 
 and is .said to be an improvement on the Prussian 
 field-srun. 
 
 AUSTRIAN RIFLING. — This system is specially 
 ndapted to gun-cottfju. The bore "is spiral in cross- 
 section, increasing in diameter from the point at the 
 end of the land.Vhich is the bearing-side going in; 
 all the rest of the bore is the bearing-side which ro- 
 tates the shot coming out. The cast-iron projectile 
 is covered with a soft metal coating which enters the 
 gun freely when a projection bears against the land 
 mentioneJj; but which, as the shot comes out, is com- 
 pressed by the spiral bore, and shuts off the windage. 
 To prevent the shot jamming in the bore, three 
 grooves are introduced to receive corresponding ribs 
 
 on the .shot. But, the shot is centered and rotated, 
 coming out. by the whole circimiference of the Iwre 
 as well as bv these three grooves. 
 
 AUTHOEITY. — In a general acceptation of the 
 term, a right to command, and a consequent right to 
 be obeyed. The Articles of War provide that when 
 any oftlcer or soldier is accused of a capital crime, or 
 of "any offen,se ag.iinst the i)erson or property of any 
 citizen of any of the United States, which is punish- 
 able by the laws of the land, the Commanding Officer, 
 and the officers of the regiment, troop, battery, com- 
 pany, or detachment to which the person so accased 
 belongs, are required, except in time of war, upon ap- 
 plication duly made by or in behalf of the party 
 injured, to use their utmost endeavors to deliver him 
 over to the Civil Magistrate, and to aid the officers of 
 justice in apprehending and securing him, in order to 
 bring him to trial. If, upon such application, any 
 officer refuses or willfully neglects, except in time of 
 "vyar, to deliver over such accused person to the civil 
 magistrates, or to aid the officers of justice in appre- 
 hending him, he shall be dismissed from the service. 
 
 AUTOCRACY.— A term sigtiifying that form of gov- 
 ernment in which the .Sovereign unites in himself the 
 legislative and the executive powers of the State, and 
 thus rules uncontrolled. Such a Sovereign is therefore 
 called an Autocrat. Nearly all Eastern governments 
 are of this form. Among European rulers the Em- 
 peror of Russia alone Ix'ars the title of Autocrat, thus 
 signifying his constitutional absoluteness. — Kant used 
 the word Autocracy, in philo.sophy, to denote the mas- 
 terv of the reason over the rebelUous propensities. 
 
 AUTOGENIC PLUMBING APPARATUS.— This ap- 
 paratus is a modification of the o.xy-hydrogen blow- 
 pipe. It has been in use for some years by manufac- 
 turing chemists, etc., in the construction and repair 
 of leaden utensils. Its purpose is to provide, by 
 means of the reaction between oil of vitriol, water, 
 and zinc, a supply of hydrogen gas, and, after ntix- 
 ing it with air. to burn the mixture at the end of a 
 blow-pipe nozzle, and by means of flexible rubber 
 tubing apply the flame readily to the work in hand. 
 By its aid lead sheets, pipes, "etc., may be joined to- 
 gether by melting the points of junction, without the 
 use of solder or flux. It can also be used for solder- 
 ing, brazing, and annealing; in fact, for any purpose 
 requiring an intense heat locally applied. It consists 
 of a rectangular box divided into two closed com- 
 partments. The upper one is an acid-chamlx>r. open- 
 ing at the top, and a pipe connects it with the bottom 
 of the lower compartment. The lower compartment 
 is the zinc- and gas-chamlx-r, having a pipe near its 
 top to convey the gas generated into a purifier ar- 
 ranged in the space between the upper and lower 
 compartments. This s]5ace also contains the opening 
 into the lower compartment, through which the zinc 
 is inserted. The dilute acid runs down the pipe from 
 the upper chamljer into and up through the zinc in 
 the lower chamber, in the upper part of which the 
 gas collects and pa.sses out by a bent pipe into the 
 bottom of the purifier. The purifier is a Iwx intended 
 to collect any drips which may pass over with the 
 gas. From its upper part a pipe conveys the gas to 
 the bottom of a second purifier, filled with water, 
 through which the gas rises and passes to the blow- 
 pipe. The water removes any sulphuj-o'is-acid gas 
 or other impurities that may pass over with the hy- 
 drogen gas. The rear end of the blow -pipe is divided 
 into two branches. To one of these the tube convey- 
 ing the hydrogen is attached, and to the other a tube 
 conveying air driven in by a bellows. The hydrogen 
 and air combine and mix in the blow-pijie and flow 
 out of its nozzle when the mixture is igni'ed for ap- 
 plication of the flame to the work. Lead sheets may 
 be joined edge to edge or by a lap. In the former 
 case lead straps are melted along the joint to perfect 
 and strengthen it. The apparatus is much used in 
 arsenals for lining pickliiig-vats, floors covered with 
 lead, etc.: also for annealing the serrated vvires for 
 fiiction-primers, and for soldeiing .and brazing.
 
 AVTOKATIC FIKE. 
 
 122 
 
 AXL£-ia££ AKX, 
 
 AUTOMATIC FIKE. — The automatic fire or ex- 
 plosive luixlure of the Greeks was inade from equal 
 pans of sulpUur, sjiltpeler, and sulphide of uitimouy, 
 finely pulveriznl and mixed into a paste, with e<iual 
 parts of the juice of black sycamore and liquid as- 
 phultum, a little quick-liiue behig added. The rays 
 of the sun would set it on tire. 
 
 AUTONOMY.— The arrangement by which the citi- 
 zens of a Slate manage their own leiitslalion and gov- 
 ernment; and this eWdently may, with certain re- 
 strictions, be the case also within limited bodies of 
 the same people, such as parishes, corporations, re- 
 ligious seels. The term Autonomy is used to designate 
 the chanicterLslic of the political condition of ancient 
 Greece, where every city or town community claimed 
 the right of indelK'udaii sovereign action. The idea 
 of two or more town communities sinking their in- 
 dividual independence, and fonning the larger ag- 
 gregate unity which we understand by a State, seenis 
 to have iMcn intolcnilile to the Greek mind. 
 
 AUXILIARY FOSCES. — The Militia, Yeoraanr)-, 
 and Volunteers of Great Britain. These forces ag- 
 gregate as follows: 
 
 Officers Men. 
 
 1. reomanry, 10 regiments.. 
 
 2. Militia : 
 
 Artillery, 29 regiments... 
 lufantf}-. 131 battalions.. 
 
 8U 
 ^3497] 
 
 3. Voluuteera 
 Artiller)" 
 
 Total 4301 
 
 14,2T4 
 
 16.422 
 119,700 )' 
 
 Total. 
 
 15,078 
 [ 139,619 
 
 150,396 154.697 
 
 Light horse, 4 regi- 
 ments. 
 
 Cavalry ■( MointS rifles 4 Separate 
 I ™:™i„.. ^ numbers are 
 
 I regiments f not given. 
 
 Engineers uvi. 6, >i". 
 
 Infantry I 
 
 Permanent Staff J 
 
 Total. . 
 
 31,823 
 360 
 
 1 139 
 I 6,296 
 1 128.669 
 I 1,458 
 
 168,751 
 
 AUXILIARY FRAME.— When mining in loose 
 soils, besides the ordinary gallery-frame, there is re- 
 
 succors its ncighl)ors, either in consequence of alli- 
 ances or engiigenienl.s entered into with them, or 
 sometimes to |)revent their falling imder the power of 
 an ambitious Prince. 
 
 AVANT-BRAS. — Guards for the lower arms, worn 
 by knights and st)l<iiers in the Middle xVges. 
 
 " AVIS— AVIZ. — An order of knighthood in Portugal, 
 instituted by Sancho, the first 
 king of Portugal, in imitation 
 of the Order of Calatrava, and 
 having, like it, for its object 
 the subjection of the Sloors. 
 By the present usage, the king 
 of I'ortugal, who is grand- 
 master of all of them, wears 
 decorations of the first three 
 orders of Portugal — those of 
 Christ, St. James, and A\'i2 
 united in one medal, divided 
 iaU> three ecjual spaces. 
 
 AWARD.— A judgment, the 
 result of arbitration. In a mili- 
 tary sensi', the decision or sen- 
 tence of a C'ourt-Miirtial. 
 
 AXIS. — A straight line, real 
 or imaginary, about which a body revolves is called 
 the axis of rotation. In gunncrj-, the axis of the 
 piece is the central line of the bore of the gun. 
 
 AXLE-LATHE.— A lathe nmch used in arsenals for 
 turning axles, shafting, and other relatively long 
 articles which are liable to be swayed or bent by 
 their flexibility or by the pressure of the cutter. Bear- 
 ings are provided at points between the lathe-centers, 
 and sometimes the cutters are duplicated so as to act 
 upon opposite sides simultaneously. The axle or 
 shafting is turned to fonn by suitably shaped cutters 
 secured to two jaws, Avhich approach each other by 
 the rotation of a right- and left-hand screw in a fixetl 
 rest. Whitworth's famous lathe is of this character. 
 
 The drawing shows the form of lathe in general 
 use. It swings 16 inches diameter over the shears, 
 and 14 inches diameter over the rest-carriage; the 
 
 Badge ot Order of Avfa. 
 
 Auxiliary Frame. 
 
 quired, as for shafts in the ."wime soils, an auxiliary 
 gallery-frame. This frame, shown in position, in the 
 vertical section of the gallery through the axis, in 
 the drawing, is somewhat wider than the ordinary 
 gallery frame, and somewhat shorter also. Its cap- 
 sill is rounded on top, and hius two mortices on its 
 lower side, to receive the tenons with which the two 
 stanchions arc finished. The mortices are a little 
 longer than the tenons; the latter being confined in 
 them by wedges when the fnime is set up. To ad- 
 just the franie when set up, a pair of folding wedges 
 IS placed under each end of its ground-sill. By 
 these contrivances the frame o;in tie readilj' set up 
 or taken apart. See GnUeri/ and S/mft. 
 
 AUXILIARY TROOPS.— Foreign troops which are 
 furnished to a iKlligirent power in consequence of a 
 treaty of alliance, or for )>ecuniarv considerations. 
 Of the latter des<ription may lie considered the Hes- 
 sians that were employed by "Great Britain to enslave 
 Ameridi. 
 
 AUXILIARY WAR.— A war in which a nation 
 
 Axle-Lathe. 
 
 cone pulleys have three speeds for a 4 inch belt, 
 which, witii the two sets of fast and loose pulleys on 
 the countershaft, give six changes on the faceplate; 
 it has cast-steel spindles running in gun-metal lx)xes; 
 the dead-spindle is secured by a patent conical binder; 
 the rest-carriage has a hand-movement by a rack in 
 the bed; it-s feed is by a screw and cut cog gearing 
 with two changes, operated by a clutch and rod, for 
 roughing and finishing; adjustnieni to diKul-liead for 
 turning taper, and has Clement's driver. With 12- 
 foot siiears, to turn 8J feet long, the weight is 5700 
 pounds. See Dithe. 
 
 AXLE-TREE. — A solifi bar or beam, so shaped as 
 to receive at each of its extremities a wheel, which 
 revolves freely alKiut it. Those parts about which 
 the wheels revolve are called the (inns or axle-tree 
 armit. The part of the axle-tree between the arms is 
 called the hodi/; that jiortion of the body contiguous 
 to the arm is the Klmtihhr; imd the extremit}' of the 
 arm is its juilnl. 
 
 AXLE-TREE ARM.— That portion of an axle-tree
 
 AZLE-TBEE BED. 
 
 1 no 
 
 BACKINO. 
 
 about which the wheel revolves. The axle-tree arm 
 is circular in section, and near its outer extremity is 
 a vertiail hole to receive the linchpin, which keeps 
 the wlicel on the aiin. 
 
 AXLE-TREE BED.— A wooden beam or block in- 
 termediate between the axle-tree and the body of the 
 carriage. In the usual constructions it is kept in con- 
 tact with the body of the a.vle-tree along its entire 
 length, the body being housed or let into it from end 
 to end. In this connection side-thrusts exert hardly 
 any injurious moment about the juucliou between axle- 
 bed and body, the length of this connection l)eing con- 
 siderable as compared with the length of the lever- 
 arm R-\-(l (R being the height of the axle-arm above 
 the ground, and d the depth of the axle-tree bed); but 
 
 any tractional moment, Pd ^ " „7 " '" being the 
 
 height of the obstacle, and P the mciisure of blow upon 
 the tire in direction parallel to the road), must be 
 guarded against by bands, knees, or connecting stays. 
 
 AYA-BASSI. — A non-commissioned grade in the 
 corps of Janissjiries, corresponding to that of Cor- 
 poral in motlern armies. 
 
 AYENEE. — A tree which grows in the forests of 
 Southern India, Grodavery, and Burmah; the wood 
 is strong, tolerably close, even-grained, and of a light 
 yellowish color. It is a wood that may be used for 
 gun-carriage pui-poses. 
 
 AZAINE. — A name anciently applied to a trumpet 
 in the French army; now obsolete. 
 
 AZAFES. — Auxiliary troops which were levied by 
 the Turks among the Christians (under their domin- 
 ion), whom they exposed to the first attack of the 
 enemy. 
 
 AZEMAR TELEMETER.— Of the mirror-telemeters 
 giving ti.xed angles, that of Azi'mar seems to be the 
 simplest. This is made to give two angles, one acute 
 
 and the other obtuse, 
 supplements of each 
 other. It is shown in 
 the ilrawing with the 
 addition of an addi- 
 tional fixed minor for 
 giving a right angle. 
 If only two angles are 
 used, an acute com- 
 bined ^vith a right 
 angle would be better 
 than the two supple- 
 mentary angles, as the 
 advantage of having a right angle would be secured 
 without necessitating back-sights in obser\'ation. 
 The modified Azemar telemeter consists of a small 
 frame, L M N, on which are placed four plane mir- 
 rors reaching from the top to the bottom of the frame; 
 this frame swinging between two plates of brass, 
 G K, it being pushed out and in bv turning it about 
 the pivot P. The mirrors L, Q, and 31 make with the 
 mirror N angles less than, equal to, and greater than 
 90 respectively — the greatest and least angles being 
 complements of each other. Such a telemeter com- 
 mends itself by its cheapness, but a prism-telemeter 
 gives far greater clcarnes.s to the image, while, unlike 
 the mirror-telemeter, it is not subject to derangement. 
 See Telemeter. 
 
 AZURE. — A French word technically used in Iler- 
 aldrj' to signify blue. In engra^•ing arms it is always 
 represented by horizontal lines. 
 
 B 
 
 BABOOL. — A tree which is found in different parts 
 of India. The wood is close-grained and tough, of 
 a pale red color, inclining to brown. It is used in 
 the gun-carriage agencies of Madras and Bombay' for 
 naves and felloes of wheels. This tree, which grows 
 in abundance in the northwest of India, forms the 
 staple food of the camel. 
 
 BACCHI. — Two ancient warlike machines; the one 
 resembktl a battering-ram, the other cast out fire. 
 
 BACHELIER. — A young squire, or knight, who 
 has pas^^ed tlirouiib his first aimpaign, and received 
 the belt of the Order. 
 
 BACHEVALEUREtlX.— A term which, in the old 
 French language, signified warrior, brave, valiant, 
 etc. 
 
 BACK. — A cast-iron plate forming the back wall of 
 a forge, and through which the blast enters by a 
 tuyere. When the buck consists of an iron cistern, 
 it is called a ir(iterJ)itck. When it consists of a 
 chaml)er in which the air-blast is heated, it is called 
 a heatinri-lmek. 
 
 BACK-BAND. — The band or strap which passes over 
 the back of the horse and meets tie belly-band; the 
 two unite to girth the horse. 
 
 BACKING. — E.xperiineut has shown that wood- 
 backing alone, unless combined with rigid horizontal 
 angle-iron stringers, affords but little support to the 
 ariuor-plate; that is to say, a projectile which is 
 capaljle of iienetrating a ])late unbacked will al.so be 
 capable of doing so if it be backed with wood alone. 
 Wood-backing is, however, of great value because it 
 distriluites the blow; it deadens the vibrations and 
 saves the fastenings; also it stops the splinters. The 
 best form of backing a|ipears to be that in which 
 wood is combined with strong horizontal angle-iron 
 attached to the inner skin, and extending to the 
 armor-plates; this, by giving rigidity, very consider- 
 ably a.s.sists tlie plate" to resist penetration. An inner 
 skin of iron is of the greatest possible advantage; it 
 
 renders the backing more compact, and prevents the 
 passage of many splinters. Oak and teak are the 
 most suitable timbers for backing-plates, and are used 
 as such on vessels. A yielding backing is found to 
 occasion less strain on the fastenings than a very 
 hard one. Where projectiles are made of the ssime 
 maleri.il, and are similar in shape, their penetration 
 into unbacked plates is nearly in proportion to their 
 living fiirec , or their weight multiplied by tliC squares 
 of the rehcity of impaet. 
 
 The resistance which an unbacked plate offers to 
 penetration is nearly in proportion to the square of 
 its thiekneas, pro\ided tills thickness be confined 
 within ordinary limits. In the case of oblique plates 
 the penetration diminishes nearly with the sine of the 
 angle of incidence. The most suitable material for 
 shells to be used against iron plates is tempered steel. 
 These projectiles should be made of cylindrical 
 shape with thick sides and bottom to direct the ex- 
 plosive effect of the charge forward after i)enelra- 
 tion is effected. The most'suitable material for solid 
 shot is hard, tough cast-iron. Palliser's chilled shot 
 are made of this ma'erial, and so are the shot made 
 for our service. It follows from the i)receding that 
 the most suitable covering oi shield for cannon is a 
 conical-shaped turret made of WTought-iron plates, 
 as large as if is [iracticable to make them, backed with 
 oak or teak. To protect the men from the frag- 
 ments of projectiles which may penetrate completely 
 through this covering, there should Ix' an " inner 
 skin" of thick boiler plate placed behind the wood. 
 With our 1.5-inch cast-iron projectiles, made of the 
 best charcoal-iron, poured and worked in a peculiar 
 manner so as to obtain hard and solid nia.s.ses, the 
 penetration is quite as great and uniform as that ob- 
 tained with steel shot of equal weights propelled by 
 similar charges, the only ditference Ix'ing that the 
 iron breaks after passing through, while the st<'el is 
 only compressed or flattened, a result rather in favor
 
 BACK-PLATE. 
 
 124 
 
 BADGE. 
 
 of the iron shol, if entrance is made where men are 
 expt)s<-<l to its fniyroi-uis. 
 
 BACK-PLATE.— A piece of armor for covering the 
 back. Sof Ariwr. 
 
 BACK-SIGHT— The rear-sighl of a ^un. It may l)c 
 of various furins. In the olil-fashioued arms iu- 
 leniliii for round IwUs. it was merely a notch in a 
 knob or plate near the breech of the gim, the proper 
 elevation to be given bi'ing estimated by the marks- 
 man. xVs the elfectivc nuige scarcely excit'ded 2.50 
 to 3D0 yards, this could be ilone with suHicient accu- 
 racy by an expert marksman; but with the introduc- 
 tion of the elongated bullet, gi\-ing ranges of 1000 
 yards and upward, it bwanie necessiiry to seek some 
 mori' etiicieni means of seeming the proper n\nge at 
 thesi' long distances, so that the bullet might not either 
 pa.ss over or fall short of the object. For this purpose 
 was introduced the rear-sight, consisting of an upright 
 slotted brunch, which was |x)inted to a seat on the 
 barrel of the gim, or, in some instances, on the small 
 of the stock in rear of the barrel. A notched slider 
 on the upright branch could be elevated as desired, 
 and by elevating the muzzle of the gun until this 
 notch and the front-sight were in line any range within 
 
 nthe limit of projec- 
 tion of the piece 
 could be attained. 
 This sliding sight 
 has, in the United 
 States ser\ice, been 
 superseded by the 
 leaf-sight, which is 
 more compact and 
 less liable to de- 
 rangement. Other 
 back-sights, especi- 
 ally those lirst in- 
 troduced in south- 
 ern Germany, have 
 been made of vari- 
 ous patterns; one 
 variety being per- 
 manenlly ti.\ed per- 
 pendicularly to the 
 barrel, and haWng 
 notched holes at 
 proper heights through which to sight; luid another 
 being segmental in shape, and nio\ing circularly in 
 a direction longitudinal to the barrel through a stud 
 fixed thereon. Another form of back-sight vertically 
 adjustable for ran^e, and attached to the slock, has "a 
 graduated spring-piece slip]iing ■within a vertical slot 
 in the small of the stock, and is adjusted as required. 
 Its spring retains it in place, or it may be clamped 
 by a set-screw or lowered below the line of the hind- 
 sight on the barrel. The drawing shows the back- 
 sight (with wiml-gauge) tiscd on the Winchester mili- 
 tary ritle. See Puiiiiing. 
 
 BACK-STEP. — The retrograde movement of a man, 
 or a body of men. without changing front. 
 
 BACK-SWORD.— A sword w itli one sharp edge in 
 contradistinction to one which has two edsres throueh- 
 out the whole or a portion of its lenstli. In England, 
 t'.ie h<i<-l-s,rord is a stick with a b.isket-handle, used 
 in r;istic amusements; called also " Single Stick." 
 
 BACKWARDS. — A technical word made use of in 
 the British ser\ice to express the retrograde move- 
 ment of troops from line into column, and eirf rerun. ' 
 Also, a word of command, in the United Slates 
 service, to cause a man. or a body of men, to march 
 to the rear without changing front. 
 
 BACDLE.— A kind of portcullis or gate, made like 
 a pitfall, with a counterpoise. See Bawiile Bridf/c. 
 
 BADALEEBS. — >rusket-charges of powder in tin or 
 copper tulies. worn dangling from a shoulder-belt, 
 l)efore the introduction of cartridires. 
 
 BADELAIRE.— A short, broad, curved, and double- 
 edged poiiiti-d sword. Also written Biindehiire 
 
 BADEN FUSE.— A nuxlitication of the Bormann 
 fuse. The metal, form of the parts, etc., are the 
 
 same as in the Bormann fuse, with the addition of a 
 bronze stud and plate, used to contine a liiece of 
 quick-match in the recess shown at b (sec Bormann 
 fust'), and two pieces of common carlrid,ge-i)ai)er, cut 
 in the pro])er shape to tit the horseshocshalicd ojx'U- 
 ing, one of which goes alwve, the other below, the 
 charge of composition, to prevent it, when burning, 
 from melting the metal above and below it. The 
 graduated scale is more extended than in the Bor- 
 mann fuse, the numbers exi>re.s.sin^, instead of sec- 
 onds, the bursting-distances in hundreds of paces of 
 29i inches in length. The charge-forcr is ca.st in a 
 mold ; the plate to cover the priming is cut out with 
 sci.ssors, and the paper is stamjied or cut out with 
 a stiunp or punch. The vent leading from the com- 
 position-channel to the magiizine is closed, to jire- 
 vent the entnince of composition when pressure is 
 applied. One of the pieces of paper is now laid in 
 the lx)ttom of the channel, and on it is placed evenly 
 a layer of mealed powder, weighing exactly .jI grains 
 troy ; on top of this is jilaced the second [liece of 
 jiajjcr, and then the charge-cover, which is pres-sed 
 down to its jilace by machinery, ha\ing on its imder 
 surface the dies to impress the tigures of the gradu- 
 ating scale on the metal. The amount of pressure 
 exerted is about .5000 lbs.; which forces the top of 
 the charge-cover slightly below the surface of the 
 fuse, forming thus a shallow annular hollow, in 
 which is poured some of the melted metallic mixture, 
 but at as low a temperature as jiossible, in order that 
 the heat of this solder may not act on the sulphur in 
 the fuse. 'When cool, the fuse is placed in a turning- 
 lathe, dressed off smooth, and any irregulaiities in 
 the thread of the screw coriected. The vent is then 
 unstopped, the magazine tilled with tine powder, the 
 cover placed on, fastened, and jiierced. 
 
 This fuse, like the original Bormann, was designed 
 for use with Shrajmell shot, and is always used with 
 what the French call an MuntUur, orstopjicr, which 
 is made usually of w rought-iron. The eye of the 
 shell is divided into two parts, the larger on the ex- 
 terior (calletl the eye proper), and the contracted por- 
 tion, next to the interior, called the table. Into this 
 latter the obturatcur is screwed, and serves, w itli the 
 offset between the two, to prevent the soft metal of 
 the fuse from being driven into the shell by the force 
 of the charge. The obturatem- is perforated through 
 the center, to allow the passage of the Hame into the 
 charge. The weak point of this fuse, and all motli- 
 tications of the Bormann fuse, is the difhculty of 
 regidating them exactly and promptly on the field of 
 battle, in a dense cloud of smoke, and especially at 
 night. A remedy for this defect, however, has been 
 found in the ingenious invention of Captain Breit- 
 haujit, of die Austrian service. See Bnithaiipt Fme. 
 BADGE. — The tenn by which, in general, all hon- 
 orary decorations and special cognizances are known. 
 Badges are either conferred by the Stale or Sovereign, 
 or assumed by the individual for purposes of dis- 
 tinction, the foniicr class having very freiiuently had 
 their origin in the latter. Of badges cDnferred by 
 public authority, for the purpose of iiieiling to ex- 
 ertion and gratifying honorable ambition, numerous 
 instances are to be met with in every jiarl of the 
 world. The Garter of the English knight, the 
 Golden Fleece of the Spanish grandee, iind the 
 Button of the Chinese mandarin will occur as 
 familiar examjilcs. To the same class iK'long not 
 only the Stars and Cros,ses with which princes and 
 other persons of rank are ailorncd in England, and 
 to a far greater extent on the Continent, but the 
 I medal of the private .soldier, and even those nol less 
 honorable decorations which are now frequently con- 
 ferred by private societies for acts of voluntary dar- 
 i ing, sucli as the medal given bv the Humane Society 
 I for saving from drowning. Amongst the ancients, 
 , one of the most usual emblems of authority was a 
 ' gold ring, which was worn generally on the fourth 
 finger. A ring of this description was ihe mark of 
 I senatorial and magisterial dignity, and latterly of
 
 BAGGAGE. 
 
 125 
 
 BAGPIPE. 
 
 knighthood at Rome; iron rings, during the eariier 
 period, at all events, haWng been used by private 
 citizens. The right of wearing a gold ring (Ju» 
 annuli aurei) wa.s gradually extended, till at length 
 Justinian conferred it on ail the citizens of the Em- 
 pire In the early times of the Republic, when Em- 
 bassadors were sent to foreign States, thev were fur- 
 nished with gold rings, which they <\ore during their 
 mission as badges of authority. From an early period, 
 every freeman in Greece appe^irs to have used a ring, 
 though the custom, not being mentioned by Homer, 
 can scarcely have belonged to the e;irliest period of 
 the history of that people, and is commonly supposed 
 to have been of Asiatic origin. Rings are often 
 mentioned in Scripture as badges of authority both 
 amongst the .Jews and other Oriental nations. We 
 read of Pharaoh taking off his ring and putting it on 
 Joseph's hand, as a token of the power which he 
 committed to him (Gen. xli. 42); and still earlier 
 (Gen. xxxviii. 18) Judah left his signet ^^^th Tamar 
 as a pledge. In the New Testament, rings are spoken 
 of rather as marks of wealth and luxury than as 
 badges of otHcial rank; e.g., James ii. 'i. and Luke 
 XV. 22, where, on the return of the prodigal .son, the 
 father ordered that a ring should be put on his finger. 
 Of badges a.ssumed for the purpose of distinction, 
 none are more famous than the white and red roses 
 of York and Lancaster. Henry VII. combmed these 
 two emblems, lirst carrying a rose per pale, white 
 and red, and afterwards placing the white rose within 
 the red one. One of Queen Elizalieth's badges was a 
 golden falcon perched on the stump of a tree between 
 two growing branches of white and red roses, a 
 badge which is said to have been given to her mother. 
 Anne Boleyn, by Henry VIII. The benr and rugged 
 staff, which still exists as a sign in London, was the 
 badge of the great Earl of Warwick. The irhite hart 
 and silrer siran, which are frequently '.net with as 
 signs to inns, have a similar origin, the lirst having 
 been the badge of Richard II., aud the second having 
 belonged to the House of Lancaster. The gurb and 
 sickle^ Ihc badge of the Hungerfords, is another ver}- 
 
 Garb and Sickle. 
 
 Fleur-de-lis of Louis Vn. 
 
 beautiful and less common example of the same cla.ss 
 of badges. Different countries have also distinctive 
 badges, generally connected with the history either 
 of the actual ruling or of some former dynasty. Of 
 these, llxc Jteur-de-li.^ of France, and the other badges, 
 for which it from time to time makes way— viz., the 
 cap of liberty and other emblems of republicanism, 
 the eagles of" the Empire, borrowed from Rome, and 
 the bees and other insignia which the Bonaparte 
 family have assumed — may all be taken as examples. 
 
 For the badges of the different Orders of Knight- 
 hood, see their'respective titles. 
 
 BAGGAGE. — No question is more important in giv- 
 im; etticieucy to an army than the regulation of its 
 bairiraire. Nothing so seriously impairs the mobility 
 of an army in the'field as its "baggage-train, Imt this 
 bairgage is necessary to its existence ; and the impor- 
 tant question therefore arises. How shall the army be 
 sustained with least baggage? Sufficient attention is 
 not paid by Government "to this subject in time of 
 peace, and "in war the Commander of the troops linds 
 himself therefore obliged to use the ini^tudud means 
 which his Government hastily furnishes. In respect 
 to artillery and artillery equipments, the minutest 
 details arc regulated. It should be the same with 
 
 other supplies. In the United States Army, the 
 Quartermaster's Department has charge of transports, 
 and some steps have been taken to regidate the sub- 
 ject ; but legislation is required for the neces-sary 
 militarj- organization of Conductors and Drivers of 
 wagons, and perhaps, also, unless our arsenals may 
 be so used, for the establishment of depots, where a 
 studied examination of tield-transportation may be 
 made, which will recommend rules, regulating the 
 kinds of wagons or carts to be used in different cir- 
 ciunstances ; prescribing the construction of the 
 wagon and its various parts in a uniform manner so 
 that the corresponding part of one wagon will answer 
 for aiKjther, giving the greatest possible mobilitj- to 
 these wagons consistent with strength ; prescribing 
 the harness, equipment, valises of olficers, blacksmith- 
 forges, tool-chests, ch&sts for uniforms, bales of 
 clothing, packing of provisions, and, generally, the 
 proportion, form, substance, and dimensions of arti- 
 cles of suppl}',; what should be the maximum weight 
 of packages ; the means to be taken for preventing 
 damage to the articles ; the grade, duties, and pay of 
 the Quartermasters, Wagon - msisters, and Drivers 
 shoidd be properly regulated ; rules for loading 
 should be gi\en ; and, finally, a complete system of 
 marks, or modes of recognition, should be systema- 
 tized. With such rules, and the adoption of a kit- 
 clten-cart, together with small cooking-utensils for 
 tield-ser\-ice which may be carried by llie men, an 
 army would no longer always be tied to a baggage- 
 train, and great results might be accomplished by the 
 disconnection. 
 
 In the marching arrangements of the British Army 
 the baggage is placed under strict rules, in order that 
 accumulation of weight may not impede the move- 
 ment of the troops ; and rules of an analogous kind 
 are enforced in troop-ships, when soldiers are f)n a 
 voyage. The term itself is made to apply chiefly to ar- 
 ticles^of clothing, and to smal I personal effects. A pri- 
 vate soldier is allowed to carry nothing except that 
 which his knapsack and other accouterinents can hold ; 
 but those who are married witli their officers' consent 
 — a small number in every regiment — are allowed 
 one small chest each, of detinite size, which may be 
 carried on a march, but at the men's own expense. 
 Staff-sergeants and Pay-sergeants have similar per- 
 mission. The baggage-wagons are not expectetl to 
 receive packages weighing more than 400 lbs. each, 
 or as much as four men can lift. OHicers' bagg-age 
 is, of course, much more considerable in amount than 
 that of the non-commissioned officers and privates. 
 On board troop-ships, the weight to be carried for 
 each person is strictly defined — from 18 cwt. for a 
 Field-officer, down to 1 cwt. for a married private 
 soldier, with his wife and children. In encamp- 
 ments, whether permanent or temporary, and in 
 armies on field-service, the utmost care is taken to 
 preserve the baggage from the enemy, by surround- 
 iuir it as much as possible Avith defensive troops. 
 
 BAGGAGE - MASTER.— An officer, in the English 
 Army, appointed to take charge of the baggage of 
 each brigade aud division of an army in the field. 
 He is selected from the Line if the Senior Officer of the 
 ^\jiuy Service C'oips is not suited for the work. 
 During the march he is the Staff-officer of the Field- 
 officer of the Day, who, commanding the rear-guard, 
 can give him orders if necessarj'. The Queen's Reg- 
 idalions of 1S73 state that each regiment on a march 
 is to furnish its own baggage-guard, under the care 
 of an officer of the resiment. 
 
 BAGGONET.— The ancient term for bayonet. It is 
 seldom used at present. 
 
 BAGPIPE.— A wind-instrument, very popular in 
 the Highlands of Scotland. This iristniment, the 
 performers of which are called "pipers," is playefl 
 by the bandsmen of Highland regiments. L'p to the 
 eighteenth century, the bagpipe was a very common 
 instrument over the greater part of Europe. It is 
 supposed to be of Grecian origin, and the Romans in 
 all probability took it from the Greeks. The natives
 
 BAGS. 
 
 126 
 
 BAKES OTTir. 
 
 of Indin have an inslrumont very similar to llic top- 
 pipe. The bagpipe lias long Iwen n favorite instru- 
 ment with the Scots, inspiring them with great en- 
 thusiasm and valor in the day of liallle. 
 
 BAGS.— Articles usc<l in Beld-fortitications, and in 
 works to cover a Ix'sieging army. Sand-lxiga, which 
 arc generally 16 Inches in diameter imd 30 high, are 
 filled with earth oi sand, to repair breaches and em- 
 bnisures of batterie-s, when damaged by the enemy's 
 fire or by the blast of the euus. 'fhey arc also 
 placed on parapets, so ammgea as to form a covering 
 lor men to tire through. E<irth-lHigs, holding a cubi- 
 cal foot of earth, are usctl to raise a parapet in haste, 
 or to repair one that is bi«len down. They are only 
 employed where the ground is rocky, or too hard for 
 the pick!».\e and spade, and does not afford ready 
 material for a temiHtrary parapet. See Blowing-bags, 
 Bunting-bags, Calico -i'ligs. Cartridge -bags. Gunny- 
 bags, and iiunpmtdtr-hags. 
 
 BAGS OF POWDEK.— Powder in bags used to blow 
 down gales, stockades, and slight obstructions. In 
 future wars the higher explosives will doubtless be 
 used for such jiuqioses. 
 
 BAICLAKLAR.— The name given to a Color-bearer 
 in the Turkish Army. 
 
 BAIKY.— The baliium, or inclosed plot of ground 
 in an ancient fort. 
 
 BAIL. — A stout iron yoke placed over heavy- guns 
 and tilting closelj' over the ends of the trunnions, to 
 which it is attached by pins in the axis of the trun- 
 nions; used to raise or lower the gun by means of 
 the gin. 
 
 BAILLE. — A term formerly used to designate a 
 work 9r fortification which served as an outpost or 
 exterior defense. 
 
 though the same weight of metal was put in one bar- 
 rel, which may be accounted for by the fact that the 
 Siinie weight oi metal in a hollow tube is much 
 slilTer Ihiui though it was in a solid bar; and, also, 
 each barrel forms a brace to help support the other, 
 and especially in regard to the rifle-barrel, in which 
 
 are used the heaviest charges that are manufactured 
 for a sporting-gun. 
 
 The drawings show the form of the gun and the 
 manner of operating the mechanism. In the smaller 
 drawing, A is the rifle hammer which, Ix-ing hung 
 in the trigger-plate and extending up its side between 
 the two shotgun locks, strikes the rifle firing-pin at 
 
 A, Rifle Barrel ; B, Thumb-piece of the Rifle Hammer. 
 
 BAIONNIEE.— A name formerly given to soldiers 
 who were iiniied with a bayonet. 
 
 BAKEB GUN— A three-barrel breech-loading gun 
 recently introduced and received with much favor. 
 As happens to every liunter or sportsman, unex- 
 pected opportunities offer themselves to shoot at a 
 cla.S8 of game that a sliot-gun will either not reach 
 at all, or fail to kill. This gun gives confidence to 
 those Inmting in localities where there are dangerous 
 animals, or wliere an enemy might be lurking and 
 unexpect<'dly encouiilered at any moment. It is a 
 most useful and suitable weapon for the hunters at- 
 tached to scouting columns in the field, who are 
 charged with supi)lying the mes.ses with game. The 
 weight, not over nine ])oimds, is sufficient to pre\ent 
 an uni)lea.siint recoil, and permits the gun to be Ciir- 
 ried with the same ea.se as does an ordinary rifle, con- 
 taining nielal enough to do satisfaclorj' work. 
 
 It is demonstrated by actual u.sc tliat there is less 
 spring or recoil in a gun with three barrels thau 
 
 B . To operate it , cock the left-hand shot-gun lock and 
 then p\isli forward the thumb-piece. A, of rifle ham- 
 mer, which will cause Ihc hook, C, to engage with the 
 pin, E, which is attached to the ttmibler of the left- 
 liand lock; then by pulling the back trigger the rifle 
 hammer will be caused to strike the firiiig-i)in at B, 
 and stop, thus not allowing the left-hand hammer to 
 go quite far enotich to reach its tiring-pin. After 
 firing the rifle, cocking the left-liand hammer throws 
 the rifle lock out of gear, then the shotgun locks are 
 entirely independent of the rifle lock. The rifle 
 barrel is chambered to use the Winchester 44-calibcr 
 cartridge. 
 
 The gun has a hinge-sight on the stock which turns 
 do\Yn entirely out of tlic way while shooting the 
 shot-barrels, and when turned up has a slide with a 
 common notch in the top for open or quick shooting, 
 and when raised has a fine hole or peep-sight for 
 close or target shooting. A buckhorn sight can be 
 placed on the rib when desired, but in most cases Is
 
 BAK£BI£S. 
 
 127 
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 unadvisable, as the rear-sight answers all practical 
 purposes. 
 
 The lock is so constructed that while it retains the 
 identical form of the best forward-action locks, mak- 
 ing the gun the same shape, and having the same 
 appearance outside of tlie tincst standard work, the 
 mainspring, instead of running forward into tlio 
 breech, is inclosed within the lock - plate, which 
 leaves the breech to retain the entire strength of the 
 metal which has to be removed to make room for the 
 ordinary lock, and which weakens it most precisely 
 where it is subject to the urealest strain. While the 
 lock thus allows of absolutely the strongest breech 
 possible to get on a gun, it also admits of obtaining 
 the easiest access to the entire working-parts of the 
 gun, and is of such construction that with ordinary 
 usage it will not get out of order, or become clog- 
 ged with dirt or oil so as to prevent its successful 
 working. 
 
 It will be seen, by referring to the description of 
 the action, that while it is composed of the fewest 
 pieces that is possible to use in a snap-action, it at 
 the same time possesses every quality that is desira- 
 ble, or that has been found essential to strength, dura- 
 bility, and safety. It is impossible to fire the gun 
 unless the bolt is securely in its place, and the act of 
 pulling the trigger holds it there while the gun is 
 being discharged. It is also manifest that as soon as 
 the gun is tired the hand is in place to open it with 
 out any change of position, insuring easy manipula- 
 tion and rapid tiring, it being entirely practicable to 
 open it ready to receive the cartridge while bringing 
 it down from the shoulder. 
 
 BAKERIES.— Armies have generally the means of 
 obtaining soft or loaf bread, though not till recently 
 could this be said of the British Army. The French, 
 ever since the time of Louis XIV., have been accus- 
 tomed to take portable ovens with their armies; those 
 now used will each bake 4.50 rations at once. Out- 
 side Sebastopol, in the winter of 18.54, the British 
 soldiers sometimes willingly exchanged with the 
 French .3 or 4 lbs. of biscuit for 1 lb. of soft bread. 
 The efforts since made to improve the siinitary con- 
 dition of the army have included the establishment of 
 traveling-bakeries for field-ser\icc. Umler the Com- 
 missaries, the troops now rarely fail to obtain their 
 dail}- rations of fresh-baked bread. The English were 
 the last among the greater nations to make this ob- 
 vious improvement; but the French depend more on 
 bread and lesson meat than the English; and this ma)' 
 partly account for the difference. The French sol- 
 diers are taught to construct tieltl-ovens, and to bake 
 their bread in camp, while government bakeries are 
 established all over France, entirely coiidvicted by 
 soldiers. Among other lcs.sons afforded by the Siege 
 of Sebastopol was one relating to an improved sup- 
 ply of army-bread. Two screw-steamers, the Bruiser 
 and the Ahvndanee, were sent out to Balaklava, one 
 provided with machinery for grinding corn, and the 
 other with machinery and ovens for making and bak- 
 ing bread. In each case the ship and the machinery 
 were propelled liy the same steam-engine. When 
 quietly anchored in the harbor, the mill ground 
 &4,000 lbs. of flour per day — better in quality and 
 cheaper than could have been obtained by contract. 
 The bakery-ship Abundance had four ovens of 14 
 bushels' capacity each; it baked in an excellent man- 
 ner 6000 loaves of 3 lbs. each per da}', which loaves 
 were sent up to the siege-army as soon as cooled. 
 The ships and machinery were sold when the war 
 was over — a proceeding which the Commissariat 
 Officers much regretted; but the experience thence 
 obtained will not be lost. The improved arrange- 
 ments suggested for meat-rations are noticed under 
 
 BAKER RIFLE.— In 1800, the 9.5th Regiment, now 
 tlie Rifle Brigade of England, was armed with this rifle, 
 which weighed 9i pounds. The barrel was 'ii feet in 
 length and had 7 grooves, making a quarter turn in 
 the length of the barrel, and its caliber was a 30 bore. 
 
 A small wooden mallet was supplie<i with this 
 rifle, to force the ball into the barrel; this mallet re- 
 mained in use for a short time, when it was with- 
 drawn The great difliculty experienced in loading 
 the rifle led to the remedy of M. Dehigne in 18i(j. 
 
 BALANCE. — An instrument for a.scertaining the 
 weight of bodies in grains, ounces, pounds, or any 
 other units of weight. The ordinary balance con- 
 sists of a lever called a beam, whose point of support 
 is in the middle of its length, and having dishes or 
 scales suspended from cither extremity. "As it is of 
 importance that the beam sliould move easily round 
 its point of support, it rests on polished agate or steel 
 planes, by means of knife-edges of tempered .steel, 
 which project transversely from its sides, and serve 
 as the axis of rotation. By this arrangement the 
 surface of contact is reduced to a mere line, and the 
 friction of the axis of the beam on its support almost 
 entirely obviated. The scales are hung by means of 
 chains attached to steel hooks, which rest also on 
 knife-edges, but turned upwards instead of down- 
 wards as in the first case. The essential require- 
 ments of a balance of this description are : 1st, 
 That the beam shall remain in a horizontal position 
 when no weights are in either scale; and 2d, That 
 the beam shall be a lever of equal arms, or have the 
 distances between the central knife-edge and those at 
 either end exactly the same. To insure the first of 
 these conditions, it is necessary that the center of 
 gravity of the beam lie vertically below the point 
 of support, when the beam is horizontal. When 
 such is the ca.se, the center of gra\ity at wiiich the 
 weight of the beam nuiy be considered to act oscil- 
 lates as in a pendulum round the point of support, 
 and alwaj'S comes to rest right under that point, thus 
 restoring to the beam its horizontal position when it 
 has been tilted out of it. If the center of gravity 
 were above the point of support, the beam would 
 topple over ; and if it coincided with that point, there 
 being no restormg force, the beam would occupy 
 indifferently any jwsition into which it was thrown, 
 the balance in both cases being useless. That a bal- 
 ance possesses the second of the above conditions is 
 ascertained by jiutting weights into the scales which 
 keep the beam horizontal, and then transposing them, 
 when, if it still remains so, the lengths of the arms 
 are equal. Should the arms be of different lengths, 
 a less weight at the end of the longer arm will bal- 
 ance a larger weight at the end of the shorter arm; 
 but when transposed, the larger weight ha\ing the 
 longer arm, and the smaller weight the shorter, the 
 beam can no longer remain horizontal, but will in- 
 cline towards the larger weight. A balance with im- 
 equul arms is called a /«?.«' Inilaiicc, as distinguished 
 from an equal-armed or just balance. When weigh- 
 ing with a false balance, it is usual to weigh a body 
 in lx)th scales, and take the arithmetical mean — that 
 is, half the sum of the apparent weights for the true 
 weight. This is near enough to the truth when the 
 ajiparent weights differ little from each other; but 
 when it is otherwise, the geometrical mean must be 
 taken, which gives the exact weight in all cases. 
 
 Although the preceding conditions are of essential 
 importance, they do not supply all that we look for 
 in a good balance. It is necessary, in addition, that 
 the beam should turn visibly from its horizontal 
 position when there is a slight excess of weight in the 
 one scale as compared with the other. This tendency 
 is termed scnsiiiliii/. and dejicnds upon the weight of 
 the beam, the position of its center of gra\ity, and 
 the length yf its arms. 
 
 There is another form of delicate balance employed 
 in the arsenal and laboratory. The beam is con- 
 structed so as to combine lightness with strength, and 
 rests by a fine knife-edge on an agate ])lane. It is 
 surmounted by a weight mo\ing on a screw, .so that 
 the sensibility may be incrcasetl or diminislied. ac- 
 cording as the weiirht is raised or depressed. In onler 
 that the knife-edge may not become blunted by 
 constant contact with the supporting plane, a cross-
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 128 
 
 BALANCE. 
 
 bnr, with two projcclinj; pins, is niiulc lo lift the 
 beum from the plaiu', ami susljiin its weiirJit wlieu 
 the biilaiK'C is not in play. The beam is ijivided by 
 lines niarkcfl upon it into ten e<iual parts, ami a small 
 weight maile of tine wirt' bent into the form of a fork, 
 called a rider, is n\ade to slide along to any of the 
 di\"isions. If the rider be, for instance, |V, of a grain, 
 and if, after the weight tif a ImhIv is verv nearly its- 
 certaim^l. it brings the l)eam. when plaeet"! at the tirst 
 division tic.xt the eenter, exactly to its horizontal 
 position, an additional weight ot \},g of a gndn will 
 be indicated. The use of inconveniently small 
 weights is, by this arrangement, to a large extent ob- 
 viated. iVs the beam takes some time before it comes 
 to rest, it would be tedious to wait in each case till 
 it did so, and for this reason a long pointed inde.x is 
 fixetl to the beam below the point of suspension, the 
 lower extremity of which moves backward and for- 
 ward on a graduated ivory scale, so that when the 
 index moves to equal distiuices on either side of the 
 zero-point we are quite certain, without waiting till 
 it liually settles, that the beam will be horizontal. 
 The same is seen in ordinary balances, only the 
 tomnie or index is above the beam; and according to 
 its clcNiation on each side of the fork or cheeks b}' 
 which the whole is suspended is the future position 
 of the beam ascerUiined. The finer balances are 
 never loaded to more than a pound in each scale, and 
 when so charged will deflect with ^Js of a grain of 
 
 additional weight in one of the scales, or will turn, 
 as it is technically called, with ttsVott of 'he load. 
 The finest balances turn with xjnrjTsjrir of the load, 
 and some have been constructed which turn with 
 much less. Even with the best achievements of 
 mechanical skill, no balance can be made whose 
 arms are absolutely equal: and to remedy this defect, 
 the method of double-weighing is resorted to when 
 the utmost accuracy is demantled. This consists in 
 placing the body to be weighed into one scale, and 
 sand, or the like, into the other, until exact equi- 
 librium is obtained, then removing the body, and 
 putting weights or another body in its place "which ' 
 exactly counterbalance the sand. Both being thus 
 weiirhed in precisely similar circumstances, must 
 Weigh precisely the same. 
 
 The balance employed in the process of determin- 
 ing density is a simple b(?am-.scale. constructed w ith 
 great accuracy. The great convenience of a decimal 
 system of weights has led to the adoption of the 
 scale of grams in a.scertjiining the density of pow- 
 der. The set of weights used is of 50(K) grams; ap- 
 proximately 11 pounds. The heaviest, Tkilogram, 
 2204 ixiunds; the lightest, 3 centigrams, 0.75 '. 
 grain. The i)owder lo 1h' tested, if of mammoth 
 size, will require bnvikiii!; up to a smaller granula- 
 tion; for in it.s natural slate it will not readily enter 
 the va.se, which is of but one half-inch interior diame- 
 ter at the neck. This is readily and safely done by 
 
 using a light steel hammer, the powder resting on a 
 table of wood. For convenience of computation, it 
 is advisable to use samples of 100 grams; or, if 
 eni]>loying grain weights, of l.>43.3 gnuns. To take 
 the deiisitv, weigh out the sample with great accu- 
 racy, taking lOO grams, if jiracticable. The vase 
 I iR'iiig mounted, w ith the nozzle screwed in place and 
 well immersed in the mercury, close the lower cock, 
 opening both the others, and exhaust the air from tLe 
 ' tube and vase. When the gauge shows nearly a per- 
 fect vacuinu, opeti the lower cock. The mercury 
 from the dish w ill then enter and fill the vase, rising- 
 in the tul)c marly to the barometric height, the 
 vacuum meanwliiie being kept up by continuous 
 pumi>ing. As .soon as the colunni becomes station- 
 ary, eloK' the lower stop-cock, and readmit the air to 
 the top of the tube by unscrewing the casing of the 
 vacuum-gauge; close the other cocks and unscrew 
 the nozzle; dismount the vase, jar out the mercury 
 from the tubular spaces outside the cocks, brush the 
 outside clean, and then place the vase on its rest and 
 weigh it. Call this weight of vase and mercurj- Vjf 
 = Tr. Empty the vase by opening the cocks, and 
 allow the mercury to return to the dish; also let the 
 mercury nm out of the barometer-tube. If the inside 
 of the vase is coated, unscrew both plugs and wipe it 
 otit with a cloth; or, if uecessarj', wash it with' aqua 
 regia. With clean mercury, washing is rarely re- 
 quired. In general practice, after having emptied 
 the vase, one plug is unscrewed, and the sample of 
 powder previousl}- weighed out is poured in. The 
 plug being again securely in place, the vase is 
 mouuted and the mercury pumjied into it, passing 
 up through the powder, "tilling its interstices, driv- 
 ing out the air, and rising to the .same height in 
 the tube as before. "When this point is reached, close 
 the cocks, admit the air, imscrew and weigh the vase 
 as before, calling the weight of powder, vase, and 
 mercuiy PVM = W . From these two weights, to- 
 gether with that of the powder sample, the density is 
 calculated by the proportion: Density of mercury is 
 to densitj' of powder as weight of merciuy displaced 
 by powder is to weight of powder; or, if 
 W = weight of vase and mercury, 
 W = weight of powder, vase, and mercury, 
 w = weight of powder, 
 D = density of mercury, 
 d = density of powder, 
 then W — ic = weight of mercury, vase, and powder, 
 less the weight of powder, and W — (W — (c) = 
 weight of mercury displaced by the powder, and the 
 proportion becomes 
 
 D.d = W— W + w :w, 
 or 
 
 D Xw 
 "-W- W + w' 
 The weight of W should be determined at the be- 
 ginning and end of each set of trials, and the mean 
 be ased to correct the result of the whole series. 
 The mercury used should be of specific gravity 
 —13.55055 at 66° Fahrenheit. Its purity can be tested 
 by comparison with distilled water by" the following 
 process: Clean the vase and its connections thorough- 
 1}', and weigh it. Call this weight a. Jlount the vase 
 and fill it with mercury, and again weigh it. calling 
 the re.sidt b. Empty, clean, !ind connect it again, 
 substituting a dish of distilled water for that of mer- 
 cury ordinarily used. Fill the vase bj- pumping 
 slowly to avoid overflowing. Detach and weigh it 
 again, calling this last weight c; then 
 b — a ^ 
 
 the density of the mercuiy, which, if up to the 
 standard, will con-espond to that given in the table 
 for the temperature at the time of trial. The mer- 
 cury- used with the densimeter should frequently be 
 strained through chamois-leather to remove impuri- 
 ties which are accidentally introduced into it in ex- 
 perimenting. See Weighing-machine.
 
 BALANCE-STEP. 
 
 129 
 
 BALLABD EIFLE. 
 
 BALANCE-STEP.— An exercise in sciuad-drill which 
 is much practiced as a preliminary to marchinir. 
 
 BALDRICK— BAUDRICK.— A band or sji.-ih worn 
 partly as a military and partly as a heraldic symbol. 
 
 It passes round the 
 waist as a girdle, or 
 pa.sses over the left 
 shoulder, whence it 
 is brought downward 
 obliquely imder the 
 riirht arm, or is sus- 
 ]iciKk'd from the right 
 shoulder in such a 
 way as to sustain a 
 sword. Many of the 
 effigies of knights con- 
 tain representations of 
 thebaldrick, more fre- 
 quently as a belt than 
 a shoulder-sash. Queen Victoria frequently wears a 
 blue silken baldrick on state occasions. The name is 
 derived from the hitUeus of the Roman soldier. 
 
 BALESTRE.— The erosg-boie li gakt, so called by 
 the Germans, from its being somewhat huge in size. 
 Also written BaUtntrc. 
 
 BALISTA— BALLISTA. — A large militan," weapon 
 in use before the invention of gunpowder. The 
 bdUsUi. the mtapulta. the scorpion, and the onager 
 propelled large and heavy missiles, chiefly through 
 the reaction of a tightly-twisted rope of hemp, flax, 
 catgut, sinew, or hair; or else by a nolent movement 
 of levers. The scorpion was a kind of large crowbar: 
 the balista threw stones; the catapulta threw hea\'y 
 darts or arrows, and was somewhat smaller than the 
 balista. One man could manage the scorpion, but 
 two or more were needed for the balista or the cata- 
 pulta. There was a good deal of mechanism nec- 
 essary to bring about the propulsive force. The 
 
 makers of those machines were very parricidar in the 
 choice of women's hair, the sinews of a liull's neck, 
 and the tendons of the deer, wherewith to fashion the 
 elastic cord. The onager was a kind of balista, which 
 threw a stone by the agency of a sling instead of a 
 stretcheil cord. The early chroniclers tell of cata- 
 pultas that would throw an arrow half a mile, or 
 hurl a javelin across the Danulie; and of a balista 
 which threw a stone weighing 360 lbs. Numerous 
 other weapons of an analogous character were known 
 in the Middle Ages — such as the maiigomd; the 
 trebwhet, which threw a large stone by the action of 
 a lever and a sling; the petrary, which, as its name 
 implies, threw a stone; the robimt, which threw ilarts 
 as well as stones; the matt'-griffon and mnte-fundn, 
 both slinging-machines; the" trieolk, which hurled 
 quarrels, or square-headed arrows; the espringnl or 
 apringal, which threw darts; the ribatideguin, a large 
 kind of cross-bow; the war-irolf, a stone-throwing 
 machine, etc. The arbalest may be regarded as a 
 small portable arrow-throwins balista. 
 
 BALISTA FTJLMINATRIX.— A peculiar war-engine 
 of the Middle Ages. This engine is interesting on 
 account of the men inside the "wheels who form its 
 motive power. 
 
 BALISTARIUM.— A store-room or arsenal in which 
 the Romans stored their balistas. 
 
 BALISTEB.— A term applied in ancient times to 
 
 the cross-bow, carried by the Baliatriers, or cross-bow- 
 men. 
 
 BALISTRAEIA.— One of the names given to those 
 narrow apertures so often seen in the walls of old 
 castles, and through which the cros.s-lx(wmen dis- 
 charged their arrows. Balistraria do not seem to have 
 come into use till the thirteenth century. The lower 
 terminations of balistraria are generally circular, some- 
 times in the form of a shovel. This term, frequently 
 written ballittraria, also signified a projecting turret, 
 otherwise called a bartizan, such as is commonly seen 
 in old castles. 
 
 BALES. — Joist-shaped spars, which rest between 
 the cleats upon the .saddles of two pontons, to support 
 the chess or flooring. 
 
 BALL. — In the somewhat indefinite language of the 
 militarj- and naval arts, all kinds of shot anil bullets 
 are occasionally called by the collective name of ball. 
 This was especially the case when nearly all such 
 projectiles were solid and spherical, before the era of 
 hollow and spheroidal shells. At present, when the 
 varieties are so numerous, it is more usual to employ 
 the terms bvllet and shot. These, together with shell, 
 are subdivided into numerous kinds, the most im- 
 portant of which will 1» found noticed under their 
 proper designations. A particular cla.ss of spherical 
 combustibles is described under balls. 
 
 BALL A CULOT.— As no two soldiers wovdd prob- 
 ably use the s;ime number of blows, or the same 
 force, when ramming the ball into the grooves, 
 various degrees of expansion would take place. With 
 a view to expanding the ball regularly and inde- 
 pendentlj- of the soldier, a ball with a wedge (culot) 
 was invented. The shape of the ca%"ity in this ball 
 was that of the frustum of a cone, and in this cavity 
 was inserted a piece of iron to act as a wedge. This 
 culot was driven before the powder into the cavity, 
 and by expanding the softer metal of the ball forced 
 it to take the gi-oovcs. 
 
 BALLARD RIFLE.— An American rifle having a 
 very simple and elfective breech mechanism. The 
 extractor is positive and caimot fail to work, as it 
 acts on the same pin ^\ith the lever; when the lever 
 is thrown down it withdraws the breech-block, at the 
 -same time throwing the hammer to the haLf-cock 
 notch: after inserting the cartridge, pushing up 
 the lever causes the lock to move forward and up- 
 ward, closing tightly on the head of the cartridge. 
 There is no possibility of an explosion, as the hammer 
 is at half cock, and there is nothing which might slip 
 through careless handling. Nothing short of firing 
 the gun voluntarily can set it off, thus making it in 
 every respect safe. This rifle is a great favorite with 
 
 the Indians of North America, and seems to possess 
 shooting and non-fouling properties not possessed by 
 many other rifles. The Target represented was made 
 after 40 rounds at fifty yards, ■with this rifle. The 
 wind was from the le"ft"rear, light, but the atmos- 
 phere was damp, and conseiiuently favorable from 
 the fouling point of view. In no case was there the
 
 BALL-CALIBER. 
 
 130 
 
 BALLI8TIC& 
 
 411^; 
 
 slightest evidence of any increase of fouling up to 100 
 shots. The ritle is approved iiud recoininended tiy 
 the K'st shots in the Iculiiig dubs in the United 
 Slates, Great Hritain, Fnuiee. and Gemisuiy. 
 
 BALL-CALIBEE. — A ringgsmge for testing the 
 diaiueter of cun-shol, usuiUlv iise<l on board ship. 
 
 ■ BALL-CAHTEIDGE.— A 
 cartridge for small-arms ; 
 the ball and powder being 
 inan envelojx^ orshell. In 
 contradistinction to blaiiK- 
 ^ cartridge. See Oirtridf/i: 
 
 BALLING-FUENACE.— A furnace in which pil<a or 
 fagola of iron are heated so as to form balls for roll- 
 ing. In the putldliiiff/urnact', pig-iron is boiled to 
 drive oft certain impurities, and the iron therein is 
 formed info balls by the rabble or paddle of the pud- 
 dler, so as to he ready for the shingliug-hammer or 
 the squeezer which drivi-s the slag from the bloom. 
 At tlic s;iine heat the iron may be rolled and become 
 a merchantable article of bar -iron; but with some 
 qualities of iron, and for the production of the liner 
 varieties of bar and sheet iron, the bar from the first 
 rolling is cut up by the shears and made into piles or 
 fiifjot.i, which are i-eheatcd to form balh for re-rolling. 
 The furnace resembles a puddling-fiu-nace, with the 
 exception that it is not designed for stirring and pud- 
 dling; but the piles or fagotti are laid upon the floor 
 of the reverberating chamber, and are there heated 
 without running together, each being %vithdrawn as 
 it attains the required condition. "The bottom is 
 made up from time to time with sjmd. It is not a 
 mere reheating, but the action of the fire and the ad- 
 mission of regidatcd quantities of air remove certain 
 impurities which have resisted the previous opera- 
 tions. 
 
 BALLING-TOOL.— A tool for aggregating the iron 
 in a puddling-furnace, to fit it for conveyance to the 
 tilt or squeezer. 
 
 BALLISTEA. — In antiquit)'. songs accompanied by 
 dancing, usi^d on occasions of %ictory. 
 
 BALLISTIC MACHINE.— A machine designed to 
 determine by electricity the initial velocity of a 
 projectile. These machines arc made in great variety. 
 The Benton vclocimcter, devised for use at the 
 Alilitary Academy, and usually known as the West 
 Point ballistic machine, will .serve to illustrate their 
 general purpose and coastruction. 
 
 BALLISTIC PENDULUM.— The ballistic pendulum 
 iiivented by Robins, who is justly held to be the 
 pioneer of modern gunnery, was lirst used in 1740, 
 with the object of measuring the velocity of projectiles 
 and the resistance of the air. If such a pendulum, 
 being at rest, is struck by a boilv of known weight, 
 and the vibration which it makes after the blow is 
 known, the velocity of the striking body may thence 
 Ix; determined. The quantitv of motion of the body 
 before impact is equal to tha't of the pendulum and 
 body after impact. It consists essentially of a stromr, 
 large pendulum, which has its axis of suspension se- 
 cured, and a core or block at its lower part. The 
 projectile is fired into this core and remains there, 
 causing the pendulum at the same time to swing 
 through a certain angle a with the vertical; this is 
 measured by a slider which is pushed along a fixed 
 arc. 
 
 Before using the pendulum certain adjustments as 
 to sj-mmetry and level are necessarv, aiul it is im- 
 portant to arrange that the pctiduluni may be struck 
 at such a point that no impulse shall be given to the 
 axis of suspension; in other words, the center of per- 
 cus-sion shoidil be hit. It is an established fa<t that 
 the centers of percus'^ion and oscillation are coincident, 
 and the center of oscillation is readily found by caus- 
 ing the pendulum to\ibnile Ihrougira small are; and 
 obser\-ing the period (T) taken to'perfonu a number 
 
 T 
 of vibrations (n), then - gives the time {f) of a single 
 
 vibration with considerably accuracy. The length 
 
 of the corresponding simple pcndidum (I), the dis- 
 tance of the center of oscillation or percussion from 
 the axis of suspension, is then known from the 
 
 /T 
 formula t = n y -■ If the distance of the center 
 
 of the core from the axis of suspension is exactlv 
 equal to /, the instrument is in adjustment: but ff 
 this is not the case, weights must be pushed up or 
 down the pendulum by trial and error, till the time 
 of o.scillation is foimd to l)c correct. 
 
 The weight of the pendulum being known, the dis- 
 tance (//) of its center of gravity from the axis of sus- 
 pension is then found experimentally (if not already 
 determined). A cord, with a known hea\T weight at 
 the end of it, is pa.ssed over a ptdley (in the plane of 
 oscillation), and attached to the lower part of the 
 pentlulum, which it pulls through a certahi angle ft, 
 which is measured. The ilistjmce of the point of at- 
 tachment of the cord from the axis of suspension is 
 also measured; and from these data the position of 
 the center of gravity of the pendulum is ea.'.ily found. 
 
 Let W be the weight of the pendulum in pounds; 
 V, the weight of the projectile in pounds ; r, the 
 velocitj' of the projectile in feet per second; d. the 
 distance of center of percussion from axis in feet; 
 h, the distance of center of gravity from axis in feet; 
 f, the angular velocity of the pendulum at the in- 
 stant of impact. Then 
 d£ — linear velocity, in feet per second, of the center 
 
 of percussion at the instant of impact, and 
 Tii = linear velocity of center of gravity at the in- 
 stant of impact. 
 
 The projectile is fired info the middle of the core, 
 and the pendulum swings through the angle 2a. 
 
 Since the center of oscillation moves as though it 
 were i.solated, its velocity df at the instant of impact 
 must be the same as that of a bodj' falling freely 
 under the influence of gravity from the height to 
 which it will rise at the end of its swing, or 
 d-e- = 'igd (1 — cos a); 
 
 whence 
 
 2 -J- sm 2- 
 
 As the shot buries itself in the core, reboimd is pre- 
 vented, and we have a case of impact of inelastic 
 bodies, when the momentum of the projectile before 
 striking must be equal to that of the pendulum and 
 of the projectile after striking, or 
 wv = Whe -\- teds; 
 
 whence 
 
 :-(IF7i + Md). 
 
 Substituting the value of f from above, we obtain 
 a Wh -|- led 
 
 3 sin; 
 
 icd 
 
 WTd. 
 
 If the center of percussion is not exactly struck, the 
 velocity of the projectile can still be foiiud by suita- 
 ble modifications in the calculations; this often had 
 to be done, when firing from a considerable distance, 
 to find the loss of velocity due to the resistance of the 
 air. as it was difficult to hit the exact spot aimed at. 
 
 BALLISTICS.— That branch of the science of gim- 
 nery which treats of the motion of projectiles. 
 Ancient artillerists considered that the trajectory, 
 or path described by a )irojectiIe after it left its 
 piece, was composed of three distinct parts : 1st. 
 The molent, which ai)proached a straight line ; 2d. 
 The middle, or mixed, which was a circle; 3d. The 
 last, or natural, w'lich was also a right line. 
 
 Tartiiglia, an Ifjian engineer, invented the quad- 
 rant for measuring elevations, which he divided into 
 twelve parts, and jy which he was able to compare 
 the ranges of different cannon, fired luider the sjuiie 
 or different degrees of elevation. He demonstrated 
 that no jwrtion of the trajectory was a right line, 
 and that the angle which gave the greatest range 
 was 45 . 
 
 About 1638, Galileo discovered the laws which
 
 .OOH. 
 
 ailted 
 wand 
 1 ten- 
 froiu 
 je re- 
 ry to 
 m no 
 
 pos- 
 abun- 
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 A\-ig- 
 - first 
 about 
 
 En- 
 speri- 
 (ually 
 pres- 
 nense 
 neter, 
 erical 
 )aper, 
 . it, in 
 rned. 
 of re- 
 V, for 
 ."orld. 
 d the 
 70 by 
 1 it is 
 care, 
 ously 
 rench 
 in ac- 
 r pur- 
 oyiug 
 made 
 After 
 jmall 
 1, was 
 •, and 
 :)utch 
 I feet 
 s and 
 ropes 
 ogen, 
 from 
 nemy 
 traor- 
 being 
 made 
 great 
 aban- 
 lefen- 
 orted 
 were 
 e be- 
 tened 
 >r do- 
 Fleu- 
 .ssels, 
 1 the 
 i the 
 e ap- 
 both 
 lloon- 
 were 
 )thers 
 much 
 a the 
 time. 
 
 made 
 rcap- 
 ■orks. 
 imals 
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 from 
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 )ns it 
 smain
 
 Baiaoosb 1. MontgoIflSre (flret balloon). 3. Pil&tre de Rozrer's balloon (first ascent). 3. Blanclianl's balUjlm (first aerial navigation), -l. Coutelle-s balloon (firs 
 employed for acientlflc purposes at HaniburK). 5. Gre-fn's balloon. C. Nadar's balloon "Le Otenl V WisaslPOus fall at Hanover). T. Duruot '3 balloon ■ L* 
 10. Parachute open. ll. " Captive baUon," at London. 12. RutuB Porter's pii^ble aerial ahip. 13. Dupuy do Lflme's guidable aerial 
 
 . Paracbule closed, 
 balloon. Gasometers. 
 
 n-iao. 
 
 employed in war, nt. the battle of Fleunis ; later first 
 Neptun" (exploded). 8. Aeronaut's marine balloon, 
 diip. 14. Kaufmaou's ll^g maoblne. IS. Filling a 
 
 C 
 
 o
 
 SALLIUH. 
 
 131 
 
 BALLOOH. 
 
 govern the fall of bodies, and from these he demon- 
 atrated that the curve described bj' a projectile, 
 thrown in a direction oblique to the horizon, is a 
 parabola, the axis of which is vertical. He did not 
 consider that the air offered any material resistance 
 to the motion of artillerj- projectiles. 
 
 About 1723, Newton demonstrated that the curve 
 described by a spherical projectile in the air was far 
 from being a parabola; that the two branches were 
 dissimilar, and that the descendini; branch would be- 
 come vertical if sufficiently prolonged. While he 
 considered the resistance of the air proportioned to 
 the square of the velocity, he did not conceal the 
 fact that this was but an approximation to the true 
 relation, which remained to be determined by ex- 
 periment. 
 
 About 1765, Robins invented an instrument for 
 determining the initial velocity of a projectile, called 
 the ballistic pendulum, by which he was able to 
 show that the range in vacuo was much greater than 
 in air. He also discovered that the rotarj- motion 
 which spherical projectiles generally assume around 
 their centers of gravity will cause them to deviate 
 from their true direction. 
 
 Hutton, who lived about the beginning of the 
 present century, improved the ballistic pendulum, 
 and applied it to determine the true law of the re- 
 sistance of the air, as exemplified in projectiles of 
 small caliber. At Metz, in 1839 and '40, further ex- 
 periments were made on the resistance of the air to 
 projectiles of large size, moving with high velocities, 
 and the law of variation was detemiined with great 
 accuracy. 
 
 The subject of ballistics presents two fundamental 
 questions: 1st. To determine tbe initial velocity of a 
 projectile for a known piece ami charge of powder. 
 2d. Knowing the initial velocity and angle of pro- 
 jection, to determine the range, time of flight, remain- 
 ing velocity, and, in fact, all the circumstances of the 
 projectile's motion. 
 
 BALLIUM. — A term used in ancient militarj- art, 
 and probably a corruption of Vallium. In tomis, 
 the appellation " ballium" was given to a work fenced 
 with palisades, and sometimes to masonry covering 
 the suburbs ; but in castles, it was the space imme- 
 diately within the outer wall. 
 
 BALLOON. — The art of traversing the air by means 
 of balloons, generally called aeronautics, and some- 
 times ai?rostation, is of comjiaratively recent date. 
 The germ of the invention of balloons is to be found 
 in the discovery by Cavendish, in 1766, of the re- 
 markable lightness of hydrogen gas, then called in- 
 flammable air. Prof. Black, of Edinburgh, seems to 
 have been the first who conceived the idea that a light 
 envelope, containing this gas, would rise of itself. 
 He requested Dr. Monro, the Professor of Anatomy, 
 to give him some thin animal membrane for the ex- 
 periment, but for .some reason or other it was never 
 made. "The first practical attempts were made by 
 Cavallo, who, in 1773, filled swine's bladders and 
 paper bags with the gas, but found the former too 
 heavy and the latter too porous ; and he only Suc- 
 ceeded in raising soap-bubbles inflated %vith the gas. 
 The invention of the balloon is due to the two 
 brothers Stephen and Joseph Jlontgolfier, paper- 
 makers at Annonay, In France, whose names are as 
 distinguished in the development of their own branch 
 of manufacture as in the histoiy of aeronautics. It 
 immediately struck these brothers, on reading Caven- 
 dish's Different Kinds of Air, that the air could be 
 rendered navigable by inclosuig a light gas within a 
 covering of inconsiderable weight. Led by their 
 avocation, they fixed upon paper as the most fitting 
 material for the purpose, and first attempted to make 
 balloons of paper filled with inflammable air. Find- 
 ing that these emptied themselves almost as soon as 
 they were filled, instead of abimdoning the i^aper as 
 an unsuitable covering for the gas, they sought after 
 another gas more suited to the paper. By a chain of 
 false reasoning which need not here be detailed, they 
 
 thought they fotmd such in the gas which resulted 
 from the combustion of slightly moistened straw and 
 wool, which had, as the^' imagined, an upward ten- 
 dency, not only from its t)eing heated, but from 
 its electrical properties, which caused it to l)e re- 
 pelled from the ground. It is hardly nec-essary to 
 Siiy that tliLs so-called Jlontgolfier gas possessed no 
 advantages for raising balloons other than that pos- 
 sessed by heated air of any kind ; in fact, tbe abun- 
 dant smoke with which it was mixed, by adduig to 
 its weight, rather detracted from its merits. At Avig- 
 non, in November, 1782, Stephen MontMlfier first 
 succeeded in causing a silk parallelopiped, of about 
 50 cubic feet, to rise to the roof of a room. En- 
 couraged by this success, tlie brothers made experi- 
 ments on a larger scale at Annonaj' with an equally 
 happy result ; and finally, in Jmie, 1783, in the pres- 
 ence of the Slates of Vivarsds, and of an immense 
 multitude, they raised a balloon, 35 feet in diameter, 
 to a height of 1500 feet. This last, nearly spherical 
 in shape, was made of packcloth, covered with paper, 
 and was heated by an iron choffer placed beneath it, in 
 which 10 pounds "of moist straw and wool were burned. 
 
 Balloons are useful in warfare for purposes of re- 
 connoitering, and in the case of a beleagured city, for 
 keeping up communication with the outside world. 
 The Prussians are said to have reconnoitered the 
 French position before Metz in the war of 1870 by 
 means of a balloon with telegraph attached, and it is 
 further said that the survey, made with great care, 
 was most successful, and conveyed instantaneously 
 to General von Moltke the true position of the French 
 army at all points, and its movements. From an ac- 
 count given of the first balloons used for war pur- 
 poses, it appears that the proposal for emplojing 
 what were then termed captive balloons was made 
 by the Committee of Public Safety in 1793. After 
 some preliminary experiments at Meudon, a small 
 Corps of Aerostats, skilled in precarious crafts, was 
 formed on the model of an Engineer C')mpany, and 
 dispatched to Manberg, then besieged by the Dutch 
 and Austrian troops. "The balloon used was 30 feet 
 in diameter, and rose 1800 feet with two observers and 
 130 pounds of ballast. It was managed by two ropes 
 attached to the net, and was filled with hydrogen, 
 obtained with much difficulty and expen.se from 
 water. The immediate moral effect upon the enemy 
 of the use of this balloon l)y the besieged was extraor- 
 dinary. They imagined, which was far from being 
 the case, that their every movement was at once made 
 patent to the French, and it was tiiis that in a great 
 measure caused the demoralized Austrians to aban- 
 don the siege. The balloon, pa.s.sing from a defen- 
 sive to an offensive position, was then transported 
 while inflated to Charlcroi, which the French were 
 attiicking. Its apparition at once deprived the be- 
 sieged of all confidence in their strength, and hastened 
 the surrender of the town while still efficient for do- 
 fense. The balloon was subsequently used at Fleu- 
 rus, where much is attributed to it ; then at Brussels, 
 Liege, Aix-la-Chapelle, on the Rhine, and on the 
 Danube. A Corps of Aerostats accompanied the 
 French anny to Eg)^)t, but did nothing, as the ap- 
 paratus W!is daniagcil on the way. In 1800 both 
 corps were suppressed. The Prussians u.sed balloon- 
 ing against the French in 1812, but the results were 
 not encouraging. At Solfcrino, one of the brothers 
 Godard a.scended in a montgolfier ; but he was much 
 too late, and the ascent wasall but useless. In the 
 American war, balloons were used from time to time, 
 but were attended with no advantage. 
 
 The following are the results of experiments made 
 at Woolwich a few years ago in reference to war or cap- 
 tive balloons, inflated at the Royal Arsenal gas-works. 
 They are thus described in one" of the public journals 
 of the day: It has been found that a height of 100 
 fathoms, at a horizontal distance of 600 fathoms from 
 the enemy, would enable the observers to secure the 
 widest expanse of view. With captive balliwns it 
 has been found that they attain stability, and remain
 
 BALLOTING. 
 
 132 
 
 BANCA TIN. 
 
 like a kite, at rest, when the liorizontal resultant of 
 the ascensional force and the tension of the cord arc 
 iiliial to the force of the wind ; and this enables a 
 second divi-rvion of science to come in and lend its 
 aid ill the lime of war. The war-liallooii havinj;, 1>\- 
 a niathcnialical mle, taken a stationary position, 
 eight cameras and lenses, spread round the balloon at 
 equal distances. cnal)les a complete view of the sur- 
 rounding country to be photo£;r,iphed, and subse- 
 quently exainineii at leisure. The inclinition and 
 length" of the cord to keep the balloon in the same 
 stnitum of air was found to l)e easily cakulable, sul)- 
 ject to the inequality of g-aU>s of wind and their 
 change of diri'ction. The WiMilwich balloons were 
 held liy two new cords, fastened to the network, and 
 terminating at two different points on the ground, 
 which gave greater stability to the bdloon, and pro- 
 vided ag-aiiLst one cord snaiiping or being cut by the 
 enemy's fire. Under the old jilan. aeronautic cor- 
 respondence was carried on by the explorers in the 
 balkK)n-car being jiroWdeil with white pasteboard 
 tubes, formed like cartridges ojX'n at both ends, to 
 which a bullet was securely fastened. Each piece of 
 intelligence was written in pencil in large characters 
 along the major axis of the paper tube or cartridge, 
 which w;ls inunediately dispatched by passing the 
 end of the small cord through it, and it was thus pre- 
 cipitated by the gravitation of the bullet into the 
 bands of tlie expectant General. This plan has just 
 been abrogjited by a third diversion of science being 
 brought to bear in the time of war. By the new sys- 
 tcnj of military telegraphy for tield-service, and bj' 
 means of the wagons at present being placed in store 
 for military service, lines of telegraph can be carried 
 through the air from krra jiriiui to a balloon several 
 miles distant. The wire can be paid out as fast as 
 the balloon travels, so that if a captive balloon should 
 break or soar away communication could be kept up 
 with it for six miles, or two or more balloons can be 
 sent. 
 
 BALLOTING. — A bounding movement of a spheri- 
 cal projectile in the bore of a cannon. 
 
 BALL-PBOOF. — Incapable of being i)enetrated by 
 balN from tire-arms or other engines. 
 
 BALL-SCBEW. — An implement for extracting bul- 
 lets from the barrel of a gun in cases where it would 
 be dangerous or impossible to expel them by firing. 
 It is .screwed on the end of the ramrod, which, being 
 turned, rauses the screw-threaded pointed end of the 
 l)all-screw to enter the bullet, which is then with- 
 drawn by pulling the ramrod. Witzleben's ball- 
 screw has two jaws with sharp-edged interior shoul- 
 ders, constituting a portion of a concave screw- 
 thread, which enters the bullet to prevent it from 
 slijiping from the grasp of the jaws. 
 
 BALL-TBAIN.— In the foundrj-, a set of rolls for 
 rolling pitdt'.hr's Ijalls into bars. The word train, 
 signifies that more than one pair is used, the first 
 being cnishinff rolls, and the fH'Cond fnia/iing. The 
 result of the action of the two is fnn--iTon. 
 
 BALOTS. — Sacks or bales of wool, made use of in 
 cases of great emergency, to form parapet-s or places 
 of arms. They are likewise adapted for the defense 
 of trenches, to cover the workmen in .Siips, and in all 
 instances where promptitude is recjuired. 
 
 BALUSTEADE.— A range of balusters, together 
 with the cornice or coping which thev support. 
 
 The balustrade 
 
 is often u.sed as 
 a parapet over 
 bridges, for the 
 roofs of large 
 edifices, etc., or 
 as a mere ter- 
 mination to the 
 
 structure. It is also used to inclose stairs, altars, 
 
 balconies, etc. Balustrades are made of stone, metal, 
 
 or wo(h1. See F'irtifieatinn. 
 
 BAMBOO. — A genus of gnusscs, of which it is the 
 
 most gigantic; it is well known for its great economi- 
 
 cal importance. It is "found in all tropical climates, 
 and the purpo.ses to which it is applied are so numer- 
 ous that it would Ih? ditlicult to i>oint out an object 
 where strength and ela.sticity being requisite, and 
 liijhincss no objection, to which the stems are not 
 adapted in the countries where it grows. Whcm 
 ripe and hard, it is converted into bows, arrows, 
 quivers, lance-shafts, poles of palanquins, poles for 
 tents, fire and escalading ladders, and used in the 
 flooring and supports of rustic bridges. In an artil- 
 lery park in India, wherever the bamboo can be l>ro- 
 cured, it is made use of in carrying heavy weights, 
 such as annuunition-bo.xcs, shot or shell when car- 
 ried in slings, and for a variety of other purposes. 
 
 BAN. — 1. Fonnerly, a title given to some of the 
 military chiefs who guarded the eastern boundariea 
 of the Hungiirian kingdom, and was therefore sy- 
 nonymous with the German marlgraf. The ban, 
 who was appointed by the Sovereign, but not for 
 life, and whose appointment had to be ratified by the 
 National Diet, had originally very extensive, in fact 
 almost unlimited, powers. In political, judicial, and 
 military affairs he was the suprc'me authority. 
 AVithiii his own territorj- he exercised an influence 
 similar to that of the Palatine in Hungarj-, and only 
 lower than a king. In time of war he headed the 
 troops of his baiiat, and if the campaign occnned 
 within its limits, it was his duty invarialily to occupy 
 the post of danger. He led the van to battle, or cov- 
 ered tlie rear in retreat. For these services he was 
 recompensed partly in riady money and partly by a 
 monopoly of salt. " The most important banats were 
 those of Dalmaria, Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, Ma- 
 chow, and Szoreny, but their boundaries changed so 
 frequently that at the present day it is imjwssible to 
 ascertain what the}' originally were. The encroach- 
 ments of the Turks in the sixtcentli centurj' rendered 
 the union of the various banats necessarj-; and after 
 some time the whole were formed into the double 
 banat of Dalmatia and Croatia. A still more com- 
 plete unity was subsiiiuently obtained by centraliz- 
 ing the military power. In 1728 the authority of 
 the ban was made entirely svibordinate to that of the 
 supreme government of Hungarj-. After numerous 
 vicissitudes, his powers, rights, and lilies were stiict- 
 ly defined during the reign of JIaria Theresa. He 
 was then acknowledged to be the third dignitary of 
 the Hungarian kingdom, ajipointed a member of the 
 Hungarian council of government, and president of 
 the council of the banat, and at the coronation of 
 the Hungariim king went before him, bearing the 
 golden apple, the symbol of sovereignty. Such was 
 the position of the "ban until the 4tli of"JIarch, 1849, 
 when Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia were trans- 
 formed into Austrian crown-lands, and the ban made 
 wholly independent of Hungary. In 1868 Croatia 
 and Slavonia were reunited w itli Hungary. One of 
 the Hungiirian ministers superintends the affairs oC 
 the "Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia;" while 
 there is a special local administration for internal' 
 affairs. The head of this administration is called the 
 ban. 
 
 2. Besides the ci^il use of the word ban, as a proc- 
 lamation or prohibition, there was a military appli- 
 cation of the term in former days in France. When 
 the feudal barons, who held their estates and honors 
 from the king, were svunmoned to attend him in the 
 time of war, they were called the ban, or the levy 
 first called out; "while the tenants, subordinate to 
 these barons, formed the arrihr ban, or secondary 
 \cv\. 
 
 BANCAL.— A curved saber, which was used in 
 France durinij: the Republic and the Empire. 
 
 BANCA TIN.— A brand of English tin used to a 
 great extent in gun-constniction. The purest comes 
 from the ishinds of Banca and Billotin, in the Malay- 
 an Archipelago, and is .■iold once ov twice a ^•ear at 
 Amsterdam and Rotterdam. In Whitney's ^elnUio 
 Wealth of the United titate», published "in 1854, is. 
 given the following analysis of Bunca tin:
 
 BAND. 
 
 133 
 
 BAND. 
 
 Tin 99.961 
 
 Iron 019 
 
 Lead 014 
 
 Copper 006 
 
 100.000 
 English " refined " tin, from the Cornish mines, 
 
 stands nest as regards purity, and i.s followed by — 
 
 1st. Enjrlish tin (which includes " Lamb and Flag"); 
 
 2(1. Straits tin, from the Malayan Peninsula ; M. 
 
 Australian tin. 
 
 BAND. — In the United States Army, when it is 
 
 desired to have bands of music for regiments, there 
 
 are allowed, for each, sixteen privates to act as musi- 
 cians, in addition to the chief musicians authorized 
 
 by law, provided the total number of privates in the 
 regiment, including the band, does not exceed the 
 legal standard. Hcginiental Commanders designate 
 the proportion to be subtracted from each company 
 for a band. The musicians of the band are, for the 
 time being, dropped from company nuister-roUs, but 
 they arc instructed a.s soldiers, and liable to serve in 
 the ranks on any occasion. They arc nuisterc-d in a 
 separate squad under the chief musician, with the 
 Non-commissioned Staff, and are inchuled in the 
 aggregate in all regimental returns. When a regi- 
 ment occupies several stations, the band is kept at 
 the headquarters, promhd troops (one or more com- 
 panies) be serving there. The tield-music 
 belonging to companies not stationed at 
 regimental hea<l(iuarters are not separated 
 from their respective companies. In 
 addition to the regimental bauds, there is 
 enlisted in the Army one band, which 
 consists of one Band-leader and not 
 more than twenty-four nuisicians, ordi- 
 narily stationed at the Military Academy. 
 In the British service, according to 
 military regulations, the only indis- 
 pensable instruments are drums, fifes, 
 bugles, and trumpets, all of which are 
 employed to give signals on the march 
 or in active .service, either for infantry' 
 or for cavalry. To supplement this 
 meager musical establishment, however, 
 the otlicers of regiijients organize, chiefly 
 at their own cost, effective military bands, 
 who use a variety of instruntents — such 
 as flutes, clarionets, bassoons, horas, ophi- 
 cleides, big drums, cjTnbals, triangles, etc. 
 This arrangement has assumed almost 
 the force of a regulation; for officers 
 above the rank of Subaltern are obliged 
 to contribute a sum not exceeding 13 
 days' pay in the course of a year, and an 
 extra siun when promoted, to the band- 
 fund. The members of these bands arc 
 selected from the ranks; but tlie Band- 
 master, thougli in uniform, is often a 
 civilian who is liired for the ])urpose and 
 who generally refuses to accompany the 
 reginient abroad, except at an increased 
 rate of renumeratiun. The musicians, 
 generally, are in an anomalous position; 
 for, whilst serving in the band, their pay 
 and eventually their pensions are restrict- 
 ed to those of the private soldier. Good 
 musicians have at all times a tendency to 
 quit the band; their better ]irospects as 
 teachers and iilayere in orclu'stras and 
 concerts induce "them to obtain release 
 by paving the amount of compensation 
 prescribed by regulation. An attempt 
 made by theDuke of Cambridge in 18.^6 
 to relieve the Commis.sioned Otlicers of 
 part of the expense entailed upon them 
 by the present system failed, cxceiit as 
 regards Subalteriis, and with thai excep- 
 tion matters remained as they were. In 
 most of the regiments of the Line the band 
 consists of a" Band-master and about l.~> 
 musicians; but in the choice corps the 
 number is often much larger. The baud 
 plays on parade and at mess as a part of 
 regular duty. 
 
 The success of a military band depends 
 very much on the proper selection of 
 instruments, and the a.ssignment of the 
 most suitable mcmliers to the various 
 pieces. The band should have at least 
 fourteen members, as follows: 1st and 
 2d E* Comets. 1st and 3d B/> Cornets, 
 1st and 3d Altos, 1st and 3d Tenor, 
 Baritone, Tuba, B* Ba.ss, Solo Alto, Snare Drum, 
 and Bass Drum. When selecting Uie plaj'ers for
 
 BAND. 
 
 134 
 
 BAND. 
 
 diffi-rent instruments, let the l)est musicians take 
 the 1st E6 Cornet, 1st B6 Cornet, iiiul Biiritone. 
 Next select ii liirL'e good-natured jjenllenian for the 
 Tuba, and one with some ability for the 2d B/> Cornet. 
 The Isl and 2<1 Altos imd 1st and 2<1 Tenors are 
 about equally dillicult. For the Ba.ss Drum have 
 some one who will keep gotxi time, and for the small 
 Drum it Ls well to have a man who has played before 
 either in a martial or a brass band. 
 
 There is some diversity of opinion as to the best 
 motles of hokliiig some o{ the larger instruments, but 
 it is considered proper and each member is directe<i 
 to place the mouthpiece iu the center of Uic mouth, 
 after drawing the lips tightly across the teeth; then 
 to rebix the lips, leaving the part inside still tight, 
 and to be careful not to push the lips or cheeks out 
 when blowing. To produce high tones, it is neces- 
 sary to press the instrument lirndy against the lii)s; 
 for low tones, press lightly, and rela.\ the muscles. 
 Begin the tone by pronouncing the syllable J'li. 
 To take breath, oix'n the mouth a little at either or 
 botli sides of the mouthpiece. The length of the 
 passiige to be executed should govern the amount of 
 breath that is taken. If too much breath is tjiken in 
 short passages, it is likely to produce mijf'oaition. It 
 is not advisable to change the position of the mouth- 
 piece upon the lips after it has once been located. 
 
 In practicing, members should seat themselves 
 either in a circle or about a long table; the Director 
 at the end, where 
 he may be seen by 
 all. At his risrht, 
 2d E6 Cornet,"' l.st 
 Bi Comet, 2d Bft 
 Comet, B6 Bass, 
 and Tuba. At his 
 left, 1st and 2d 
 Altos, 1st and 2d 
 Tenors, and Bari- 
 tone. The Drums 
 at the extreme end. 
 Always have the 
 Drunis near the 
 Basses, and oppo- 
 site the Leader. 
 Let it be under- 
 stood, from the be- 
 ginning, that when 
 the Condtictor raps 
 for attention, every 
 member must obey 
 him. and at once. 
 It would add much 
 interest to the prac- 
 tice if, a few days 
 previoti.sly, each of 
 the mem1x>rs would 
 pniclice privatily, 
 getting the i)roi)er 
 tones. At tirst, the 
 exercise will make 
 the lips ([uite sore, 
 but they will soon 
 become hardened, 
 so that the unpleas- 
 antness will pass 
 away. Having 
 decided to attempt 
 new nuisic, the Di- 
 rector should fa- 
 miliarize himself 
 ■with each part be- 
 fore asslsrniiig il, 
 that he may see f|ui(kly what Ls required of every 
 instrument. He- should explain the first movement, 
 and after it has bccii practiced, the harmony horns', 
 consisting of 1st and 2d Altos, Tenors and" Basses, 
 should play their parts to the first strain. Then 
 add the lead and other homs. Next play it Ihrouirh 
 with full band. Do this with each strain until the 
 
 O : 
 
 O 
 
 V 
 
 Fia. 1. 
 
 entire number has been played. It is always well to 
 take the water out of a horn as soon us the band 
 slops ])laying, and then there will bo no delays in 
 commencing again. 
 
 When requested to play at a funend, the band 
 should march to a [wint near the remains, without 
 music. While the body is being removed to the 
 hearse, play something appropriate, I'ltyils Uynm 
 j or music of this order. After tiiking a position at 
 1 the head of the column, funeral marches should be 
 [ played mitil arrivuig at the cemetery entrance, 
 when Uie band should open tirder, and cease play- 
 ing until the procession pas.ses through. At the 
 conclusion of the str\ices the band should resume 
 their position at the head of the column, and imme- 
 diately play some quick march. It is well to make 
 selections of marches that are not very common, 
 olhcrwLse it would often seem incongruous. All 
 coumiands shoidd be given iu a subdued tone, and 
 the utmost respect and gentlemanly bearing should 
 exist among the band-members. 
 
 Tlie smaller Horns, such as EJ and BJ Comets, 
 should be kept in boxes; while the larger ones, such 
 as Altos, Tenors, Baritone, Tuba, etc., should be 
 kept in sacks made of soft flannel. It is well to keep 
 a jjiece of chamois-skin to wijie each instrument 
 beft>re placing it in its .sack or bos. Should the 
 valves, in piston -action, refu.se to wurk freely, un- 
 screw the cap, take them out, and wipe them care- 
 fully with a soft, dry cloth. Then moisten them 
 slightly and put them back. Spittle, though seem- 
 ingly vulgar, is the best antidote for a sticky valve. 
 Sometimes it will be iftcessary to use a little alcohol 
 or kerosene to cleanse them thoroughly. In rotary 
 action, a little alcohol ^Kiiired in the bell and run 
 through the valves will make them work well. 
 Always keep the slides in order by using a little fine 
 oil several times a year, as the instruments are liable 
 to Ix" blown out of tune, and can be remedied by 
 pulling the slide slightly. 
 
 Cornet-players should faithfully and frequently 
 practice all the scales commonly used for the Comet. 
 It is a great mistake to allow the attention to be 
 given too much, or too soon, to tripk-t(i7igvhig, ■while 
 simple melodies are neglected. It recjuires an artist 
 of greater skill and better perception to interpret 
 rightly the less showy class of music than to per- 
 form the most difficult strain in triple-tonguing. In 
 the practice of longving, the .syllables tv, (v, fc^i, 
 with C on the staff, should be used. At first tliis 
 should be done very slowly, while care should be 
 taken to have the Iru equal m power to the first two 
 syllables. After this is accomplished, other letters 
 on the staff should be used, both above and below 
 C, winle at the same time the kmpo should be in- 
 creased as much as possible. In the practice of the 
 scides, each note should be commenced as softly as 
 possible, then increased to ff, and diminished to pp. 
 It is n(jt well to practice immediately after eating. 
 Sleep shoidd be indulged in at repidar hours. Total 
 abstinence from stimidants is commendable, as the 
 use of them counteracts the work of hardening the lips. 
 A want long felt by all bands, for a light and 
 handsome stand that cotild Ix; carried upon the 
 march, at a serenade, or used in the band-room, has 
 been fully supplied in the " Acme" stand .shown in 
 Fig. 1. ft migiil with equal ijropriety be called the 
 "Sword" stand. Inning, when not in use, the exact 
 appearance of a handsome sword; and instead of any 
 detraction, materially adds to the appearance of a 
 military band. The drawing shows the stand set 
 up and tlie extension drawn, ready for use, the 
 dotted lines indicating where the music is placed. 
 The music can be placed at any height from 30 to 
 60 inches. The holder remains upon the belt when 
 the stand is in use. There are no set-screws to lo.se, 
 and but one spring in the whole stand, making it 
 simple and very durable. It weighs only 36 ounces, 
 and is entirely nickel-plated, to prevent rusting or 
 tarnishing.
 
 BANDAGES. 
 
 135 
 
 BANDIT. 
 
 Fig. 2. shows au improved band-lamp, made of 
 brass, hand-spun, and having but one seam. These 
 lamps are three inches deep, bum four houra, u.se a 
 half -inch round wick with kerosene oil, or, what is 
 better, equal parts of kerosene and lard oil, make a 
 brilliant light, and being balanced in center, keep 
 their equilibrium with the player in any position. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Bands will find these a great convenience for night- 
 plajing, and much superior to anything else for this 
 purpose. They are readily affixed to the cap, merely 
 taking the place of the pompon or plume, as shown 
 in Fig. 3. The lamp has an improvement, which 
 consists of a tight-fitting tube or cap which, when 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 not in use, fits tightly over the wick and on a shoul- 
 der, as shown in" the sectional view. This shoulder, 
 which is made to receive the cap, is set out from the 
 tube slisrhtly, forming a chamber for the oil that 
 escapes "froiii the vent, returning the same back into 
 the lamp. When not in use and the cap on it, it is 
 perfectly air-tisht and no oil can escape, which 
 makes them perfectlv safe in trausportmg, while in 
 
 many lamps no safe provisions are made against the 
 leakage of oil. This lamp is the invention of Slessrs. 
 Lyon <fc Healy, of Chicago, who are the leading im- 
 porters and manufacturers of band-instruments in 
 the United States, and to whom we are indebted for 
 the nuuiy original illustrations of musical instru- 
 ments throughout the work. See Drum-major. 
 
 BANDAGES. — Contrivances used by Surgeons, in 
 the field and elsewhere, to apply pressure on a part, 
 or to retain dressings 
 upon wounds. The \vr. 
 most common band- - 
 
 age is a strip of linen, 
 calico, or elastic web, 
 from three to five 
 or more inches in 
 breadth, rolled longi- 
 tudinally; hence the 
 name roller. There 
 are also bandages to 
 suit special purposes, 
 as the four-tailed for 
 the head or knee, 
 which consists of a 
 piece of cloth split up 
 on each side towards and nearly to the center. 
 When applied, the tails arc ciossed and tie<l so as to 
 make an extemporaneous night-cap. In applying the 
 roller-bandage to a leg, the Surgeon first turns it 
 round the foot, then ro'und the ankle; and so by re- 
 peated turns, each one of whicli should overlap about 
 a third of the previous one. till he reaches the calf of 
 the leg, when he must fokl at each turn tlie bandage 
 sharpfy back on itself, by which maneuver the band- 
 age will lie flat and smooth on the limb. The operator 
 must remember that the bandage must be applied 
 more tightly at the foot than on the leg, so that it m;iy 
 nf)t impede the course of the blood through the veins. 
 This requires to be practiceil. as the effect of a band- 
 age is always for good or evil as it is well or ill 
 applied. 
 
 BANDALEEE— BANDALIEK.— An ancient appen- 
 dage for facilitating the charging of muskets. It 
 consisted of a broad belt thrown over the left shoul- 
 der, serving as a supjiort to the fire-arms, and having 
 suspended "from it a dozen boxes (each containing a 
 charge of powder) and a bag for balls. It was both 
 cumbrous and dangerous, and the rattling of the 
 boxes often betraved the soldier to the enemy. 
 
 BANDED-MAIL.— A kind of armor, which^'onsisted 
 of alternate rows of leather or cotton and single 
 chain-mail. 
 
 BANDERET.— In military histoiy, banderet im- 
 plies the Commander-in-Chief of the troops of the Can- 
 ton of Berne, in Switzerland. 
 
 BANDEROL.— A small flag used to convey signals 
 from any particular spot to a saluting battery or other 
 post; also, to mark the position to be taken up by the 
 flanks of a regiment at a review in deploying, etc.; 
 also used in marking out a camp. Fre(|uently writ- 
 ten Blind ml or Ban lu role. 
 
 BANDES. — A common name for bodies of infantry. 
 Banik'S Franmises was the ancient name of the 
 French infantry; the term, however, became less 
 general, and was confined to the Precdt des Bandes, 
 or the .Judge or Provost-marshal that tried the men 
 belonging to the French guanls. 
 
 BANDIT. — A word originally signifying a "ban- 
 ished" or outlawed person; then one who, because 
 outlawed, waares war against civilized society; and 
 finally a hiL'hwav-robbeV. The banditi, or banditti, 
 formed in Italy, in earlier times, as it were a separate 
 community of guild, who submitted to their own 
 strinsent laws, carried on both open and secret war 
 with'civilized societv, and kept up a certain romantic 
 idea of honor. Bv means of the severe measures 
 which were adopted in 1820 by the Papal Govern- 
 ment asainst the banditti and their abettors, their 
 haunts were broken up. Those who still occasionally 
 disquiet the frontiers of Naples are in general people
 
 BANDOLEER 
 
 136 
 
 BANNES. 
 
 settled on the spot, who re^nl robbery and murder 
 as wjually a brunch of their liadi' with airriculuire. 
 Peter the (.'alabrian, one of the most famous kiiuiit- 
 chiefs. in 1812 assumed the titles of '• Emperorof the 
 Mountains, Kinjr of the Woods, and Lord of the 
 Highroads from Florence to Naples." The Govern- 
 ment of Ferdiuanii I. found themselves oblim'd to 
 conclude trt-aties with them. The banditti niu.st be 
 distinjruishe<l from common robbers, who were called 
 tiialriTtiiti. In later times the banditti were joined 
 by adventurers of all kinds, to such an extent that 
 the Atistrian troops who tx'cupied Naples were 
 obliged to make fretiuent expeditions against them. 
 In Sicily, the banditti are most numerous in the Val 
 Denione. They formerly acquired so much power 
 there that the Prince of Villafranca, as a piece of 
 policy, declared himself their patron, and treated 
 them with much contidence. In the years 1S41— 43 
 political fuLcilives uiiiled willi robbers and adventur- 
 ers of all kinds in the Abruz/.i, Calabria, and Ko- 
 niagua, and since then they have never been entirely 
 exttrpated. The Revolution of 1848^9 added i:reatly 
 to their numbers, and in several districts of Italy, 
 especially iu the States of the Church, between 
 Ferrara and Aneona, they reached an unheard-of de- 
 gree of boldness, notwithstanding the Austrian army 
 of occupation. Under the command of one Bcllino 
 (known by the name of " II Passatorc"), a daring and 
 talented man, who died in 1851, they kept the coun- 
 try in terror, ami even burned several villages to the 
 giound. They also carried on a real guerrilla war- 
 fare against the military forces of the countn,-. 
 Recent events in Italy have, it is said, recalled nuiii- 
 bcrs of these banditti to a more honorable Ufe. See 
 Comirrrii. 
 
 BANDOLEEK. — Two centuries ago soldiers' mus- 
 kets were provided with matehlocls, a very slow and 
 ineffective contrivance for filing. The musketeers 
 were furni.shed with giuipowder in .small cylindrical 
 boxes made of wood, tin. or leather, each containing 
 sufficient for one cliarge. Twelve of these little 
 boxes were fixed to a belt called a bandoleer, worn 
 over the left shoidder. See Bandaleer. 
 
 BAND-SAW MACHINE.— An endless steel belt run- 
 ning over wheels and revolved continuously. It is 
 pliable, so as to conform to the faces of the wheels, 
 and is serrated on one edge. The ends are joined by 
 solder and by neat clami)s. Arrangements are made 
 for straining the saw by regulating the relative dis- 
 tances of the wheels ; "this adjustment also permits 
 the machine to take in s;iws of different lengths. 
 One advantage of the band-saw over the rccii)rocadng- 
 saw is that there is no lost lime in its operation, aiid 
 no effort required to keep the work to the table, as 
 the action of the sjiw tends to this result. There is 
 no need of a pump or blower to clear away the siw- 
 dust, as it is carried continually downward. 
 
 In the English jiraclice llie "minimum diameter of 
 the band-,saw pulley is set at 80 inches; but for wider 
 saws the diameter must be increased. Thus, saws 
 of 2 to 8 inches wide ought not to be worked o\er 
 pulleys of less than 42 inches in diameter, and for 
 a blade 6 inches wide the pulleys should be 70 to 80 
 inches. 
 
 It will not Ix- uninteresting to give some facts and 
 figures concerning the sawing of hmiber l)y band-saw 
 machinen,-. A few moments' calculiitioii will serve 
 to con\ince any one of the great saving in luml)er 
 which results from the u.se of the band instead of the 
 circular saw in working it up. Tliis is quite a con- 
 sideration, and should be duly appreciated. The 
 scarcity of timlxT in some parts" of our country, and 
 the great value of foreign woods, re(|uir<>s that there 
 shouhl be the lea.st possible loss in its siiwiuL'. The 
 saving which results from the use of the band-saw 
 can ea.sily be demonstrated. 
 
 If we lake a log 80 inches square and 20 feet long, 
 and by calculation cut it uji first with a circular saw, 
 then with a band-sjiw, tlie result will be found alxiut 
 as follows : The log coulains l.JOO feet of lumber. 
 
 Cut with circular saw, ,'i,-inch kerf, into 1-inch 
 twiirds, we have twenty-three 1-inch boards, 1150 
 fift ; balance kerf, •A'H) 'feet— total. 1500 feet. Now 
 cut with biuid-saw, ,'5-inch kerf, into 1-inch boards, 
 we have twenty -seven 1-inch Ixiards, 1350 feet ; one 
 J-inch board, 87i feet ; balance kerf, 112J feet — total, 
 1500 feet. 
 
 It will be noticed that with the circular saw 23 
 per cent of the log is kerf, and that with the band- 
 siiw only 7 per cent. That is, by using the liand- 
 saw we have saved 237^ feet of lumber. See Bertl 
 JliiiKl-mir Mac/line, Circular &iir, Resaicing Band- 
 >utir Mitr/iiin', and String-saw. 
 
 BANISHMENT.— Excepting in the penal .sense of 
 transiKirtation, with which it is popularly synony- 
 mous, can only now be said to have a legal meaning 
 histoiically. Fonnerly, in England, parties who 
 were required to abjure the realm — that is, renounce 
 and depart from the country — were, so to .speak, 
 baiiixhed; but the word appears to have a more tech- 
 nical and precise significance in the Scotch law than 
 in the English, and in Scotch law-books is defined 
 as the punishment of exile from Scotland inflicted on 
 persons con\ ieted of certain offenses for which that 
 punishment is provided. But, as a punishment it 
 has either l)een abolished in that country by express 
 enactment or become obsolete by disuse. 
 
 BANNER. — A piece of cloth attached to a pole and 
 usually bearing some warlike or heraldic device or 
 national emblem. In this sense banner is a generic 
 term, including many species, such as standard, en- 
 sign, pennon, flag, etc. Banners have been used 
 from the earliest times and in all countries for the 
 purpose of directing the movements of troops. We 
 read of them constantly in the Old Testament, as in 
 Nutnbers ii. 2 : " Every man of the children of Israel 
 shall camp by his standard, and under the ensign of 
 his father's house." The earliest Roman standard 
 was a bundle of straw fixed to the top of a spear. 
 This was succeeded by figures of animals — the horse, 
 the boar, etc. — all of which soon gave place to the 
 eagle, which continued all along to be the chief 
 Roman ensign, and was afterwards assumed by the 
 Gennan and latterly- by the French emperors of the 
 Na]xileonic dynasty. In addition to the eagle each 
 Roman cohort had a banner, generally a serpent or 
 dragon woven on a square piece of cloth. The 
 standard of the cavalry was a square piece of cloth 
 expanded on a cross, and it was to this that the term 
 rexilluiii properly applied. Examples of these stand- 
 ards are sculptured on the Arch of Constantine at 
 Rome. The top of the staff was also frequently 
 adorned with a figure of Mars or of Victorv', and in 
 later times with the head of the reigning Emjieror. 
 After Constantine embraced Christianity, the crt)SS 
 was substituted for the head of the Emperor on the 
 pinple banner of Kyziintium. Standards were less 
 in use amongst the Greeks than has been usual with 
 warlike nations ; but a standard, and sometimes a 
 scarlet flag, was employed as a signal for giving bat- 
 tle. On the rise of chivalry in the Middle Ages, the 
 ordering of banners, like every other branch of mili- 
 tary or^anization, attained to somethmg like scientific 
 exactitude. From the banner-royal, which bore the 
 national emblems, to the small streamer attached to 
 the lance, w ilh its cross or stripes, there was a regu- 
 lar subordination, each emblem having its place and 
 its meaning. The peiuion of the simple knight dif- 
 fered from the square banner of the banneret, it be- 
 ing pointed at the ends. In addition to their varieties 
 in size, shape, and color, the.se banners were distin- 
 guished by the emblems which they bore. One of 
 the earliest is the Danish raven, depicted on the 
 standaiil taken by Alfred, of which Asscr mentions 
 the tradition that "in every battle, wherever that 
 flag went Ix'fore them, if tlicy (the Danesi were to 
 gain a victory, a live crow would appear flying on 
 the middle of the flag ; but if they were doomed 
 to be defeated, it would hang down motionless " 
 Nor did the privilege of carrying banners belong to
 
 BANNEKET. 
 
 137 
 
 BABB. 
 
 princes and knights alone ; bishops and abbots dis- 
 played similar ensigns, which were carrieil lx>fore 
 them in religious processions and under which their 
 retainers fought in their defense. It was to these 
 that the term " gonfalon, " a word as to the origin of 
 ■which much diversity of opinion exists, was more 
 commonly applied. In place of the heraldic emblems 
 of the knight, the banner of the Church and of towns 
 and communes usually bore the effigies of saints. 
 Some banners, however, <lisplayed no ensigns what- 
 ever and were known simjily by their color. Of this I 
 the orijtamme, or plain ruddy tlag of St. Denis, was 
 a famous example. The celebrated Bayeux tapestry 
 throws coasiderablc light on banners, as well as on 
 other matters connected with the warlike arrange- 
 ments of the Middle Ages. By every warlike people 
 the banner has been regarded as the emblem of na- 
 tional honor, as a palladium for the defense of which 
 the individual warrior was at all times ready to sacri- 
 fice his life. From the converse of this feeling, ban- 
 ners antl flags taken from the enemy have always 
 been regarded as special trophies of \-ictory, and 
 places of honor in churches and public buiklings 
 have consequently been assigned them. See Colors, 
 Flags, and Standnrd. 
 
 BANNERET.— A higher grade of knighthood con- 
 ferred by the Sovereign for some heroic act performed 
 in the field, and so called Iwcause the jjennon of the 
 knight was then exchanged for the banner — a jiro- 
 ceeding which was effected by the very simple means 
 of remling the points from the pennon. The tii-st 
 Banneret in England is said by Froissart to have been 
 made by King Edward I., and the last time the honor 
 was conferred was by Charles I. after the battle of 
 Edgehill, the recipient being an individual who re- 
 joiced in the familiar name of John Smith. The 
 ceremony of the creation of a Knight-banneret must 
 have been very impressive to persons filled with the 
 ideas which were prevalent in the Ages of Chivalry. 
 The King or his General, at the head of his army, 
 drawn up in order of battle after a victory under the 
 royal banner displayed, attended by all the Ofilcers 
 and Nobility of the Court, received the Banneret-elect, 
 ■who was not neccssjirily a knight previously, led be- 
 tween two knights of note or other men famous in 
 arms, carrying his j)eunon in his hand, the heralds 
 walking before him and proclaiming his valiant 
 achievements, for which he deserved To be made a 
 Knight-banneret, and to display his banner in the 
 fielii. The King, or General, then said to him, " Ad- 
 vance, Banneret !" (iidcanct* toy brnineret), and caused 
 the point of his pennon to be torn off. The new 
 knight, with the trumpeters sounding before him and 
 the Nobility and OHicers bearing him company, was 
 sent back to his tent, where a noble entertainment was 
 proWded by the King. Some attempts have Ix'en 
 made to revive the title in recent times, as when 
 George III., at a review of the navy at Portsmouth in 
 1773, conferred it on Admiral Pye and several other 
 officers. 
 
 BANQUETTE.— In fortification, a device by which 
 the men are able to deliver their tire over the [jarapet. 
 It is made just high enough alwve the teiTe-plein to 
 allow men of medium slatvire to fire over the int<"rior 
 crest. The distance of the tread below the crest is 
 taken, for this purim.se, at four feet and six inches ; 
 sometimes it is taken three inches less, or four feet 
 and a ((Uarter. The width of the tread depends upon 
 the number of ranks cxjiected to occupy it. In the 
 days of smooth-bores and muzzle-loading muskets it 
 was made wide enough for two ranks. It is rarely 
 occupied, at the present time, by more than one 
 rank. A width of two feet is sufficient for one rank, 
 although it is usually made t/iree feet wi^le in ordinary 
 field-fortitlcations. The tread is made with a sloi)e 
 to the rear, to allow the water falling on it to drain 
 off. It is connected widi the terre-plein either by a 
 slope or by steps. The inclination of the former is 
 usually i ; it may be greater if the banquette is low. 
 When steps arc tised, the tread of each step should 
 
 not be less than twelve nor more than eighteen 
 inches ; the rise should not be less than niiie nor 
 more than twelve inches. Step.? are generally used 
 whenever it is a matter of importance to gain 
 space. All other tlungs being equal, the ramp or 
 utcliiied sloiu- is preferred to steps. See Fkld-fortifi- 
 enti^fh. 
 
 BANQUETTE SLOPE.— In fortification, a slope of 
 earlh or timber placed in rear of the banquette when 
 the top cannot be reached by an ordinarv step. 
 
 BAPTISM OF BLOOD.— Tile act of being baptized 
 with Ijlood, and used specially with reference to 
 soldiers who fought on their first battle-field. In the 
 old French service, the baptism of blood equalized all 
 grades; and military serN-ices, not rank, were the rec- 
 ognized claims fur jiriimotion. 
 
 BAPTISM OF FIEE.— A figurative term applied to 
 soliliers who have passed through their first fire in 
 battle. 
 
 BAR. — 1. In Heraldry, one of those more important 
 figures or charges which are known as ordiiKtries, 
 By heralds, the ordinaries, or as, by way of eminence, 
 they are called, the " hononible ordina- 
 ries," are commonly reckoneil as ten 
 
 s; I in number, the subordinaries, or minor 
 
 P charges, being greatly more numerous. 
 
 I _ The bar, like the fess, is formed by 
 
 ^■"Y""^ two horizontal lines passing over the 
 shield, but it differs from it in size, the fess occupy- 
 ing a third, the bar only a fifth part, of the shield. 
 There is this further difference between thes(! two or- 
 dinaries, that the fess is confined to the center, while 
 the bar may be borne in several parts of the shield. 
 There is a diminutive of the bar, called the closet, 
 which is half a bar; and again of the closet, called 
 the ban-ulet, which is half a closet, or the fourth part 
 of a bar. — B.\r-gemel is a double bar, from the 
 French terms jumeau, jumelle, a twin. AJso written 
 burr. 
 
 2. An elongated piece of wood, metal, or other 
 solid substance. In the iron-manufacture, bar is a 
 rod, either round or square shafted. The round 
 ones are made by drawing the iron red-hot through 
 a bore or hole in a plate, and the square ones by 
 pa.sstng it likewise red-hot through a roller-mill be- 
 tween two rollers counter-grooved, with their tri- 
 angular-grooved faces forming the square opening 
 for the passage of the iron. Railway and knee iron 
 is made in the same manner. Bars have various 
 denominations in the construction of artillery -car- 
 riages, etc., as sweep-bars and cross-bars for tum- 
 brils; fore, hind, and under cross-bars for powder- 
 cjirts; shaft-bars for wagons; and dowel-bars, used in 
 mortar-tieds. 
 
 3. In hydrography, a bar is a bank opposite the 
 mouth of a river, which obstructs or bars the en- 
 trance of ves.sels. The bar is formed where the rush 
 of the stream is arrested by the water of the sea, as 
 the mud and sand suspended in the river-water are 
 thus allowed to be deposited. It is thus that deltas 
 are fonned at the mouths of rivers. The navigation 
 of many streams (as the Danulx') is kept open only by 
 constant dredging or other artificial means. 
 
 4. In law, the word has several meanings; thus, it 
 is the term used to signify an indosure or fixed place 
 in a Court of Justice where lawyers may plead, or, 
 perhaps more correctly, where they can address their 
 advocacy on behalf of their clients. A veiled-off 
 space within the Houses of Parliament is similarly 
 called the bar. The dock, or inclosed space where 
 persons accusi'd of felonies and other offenses stand 
 or sit during their trial, is also called the bar; hence 
 the exjiression " iirisoner at the bar." This word 
 has also a general meaning in legal procedure, signify- 
 ing something by way of stoppage or prevention. 
 There is also a trial at bar; that is, a trial liefore the 
 judges of a particular court, who sit together for 
 that Kurpose in banc. 
 
 BA'rb.— 1. The reflected points of the head of an 
 arrow; also, the armor for horees.
 
 BARBACAN. 
 
 138 
 
 BABBETTE FIRE. 
 
 2. The desi&iiation of n noble bree*! of horses culti- 
 vated by the Jloors of Barlmry, ami introduced by 
 them into Sjniiu. Barlisare less remarkiible for their 
 beauty ami symmetry than for their speed, endur- 
 aiui-. absiiiKiKe, aiiil i:enlle temper. 
 
 BARBACAN— BARBICAN. — A projecting watch- 
 tower, or other advaiieetl-work, In-fore the gate of a 
 castle or fortitied town. The term barbaean was 
 mon- s]>ecially applii-d to the outwork intended to 
 defend the dniwhridire, wliieli in modern fortifica- 
 tions is culled the UU dit punt. " To begin from 
 without, the first member of an ancient castle was' 
 
 arrangement is made for llie guns to flre in the 
 direction of the capital. A pancoupee of eleven feet 
 is tirst made; fR)in the foot of the interior slope at 
 
 I the pancoupee, a distance of twenty-four feet is set 
 oil lUoup the capital; at the extremity of this line a 
 
 ! ix;rpendicular is drawn to the capital"; and live feet 
 are set olT on this ])erpendieular on each side of the 
 capital; from each of these points, on tlie )KTi>en- 
 dicular, a line is drawn perpendicular to each face re- 
 spectively; the hexagonal tigure thus laid out is the 
 surface of the barbette for one gun. The ramp in 
 this case is made lUong the capital. 
 
 If three or more guns are placed in the sidient, 
 a pan-coupee is formed as in the last case; and 
 twenty-four feet are in like manner set off on the 
 capital; but instead of proceeding as in the last case. 
 
 the barbaean, a watch-tower for the purpose of de- 
 scrying an enemy at a greater distance" (Grose's 
 Antiquities of England and Walfs): and, to the Siime 
 effect, Camden, speaking of Bedford Castle, says it 
 was taken Ijy four as.S!iults: in the first was taken the 
 barbaean; in the second, the outer ha]\a. (See also 
 Parker's Glossary of Archittelurf.) There are a few- 
 perfect barbacans remaining in England, as at Aln- 
 wick and Warwick; but the best examples of it, as 
 of the other part.s of the fortification of the Jliddle 
 Ages, are probably to be sct'n in the town of Carcas- 
 sone. A very curious and minute account of the 
 siege of Carcassone in 1240, in the form of a report 
 to Queen Blanche by the Seneschal who defended it, 
 jireserved in the archives of France, has been pub- 
 lished in Hewitt's Ancient Armor, in which the uses 
 of the barbaean are fully illustrated. The street 
 called Barbican in London, near Aldersgate Street, 
 marks the site of such a work, in front of one of the 
 gjites of the old citv. 
 
 BARBED AND CRESTED— An heraldic term by 
 which the comb and gills of a cock are designated, 
 when it is necessarj' to particularize them as l)eing 
 of a (litTercnt tincture from the Iwdy. The common 
 English term is icattUd and combed, gules, or what- 
 ever else the tinctiu'e may be. 
 
 BARBETS. — Peasants "of Piedmont who abandoned 
 their dwellings when an enemy had taken possession 
 of llieni. Thev formed into txKlies and defended the 
 Alp-. 
 
 BARBETTE.— The ijarbette is a constniction bv 
 means of which a piece can fire over a parapet. It 
 consists of a mound of earth thrown ui) agidnst the 
 inlerior slope; the upper surface of which is level, 
 and two feet nine inches below the interior crest for 
 
 funs of small caliber, and four feet for heavy guns, 
 f the l)arl)ette is raised behind a face, its length 
 should be sufficient to allow si.xteen and a half to 
 eighteen feet along the interior crest for each gim; 
 and its drptli. or the perpendicular distance from the 
 foot of the interior slope to the rear, .should be 
 twenty-four feet, for the service of the guns. The 
 earth of the barlx-tfe at the rear and sides receives 
 the natural slope. To ascend the l)arlx;ttc, a con- 
 struction temied a rnmp is made; this is an inclined 
 plane of earth, which connects llic top of the bar- 
 Ijette with the terre-plein. The nunp is ten feet w ide 
 at top, and it.s slope is six l)a.sc to one perpendicidar. 
 The earth at the sides receives the natural slope. 
 The ramp should l>e at some convenient point in the 
 rear, and take up as little room as possible. 
 As barbettes are usually placed in the sidients, an 
 
 Barbette, with Pan-coupfe. 
 
 a perpendicular is drawn from this point to each 
 face, as shown in the drawing, and the pentagonal 
 space thus inclosed will be taken for the gun in the 
 salient; from the perpendiculars last set off as many 
 times sixteen and a half feet will be set off, on the 
 interior crest of each face, as there are guns required: 
 this will give the length of the barbette along each 
 face; the depth will I)e made twenty-four feet, and 
 the two wili be united in the salient. One or more 
 ramps may be made as most convenient. 
 
 To give fempoRir\' cover to gims on a field of bat- 
 tle and enable them to command a wide field of fire, 
 a parapet of just sufficient height to allow the gims 
 to fire over it may be thrown up for the purix).se, the 
 earth being taketi from a ditch in front. The ground 
 niaj' be roughly leveled off far enough to the rear 
 for the maneuver of the guns. Between each gun a 
 shallow trench may be dug parallel to the wheels, 
 where the gunners can find shelter when not serving 
 their pieces. 
 
 The advanta.ges of the barbette consist in the com- 
 manding p<isilion given to the guns, and in a very 
 wide field of fire; on these accounts the salients are 
 the best positions for them. Their defects are that 
 they expose the guns and men to the enemy's artillery 
 and sharp-shooters. Light guns, particularly howit- 
 zers, are the best for arming barbettes, because the 
 hollow projectile of the latter is verj- formidable 
 both to the enemy's colunnis and to his cavalry, and 
 when his batteries are opened against the salients the 
 light pieces can be readilv withdrawn. 
 
 BARBETTE CARRIAGE.— A carriage of the station- 
 ary class, on wlii( li a gun is mounted to fire over a 
 parapet, A liarliitte gun is any gun mounted on a 
 barbette carriage. 
 
 BARBETTE FIRE —Barbette fire can only be ob- 
 tained by some arrangement which raises "the gun 
 into a position from which it can be fired over the 
 parapet. There are two methods by which this can 
 be done: one, by mounting the gini" on a liigh car- 
 riage, or on a carriage whicli admits of the gun being 
 raised to the necessary position; the ntlur, liy build- 
 ing a mound of earth sufiiciently high behind the 
 parapet, and placing the gim on" this mound. The 
 latter is the method generally employed in field- 
 works. The artillery used in the defense of field- 
 works may be either siege or field guns; but most 
 generally the latter lue employed. The upper sur-
 
 BASBOLE. 
 
 139 
 
 BABNACLES. 
 
 face of the platform on which the wheels rest, or the 
 upper surface of the barbette when no platform is 
 used, should be at a dLstiince below the interior crest 
 just sufficient to allow the gun to fire over the interior 
 crest and parallel to the superior slope. A distance 
 greater than this would interfere with the eftieiency 
 of the gim; a distance less would unnecessarily ex- 
 pose the gun and carriage to the enemy's tire. The 
 axis of the trunnions of a field-gun, in the United 
 States service, is about forty-three inches above the 
 ground on which the wheels rest. The diameter of 
 the piece at the muzzle and the inclination of the su- 
 perior slope being given, it is ea,«y to determine what 
 should be the distance of the upper surface of the 
 barbette below the interior crest. The general rule 
 u.sed is to take this distance at two feet and nine 
 inches for field-gims, and four feet for siege-guns, 
 when mounted U[x)n the ordinary carriages. 
 
 BABBOLE. — A heavy battle-axe us&l in ancient 
 times; now obsolete. 
 
 BABCE. — A small gun, shorter and thicker than a 
 falconet, which was formerly used on board ship. 
 Also written Bercht. 
 
 BABDINGS. — Such parts of horse-armor as protect 
 the animal's head, neck, and rump: the ekamp-froiU, 
 the mtiiufaire, the poitrd, and the croupier. Also 
 written Bant. 
 
 BASIL AEDENT.— A barrel filled with layers of 
 tarred chips intermixed with powder, and primed at 
 each end with a shell-fuse. It was formerly used for 
 illuminating purposes, and had holes bored in it for 
 the puqxise of admittin<r air to the burning contents. 
 
 BABIL FOUDBOYANT.— A contrivance of the same 
 nature as the baril ardent, with the addition of gre- 
 nades placed between the layers of chips. These 
 were used at the defense of a breech, by rolling Uiem 
 upon the assailants. Also written Baril d'art^ce. 
 
 BAEKEB'S MILL.— A water-wheel invented by 
 Dr. Barker towards the end of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. It is represented in its simplest or tj-pical form 
 in the drawing. A is a wide metal pipe, resting at 
 
 its lower end, by the steel spindle T, on a metal block 
 
 B, and kept in" a vertical position by the spindle S 
 at its upper end, which passes through the frame of 
 the machine, so that it can easily revolve roimd its 
 axis. Near its lower end two smaller pijies or anns, 
 
 C, C, are inserted, which project horizontally from 
 it, and these have each, at the outer extremity, a hole 
 cut vertically in them, opening towards "op[X)sile 
 sides. The water is supplied by the pipe P, which 
 opens over a funnel-like widening on the upper part 
 of A, and the quantity is so regulated that while 
 the pipe A is kept nearly full, no more is admitted 
 than issues from the lower orifices. The reaction 
 caused by the water gushing from the arras forces 
 them backwards, and gives to the whole machine a 
 
 rotary motion. This reaction is much the same as 
 is seen in the recoil of a gun when fired, or in the 
 pushing back of a small Ixjat by the foot on stepping 
 a.shore. It may be also thus explained: Suppose that 
 the aiins were closed all round, the water would 
 press against the sides with a force proportional to 
 the height of the water in the pipe A, and the pres- 
 sure against any particular surface of the side would 
 produce no motion of the arm, because an equal 
 pressure is exerted in a contrary direction by a cor- 
 responding surface opposite to it. Now, if one of 
 these smlaces be cut out, the pressure against the 
 other, being imcounteraeted, forces the arm in the 
 opposite direction to that of tlie side in which the hole 
 i.s made. This being done to both arms on opposite 
 sides, two equal pressures are prt)duced, which con- 
 spire in generating the same motion of rotation. As 
 soon as motion ensues, centrifugal force comes into 
 plav', which, throwing the water out towanls the 
 ends of the arms, increa.ses the rapidity of its dis- 
 charge, and also its reacting power. When the wheel 
 is in action, the water thus acts under the influence 
 of two forces — one being the pre.ssure of the column in 
 A, and the other the centrifugal force generated by 
 the rotation of the wheel itself. The motion of the 
 wheel is transmitted, by the spur-wheel fixed to the 
 spindle S, to the machinerj- which is to be driven by it. 
 
 The power is manifestly incre;tsed by heightening 
 the water<olumn, or bj- lengthening the arms — the 
 former increasing the pressure of the water, jmd the 
 latter increasing'the leverage at which this pressure 
 acts. In the mill shown in the figure, the colimin in 
 A. cannot be advantageously heightened, for the 
 higher it rises the greater must be the weight which 
 the conical spindle, T, has to sustain, and the greater, 
 consequently, becomes the friction. It is from this 
 circumstance that such mills are found, in practice, to 
 yield but a small mechanical effect— the friction con- 
 suming too large a proixjrtion of the work of the 
 wheel. Hence, in the reaction-wheels now in use, 
 the original Barker's mill has been so modified as to 
 allow of the water being conducted from the reser- 
 voir below the arms instead of above. This Is ef- 
 fected by making the vertical pipe revolve below in 
 a stulfing-lx)x at its junction with the conduit, and 
 above by a pivot moving in the fixed frame. By 
 this arrangement the friction attending the rotation 
 is reduced to a minimum, for not only is the weight 
 of the water placed out of account, but also a large 
 proportion of the weight of the wheel itself, which is 
 borne by the upward pressiure of the water. The 
 mechanical performance of such wheels is said to be 
 highly satisfactory, producing, with a limited supply 
 of water falling from a considerable height, a usefiU 
 effect hardly to be obtained by any other contriv- 
 ance. The power of these machines may be also 
 increased by using curvetl instead of straight arms. 
 With straight arms a considerable Io.ss of force is in- 
 curred by the sudden change of the direction of the 
 current when it leaves the arm, which does not take 
 place to the same extent with curved arms, where this 
 change is effected gradually. In Whitelaw's mill 
 (hence called the Sccttisli turbine), the form of Bar- 
 ker's niiU generally met with in Scotland, there are 
 three instead of two curved arms of this description. 
 Considerable difference of opinion still exists lus to the 
 merits of Barker's mUl, some considering it as the 
 most perfect way of applying watcr-jtower, ;uul others 
 putting it in the same rank as an undershot-wheel, 
 with the s;imc water-supply. Of late years it has 
 been more extensively employed than formerly. 
 
 BABNACLES.— 1. In Heraldrj-, barnacles resembled 
 what are now called twitchers", instmments used by 
 farriers to curb and command unruly horses. Bar- 
 nacles are fa'quently introduced into coats of arm.s 
 as a charge. — 2. A noose attached to a stock or han- 
 dle, and nipped around the upper lip of a horse. It 
 is twisted so as to lie somewhat paitiful, in order to 
 give the command of the head to the person holding 
 the same. It enables a trooper to hold the horsed
 
 SABNEKOV-GREENE OUN. 
 
 140 
 
 BABOHETEB. 
 
 bead aloft to kwj) liini fmm biting, occupy his atten- 
 tion, and nieasurablv prevent his liickiniT. 
 
 BARNEKOV- GREENE GUN.— A breech - loadini; 
 rille havini: a li.xed chaniUr closed by a movable 
 bntrh-bkKk, whicli slides in the line of the barrel 
 by iudin'ct action, bcini; moveii by levers from above. 
 Its distinjruishini; chanicterislic is a short sliding 
 blcx'k, back of which is a pair of links, secured at 
 thi'ir forward end to the block, and in rear to the 
 frame. The rearniosl one of them contains the 
 hammer, in cocking which the combination is bent 
 upwanl and so withdmws the block. The cartridge- 
 shells, when extracted, drop through a hole left for 
 the ])iir|><)si> in the frame. 
 
 BAROMETER.— If a straight tube 32 or 33 inches 
 long and ck)>e-d at one end is tilled with mercury 
 ami, the open end Ining .stopped with the linger, im- 
 inersi-d in a ves.sel tilled with the s;ime substance and 
 the linger removed, the Huid will stand at about 30 
 inches above the level of the mercury in the vessel. 
 The coluiim of mercury in the tube is sujijiorted by 
 the pressure of the aliiiosphere iijion the surface of 
 the mercury in the cvip, and it is therefore assiuned 
 that the weight of a column of mercury of uuifonn 
 diameter, 30 inches high, is equal to the weight of a 
 column of air of the .sjune base, extending to the top 
 of the atmosjihere. This is the barometer invented 
 by Torricelli in 1641! and still used in essentially its 
 original form. As every fluctuation of atmospheric 
 pressure is faithfully shown by the varving height of 
 the fluid in the Torricellian lube, the "instrument is, 
 as its name implies, a measure of the weight of the at- 
 mosphere. The barometer as usually made consists of 
 a gla.ss tube about 34 inches long, closed at one end, 
 fillet! with mercury, and placed in a vertical position 
 ■with the open end immersed in the mercury, 
 contained in a cup called a cistern. A scale 
 of inches and tenths, placed at the top of the 
 column, enaliles the height of the mercury to be 
 read, and in the higher grade barometers a" \eniier 
 facilitates the reading of the scale to hundredths. A 
 thennometer is usually attached, so placed that its 
 temperature shall be the same as that of the 
 barometer colunui, by which the correcliou for 
 temperature may be accurately made. The tube 
 should not be " too small; l6 allow freedom of 
 motion to the column it should have an internal 
 diameter of from one-third to one-half inch. The 
 mercurj'must be absolutely pure, freed from moisture, j 
 and of the s|>ecitic gravity of 13..')94. Extreme care i 
 is necessary iu excluding from the tube both air and i 
 moisture, the pressure of which tilliug the lube above 
 the mercury and exerting a pressure upon the upi)er 
 surface of the column, would depress it below the 
 proper height. The tube should be absolutely clean, 
 and the mercurj- should he tillered, and both" sliould 
 be healed in order to exjiel moisture. A small por- 
 tion of mercury l)eing carefully introdticed into the 
 tube, it is held over a charcoal -lire until the mercury 
 boils, the lube being held in an inclined position so 
 that any air-lK'lls may readily esriii)e. More mercury 
 is added and the process of boiling repealed until the 
 tube is llllcd. When a lianimeler-tulie has been care- 
 fully tilled and imjperly freed from air and moisUire, 
 the mercurj' will, when the lube is reversed, strike 
 the top of the tube with a sharp metallic sound. 
 The barometer tubes are usually attached to woo<l 
 frames, of which there is an infinite variety in design 
 and cost, but in standard barometers for strictly 
 scientific pur|ios<s a cylindrical brass frame is usecl, 
 the index of expansion of thai metid lieing more 
 nearly the Siunc as that of gla.ss. As now ar- 
 ranged, with adjusting screw below the cistern, 
 the mercury can Ijc forced u]) into the IuIk; 
 and the barometer rendered i>erfeclly portable. 
 It has been slal<Ml that the height of "the colunui 
 al)f)ve the level of the mereiuy in llie eislern indic-ates 
 the weight of the .■itinosphere. ll is f)lnious, how 
 ever, that the level of the men urv in the (•i^lern inusi 
 vary with the amount of mercury which the xarjiug 
 
 atnn)spheric pressure causes to enter or leave the IuIk". 
 To compensate for this difference of level of the mer- 
 cury in the cistern, various forms of barometer have 
 beeii devised, the principal of which are Ihal on 
 Forlin's ])rinci)ile, the Kew barometer, and the si|)hon, 
 or Gay-Lussjic. barometer. In Fortius barometer. 
 Fig. 1, a straight tube enters a cistern, the ujiiier part 
 of which is gla.ss, w bile the lower pari is of flexible 
 leather imder which is a lifting-screw. The lower 
 extremity of a small ivory point, pointing downwards, 
 denotes the zero-poiiU of the scjilc, which is in true 
 inches. At every observation the surface of the mer- 
 cury in the cistern is exactly adjusted by the lifling- 
 
 I I" ' Fio. 2. 
 
 screw to the level of the ivory point. This lifting- 
 screw and flexible cistern bottom serve the purpose, 
 also, of making the liaromeler portable by confining 
 the mercury in the tube and preventing Ihul pumping 
 of the fiuicl which in transit is apt to cndamrer the 
 inslrumenl. The Forlin haromeler can only gel out 
 of order by the adnnssion of air or moisture," and it is 
 not affected by changes in the material of the cistern 
 or of the fluid itself. It is therefore well adapted 
 for scienlilic jiurposes. and the higher grade of 
 standard barf)milers are usually made on this prin- 
 <i|ile. The Kew barometer, I^g. 2, was originally 
 reeonunendecl to the Governnicul by the Kew" Com- 
 mittee of the British As.socialion, as a" form of barome-
 
 BASOMETEB. 
 
 141 
 
 BASOMETEB. 
 
 ter well adapted for marine observations, and was 
 adopted by the British Government for that puipose. 
 It has been found equally well suited to land and 
 marine serviee, and is in extensive use in nieteorn- 
 logical stations. In this form of barometer the 
 cistern is closed anil is composed of iron or wcoii. 
 Cisterns of wood are sutliciently pervious to permit 
 of the mercury being affected by the variations of 
 atmospheric pressure. Those made of iron have a 
 small aperture at the top, which is closed by a piece 
 of leather. Sufflrient mercury is contained in the 
 cistern to cover the end of tlie lube in whatever 
 position the instniment may be placed. To com- 
 pensate for variations in the level of the mercurj' in 
 the cistern the scale is shortened from above down- 
 ward in proportion to the relative size of the diameter 
 of the tube and of the cistern. For use at sea the 
 tube of this barometer is contracted to prevent oscilla- 
 tion during the heaviest storms. In the siphon 
 barometer the open end of the tube is bent upward in 
 the shape of a siphon, the short limb being from si.\- 
 to eight inches long. The pressure of the atmosphere 
 
 _ upon the surface of the mercury 
 
 in the short limb sustains the col- 
 umn of mercmy in the long limb, 
 the fluid in the short limb falling 
 with its rise in the tube and rising 
 with its fall. The upjier jiart of 
 the tube is made of equal diame- 
 ter with that of the lower limb, 
 so that the distance between the 
 ujjper and lower levels of the mer- 
 cury is always the height of the 
 barometric column. A .scale of 
 inches, starting from a zero-point, 
 taken near the bend of the tube, 
 with verniers fitted to each limb, 
 gives the means of measuring the 
 long and short columns. The dif- 
 ference of the two readings is the 
 height of the barometer. By an- 
 other method the zero -point is 
 taken at some intermediate posi- 
 tion, and the distances of the mer- 
 cury-levels upward and down- 
 ward from this measured, their 
 sum being the height of the ba- 
 rometer. With this barometer no 
 correction for capillarity is re- 
 quired, the capillary action of the 
 glass being considered the same at 
 each of the mercury surfaces. The 
 J.JJ, 3 barometer-scale being divided into 
 
 inches and tenths, the vernier en- 
 ables us to subdivide the tenths to hundredths and 
 thousandths of an inch. Fig. 3 shows the scale of 
 a standard barometer divided into half-tenths, or .05, 
 of an inch, as A B, The vernier I) is made equal 
 in length to twenty-four of these divisions, and is 
 divided into twenty-flve equal parts; one space on 
 the scale is larger, therefore, than one on the ver- 
 nier by the one twenty-fifth part of .0"), which is 
 .0()2 inch, so that the vernier shows differences of 
 .002. The vernier reading upwards, the lower edge, 
 D, indicates the lop of the mercurial column and 
 is the zero of the vernier-scale. In the drawing, 
 the zero being exactly in line with 29 ,"5 inches of 
 the fixed scale, the barometer reading would be 
 29.500 inches. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 on the 
 vernier measure hun<lredths, and the intermediate 
 lines thousandths, of an inch. In Fig. 3 the zero of 
 the vernier is between 29.65 and 29.70 on the scale. 
 Looking up the vernier and scale, the second line 
 above 3 is perceived to lie evenly with a line of the 
 scale. This gives .03 and .004 "to add to 29.65, so 
 that the actual reading is 29.684 inches. For the 
 ordinary purposes of the barometer such minute 
 measurement is not req\iired. In household and 
 marine barometers the scale is only divided to tenths 
 and the vernier constructed to measure hundredths of 
 
 an inch. This is accomplished by making the vernier 
 either nine or eleven tenths of an inch long and 
 dividing it into ten cciual jiarts. To take a reading, 
 [jlace a )iiece of white paper lieliind the tube to reflect 
 the light and aid in setting the vernier accurately. 
 Adjust the surface of the mercury in the cistern 
 carefully to the ivory point or zero of the scale. To 
 determine the contact it will be found best to slightly 
 immerse the point in the mercury first and then 
 slowly lower the screw until the depression caused 
 by this inmiersion disiippears. Tap the barometer 
 with the hand 10 free the mercury from the sides of 
 the tube. Sufficient force should be used to agitate 
 the top of the colunm. Bring the lower edge of the 
 vernier exactly on a level with the top of the mer- 
 curial column. When set ])roperly, the front edge 
 of the vernier, the top of the mercury, and the back 
 edge of the vernier should be in the line of sight, 
 w Inch line will thus just touch the middle and upjier- 
 most point of the column. Care must be taken to 
 read with the eye exactly on a level wiih the top of 
 the mercury. The inches and tenths may then be 
 read from the scale, and the hundredths and 
 thousandths from the vernier. A reading of the 
 attached thermometer should also be taken. All 
 readings of the Ijarometer are subject to corrections, 
 in order to eliminate various sources of error and to 
 harmonize the indications of different instnnnents, so 
 that the observations can be used for scientific pur- 
 poses. These corrections are for index error, capac- 
 itj', capillarity, temjierature, altitutle above sea-level. 
 It is ncces.sary to finil the index error of each instni 
 ment by comparison with a standard instrument 
 whose constant of error is known. This being de- 
 termined, is a fixed quantily to be added or sub- 
 tracted from each observation. In all barometers on 
 the Fortin principle, the correction for capacity is 
 made by the lifting-screw. The Kew barometer re- 
 quires no capacity correction. The siphon barome- 
 ter requires no correction for capillarity. All 
 barometers require to be corrected for temperature 
 and altitude. The capillary action of glass and mer- 
 cury cause a dejiression of the mercurj' by a quantity 
 verv' nearly in inverse propoition to the diameter of 
 the tube. The following table gives the corrections 
 to be applied to tubes from 0.6 to 0.10 diameter, with 
 boiled mercury: 
 
 Diameter 
 
 of Tube. Correction. 
 
 0.60 inch 0.002 inch 
 
 0.50 do 0.003 do. 
 
 0.4.5 do 0.005 do. 
 
 0.40 do 0.007 do. 
 
 0.35 do.' 0.010 do. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 of Tube. Correction. 
 
 0.30 inch 0.014 inch 
 
 0.25 do 0.020 do. 
 
 0.20 do 0.029 do. 
 
 0.15 do 0.044 do. 
 
 0.10 do 0.070 do. 
 
 As mercur)' expands f,\ of its vohuue between the 
 freezing and boiling points of the Fahrenheit ther- 
 mometer, it is necessary that all observations should 
 be reduced to a uniform temperature, and for this 
 purpose the barometer is always accompanied by a 
 thermometer, wiiich should be observed at each time 
 that an observation is taken of the barometer itself. 
 It is universally agreed that the temperature to which 
 all barometrical observations shall be reduced is 32' 
 Fahr. For every degree of the thennometer, above 
 32° Fahr., we must subtract the ten-thousandth part 
 of the observed height. If the tempeniture tx' lielow 
 32 this correction must be added. At sea-level, in 
 latitude 45% and at a temperature of 32° Fahr.. the 
 normal height of the mercurial column is about 
 29.922. As' the pressure of the atmosphere dimin- 
 ishes as we ascend, it is evident that the lenixtli of the 
 mercurial coUunn will be less in proi>ortiun to the 
 altitude of its station. In order that observations 
 may be intercomparable, they are reduced to the level 
 of the sea. The correction to be applied is for the 
 height of the colunm of air extemling from the sea- 
 level to that of the station. But as the weight of the 
 column of air varies with its temperature, it is neces- 
 sary to take this into considenition. Tables have 
 ! been computed, giving corrections for every degree
 
 BABOHETROGR&PH. 
 
 142 
 
 BABOK. 
 
 from 20' to 100', and from sea-level to 1500 or more 
 feet. The fornmlary still often found engraved upon 
 barometer-scules — 
 
 At 31 inches Very drj-, 
 
 30.5 do Settled fair, 
 
 80 do Fair, 
 
 28.5 do Chiuigeable, 
 
 29 do Rain, 
 
 2S.5 do Much rain, 
 
 2^ do Stormy 
 
 — has tended to dL»<Tcdit the barometer a.s an instru- 
 ment for foretelling (handles of weather. The.<e 
 words are useless and incorrect. The mere height of 
 the barometer is no indication of the weather to l)e 
 expected. The point to be observed is whether the 
 barometer has risen or fallen or remained steady 
 since the preWous observation. The late Adminil 
 Fitzroy proposed the following words for barometer- 
 scales, which have been very generally adopted: 
 
 RISE. 
 
 FALL. 
 
 FOR 
 
 roR 
 
 NORTH 
 
 SOITH 
 
 S. W.-N.-E. 
 
 S. E.-S.-W. 
 
 DRY 
 
 WET 
 
 OR 
 
 OR 
 
 LESS W»-D. 
 
 WORE WIND. 
 
 EXCEPT 
 
 EXCEPT 
 
 
 WET FROM NORTH. 
 
 Generally, it may be said that when the barometer 
 rises, owing to a change of wind, the weather gets 
 colder, and if it remains high 
 (above 30) the weather will 
 probably Ix? fair. If the 
 barometer falls, owinr to a 
 change of wind, and remains 
 steady at about 29.5, the 
 weather will he warmer and 
 wet and cloudy. A gradual 
 rise is an indication of con- 
 tinued fair weather, whilst a 
 gradual fall indicates that 
 prolonged bad weather is to 
 be exi)ected. Either a very 
 sudden rise or a sudden fall 
 are dangerous, as they indi- 
 cate a disturbance of atmo- 
 spheric conditions and conso- 
 quent unsettled weather. In 
 forecasting the weather it is 
 important that the stale of 
 the thermometer and hygro- 
 meter be observed as well 
 as the height of the baro- 
 meter, and that the direction 
 of the wind and tlie time of 
 
 the year be considered. Reasoning from all these [ 
 facto"rs, it is undoubtedly possible to foretell local 
 changes with gre;it accuracy. The best barome- j 
 ters in the United States arc "made by Messrs. James I 
 W. Queen & Co. , Philadelphia. 
 
 The uses of the barometer are phj-sical, hypso- I 
 metrical, and meteorological. It is of essential use j 
 in all physical researches where the mechanical, 
 optical, acoustical, and chemical properties of air or 
 other giLses are dependent on the pressure of the al- 
 mo.sphcrc. Its use in hy|Kometry, or the art of 
 mea-suring the heights of liiountains, is verj- valuable. 
 When a Iwrometer is at the f(X)t of a mountain, the 
 press\ire it sustains is greater than that which it ex- 
 periences at the top by the weight of the column of 
 air inter\-cning between the top and l)ottom. A 
 foi-mula of consideriililc complexity is given by 
 mathematicians for finding very nearly the tnie 
 heiglit of a mountain from baromctriciil and llicr- 
 mometrical obser\ations made at its base and summit, 
 the interpretation of which does not come within the 
 compa-ss of this work. The following rules give very 
 nearly the same ri'sult: 1. Rwluce the mercurial 
 hcighls at both stations to 32 Fahr. 2. Take the 
 logarithms of the corrected heights, subtract them, 
 and multiply the result by 10,000, to give the aj)- 
 
 prosimatc height in fathoms of the upper above the 
 lower station." 3. Take the mean of tlie temi>erature 
 at both .stations, take the difference between this 
 mean and 32, multiply the difference by the approxi- 
 mate height, and divide the product by 435. This 
 last result is to be added to the approxiniate height if 
 the mean temperature is above 32, and subtracted if 
 l)elow, to tind the true height in fathoms. See 
 Anerriid BiirniiiiU'r. 
 
 BAROMETEOGEAPH.— An instrument by which 
 the variations of atmospheric pressure are automati- 
 cally recorded on a sluet of paper. The drawing 
 represents the Queen Self-recording Aneroid, which is 
 remarkable for the siinplicitj- of its construction 
 and the accuracy of its work. It con.sists of an ane- 
 roid barometer, composed of a .scries of vacuum 
 boxes, the movements of which are transmitted 
 through a simple mechanism to a long lever, termina- 
 ting in a metallic pen which touches a ilrum within 
 which is an eight-day clock. This drum, around 
 which is wound the record-blank, makes one revolu- 
 tion in seven days, so that each diagram forms a 
 complete barometric record for the week. After 
 winding the clock and setting the barometer, the 
 instrument requires no attention whatever until 
 the weekly record is finished. The pen retains 
 enough ink to last for several weeks. The following 
 are important advantages of this instrument : the un- 
 varying accuracy and precision of the indications 
 
 Queen Self-recording Aneroid. 
 
 resulting from the parts specially employed ; the 
 absence of anything fragile in the apparatus, in con- 
 sequence of which it is not liable to become deranged ; 
 the facility with which the instrument is set in 
 operation, and the ease with which the record -papers 
 can be changed ; the regularity of the cun-es on the 
 diagrams obtained, resulting from the special metal 
 pen employed, which retains sufficient indelible ink 
 to hist for a month if necessary ; the small size and 
 weight of the instrument, rendering it most convenient 
 for transportation. Sec Aneroid Barometer and Ba- 
 romi'tir. 
 
 BARON.— This term, as to the origin of which 
 much dilTercnce of opinion exists, is probably derived 
 from the Latin word hnro (allied to rir, a man, a 
 hero), which originally signified a stupid, brutal man, 
 afterwards came to signify a man simply, and latterly, 
 by one of those strange transmutations which are not 
 uncommon in language, a man pre-eminently, or a 
 person of distinction. Teutonic, Celtic, and even 
 Hebrew derivations have also been assigned to the 
 word; but the fact of its hav-ing been introduced into 
 England by the Normans seems in favor of a 
 Romanic origin. It is now the title which is applied 
 to the lowest degree of hcreditarj' nobility. The de- 
 gree of baron forms a species of landing-place,
 
 BAEON AND FEMME. 
 
 143 
 
 BARBACKS. 
 
 corresponding amongst noblemen, in a certain sease, 
 to that of gentleman, at a lower stage of the social 
 pyramid. It was in this sense that the word was 
 used in former times to include the whole nobility of 
 England, because all noblemen were barons, whatever 
 might be the higher ranks in the peerage which they 
 occupied. The word Peer has recently come to be 
 ased with the same signification, perhaps becau.se it 
 is no longer necessarily the ease that every nobleman 
 fhould be a baron, there being instjuices in whieii 
 earldoms and other honors have been given without 
 a barony being attached to them, and in which the 
 barony has been separated from the higher degree by 
 following a different order of descent. The general 
 theory of the Constit\ition, however, still is, that it is 
 as barons that all the peers sit in the Upper House; 
 and it is on this ground that the archbishops anil 
 bishops are said to sit in virtue of their baronies. 
 The distinction into greater and lesner barons seems 
 from an early period to have obtained in most of the 
 countries of feurope. The greater barons, who were 
 tlie king's chief tenants, held their lands directl}', or 
 in eapite as it was called, of the Crown; whilst the 
 les.ser held of the greater by the tenure of military 
 service. 
 
 BARON AND FEMME.— In Heraldry, the expres- 
 sion used to designate the bearing bj- which the anns 
 of husband and wife are carried per pale or mar- 
 shaled side by side on the same shield. The hus- 
 band's aims are always carried on the dexter side. 
 Where the wife is an heiress — i.e., the representa- 
 tive of her father's house — her husband carries her 
 arms, not per pale, but in a shield of pretense; and 
 they are quartered with the paternal coat by the issue 
 of the marriage. 
 
 BAROTS. — In the construction of wire guns, barots 
 are small hardened steel pieces placed at the tennini 
 of the wire layers, in recesses in the flanges of the 
 steel core or body (between which the layers are 
 placed). These barots are slotted across, "the slot 
 being of a less width (at the middle) than the 
 diameter of the wire (which is driven into it with 
 a hammer), .so as to leave about two thirds of the 
 strength of the wire as a bind. As the tension is 
 about one third of the ultimate strength, suflicient 
 tensile strength is left to secuiely withstand the pull 
 of the tensed wire. See Wire Guns. 
 
 BAREACK-ALLO'WANCE.— In the British Army, a 
 .spocilic allowance of bread, beef, wood, coal, etc., to 
 reirinicnts stationed in barracks. 
 
 BARRACK-GUARD.— When a regiment is in bar- 
 racks, the principal guard is allied the Bgrrack-guard, 
 the Ofticer being responsible for the regularity of the 
 men in barracks, and for all prisoners duly committed 
 to his charge while on dutv. 
 
 BAERACK-MASTER.— The Officer who superin- 
 tends the barracks of soldiers. The condition of 
 ■ British soldiers has, ever since the disasters in the 
 Crimea in the i;\-iuter of 1854, been an object of much 
 public solicitude. This solicitude was so strongly 
 expressed as to break through the cold formalities 
 of the official departments. Returns were ordered, 
 and commissions and committees appointed, partly to 
 inquire into existing facts, partly to suggest improve- 
 ments. The Barrack-master-general was replaced at 
 the beginning of this century by Commissioners for 
 Barracks, whose functions were absorbed by the now- 
 extinct Board of Ordnance in 1822. Barracks are 
 now under the supervision of the Surveyor-general 
 of the Ordnance, who proWdes for their construction 
 and maintenance through the Royal Engineers; and 
 for their \-ictualing and daily service through Com- 
 misssries of the Control Department. Under these 
 Commis-saries are Barrack-clerks and Barrack ser- 
 geants, to assist them in their duties. 
 
 BARRACKS. — Penuanent structures for the accom- 
 moiiation of s<3ldiers, as disIinguLshed from huts and 
 tents. Originally, the word, derived from the Span- 
 ish barracM, applied to small cabins or huts; but in 
 England the term is now always considered to relate 
 
 to structures of brick or stone. Great opposition 
 was made in England to the introduction of pemui- 
 nent barracks during the early |)art of the la.st cen- 
 tury, on the grounil that the liberty of the subject 
 might possibly be cntlangered by tlius .separating the 
 soldiery so completely from the citizens, and placing 
 them in the hands of the ruling power. On the 
 other hand, it wa.s contended that the older system 
 of billeting the soldiers on the people is vexatious 
 and burdensome; and that the morals of townspeo- 
 ple and villagers are liable to be vitiated by the con- 
 stant presence of soldiers. The pennancnt barracks 
 were few in number down to the year 1792, when 
 George III. obtained the consent of Parliament for 
 the construction of several new ones, and for the 
 founding of the office of Barrack-masler-general. 
 Various changes in the arrangements were made from 
 time to time. 
 
 The furniture of the barracks is bought by the 
 War Office. The French have a singular plan of 
 hiring such furniture at l.'i francs per man per an- 
 num; the English cost is about 2.5 shillings per man, 
 and some Officers are of opinion that it might with 
 advantage be superseded by the French jilan. The 
 barrack-rooms have ann and accoutemient racks, 
 shelves, and pegs; with a regular order tor deposit- 
 ing everything thereon. During the ilay all the bed- 
 ding is placed in exact array; as well as dishes, tins, 
 and canteens. A Subaltern Officer \isits every room 
 every day. The iron bedsteads are tiu-netl down 
 every evening, and up everj- morning. One Non- 
 commissioned Officer (Sergeant or Coriioral) has con- 
 trol over each room, and is responsible for quiet, 
 cleanliness, etc. Married women, in the ratio ot 6 
 to a company of 100 soldiers, may live in the bar- 
 racks with their husbands, m separate rooms known 
 as "Married Soldiers' Quarters," but not unless the 
 marriage has been with consent of the Commanding 
 Officer. The married soldier m;iy, however, sleep 
 out of barracks, and is allowed an extra twopence per 
 day if lie does so. Each soldier in a barrack has an 
 iron bedstead, a rug, a paillasse, a bolsti'r, two 
 blankets, and two sheets; he pays nothing for these. 
 Each soldier has his name and number written near 
 his bed and knapsack. 
 
 Notwithstanding the order and regidarity estab- 
 lished in barracks. Committees of Inquirj- appointed 
 in 1855 and 1857 a.sccrtained the existence of griev- 
 ous defects. It was found that, out of 252 barracks, 
 only 20 had .separate sleeping-rooms for married sol- 
 diers; the wives of such soldiers, in the other 232, 
 being obliged to put up ^\ith arrangements repug- 
 nant to all decencj' and propriety, or else sleep away 
 from the barracks altogether. 
 
 In regard to sanitary arrangements, great efforts 
 have been made at vast cost in recent years to im- 
 prove all the hygienic conditions, such as drains, 
 ventilation, means of ablution, recreation, circula- 
 tion of air, etc. The result has been very apparent 
 in the reduced rate of mortality. Army Physicians 
 recommend 600 cubic feet of room-sjiace per soldier; 
 and this is the standard now demanded in all practi- 
 cable cases bv the War Office. It has been esti- 
 mated that a "new barrack for 1000 Foot-guards in 
 London would cost €150,000 bcmleti hind, the cost of 
 which would depend wholly on the jjarlicular site 
 selected. The necessity for grounds for exercises, 
 stores, library-, offices, etc., renders a barrack a very 
 costly congeries of buildings. Twenty acres may be 
 taken as the minimum space needed for 1000 men. 
 In relation to all the various subjects of barrack-life, 
 a Committee of ilililary Officers has drawn up a 
 most comprehensive .scheme of reform; but unfortu- 
 nately the cost of making these improvements would 
 be so enormous that notjiing better thim a verj- grad- 
 ual adoption can be expected. 
 
 The finest barracks existing are perhaps those at 
 Aldersholt, attached to the camji noticed in another 
 article. The buildings extend in two long lines, 
 bnmching out of the Faruborough and Farnham
 
 BABRACK-SERGEANTS. 
 
 144 
 
 BASREL. 
 
 road, with a large parade-gronnil between ibem. 
 The infantrj- and artillery liarnieks are on tlie iu)rth 
 side iif tills spaee, and ilie eavalrj' Iiarnuks cm the 
 stnitli. The infamrv barnieks are divided iiilo 
 liliKks, formintr each a spacious (luadniiijrle, willi a 
 court-vanl in the center. Eacli liloek is a complete 
 liarniek for a full reiriment, with all the men's rooms, 
 store-riKims, schiKil-nxuns, ollii-es, etc. The Olficers' 
 riH^ims an-, however, sepanite, and occupy o|H'n 
 spaces iK'tween the blocks of buildinjrs. All the four 
 sides of each (luadniiijilc are occupied by various 
 rooms anil buildings; the men's liviiiir and sleeping 
 rooms bcim; mostly on the side next to the panide- 
 ground. The sletping-rooms, Ciicli for 24 men, are 
 very large and airy; the washing-rooms are ample 
 and" welltittid; and the cooking-roonLS will each 
 ciKik forS'iO men. Dry play-grounds and drill-yards 
 tmder glass roofs an.' iirovidcd. A broad balcony 
 outsideevery range of sleeping-rooms enables the 
 solilicrs to look out upon these grounds. Tlic mar- 
 ried soldiers and their wives are comfortably ))ro- 
 yided for, in rooms wholly apart from the rest. The 
 artillery and cavalry bamicks resemble in their gen- 
 eral featuivs those for the infantry. 
 
 In the United States Army 225 square feet of 
 spaee is allowed for evcrj- six soldiers, with a height 
 of 12 feet, giving each one alwut -ioO cubic feet. 
 There are few masonry-built barracks in the United 
 States; most of them are of logs or lighter timber. 
 Of the more permanent are Jladisou Bamicks, at 
 Sackett's Harbor, X. Y. ; the Citadel, at Charleston, 
 S. C. ; Pen.sacola, at Pensacola, Fla. ; Jack.son, at Xew 
 Orleans, La.: Jefferson, at St. Louis, Mo.; Baton 
 Rouge Arsenal, at Baton Rouge, La.; Mt. Vernon 
 Arsenal, Miss.; Oglethorpe, at Savannah, Ga,; Bcni- 
 cia, in California; Carlisle, in Pennsylvania; Fort 
 Leavenworth, Kansjis; Newport, in Kentucky: Ring- 
 gold and Fort Brown, in Texas; and the Cadet Bar- 
 racks at West Point. N. Y. 
 
 An annual inspection of the public buildings at 
 the several stations is made at the end of June by 
 the Commanding Officer and Quartermaster, and 
 then the Quartermaster makes the following reports : 
 1. Of the condition and capacity of the buildings, and 
 of the additions, alterations, and repairs that have 
 been made during the pa.st year. 2. Of the addi- 
 tions, alterations, and repairs that are needed, ^nth 
 plans and estimates in detail. These reports the Com- 
 manding Officer examines and forwards, with his 
 views, to the Quartermastcr-treneral. 
 
 BARRACK-SERGEANTS.— Faithful old Sergeants, 
 in the British service, who are selected from the Line 
 and placed in charge of barracks, under the super- 
 intendence of the Barrack-masters or Commissaries 
 of the Control Department. A similar duty is per- 
 formed by roster in the United States service, the 
 time of the detail usually being one week. 
 
 BARREL.— 1. The hiit of a sword, adapted to be 
 gnisjieil by the hand. — 2. A large vessel for hohling 
 liquids — probably from bur in tiie sense of to guard, 
 contine, contain — and then a certain iiieaniire, but 
 varving in every locality, ;md almost for every licpiid. 
 In the old English measures, the barrel contained ;!U 
 gallons of wine, ;t2 of ale, and W of licer — the wiiie- 
 g-allon itself differing from that of ale and beer. In 
 imperial gidlons, their content.s would be : old wine- 
 biirrel = 26i gidlons; ale do., 3U; l)eer, 30 J. The 
 Italian barile varies from 7 to 31 English gallons ; 
 the French barrique of Bordeaux = 228 French 
 litres = .jO English gidlons. Four barriciues make a 
 tonncau. In many ea.ses, barrel signifies a certain 
 ireif//il or fitlicr quantity of goods usually sold in 
 casks railed Iwrrels. In America, Hour and beef 
 are .sold on the large scale in barrels : a barrel of 
 flour must contain 196 lbs. ; of iK'ef, 200 lbs. xV 
 barrel of butter = 224 lbs. ; of soft-soap, 2"iG lbs. ; 
 of tar, 26^ gallons. Barrels or casks of vaiious kinds 
 are largely used for inilitarv' purpose's. — ;i The bar- 
 rel is the most important part of a tire-arm. its office 
 being to concentrate the force of a charge of powder 
 
 on a projectile, and give it proper initial velocity and 
 direction : for these purposes, and for the safety of 
 the lirer. it should be made of the best materials and 
 witli the greatest care. In deternuning the exterior 
 form of a barrel, it is not only nece.s.sary to give such 
 thickness to the different parts as will Ix'st resist the 
 explosive effort of the charge, but such as will pre- 
 vent it from Ix'ing Ix'nt when used as a pike or sub- 
 jected to the rough usage of the sernce. A sufficient 
 irtight is n'fiuired to give stearliness to the barrel in 
 aiming, and to prevent il from springing in tiring. 
 The latter defect generally arises from bad workman- 
 ship, whercliy there is a greater thickness of metal, 
 and, consetjuently, less expansion, on one side of the 
 bore than the other. In the military service, where 
 the rifle is carried by the soldier, tlie barrel should 
 si'ldom weigh more than five pounds. 
 
 The principal parts of a barrel are the breech, the 
 hrtichserew ; the Jla Is, the berth, and the oral; the 
 miif, and cone-seat ; the beii/onet-xliKl, ixniX front-»ight ; 
 the bi>re, tlie grooccs, and the lands. The breech-scrtw 
 is composed of a bodi/, tenon, and tang, and it.s ob- 
 ject is to close the bottom of the bore. The tenon 
 fits into a mortise cut in the stock, and prevents the 
 barrel from turning in its lied ; the tang is the i>art by 
 which the breech of the barrel is secured to the stock, 
 and for this purpose it is pierced with a hole for the 
 tung-screir, which passes through the stock and 
 screws into the guard-plate. The fl<tts are two 
 vertical plane surfaces, situated at equal distances 
 from the axis of the Ixire. They serve to prevent the 
 barrel from turning in the jaws of the vise when the 
 breech-.screw is taken out ; the flat, on the right side 
 of the barrel, also presents a surface of contact for 
 the lock-plate, which prevents the hammer and cone 
 from changing their relative position. The corners 
 of the flats are beveled to prevent the barrel from 
 being marreil, and to improve its finish. The 
 functions of the cone are to support the percussion- 
 cap when exploded by the hammer, and to conduct 
 the flame to the vent of the piece. The parts are the 
 nijijili . iqiou which the cap is placed ; the square, the 
 ]iart to which the wrench is ajiplied ; the shoulder; 
 the sereir-thread ; and the rent. To increase the 
 
 ; effect of the hammer on the cap, the upper surface of 
 the cone is diminished bj- chamfering the corners. 
 The cone-seat is a projecting piece of iron welded to 
 
 ' the barrel, near the breech, for the purpose of sustain- 
 
 j ing the cone. The principal parts are the feniah 
 sereir, the rent, and the rim ; the latter prevents the 
 flame from penetrating between the lock and barrel. 
 The position of the cone-seat should be such that the 
 vent will have a direct communication with the lK)re. 
 To prevent the blow of the hammer from straining 
 the cone and breaking it off in the cone-scat, the 
 plane of the face of the hammer shoidd pass through 
 the axis of motion. 
 
 The length of a gun-bane? is determined by the ' 
 nature of the senice to which it is apjilied, rather 
 than by the effect which it exerts on the force of the 
 charge. It has been shown by experiment that the 
 velocity of a projectile, in a smooth-bored musket, 
 increases with the length of the bore up to 108 
 calibers ; but a musket with this length of barrel 
 would be loo heavy as a fire-arm and too unwieldy 
 as a pike. The points to be observed in construct- 
 ing the grixives for militarv* arms are range, accuracy 
 of fire, endurance, and facility of loading and clean- 
 ing the bore. For expanding projectiles, experi- 
 ment .shows that these points are best attained by 
 making the grooves broad and .shallow and with a 
 moderate twist. The effect of decreasing the depth 
 of rifle-grooves is to increase the accuracy, but it 
 diminislus the range. The twist is dependent on the 
 length, diameter, and initial velocity of the pro- 
 
 ! jectile ; in other words, it should be incifa.si'd in a 
 certain jiroijortion to the length of the projectile ; and 
 
 I for the same weight of projectile it shoidd l)c in- 
 crca.scd in a certain proportion as the length of the 
 
 I bore is diminished. See Otin-beirrel&wiX PumUr-barrel.
 
 BABBEL-HDAOED SIGHT. 
 
 145 
 
 BAEEIEKS. 
 
 BABREL-HEADED SIGHT.— This sight consists of 
 a sttel bar, an elevating-nut, a cross-head, two thumb- 
 screws, and a leaf. One side of the bar is sniduated 
 to degrees, the other to yards. The degrees are 
 di\ided into six parts of ten minutes each ; and any 
 number of minutes up to ten can be obtained by 
 turning round a graduated elevating-nut on the 
 top of the bar, which works an internal screw 
 and so raises the head of the scale. The bar is in- 
 ' clined to the left to allow for demitum, but it is 
 fitted with a horizontal scale or cross-head, graduated 
 to give one half-degree of deflection either to the 
 right or left. At each end of this slide is a graduated 
 nut divided into minutes up to ten, and these nuts 
 are connected by a screw which crosses the bar 
 at right angles. A leaf with the sight-notch slides 
 along the scale, and can be moved right or left bj- 
 either nut. 
 
 BAEKEL-PIERS.— Casks or barrels formed into 
 piers, when no pontoons or boats can be obtained for 
 the pitssiige of troops across a river. 
 
 BABREL-PLATE.— A plate employed to hold the 
 barrels of certain machine guns in place. In the 
 Gatling gun, the breech-ends of all the barrels are 
 firmly screwed into a disk, or ;•((//• bnrni-jilah', which 
 is fastened to the shaft ; while the muzzles |ia.ss 
 through another similar di.sk, called the front barnl- 
 plate, on the same shaft. The shaft is considerably 
 longer than the barrels, and projects beyond the 
 muzzles, while it e.xtends backward for some dis- 
 tance behind the breeches of the barrels. See Gat- 
 li^nfi Gun. 
 
 BARREL-SETTEE.— A cylindrical mandrel used 
 by annorers for straightening the banel of a fire- 
 arm and in truing the bore or exterior surface. 
 
 BARREL-VISE.— A bench-\-ise having a longi- 
 tudinal groove in its jaws to fit it for the reception 
 of a gun-barrel, which may be protected from direct 
 contact of the jaws of the vise by sheet-lead or other 
 soft-metal cheeks. 
 
 BARRICADES. — Military engineers, and sjippors 
 and miners, are instructed in the art of barricading 
 streets and roads with beams, chains, chera iw^ih -frix , 
 and other obstacles, either in defending a town against 
 besiegers, or in suppressing popular tumults. In a 
 ship, a strong wooden rail, supported on stanchions, 
 and extending across the foremost part of the quar- 
 ter-deck, is called a barricade; during a naval action, 
 the upper part of this barricade is sometimes stuffed 
 with hammocks in a double rope-netting, to serve as 
 a screen against the enemy's small-shot. Barricades 
 
 ^^^f^^' 
 
 y 
 
 have been made use of in street-fights since the Mid- 
 dle Ages, but they are best known in connection with 
 the insurrections in the city of Paris. As early as 
 13jj8 the streets of Paris were barricaded against 
 the Dauphin, afterwards Charles V. A more note- 
 worthy barricade-fight was that in 1.^88, when 4000 
 Swiss' soldiers, marched into Paris by Henry III. to 
 overawe the Council of Sixteen, would have been 
 utterly destroyed by the populace, firing from behind 
 barricades, had the Court not consented to negotia- 
 tion; and the result was that the king fled next day. 
 
 The next barricade-fight of importance in Paris was 
 that of 1830, which resulted in the expulsion of the 
 Bourbons from the throne of Fnince, and the election 
 of the Citizen-king, Louis Philippe. During the three 
 days which this revolution lasted, the numter of bar- 
 ricades erected across the streets amoiaUed to several 
 thousiinds. They were formed of the most hetero- 
 geneous materials — overturned vehicles, trees, scaf- 
 folding-poles, planks, building-materials, nnd street 
 pa\-ing-stoues; men, women, and children taking part 
 in their erection. In February, 1H4.M, the insurrec- 
 tion against Louis Philippe commenced with the 
 erection of barricades; but the most celebrated and 
 bloody barricade-fight was that l^tween the populace 
 and the Provisional Government, which, commencing 
 on the night of the 23d June, 1848, lasted throughout 
 the three following days, when the [leople had to 
 surrender. The national losses by this fight were es- 
 timated at 30,000,000 francs; l"(),000 persons were 
 killed and wounded, and 8000 taken prisoners. The 
 Emperor Napoleon III. has so widenetl and macada- 
 mized the pruicipal streets of Paris since he ascended 
 the throne as to render the successful erection of 
 barricades next to impossible. There was a remark- 
 able barricade-erection in London in 1821. The Min- 
 istry desired that the body of Queen Caroline should 
 be conveyed out of the country to Germany, for in- 
 terment, without the populace haWng the opportunity 
 of making any demonstration. On the matter be- 
 coming known, a vast barricade was erected at the 
 point where the Hampstead road joins the new road; 
 and as nothing but the use of artUlery could have 
 forced the way, the officer in charge of the funeral 
 cortege deemed it prudent to change his course and 
 pass through a more central part of the metropolis. 
 During the revolutions of 1848, barricades were suc- 
 cessfully carried in Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and other 
 places, by abandoning the attack in front and break- 
 ing through the houses of contiguous streets, t;ikiug 
 their defenders in the rear. 
 
 BARRIERS. — Carpentry obstructions in fortifica- 
 tions. The purpose regulates the construction. If 
 the barrier is to be permimently defensible, it should 
 be musket-proof, and then becomes a stockade. If 
 occasionally defensible, palisading will suffice, with 
 a sand-bag or other temporary parapet when re- 
 quireil, behind and near enough to fire between the 
 palis;ides. The gates in both the above .shovdd, if 
 possible, be of palisading, as the heavy stockade-gate 
 is unwieldy. Barrier-gates should never be left un- 
 protected. 
 
 The barrier-gate is most frequentlj' made with two 
 leaves, hanging on posts by hinges, and made to 
 open inwaixl. The frame of each upright is com- 
 posed of two uprights, called atileii ; two cross-pieces, 
 one at the top and the other at the bottom, called 
 rails; and a diagonal brace called a sieingiwj-bar. 
 Since the gate must be strong, the leaves of it are 
 necessarily \-ery heavj-. The leaves must be hung 
 upon stout posts fimily brace<l into the ground, to 
 sustain the great weight of the gate. The top rails 
 
 of all barriers should not be less than six feet above 
 the ground. In the barriers with open leaves, the 
 vertical pieces are usually extended fron-. eighteen 
 inches to two feet abt)ve the top rails, and their upper 
 ends sharpened. In those which are solid, it is usual 
 to arrange some obstruction upon the top rail, such 
 as sharp-pointed spikes, broken glass, etc.. to inter- 
 fere with persons climbing over the top. It is usual
 
 BABSITUS. 
 
 146 
 
 BASE. 
 
 to provide npcrlurcs iu the leaves, through which the 
 men eiin tire u|x)ii the (iroiind on the outside. 
 
 BARRITUS.— A word which not only sis;uitied the 
 biitllc (TV of the luuient German.-;, but all t)iiltlecries 
 were formerly w> called. Also written BunliUn. 
 
 barrows'. — 1. Arlitical mounds of earth (renerally 
 believed to have l)een erected for sepulchral or monu- 
 mental pur|K)ses. They are very numerous in Great 
 Britain, and many of them are suitposeil to belong: to 
 a period lonir ]irior to the Homan Invasion. The 
 counties of \Vilts and Dorset are es|)ecially rich in 
 these remains, and the barrows of the former have 
 been thoroughly explored, described, and classified 
 by Sir K. C. llojirc in his Ancient Wiltuhire. In the 
 sepulchral barrows the human remains are buried 
 either in a rude stone "cist " or che.st. in which the 
 body was doubled up, or are laid at full leni;lh in 
 the earth, accompanied by arms and other utensils. 
 Where the body was burned, the remains were laid 
 on the floor of the barrow, in a cist excavated on the 
 spot, or, at a later epoch, iu a clay urn. Sir U. Hoare 
 considers the Wiltshire barrows as indicating three 
 stages iu the progress of society. The first class con- 
 tiiins spear and arrow heads of flint and bone; the 
 second of bni.ss; and the third contains arms and in- 
 struments made of iron. One of the largest barrows 
 in Europe is Silbury Hill, near JIarlborough, in 
 Wiltshire, which covers 5 acres 34 perches of land, 
 and has a slope of 316 feet, with a perpendicular 
 height of 170. According to Sir R. Hoare, barrow- 
 burial was practiced down to the eighth century, 
 from a period of unknown antiquity. The practice 
 of erecting sepulchral mounds prevailed among all 
 the principal nations of antiquity both in Europe and 
 Asia, and thej- are found in great numbers in Central 
 America. JIany barrows are only partly artificial ; 
 natural mounds having been shaped by human hands 
 into the form, round or oblong, which it was wished 
 the.v .should take. 
 
 2. Light hand-carriages made of a frame of wood, 
 and carried by two men: or, as in a wheel-bnrroir , a 
 frame with a box supi>orted by one wheel, and rolled 
 by a single man. Barrows are largely used in the 
 
 ture of which it consists being varied interchange- 
 ably. 
 Barry-pily is where the shield is divided by diago- 
 
 ;piilliiliiliiiiiHM;i 
 
 llllllllllllllllli'llllllllll 
 
 army, there being no less than fourteen different 
 kinds put to various purposes. The drawings show- 
 two varieties, the rachiarroics and wagctn^tarrmes, 
 
 employed for many purposes in the arsenal and 
 store-house. 
 
 BARRY.— In Heraldry, the term applied to a shield 
 which is divide<l transversely into four, six, or more 
 equal parts, and consisting of two or more tinctures 
 interchangeably disposed. 
 
 liarri/lieiuli/ is where the shield is divided into four, 
 sis, or more equal parts, by diagonal lines, the tiuc- 
 
 ^ILUl- ii riilljllim 
 
 Barry. 
 
 Barry-beuvly. 
 
 liui iy-i'tl> . 
 
 nal lines, the colors being interchanged as in the ex- 
 amph'. 
 
 BAR. SHOE. —A horseshoe which is not open at 
 the hi li. but continued round at the rear. It is used 
 with horses that are liable to contraction of the heel, 
 to spread that part of the foot. 
 
 BAB-SHOT.— A projectile formerly used, consist- 
 ing of two cannon-balls, or half-lialls, united by a bar 
 of iron, and employed for severing the rigging of 
 vessels, as well as for field and fort artillery. Shot 
 u.sed in proving ordnance may be considered as be- 
 longing to this class, consisting as they do of a bar 
 with hemispherical ends, weighing twice or three 
 times that of Uie solid shot used in service. See 
 Chftin-shot, Projettiles, and Shot. 
 
 BARTIZAN.— A small stone closet, thrown out 
 upon coibils over doorways, 
 and on other parts of niedia;val 
 castles, generally for defense, 
 l)ut sometimes only for con- 
 venience to the inmates and 
 defenders. 
 
 BASCHI.— A Turkish title, 
 signifying a superior com- 
 mander, otlicer, chief, etc. 
 This title is only used in con-' 
 nection with the office title. 
 The most prominent are : 
 TopTscii.1 Y -BAscni, General 
 of Artillery and Inspector of 
 Forts, etc ; Solacki-Baschi, 
 Sub-commander of the Arch- 
 ers ; SANDSCn.IACIv-DABLARS- 
 
 Bascui, Chief of the .50 Col- 
 or - bearers ; Konabschjy- 
 Bascui, Quartermaster-gene- 
 ral ; Bon'CK-HAscin, Colonel of a regiment of 1000 
 militia ; Oda-Baschis, Company Officers who super- 
 intend drill. 
 
 BASCINET— BASNET.— A head-piece of mail, over 
 which, in the time of Edward I. and Edward II., the 
 helmet was worn ; but in the latter reign the bancinH 
 api^ears without the nasal of the helmet, and occa- 
 sionally with a movable visor, which rendered the 
 helmet unnecessary. Another form of the bascinet 
 during the latter p"art of the thirteenth century was 
 its being ojipned behind and having to be fastened or 
 laced l)chinil. See Helmet. 
 
 BASCULE BRIDGE.— A counterpoise drawbridge 
 which oscillates in a \ertical plane ; the inner portion 
 descends into a ])it, wliili- the oviter ascends and closes 
 the gateway. A bridge which has its truck simjily 
 hinged to the edge of the scarp or cmbin j, and Avhich 
 is lifted by weight or w indlass, is clas,sed as a lifting- 
 briitfie. The bascule has an inner portion of roadway, 
 which acts as a counterpoise to the portion which 
 projects over the water-way. The inner portion de- 
 scends into a dry well when the bridge is lifted into a 
 vertical iiositiou, the outer portion closing the open- 
 ing in the wall outside of the portcullis, if there be 
 one. This form of bridge was not uncommon in the 
 castles of the feudal tinicE, when the rich owned the 
 poor, and learning bad no refuge but in the Church. 
 
 BASE. — 1. In fortification, the base is the exterior 
 side of the iiolygon, or that imaginary line which 
 connects the salient angles of two'adjaeent bastions. 
 2. In ordnance, the base is the protuberant rear por- 
 tion of a gun, between the knob of the cascabel and 
 
 Bartizan.
 
 SASS-LINE. 
 
 147 
 
 BASE OF OPERATIONS. 
 
 the base-ring. The base is the middle memljer of the 
 cuactibtl when the piece has a base-ring and knob. 
 In the simpiicity of modem pieces, many mere orna- 
 ments and extraneous matters are omitted. The base 
 is always present, forming the rounded contour at the 
 rear of tlie breech. — 3. In Heraldry, the l)ase is the 
 lower portion of the shield. There is a de.xtcr ba.sc, 
 middle base, and sinister base. The 
 chief or principal part of the escutch- 
 eon is the top. The shield is always 
 supposed to be on the arm of the 
 wearer, and that it is his right and 
 left bauds, not those of the spectator, 
 which are liept in view. The ground or surface of 
 the shield, on which all the cftargei or liguras are de- 
 picted, Is called the fidd. — i. In chemistrj', a term 
 applied to a compound body, generally consisting of 
 a metal united ^^^th o.xj'gen. Thus, the metal potas- 
 sium (K), when it combines with oxygen (O), forms 
 the base potash (KO) ; sodium (Na) and oxygen, the 
 ■ba.se soda (XaO) ; lead (Pb) and oxygen, the base 
 oxide of lead or litharge (Pb(J). A distinguishing 
 feature of a base is that it unites with an o.xygeu acid, 
 such as sulphuric acid (SO3), to form a salt. Tlius, 
 the ba.se potash iKU) combines with sulphuric acicl 
 (SO3) to make the salt sulphiite of potash (KOSOs) ; 
 potash with nitric acid (XOi) to form the salt nitrate 
 of potash, or niter (KONO5). Occasionally sulphur 
 rephices the oxygen in a base. Thus, the metal pota.s- 
 sium (K) imites with sulphur (S) to form the sul- 
 phur base, sulphuret of potassium (KS), which can 
 unite with a sulphur acid like sulpharsenious acid or 
 orpiment (AsSs) to make the salt sulpharsenite of pot- 
 ash (KS,AsS3). The metal half of a base need not 
 be a simple clement, but may be a compoimd body 
 which, for the time, plajs the part of a simple sub- 
 stance. Thus, the compound ethyl (CHj) can com- 
 bine with oxygen to form ordinarj' ether ( [C4Hi]0); 
 and the base" thus produced can, in its turn, combine 
 with acids to form salts. A ba.se may be soluble or in- 
 soluble in water. Thus, the bases potash (KO), soda 
 (JSaO), ammonia (NII.O), bar>ta (BaO), strontia (StO), 
 lime (CaO), and magnesia (MgO), are more or less 
 soluble in water ; whilst the oxide of iron or rust 
 (FcjOs), the red oxide of lead (PhbO,), the red oxide 
 of mercury (HgO), are Insoluble in water, but soluble 
 in acids. 
 
 BASE-LINE. — In gunnery, a line traced around the 
 gun in rear of the vent ; also the measured line used 
 to obtain ranges by triangulation. In military tactics 
 the bane-line is the line on which all the magazines 
 and means of supply of an army are established. It 
 also means the line on which troops in column move. 
 BASE OF OPERATIONS.— In all military operations 
 of a general character, and which come under the 
 head of strategj-, three principal things are noticeable 
 and demand consideration ; these are the line from 
 which the army starts in commencing its onward 
 movements ; the point which it aims to attain ; and 
 the line which it is obliged to pa.ss over to reach tliis j 
 point. The tirst of these is termed the base of opera- 
 tions ; the second, the objective or objective point ; the 
 third, the line of ojxrations. When maintaining a ' 
 strictly defensive attitude, the base of operations be- ! 
 comes what is termed the line of defense, and in a 
 backward movement the line of operations becomes 
 the line of retreat. The base of operations should be 
 a series of points ha%-ing the properties of military 
 strength, as the supplies of the army for its onward 
 movements are collected upon it ; and it should have 
 commodious lines of communication leading from it 
 to the objective. If these strong points lie upon any 
 natunil obstacle, as a river without fords, a rugged 
 mountainous chain, swamps, or thick primeval for- I 
 ests, and have an ea.sy communication between them, 
 the ba.se is all the better, from the difficulties which 
 a line of this character offers to the enterprises of the 
 enemy in case of being thrown on the defensive. A 
 base of some extent is better than a short one. because 
 ouore latitude is given to operate against the enemy, 
 
 and, if obliged to retire upon it, there is less chance of 
 being separated from it by the enemy gaining our rear. 
 Should it consist of a single city, for example, with but 
 one line of operations from it, t)y seizing on tlus line 
 the enemy might cut off the army from all supplies 
 and reinforcements. The outline which the base as- 
 sumes is far from tx-ing a matter of indifference. If it 
 is concave towards the enemy, or has its two ends rest- 
 ing upon any natural impa.ssable obstacle Ijing in 
 advance of the general line, the army moving from 
 it will find greater .security for its wings than in a 
 case where the b.ase is either generally convex 
 towards the enemy, or presents a salient point to 
 him. When an army moves to a considerable dis- 
 tance beyond its biise, it will become neecssarj- to 
 take up a new base in advance of the primitive one, 
 in order to have its depots, from which it has to draw 
 its supplies of every description, nearer at hand. 
 This new line is tenned a secondary base of operations. 
 It should pos.sess the same military properties as the 
 primitive base, and art should supply whatever 
 nature may be found deficient in for tliis purjiose, 
 in order that everjthing collected for the army on it 
 may be secure. If prudence points out the necessity 
 of taking up new bases as the army advances fur- 
 ther into an enemy's country, it does not follow that 
 the army should be detained to organize them on a 
 suitable footing. This task is devolved on a body of 
 troops left behind for this purpose, who, with the re- 
 inforcements sent forward, occupy the fortified places 
 on the new line, erect new field-works, establish mag- 
 azines, etc., while the army pursues its march to 
 profit by its first successes. When the secondary 
 base is not parallel to the primitive one, that end of 
 it which is most advanced should be strengthened by 
 every aeces.sorj' means, as it is the one most exposed 
 to the enemy's attacks. The other end, though less 
 exposed, from its retired position, also affords less 
 support to the army in advance. An oblique base 
 affords the advantage of threatening the communica- 
 tions and base of the enemy without exposing our 
 o^Ti. The base of operations can .seldom be a sub- 
 ject of doubt in a foreign wiu", as it necessarily lies 
 on that portion of the frontier next to the enemy. 
 The only question that can arise is at what point of 
 the frontier it will be best to advance against the 
 enemy. It is here that a consideration of the general 
 outline of the base comes up. Is it concave, or makes 
 to some extent a re-entering angle, the army then in 
 advancing will find both its rear and wings securely 
 supported. Is it strongly convex, or offers a .salient 
 angle, it has the advantage, by assembling our army 
 towards the apex of the angle, of keeping the enemy 
 in doubt as to which side we will adopt for our ba.se, 
 and thus forcing him to distribute his forces on an 
 arc of which we occupy the center. But even should 
 he concentrate on one point, we have still the resource 
 of threatening him on one side, so as to draw his 
 attention there, while by the shortest line we throw 
 ourselves on the ojjposite one. This convex form is 
 then decidedly advantageous on the opening of a 
 campaign ; but, in case of reverse, it may lead to our 
 separation from our base. The inverse holds for the 
 concave base. There can seldom, if ever, be an equal- 
 ity of choice between two frontiers as a base of oper- 
 ations ; one will necessjirily offer preponderating ad- 
 vantages over the other, which will cause its adop- 
 tion, and it is upon this one that all our means of 
 attack must lie brought together. It is a grave fault 
 to pursue a double offensive, in starting at the sjmie 
 time from two bases. It is much better to stand 
 strictly on the defensive on one of the frontiers, .so 
 that by accumulating more troops on the other we 
 may increase our chances of success. It is a rare 
 thing thai we arrive at a satisfactory result by divid- 
 ing our forces ; and the same reasons which render 
 double lines of operation dangerous are equally 
 against attempting a double offensive. We should, 
 on the contrar3'. concentrate our efforts as much as 
 we can, in order that the advantages we obtain may
 
 BASE OF THE BREECH. 
 
 148 
 
 BASHFOBTH CHBONOOBAPH. 
 
 be decisive ; and they must nlwa.vs V)e more so on the 
 prepondenitini: fniiiticr llian on ilii' olbtr ; it is uynm 
 the fonner, therefore, tliat we sliould aet with the 
 most vigor, [holdiiij; hack from thi- otlier all thai is 
 not indispfiisjilili- to the defrnsive ; as upon the field 
 of hattle we refuse i>ne wiiij;, ilniwiiig from il trcKips 
 to strt'ngthen the one eniniged, and upon which we 
 count for victory. See hue of Operations and Ob- 
 jtctift' P'titil, 
 
 BASE OF THE BREECH.— In gunnery, the rear 
 surface of the lirceeh of a c:im. See Pitct. 
 
 BASE-RING. — A project mg band of metal ad join- 
 ins; the base of the breech, and connected with the 
 IxkIv of the gun by a concave moldin". It .series 
 as a" pt)int of "support for the brecchsiglit, and rests 
 upon the head of the elevating-screw. The ring is 
 omitted in guns of recent moiiel. See Caiijum. 
 
 BASHAW.— A Turkish title of honor given to 
 Viceroys, Provincial Governors, Gcnends, and other 
 (iisliiiguisheil public men. The term Bashaw is also 
 used to characterize a man of an arrogant and domi- 
 neering dispo.silioii. 
 
 BASHI-BAZOUKS.— Inegular troopers in the pay of 
 the Sultan. Very few of "them are Europeans ; they 
 are mostly Asiatics, from some or other of the Pasha- 
 lics m Asiatic Turkey. They are wild, turbulent 
 men, ready to enter tlie Sultan's service under some 
 leader whom they can understand, and still more 
 ready to plunder whenever an opportunity offers. 
 During the Russo- Turkish war of 18.54, etc., tliey had 
 miuiy encounters with the enemy in that kind of ir- 
 regular warfare which the Russians intrust to Cossack 
 horsemen ; l)ut the peaceful villagers had almost as 
 much distrust of the Bashi-bazouks as of the Rus- 
 sians. When the British Government resolved, 
 in 18.5.5, to take into pay a Turkish contingent, 
 to aid in the operations of the war, a Corps of 
 Bitshi-bazouks wsts put in charge of an Indian 
 officer, but the tjisk of reducing them to dis- 
 cipline was not completed when the war ended. 
 Their ferocity was exhibited in the Servian war, 
 but most relentlessly in the massacre of Uatak, 
 where, in May lH7(i, under Achmet Agha, they 
 slew over 100(3 defenseless Bulgarians in a church 
 in which thev sought refuge. 
 
 BASHFORTH CHRONOGRAPH.— Professor Bash- 
 forth of the Artillery School, Woolwich, England, 
 hats made extensive experiments to determine the re- 
 sistance of the air to the motion of ritle-projectilcs, 
 with a chronograph of his own invention. A general 
 view of his instrument is given in Fig. 1. 
 
 The fiy-whcel, A, is capable of revolving about a 
 vertical axis, and cjtrrying with it the cylinder, K, 
 which is covered with prepared paper for the recep- 
 tion of the clock and screen records. The length of 
 the cylinder is 12 or 14 niches, and the diameter 4 
 inches. B is a toothed wheel which gears with the 
 ■wheel-work, M, so as to allow the spring, CD, to be 
 slowly unwrapped from its drum. The other end of 
 CD, being attached to the platform, S, allows it to 
 descend slowly along the slide, L, about i inch for 
 each revolution of tlic cylinder. E, E' are electro- 
 magnets ; d, d' arc frames supporting the keepers ; 
 and/,/" are the ends of the springs, which act again.st 
 the attraction of the electromagnets. AVhen the cur- 
 rent is interrupted ia one circuit, as E, the magnet- 
 ism of the electro-magnet is destroyed, the spring, /, 
 carries back the keeper, which by means of the arm, 
 a, gives a blow to the lever, b. Thus the marker, 
 m, is made to depart from the uniform spiral it was 
 describing. When the current is restored, the keeper 
 is attracted, and thus the marker, in, is brought back, 
 which continues to trace its spiral as if nothing had 
 happene<l. E' is connected with the clock, and its 
 marker, m' , records the seconds. E is connected 
 with the .screen, and records the pas,sage of the pro- 
 jectile through the screens. By comparing the marks 
 made by in, m', the exact velocity of the projectile 
 can be calculated at all points of its course. The 
 slide, L, is fixed parallel to F, and the cylinder, K, 
 
 by the brackets, G, H. Y is a screw for drawing 
 Imck the wheel-work, M ; and J, a stop to regulate 
 the distance between M and B. The depression of 
 the lever, h, raises the two springs, «, which act as 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 levers, and bring the diamond points, m, m', down 
 upon the paper. When an experiment is to be made, 
 care is taken to see that the two currents are com- 
 plete. The fly-wheel, A, is set in motion by hand, 
 so as to make about three revolutions in two seconds. 
 The markers, m, m' , are brought down upon the 
 paper, and after four or five beats of the clock tlie 
 signal to fire is given, so that in about ten seconds 
 the experiment is completed, and the instrument is 
 ready for another. The pendulum of a half-seconds 
 clock strikes once, each double-beat, a very liglit 
 spring, and so interrupts the galvanic current in E' 
 once a second. 
 
 ^^S^^ 
 
 Fio. i 
 
 Fig. 2 gives the details of the screen. It repre- 
 sents a piece of board 1 inch thick and 6 or 7 inches 
 wide, and rather larger than the width of the screen 
 to be formed. Transverse grooves are cut at equal 
 distances, something less tlian tlie diameter of the 
 projectile. Staples of hard brass spring-wire are
 
 BASHKIBS. 
 
 149 
 
 BASSDBUM. 
 
 ■fixed with their prongs in the continuation of the 
 grooves. Pieces of sheet-copper, a, c, e, are provided, 
 having two elliptical holes, the distance of whose 
 centers equals the distance of the grooves. The pieces 
 of copper are used to connect each wire staple, b, d,f, 
 with its neighbor on each side. These copper con- 
 nections hold down the wire springs, which, when 
 free, are in contact with the tops of the holes ; but, 
 when properly weighted, they rest on the lower edges 
 of the holes. Thus the coi)i)er, e, forms a connection 
 between the staples, h and d ; the copper, e, joins d 
 and/, and so on. A galvanic stream will therefore 
 take the follow"ing course, whether the springs be 
 weighted or unweighted : copper a, brass b ; copper 
 c, brass d ; copper e, brass /, etc. The current will 
 only be interrupted when one or more threads have 
 been cut, and the corresponding spring is flying from 
 the bottom to the top of its hole. About one liftieth 
 of a second is required for the complete registration 
 
 Fia. 3. 
 
 of such an interruption, the spring traversing about 
 half an inch. The shelf. A, is placed for the weights 
 to rest against, partly to prevent them from being 
 carried forward bj' the projectile, but chieflj- to pre- 
 vent the untwisting of the threads which support the 
 weights. The weights used are about 2 lbs. each, 
 and the strength of sewing-cotton for supporting 
 
 were strong and independent and troublesome to their 
 neighbors. In 1556 they voluntarily accepted the 
 supremacy of Russia, and the city of Upha was 
 founded to defend them from the Kirghiz. Three 
 times they rebelled, in l(i7(i, 1707, and 1735, but were 
 reduced "to subjection. They are now divided into 
 thirteen cantons, under the jurisdiction of the Gov- 
 ernor-general of Orenburg. They maintain a mili- 
 tary cordon, escort caravans through the Kirghiz 
 steppes, and are em|)loyed in various other services. 
 They are di\ided into settled and nomadic, the 
 former eliiefly agriculturists, and the latter cattle- 
 raisers. They are hospitable, but suspicious, poor, 
 apt to steal, and e.xiecilingly lazy. They have large 
 heads, .small foreheads, eyes narrow and flat, cars 
 standing straight out, and black hair; but are nniseu- 
 lar and strong, and capable of enduring much labor 
 and privation. They are of limited intellect, and their 
 Mohammedanism is rather a jirofession than a practice. 
 
 BASIL. — Tanned sheep-skin, used for various pur- 
 poses in the arsenal and armory. 
 
 BASILICON. — A name given to an ointment com- 
 posed of yellow wax, black pitch, resin, and olive- 
 oil; hence it was called uiiijucidiim Mra-plmrnmcnm 
 (U'tra plmrmahi, four drugs). The resin, wax, and 
 jiitch are melted together over a slow fire; the oil is 
 tbeu added, and the mixture, while hot, strained 
 through lines. The straining is directed in conse- 
 quence of the impurities which resin often contains. 
 Basilicon ointment, or resin cerate as it is sometimes 
 called, is much used as a gently stimulant applica- 
 tion to blistered surfaces, indolent ulcers, burns, 
 scalds, and chilblain.s, and other accidents of the 
 march and camp. 
 
 0=9= 
 
 li.^ss-drum. 
 
 them is equal to a stress of about 3 lbs., which is 
 sufficient to withstand a toleral)lv strong wind. As 
 the weights arc equal, the threads are kept equally 
 stretched. The arrangement of urnvnn for an experi- 
 ment is shown in Fig. 3. The wires for conveying 
 the galvanic current are like the common telegraph- 
 wires carried on posts, abed e f g h is a continu- 
 ous piece of wire, and the current is made to circu 
 late through the screens. The ends, a, h, arc con- 
 nected with the instrument and Ijattery. The ])ro- 
 jcetile, being fired throiigh the screens, in passing 
 cuts one or more threads at each screen, so that, 
 corresponding to the instant at which the projectile 
 passes each screen, there is an interruption of the 
 galvanic current, and a simultaneous record on the 
 paper. See Cliroiiiixrojii'. 
 
 BASHKIRS— BASHKUKTS.— A people in Orenburg 
 and Perm, Russia, on the slojic and plains of the 
 Ural. They are a mixture of Finns, Tartars, and 
 Ostyaks. Until the arrival of tlie Hungarians, alwut 
 the middle of the thirteenth century," the Bashkirs 
 
 BASILLAED.— An old term for a poniard or dagger. 
 
 BASILISK-BASILISKE. — An ancient piece of 
 ordnance, which was ten feet lon.ir and weighed 7300 
 pounds; so called from its supposed resemblance to 
 the serpent of tliat name, or from its size. 
 
 BASKET-HILT.— The hill of a sword, so made as 
 to contain and guard the whole hand. The tenn 
 " ba.sket" is given to the leather guard round the 
 handle of fencing or single sticks, and the leather of 
 condemned iwuches is often appli<'d to this purjiose. 
 
 BASKET-WORK.— In fortification, work mvohing 
 the interweaving of witlie* and stakes: such as 
 wicker-work, randing, wattling, waling-gahions, fas- 
 cines. Iiurdl<<. etc. 
 
 BASLARD.— A short sword or dagger, worn in the 
 fift<'cntli centurv. 
 
 BASSART.— An arm-guard worn by knights and 
 soldiers in the Middle Ages. 
 
 BASS-DRUM.— .V very large drum, beaten at either 
 end, and used chieflv in military bands. The inven- 
 tion of the drum in this form is "ascribed to Bacchus,
 
 BASSINET. 
 
 150 
 
 BASTILE. 
 
 ■who, ncconling to Polvgocnus, gave his signal of 
 battle by cviiibal ami drum. It wa.-;, however, 
 known i'u vt-rj- early ages, and in some rude form 
 ainoiiL.' iilniosi all nations. 
 
 BASSINET.— The i>aii of the arquebus. The prim- 
 ing is placiHl in the IxisgiiDt and covered by another 
 plate oiUed the courrt-lHisgiiitt. 
 
 BASSOON.— A wi-llknown wind-instnmient of the 
 rtrd species, made of niaple-wt)od or plane-tree. The 
 ha-ssoou is an Italian invention; its name, fagotto, 
 mean'mg a htiiidk, prol)iibly from its being made in 
 different pieces laid one "against the other. The 
 French call it lm»iion dc liaiitboin; the Germans retain 
 its Italian name. Its invention is attributed to 
 C'anonicus Afnuiio, in Ferrani, in 1539. In Uie mid- 
 dle of the si.xtceuth century it had already reached 
 great jierfeclion. Sigmund ScUnitzer, in Nurem- 
 berir. who died in l.JTtj, was a celebrated maker. 
 The bas-soon consists of a bored-out tube of wood in 
 several pieces, fixed together alongside each other, so 
 as to bring the holes ami keys witliiu the reach of the 
 lingers of each hand. The bassoon has, in general, 
 not less than eight holes and ten keys. In the narrow 
 end of the wooden tube is fixed a small tapering 
 brass tube in tlie form of an S, on the end of which 
 is placed the reed for producing the tone. The 
 notes for the bassoon are wTitten on the bass clef for 
 the lower part, and on the tenor clef for the higher. 
 The best keys for the bassoon are E flat, B flat, F, C, 
 
 ^^^^mm 
 
 both in England and Scotland, is comparatively of 
 modern uivenlion, natural children in earlier times 
 not having Ikcu ])ermitted to assume the arms or 
 even the "names of their fathers. "The unlawful 
 children of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, be- 
 got on Katharine, daughter of Sir Payen Hoat Guyn, 
 King of Arms, did not carry the arms of their father 
 the king, though nobilitate," with a baton-sinister, as 
 now used; . . . but after the legitimation of these 
 three natural sons by Act of 
 
 } Parliament, they then a.s- 
 sumed the sovereign en- 
 signs of England, within a 
 bordure gobbonaled argent 
 and a/.ure." According to 
 the practice of France, 
 which probably was fol- 
 lowed in England also, the 
 bastard could not cancel 
 
 ! or alter the baton without 
 
 j the consent of the chief of 
 
 I the family or the authority 
 
 ; of the sovereign. Even 
 where the baton was not re- 
 moved, it was common lor 
 the sovereign to grant his 
 permis.sion to cany it dexter, in place of sinister. 
 Charles VII. of France allowed John, the Bastard of 
 Orleans, for his valor against the English, to turn his 
 
 Earl of Murray's Arms. 
 
 ^ >■ '1^! 
 
 Bassoon. 
 
 G, D, and A; all the other keys are more or less diffi- 
 cult. For military bands there are different sizes of 
 bassoons— one a fovirth lower; another, tlie contra 
 B, an octave lower; and a third, the tenor B, a fifth 
 higher — all of the same construction. The best 
 instruction books for the bas.soon are by Almenrii- 
 der, Frohlich, Ozi, and by the Paris Conservatorium. 
 Bassoon is also the name "of an organ-stop, the pipes 
 of which are made to imitate the tones of the mstru- 
 ment. 
 
 BASTABS. — An ancient piece of ordnance of about 
 8 pounds caliber, 9A feet long, and weighing 19.5t) 
 povmds. It was invented by Jean llanrique de Lard, 
 Ma.ster-general of Ordnance under Charles V. of 
 France, in l.")3.5. He also had several bastards cast of 
 a larger caliber. This term was also applied to gtms 
 of an unusual make or proportion, whether longer or 
 shorter. 
 
 BASTAKD BAR. — In popidar speech we frequently 
 hear of a hin'-niiihtir, as a mark of bastardy. But a 
 bar-sinister, strictly speaking, is an impossibility, in- 
 asmuch as the bar is not formed of diagonal liut 
 of horizontal lines. A lniidKiniskr. which by the 
 French is called a bar, has with more reason been 
 confused with the true mark of illegitunacy, and has 
 on that account tieen av<iideil even by heralds. But 
 the real bastard bar dilTers ver}' essentially from the 
 bend-sinister, iH'ing half of the scarp, which again is 
 half of the bend-sinister. " The half of 
 the scarp." says Nisbet, " with the Eng- 
 lish is called a Batton-sinister; by the 
 French, Haston-sinister; it is never car- 
 ried in arms but as a mark of illegili- 
 nialion, commonly called the Bastard- 
 ban'." Ir. modern ])raclice the baton 
 does not touch the extremities of the 
 shield, or of the (piarler in which the paternal anns 
 are placed, but is roiijud — that is, cut short at the 
 ends. In this form the baton, when usi'd as a mark 
 of illegitimacy, is placed over the paternal coat of 
 the basUird, whether used singly or in a quartered 
 shield. Nisbct informs us that the baton-sinister. 
 
 Bastaril Bar. 
 
 sinister traverse to the dexter, ■nith which he and his 
 issue afterivards bruised the anns of Orleans, as 
 dukes of Longueville. The same privilege was 
 granted to James, Earl of Murrav, natural son of 
 Kin.ir James V. of Scotland, by his .sister Queen Jlary, 
 and he thenceforth carried the Lion and tre-ssure of 
 Scotland thus braised, quartered with the feudal 
 arms of the earldom of Murray. The general prac- 
 tice of the milder heraldry of our own day is to sub- 
 stitiitc the gol)l)onated bordure for the bastard bar, 
 not (■Illy in the case of the legitimate children of 
 bastards, but of liastards themselves. 
 
 BASTARD-CULVERIN.— A cannon of the French 
 artillery, under Henry II., carrying a projectile 
 weiij-hing 7 pounds 21 ounces. 
 
 BAST ARDEAir.— The small knife often seen on the 
 sheath of the ii mince. 
 
 BASTARD FILE.— A file much used in the armory, 
 of a grade between the roiir//i and the smooth, in re- 
 spei't of the relative prominence and coarseness of 
 the teeth. The order is as follows: rough, middle- 
 cut, bastard, second-cut, smooth, and dead-smooth. 
 The angle of the chisel in cutting the bastard file is 
 about 10" from the perjiendicular. The number of 
 cuts to the inch varies with the length of the file in 
 inches. 
 
 Inches 4 6 8 13 16 20 
 
 Cuts 76 64 .56 48 44 34 
 
 See File. 
 
 BASTEENA.— The basterna of the Romans -was a 
 litter orsjiecies of sedan, carried by two mules, differ- 
 ing from the lectica in that the latter was borne by 
 slaves. The name is derived from a people of the 
 Car|)alliian Mountains, and was afterwards applied 
 to a species of ox-cart or wagon used by th e early 
 kings of France. The name survives in a modem 
 Euroiiean carriage. 
 
 BASTIDE.— In ancient times, a bastion, a block- 
 house, a fortress, or other fortification. 
 
 BASTILE— BASTILLE.— In France, a general term 
 for a strong fortress defended by towers or bastions, 
 and in this sense it was used in England also after
 
 BASTINADO. 
 
 151 
 
 BASTION. 
 
 the Norman Conquest. The famous prison to which 
 the name latterly was appropriated was originally 
 the Castle of Paris, and was built by order of Charles 
 
 Bastile. 
 v., between 1370 and 1383, by Hugo Aubriot. Pre- 
 vot or Provost of Pjiris, at the Porte St. Antoine, as 
 a defense against the English. Afterwards, when it 
 came to be used as a State Prison, it was provided, 
 during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, with 
 vast bulwarks and ditches. On each of its longer 
 sides the Bastile had four towers, of five stories each, 
 over which there ran a gallery, which was armed 
 with camion. It was partlv in these towers and 
 partly in cellars under the level of the ground that 
 the prisons were situated. The unfortunate inmates 
 of these abodes were so effectually removed from the 
 world without as often t« be entirely forgotten, and 
 in some eases it was found impossible to discover 
 either their origin or the cause of their incarceration. 
 The Bastile was capable of containing TO to 80 
 prisoners, a number frequently reached during the 
 reigns of Louis XI\'. and Louis XV. Though small 
 compared to the number which an ordinary prison 
 contains, these numliers were considerable when we 
 reflect that they rarely consisted of persons of the 
 lower ranks, or such as were guiltj- of actual crimes, 
 but of those who were sacrificed to political despot- 
 ism, court intrigue, ecclesiastical tvrannj', or had fal- 
 len victims to family quarrels, and were lodged here 
 in virtue of kttres-de-cachet — noblemen, authors, 
 savans, priests, and publishers. On the 14th of 
 July, 1789, the fortress was surroimdcd by an armed 
 mob, which the reactionary policy of the Court had 
 driven into furv, and to tlie number of which every 
 moment added. The garrison consisted of 83 old 
 soldiers and 32 Swiss. The negotiations which were 
 entered into with the Governor led to no other result 
 than the removal of the cannon pointed on the 
 Faubourg St. Antoine, which by no means con- 
 tented the exasperated multitude. Some cut 
 the chains of the first drawbridge, and a con- 
 test took place, in which one of the besieged 
 and 1.50 of the people were killed, or severely 
 wounded; but the an-ival of a portion of the 
 troops which had already joined the people 
 v\1th four field-pieces turned the fortune of the 
 conflict in favor of the besiegers. Delaunay, 
 the Governor — who had been prevented by one 
 of his officers, when on the point of blowing 
 the fortress into the air — permitted the .second 
 drawbridge to be lowered, and the peo])le 
 rushed in, killing Delaunay himself and several 
 of his officers. The destruction of the Ba.s- 
 tile commenced on the following day, ami<l the 
 thunder of cannon and the pealing of the Te 
 Deum. This event, in itself apparently of no great 
 moment, leading only to the release of three unknown 
 prisoners — one of wht)m had been its tenant for 
 thirty years — and four forgers, and in which it is 
 said only the 6.^4 persons whose names now appear on 
 the column in the Place de la Bastille took part, 
 nevertheless finally broke the spirit of the Court 
 Party, and changed the current of events in France. 
 BASTINADO.— The name given by Europeans to 
 the pvmishment in use over" the whole East, which 
 consists in blows with a stick, generally upon the 
 soles of the feet, but sometimes upon the back. 
 
 BASTION.— The precise period that the bastioned 
 .system of fortification appeared is not known, but it 
 is generally conceded to have appeared about the 
 time that gunpowder was first used for military pur- 
 poses. The bastions constructed in LIS.") in Verona 
 are among the oldest known. The improvements 
 made in siege-artillery towards the end of the six- 
 teenth century caused Sully, the Prime Minister of 
 France, Grand-master of Artillery and Superintendent 
 of Portiticatious, to take me;tsures to modify and 
 strengthen the fortitications then existing in France, 
 llis tirst step was to take them out of the hands of 
 those who had them in keeping, and to put them in 
 the charge of a select body of men, who had mili- 
 tary experience, education, and knowledge of con- 
 struction. From this body of men we tlate the origin 
 of the French Corps of Engineers, and this period 
 may be regarded as the l3Cginning of the bastioned 
 system in France. The noted military engineers, 
 l^rranl, of Bar le Due, De Ville, aim Count de 
 Pagan, were successively charged with these modifi- 
 cations and left their impress upon the works in- 
 trusted them. They were followed by Vauban, and 
 he by Cormontaigne. Although modifications have 
 lieen maile in the bastioned system since the time of 
 Cormontaigne, we can safely say that its essential 
 basis is that of his method. A knowledge of the 
 bastioned system would not be complete without an 
 acquaintance with his method and those of Vauban. 
 
 A bastioned enceinte consists of a series of bas- 
 tions, A, B, etc., which occupy the salient angles of 
 the polygon within which the enceinte is inclosed; the 
 flanks of the bastions being usually connected by 
 straight curtains. The sides of the polygon which 
 connect the salient angles of the bastions are termed 
 the crterior sides, in contradistiiietion to the sides of 
 an interior polygon which, being parallel to the first 
 and occupying the positions of the curtains, are 
 termed thL-'uiUriov siihs. The [lolygon may be regu- 
 lar or irngular. The bastioned enceinte, when its 
 relli'f and plan are suitabh- arranged, possesses the ad- 
 vantage of having its ditches thoroughly swept from 
 within the enceinte itself, thus securing the flanking 
 arrangement of the scarp; of bringing a cross and 
 flank Are to bear upon the approaches on the sjilients 
 of the enceinte; and furnishing a strong direct and 
 cross fire upon the site in advance of the curtains and 
 the faces of the bastions. 
 
 It is not safe to base the flankmg an-angements 
 solely upon artillery. The fire of musketry is more 
 
 A. B.— Bastions. 
 EF— Exterior side. 
 N*.>.— Interior side. 
 PQ.— Perpendicular. 
 EI.— Face. 
 IK.-Flanlc. 
 
 KL.— Ciirtain. 
 
 EL.— Line of defense. 
 SEI.— Salient-angle. 
 EIK, — Slioiilfierangle. 
 IKL.—Cnrtain angle. 
 lEP.— Diminished angle. 
 
 deadly and more effective, and upon it these arrange- 
 ments are based. Its effective range, the ordinary 
 limits of distinct vision, and the skill in using this 
 arm are all to be considered. Supposing the enemy 
 able to gain a position within .'50 yards of the salient, 
 he should there be within range of the maskctry- 
 fire of the flanks. With the improved arms of 
 the present time, we mav a.ssume this distance to be 
 300 yards. The musketry may be supplemented by 
 Gatling guns, or other invenlions of the same nature, 
 but the basis of the flanking arrangements must be 
 the arm used by the infantry soldier.
 
 BASTIONED F0BT8. 
 
 152 
 
 BASTIONED LIITE. 
 
 The position of the flank will varj- between the 
 limits, a pcriH'nilicular to the curtain, anil a i)erix'n- 
 dieular to the opiHjsite face let fall from the i>oint 
 where the curtain intersects the line of defense. A 
 position internii'Uiate to these has been generally 
 adoptcti; inmost aises, placing /A<.;?/ihA*>(M /<* »wto' 
 aiianglf of iihoiit \00' with (he curtain. The length 
 should Ix'" sutlieient to allow it to be armed with at 
 leivst two pie<es of artillery; this will ilelorraiue the 
 least length of Hank. It inay be increased beyond 
 this, to any extent demanded by the circumstances of 
 the defense. From the effect had in so doing to in- 
 crease the length of curtain and to dimini.sh the in- 
 terior spjiee in the biustion, the vMJcimiim kngtti has 
 been restricted to 50 t/drih. 
 
 The face of the bastion is usually directed on the 
 curtain-angle. In this case the entire tire of the 
 flank am l)e brought to l)ear on the enceiute-diteh 
 along the foot of the scarp-wall of the face. Cir- 
 cumstances may require a dilTerent position : direct- 
 ing it on some point on the curtain, or on some point 
 ori the flank. With the advantages gained there \vill 
 be corresiHmdingdis;idvaiitages. Their relative values 
 will decide it. The relative positions of the curtain, 
 flanks, and lines of defense, and their respective 
 lengths affect the length of the faces. If the line of 
 defense is equal only to the distance between the 
 curtain-angle and opposite shoidder-an^le, the corre- 
 sponding length of face will be zero; if the curtain 
 and the flanks have their least and the line of de- 
 fense its greatest length, the resulting face will be the 
 longest that we can have. 
 
 BASTIONED FOBTS. — The bostioned fort has 
 been devised to remedy defective flanked disposi- 
 tions. It may cou.sist of a polygon of any number 
 of sides, but for tield-forts the square and pentagon 
 arc generally preferred. To plan a work of this 
 
 kind, a squsirc or jientagon is first laid out, and 
 the sides bisected by perpendiciUars, HI; a distance, 
 GH, of one eighth of a side in a square (one 
 seventh in a pentagon) is .set off on the perpen- 
 diculars; from tlie angular jjoinis of the polygon, 
 lines DA, C'F are drawn llirough the points thus 
 set off : these lines give the direction of the lines 
 of defense; from the salients of the polygon, dis- 
 tances equal to two .sevenths of a side are set oif on 
 the directions of the lines of defense, which give the 
 faces; from the extremities of the faces the flanks 
 are drawn perpendicular to, or making an angle of 
 110 will), the lines of defense; the extremities of the 
 flanks are eoimected by curtains. C'l>. 
 
 In deciding on the general plan to be carried out, 
 the following considerations require attention: the 
 object the work is exiweted to fullill, and its .situation 
 with respect to the enemy; whether it is likely to be 
 attacked by overwhelming forces; whether artillery 
 is likely to be brought against it, or iidantry, anil 
 whethei it can be surrounded; the nuinl)er of men 
 there will be for its defense, observing that it is belter 
 to have a force concentrated, and that it is therefore 
 injudicious to make works of a greater extent than 
 
 can \k well manned and vigorously defended. An- 
 other consideration that must not Ix' omitted is the 
 number of men that can be collected for working, 
 whether they are one's own men or inhabitants, and 
 whether there are tools enough and time enough to 
 do it. 
 
 An examination of the arrangement of a bastioned 
 front will show that there are neither dead-angles 
 nor sectors without Are; that the salients, and all the 
 ground within the range of tire, are protected by 
 formiilable cohnnns of direct, flank, and cross fire. 
 There is one point in this system that demands par- 
 ticular attention, which is, that the counterscarp of 
 the ditch, if laid out parallel to the interior crest, 
 would form a dead-an^lc along each face near the 
 shoulder; because the hre of the flank would be in- 
 tercepted by the crest of the counterscarp. To jire- 
 vent this, either the counterscarps of the faces must 
 be prolonged to intersect, and all earth between them 
 and the scarp of the flanks and curtain be excavated, 
 or the ditch of each face must be inclined up in a 
 slope from the bottom, opposite the shoulder, so that 
 it can be swept by the Are of the flank. The first 
 method is the best, but requires most labor; the 
 second is chiefly objectionable as it gives an easy 
 access to the ditch, which might be taken advantage 
 of in an as.sault. It is proposed, to obviate this, to 
 dig a second ditch at the foot of the slope across the 
 main ditch, twelve feet wide and about six feet deep; 
 to make it pointed at the bottom, and to plant a row 
 of palisades in it. 
 
 Forts have been proposed with half -bast ions, but, 
 being very little superior to the redoubt and much 
 more difficult of construction, they ought never to be 
 used. The exterior sides of the bastioned fort should 
 not exceed 250 yards, nor be less than 125 yards, 
 otherwise the flanking arrangements, with the smooth- 
 bore musket in the former case, and the flanks too 
 short ill the latter, will be imperfect. With a relief 
 of twenty-four feet, which is the greatest that, in 
 most cases, can be given to field-works, and an ex- 
 terior side of 250 yards, the ditch of the curtaiu will 
 be perfectly swept by the tire of the flanks, the lines 
 of defense will be nearly 180 yards, a length which 
 admits of a good defense, and the flanks will be 
 nearly thirty yards. With a relief of fourteen feet, 
 the least that will present a tolerable obstacle to an 
 assauh, and an exterior side of 125 yards, the ditch 
 of the curtain will be well flanked, the flanks will 
 be nearly twenty yards in length, and the faces be- 
 tween thirty and forty yards. "Between these limits, 
 the dimensions of the exterior side must vary with 
 the relief. See Fartilication. 
 
 BASTIONED LINE.— Owing to the imperfect flank- 
 ing ariaiigements of other lines, it has been pro- 
 posed to use bastioued lines. They are laid out by 
 placing the .salients 250 yards apart, and making the 
 perpendicular of the front equal to one .sixth. 
 
 Another an-angement of the bastioned line, shown 
 in the drawing, has double flanhi. The .salients, in 
 this ca.sc. should be between 400 and 500 yards apart. 
 The drawing explains itself. 15}' this arrangement 
 there are fewer assailable points on the s;inie front; 
 one of the bastions is placed in a strong re-entering; 
 and the salients of the advanced bastions are pro- 
 tected by the flank fire of the collateral advanced 
 bastion, and also of the retired bastion. The prin- 
 cipal objection to the bastioned line is its great devel- 
 opment, and the con.sequent increase of labor and 
 time for its construction. This objection, however, 
 does not a|iply to a front of limited extent where the 
 flanks of the line rest upon natural features like un- 
 f'ordalile water-courses, or upon an impassable marsh 
 which will prevent the line from being turneil. 
 
 Continued lines are not suited to an active defense; 
 and this is a gmve objection to their use. Moreover, 
 from the great dissemination of the troops over a 
 long ilefeiisive line, the resistance at all ]ioints will 
 be weak, and if one point is carried the rest of the 
 line is taken in flank. Besides, the main reserve
 
 BASTIONET. 
 
 153 
 
 BATH. 
 
 being at the center, the flanks may fail to receive 
 timely succor if attacked. The enemy, if repulsed 
 by their tire, can retreat in good order, and renew 
 the iissiiult at a more opportune moment; because the 
 assjiiled, if they attempt a sortie, must defile through 
 narrow outlets, and present a fec'ole front to the 
 
 mental books, the kettles, the tents, the medicine- 
 chest, the veterinary medicine - chest, intrenching- 
 tools, armorers' stores, saddlers' stores, etc. — about 
 twenty such horses or mules to each battalion. Bat- 
 horses and bat-men are also provided lor carrying 
 officers' camp-equipage. An allowance for procur- 
 
 CE-iAB.CP'iAB 
 AF-^AB.CHiH£ 
 
 Bastioned Line. 
 
 enemy during the operation of defiling. They are, | 
 however, the best defensive means for irregular 
 troops, owing to the confidence which tliey inspire. 
 They also serve to guard against a surprise, and to 
 prevent the predatory excursions of small detach- 
 ments of the enemy. See Lines. 
 
 BASTIONET. — A" small bastion in masonry, either 
 casemated or open and placed at the salient of a 
 work. When casemated, the masonry should be 
 covered bv the srlacis. 
 
 BASTION-FACE CUT.— The object of this cut is 
 similar to the one in the demilune face; it confines 
 the enemy to (he salient part of the bastion, prevent- 
 ing him from extending his works along the bastion 
 terre-plein, to turn the cavalier by its gorge; so that 
 to obtain possession of this work he mvist make a 
 breach in its face. The arrangement of the ditch of 
 the cavalier frequently subjects only a part of it to 
 the fire of the parapet behind the cut. This dead 
 .space might offer some advantages were the enemy 
 to attempt to caiTy the parapet of the cut by esca- 
 lade. To remedy this defect, it has been proposed to 
 place a crenated gallery behind the scarp-wall of the 
 cut, to flank the entire ditch. By placing the door 
 of the postern that leads into the cavalier-ditch at 
 the ixiint where the vertical wail separates the two 
 levels, it will be partially covered from the enemy's 
 lodgment on the bastion terre-plein. The disposition 
 of the cavalier and cuts within the bastion does not 
 leave sufficient space upon the terre-plein of the lat- 
 ter to organize a covered-way. But in the retrench- 
 ments of open bastions, resting on the flanks or cur- 
 tains, to which the form of a tcnaille or .small has- 
 tioned front is given, a covered-way, with a re- 
 entering place-of-arms closed by traverses, can be 
 organized, which will give considerable additional 
 confidence and security in the defense of the breach 
 in the bastion with the bayonet. The organization 
 of these covered-ways presents no peculiarity. They 
 sho\dd, as far as practicable, be defiled "from the 
 oesieger's lodgments within the bastion assailed. See 
 Dcmi-bine Gut. 
 
 BASTON. — 1. A formidable club which was used 
 as a war-chib in the early Norman liattles. It was 
 not an unusual weapon at that period, and seems to 
 have been the precursor of the iron mace of the Mid- 
 dle Ages. 
 
 'i. fn Heraldry, a staff or cudgel generally borne 
 jis a mark of bastardy, and properly containing one 
 eighth in breadth of the bend-sinister. 
 
 BAT. — The name of a kind of pack-saddle; and 
 lieuce a bat-horse was a baggage-horse bearing a bat 
 or pack, and a bat-man was a servant in charge of 
 the horse and bat. By a modification of meaning, a 
 bat-man is now any soldier allowed to act as servant 
 to an officer. When British troops are sent on 
 foreign service, l)at-horses or mtiles are provided (if 
 carriugcs are not forthcoming) for carrying the regi- 
 
 ing these accommodations is usually called bat- 
 monev. 
 
 BATAGE.— The time emploj-ed in reducing gun- 
 powder to its proper consistency. The French usu- 
 ally consume 24 hours in pounding the niaierials to 
 make good gunpowder. Supposing the mortar to 
 contain 16 pounds of composition, it would require 
 the application of the jiestle SoOO times each hour. 
 The labor required in this process is less in summer 
 than in winter, because the water is softer. 
 
 BATAILLON DE LA SALADE.— A name formerly 
 given in Prance .to old corps which wore a peculiar 
 kind of helmet called snlnde. 
 
 BATARDEAU. — A strong wall of masonry, built 
 across the outer ditch of a fortress, to susiidn the 
 pressure of water when one part of the ditch is dry 
 and the rest wet. It is built up to an angle at the 
 top, and is armed ■vnX)! spikes, to prevent the enemy 
 from crossing; and sometimes a stone tower is pro- 
 vided to strengthen the defense. There is a sluice- 
 gate to rearulate the admission of water. 
 
 BAT DE MULET.— A pack-siiddlc used in service 
 when mules are emploved to carry stores. Aparejos 
 in the United States "service are used for a similar 
 jiurpose. See Apnrejo. 
 
 BATEAU-BRIDGE.— A floating bridge supported 
 by bateaux or lisht boats. See Ponton. 
 
 BATEAU D'AVANT-GARDE.— A small light boat 
 attached to the advance-guard of an army. It is 3.3 
 feet in Icnath by -5 feet (J inches in breadth. 
 
 BATH.-^The name of the Order of the Knights of 
 the Bath is derived from tlie ceremony of bathing, 
 which used to be 
 practiced at the 
 inauguration of a 
 knight, as an em- 
 bleiii of the puri- 
 ty henceforth re- 
 quired of him by 
 the laws of chiv- 
 alry. The cere- ■^^ 
 mony is of rather 
 unknown antiqui- 
 ty, and is spoken 
 of bj' writers of 
 the thirteenth cen- 
 turj- as a very an- 
 cient custom. 
 The earliest au- star of the BRth. 
 
 thentic instance of . 
 
 its observance which we have is m the tune of 
 Henry IV., who, in preparing for his coronation, 
 made forty-six knights at the Tower ot London 
 who had "watched all the nisiht before, and bathed 
 themselves. The last Knights of the Bath created 
 in the ancient form were at the coronation of Charles 
 II in 1661. From that period till the accession of 
 the House of Hanover, the order fell into oblinon.
 
 BATH0BS£8. 
 
 154 
 
 BATTALION. 
 
 It was revived by George I. in I'm, and is now the 
 second order in muk in England, the first lieinjr the 
 Garter. By the statutes then framed for the jrovern- 
 raeut of the order, it was declared that, besides the 
 Sovereign, a jiriiiee of the blooii, suid a great master, 
 there should be thirty-tive knights. At the conclu- 
 sion of the great \var, it was thought expedient, 
 with a new to rewarding the merits of many distin- 
 guished otflcers, lioth military and naval, to extend 
 the limits of the order, which was effected on the 2d 
 January, 181.'). But the order was still purely mili- 
 tary, aiid it was not till 1847 that it was i)lace(I on 
 its "present footing by the admission of C'i\il Knights, 
 Commanders, and Companions. The following is 
 its present organization: 
 
 FirH CTwji;— Knights Grand Cross (K.G.C.): the 
 number not to exceed, for the military serWce, oO, 
 exclusive of the royal family and foreigners; and for 
 the ciWl service, 25. 
 
 Strond C/dSS — Knights Commanders (K.C.B.); 
 military, 102. and civil, .")0, exclusive of foreigners. 
 These, "like the tirst, have the title Sir, and take pre- 
 cedence of Knights Bachelore. 
 
 TAird Class. — Companions (C.B.); military, 525, 
 and civil, 200. They take precedence of Esquires, 
 but are not entitled to the distinctive appellation of 
 knighthood. No Officer can be nominated to the 
 ndlitarj' division of this class unless his name has 
 been mentioned in the London Gazette for distin- 
 guished ser\ices in action; and the order has never 
 been conferred on an Officer below the rank of a 
 Major, or Commander in the Navy. 
 
 BAT-HORSES. — Baggage horses or mules for car- 
 n.ing olficers' baggsige on service. The ammunition 
 and regimental stores are also so carried when carts 
 are not procurable. 
 
 BAT-MEN. — Originally servants hired in war- 
 time to take care of the horses belonring to a train 
 of artillerj', battery, baggage, etc. Men who are 
 excused regimental duty for the specific purpose of 
 attending to the horses belonging to Officers are also 
 called hat-men or bor-men. 
 
 BATON. — 1. The tigure in Heraldry commonly 
 known as the bastard l)ar. It is variously written 
 Battoon, Batune, and, in old French, Baston. — 2. The 
 name of a short stafi presented by the Sovereign to 
 
 ies, is designated a battalion. For maneuvers the 
 I Ijiittalion is genendly divided into an even number of 
 companies, and the comi)anies are equalized by trans- 
 ferring men from the larger to the smaller. Two 
 companies constitute a division. 
 
 In each l)attalion tliere is a Color-guard, composed 
 of a Color-ser^eimt and seven Corporals, which is post- 
 ed as the left four of the right-center compiuiy. The 
 front rank Is comjiosed of the Color-sergeant and 
 three senior Corporals, one posted on his right and 
 two on his left ; the rear rank is composed of the 
 four remaining Corporals. The Corporals are placed 
 in the order of nmk from right to left. The Color- 
 sergeant and Color-corporals are selected from those 
 most distinguished for bravery, and for precision un- 
 der arms and in marching. The Color-sergeant carries 
 the national color. The regimental color (when pres- 
 ent) is carried by a Sergeant, who lakes the place of 
 the Corporal on tnc left of the Color-sergeant. 
 
 t'osts of FieM-officers and Regimental SUiff. — The 
 Field anil Stsiff Officers are suppo.sed to be mounted 
 during all maneuvers ; the Adjutant is on foot. The 
 Senior Officer present commands the battalion. The 
 Colonel is posted thirty yards in rear of the tile- 
 closers, opposite the center of the battalion. This 
 distance is rediiced as the front of the battalion is 
 diminished. The Lieuienant-colo/wl and Major are 
 on a line twelve yards in rear of the lile-clo.scrs ; the 
 Lieutenant-colonel opposite the center of the right 
 wing, the Major opposite the center of the left wing. 
 The Adjutant and Sergeant-major are opposite the 
 right and left of the battalion, six yards in rear of the 
 file-closers. They aid the Lieutenant-colonel and 
 >Lijor respectively in their duties. At reviews, pa- 
 rades, and inspections, the Adjutant takes post three 
 yards to the right of the front rank of the battalion ; 
 the Seryeant-niajor three yards to the left of the front 
 rank. The Surgeon, Quartermaster, and other Staff- 
 oflicers, in the order of rank from right to left, are on 
 the left of the Colonel, and three yards in his rear. 
 In column Uie Staff marches abreast of the center, on 
 the Hank opposite the guide, and at the sjmie distance 
 from the column as from the file-closers when in line. 
 If the guide be changed, the Staff, unless otherwise 
 directed, passes by the rear of the column to the 
 opposite flank. In line, if the battalion wheels about 
 
 Drum-Major's Baton. 
 
 ^m 
 
 each Field-marshal, as a symbol of his newly be- 
 stowed authority. It is also tlie name of the long 
 staff carried by the Drum-major of a band. See 
 Bastard Bar and Dru/n-major. 
 
 BATTA. — An Indian term implj-ing field-allowan- 
 ces, which were granted formerly to troops in India 
 in adilition to their regimental jjay ; this was called 
 full batta. Halt-batta was half this allowance, and 
 was paid to oHicers serving at the presidency towns, 
 and within 200 miles of them — full batta being given 
 to officers beyond that distance. _ There is no such 
 distinction in name now as halt and fidl batta in tlie 
 pay of the officers, thougli in reality officers of the 
 several Staff Corjis in India onlv receive half-liatta, 
 the difference being made up in their allowances. 
 Officers of British regiments receive full batta wher- 
 ever they may be. 
 
 BATT'ALIA".— The order of battle ; disposition or 
 arrangcnicul of troops, brigades, regiments, t)attal- 
 ions, etc., as for action. Fonnerly the term applied 
 to the main body of an army in array, as distin- 
 guishi'<l from the wings. 
 
 BATTALION.— A body of troops, so called from 
 bring originally a body of men arranged for battle. 
 In the United States army, a regiment of infantry is 
 composed of ten companies. A regiment, or any 
 part of a regiment composed of two or more compan- 
 
 by fours, the Staff, unless otherwise directed, passes 
 around either flank to the new position in rear. In 
 all battalion maneuvers, the Staff moves to its new 
 position, in line or column, by the shortest practica- 
 ble line, not passing between subdivisions. The 
 QiLartermaster-sergcant, Commissary-sergeant , and the 
 Ilospital-sti'ward are in rear of the left-center com- 
 pany In the order of rank from right to left, three 
 yards on the right, and in line with the front rank of 
 the band. In all battalion maneuvers, the Non- 
 commissioned St^iff, except the Sergeant-major, con- 
 forms to the movements of the band. 
 
 Posts of the Bund, ami Trumpeters or Field-music. — 
 The band Is formed in two or more ranks, with suffi- 
 cient interval betwiin the files, and distances between 
 the ranks, to peraill a free use of the instruments. 
 The Trumpeters, If not with their companies, form 
 the rear of the band. When the band is not present, 
 the post of the trumpeters iuul their movements are 
 the same as preserllied for the baud. In line, the 
 band is habllually posted twelve yards in rear of the 
 flie-closers, tlie left opposite the left of the left-center 
 company. At reviews, parades, and inspections, the 
 band is "posted on the riglit of the battalion, the left 
 of its front rank twelve yards from the right of the 
 front rank of the l)attalion. In column, except at re- 
 I view and inspection, the band is twelve yards from.
 
 BATTALION. 
 
 155 
 
 BATTALIOK. 
 
 the center of the column on the flank opposite the 
 guide. If the guide be changed, the hand, unless 
 otherwise directed, pa.«.ses bj- the rear of the column 
 to the opposite Hank. In line, if the battalion wheels 
 about by fours, the band, unless otherwise directed, 
 passes around either Uank to its position in rear. In 
 all battalion maneuvers, the band moves at quick or 
 double time, by the shortest practicable line, to it.s 
 position in line or in column ; the march being so 
 condueteil as not to pass between the subdivisions, 
 nor delay their march. When the signals for the 
 Drum-major are not usod, the band is maneuvered as 
 explained for a .squad, the command hand being sub- 
 stituted for squad. When the battalion in colunm 
 wheels about by fours, the band executes the counter- 
 march ; when the battalion executes the riyht,hft, 
 or nbdutface, the band faces in the siime manner. In 
 marching, the different rimks of .the band always 
 dress to the right. 
 
 A battalion of Cavalry is usually composed of four 
 companies, liut may be composed of a less luunber, 
 or a greater number not exceeding .seven. The inter- 
 val between companies in line is eight yards. In 
 whatever direction the battalion faces, the companies 
 are designateil numerically from the right to the left 
 in line, and from the head to the rear when in 
 column, Jint coiiipnni/, si^otid cowjxi/ti/, imd so on. 
 In whatever direction the battalion faces, the com- 
 panies to the right of the center of the battalion in 
 line constitute the ri[/ht wing; those to the left of the 
 center constitute the left wing. If there be an odd 
 number of companies in line, the center company 
 always belongs to the right wing. 
 
 Posts of Field-ojficfrs, Adjutant, and Sergeant- 
 miijor. — The tScnior Officer present commands the 
 battalion, and in line is thirty yards in front of the 
 center. If there be two Fidd-oflicers present, (lie 
 Jiuiivr, in line, in line of platoon columns, and in line 
 of doulile columns, is twelve yards in rear of the cen- 
 ter of the battalion. If the battalion faces about, the 
 Junior Field-officer passes by the shortest line to his 
 place in rear. In column, the Junior Field-officer is 
 twelve yards from the flank of the column, abreast of 
 the center and on the side of the guide. In marching 
 by the flank of subdivisions, he is twelve yards in 
 rear of the center subdivision. In the maneuvers, the 
 Junior Field-officer assists a.s the Commanding Officer 
 may direct. T/ic Adjutant is on the line of Chiefs of 
 Platoon, and three yards outside of the right flank 
 of the battalion. When the battalion faces about, 
 the Adjutant wheels about and takes his place on the 
 line of Chiefs of Platoon, but does not change to the 
 other flank. The IS(fgi<nit-iuajor is in line with the 
 rank, three yards from the left flank. When the 
 battalion faces at)out, the Sergeant-major wheels 
 alx)ut, and takes his place at the prescribed interval 
 from the rank, but does not chsmge to the other 
 flank. 
 
 A battalion of Artillery consists of any nimiber of 
 batteries from two to five. The interval between 
 batteries in line is twenty-eight yards. In horse-bat- 
 ttriis the interval is thirty-six yards. In whatever 
 direction the battalion faces, the batteries are desig- 
 nated numerically from the right to the left in line, 
 and from the head to the rear when in column, first 
 battery, eeeond batterg, and so on. In whatever direc- 
 tion the battalion faces, the batteries to the right of 
 the center of the battalion in line constitute the right 
 wing ; those to the left of the center constitute the 
 left wing. If there be an odtl ninnber of batteries, 
 the center battery always belongs to the right wing. 
 
 Posts of Major, Adjiit/mt, Sergea)it-m<ijor, and 
 Trumpeter. — The Major, or Senior Officer present, 
 commands the battalion, and in line is twenty-eight 
 yards in front of the center. The Adjutant is in line 
 with the Chiefs of Platoon, and three yards outside 
 of the right flank of the battalion. When the battal- 
 ion faces to the rejir, the Adjutant executes an about 
 and takes his place in line with the Chiefs of Platoon, 
 but docs not change to the other flank. The <Sfe;*- 
 
 geant-major is in line with the Chiefs of Platoon, three 
 yards from the left flank. When the battalion faces 
 to the rear the Sergeant-major executes an about, and 
 takes his place in line with the Chiefs of Platoon, but 
 does not change to the other flank. At review, other 
 Stiiff-officers, m line, are on the right of the Adju- 
 tant ; in column, they are in rear of the Major. On 
 all other occasions they accompany the Major. 
 
 To Form the Battalion. 
 
 Infantry. — The companies being formed on their 
 parade-grounds, a/ljutant's call is sounded, at which 
 the Adjutant and Sergeant-major, the latter on the 
 left, each covered by a Marker, march to the regimen- 
 tal parade-ground, where they post the Markers fac- 
 ing each other at a distance apart a little less than the 
 front of a company ; the Adjutant posts the >Iarker 
 nearest the right of the line, the Sergeant-major the 
 one nearest the left, each standimg three yards in rear 
 of the Marker nearest him ; the Markers being 
 assured, the Adjutant takes a side-step to the left, the 
 Sergeant-major a side-step to the right, draw swords, 
 and face about ; the Adjutant then proceeds company 
 distimce toward the right of the line, the Sergeant- 
 major company distance toward the left of the line, 
 when they halt, face about, and again cover the 
 Markers ; the line is prolonged in the right wing by 
 the Right Guides, who precede their companies on 
 the line by fifteen or twenty yards, and establish 
 themselves facing the JIaikers, each at company dis- 
 tance from the Marker or sruiile in front of him ; the 
 Adjutant assures the position of the Right Guides, 
 placing himself in their rear as they successively 
 arrive ; the line is similarly prolonged in the left 
 wing by the Left Guides, the Sergeant-major assuring 
 them in their positions as they successively arrive. 
 The Guides invert their pieces in front of the center 
 of the body, barrel to the right, the right hand below 
 the left, the small of the stock above the head. The 
 color-companj' is the first established, and is con- 
 ducted by its Captain so as to arrive from the rear, 
 parallel to the line of JIarkers. When it arrives at 
 three yards from the line, the Captain halts it, places 
 himself facing to the front, near the left Marker, and 
 then dresses the company to the left, the breasts of 
 the men opposite the right tmd left JIarkers resting 
 respectively against their left and right arms ; the 
 companies of the right wing fonn successively from 
 left to right, each being halted at three yards from 
 the line and dressed to the left as ex-plained for the 
 color-company; the Left Guide, at the command hall, 
 returns to the line of file-closers ; the companies of 
 the left w ing form successively from right to left, and 
 are dressed to the right. In all alignments, the First- 
 sergeants, if not employed to mark the line, step into 
 the rear rank to enable the Captains to dress their 
 companies. To enable the C^aptain of the company on 
 the left of the color to align his company to the right, 
 the Captain of the color-company steps a pace for- 
 ward if he be the Senior, or into the rear rank if he 
 be the Jimior ; if the Senior, he steps back into the 
 front rank as soon as the Junior Captain conunands 
 front; the latter steps back to the rear rank; the 
 First-sergeant of the left center comi)any steps back 
 to the line of file-closers. Each Captain commands : 
 1. (such) Company, 2. Suppi>rt, 3. Arms, as .soon as 
 the Captain next" succeeding him in his own wing 
 commands />»;;<; the liank companies ««;)/»)•< af»i» 
 as soon as dressed. Before sounding («//v/<(«^'» raW, 
 the band takes a position designated by the Adjutant, 
 and marches at the same time as the companies to its 
 position in line. The Colonel takes post facing the 
 line, at a distance in front of the center of the battal- 
 ion, about eqtial to half its front. The Adjutant 
 having a.ssured the position of the Right Guide of the 
 right company, faces about, marches three yards to 
 the right of the front rank, faces to the left, moves 
 two yards to the front, faces to the left and halts, and, 
 when the last company arriving on the line is brought
 
 SATTALION. 
 
 156 
 
 BATTALION. 
 
 to tupport arm», commands: 1. Guide*, ^. Posts. 
 At the commaii(i guide» po»U, the Captains, Guides, 
 and Markers take their posts iu line ; the First-ser- 
 geants, who are imt employed to mark the Hue, step a 
 pace to the rear to permit the Seeond-sirgeants or 
 Markers to pass through Iheir intervals to the line of 
 file-closers, after which they return to the front r.mk. 
 T/iia rule U general. The Ailjutaut then passes along 
 tlie front in rear of the Captains, to the center, turns 
 to the right, halts midway between the Captains and 
 the Colonel, faces alxiut, brings the battalion to a 
 curry, and a preiunt arinii, resumes his frtmt, salutes 
 hLs Colonel, and reports: Sir! The bathition u 
 formed. The Colonel returns the salute with the 
 right hand, directs the Adjutant : Tuke your post, 
 /t>'/>, dr^iws his sword and commands : 1. Carry, 2. 
 Arms. The Adjutimt faces about, and returns to his 
 post, pas-iing in rear of the Captains of the right wing 
 around the right of the battalion. 
 
 Curalry. — The companies being lormed and 
 mounted on their own grounds, udjiitaiit'i) call is 
 Bounded, at which the Adjutant and Sergeant- 
 major, the latter on the left, proceed to the battalion 
 parade-ground, and post themselves facing each 
 other, a few yards outside the points where the right 
 and left of the right center comi)any is to rest in 
 line. The comi)anies approach the line so as to 
 arrive from the rear, and parallel to the line estab- 
 lished by the Adjutant and Sergeant-major. The 
 riglilcenter company (or center company, if the 
 number of companies be uneven) is first established 
 on the line. As the right-center comjiany ap- 
 proaches the line, its Princi]«d Guides detach them- 
 selves, and, preceding the eomjiany by tifteen or 
 twenty yarils, place themselves lietween the Adjut;mt 
 and Sergeant-major, facing each other, at a distance 
 a little less than the front of the company. The Ad- 
 jutant rectifies the position of the Right Principal 
 Guiile; the Sergeant-major rectilies the position of 
 the Left Principal Guide. The Captain of the right- 
 center company halts his company three yards from 
 the line, places himself on the line, facing to the 
 front, at the point where the left of his company will 
 rest iu luie, and then dres.ses it to the left against the 
 Principal Guides, so that the heads of the horses 
 opposite the Principal Guides shall touch the boots 
 of the Princijial Guiiles. The other companies sue- 
 ces.sively approach the line, in their order on the 
 right and left of the right-center company. The 
 Principal Guides of each comiiany detach themselves 
 as prescribed for the Guides of tiie right-center com- 
 pany, and hasten to place themselves on the line to 
 be occupied by their respective companies: they face 
 toward the Princiiial Guides already established, at 
 a distance from each other a little less than the com- 
 pany front; the Principal Guiilc nearest those 
 already established carefully preserves the interval of 
 eight yards between companies. The Adjutant and 
 Sergeant-major, having rectified the iiositions of the 
 Principal Guides of the company which arrives first 
 on the line, draw sal)ers; the Adjutant then wheels 
 to the right about, moves toward tlie right, and again 
 wheels to the right about, so as to place himself in 
 rear of the Hight I'rincipal Guide of the company 
 next on the right. The Sergeant-major wheels to the 
 left about, moves toward th<' left, and wheels to the 
 left about, so as to place himself in rear of the Left 
 Principal Guide of the company next on the left. 
 In this manner the Adjutant in the right w ing, and 
 Sergeant-major in the left w ing, rectify in succession 
 the |M)sitions of the Guides of each companv; they 
 then lake their places in line. Each t-'aptain halts 
 and dres.ses his company as jirescrilx^d for the right- 
 center company, each company Iwing dressed tow;n-d 
 Uie company first established. The line being 
 formed, the Adjutant advances three yards from lijs 
 jKisilion on (he right, wheels to the "left, halts, and 
 commands: L GvUIih, 2. Posts, at which the Cap- 
 tains and Principal Guides return to their posts in 
 line. The Major takes post facing the line, at a con- 
 
 venient distance in front of the center of the bat- 
 talion, generally equal to about half its front. The 
 Adjutant then "passes in front of the otlicers to the 
 center, wheels to the right, and halts midway 
 between the Major and the line, wheels to the left 
 about, commauils: \. Dr.vw, 2. S.vber, 3. Pivxent, 
 4. Saueh, wheels to the left about, sjdutcs the ilajor 
 and reports: Sir! The battalion is formed. The 
 Major returns the salute wiUi the right hand, directs 
 the Adjutant: Take your jMst, ,Sir, draws his saber, 
 and conunauds: 1. Carry, 2. Saber. The Adju- 
 tant wheels to the left about, moves toward the line, 
 wheels to the left, mid, i)assing in front of the otli- 
 cers, t;ikes his place on the right. 
 
 Artillery. — The batteries being formed at their own 
 parks, adjutant's call is soimded, at which the Adju- 
 tant and Sergeant-major, the latter on the left, jiro- 
 ceed to the battalion parade-ground, and post them- 
 selves facing each other, a few yards outside the 
 points wiiere the right and left of the right-center 
 battery is to rest in line. The batteries approach the 
 line so as to arrive from the rear, and parallel to the 
 line established by the Adjutant and Sergeant-major; 
 theright-centerbattery(orcenter battery, ifthenuniber 
 of batteries be uneven) is first establishetl on the line. 
 As the right center battery approaches the line, the 
 First-sergeant and Guidon, who are called Prineijxil 
 Guides, detach themselves, precede the battery by 
 tifteen or twenty yards, and place themselves between 
 the Adjutant and Sergeant-major, facing each other, 
 at a distance apart a little less than the front of the 
 battery; the Adjutant rectifies the position of the 
 First-sergeant: the Sergeant-major that of the Guidon. 
 The Captain of the right-center battery halts it at 
 three yards from the line and dresses it to the left as 
 prescribed iu the School of the Battery, so that the 
 heads of the lead-horses of the leading carriages of 
 the right and left .sections shall be iu line with the 
 boots of the Princiiial Guides. The other batteries 
 successively approach the line on the right and left 
 of the right-ceufer battery. The Principal Guides of 
 the other batteries detach themselves as prescribed 
 for the guides of the right-center battery, and hasten 
 to place themselves on the line to be occu|iied by their 
 respective batteries; they face toward the Principal 
 Guides already established, at a distance from each 
 other a little less than the battery front; the Principal 
 Guide nearest those already established carefully pre- 
 serves the interval of twenty-eight yards between the 
 batteries. The Adjutant and Sergeant-major, having 
 rectified the po.sitious of the Princijial Guides of the 
 battery which ariives first on the line, draw saber; 
 the Adjutant then executes a right about, moves 
 toward the right. :md again executes a liglit about, 
 so as to jilacc himself in rear of the Right Principal 
 Guide of the battery next on the right; the Sergeant- 
 major executes a left about, moves toward the left, 
 ami, executes a left about, so as to place himself in 
 rear of the Left Princijial Guide of the batlerv next 
 on the left. In this manner the Adjutant in the 
 right wing, and the Sergeant-major in the left w ing, 
 rectify in succession the positions of the guides of 
 each battery; they then take their posts in line. 
 Each Cajitain halls and dresses his battery as pre- 
 scribed for the right-center battery; each battery is 
 dressed toward the riglit-center battery. The line 
 being formed, the AdjuUuil advances three yards 
 from his post on the right, wheels lo the left, halls, 
 and commands; 1. Guides, 2. Posts, at which the 1 
 Captains and Principal Guides return to their posts i 
 in line. The Major takes post facing the line, at a 
 convenient distance in front of the center of the 
 battalion, generally equal to about half its front; the 
 Adjutant then jiasses in rear of tlie Captains to the 
 center, wheels lo the right, and h:dts half-way be- 
 tween the Major and the line, executes a left atxjut, 
 conuiiands; 1. Present, 2. S.viiER, executes a left 
 about, salutes the Major, and reports: Sir! The 
 battalion is formed. The JIajor returns the salute 
 with the right hand, directs the Adjutant: Take
 
 BATTABD. 
 
 157 
 
 BATTESIES. 
 
 1/our post, Sir, draws saber, and commands: 1. Carry, 
 2. Saber. The Adjutant executes a left alwut, 
 moves toward the line, wheels to the left, and, passing 
 in rear of the Captains, takes his post on the right. 
 See Inspection of Troops, Mushr, and Rtrieie. 
 
 BATTABD. — An early cannon of small size, now 
 obsolete. See Cannon. 
 
 BATTEN.— 1. The sloping of a wall which brings 
 the perpendicular from the top inside the base. — 2. 
 A species of sawn tir timber, of smaller dimensions 
 than the kind called plauks. Battens are usually 
 from 12 to 14 feet long, 7 inches broad, and 2* inches 
 thick. Cut into two boards (If inches thick), they 
 are used for flooring ; cut into three toards, they are 
 put on roofs below slates ; in narrower pieces, they 
 are put upright on walls for tixing the laths for 
 plastering. The best battens are brought from Nor- 
 way, and sold wholeside by wood-merchants. 
 BATTZE. — 1. A cannonade of heavj- ordnance, 
 from the first or second 
 parallel of an intrenchment, 
 against a fortress or other 
 works. To batter in breueh 
 implies a heavj- cannonade 
 of many pieces directed to 
 one part of the revetment 
 from the third parallel. — 2. 
 In fortification, the back- 
 ward slope of a revetment 
 or retaining wall. The 
 drawings show the batter- 
 Blopes adopted by Engineers at the present time. 
 These slopes are 1 in 4, 1 in 5, 1 in 6, 1 in 8, 1 in 10, 
 and 1 in 12. 
 
 BATTEBIE EN EOUAGE.— An enfiladmg battery, 
 when directed ag-ainst another battery. 
 
 BATTEEIES.— A battery consists "of two or more 
 pieces of artillery in the field. The term batttry 
 also implies the emplacement of ordnance destined to 
 act offensively or defensively. It also refers to the 
 company charged ^vith a certain number of pieces of 
 ordnance. The ordnance constitutes the battery. 
 Men serve the battery. Horses drag it, and epaul- 
 ments may shelter it. A battery may be with or 
 without embrasures. In the latter case it is en 
 barbette, and the height of the genouiW-re varies 
 according to the description of the gun-carriage used. 
 The ordnance constituting the batterj- requires sub- 
 stantial bearings either of solid ground for field- 
 pieces, or of timber, plank, or masonry platforms, 
 for heavy artillery. Batteries are sometimes desig- 
 nated as follows : Barbette battery, one without em- 
 brasures, in which the guns are raised to fire over 
 the parapet ; Ambultint battery, heavy guns mounted 
 on traveling carriages, and moved as occasion may 
 require, either to positions on a coast, or in besieged 
 places ; Corered battery, intended for a vertical fire, 
 and concealed from the enemy ; Breafhin/j battery ; 
 Joint batteries, uniting their fire against any object ; 
 Counter battery, one batterj- opposed against another ; 
 Coast battery ; Direct battery ; Cross batteries, form- 
 ing a cross fire on an object ; Oblique battery, forming 
 an angle of 20° or more with the object against 
 which it is directed, contradistinguished from direct 
 battery ; Raised battery, one whose terre-plein is 
 elevated considerably above the ground ; Sunken- 
 battery, where the sole of the embrasures is on a 
 level with the ground, and the platforms are con- 
 sequently sunk below it ; Enfil<idinij battery, when 
 the shot "or shell sweeps the wliole length of a line of 
 troops or part of a work ; Horizontal battery, when 
 the terre-plein is that of the natural level of the 
 ground, consequently the parapet alone is raised and 
 the ditch sunk ; Open battery, without epaulment or 
 other covering, wholly exposed ; Indented battery, 
 or batten,- a cremaillhe, battery constructed with 
 salient and re-entering angles for obtaining an oblique 
 as well as a direct fife, atid to afford shelter from the 
 enfilade tire of the enemy ; Beterse battery, that which 
 flies upon the rear of a work or line of troops ; 
 
 Ricochet battery, whose projectiles, being fired at low 
 angles, graze and bound without being buried ; 
 Marked battery, artificially concealed untu required 
 to open upon the enemy. 
 
 Field-batteries, in sieges, are usually of two kinds, 
 viz.. Elevated batteries and Sunken batteries, and they 
 are placed either in front of the parallel, in the 
 parallel itself, or in rear of it. In an elevated battery, 
 the platforms for the guns or mortars to stand upon 
 are laid on the natural level of the groimd, and the 
 whole of the covering miLss, or paraix-t, is raised 
 above that level, the earth for forming it Ix-ing ob- 
 tained from a ditch in front. In a sunken battery, 
 the whole interior of the batterj- is excavated about 
 three feet deep, and the platfonns laid on the bottom, 
 the earth is thrown to the front, and the (larapet is 
 formed out of it. Great care must be taken that no 
 rise in the ground before the battery obscures the 
 \'iew from the soles of the embrasures ; for this pur- 
 pose, the officer laying out the battery should lie 
 down and look along the ground, in order to be sure 
 that his guns can range freely from their embrasures, 
 before he fixes his details for constmction. When 
 guns are fired with an elevation, when the soil is 
 sandy or gravelly, when the weather is dry, or the 
 ground elevated, this construction is approved. The 
 depth of the excavation for the interior must depend 
 on the height of the carriages upon which the guns 
 are mounted : it should be deeper in rear than in 
 front, that it may be drained. The interior slopes of 
 these batteries, and the cheeks of the embrasures, 
 must be supported by field-revetments of gabions, 
 fascines, sand-bags, casks, or soils. In batteries ex- 
 posed to a heavj' tire, especially of shells, it is neces- 
 sary to provide as much cover as possible for the men 
 serving in them ; for this purpose, traverses are 
 usually placed between every two guns ; and as these 
 masses serve to protect the men from the splinters of 
 the bursting shells, they are generally called splinter- 
 proof traverses. There is nearly twice as much work 
 in the elevated as in the simken battery. 
 
 A batter}' for four siege-pieces is represente<l in the 
 drawing. In this construction, the parapet (A) i& 
 
 Battery for Four Siege-Pieces. 
 
 made of earth taken from the front, thus forming a 
 ilitch (C). To protect the pieces (X X X X) from 
 flank fire, the parapet is continued around on one or 
 both ends, forming epaulments (BB). The guns are 
 in pairs, .separated by a traverse (D). The interval 
 between the axes of the embrasures of each pair is 16 
 feet for gims on traveling carriages, and from 18 to 
 ,22 feet for sea-coast guns. Between the two middle 
 pieces this distance is increased by the thickness of 
 the traverse, generally about 15 feet. The entire 
 length of the interior crest of the parapet, from a to 
 b, will therefore be 79 feet. This and other given 
 dimensions are not absolute, but indicate the method 
 of obtaining the data necess;»rv for lajing out any 
 battery. The length of the flanli epaulments •will de- 
 pend upon the direction of the enemy's fire ; in all 
 cases it must be sufficiently great to give full pro- 
 tection to the whole interior from an enfilading fire ;
 
 BATTEKIMO CHAROEB. 
 
 158 
 
 BATTEBT-OUN. 
 
 gcncnillv it would Ik- nlwut 24 feet. The thickness 
 of the piiraiK-t luiil epaulments will lieixiul uiwu the 
 power of the artillery they are e.\peete<i to resist. 
 
 Batteries for even "the heaviest pieces may I)e con- 
 structed on marshy grouiul liy lavinj? a wrillaj.'e of 
 timlier over the surface and biiildmi; up the parapet 
 on it with sjmd-hairs. To prevent the parapet from 
 sctllini; over towanls the front, the irrillaire should 
 exteiuf several fed beyond it in that direction. In 
 order that the |)latfohu of the piece may not be 
 movwl from its true horizontal position by any set- 
 tling of the panipi't, the space to be occupied by it is 
 inclosed with strong sheeting piles. In this inclosed 
 space sevend lavers of fiisc-incs are laid, crossing 
 each other at rigiit angles ; on these earth or sand is 
 nunnied, and the platform laid in the usual manner. 
 If s;uid is used on top of the fa-scincs, two or three 
 thicknesses of paulins should be spread over them to 
 hold the sand. Magazines in such localities must, of 
 neees-iity, be entirely above ground, and supported on 
 grilhiire in the same" manner. See E)nbrasu re . 
 
 BATTEEING CHAKGES. — In the service of artil- 
 ler\- there are two classes of cartridges, battering and 
 fu)l. The first is used with Palliser projectiles, and 
 only under certain circumstances with common shell; 
 the second is the ordinary charge used with common, 
 double, -shrapnel shell, and c;ise-shot. The powder 
 used would be pebble for all battering charges, and 
 for full charges of 40 povmds and upwanis. 
 
 The reason why pebble-powder is now used with 
 all large guns instead of ordinary powder is explained 
 as follows: that the pressure on "the gun is much less, 
 and the velocity greater, with the former than the 
 latter. This increased .velocity is due to the lower 
 pressure of the powder, which is kept up longer in 
 the bore than with quicker-burning powder, the 
 velocity depending upon the pressure and the space 
 over which it is e.\erlc<l. 
 
 BATTEEING PEOJECTILES.— Projectiles for bat- 
 tering purposes are made of cast-iron, chilled iron, 
 and steel. Against panipets of earth common shell 
 containing large bursting-charges are the most 
 effective. Compound shot, having chilled cast-iron 
 heads and cast-steel bodies, give good results, but 
 they lack the power to carry their bursting-charge 
 behind the armor which they can penetrate. The 
 hardness and tenacity of steel shot and shell make 
 them very effective against all kinds of armor. Their 
 great cost prevents their use when good results can 
 be accomplished by chilled shot. Gunpowder is not 
 a sufficiently powerful explosive for these strong shells, 
 and, moreover, it explodes on impact. Satisfactorj' 
 experiments have been made with bursting-charges of 
 gun-cotton, which only explodes when the penetration 
 is complete. Both forged and cast steel shells, well 
 tempered, have perforated great thicknesses of 
 wrought iron, in direct hitting, without being in- 
 jured. Cast-steel projectiles, compressed by an 
 hydraulic press while in a fluid state to drive out 
 bubbles, give excellent results. In direct fire against 
 steel-faceil armor, cast-steel shells, owing to their 
 great hardness, iK'have better than those of forged 
 steel. The reverse is the ca.sc in oblicpie fire, where 
 tenacity and toughness are the main considerations. 
 All steel projectiles thus far tried break up agaiiist 
 Bteel-faced armor in oblique tire. The longer the 
 head of the projectile the greater the effect in direct 
 lire, while for oblique tire the liest effects arc ob- 
 tained with heads struck with a radius of two diam- 
 eters. The llal-hcadeil projectiles are much inferior 
 to tho.se with ])oiiiIed heads in both direct and oblique 
 fire. The respective advantages of light and hea\'y 
 shells may be said to be as follows, assuming the 
 powder-charge to be coastant : The heavier shells, 
 though starting with a lower initial velocity, keep up 
 their velocity i)etter than lighlcr ones, and so have a 
 longer range of |K>netmlive effect. The lighter shells 
 have a higher velocity at short nmges, and a flatter 
 trajectory; al.so, a greater munber can be carried for 
 a given weight. The projectile must not be so 
 
 hcav^- as to strain the gun unduly, but this is easily 
 avoided by the use of slow-burning jKiwder and air- 
 spacing. "The cavity in shells should be as capacious 
 as ix).ssible, so as to "carry a large bursting-charge, but 
 this will be controlled' by the thickness which the 
 head and walls must possess to give the necessary 
 strength. See Aniior-jtlnlen. 
 
 BATTEEING-EAM. — An engine of war used in 
 ancient times and in the Middle Ages. It consisted 
 of a Ix'am of wood with a mass of bronze or iron on 
 one end, resembling the head of a mm. In its sim- 
 plest form it was bonie and impelletl by the hands of 
 the soldiers; afterwards it was suspendetl in a fnmie, 
 and made to swing. Another form moved ou rollers. 
 
 ^^^m 
 
 Battering-ram. 
 
 The alternating motion was commvmicated by ropes. 
 To protect those working it, a wooden roof itenlndo) 
 was constructed over if, and the whole was mounted 
 on wheels. The beam of the ram varied from 60 to 
 120 feet in length, the head sometimes weighed alx)ve 
 a ton, and as many as 100 men were employed in im- 
 peUing the machine. When the blows were long 
 enough coiitinueil, hardly any wall could resist. 
 ^^^len or where it was invented is unknown. It is 
 mentioned Ivy Ezekiel, The Romans derived it from 
 the Greeks. 
 
 BATTEEING-TEAIN.— A train of artillery used 
 .solely for besieging a strong place, inclusive of mor- 
 tars and howitzers. Sec Sii^ffe-lrain. 
 
 BATTERY-BOXES.— Square chests or boxes, filled 
 with earth and used in making batteries where ga- 
 bions are not to be had. 
 
 BATTERY-GUN.— A gim having a capacity for 
 firing a n\imber of shots consecutively or simultane- 
 ously without stopping to reload. There are many 
 varieties. 
 
 1. A piece of ordnance having a number of load- 
 chambers attached to a vertical axis, and consecutively 
 presented at the rear of the cannon-l)ore. As each 
 takes its place at the breach, it is advanced into the 
 bore and locked before firing. 
 
 2. A chambered breech-piece, revohnng in a verti- 
 cal plane, anil presenting its chamljers consecutively 
 at the open rear of the barrel, which is common to all 
 the chambers. The principle of construction is that 
 of the revolving chambered pistol. 
 
 3. A number of parallel baiTels arranged in rank, 
 and ha\ing connected vents for intercommunication 
 of fire. The infernal-machine of Fieschi, which he 
 tired on Louis Philippe, was a row of barrels clinched 
 to a frame, and had a train of powder which was 
 laid over all the vents in succession, like the row of 
 barrels in a proving-house. 
 
 The Hequa battery consists of 23 rifles, each 24 ' 
 inches long, moimted in a horizontal plane \i\xm a 
 field-carriage. If is breech-loading, the cartridges 
 being forced into the chambers by a sliding - bar 
 worked by two levers. By a lever beneath the frame 
 the barrels may be divergcnl, so as to scatter the balls 
 120 yards in a distance of 1000 yards. The weight of 
 the battery -gun >ised at Charteston, S. C, was 1383 
 pounds. Served by three men, it fireil seven volleys, 
 or 175 shots, jx-r "minute. Its effective range was 
 1300 vards. 
 
 4. l^orms of many-barreled camion revolving on a 
 vertical axis, the pieces being muzzle-loaded.
 
 BATTEBT-WAGON. 
 
 159 
 
 BATTEBT-WAOOH. 
 
 5. A cluster of rotating barrels, consecutively load- 
 ed and fired by automatic action. 
 
 6. A cluster of barrels, in whose rear is placed a 
 chambered plate, each of whose chambers corre- 
 sponds to one of the clusters of barrels, against whose 
 rear it is locked before tiring. 
 
 7. A number of chambered blocks brought con- 
 secutively to the positions for loading, and then tor 
 firing, through a group of barrels equal in number to 
 the number of chambers. 
 
 The drawing shows the Lowell battcrygun, 
 mounted on a tripod, and ready for firing. A brief 
 notice of its action will suggest the requisite features 
 of all battery-guns. The feed comprises the feeding- 
 tube and carrier-rolls; the former keeping each car- 
 tridge horizontiil till it is received by the latter. A 
 double extractor, grasjiing as it does the butt of the 
 cartridge on both sides, works with very great cer- 
 tainty. This certainty is not only due to" the fact of 
 its being double, but also to the fact of the extractors 
 
 tinues to be supported in rear by the cam during a 
 portion of its revolution. This arrangement is of 
 great value in a machine-gun, where the cartridges 
 arc entered and extracted from the barrel with such 
 rapidity that hang-fires are liable to occur. The 
 gun, firing as it doe-s all its shots from one barrel at a 
 time, compares in this respect verj- favorably indeed 
 with any machine-gun. Twice during a recent trial 
 three hundred shots were fireil considtral)ly within a 
 minute, the actual time being fifty-three and fifty-four 
 seconds respectively. It is proimsed by the inventor 
 to construct a gun "with double tlie number of barrels, 
 making eight, with two locks, so that a tire of four or 
 five hundred shots a minute can be steadily main- 
 tained without being obliged to give a too rapid mo- 
 tion to the crank. The question of rapidity of fire 
 being well established for all well-known machine- 
 guns, it .seems that the points to which attention 
 should now be given in the trial of a machine-gun 
 are simplicity ol mechanism, liability to get out of 
 
 Lowelf Battery-gun, mounted on Tripod. 
 
 •not depending on their spring or elasticity, but to a 
 positive movement being given to their hooks by a 
 shoulder on the lock-plunger, working on the curved 
 portion of their rear ends. Thus the extracting hooks 
 are obliged to retain hold of the flange of the cartridge 
 until entirely extracted, when the empty shell is 
 readily removed from the hooks by the carrier-rolls. 
 The working parts being exposed by simply turning 
 back their cover, allows the mechanism to be at once 
 seen and readil}' removed; and whenever a stoppage 
 may occur, its cause is immediately wen and easily 
 remedied. The shape of the cam which operates the 
 lock is such tliat alter the plunger has shoved the 
 •cartridge into the barrel, and it lias been fired, it con- 
 
 order, and accessibility of parts. In these are in- 
 cluded the feed and extracting, also durability. 
 These points have been highly developed in the gun 
 before us, andiits mechanism brought to a fair stale of 
 perfection. See Gardner Machine-gun, GatUng 
 Gun, Hotchkisa Berolring Cannon, Loirell Battery- 
 gun. Xordenfelt Gun, and Taylor Gun. 
 
 BATTEKY-WAGON.— A wagon designed to accom- 
 pany a field-buttery, for the jiurjiose of transporting 
 carriauc-maker's and saddler's tools, .spare parts of 
 carriages, harness, and equipments, and rough mate- 
 rials ifor replacing dilTereni i)arts. It is made of 
 equal mobilitv with other field-c«rriages, in order to 
 accompanv them wherever they may be required to
 
 BATTEEY-WAGON. 
 
 160 
 
 BATTEBY-WAOON. 
 
 go. The following arc the supplies usually carried 
 in the battery -wngon and forge for a battery of six 
 guns; 
 
 COXTKXTS or LlMBKR-OimiT. 
 
 iSmltli's tools anil »tortw.> 
 
 xo. ^•«:!g|.t 
 
 Horseshoes, Noa. 2, 3 lbs. 100 
 
 Horseshoes, Nos. 2. 3 lbs. 100 
 
 Horseshoe-nails, Nos. 2 and 
 
 3 lbs. SO 
 
 Washers and nuts. No. 2 80 
 
 Washers and nuts. No. S 10 
 
 Washers auii nuts. No. 4 4 
 
 Nails. No. 1. C lbs. 1 
 
 Nails. No. 2, C lbs. 1 
 
 Tire-bolts .. 10 
 
 Keys for ammunition- chests 5 
 
 Li uoh- washers icaieson) 8 
 
 Linch-pins (caisson) 12 
 
 Linch-pitis (for piece) 6 
 
 Chains. Nos. 1 and 2 feet 2 
 
 Cold-shut Slinks. No. S , 50 
 
 Cold-shut 6' links. No. 5.. 
 
 Hand cold-chisels 
 
 Hardie 
 
 Files, assorted, with handles 
 
 Buttress 
 
 Hand-punches, round and 
 
 square 
 
 Screw-wrench 
 
 Hand screw-driver 
 
 Hand vise 
 
 Smith's calipers, pair 
 
 Wood screws, 1', No. 14.. gr. 
 
 Quart can ot sperm-oil 
 
 Borax lbs 
 
 Fire-shovel 
 
 Poker 
 
 Split broom 
 
 Haud-bammers 
 
 Riveting-bammer 
 
 Naiiing^aminer 
 
 Sledge-hammer 
 
 Chisels for hot iron 
 
 Chisels for cold iron. . . 
 
 Smith's tongs 
 
 Fore-punch 
 
 Creaser 
 
 Fuller 
 
 Nail-claw 
 
 Round-punch 
 
 Tap-wrench 
 
 Die-stock 
 
 Nave-bands, developed 
 Tire-bands, developed. 
 
 Shoeing-hanimer 
 
 Pincers, pair 
 
 Rasps (1 2 inches) 
 
 Shoeing-knife 
 
 Toe-knife 
 
 Pritchel 
 
 Nail-punch 
 
 Clincning-pin 
 
 Oil-stone 
 
 Leather aprons 
 
 Horse-tail brush 
 
 Iron square. 
 
 Padlock 
 
 Tar-bucket 
 
 Boies 
 
 Tow for packing.. 
 
 Total 4&J.38 
 
 100.00 
 100.00 
 
 SO. 00 
 5.25 
 
 s.ao 
 
 8.15 
 1.00 
 1.00 
 5.00 
 1.80 
 7.80 
 8.37 
 
 1.54 
 8.50 
 S.OO 
 2.00 
 0.75 
 10.00 
 1.50 
 
 2.00 
 2.42 
 0.32 
 1.00 
 0.40 
 1.50 
 1.83 
 2.10 
 2.70 
 
 3.05 
 1.90 
 1.25 
 6.50 
 1.05 
 1.80 
 
 10.50 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 
 15.00 
 1.00 
 1.00 
 2.40 
 5.00 
 2.10 
 3.75 
 6.25 
 
 11.75 
 2.75 
 0.82 
 2.00 
 2.15 
 0.33 
 0.30 
 0.85 
 0.80 
 1.00 
 1.50 
 3,00 
 1.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 0,50 
 
 7.00 
 53,45 
 6,00 
 
 Box Al. 
 Box A3. 
 
 Box A 2, large di- 
 [vlsion. 
 
 Inbox A 2,91.11 
 lbs. 
 
 In box A 4, 28.52 
 lbs. 
 
 In box A 5, 80.05 
 lbs. 
 
 Inbox A 5, 80.05 
 lbs. 
 
 In shoeing-box, 
 12.75 lbs. 
 
 ) Fastened on in- 
 1 side of chest- 
 1 cover with two 
 J copper clamps. 
 
 On the chest. 
 
 On its hook. 
 
 One pound of borseshoc-nails, No. 3, contains 140 
 nails ; one pound of horseshoe-nails, No. 2, contains 
 112 nails ; one hundred pounds of horseshoes contain 
 90 shoes. 
 
 OimierUs of Fbrge-Body. 
 
 Tools akv stores. 
 
 Square iron, \i in. and 1 in 
 Flat Iron, 1^4 X H 'H-. 1 X H 
 
 in., m X m X J41n 
 
 Round iron, 9i In 
 
 Cast -steel, t^ In. square. ... 
 English blistered steel 
 
 Boxes 5 and 6, containing. 
 Horseshoes, Nos. 2 and 8 
 Horseshoe-nails. Nos. 2 and 3 
 
 Waler-bueket 
 
 Watering bucket ileather). 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 100 
 
 SO 
 
 fiO 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 200 
 20 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 In the iron-room. 
 Bars not more 
 than 3 ft. loner. 
 Square iron in 
 two bundles. 
 
 > In iron-room. 
 
 On its hook. 
 On the vise. 
 
 ■tooix ktsn Storks. 
 
 No. 
 
 Weight 
 Llw. 
 
 PUce. 
 
 Anvil 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 100 
 
 29 
 
 250 
 
 5 
 
 ■5 
 
 On the fireplace. 
 On stock of forge. 
 
 \ In the coal-box. 
 
 On coal-lrax. 
 
 
 Bituminous coal 
 
 
 Padlock 
 
 Tow 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 ai2 
 
 
 
 
 
 The anvil-block is carried on the hearth of the 
 forge, and secured by having a hole through its axis, 
 through which is passed a lashing-rope. 
 Contents of LiTnber- Chest. 
 
 T00i:;S AKD STORES, 
 
 Carriage-maker' 8 TooIb. 
 
 Hand-saw 
 
 Tenon-saw (14 in.) 
 
 Jack-plane 
 
 Smoothinp-plane 
 
 Brace, with 'iA bits 
 
 Spokeshave 
 
 Gauge 
 
 Plane-irons 
 
 Saw-set 
 
 Rule (3 feet) 
 
 Gimlets 
 
 Compasses, pair 
 
 Chalk-line 
 
 Brad-awls 
 
 Scriber 
 
 Saw-files (41^ in) 
 
 Wood-flies (10 in.) 
 
 Wood-rasp UO in.) 
 
 Trying-square i8 in.) 
 
 Hand screw-driver 
 
 Oil-stone 
 
 Broad-axe 
 
 Hand-axe 
 
 Claw-hatchet 
 
 Claw-hammer 
 
 Pincers (small), pair 
 
 Table- vise 
 
 Framing- chisels (1 and 2 in.) 
 Firmer-chisels (3^ and 1 U in.) 
 Framiii^-gouges(l andlj^in.) 
 Augers and handles (J^> %■• 
 
 3^, 1, and Sin.) 
 
 Screw-wrench 
 
 Frame-saw 
 
 Quart can of sperm oil 
 
 Compass-saw 
 
 Tacks (carpenters') M. 
 
 Measuring-tape 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Saddler's tools and stores. 
 
 Mallet 
 
 Clam 
 
 Hammer 
 
 Shoe-knives 
 
 Half-round knive 
 
 Shears, pair 
 
 Sandstones 
 
 Rule (2 feet) 
 
 Needles, assorted 
 
 Collar-needles 
 
 Thimbles 
 
 Awls 
 
 Awl-handles 
 
 Punches, assorted 
 
 Pincers, pairs 
 
 Pliers, pairs 
 
 Claw-tools 
 
 Creasers 
 
 Gauge-knife 
 
 Scissors, pair 
 
 Compass, pair 
 
 Strap-awls 
 
 Saddler's mallet 
 
 Saddler's clam 
 
 Bristles 
 
 Saddler's thread 
 
 Bees- wax 
 
 Black-wax 
 
 Patent thread 
 
 Shoe-thread lbs. 
 
 Buckles, assorted (0.75 to 1 .5 
 jn.t doz. 
 
 Tacka (iron and copperj, as- 
 sorted 
 
 Hand-saws 
 
 Tenon-saws 
 
 Blades for frame-saws 
 
 LD8. 
 
 Total 178.00 
 
 4.00 
 1.50 
 4.15 
 1.80 
 4.35 
 0.30 
 0.30 
 1.05 
 0.25 
 0.14 
 0.95 
 0.18 
 0.10 
 0.17 
 0.15 
 0.87 
 1.12 
 0.40 
 0.60 
 0.32 
 1.50 
 6.00 
 5.00 
 2.00 
 1.50 
 1.06 
 3.80 
 3.00 
 1.00 
 2.60 
 
 4.50 
 2.42 
 6.00 
 3.30 
 4.50 
 2.70 
 
 i'.w 
 
 2!66 
 
 1.75 
 5.00 
 0.65 
 0.20 
 0.28 
 0.47 
 0.30 
 
 0.50 
 0.75 
 1.00 
 6.75 
 
 0.75 
 
 6!25 
 
 i;75 
 5.00 
 2.00 
 2.00 
 3.00 
 5.00 
 5.00 
 2.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 10.00 
 2.00 
 
 Pl*ce. 
 
 I Fastened to the 
 t inside of chest- 
 [cover. 
 
 In liox C 1, 17.20 
 >■ lbs. 
 
 Id box C 2, 
 lbs. 
 
 In box C 8, 28.85 
 
 lbs. 
 
 In box C 4.
 
 BATTLE-ARRAY. 
 
 161 
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 Contents of Wagon-Body, 
 
 Tools axd Stores. 
 
 Grindstone, 14 X 4 in 
 
 Arbor and crank for do.. . 
 
 Pintles (for piece) 
 
 Horse-collars (assorted).. 
 
 Girths 
 
 Lt'ad-traces 
 
 Whips lartillery) 
 
 Wheel-traces 
 
 Currycombs 
 
 Horse-brushes 
 
 Nose-bags 
 
 Saddle-blankets 
 
 Spurs and straps pairs 
 
 Halters aud straps 
 
 Watering-bridles 
 
 Bridles (artillery) 
 
 Hanie-straps 
 
 Harness-leather sides 
 
 Bridle-leather sides 
 
 Sash cord pieces 
 
 Polf'-yoke 
 
 Elevating-screw 
 
 Saw. cross-cut (6 feet) 
 
 JRope-trace feet 
 
 Block (treble) for above.. 
 Block idoublei for above. 
 
 Wateritig-buckets 
 
 Fuse-wrenches 
 
 Fuse-gauges 
 
 Fuse knives 
 
 Fuse-reaiuers 
 
 Gunner's pincers 
 
 Vent-puncnes 
 
 Breecn-sights 
 
 Priming-wires 
 
 Gunner's gimlets 
 
 Primer-pouches 
 
 Castile soap 
 
 Handspikes 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Staves — sponge and rammer 
 (lashed to wagon outside).. 
 
 Xeat's-foot oil gal 
 
 Grease, wheel (1-lb. cans) 
 
 Xails (4-, 6-, 8-, and 10-penny) 
 
 Claw-hatchet 
 
 Spirit-level (carpenter's) . 
 
 Sperm or wax candles 
 
 Rjxmmer-heads 
 
 Sponge-heads 
 
 Sponges 
 
 Sponge-covers 
 
 Lanyards ( for fric'n-p rimers) 
 
 Dark-lanterns 
 
 Common lanterns 
 
 Total 1100 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 G 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 300 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 3 
 18 
 6 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 
 36 
 30 
 
 11 
 50 
 TO 
 30 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 3 
 
 1 On the march 
 V these are carried 
 ) on a caisson. 
 
 ■In bos C6. 
 
 The batfery-Tva,<ron here mentioned is that fur- 
 nisheil from the arsenals ; but, being cumbersome 
 anil quite unsuitalile for field-service, it is better to 
 utilize its body and limber-chest by placing them on 
 the running-gear of the armj- traiisportation-wagon. 
 The limber-chest can be attached to the front part of 
 the wagon-body by strong iron brackets, aud serves as 
 a seat for the driver. A similar chest can be placed, 
 in like manner, on the rear end in place of the 
 forage-rack. In the front chest is carried the car- 
 riage-maker's outfit, and in the rear one that of the 
 saddler. See Trareling Forge. 
 
 BATTLE-AKRAY.— Array or order of battle; the 
 disposition of forces preparatory to a battle. 
 
 BATTLE-AXE. — A cuneiform weapon, like the 
 common hatchet, from which it is modified. It was 
 best known in the so-called ages of stone and bronze, 
 and was the favorite weapon of all Germanic nations. 
 Tlie Frank hatchet, francisgue, was short-handled, 
 while that of the Saxons was fixed on so long a shaft 
 
 tury differs considerably from the weapon of an 
 earlier date. Thouirh on one side an axe, it becomes 
 on the other a war-hammer, either with a s;iw-edge 
 or a sharp point, but generally large and curved, 
 called falcon-t/eakeil ; whilst the term parrotJjeaked 
 was applied when the weapon wsis short in the handle 
 and belonged to a horseman. In this last fomi it 
 i.s frequently found to have a gun-barrel encased in 
 the handle, either the primitive hand-cannon or the 
 wheel lock pistol. A long dart or sword is .some- 
 times fi.xed at the top of the battle-axe. 
 
 BATTLE - GEODND CEMETERIES. — In order to 
 secure, as far as possible, the decent interment of 
 those who may fall in battle, it is made the duty of 
 Commanding "Generals to layoff lots of ground in 
 .some suitable spot near every battle-field, so soon as 
 it may be in their power, and to cause the remains 
 of those killed to be interred, with head-boards to the 
 graves bearing mmibers, and, where practicable, the 
 names of the persons buried in them. A register of 
 each burial-ground is preserved, in which are noted 
 the marks corresponding with the headboards. See 
 National Cemeteries, Post Cemeteries, and Superin- 
 tendent of National Cemeteries. 
 
 BATTLEMENTS. — Xotched or indented parapets 
 used in fortifications. The rising parts are called 
 cops or merlons; the spaces by which they are sepa- 
 
 MQfiuS! "5. 
 
 Early Enirli-li Tr;ir.-i ,- • .,t. 
 
 rated, crenels, embrasures, and sometimes loops. The 
 object of the de\ice is to enable the soldier to shelter 
 himself behind the merlon, whilst he shoots through 
 
 Battle-axes. 
 
 that among the Anglo-Saxons it was named pole-axe. 
 The foot-soldier's battle-axe of the fourteenth cen- 
 
 11 I I 
 
 Simple Form of Battlement. 
 
 the embrasure. The ba.ss-reliefs of Nineveh, and the 
 Egj7)tian paintings, testify to its antiquity, and there 
 is perhaps no nation by which it has not been 
 adopted. 
 
 BATTLE-PIECES. — Paintings representing battles. 
 The modern mode of warfare is less favorable for 
 this branch of art than the ancient, where personal 
 valor had more room to display itsi'lf. Among the 
 greatest paintings of this kind are the Battle of Con- 
 stantine, sketched by Rapliael and executed by Giulio 
 Homano; Lebrun's Battles of Alexander; and the Bat- 
 lie of the Amazons by Rubens. In smaller scenes, 
 such as skii-mishes and surpinses, Antonio Tempesta, 
 Hans Snelink, Pet. Snyders, Fulcone, Phil. Wou- 
 verman, etc., are distinguished. The most eminent 
 of recent l)attlepainters is Horace Vernet. 
 
 BATTLE-RANGE. — The range corresponding to 
 the maximum "dangerous space" for the trajectory 
 of any fire-arm. This range is somewhat greater for 
 such "fire arm employed against mounted troops than 
 against foot-troops. See Dangerous S/itiee. 
 
 BATTLES.— General actions in which all of the 
 di^-isions of an army are or may be engaged. Con- 
 sidered in their poliiical relations, the importance of 
 battles is not alwavs in proportion to their magnitude. 
 There arc some battles which claim our attention, 
 independently of the moral worth of the combatants, 
 on account of their enduring importance, and by rea- 
 son of their practical influence on our own social and 
 politicid condition, which we can trace up to the 
 results of those engjigenients. They have for us an 
 actual and abidimr interest, both while we investigate 
 the chain of causes and effect-s, by which they have 
 helped to make tis what we are; and also while we
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 162 
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 speculate ou what we probably should have been if 
 auy one of those battles had come to a different ter- 
 mination. The tifleeu battles which, in Profes.sor 
 Creajij-'s opinion, have had the most decisive influ- 
 ence arc the following: 
 
 4»0. Battle of >ranUhon. 
 
 413. Defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse. 
 
 331. Battle of Arlnla. 
 
 207. " " the Metaurus. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 9. Defeat of the Romans under Varus. 
 
 451. Battle of Chalons. 
 
 732. " •' Toui-s. 
 
 1066. Battle of Ilsistings. 
 
 1429. Joan of Arc's victory at Orleans. 
 
 I.i88. Defeat of the Spanish Armada. 
 
 1704. Battle of Blenheim. 
 1709. " " Pultowa. 
 
 1777. Defeat of Burgovne at Saratoga. 
 
 1792. Battle of Valniv" 
 1815. " " Waterloo. 
 
 Battles, though planned and fought almost solely 
 on tactical principles, have in many cases important 
 strategical bearings wliich it is the province of an 
 able General to see and to take advantage of. Skill- 
 fully combined strategical marches, when ably exe- 
 cuted, may alone decide the fate of a campaign, with- 
 out the necessity of coming into collision with the 
 enemy; but this is a rare case, and a battle is usually 
 the necessary sequence to an important strategical 
 movement, and, if well planned and successfully 
 fought, may prove decisive of the war. 
 
 itilitary writers designate by orders of battk the 
 general combinations made to attack one or more 
 points of an enem}''s position; whilst they apply the 
 term Urn of battle to the disposition of the troops, in 
 their relations to each other for mutual co-operation, 
 acting either offensively or defensively. Whatever 
 may be the disposition of the troops, the line of bat- 
 tle of any considerable force will present a well-de- 
 fined center and two wings; thus offering to an 
 as.sailant one or more of these as his point of attack. 
 This has led to dividing orders of battle into several 
 classes, arising from the necessary disposition of the 
 assailing force, as it moves to attack one or more of 
 these points. If an equal effort is made to assail 
 every point of the euemj's line, the assailing force 
 must necessarily advance on a line parallel to the one 
 assailed, and this therefore ha.s received the name of 
 the parallel order of battle. If the line of the assail- 
 ing force is sensibly perpendicidar to that of the as- 
 saded, the disposition is said to be the perpendicular 
 order. If the main attack is made bj' one wing, the 
 center and other wing being held back, or refused as 
 it is termed, the positions of the lines of the two 
 parties become natundly oblique to each other, and 
 this is termed the oblique order. In like manner, the 
 concave order results from an attack by both wings, 
 the center being refused, and the conrex order from 
 refusmg the wings and atUicking by the center, etc. 
 The order of batlh; should result from the position 
 in which the enemy's forces are presented for attack; 
 and as these, if skillfully disposed, will be posted so 
 as to take advantage of the points of vantage whicli 
 the position they occupy offers, the order of battle 
 for iissiiiling may vary in an infinity of ways. Still 
 it Ls not to Ix! interred that one order is not" superior 
 to another, or that the choice between them is one at 
 pleiLsure. In the parallel order, for example, the 
 opposing forces being supposed equal in all i)oints, 
 there is no reason why one point of the enemy's line 
 should be forced rather limn another, and, therefore, 
 success depends either upon destroying his whole 
 line, or simply pushing it back; as chance alone will 
 determine a break in any part of his line. In the 
 oblique order, on the contrary, one wing being re- 
 fuse<l, or merely acting as a menace, (he other may 
 be strongly reinforced, so as to overwhelm the wing 
 
 opposed to it, and, if this succeeds, the assailing armv, 
 by its simple onward movement, is gradually brought 
 to gain ground on the enemy's rear, and to threaten 
 his" line" of retreat. Agjiin, in crossing a river on a 
 bridge, or passing through anj- other defile to assail 
 an enemy opposing this movement, the order of battle 
 becomes necessjirily convex ; the extremity of the 
 defile it.self becomuig the center from which the as- 
 sailing forces railiate, to enlarge their front, whilst 
 they are obliged to secure the defile on each flank. 
 To" lay down rules therefore as to what order of 
 battle should, in every case, be employed would be 
 pure pedantry. Talent, skill, and experience can 
 alone enable a General to decide this ]>oint in any 
 i^ven ca.se. As to the distribution of troops belong- 
 mg to the separate fractious of the entire force, as an 
 army corjis, a division, etc., the rule is to so distrib- 
 ute them that they shall fight under the immediate 
 eye of their respective Commanders, and support each 
 other. Having, for example, a division, composed 
 of four brigades, to distribute in line of battle, the 
 question may arise as to whether all four of the 
 brigades .shall be in one line, the first, for mstance, 
 or two be in the first and two in the second line. By 
 the first distribution, the four brigades will be under 
 the immediate eye of the Division Commander, but 
 their supports of the second line may be a stranger 
 division, and be led by a General, a rival or enemy 
 of their own Commander. In the second case, the 
 Commanding General, being separated from the two 
 divisions in the first line, will not be able to give 
 them that direct supervision as in the first case; but 
 a more hearty co-operation of the brigiides and more 
 unity of concert may be looked for than in the con- 
 trary case. 
 
 The following example will serve to show how 
 much depends upon the General's ability to adapt 
 his troops to the position thcj' are to fight on. a!s- 
 sume an army of about 37,000 troops of all arms, 
 about to attack an enemy's position, the main effort 
 being directed on the enemy's left wing, our left 
 being refused. This force we will suppose to be or- 
 ganized as follows: 
 
 40 battalions of 7.50 men each 30,000 
 
 12 squadrons "120 " " 1,440 
 
 18 batteries, 72 pieces, 130 men each. 2,340 
 
 30 companies of Sharp-shooters 3,000 
 
 2 companies Engineer troops 200 
 
 Total 36,980 
 
 In this organization it will be noticed that the pro- 
 portion of cavalry to the infantry is very small, and 
 that but two guns are allowed to every thousand 
 men; proportions which would be only suitable for a 
 theater of war in which cavalrj' would but rarely 
 find any but a very confined field of action, and in 
 the case also of excellent infantry, which admits of a 
 reduction in the amount of artillery. Having divided 
 the battalions of infantry into foiu- divisions, one of 
 these is taken to form part of the reserve, to which 
 is assigned the whole of the cavalry, and all the dis- 
 jiosabie artillcrj', and the Sharp-shooters. The other 
 three divisions are designed to move on the right, the 
 center, and the left of the enemy's position. As the 
 main attack is on the right, ten companies of Sharp- 
 shooters are attached to it, and five, to each of the 
 other two; ten being with the reserve. In the attack 
 on the right and center, each division, when fonned 
 in line of battle, is to occupy only a front of four 
 battalions, the remaining six of each to be so placed, 
 in second or third line, as the respective Gcnends of 
 division may deem best. Five battalions of the left 
 division will deploy, in echelon, on tlie left of the 
 second division; the remaining five being in column 
 to the rear, so as to move to the support of either the 
 second or third division sus circumstances may de- 
 mand. Having decided upon this preliminary" plan 
 of attack, the three first divisions are put in motion 
 ou their respective points, the heads of columu on the
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 163 
 
 BATTLES. 
 
 same level; the reserve foUowincr the center column. 
 The advance of each leading cohimn will Ix; covered 
 by an advanceil-guard, composed of the Sharp-shoot- 
 ers, and the flank companies of the leading brigade 
 of each, and by one battery of artillery. Tiie deploy- 
 ment will be that which naturally results from the 
 positions of the brigades in column of march; each 
 brigade foiining one line, its artillery on the right, the 
 Sharp-shooters in the Intervals of the battalions, and 
 the flank companies on the wings. So soon as the 
 three advanced-guards, which are from lOOO to 1500 
 paces in advance of their respective columns, have 
 come within good range, the Sharp-shooters are thrown 
 out as skirmishers, the flank companies supporting 
 them, each of these companies keeping nearly op- 
 posite to the battalion to which it belongs; the ar- 
 tillery, in the mean time, having opened at a con- 
 venient range for its round shot. The skirmishers 
 stick to their work until they are cither repulsed or 
 called in, when they will retire behind the flank com- 
 panies; one half of these last foiTuing the new chain 
 of skirmishers, the other half the supports; and, in 
 this order, they fall back, but keeping u]) their Are, 
 to the intervals between the battalions. The Sharp- 
 shooters then take position to the rear of the first 
 line in the battalion intervals; the flank companies 
 doubling on the ■nings; and the batteries, which have 
 thus been unmasked, proceeding, on a trot, to the front, 
 to pour in a heavy continued fire on the enemy. The 
 two first divisions in this way enter into the engage- 
 mtnt; the third merely covering its position by its 
 tMtteries. 
 
 from each other, and has thrown out one of his bat- 
 teries on his left, giving it the companies of Sharp- 
 shooters as a support, with the view of checking any 
 movement on this winjj. In the mean time, the Gen- 
 eral Commanding, seemg the affair well under way, 
 has ma.sscd his reserve, in rear of the center of the 
 first division, seeLog the moment come to complete 
 his stroke, has detached a brigade of the reserve, 
 four companies of Sharp-shooters, si.\ batteries, and 
 the half of his cavalry to the front; gi\ing the artil- 
 lery orders to take position on the right and left of 
 the batteries of the first division, so as to get a slant 
 fire on the enemy's line; the infantry to mass itself 
 on the right of the artillery, to cover it, and also by 
 proper precautions to guard itself from a flink move- 
 ment; the cavalry to post itself, in echelon, on the 
 right of the infantry, to prevent a flank movement 
 of the enemy's cavalry. At the Siime time, two bat- 
 teries are also sent forward to reinforce those of the 
 second division. To give room for these movements 
 of the batteries, the tlauk battalions of the first line 
 of the first division are thrown into column in ma,ss, 
 whilst those of the second incline towards the center 
 so as to avoid being behind the batteries. As the re- 
 serve is weakened by these movements, the Com- 
 manding General orders the .second brigade of the 
 third division to take post in rear of the center of the 
 second division, to be on hand for any emergency. 
 The order of battle which, in the early phase of the 
 engagement, was parallel, has now become oblique. 
 The first division, having kept its center battalions of 
 the first line deployed until ready to charge, will, for 
 
 ftes«Tvf^/'7!> 
 
 This stage of JJie action is shown in the drav 
 s the intcntions"of the Commanding General i 
 
 Irawmg 
 as the intentions'^ ot the Commandmg Ueneral may 
 have been interpreted by his subordinates. The 
 Commander of the first division has taken a battalion 
 from each of his lines to form a small reserve, which 
 he has placed in a third line, to be ready for any 
 emergency. The Commander of the second division 
 has formed bis first line into two echelons, and has 
 placed a second battalion to su])i>ort the right one of 
 the advanced echelon, and has thrown forward all 
 his Sharp-shooters into the first line. In disposing of 
 his second brigade, he has ]ilaced three battalions 
 nearer to the center to strengthen the troops engaged. 
 The Commander of the third division has deployed 
 Jlie battalions of the first line in echelons, at 150 paces 
 
 this last stage, throw these two battalions also into 
 column, whilst the battalions of the second line will 
 spring forward and fill the intervals of the first, so as 
 to present an imbroken wall to the enemy. In this 
 way the division will move forward rapidly, bringing 
 down the baj'onet only when within ten or twenty 
 paces of the enemy's line. If the line should be 
 forced to deploy, to again open fire, the battalions 
 of the first line will fall to the rear, forming as tliu 
 second, leaving this task to those of the second and 
 the Sharp-shooters. This onward movement of the 
 right will be followed by the center and left, care 
 being taken that the whole movement is performed 
 connectedly. This example gives the spirit of the 
 phases of au action for the case supposed. The prob-
 
 BATTRE DE FRONT. 
 
 164 
 
 BAYEUX TAPESTRY. 
 
 lem to lie resolved, with the arms now in the haiuls 
 of troops, being to extend our front as much as pos- 
 silile, without, however, weakenins; too much our 
 line of battle, so as to brinjr all the tire we can upon 
 the enemy's line. Sec Defeimre Battle, Mueti Batik, 
 and Orl'cii/cirt liittttf. 
 
 BATTRE DE FRONT.— An expression nieanintr to 
 throw eannonbiills in a perpendicular or almost per- 
 pendicular direction against anv bo<ly or place which 
 betonics an object of attack. Yhis mode of attack is 
 less etTectual than any other unless buttering in breafh. 
 
 BAUDRIC. — A short shoulder-belt Avhich crossed 
 the figure like a scarf, and to which the sword was 
 adjusted so as to be worn behind the person. The 
 habit of thus wearing tlie sword commenced in the 
 reiirn of I-ouis XIII. See Balt/rick. 
 
 BAULOIS. — A piece of pimk stuff, used by miners 
 for tirini: the siuicis.son, or tniin. 
 
 BAUME FLUX. — A founilry composition, consist- 
 ing of ;1 parts of ijitcr, 1 part of sulphur, and 1 part 
 of sawdust. This flux is capable of inducing tlie 
 fusion of different metals, partly on account of the 
 heat evolved by deflagration, and partly because it 
 converts a ijortion of the metal into a more fusible 
 sulphide. 
 
 B AVIERE.— The beaver of the helmet. It is some- 
 times called mentoniire and is pierced with holes for 
 res|>iration. Also writien Ban'er. 
 
 BAVINS. — In the pyrotechny of warfare, small 
 bundles of ea.sily ignited hnishwood, from 3 to 3 feet 
 in length. Thej- are made by arranging the bush- 
 ends of the twigs all in one direction, tying the other 
 ends with small cord, dipping the biish-ends into a 
 kettle containing an inflammable composition, and 
 drying them. Thej' are employed among the com- 
 bustible materials in fire-ships. 
 
 BAXTER KNAPSACK-SUPPORTER.— This con- 
 sists of two pieces of ash, curved to conform to the 
 shape of the back, fastened together at top and bot- 
 tom by straps, with rings and straps to secure knap- 
 sack or blanket ; carried by broad cross-straps across 
 the .shoulders and fastened to the supporter behind, 
 and also to the waist-belt. 
 
 BAY. — An expression for the length of bridge cor- 
 responding to the space between, two pontons from 
 center to center. 
 
 Acconlinc to Mr. Bruce, the latest authority on the 
 subject, the tapestry contains, besides the figures of 
 .50.5 iiuadrupeds, birds, sphinxes, etc., " the figures of 
 633 men, 202 horses, 55 dogs, 37 buildings, 41 ships, 
 and boats, and 49 trees — in all, 1512 figures." The 
 tapestry is divided into 72 distinct compartments, each 
 representing one particular historical occurrence, and 
 bearing an explanatory Latin inscription. A tree is 
 usually chosen to divide the principal cvent.s from, 
 each other. This pictorial history — for so it may be 
 called, and indeed, in several particulars, it is more 
 minute than any written history we have — opens with 
 Harold prior to his departure for Normandy, taking- 
 leave of Edward the Confessor. Harold is "next ob- 
 serv'ed, accompanied by his attendants, riding to 
 Bosham with his hawk and homids ; and he is after- 
 wards seen, successively, embarking from the Sus.sex 
 coast ; anchoring in France, and l«ing made i>risoner 
 by Guy, Earl of Poutbieu ; redeemed by William, 
 Duke of Normandy, and meeting willi him at his 
 Court : as.sisting him a^iinst Conan, Earl of Brctagne;. 
 swearing on the Siicred relics never to interfere with 
 William's succession to the Saxon throne, etc ; and 
 finally re-cmbarking for England. The tapestry then 
 represents Harold narrating the events of his journey 
 to Edward the Confessor, whose death and funeral 
 obsequies we next see. Harold then receives the 
 crown from the Saxon people, and ascends the throne; 
 and next we have the news brought to William, who 
 takes counsel with his half-brother, Odo, Bishop of 
 Bayeux, as to the invasion of England. Then follow 
 representations of the active war-preparations of the 
 Normans; their embarkation; disembarkation; march 
 to Hastings, and formation of a camp there ; the bat- 
 tle and death of Harold, with which the tapestry 
 finishes. The Bayeux tapestry gives an exact and 
 minute portraiture of the manners and customs of the 
 times; and it has been remarked that the arms and 
 habits of the Normans are identical with those of the 
 Danes, as they appear in the miniature paintings of a 
 manuscript of the time of King Cimt, ]>rcserved in 
 the British Jluseum. M. Lancelot appears to have 
 been the first to direct attention to the existence of 
 this curious monument, by a description of an illumi- 
 nated di'awing of a portion of it he had discovered, in 
 a paper presented to the Academy of Inscriptions and 
 
 Battle of Hastings. 
 
 BAYBERRY TALLO'W.- A product of the wax 
 myrtle, mudi used as a lubricjint for bullets. 
 
 BAYEUX TAPESTRY. — A web of canvas or linen 
 cloth. 214 feet Utnts liy 20 inches wide.'prescrved in the 
 Puldic Library, Bayeux, upon which is embroidered, 
 in woolen thread of various colors, a representation 
 of the Invasion and Conquest of England by the Nor- 
 mans. Tradition asserts it to be the work of Matilda, 
 wife of William the Conqueror, and it is believed that 
 if she did not actually stitch the whole of it with her 
 own hand, she at least took part in it, and directed 
 the execution of it by her maids ; and afterwards nre- 
 sented it to the Cathedral of Baveux, as a token of 
 her apjireciation of the effective assistance which its 
 Bishoi), Odo, rendered to her husband at the battle of 
 Hastings. Some antiquaries contend that it was the 
 work not of Queen Matilda (the wife of the Con- 
 queror), who died in 1083, but of the Empress Matilda 
 (the daughter of King Henry I.), who died in 1167. 
 
 Belles-lettres, in 1724. This led to the discovery of the 
 tapestry it.sclf, in the Bayeux Cathedral, by Pc>re 
 Montfiiucon, who published an engraving of it in 
 1730, with a commentary on the Latin inscriptions. 
 In 1707 Dr. Ducarel gave an account of it in his 
 Anrilo-Xoriimn Antiquities. Froniv that time until 
 1803, when Napoleon had it conveyed to Paris, the 
 Bayeux tapestry excited little attention. Its exhibi- 
 tion, however, in the National Musiuiji Ibereawakened 
 public curiosity concerning it, and gave rise to various 
 speculations as to its age, intention, etc. The discus- 
 sion satisfactorily established it to be what tradition 
 asserted it — a contemporary pictorial record of the 
 events of the Norman Conquest. The Society of 
 Antiquaries (London) published an engraving of the 
 whole in the sixth volume of the Vttunta Moniimenta. 
 The Bayeux tapestrv would have been destroyed at 
 the Revolution, had not a priest fortunately succeeded 
 in concealing it from the mob, who demanded it to
 
 BAYONET. 
 
 165 
 
 BAYONET-EXEHCISE. 
 
 ■cover the guns. It was formerly preserved in the 
 ■Cathefiral of Bayeux, where it was wont to be ex- 
 hibited on certain days every j'ear, in the nave of the 
 churcli, round whicli it exactly went. 
 
 BAYONET. — A short sword or dagger (usually tri- 
 angular in cross-section) fitted on to the muzzle of a 
 musket or similar weapon, so as to give the soldier 
 increased means of offense and defense. The name 
 is said to be derived from the town of Bayonne in 
 France, where, it is stated, it was tii-st invented in 
 1640. The first regiment which appears to have had 
 bayonets attached to their muskets 
 is the Grenadier Guards, so far 
 back as the year 1693. It is stated 
 by Macaulaj' that in con.sequence 
 of the awkward mode of attaching 
 the bayonet the English lost the 
 battle of Killiecrankie, as the 
 Highlanders were upon tlie troops 
 before they could convert their 
 fire-locks into pikes. The bayonets 
 then used were called hnyoiwls-ii- 
 mane/ie, and had handles which 
 fitted into the muzzles of the guns; 
 but at a later date were introduced 
 the bayonels-ii-diniiHe, or socket- 
 bayonets, having .sockets which 
 enabled the bayonets so to be used 
 as not to interrupt the firing. The 
 use of pikes went out when that 
 of bayonets came in. It seems 
 very probable that the first bayonet 
 w^as a dagger, which the musketeer 
 stuck bj' means of its handle into 
 the muzzle of his weapon, to shield 
 him from a cavalry charge; and 
 that the usefulness of the contri- 
 vance suggested a permanent ar- 
 rangement. 
 
 Bayonets are now made with 
 great rapidity in the United States, 
 at the Government Rifle Factory 
 at Enfield, and elsewhere. The 
 process of manufacture is very sim- 
 ple. Two pieces of metal are first 
 .selected — viz., a piece of the very 
 best cast-steel, 7 inches long by f 
 inch square, and a piece of the 
 best wrought-iron rod, 4 inches 
 long by about 1 inch in thickness. 
 The steel is to form the blade, 
 and the iron the socket-handle. 
 The steel being properly shaped 
 at one end, is joined to the iron by 
 welding. A forging-machine is 
 next employed to give a rough 
 outline of the required shape. 
 Then comes the action of a 
 swagin^-machinc, with dies which 
 come down upon the metal in 
 
 freal force and counter-dies ben<'alti the metal, 
 he metal is then annealed; turned in a cutling- 
 
 the socket hollow; shaped and furrowed along the 
 blade; bent at the neck; hardened and tempered; 
 and finished by a numerous tnun of minor opera- 
 tions. The drawing represents the triangular bayo- 
 net, one fourth size, as at present iLsed on the Siuiiig- 
 field rifle in the United States. A is the blade; B, 
 the neck; C, the socket; D, the bridge; E, the stud- 
 mortise; F, the clasp. The bayonet-charge is now 
 one of the most terrible maneuvers of trained infan- 
 try, in which each nation fancies itself to excel all 
 others. See ChUUngicorth Bayonet, Sitord-bayonel, 
 and Troirel-hayniiet. 
 
 BAYONET-CLASP. —A movable ring of metal sur- 
 rounding the .socket of a bayonet, in order to 
 strengllien the socket and render the bayonet less 
 easilv detachable. See liayonH. 
 
 BAYONET-EXEECISE.— If the sword-cxercise be 
 of use to officers, there are many hundreds in the 
 rank and file to whom a proper command of the 
 bayonet is indispeusjible. In close-quarter engage- 
 ments there is no weapon more formidable : from 
 its length and weight the thrust of the bayonet gives 
 a terrible wound, and its force is such that there is 
 great difficult}' in parrjing the attack. Like other 
 small-arms, it is most .serviceable when handled on 
 scientific principles ; and the art of using it to ad- 
 vantage is so simple as to be very easily acquired, 
 while the exercise, from the weight of the rifie, ad- 
 mirably aids in developing the muscles of all parts of 
 the body. 
 
 Of course the bayonet Ls always fixed at the end of 
 the musket, when it becomes \'irtually a pike. The 
 position of the feet iu the bayonet-exercise remains 
 always the same relatively, and absolutely until ad- 
 vance or retreat be effected. The ri.iiht foot is 
 thrown back 24 inches, and the weight of the body 
 thrown upon it. The heels are kept in a line with 
 each other, both knees bent and well apart; the right 
 knee directly over the foot, the left ea.sy and flexible, 
 pointing to the front. In tliis position of the body all 
 the defensive motions of the bayonet are made. In 
 " guard," the bayonet is brought nearly to a horizon- 
 tal direction, level with the waist, and pointing to- 
 wards the breast of an advancing enemy. Similarly 
 to " guard," the positions " low," " high," and "sec- 
 ond point" are a.ssumed. The butt of tlu' rifle is 
 always kept well to the right .side, the hand behind 
 the trigger-guard, and the whole body in attitude to 
 offer great resistance. In "low," the barrel is 
 turned downwards; but in all the other defen.sive 
 motions it is held upwards. The position of the arms 
 is in each ca.se that which would naturally be taken 
 in placing the bayonet and musket in the required 
 direction. See Fig. 1. 
 
 The offensive position of the body is acquired by 
 the extension of the right leg. and bending forward 
 of the left without moving the feet. The butt of the 
 rifle is at the same time pressed firmly to the shoul- 
 der. This position is called " point," and constitutes 
 an extension of the weapon iu a direction parallel 
 with either of those previously taken. As there were 
 four " guards," so there are four points. The barrel 
 
 rpoM 
 
 • "PBINT 
 
 y^ 
 
 ^^y^ 
 
 FROM 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ;J5--^ " GUIBO 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 machine to remove a wire-edge thrown up m the 
 act of stamping; cut to a proper length and the 
 socket-end made square; driUed and bored, to make 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 is in each case upward, and the motions for each are 
 similar, except in pointing from "2d point," as 
 may be seen in Fig. 2, when the rifle, seized by the
 
 BAT0N£T-8CABBAKI>. 
 
 166 
 
 BEAK. 
 
 right biiiiil roiiiul the small of Ihc butt, is thrust 
 stniight up alxive the head to the full extent of the 
 arni. the left hiuid falling along the thigh, and the 
 legs being stniightein.Hl so as to form an isosceles 
 triangle. " Shorten arms" is a useful motion, both 
 as a defense and jus a preparation for a strong attack. 
 It consists in currying the butt back to the full extent 
 of the right arm, while the barrel (downwards) rests 
 uiK)n the thick part of the left arm. The bwly is 
 thrown upon the right leg, and the left straightened. 
 This powerful position is seen in Fig. 3. In all the 
 guanis and i>oints, and also " shorten arms," the 
 bayonet may Ik; turned directly to the front, to the 
 right, or to 'the left, as circumstances may suggest. 
 In contending with a swordsman, the action of chang- 
 ing from right to left, when at the " high" or " low," 
 is sufficient'defcnse against the ordinary cuts of the 
 latter. See Pamln/ J'dnits, Dmnguge, Guard, 
 LiiKyt. I'lirn/. :uul Tliruxt.. 
 
 BAYONET-SCABBARD.— A leather orinetallic case 
 for carrying the bayonet, suspended from the belt. 
 
 BAZAR.— The siitler establishment which accom- 
 panies a native regiment in the India ser^e wherever 
 it ixoi-s, 
 
 BEACH COMBINATION SIGHT.— A sight exten- 
 sively usi'd for iKith sporting and target practice. It 
 is so constnicted that by turning it up or down the 
 rifleman can have a globe or open sight at will, a 
 peep-sight being attached to the small of the stock. 
 The globe of this sight is so constructed as to per- 
 
 ils communicating the intelligence of the fall of the 
 cilv to his Queen, t'lytemnestra, at Myci'iKc, in the 
 Peloponnesus. The line consists of eight mountains, 
 and the news is supposed to be conveyed in one night 
 from Troy. 
 
 In England, the beacons were kept up by a rate 
 levied on the Counties, and had watches regularly 
 stationed at them, and horsemen tt) spread the in- 
 telligence during the tlay, w hen the beacons coidd not 
 be .seen. They were carefully organized while the 
 Spanish Armada was expected. In the beginning of 
 1856, an old beacon-work on Malvern Hill, in Wor- 
 cestershire, which had done its ])art in the former 
 days in spreading the intelligence of the apjiearance 
 of the Armada, of the approach of the Yoiuig 
 Chevalier, and of that of the Dutch fleet afterwards 
 dealt with by Admiral Blake, was lighted tip in 
 anticipation of the close of the Crimean War, and 
 afi'orded an interesting amusement to scientific per- 
 sons in estimating the distance at which the blaze 
 could be seen from distant mountains. See Signal. 
 
 SEALS GUN. — A breech-loading rifle ha\ing a 
 fixed chamber closed by a movable breech-block, 
 which slides in the line of the barrel by indirect 
 action, being moveil by levers from below. It is 
 opened by depressing the lever: this brings down the 
 rearmost of two folding-wedges which form the 
 breech-block, l)y means of a toggle or link, and at 
 the same time withdraws the upper section of the 
 block to its full extent and then drops it out of the 
 
 Beach Sight, and Disks. 
 
 mit the use of all descriptions of sights, detachable 
 pieces of the various forms in use being slipped into 
 a slot in the globe and held by a .screw. There is a 
 great diversity of opinion as to what is the best form 
 of sight; but the four disks represented are favorites 
 with many of the best long-range shots. 
 
 A spirit-level and wind-gauge adjustment is usually 
 attached to this sight, and insures any degree of 
 nicetv. 
 
 BEACH-MASTER.— Formerly a Superior Officer 
 afipointed to superintend the disembarkation of an 
 attacking force, who holds plenary- powers, and 
 generally leads the storming party. His acts when 
 m the heat of action are unquestioned. 
 
 BEACON. — Any signal set upon a height, but 
 especially the alarm-fires at one time u.sed to spread 
 the intelligence of foreign invasion or other great 
 event. These fire-signals were in use in the earliest 
 times, and notices of them are foimd in the literary 
 remains of ancient Persia, Palestine, and Greece. 
 The}- were made by kindling a pile or bale of wood 
 on the tops of lofty movmtains, and keeping the 
 flame bright by night, or having the tire so covered as 
 to emit a dense smoke by day. There were various 
 preconcerted modes of exhibiting the light or smoke, 
 so as to indicate the nature of the intelligence. Thus, 
 an Act of the Parliament of Seotlanil, in 1455, directs 
 that one bale on fire shall be warning of the approach 
 of the Engli.sh in any manner; two bales blazing be- 
 side each other, that they are roming hidad; jxnd 
 four bales, that they are coming in great force. 
 
 An early instance of beacon-signals is found in the 
 Book of the Prophet Jeremiah, in his call, in chapter 
 vi. 1, to the peo|)lc of Benjamin to kindle a firc- 
 Bignal on one of their mountains: •' Set tip a sign of 
 fire in Beth-hacecrem; for evil appearelh out of the 
 North, and great deslructioM." An instance of the 
 iise of a line of beacons in very ancient times is given 
 in a passage of the tragedy of Agamimiioii, by the 
 Greek poet .Eschylus. The Commander-in-Chief of 
 the Greek urmy at the Siege of Troy is represented 
 
 wa}- of the cartridge. The hammer is simultaneously 
 brought to the half-cock. The piece is closed by 
 reversing the action of the lever, when the sections of 
 the block are brought into place. The last movement 
 of the vipper section being in the line of the barrel, 
 thus tends to press the cartridge into the chamber if 
 it be not alrcadj' completely inserted. The piece is 
 locked Ijy the position of the breech-block, and is 
 fired by a tang-lock of the usual pattern. Extraction 
 and ejection are accomplished by a sliding extractor on 
 the side of the barrel, impelled backward by a spring, 
 when by the descent of the breech-block the way for 
 it is clear. See Rifle. 
 
 BEAM. — A straight piece of wood or iron in the 
 frame of a structure, usually occupying a relatively 
 elevated, horizontal, and transverse position; as the 
 beams of a magazine, stretching acri).ss it, and sup- 
 ported by the side walls or ])OSts. Relative size, 
 character, position, and importance have caused the 
 word to be applied to a long straight piece in a 
 machine or tool, whether poised, journaled, or fixed. 
 Sliecific denominations have been conferred upon 
 beams in fnimeil structures. 1. Tie-bin m ; one 
 imiting the ends of a pair of iirincijial rafters, or a 
 pair of posts, to prevent sprcailing or divergence. 
 2. Cellar-beam ; a. horizontal strut connecting and 
 bracing two opposite rafters. 3. Dragon-beam ; a 
 piece of timber to receive and .support the foot of the 
 hip-rafter. 4. Straining-biam ; one useil in a truss 
 or frame to confine i>rincipid parts in place. 5. 
 Cnmbcr-fjiaiii ; a horizontal beam in a simple span, 
 who.se sill has two posts, two struts, ;md a camber- 
 beam uniting the top of the posts. 6. llaminer- 
 heam ; a tie-beam proceeding from the feet of a pair 
 of principiil rafters, but having its middle portion re- 
 tnoved; the ends of the gap .are stayed by ribs spring- 
 ing from corbels below, and sii]>i)ort other ribs which 
 spring into :in arch. 7. Bindiiig-bcain ; a tie-beam 
 whieli binds together jiortions of a frame. 8. Triiss- 
 beain ; the i)rincipal horizontal limbers of a truss, 
 calleii the tvp and bottom chord, and from which pro
 
 BEAH-CALIFEB. 
 
 167 
 
 BEATING OEDEB. 
 
 ceed the utays and braces which hold and push re- 
 spectively, so to speak, and confer rigidity upon the 
 frame. 9. Snmiiur-batm ; a central floor or ceiling 
 timber, resting at its ends upon the walls or the 
 girders of the exterior frame, and supporting the ends 
 of the joints which are notched into it. 10. Arched- 
 beam; a beam bent, cut, or built into an arched form 
 to support a structure. 11. BuiU-bedm ; a beam 
 made of several parts, .scarfed or strapped together. 
 12. KerfiiUmini ; one whose vmder side has a num- 
 ber of transverse kerfs penetrating to a certain depth, 
 so as to enable the beam to be bent. 13. Oroaml- 
 beatii ; a sill for a frame. 14. Bui-beam ; a form of 
 
 firder having a double web, inclosing a box or cell. 
 t is usually of iron. The drawing shows the beams 
 most frequently used in fortification-work, and the 
 functions they perform. In the case of lieams sup- 
 porting weights over ditches, ravines, etc., if the 
 
 depth of the beam be doubled, other things equal, 
 its strength will be increased four times; if its breadth 
 be doubled, other things equal, its strength will be 
 doubled. By increasing the distance between the 
 supports, the strength of the beam istlecreascd in the 
 same ratio. Half the distance between the supports 
 will enable the beam to bear twice the load. Place a 
 prop or skid under the center of the beam, when 
 possible. If instead of concentrating the load at the 
 center of the beam, it be equally distributed over it, 
 the beam will bear twice the load. The effect of the 
 load on a beam will decrease in the ratio of its 
 proximity to the support. A beam fixed at one end 
 and loaded at the other will bear one half the weight 
 of the same when supported at each end. The 
 strength of round timber is about one half of that of 
 square timber whose side equals the diameter of the 
 round timber. 
 
 BEAM-CALIPEK.— An instrument for measuring 
 diameters. It usvially consist.s of a square of steel or 
 iron, with two liranches, one of which is fixed and 
 the other sliiling. The inner edges of the two 
 branches, when pushed together, lie, of course, in 
 contact with each other throughout their length. 
 
 obtaining correct measurements in the arsenal. 
 The side represented is graduated upon the bar 
 to inches and fiftieths of an inch, and by the aid of a 
 vernier is read to thousandths of an " inch. The 
 opposite side is graduated to inches and sixty-fourths 
 of an inch. The outside of the jaws is of suitable 
 form for taking inside measurements, and when the 
 jaws are closed measures 2.50 one-thousjmdths of an 
 inch in tliameler. This caliper will measure one 
 inch and eleven sixteenths, outside diameter, when 
 the jaws an: (jpened full size. The instrument can 
 be furnished with millimeters (in the place of sixty- 
 fourths of an inch), and provided with a vernier to 
 read to one fiftieth of a millimeter. See Calipers, 
 Gauge, and Iiigpertion of Ordnance. 
 
 BEAM - CAKSIAGE. — In artillery, that part of a 
 gun-carriaiTc included between the breast and trail- 
 point. In the (lid jiatteru English field-carriages, the 
 beam is formcil of a .solid block of 
 wood, if timber of sufficient scantling 
 can be obtained ; but if not procurable, 
 it is formed of two pieces tabled one 
 into the other. In this form it is called 
 a hlork-trail carriage. Formerly light 
 field-carriages consisted of two brackets 
 fastened together by transoms ; but this 
 form, though it possessed strength, was 
 found to be awkward and unhandy for 
 quick maneuvering ; the block-trail, 
 therefore, was sidistituted for all light 
 field-carriages, and has been also adopted 
 for certain siege-carriages. Since the introduction, 
 however, of wrought-iron guns into the service, the 
 bracket pattern has been re-introduced, and the c;ir- 
 riage, which is made of wrought-iron, has the 
 brackets and trail in one. The l)rcsent pattern of 
 iron carriages is not yet universal in the sernce, 
 but will be so in the future. 
 
 BEAM - COMPASS.— ^Vn instrument for describing 
 large circles, and used in connection with the trun- 
 nion-square, in the inspection of ordnance. It has a 
 beam or rod. and two sliding sockets which carry 
 the steel point and the pencil or pen points. Set- 
 screws on the sockets bold them to their places on the 
 beam. See Trunnion-square. 
 
 BEAB. — 1. A portable punching-machine for iron 
 plates. A punchin;i-he<ir, much used in armories. 
 
 2. The Order of the Bear wjis instituted by the 
 Emperor Frederick II., in 1213, \>y way of acknowl- 
 edgment for the service the Swiss had done him, and 
 in favor of the Abbey of St. Gall. To the collar of 
 the order hung a medal, on which was represented a 
 bear raised on an eminence of earth. 
 
 BEABD. — The reflected points of the head of an 
 ancient an'ow, particularly of such as were jagged. 
 
 13 12 
 
 iriliiiimiJiii;miinii'iiiiiiLiiiliiiiliiii'iiiiiiiiiiii: 
 
 ^Kiugf EnnniSiSVtrpo Fi-oiidonn.R.I. 
 
 4LH 
 
 Vernier Caliper. 
 
 The beam is graduated to inches and tenths. A 
 vernier is attached to the sliding branch, graduated to 
 hundredths t)f an inc^h. The latter is provided with 
 a thumb-screw to fasten it at any point. The length 
 of the beam must be greater than llic diameter; and 
 that of the branches than the semi-diameter of the 
 guns to be inspected, at their largest points. The 
 drawing shows one side of a vernier calijier, a light, 
 convenient, and valuable instrument for use in 
 
 BEARSKIN CAP.— A military head-dress worn in 
 England by the Foot guards. Originally the Fusilier 
 Keirimenfs wore licarskin caps somewhere about 1805. 
 
 BEATING OBDEE. — In the British .s<r\icc, an 
 authority given to an indi\-i<lual empowering him to 
 raise men by beat of drum for any i)artieular rugi- 
 ment, or for general service. It consists of a w.irrant 
 which is signed by the Secretarj- of War, or issued in 
 his name by the Adjutant-general.
 
 BEATING 0RDEK8. 
 
 168 
 
 BED-SOKES. 
 
 BEATING OEDERS.— Instrurtions or onlors given 
 to nt-niitiii!; parlii-s lx>fori' they leave the heiulquar- 
 ters of tbeir reiriiueiit ; tliey are obtained, on appliea- 
 tiou, by C'omniaiiiliiig Ollicers from tlie Seerelary of 
 State for War. W'lien recniitinir parties are (juartered 
 ill places where a Su])eriiiteiuiiiig Officer is statioueil, 
 tbev are to ileju'sil their lieatiiig orders with him. 
 
 BEATING THE WIND.— A practice in use in the 
 ancient methixl of trial by combat. If one of the 
 combatants diil not apix-ar in the field at the time ap- 
 pointed, the other was to make so many flourishes 
 with his weaiwn, by which he was entitled to all the 
 atlvanlasres of a conqueror. 
 
 BEAT OF DETIM. — In military matters, a signal 
 or insiniciion cnuveyed by a particular nio<le of 
 drum-beating. It is an audible semaphore, a tele- 
 gnijih that speaks to the ear instead of the eye. 
 There are many varieties, known by the names of the 
 general, llie reveille, the as.seniljly, the foot-march, the 
 grenadiers' march, the retreat, the taptoo or tattoo, 
 the call to arms, the call to church, the pioneers' call, 
 the sergeants' call, the drummers' call, the chamadc, 
 the rogue's march, the long roll, etc. Some of the 
 same instructions or commands are also given by the 
 bugle, and some bv the trumpet. 
 
 BEAUCEANT.— The standard of the Knights Tem- 
 plar ; it was while on one side and black on the 
 oilier. ANi> written Beii'ireitt. 
 
 BEAULIEU PROJECTILE.— The plan of this pro- 
 jectile was brought forward as early as 1842. It con- 
 sisted of twelve zinc studs, or buttons, placed on the 
 shot in pairs, so as to project into the si.K rounded 
 grooves of the gun. One stud, or projection on the 
 gun, was arranged to push tlie bearings of the shot 
 tight against tliosc sides of the groove on which it 
 would press in going out, so as to decrease jarring 
 and play. 
 
 BEA'7ER. — That part of a helmet covering the 
 lower part of the face, which shifts on pivots to 
 allow the wearer to drink. The word is derived 
 from the Latin betere, to drink, and is sometimes 
 written Bircr. 
 
 BEBRA. — A sort of javelin used by the ancient 
 Gennans; it was an imitation of the pilum of the 
 Romans. 
 
 BEC DE CORBIN.— Akindof lialbert formerlyused 
 by the body-guards of the kinirs of France. 
 
 " BECHLIS,— Light cavalry of the Turks, composed 
 of piiked men and horses. 
 
 BED. — 1. In artillerj-, the frame or rest on which 
 mortiirs are placed and tired from. Mortars have 
 traveling carriages, which are attached to a limber. 
 In battery the carriage is unlimtiered, the wheels re- 
 moved, and the body laid flat upon the ground. 
 Mortar-beds for the larger-sized mortars, viz. the 13-. 
 10-, and 8-incli land service, are made of iron, and 
 the smaller of wood, \-iz. the 'i\- and 45-inch. Mor- 
 tars arc elevated by means of (juoins. 
 
 2. Straw and bedsacks are allowed to soldiers for 
 bedding. The introduction of single iron bedsteads 
 will make it ne(es<;iry to increase the allowance of 
 bed-furniture. In Prussia and other countries, ham- 
 mocks are used in place of bedsteads. lied has also 
 other applications: as, camp-bed; tx-d of a gun-lock; 
 Ix-d of sjind; bed of a river; to .separate the beds of 
 stone in a ipiarry, etc. 
 
 BEDAINES.— Stone bullet.s which were thrown 
 from catapulls durinu' the Middle Ages. 
 
 BEDOUINS-BEDUINS.— Arabs who lead a noma- 
 dic life, anil are generally regarded, according to 
 tradition, as the descendants of Ishmael, and the 
 aborigines of Arabia. The most ancient notices 
 found in Scripture agree, in their descrl|Uions of the 
 manners and customs of the Bedouias, with the facts 
 of the present time. As nomads, the Bedouin Arabs 
 have no united history, but only a collection of gene- 
 alogies. They have but s<'ldom appeared as a united 
 jX'ople, taking a prominent |iart in the worhl's poli- 
 ties, and have never been enlirelv held in subjection 
 by any foreign power. The desert of Arabia, es- 
 
 pecially the plateau of Nedjid, is their central place 
 of abode; but, even in ancient times, they had spread 
 themselves over the deserts of Egypt and Syria; and 
 in later times, after the decaj- of :uicient civilization, 
 they entered Syria, Jlesoixitamia. luid Chahhea. The 
 conquest of Northern Africa, in the seventh century, 
 openeil up to them still vaster tracts, and they .soon 
 extended themselves over the Great Desert to the 
 .shores of the Atlantic Ocean. At ]ires(>nt, they are to 
 be found scattered over an immense lireadth of terri- 
 tory — \iz., from the western Ixiundary of Persia to 
 the Atlantic, and from the mountains of Kurdistan 
 to the Negro Countries of Sudan. In the cultivated 
 lands of Mesopotamia. Clialdiva, the SjTian confines, 
 Barbary, Nubia, and the north of Sudan, the Arabs 
 are found intermingled with other nations; but in 
 the deserts they have maintained their distinct char- 
 acter and independence. Tlie characteristics of the 
 Bedouins, as herdsmen and robbers in the desert, are 
 intimately connected ^vith the nature of their haliita- 
 tion. Their abstinent, precarious, and often solitary 
 mode of life makes them disposed to exercise mutual 
 hospitality; but their independence, love of liberty, 
 and other g(X)d (jualities are as.sociated with ^^olent 
 passions and an infamous love of plunder, which is 
 utterly reckless of the rights of property. They are 
 generally well-iiiade men. lean, sinewy, and active; 
 but, on accoimt of frequent luinlsliips and privations, 
 are commonly below middle stature. Their senses, 
 especially sight, are keen, and their carriage is free 
 and indepentient. The nose is commonly aquiline, 
 the face rather lengthened, and the eyes are well 
 shaped and expressive of both daring and cunning. 
 In complexion, they have various shades of brown. 
 With the exception of certain tribes in S_\Tia, all the 
 Beiiouins are professedly Mohammedans, but bj- no 
 means strict in the observance of their religious rites 
 and duties. Their Marahouts — a class of ascetics — 
 take the place of priests, and exercise considerable 
 influence in all social and public affairs. As the 
 Arabs have no settled government or policy, religious 
 traditions and customs form the only bond of order 
 and union among them. Though their intellectual 
 powers are naturally good, they are miserably desti- 
 tute of solid knowledge. Their endless tales and 
 poetical effusions show a wonderful activity of im- 
 agination and an oriental love of hj-pertole. The 
 relation of the sexes to each other is less constrained 
 than among the settled peoples of the East, and a 
 substitute for polygamy is found in a freiiuent inter- 
 change of wives. Tlieir favorite pastimes are the 
 chase, ball-play, dancing, songs, stories, and the ihke 
 far niente (plea-sant lazines,s) of drinking coffee and 
 smoking narghiles. Their diet is principally de- 
 i rived from their herds, but includes a few vegeta- 
 bles, and even locusts and lizards. Honey is also a 
 principal luxury with all clas.ses, and, moreover, one 
 \\ liich has a religious sanction, for it was indulged in 
 by iloliammed himself, who makes copious mention 
 of it in the Koran. They manufacture their own 
 woolen clothing, which consists of the haikh—a. long, 
 wide garment fastened on the head, and descending 
 to the feet — and the burnoofc, a large mantle. Only 
 superior men wear breeches and linen or cotton 
 shirt-s. The hair of the head is shaven, but the 
 beard is a favorite object of cultivation. The politi- 
 cal condition of the Bedouins may be styled patri- 
 archal. One or more families, the males of which 
 bear the title of Sheik, form the core of a tribe, and 
 along with the maralxiuts, or priests, constitute a 
 kind of aristocracy. Out of their number the 
 superior Sheik, or Kaid, is electeti, who rules in 
 lialriarehal style over the whole tribe. This general 
 sketch of the Bedouins applies chiefly to the true 
 nomads, or " dwellers in the desert," and is subject to 
 several modifications with regard to tribes located in 
 Barbary, Syria, and Mesopotamia, who practice 
 agriculture and dwell in houses. 
 
 BED-SORES. — A very troublesome complication of 
 disease, to which wounded soldiers are liable when
 
 BEECH-TBEE. 
 
 169 
 
 BEETLES. 
 
 for a long time confined to the ambulance or stretcher, 
 and either unable or not allowed to change position. 
 Thus they are liable to occur in ca.ses of continued 
 fever, or any other prolonged debilitating disorder, 
 in paralysis from injury of the spinal cord, and in 
 cases of fracture of the thigh. The skin at certain 
 projecting bony parts, chiefly about the region of the 
 buttocks, or on the heel, is apt to inflame, ulcerate, 
 and slough, especially if the patient is not kept per- 
 fectly clean. The patient sometimes complains of a 
 sense of discomfort at the parts, as if he were lying 
 on dry crumbs of bread; at other times he seems to 
 feel nothing. Hence, in all cases of prolonged supine 
 position, the parts naturally pressed upon by the 
 ■weight of the body should be carefully examined 
 every day or two, as prevention is far easier than 
 cure. When a long confinement to bed is expected, 
 attempts should be made to thicken the cuticle, and 
 enable it to bear pressure better, I)}' nilibing the skin 
 ■with a stimulant such as spirits or eau-de-Cologne. If 
 the part, when first seen, looks red and rough, further 
 
 life in cases of this accident, disjcases of the urinary 
 organs Ix'ini the other. See Airbed and Pillotr. 
 
 BEECH-TREE.— Only one species (Faf/u/i gylmtka) 
 is common to Europe. In Engl.ind, the Buckingham- 
 shire and Sussex beech-trees are esteemed the best. 
 The color of the woo<l is whitish brown, of a unifonn 
 texture and closeness. It is considered to be almost 
 chemically free from foreign matters. It is used in 
 the manufacture of fiiscs, and no wood has yet been 
 found equal to it for that purjwse. It is also valuable 
 for wooden types in printing. 
 
 BEEF-EATEE.— A term now applied jocularly to 
 certain functionaries in England belonging to the 
 Yeomen of the Guiird, who, ever since the lime of 
 Henry VII., have formed part of the Train of 
 Royalty, attending the Sovereign at royal banquets 
 and other state occasions. They have maintained the 
 same costume, with a slight alteration made in 18.58, 
 for nearly four centuries; and this costume has had 
 much to do with their attractiveness to sight-seere. 
 The origin of the term is a case of what Dr. Latham 
 
 Befifroi, or Breaching-tower. 
 
 damage is often prevented by covering it with a piece 
 of calico on which soaji-plaster has been spread; 
 the local p.essure may be removed by air-cushions 
 specially co. structed for ca.ses of this kind, and in 
 many instances Amott's water-bed affords great 
 comfort. If the ca.se is one in which it is admissible, 
 the patient should be ma<le to alter his position fre- 
 quently. AMien there are excoriations, and a thrciit- 
 ening of sloughing, a poultice compo.sed of equal parts 
 of bread-crumbs" and of finely-giated nmttou-suet, 
 mixed over the fire in a .saucepan, with a little boil- 
 ing water, is often a comforting and useful applica- 
 tion. After sloughing has fairly begun, stinndating 
 applications, such .as rcsin-oinlment, must lie apiilii-d. 
 It is -northy of notice that lied-sores come on earlier 
 in cases of fractured spine than in any other: they 
 generally appear by the fourth day. and have been 
 seen two days after the accident. They commonly 
 form one of" the most powerful agents in destroying 
 
 calls ''words of foreign simulating a vernacular 
 origin." It was originally beatifitier or biifftlur, one 
 who attends the buffet "or sideboard. Similar in- 
 st;mces of false et)-niology, arising from resemblance 
 in sound, are seen in Mot-ovtr (a hill near O.xford), 
 from Chateau Yert; gparroic-graxs, from anihiragm; 
 ancient, for en»if!n; dog-cheap, from the old English 
 god-h) jie, i.e. gooil-chmp, meaning a good bargain; etc. 
 
 BEER-MONEY.— A peculiar payment to Non-com- 
 missione*! officers and soldiers in the English army. 
 It was establishcil in the year 18(X), at the suggestion 
 of the Duke of York, and consisted of one penny per 
 day for troops when on home-service, as a sul)stitute 
 for an issue of beer and spirits. It continued as an 
 addition to the daily jiay until IST."?, when, the 
 stoppages for rations having been abolished, the 0l> 
 jwrtumty was taken to consolidate beer-money and 
 pav proper. 
 
 BEETLES.— In a military sense, very large wooden
 
 BEFFBOI. 
 
 170 
 
 BELLOWS. 
 
 hammers usctl for dri%'ing do\vn palisades, and for 
 
 oilier i)urp<isos. 
 
 BEFFEOI.— The name frivcn to a tower used in 
 the military siegi-s of aucieiit and mciliieval times. 
 \Mien a tovi-n was to be' besieged, a movable tower, 
 as hijrh as the walls, was brought near it; and this 
 tower was the btffroi. Its use is more than oiue 
 spoken of by Ca'sjir in his account of his campaigns 
 in Gaul. Froissart desi-rilK'S, with his usual spirit, a 
 bellroi employed at the siege of the Castle of Breteuil 
 in lii'iG. At llie siege of Jerusjilem by the Crusaders, 
 a beffroi was carried in pieces, put together just be- 
 yond bowshot, and then pushed on wheels to a 
 proper position. The object of such towers Wiis to 
 cover the api)roach of troops. Sometimes the3' were 
 puslied on by pressure, sometimes by capstans and 
 ropes. The highest were on si.\ or eight wheels, and 
 had as many as'twclve or tifteen stories or stages; but 
 it was usual to limit the height to three or four stages. 
 They were often covered with raw hides, to protect 
 them from the flames of boiling grease and oil direct- 
 ed against them by the besieged ; and there was a 
 hinged drawbridge at the top, to let down upon the 
 parapet of the wall, to aid in landing. The lower 
 stage frequently had a ram; while the others were 
 crowded with "archers, arbalisters, and slingers; or 
 there were bowmen on all the stages except the top, 
 which had a storming or boarding party. During 
 the wars under Charles I., the Royalists made a bef- 
 froi to aid in the besieging of a town or castle in 
 Herefordshire; it was higher than the defense- works, 
 and was provided with lo()|)-ho1es, a bridge, etc.; but 
 the Rovindheads captured it before it could be ajiplied 
 to use. Ducange thinks that the name of belfry 
 given to a bell-tower was derived from the warlike 
 machine called the beffroi or belfry. See Battering- 
 ram. 
 
 BEG— BET.— A Turkish title, rather vague in its 
 import, and commonly given to superior military 
 ofticers, ship-captauis, and distinguished foreigners. 
 More strictly, it applies to the Governor of a small 
 district, who bears a horse-tail as a sign of his rank. 
 The Governor of Tunis has this title. — " Beglerbeg," 
 or, more correctly, Beilerbegi (" Lord of Lords"), 
 the title given to the Governor of a province who 
 bears three horse-tails as his badge of honor, and 
 has autliority over several begs, agas, etc. This 
 suiK-rior title belongs to the Governors of Rumelia, 
 Anatcilia, and Syria. 
 
 BEHOUKD. — A name given during the Middle 
 Ages to a combat on horseback, lance in hand; also 
 a tilting of cavaliers, which took place at public 
 amusements. Also written Bilumrl and Buhurt. 
 
 BELFRY. — A tower of wood, movable on wheels, 
 used in sieges in the Middle Ages. Sometimes a 
 battering-ram was used with it. It was as high as 
 the wall attacked, and a drawbridge was rigged at 
 the top to be dropped on the wall when occasion 
 offered. See Beffroi. 
 
 BELIDOR SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. — This 
 system resembles Hosard's mctliod, Init is not so good. 
 A tirst enceinte consists of small bastions; a second 
 of large liastions with retrenchments; a third of out- 
 works. Tlie reduits of re-entering places of arms are 
 formed of loop-holed walls. The glacis is further de- 
 fended by limettes. The profusion of miusonry ren- 
 ders this svstem impracticable, and the great ninuber 
 of outworks necessitates a very strong garrison. Its 
 great merit consists in obliging the besieger to em- 
 ploy a numerous artillery to ricochet a fnjnt, and to 
 pass through four periods of breaehing-batteries. 
 
 BELIEE. — A battering-ram invented by the Carth- 
 aginians al«)Ut 441 n.c; ascd in ancient times for 
 siege purpd.ses. Also ti w(x)deii machine for driving 
 wedges under a ship's bottom (jr heavy ordnance. 
 
 BELLIGERENT.— Waging war. Hence any two 
 or more coiiiitries at war with each other are termed 
 belligerenls. 
 
 BELL-METAL. — An alloy composed of copper and 
 tin, either alone or with the addition of a greater or 
 
 less proiwrtion of other metals, usually zinc and lead. 
 It is a species of bronze, and from its hardness and 
 sonorousness is better adapted than any other metal 
 for the puipose from which it derives its name. 
 The usual proportion is 75 parts copper and 25 
 parts tin, but constituents vary from 50 copi>er, 
 33 zinc, and 17 tin, to HO copper, 10 tin. 6 zinc, and 
 4 lead. The proitorlion 78 copper to 22 tin is gene- 
 rally recognized in commerce. This metal is vari- 
 oiisiy employed in the armory. 
 
 BELLONA. — The goddess of war among the Ro- 
 mans. She was described by the poets as the com- 
 panion, sister, wife, or daughter of Mars; she wa.s 
 also represented as armed with a bloody s<'Ourge, and 
 as inspiring her votaries with a resistless enthusiasm 
 in battle. In the war with the Samnites, the Cou.sul 
 Appius Claudius vowed a temple to Bellona, which 
 was erected afterwards on the Field of Mars. In this 
 temple the Senate gave audience to cmba.ssics from 
 foreign powers, and also to Consuls who had claims 
 to a triumph which would have been nullified by 
 entrance into the city. The priests of the goddess 
 were styled BeHoiuirii, and practiced sanguinary 
 rites, such as cutting their own arms or feet and 
 offering (or even drinking) the blood in sacrifice. 
 This was especially done on the dies sanguinis (day 
 of blood), March 34. 
 
 BELLOWS. — The earliest blowing-machine was, 
 doubtless, .some form of the common Im'Hows, the 
 idea of which is supposed to have been derived from 
 the limgs. A very primitive form of this instru- 
 ment is still in use in .some Eastern coimtries, consist- 
 ing simply of the skin of some animal sewed into a 
 rude bag with a valve and nozzle. The older forms 
 of domestic bellows are all constructed on the same 
 principle — viz., a chamber formed of two boards 
 with flexible leather sides, having at one end a noz- 
 zle with a narrow mouth, and in the lower board a 
 
 Root's Blowing-machine, Sectiocal View, 
 
 valve of considerably larger area for the admission 
 of air. When the bellows are distended by drawing 
 the boards apart, air is sucked in by the valve, to re- 
 place the vacuum which would otlierwi.se be formed; 
 and then, when the boards are being closed, the 
 valve, which only opens inwards, is shut by the com- 
 pressed air; and the latter, having no other escape, 
 is forced out at the nozzle. The great fault of the 
 common bellows Ls that it gives a succession of puffs 
 and not a continuous blast. One remedy for this 
 was to use two bellows, so that one was blowing 
 while the other was filling; but it was afterwards 
 found that the double-beliows secured a still more 
 uniform blast. This machine is merel}' the conunon 
 bellows with a third board of the same shaiie as the 
 other two placed between them, so as to fonii two 
 chambers instead of one. The middle board is ti.xed, 
 and both it and the lower one have valves placed in 
 them opening inward. A w(iglit on the lower lioiird 
 keeps the imder chamber tilled with air; and when
 
 BELLS OF ABUS. 
 
 171 
 
 BELTS. 
 
 this board is raised by a lever or othersvise, tlie air 
 which it contains is forced into the upper chamber. 
 The exit-pipe is attached to the latter, and a weight 
 is placed on the upjier Ixiard sufficiently heavy to 
 press the air out in a continuous stream, the con- 
 tinuity being maintained liy the large quantity of air 
 always present in the ujiper chamber, and the uni- 
 form pressure of the weight. Sometimes a spring is 
 used instead of a weight to press out the air. Even 
 with the double bellows, however, the constant re- 
 filling of the upper portion from the lower prevents 
 the blast from being quite regular 
 
 Fanners are, at present, much employed for creat- 
 ing blasts to melt pig-iron in foundries, and arc used 
 instead of bellows in smithies, on account of their 
 greater convenience and the steadier bla.st which they 
 yield. A domestic bellows has even been intro- 
 duced on the fan-principle. The fan is also much 
 used in the ventilation of buildings, ships, and mines. 
 For the last it is now considered preferable to the 
 plan of furnace-ventilation, especially where there 
 are fiery seams of coal. A modified form of the 
 fan, called a centrifugal dixk, patented by Mr. Kam- 
 mell, was succe.ssfullj' employed by the Pneumatic 
 Dispatch Company for the traiLsmission of the mail- 
 bags. An ingenious but simple ventilator is in use 
 in the niities of the Harz for supplying fresh air. It 
 consists of two long cylindrical vessels, one of which 
 is so much smaller as, when inverted, to move up 
 and down inside the other. The outer one 
 is partly filled with water, and has a tube 
 leading through the water down to the mine. 
 The inner inverted cask, which has a valve 
 opening inwards, is lifted and then pressed 
 down, so forcing air through the tube. Tli' 
 excellent and well-known blowing-raachiin 
 of the Messrs. Roots, shown in section in 
 the drawing, may be thus described; A pair 
 of horizontal shafts, geared together at both 
 ends, traverse a ca.se of the form of two semi- 
 cylinders, separated by a rectimgle equal in 
 depth to the diameter of the semi-cylinders, and in 
 width to the distance between the centers of the 
 shafts. These shafts carry a pair of solid arms, 
 each having a section somewhat resembling a figure 
 of eight, the action of which, as they revohe, takes 
 the air in by an aperture at the bottom of the ma- 
 chine, and e.xpels it with considerable pressure, if 
 required, at the top. For the purposes of ventilation, 
 and also for expelling accumulations of hot air, 
 dust, waste flyings, etc., in factories, a machine has 
 been constructed by Mr. J. Howorth, Farnworth, 
 Bolton, called a Rerolrlng Archimedean Screw-ceiitila- 
 Ujr. It consists of an Archimedean screw inclosed 
 in a tube with proper means of lubrication. Its 
 diameter is 30 inches, and it is made to be si-t in mo- 
 tion b}' steam or other power, but it is also furnished 
 with a hood, on the top of which there are curved 
 vanes, which turn the screw by the action of the 
 wind. Immediately beneath these there is another 
 series of lateral vanes for the escape of the hot air. 
 See likiircr and Iron. 
 
 BELLS OF ASMS. — Tents or ma.sonry buildings, 
 formerly used in India, and to some extent at the 
 present day, for the dejiosit and care of the arms of 
 each company of a native regiment. The bells of 
 arms were generally built in front of the lines of the 
 reiriment and behind the parade-ground. The tent 
 is frequently painted with the color of the facings of 
 the regimental uniforms. 
 
 BELTS.— I. Leathern suspenders of different kiiids 
 and for various purposes, viz.: Siroi-d belt.s, to which 
 swords ham; (the drawing represents the New 
 Kegiilation Full-dress Belt in the United States 
 Anny); Shoulder or Cross l)ells, broad Icatliem belts, 
 crossing from the right shoulder, and to which the 
 pouch is affixed; and leathern straps fixed round the 
 waist, by which a sword or bayonet is suspended. 
 See EqinpmenU.—-i. Endless strips of flexibl.' mate- 
 rial, usually leather or India rubber, to transmit mo- 
 
 tion or power from one pulley to another. Ropes and 
 chains serve a similar puipose. When chains are 
 used, the pulleys are provided with projections which 
 engage in the links of the chains and prevent slip- 
 ping, and the mechanism has the positive relations of 
 a rack and pinion. ()rdin;iry flexible belts transmit 
 power by the friction between them and their pulleys. 
 The pulley which communicates motion is the 
 driving pulley; that which receives, the driven pul- 
 ley; that part of the belt which runs from the driven 
 pulley to the driver Ls the driving part of the lx;lt, 
 since it is pulled by the driver, and in turn pulls on 
 the driven pulley; the part of the belt which runs 
 from the driver to the driven pulley is the slack belt. 
 The strain on the driving belt is the sum of the strain 
 of the belt on the pulleys when there is no motion 
 plus the strain of the friction; that on the slack belt 
 is the .same strain on the pulleys less the friction. 
 Thas, if a belt is stretched over its pulleys with a 
 strain of 10 lbs. per inch of width, and it requires 5 
 lbs. to make it slip, then the strain on the driving 
 belt is 10-1-5 — 15 lbs., and the strain on the slack belt 
 is 10—5 = 5 lbs. per inch of belt. As the two parts of 
 the belt are unequally strained there will be a ten- 
 dency to move, or creep, towards the driving belt 
 over the driven pulley. Hence the velocity ratio of 
 the two pulleys will not exactly follow the inverse 
 ratio of their radii, and the belt cannot lie relied upon 
 for giving uniformity of motion. For driving most 
 
 machinery, the fact that the belt is elastic, and will 
 slip if unduly strained, makes it a favorite method of 
 communicating power. Rubber bells tran.smit about 
 25 per cent more power than leather, because the sur- 
 face of the rubber conforms more perfectly to the 
 minute inequalities of the pulley surface, and thus 
 acquires a closer gra.sp. The texture of a rubber belt 
 is more uniform than can be had in leather, and 
 therefore a wide rubber belt will wear more evenly. 
 In damp and exposed places rubber is moa' durable 
 than leather. If, however, the belt is to be shifted 
 back and forth, as in the stopping and starting of 
 manv machines, or in cro.ss-belting — wherever the 
 edge" of the belt is liable to wear— leather is prefer-
 
 BIND. 
 
 172 
 
 BENTON DYNAMOHETEB. 
 
 able. If the pulley lie higher at the center thnn at 
 the side, or higher at one side thnn at the other, the 
 bell will creep towards the highest part; for this 
 rC!i.<on tlie surface of the pulley is usually niii(U' not 
 cylindric, but of greater (liameter at the center. If 
 this be ovenione, the iK-lt does not pull, except along 
 its central part. The pulleys usually lie in the sjime 
 plane, and with their axes parallel;" but this is not 
 necessarj-, provided that the course of each part of 
 the belt— the driving and the sla<'k part alike — be in 
 the plane of the pulley toward which that part of the 
 bt'lt runs; the belt being always delivered by one 
 pidlcy into the plane of the other. Transinis.sion of 
 power by belts is more common in the United States 
 than in Euroix". Hempen or wire ro|)es, running 
 over large pulleys witli \' shaped edges, arc used to 
 tnmsniil power to long distances. The l'. S. Arse- 
 nal at Rock Island, III., carries more than half a mile 
 by one to\w the power of four large turbine wheels, suf- 
 ficient for all the present need of the machine-shops. 
 Such cables have been called telcodynamic cables. 
 They can be run as fast as one mile per minute, and 
 •without covering will last three years. Intennediate 
 sheaves are required at every 300 or 400 feet. See 
 Tran»misst(m of Poirerfor Military Purposes. 
 
 BEND. — One of the honorable ordinaries, or more 
 imiMirtant figures in Heraldry. It is formed by two 
 parallel lines, which may be either straight or in- 
 dented, engrailed, etc., drawn from the dexter to the 
 sinister bii.sc, and consequently passing athwart the 
 shield. The bend occupies a fifth part of the shield 
 in breadth, if plain; and a third part, if charged. 
 The bend is sugposed to represent a shoulder-belt, 
 or scarf worn over the shoulder. When heralds 
 speak of the bend simply, llie bend-dexter is under- 
 
 with a steel plate securely riveted to the body of the 
 block, and containing a dovetail-groove, corres]>ond- 
 ing to the bolster on the lock-plate. When fixed, 
 the block is l(M,-ked in place by a rotary cam on its 
 inner .surface, connected with a thumb-jiiece on the 
 out.side and turned by it so as to engage against the 
 lower edgi^ of the bolster. The cartridges are held 
 in the block, incase of its being accidcutjdly over- 
 turned, by copper bushings with which the holes are 
 lined. 
 
 This block is intended to be issued as a part of 
 the soldiers' equipment, and to be carried full in the 
 cartridge-box. To this end, additional protection 
 against dropping the cartridges is allorded by a 
 leather straji, fastened at the forward end of the 
 block and passing over the heads of the cartridges to 
 a button on the other end of the lilock. Colonel 
 Benton also pro])Osed that the jiortion of the slock 
 jusi to the left of the receiver of a Springfield gun 
 might be enlarged so as to accommodate five car- 
 tridges, caliber .4.5. They were to be held in place 
 by a lip on the side of the breech-block when the 
 breech was closed, and when opened by the copper 
 bushings. See ILne and Metcalfe Cartridge-block. 
 
 BENTON DYNAMOMETER.— Tins instrument, in- 
 vented by Licutenanl-colonel .lames G. Benton, 
 Ordnance Department, U. S. Army, is designed to be 
 used in connection willi the Hodman pressure-gauge, 
 for the purpose of determining the presence per 
 square inch exerted within the bores of cannon and 
 small arms b)' the ignition of ixiwder. It may also 
 be used for testing the tensile strength of materials 
 or for measuring their compres.sion within certain 
 limits. The size of the six>cimeus would necessarily 
 have to be small. When used for either of the latter 
 
 Bend. 
 
 Bendlet. 
 
 Garter. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Ribbon. 
 
 Stood, the bend-sinister being always expressly men- 
 tioned. Bend-sinister is the bend-dexter reversed, 
 and pa.s.sing from the left to the right side of the 
 shield, as the dexter does from the right to the left. 
 There are four diminutives of the bend, viz., the 
 bendlet, the garter, the cost, and the ribbon. The 
 tenns in bend, jier bend, bendy, etc. , are of frequent 
 occurrence in heraldic works, and signify that the 
 charge is placed, or the shield divided, diagonally in 
 the direction of the bend. See Bar, Bastard Bar, 
 and Ilcrnhlni. 
 
 BENGAL LIGHT-BENGOLA.— A brilliant signal- 
 light used at sea during sliipT\Teck, and in ordinary' 
 pyrotechny for illuminating a district of coimtr}-. ft 
 is iirepaied from niter, sulphur, and the tersulphuret 
 of antimony. The materials are redviced to fine 
 powder, thoroughly dried, and intimately mixed in 
 the following projjortions bv weight : niter, 6; sul- 
 phur. 2; tersidphuret of antimony, 1. The 'mixture 
 constitutes the bcnirola, and wheii kindled by a red- 
 hot coal, red-hot iron, or flame, immediately bursts 
 into rajad and vivid combustion, cvohing a brilliant, 
 penetrating, but mellow light, which, during the 
 darkness of night, readilv overcomes the gloom for 
 a considerable space. As the fumes evolved during 
 the combustion of the beiiETola contain an o.xide of 
 antimony and are poisonous, the lisrht cannot be 
 used with siifety in rooms or inclosed spaces. 
 
 BENICKE.— "A kind of militjiry fOte among the 
 Turks, similar to a tournament, but -without the 
 presence of ladies. 
 
 BENTON CARTRIDGE-BLOCK.- A projecting bol- 
 ster is left at the forward end of the loe'k-plaie and 
 is under-cut in ffont and rear. On to this it is de- 
 signed to slip a detachable magazine-block holding 
 ■one row of six cartridges, and faced on the inner side 
 
 purposes, special forms of housings have to be made 
 to fit between the guide-blocks. In testing for ten- 
 sile strength, provision must be made to check the 
 sudden reaction of the springs at the instant of rup- 
 ture, by interposing a block of rubber, or some other 
 yielding substance, in order to break the force of 
 recoil. 
 
 This machine consists essentially of — 1. The frame; 
 2. The springs; 3. The cylindrical casing; 4. The 
 guide-blocks; 5. The screw; 6. The graduated scale. 
 The frame is rectangular in form and made of cast- 
 iron. It rests upon a wooden pedestal fonned of two 
 thick check- pieces into which a transverse piece of 
 timber is mortised and securely held by two long 
 wroughl-iron bolts. The frame is fastened to this 
 pedestal by four bolts, also of wrought-iron. The 
 steel springs are comjiri-sed in two .systems, or nests, 
 of concentric spiral sjirings, consisting of three 
 springs each. The outer is a left-handid spiral and 
 has the greatest cross-section; the middle one is a 
 right-handed, and the central a left-handed, spiral. 
 The twf) systems are placed one above the other be- 
 tween the u))rights of the cast-iron frame, with a thin 
 steel plate between them. The cross-sections of all 
 the springs are reclangidar, that of the central ones 
 being the least. Thev are inclosed by a hollow cast- 
 iron cylindrical casing, concentric with but not 
 touching them. This casing does not rise to the 
 level of the ni'Sts by nearly three inches, to allow 
 space for their compression. The lower guide-block 
 has'on its under surface a fiat disk of iron with a 
 diameter equal to the exterior diameter of the springs, 
 which rests ujion the upper base, in order to give a 
 good bearing surface, i'hese nests of springs are 
 those used for the ordinary car-buffers, with the ex- 
 terior and interior evliii<liical surfaces turned smooth.
 
 BENTON THBEAD VELOCIMETER. 
 
 173 
 
 BENTON THEEAD VELOCIMETEE. 
 
 so that the springs of each sj-stem are concentric 
 without being in contact. Each nest is 7.68 inches in 
 length, measured on the a.\is. The lateral deflection 
 of the axis of the entire system due to compression is 
 obviated by using two systems, or nests, as described 
 above, with a steel disk between them, and by grind- 
 ing the limiting bases of the sprini;s to plane surfaces 
 perpendieidar to their axes, and inserting small steel 
 blocks under the tapering terminal ends of the 
 spirals, thus insuring the rigidity and .stability of 
 position of the basal planes of each system of springs. 
 This blocking up and squaring the ends, while 
 diminishing the amount of their compressibility, 
 allow the power applied to the screw to be trans- 
 mitted more uniformly to the springs, as they come 
 to a bearing almost simultaneously. The guide- 
 blocks are two rectangular pieces of cast-iron, \\ith 
 planed siu'faces, accurately titled to move between 
 the planed surfaces of the uprights of the frame. In 
 front they are confined to their positions by steel side 
 plates screwed to them, and projecting shoulders re- 
 tain them on the rear side of the frame. The lower 
 block rests on the upper set of springs, and carries a 
 cylindrical cap of nickel-plated brass, which conceals 
 that portion of the springs which projects above the 
 cyluidrical casing. This cap is slotted at the sides to 
 allow it to slide up and down the frame. Its 
 diameter is a little greater than that of the ca.sing, to 
 admit of its passing over the latter during compres- 
 sion. The upper guide-block Is attached to the screw 
 by a shoulder which turns easily in a recess in the 
 let surface of the block, and is covered by a steel plate 
 into its upper side flush with the surface, and held by 
 six screws. The screw is of steel, 1.6 inches in diame- 
 ter, with eight threads to the inch; it engages a female 
 screw in the upper cross-piece of the frame. The 
 motion of the screw is limited in the direction of the 
 axis by a metallic collar attached to the newel just 
 below the wheel. The power is applied to a cast- 
 iron wheel attached to the upper end of the screw. 
 The length of the screw and the position of the collar 
 are so correlated that when the machine is not in 
 use, should the screw, by accident or design, be de- 
 pressed to its fullest extent, no initial tension can be 
 brought to bear upon the springs, jirovided the 
 housfng and block have been removed from between 
 the guide-blocks, as they invariably should be except 
 when in legitimate use. A graduated scale 6 inches 
 long, made of a small square steel bar, is attached to the 
 frame by two small blocks. These blocks are slotted 
 to receive the ends of the scale. A screw inserted 
 through each block and into the ends of the scale-bar 
 furnishes the means of a longitudinal adjustment. 
 A small sliding-block upon the scale, whose upper 
 plane surface serves as a pointer, has a toe projecting 
 from one side to receive the pressure of the lower 
 edge of the side plate of the lower guide-block during 
 its descent. This index or pointer is held in any 
 position on the scale by the action of a gib, whose 
 pressure is regTilated by adjusting screws. The 
 scale upon its four sides is graduated into sixteenths, 
 fiftieths, sixty-fourths, and himdredths of an inch 
 respectively. 
 
 When the dynamometer is used for finding pres- 
 sures, the appendages are: 1. The block; 2. The 
 housing; 3. The copper block or disk; 4. The cutter; 
 5. The limit-gauge. The block is of cast-iron, 
 planed and fitted by narrow overhanging lips to the 
 upper surface of the ujjper guide-ljlock. A pin pro- 
 iecting from the latter into a small hole countersunk 
 in the bottom of the block centers it, and a corre- 
 sponding pin set in its upper surface performs the 
 same function for the housing, thus insuring the 
 coincidence of the line of direction of the pressure t 
 with the axis of the screw. The housing is made of ', 
 tempered steel, and its form and dimensions must 
 conform to the object in view. Fig. 1 shows the 
 usual form. The side screws (two on each side) pro- 
 ject interually far enough to bring the edge of the 
 cutter, when "in iwsition, upon a line one third of the | 
 
 width of the copiier block from its longer side. By 
 shifting the copper block, a second cut may be made 
 in the simie block. The widths of metal iK-tween the 
 cuts and eilges will be equal. The side screws serve 
 to adjust the copper blocks in the housing and offer 
 no serious obstruction to the flow of the metal, the 
 places of contact being mere points. The position of 
 the cutter is invariable, laterally. There is a stop on 
 the back of the hou.sing to facilitate the longitudi- 
 nal atljustment of the copper block and cutter. The 
 cutter-block is of tempered steel and is rectangular in 
 shape. The cutting or inckntiiig edge is an arc of a 
 
 
 I 
 
 -D- 
 
 © i r- 
 
 r»o 
 
 1 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 -XTT 
 
 FiQ. 1. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fjg. 8. 
 
 circle; the two surfaces whose intersections form the 
 edge are tw-o right cones with circular ba.ses. The 
 form and dimensions are sho«-n in Fig. 2. The 
 limit-gauge, shown in Fig. 3. consists of tvvo parts. 
 The lower part has on its upper end a screw which 
 tits into a corresponding female .screw upoti the in- 
 terior cylindrical surface of the upper part. This 
 arrangement gives a longitudinal motion by which 
 the length of the gauge can be adjusted. Tlie planes 
 of the ends of the gauge are parallel to each other. 
 A collar on the upper part, and the base on the lower, 
 are either milled or checked, for ease of turning while 
 adjusting. See Di/iKiiiiniinkr and Pntutiire-gd'if/e. 
 
 BENTON THREAD VELOCIMETEE.— A gravity 
 in.stnunent in which the weights are suspended by 
 the tension of a cord, and it may be worked with 
 common thread in place of the usual electro-magnetic 
 currents. The principle involved in this arrangement 
 is that the loosening elTect of cutting a taut thread is 
 transmitted to equal distances along the thread from 
 the point of rupture, in equal, or sensibly equal, 
 times. It is a principle that can be applied to others 
 of the large class of machines for measuring small in- 
 tervals of time. The ]ieculiar advantages foimd in 
 the use of threads over electricity are simplicity and 
 cheapness of the api^aratus. freedom from acid and 
 water for the batteries, and the certainty and ease 
 with which it can be oi)erated by a single person, 
 and that person the one who tires the gun. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents the front and end views of the 
 Benton Electro-ballistic Machine, originally devised 
 for the use of the Military Acailemy, and since nxMli- 
 tied and adopted by the Ordnance Deparlnieiit, for 
 proving powder, etc. a is a bed -plate of metal, 
 which supports a graduated arc, i. This arc is 
 placed in a vertical jOTsition by means of thuiiib-ncrcwii 
 and Kpirit-kceh attached to it ; iUid it is graduated 
 into degrees and fifths, commencing at the lowest 
 point of the arc and endmg at W. p p' are two pen- 
 dulums having a common a.xis of motion, pa.ssing 
 throuirh the center and jx-rpcndicular to thi^ plane 
 of the arc. The bob of the pendulum, p , is fixed, 
 but that of p can be moved up and down with a 
 thumb-.screw, so as to make the times of vibration 
 equal, m and m' are two electro-magnets attached to 
 the horizontal limb of the arc, to hold up the pen- 
 dulums when they are detlectcd through angles of 
 90°. » and s' are pieces of soft iron attached to the 
 prolongations of the suspension-rods, in such way
 
 BIUTON THKEAD VELOCIMETEB. 
 
 174 
 
 BENTON THBEAD VELOCIMETEB, 
 
 as to be in contact with the lower poles of the mag- 
 nets when the pemlulunis are deflected. (/ is im 
 apparatus to ri'coRl the point at which the pendu- 
 lums pass each other, when they fall liy the breakins: 
 of the currents which excite the majjiiets. It is at- 
 tached to the prolonpition of the suspension-rod, ;) , 
 and consists essiMitially of a small pin inclosetl in a 
 brass tube ; the end of the pin near the arc lias a 
 sharp jx)int, and the other is terminated with a head 
 the surface of which is oblique to the plane of the 
 arc. As the iicnduUmis pass each other, a blunt 
 steel point attached to the lower extremity of the sus- 
 pension-rod, p, strikes against the oblique surface of 
 the head of the pin, which presses the point into a 
 piece of paper clamped to the arc, leaving a small 
 
 small-arms it is found difficult to insure the cutting of 
 the thread of No. 2 target without a sjwcial arrange- 
 ment. Target No. 1 , for miull-nrms, consists of a piece 
 of board with a vertical opening to serve as a rest for 
 the muzzle of the gun. Across this oi)ening, and 
 directly in front of the muzzle, is stretched a short 
 horizontal llircad secured to two leatlier washers. 
 The thread to jiendulum No. 1 is drawn around the 
 middle of the horizontal thread, and secured at the 
 leather washer. Tlie muzzle of the i)iece is in con- 
 tact with the intersection of the threads, which should 
 be a lillle l)elow the center of the bore The thread 
 is cut the instant the bullet readies tlie muzzle, and 
 the other thread slackens, generally without breaking. 
 Target No. 2, for small-arms, Fig. 3, is composed of 
 
 FlQ. 1. 
 
 puncture to mark the point of passage. An improve- 
 ment to the foregoing consists in attaching to the 
 pendulum, p' , a delicate bent lever, which carries on 
 its point a small quantity of printer's ink ; the pen- 
 dulum, /), pres.se3 upon this lever, causing the point to 
 touch the arc and leave a small dot opposite to the 
 point where the pendulums pass each other. The 
 magnets are also so arranged that they can be trans- 
 posed from one pendulum to the other, thereby af- 
 fonling the means of correcting errors arising from 
 inequalities of magnetic power, by taking a mean of 
 two observations, c c and c' c' represent the wires 
 ■which conduct the two electric currents to the mag- 
 nets m and m. 
 
 The targets, two in number, are designated as No. 
 1 and No. 2, in the order of their distance from the 
 piece. For cannon the targets are similar in con- 
 struction ; each consists of a post fixed in the groimd, 
 to which are well secured two horizontal arms. A 
 
 m 
 
 Via. 2. 
 
 thread, d d. Fig. 2, is stretched vertically between 
 these arms, to which is attached the thread lead- 
 ing to the pendulinn at one side. The point of 
 attJichment of this thread should be a little below 
 where the projectile cuts the vertical thread, and is 
 shown at b. Both tlireads to the pendulum pass 
 through the loops of the compressors, and are fast- 
 ened to posts set in tlie ground, in such relative posi- 
 tions to each other and the ])encUiluni that the coni- 
 pres-sors will sustain Ihe pendulums wlun llie threads 
 are tightened, and will relax their hold when broken. 
 When cannon are carefully aimed. Ihe projectile will 
 cut both vertical threads directly ; but in the cose of 
 
 an iron target-plate, B, 1 inch thick, which swings 
 
 freely on horizontal trunnions at its upper edge. 
 The lower back edge of the plate rests lightly against 
 the back of a sharp knife-blade, D, hinged at E. 
 The thread, I, leading to jjendulum No. 2 iswTapped 
 around the .slitted part in which the knife-blade oper- 
 ates, and fastened to the leather washer, F. C, C 
 are two flat iron bars bolted to a post of wood let 
 into the groimd, and serve as supports of the trun- 
 nions of the target-plate, B. When the bullet strikes 
 the plate, B, the knife-blade, D, is pressed backwards, 
 cuttmg the thread, I, and releasing the pendulum. 
 C and H are screens of boilerplate to protect the 
 thread and knife from fragments ot the bullet. The 
 target-plate, B, is made of tough wrought-iron about 
 6 inches wide, 6 inches deep, and 1 inch thick. The 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 knife .should be made as sharp as possible, .so that a 
 slight tap of the finger on the target-plate will suffice 
 to cut the thread. 
 
 For use with small-amis, the graduated arc of the 
 machine shotild be placed in or near the plane of fire; 
 for cannon, the arc should hv parallel to and at least 
 1(10 feet to one side of the plane of tire, beyond the 
 jar due to the discharge, and in every case" equidis- 
 tani from the targets. If it be desired to use a table of 
 calculated velocities, the distance Ix'tween the targets 
 must correspond to that used iu the table ; but any
 
 BEBDAN TELEHETEB. 
 
 175 
 
 BEBDAN TELEMETEB. 
 
 distance may be taken and the tabular velocity modi- 
 fied by multiplying it by the ratio of the actual and 
 tabular distances. The machine and the targets hav- 
 ing been located and the threads laid, the operator, 
 before commencing to work, levels (be machine by 
 means of the thumb-screws and spirit-levels, and tests 
 the pendulums and compressors to see that they work 
 freely ; then, 1st, deflects the pendulums ; 2d", tight- 
 ens the compressors and secures tlie threads at the 
 hxrgets ; 3d, covers the point of the marker with 
 printer's ink ; 4th, fires the piece ; .'jth, notes the read- 
 ing of the arc ; 6lh, wipes out the ink-mark. As- 
 suming that each pendulum, whether held deflected 
 by an electro-magnet or by a thread and compressor, 
 begins to move at the instant the projectile cuts the 
 target, then the interval of time between the rupture 
 of the two targets will correspond to the difference 
 of the arcs described by the pendulums up to the 
 time of meeting. To determine a forniula for the 
 time that it takes for one of the pendulums to pa.ss 
 over a given arc, let I be the length of the equivalent 
 simple pendulum, o the velocity of the center of 
 oscillation, y the vertical distance passed over by 
 this point, j the variable angle which the axis of 
 the pendulum makes with the horizontal, and t' 
 the time necessary for the point to pass over an 
 entire circumfereace, the radius of which Is I, with 
 a uniform velocity v. We have 
 
 ■^= \^- 
 
 Substituting for y its value in terms of the con- 
 stant angle of half oscillation and the variable angle 
 X, the above expression becomes 
 
 r;= \^2gl cos. (90' — x). 
 
 The time t' is equal to the circumference of the 
 circle, the radius of which is I, divided by the ve- 
 locity » ; again divide this by 360 ; we have the time 
 of passing over each degree, or 
 
 t- 
 
 %nl 
 
 360 V SffZ cos. (90' —X) 
 
 To determine I it is necessary to change the points 
 of suspension from cylinders to knife-edges, in order 
 to determine the time of vibration through a ven|- 
 small arc. The mean of 500 vibrations will be ven,' 
 near the exact time of a single ^ibration. Denoting 
 this time by f and substituting it in the preceding 
 
 expression for its value tc U — , there results 
 
 «=■ 
 
 r 
 
 180 \''i, sin. X 
 As < " is constant for any one place, 
 
 180 ^3 
 
 : = A,will 
 
 be constant, and we have t - 
 
 A 
 
 4/ sin. X 
 
 By assign- 
 
 ing values to x, a table can be formed giving the times 
 corresponding to different arcs. The length of the 
 equivalent simple pendulum in all velocimeters is 
 made 5.558 inches, and tables calculated on this length 
 will answer for practical purposes in all altitudes and 
 latitudes in the United States where they are likely 
 to be used. To find the velocity for a given reading 
 take the corresponding time from the table, double 
 it, and subtract its logarithm from the logarithm of 
 the distance between the targets. The remainder 
 will be the logarithm of the required velocity. By 
 constructing a "table of velocities" calculated for de- 
 grees and tenths of degrees, from 10 to 29 inclusive, 
 and for the tlistance l)etween the targets used, veloci- 
 ties may be readily obtained by inspection. 
 
 The peculiar advantages found in the use of this 
 velocimeter are simplicity and cheapness of the ap- 
 
 paratus, freedom from acid for the batteries, and the 
 certainty and ease with which it can l)e operated bv a 
 single person, the one who tires the gun. If electrici- 
 ty be employed with this machine, two galvanic bat- 
 teries will be required. These should be as nearly as 
 po.ssible of the same strength and constancy, in order 
 that any remaining magnetism in the magnets may 
 be as unifonn as possible. The currents from the 
 l)atteries pass to the electro-magnets and the targets, 
 each magnet having its own battery and target ; the 
 circuit of each current must, however, include the 
 dixjitnetor. This latter is a small auxiliary instru- 
 ment by which the currents may be broken simulta- 
 neously. Each pendulum is held deflected through 
 an angle of 90 by its elect ro-magnet and is released 
 and allowed to osciliate when the current is broken 
 by the rupture ot its target, or by the disjunctor. 
 The point at which the pendulums" meet, when fall- 
 ing, is noted by the marker. This consists of a bent 
 lever attached at the lower end of the inner penduhnn. 
 As the pendulums pass each other, an arm on the 
 outer one pres.ses upon the lever, drives it agiunst the 
 arc, and leaves thereon a dot made by printer's ink, 
 carried on the point of the lever. The error of the 
 machine is determined by making a nipture of the 
 wires ^iy the disjunctor, and oljserving the point of 
 pa.ssjige of the pendulums with reference to the zero 
 of the arc. See C/iri>ii'>Krt>pe. 
 
 BEBDAN TELEMETEB.— It is proposed with the 
 Bcrdan range-finder, as with the majority of instru- 
 ments intended for the same tise, to determine the 
 side of a right-angled triangle BAC whose base, CA, 
 is known by measuring the angle at the apex. Let 6 
 be the base. One can measure on the side AB a cer- 
 tain number of distances, of which the constant dif- 
 ference is m, corresponding in range to axmemFe 
 notches of the sight. If jVB = c is the smallest dis- 
 tance, the following results: c -\- m, c + 3»i, . . . 
 and the greatest, c + ""'• The angles at the apes 
 corresponding are given by their tangents: 
 
 tang. B = - ; 
 
 tang. B„ = 
 
 c -\- nm 
 
 One is able to mea.sure in practice these different 
 angles by prolonging to the rear of the point C the 
 hypothenusi' of each triangle as far as the arc of a 
 circle described from the point C with a radius /. 
 We obtain in this way the points . 1, 2 ... A, and 
 the arcs OD, ID, 2D— "/(D, orX, X,, X, — X„, meas- 
 uring the angles B, B,, B^ — B„. If it is desired, 
 for example, to measure some infantry distances: 
 
 C = 300 meters; 
 
 m = 50 meters; 
 
 c + tun = 1600 meters. 
 
 If we take 5 = 2 meters and i = 0.4'", we have 
 tang. B = 1V5 = 0.00666, B = 23 55' 
 
 0.00125, B„ = 4' 17"; 
 B - B„ = 18 38". 
 
 tang. B„ = Tijinj 
 
 angle (X-X) 
 Upon a circumference whose radius is 1 this angle 
 intercepts an arc of 1118 X 0. 01HX)04848, which is 
 0.00.542; for a radius of 400 millimeters, 
 
 X — X„ = 0.00.542 X 400 = 2.168""'. 
 
 These arcs are, moreover, sulficientlv small to enable 
 one to substitute for their lengths tLose of their tan-
 
 BEEEUNO. 
 
 176 
 
 B£RH. 
 
 geuts, and to form llie following table without re- 
 course to trigonometrical tables: 
 
 Distances In 
 
 meters. 
 
 c,c + m. . . . 
 
 c-f-n»i. 
 
 TnnKents. 
 
 taug. B. B 
 
 B„. 
 
 Arcs. 
 
 Differences. 
 
 x-x,.x„ 
 
 X,... 
 -X.-,-X.. 
 
 
 
 maim. 
 
 Millim. 
 
 aoo 
 
 O.0O6666 
 
 a. 667 
 
 0.381 
 
 aso 
 
 0.005714 
 
 3 ax 
 
 0.286 
 
 400 
 
 0.0O.VXIO 
 
 3 000 
 
 0.233 
 
 450 
 
 0001440 
 
 1 .777 
 
 0.177 
 
 800 
 
 0.001000 
 
 1.600 
 
 0.146 
 
 eso 
 
 o.ottitao 
 
 1.4M 
 
 0.131 
 
 DOO 
 
 OOOS-SSS 
 
 1.333 
 
 0.103 
 
 6fiO 
 
 0.00.3070 
 
 1.330 
 
 0.087 
 
 TOO 
 
 0.0I.>».57 
 
 1.143 
 
 0.077 
 
 750 
 
 0.000066 
 
 1 .066 
 
 0.066 
 
 800 
 
 0.003500 
 
 1.000 
 
 0.059 
 
 850 
 
 0.00-2353 
 
 0.941 
 
 0.053 
 
 900 
 
 0.00-iiB 
 
 0.888 
 
 0.046 
 
 950 
 
 002ia5 
 
 0.843 
 
 (M2 
 
 1,000 
 
 O.OIWIOO 
 
 0.800 
 
 0088 
 
 1,030 
 
 0.001905 
 
 0.762 
 
 0.035 
 
 1,100 
 
 0.00I8I8 
 
 0.737 
 
 0.032 
 
 1,150 
 
 0.001739 
 
 0.695 
 
 0.029 
 
 1,200 
 
 0.001666 
 
 666 
 
 0.036 
 
 1,250 
 
 0.001600 
 
 6J0 
 
 0.035 
 
 1,300 
 
 0.001539 
 
 615 
 
 0.032 
 
 1.350 
 
 0.001481 
 
 0.693 
 
 0.021 
 
 1,400 
 
 001438 
 
 0.,'>72 
 
 0.030 
 
 1,450 
 
 0.00I:M0 
 
 553 
 
 0.019 
 
 1,500 
 
 0.0013.33 
 
 0.5.33 
 
 ' 0.017 
 
 1,550 
 
 0.00139O 
 
 0.516 
 
 0.016 
 
 1,600 
 
 0.001250 
 
 0.500 
 
 2.167 
 
 One sees definitelj' that while rapidly mea.siiring the 
 arcs X, Xi, Xj, the corresponding distance will be at 
 the sjime time determined. Among instruments 
 already known a great number mca.'^ure, in the same 
 ■way, angles by a single observation, unfortunately 
 too long to be practically pos.sible on the field of bat- 
 tle. The essential conditions are great rapidity and 
 accuracy in coimection with the graduation of the 
 sight. The range-tinder invented by General Berdan 
 satisfies these conditions by reason of the advantages 
 which it presents. So far it does not seem to be ob- 
 jected to in Germany, where it is very much appre- 
 ciated, cither by its net cost (about 2o,000 francs) or 
 by its large size, which it owes in part to its two tele- 
 scopes, a.stronomical instruments of great power, 
 about five feet long (1"'..52), and provided with ob- 
 jcct-LTlii.sses 4 inches (0'".10) in diameter. .Some im- 
 prriwincMts in details have been made in it, however, 
 which have not so far been made public. The appa- 
 ratus consists essentially of two telescopes, connected 
 by a fi.xed base, one of' which can be moved without 
 altering the length of the base. This displacement 
 can be measured by a micrometer which gives imme- 
 
 arcs X — X,, X — X,. . . . X„, — X„. Each divi- 
 sion corrc.sjionds, therefore, to one of the distances e, 
 c+ m, c -f- 2w, . . . c -j- »m. General Berdan has 
 recently modified his telemeter for garrison and sea- 
 coast service, and constructed a new model intended 
 for field and mountjiiu artillery. This last instru- 
 ment is constructed upon the same optical principle 
 as that which was aiijilied in the telemeter of great 
 range. The invenlt)r rightly thought that his first 
 telemeter was too hea\y for field and mountain bat- 
 teries, and endeavoretl to make this instrument 
 lighter, more easily handled, and cheaper. The te- 
 lemeter represented in the drawing is the old instru- 
 ment mo(lified; it is called No. 6 in the series of 
 General Berdan's es.says. In this model the bo\ can 
 be turned in all directions independently of the 
 wagon. The instrument has a fixed base of 4 meters; 
 two telescopes of V"J>0, with object-glasses 90""" in 
 diameter, and a reekt)iier which indicates directly 
 distiuices up to 10,000 meters. The author asserts 
 that it only takes 30 seconds on an average to esti- 
 mate distances, and that the errors of observation are 
 less, even for movable objects, than the average error 
 in range resulting from the precision of tire of artillery. 
 This in.strument, although more powerful than the 
 one described previously, and more easily handled, in 
 consequence of the rapidity with which the first tele- 
 scope can be directed upon the object to be sighted, 
 is still too cumbersome for service with field-batteries, 
 and should be reserved tor garrison and sea-coast 
 batteries. Telemeter No. 7 is of smaller dimensions; 
 it is quite portable. It has a base of 1"'.33; the tele- 
 scopes are 1"'.12 long, and the reckoner is graduated 
 up to 6000 meters. For transportation the telescopes 
 are packed in the direction of the length of the 
 instrument. The power of this telemeter is one half 
 that of No. 6; one operation occupies about 30 sec- 
 onds. The weight of No. 7 is only 70 kilometers 
 (154 pounds), while that of No. 6 is about 1000 kilo- 
 meters (2200 pounds). No. 7 is therefore suited to 
 field and momitain batteries, as well as for observa- 
 tion on shipboard. General Berdan thinks that the 
 very high price of his instrument ought not to be 
 considered in the choice of a telemeter, in conse- 
 
 I quence of the advantages which result from the 
 e-ract determination of distances. It is impossible, in 
 his opinion, to construct a practical instrument 
 smaller and cheaper, for he thinks it absolutely 
 necessary to have a fixed base and a reckoner; now 
 the fixed base being always tolerably small (4 meters 
 at the most), involves necessarily the emploj-ment of 
 powerful telescopes. See Pratt Range-finder and 
 
 I Telemeter. 
 
 I BEREUN6.— A kind of Swedish militia, consist- 
 
 Berdan Telemeter. No. 6. 
 
 diately the di.stance on the scale when the pointini; of ] 
 the secoml telescope, ui)on the s;mic point of llie ob- 
 ject at which the first one is directed, is comjileted. 
 The micronieter-screw wliich iiroduces and measures 
 the displacement of the movable telescope has a 
 mi)vement equal to the total arc X — X„. It is pro- 
 vided with a large heail or drum, the circumfireiKe 
 of which is divided in n parts proportionately to the 
 
 ing of every man in the kingdom from twenty to 
 twenty-five years of age capabie of bearing arms. 
 
 BERG BARTHE.— A variety of baltle-axe used in 
 the seventeenth century. This arm was seldom used 
 for war purposes, but "mostly by miners on the festi- 
 val-day processions of niineis' corporations. 
 
 BERM. — Between the parapet and ditch of a field- 
 fortification a narrow zone is usually left on the
 
 BEENAED SYSTEM OF FOBTIFICATIONS. 
 
 177 
 
 BESIEGE. 
 
 natural surface of the ground which is termed the 
 bertn. This is a defect in field-works, because it 
 yields the enemy a foothold to breathe a moment, 
 before attemptinir to ascend the exterior slope. It is 
 useful in the construction of the work for the work- 
 men to stand on; and it throws the weif:ht of the 
 parapet back from the scarp, whicli mii;ht be crashed 
 out by this pressure. In firm soils the lierm may l)e 
 only from eighteen incites to tiro feH iride; in other 
 cases, as in marshy soils, it may require a width of six 
 feet. In all cases it .should be six feet below the ex- 
 terior crest — to prevent the enemy, should he form 
 on it, from firing on the troops on tlie banquette. See 
 Fiilit-fortiliriitiiiii. 
 
 BEENAED SYSTEM OF FOETIFICATIONS.— This 
 system proposes a double enceinte covered by counter- 
 guards and ravelins, having high and low faces. The 
 outer bastions can be isolated, after tlie enemy has 
 opened a breach, by blowing up the tlanks. Ber- 
 nard proposes two other methods, which are based 
 upon fxcellcnt principles. 
 
 BEENEE EIFLE.— An early two-grooved rille, fir- 
 ing a belted ball, and of which the Lancaster rifle is 
 a modification. 
 
 BEESAGLIEEI.— The name given to the Riflemen 
 or Shaqishooters of the Italian army. After the 
 disiistrous campaign of Charles Allx/rt against the 
 Austrians in 184*?-49, and the abdication of that 
 monarch, his son, Victor Emmanuel, commenced a 
 remodeling of the Sardinian army. One improve- 
 ment, brought about by General Alessandro della 
 Marmora, was the formation of a Corps of Bersiig- 
 lieri. These were light active soldiers, dressed in a 
 picturesque but serviceable dark-green uniform, and 
 armed with long rifles. Two battalions of these 
 Ritlemen formed part of the Sardinian army during 
 the Crimean War. On the 16th of August, is.'j.j, they 
 took part in the battle of the Tehernaya. During 
 the Italian War of 1859 the Bersaglieri were engaged 
 in many operations requiring dash and brilliancy. 
 There are over 40,000 Bersaglieri in the regulararmy. 
 
 BESIEGE. — An army, to undertake the siege of a 
 fortress, must have superiority in the field, so that 
 while some of the corps are occupied in besieging the 
 place, others are employed in corering this operation, 
 or in repulsing the enemy whenever he endeavors to 
 succor the place. The army covering the siege is 
 called an Army of Ohserratujn , and that which en- 
 deavors to give aid to the place is called the Succoring 
 Artiiy. The Besieging Army is that which, protected 
 by the anny of observation, throws up all the works 
 nccessiirj' to take the place, such as trenches, bat- 
 teries, etc. It begins its operations by investing the 
 fortress; that is, it will advance with the greatest 
 secrecy and rapidity, and occupy positions on every 
 side, to cut off all communication with the adjacent 
 country, and confine the garrison entirely to their 
 own resources. The positions thus occupied are 
 strengthened by field-works, and a sure communica- 
 tion is kept lip I)etween them. It is absolutely 
 nece-ssary to invest the fortress attacked, so as to pre- 
 vent the garrison holding any intercourse with the 
 neighboring country; for if this precaution be not 
 taken, the defenders will be alile to draw fresh sup- 
 plies of men, provisions, and ammunition from the 
 country, increasing greatly the duration of the siege, 
 and reducing the chances of ultimate success. At 
 the late siege of Seliastopol, the ground being inter- 
 sected by the inlet of the harbor of Sebastopol, the 
 allied army was unable to complete the investment. 
 Thus the fortress on the northern side was left open 
 to receive all the reinforcements of men and materiel 
 which could be furnished by the resources of Russia. 
 Fresh officers, fresh troops, fresh provisions were con- 
 tinually poured in; the defenses were enlarged and 
 multiplied; and the besiegers, attacked in their own 
 lines, held at one period a very critical position. The 
 siege was thus prolonged beyond that of anj- other of 
 modern times, and success was ultimately attained by 
 a loss of men and materiel altogether unprecedented. 
 
 Ground was broken on the 10th October, la'M, and 
 on the 10th September, 185.5, the Russians, having 
 sunk their ships, retreated from the southern to the 
 northern side of the harlx)r, leaving the works on the 
 southern side in the hands of the allies, exactly eleven 
 months after the commencement of their attack. A 
 place may sometimes be re<luced by investment or 
 blockade alone, and where it is possible suddeidy to 
 blockade a place ill provisioned and tilled with a nu- 
 merous garrison and population, it may be the most 
 ready and bloodless mode of proceeding. Indeed, 
 many other circumstances may render it desir!d)le to 
 endeavor to reduce a place by blockade. When the 
 defenders have been driven within their works, and 
 the pla<e invested, the ground iH'fore the fronts to be 
 attacked is carefully examined, and the most suitable 
 situations selected for the park of artillery, and the 
 Engineers' park: the fonnerto receive all the ordnance 
 stores and ammunition; the latter all the Engineers' 
 stores and materials to be used in the construction of 
 the trenches, batteries, etc. These parks should be 
 placed in secure localities, behind the slopes of hills 
 or in rapines, beyond the general range of the guns 
 of the fortress, but with a ready access to the trenches 
 and batteries of attack, for the use of which they are 
 formed. 
 
 The artillerj' and Engineer parks having been duly 
 established, and an adequate sujiply of ordnance, 
 anununition, and materials collected in them, for a 
 week's or ten days' consumption, the actual work of 
 the siege begins. The objects of the besiegers are 
 three: l.st. By a .superior fire of artillery to dismount 
 the guns and subdue the artillery-fire of the place. 
 2d. To construct a secure and covered road by which 
 his columns may march to a.ssault the defensive 
 works, so soon as they are sutliciently destrojed to 
 justify the attempt. 3d. To breach or liatter down 
 the escarp revetments of the fortress in certain spots, 
 causing the fall of the rampart and inira[iet supported 
 by them, and thus exposing the interior of the place 
 to the assaulting columns. Now, before any means 
 can be taken to attain any one of these objects, a 
 strong force must be placed under cover, close at 
 hand to the spots on which the uece.s.sary operations 
 are to be commenced, whose dulj- it is to repel any 
 sortie of the enemy, and drive back any parties w hich 
 issue from the place to destroy or interrupt the works 
 of the attack. The cover provided for this guard of 
 the trenches is usually a trench and parapet called 
 the first parallel, formed around the whole of the 
 fronts attacked: its distance from the advanced -works 
 has usually been between 600 and 700 yards. In the 
 late siege of Sebastopol, the first parallel was opened 
 at a distance of 1200 yards; and doubtless, in future 
 sieges, owing to the increased range of fire-arms, the 
 first parallel will seldom be less, and may probably 
 be consideralily more distant. This parallel is formed 
 by approaching the place secretly in the night with a 
 biidy of men; part carrying intreiiching-tools, and the 
 reniaiiider aniied. The fonncr dig a trencli in the 
 groiuid parallel to the fortifications to be attacked, 
 and with the earth excavated from the trench nuse a 
 liank on the side next the enemy, while the latter re- 
 main under amis, usually in a recumlx'nt posture, in 
 readiness to protect the "working party, should the 
 garrison sally out. During the liight, this trench and 
 bank arc made of sufficient deiilli and extent to cover 
 from the missiles of the place the numlH-r of men 
 re<iuisite to cope with the garrison, and the besiegers 
 remain in the trench throughout the followinjj day, 
 in despite of the fire or of the sorties of the Ix-sieged. 
 This trench is afterwards progres.>iively widenwl and 
 deepened, and the bsink of earth raised" till it forms a 
 covered road, called a parallel, embracing all the forti- 
 fications to be attacked; and along this road, guns, 
 wagons, and men securelv and conveniently move, 
 equally sheltered from th"e view and the missiles of 
 the garrison. So soon as the first panillel is estal> 
 lishcil, the Engineers select positions for the batteries 
 to silence the defensive artillery. In the ix)sition8 of
 
 BESIEGE. 
 
 178 
 
 BESIEGE 
 
 these batteries lies one of the principal mlvantases of 
 Uic besiegers. Batti'rios of puns ami mortars arc now 
 constniciod a little in advance of this ]ianillel. in jio- 
 sitions siuh that their iruns cutilade all the faces of 
 the works attacked. Tlie crest-lines of these batteries 
 an' therefori' maile ]XTi>cndicular to the prolongations 
 of the faces of the Rivelins and bastions of (he fronts 
 attacked, and so irreal is the advantage to the besie^r 
 arising from such iwsiiious of his batteries, that with 
 an CHjual or sometimes smaller number of guns he is 
 able spcc<lily to sulxlue the artillery-tjre of the de- 
 fense. These entilading batteries on the first parallel 
 should Ix- completed and ready to open lire on the 
 third morning after breaking ground. 
 
 After the fire of the defensive artillery has been 
 sufiiciently suUluc-d, the approaches are commenced. 
 These, like the first parallel, are trenches dug in the 
 ground and prt)tccted by a parapet formed of the ex- 
 cavated earth, thrown up on the siile of the enemy's 
 works. The approaches are made on the capitals of 
 the ravelins and bastions attacked, but not in a straight 
 line directly towards the salients, as in that Citse they 
 could be enfiladed from end to end, but in a zigzag 
 direction, alternately to the right and to the lett of 
 the capitals, in such a manner that their prolongations 
 fall clear of the fortress, and the possibility of enfi- 
 lading them is entirely removed. The heads of these 
 approaches are pushed forward by small parties of 
 men, who, from their great numerical inferiority, are 
 quite unable to contend with sorties issuing from the» 
 place. To prevent the repeated destruction of the 
 api>roaches, and the continual loss of the working 
 parties engaged in their construction, a guard of 
 sutlicient strength must always be stationed within a 
 distance from these works not exceeding the distance 
 of these works from the covered-way of the place: so 
 that a sortie issuing from the place for the piu-pose of 
 destroying the approaches may be met and repulsed 
 by the guard of the trenches before they can have 
 time to carry their object into effect; and as the ap- 
 proaches themselves, from their limited dimensions, 
 iillord no accommodation for a guard of the trenches, 
 a parallel must always be established at least as near 
 to the head of the approaches as the heads of ap- 
 proaches to the covered-way of the place. It may 
 then be considered a general principle of the attack 
 that a new parallel or place of arms becomes neces- 
 sary when the approaches have advanced half-way 
 between the last-formed parallel and the covered-way 
 of the fortress. So soon, therefore, as the approaches 
 have advanced half the distance between the first 
 parallel and covered-way of the fortress, a second 
 parallel mast be established to accommodate a guard 
 of the trenches, or the working parties at the heads of 
 the approaches will be liable to be swept off bv parties 
 of cavalrj- issuing from the covered-way, before aid 
 can reach them from the first parallel. The ap- 
 proaches are then pushed forward, parallels being 
 made according to the principles just laid down^ 
 ■wherever required, until they reach nearly the crest 
 of the covered-way. Here a trench of greater mag- 
 nitude is formed, and in it batteries ot" heavy gims 
 are constructed to silence the remaining artilferj- of 
 the defense, and to breach in certain selected spots 
 the escaq) revetment-wall, thus destropng the for- 
 midable obstacle to jtssault presented by the high per- 
 pendicular sides of the ditches of the fortress. The 
 order for the assault is given when the breach has 
 been rendered practicable by the overthrow of the 
 parai>et uixm the niins of its walls; and after a gal- 
 lery has been opened for descending into the ditch, 
 across which a good epaidement has been made join- 
 ing the breach to the gallerj-. The troops for the as- 
 sault are held in the ditch, in the crowning of the 
 covered-way, and in the third parallel. These de- 
 tachments are to sustain each other and to do it with 
 strong arms. At the concerted signal, the first de- 
 tachment mounts the breach, driving back the de- 
 fenders, and seekmg to establish itself firmly upon 
 the height by constructing with gabions a lodg- 
 
 ment in the angle of the bastion. This is a little in- 
 trenchmenl, callid Ijy the French aid de pk, which 
 crowns the Ijreacb, and under shelter of which the 
 soldiers lire upon all who present thenLselves. The 
 sap)x»rs are charged with its construction, and, in 
 sutlicient numbers for this jiurpose, accompany the 
 assjiulting party, each canying a shovel, a pickaxe, 
 and a gabion. The second detachment aids the fii^t 
 in sunnounting the breach, and relieves it if the 
 struggle is obstinate. The third detachment lines 
 the trenches upon the glacis, and sweejis with its fire 
 the parapets and toi> of the breach, and wherever else 
 there is resistance; but care must also be taketi, before 
 I coming to close quarters, to facilitate the a.s.sault by 
 j directing upon the work attacked as many jiieces of 
 artillery as jiossible. When the clo.se combat Ix-gins, 
 the artillery ceases, as it would otherwise fire upon 
 friend and foe. 
 
 Frequently the taking of the first works brings 
 about the surrender of the place, but again it often 
 happens that the irresistance is but a foretaste of the 
 obstinate defense to be made, and it is necessary to 
 grasp, step by step, the fortifications of the besieged. 
 Sometimes, again, the possession of the ramparts does 
 not put an end to tlie fighting, but courageous citizens, 
 willing to sjK rifice their propertv to the honor and 
 independence of their country, dispute inch bv inch 
 the po.sse.ssion of the streets and houses. The defense 
 of Saragossa in 1808 is a heroic instance of such de- 
 votedness. The Spaniards, after losing their fortifi- 
 cations, sustained during twentv-threc days attacks 
 in streets and from houses. I'hey capitulated for 
 want of powder, and only after the enormous loss of 
 fifty-four thousimd persons of all ages and sexes. A 
 Commanding Officer dtfinding the npproachen of a 
 furtrem threatened by armed enemies declares it in 
 a etate of mfge, and from that moment martial law 
 prevails; or, in other words, the militaiy authority 
 alone governs. Everything is brought into the place 
 necessary for defense, in the shape of wood, fascines, 
 gabions, animals, grain, and eatables of all kinds. 
 All usi'less mouths are sent out of the place, and 
 those inhabitants who remain are required to provide 
 themselves with wheat, dried vegetables, oil, salt 
 meats, etc., for many months, in order that the gar- 
 rison may not be obliged to share their provisions 
 with them. The place is put in a state of defense bjr 
 arming and repairing the fortifications, planting pali- 
 sades, clearing away the incumbrances in the com- 
 munications, etc., etc. When the garrison is suffi- 
 ciently nimierous, and that is the ca.se here supposed, 
 it guards against bemg entirely shut up in the place, 
 by disputing all approaches. Positions are taken in 
 advance of the suburbs, and, far from destroying the 
 suburbs as a smaller gsjrrison must do, they should be 
 covered by intrenchments, in the double aim of lire- 
 serving them, and sparing the rear as long as possible. 
 Besides the preceding intrenchments, advant^igeous 
 jioints arc selected for .solid redoubts and small posts. 
 The most expo.sed passages are closed by abatis or 
 deep cuts. Walls arc pierced with cmbra.sures, the 
 different stories of houses made defensible, and all 
 means whatsoever resorted to that can prolong the 
 defense. Upon a field of battle thtis prepared a k)ug 
 resistance may be cx-pected, and the attacking force 
 will experience great losses before they can open their 
 trenches and begin the ordinary labors of the siege. 
 Perhaps even during this exterior struggle political 
 events or other warlike operations may extricate the 
 garrison from the impending siege, and its glorious 
 struggle will then have freed the place committed to 
 it from many horrors. If the moment at last comes 
 when it is necessary for the garrison to shut it.self up, 
 then follows that series of operations |)r(iperly called 
 a siege. The defense has a thousand means of pro- 
 longing its dtiration, because his exterior defen.se has 
 given time to prepare them. Knowing the point of 
 attack indicatetl by the first ojx'rations, the defense 
 will have redoubled his intrenchments. The garrison 
 will have I.hcu made warlike by frequent combats.
 
 BESSEMER SHOT EOS SMOOTH-BORES. 
 
 179 
 
 BESSEMER STEEL. 
 
 It occupies, it is true, a post hard pressed, but its force 
 is the more concentrated from that causi', and is still 
 imposing notwithstanding the losses that it has ex- 
 perienced. It is by sartit'S that we retard the opera- 
 tions of the Iiesiegers. Large sorties are executed by 
 numerous corps, and are generally made by day to 
 avoid confusion. Small sorties are made at night, 
 and consist of but few men. The first are designed 
 to overthrow the trenches, fire the batteries, and spike 
 the pieces, and they are consequently always followed 
 by a sufficient number of workmen, pro\i(led with 
 the ncces.si»ry instruments. The smallest sorties are 
 only tlirecteu against the workers of the sap; they 
 present themselves unexpectedly, and frequently drive 
 away the workmen and break up the gabions. The 
 sap thus interrupted progres.ses but slowly. 
 
 Defensive mines are also a powerful means of pro- 
 longing the defense, as they force the besieger to 
 make works that require much time in their prep.i- 
 ration. As soon as the point of attack is known the 
 besieged prepare under the glacis chambers of mines, 
 which threaten the batteries of the besieger and con- 
 strain hint to dig inider the ground. The defense 
 has in this subterranean war a great advantage, as he 
 expects the attack in galleries previously prepared. 
 The attjick has no other resource than to [prepare his 
 chambers at a great distance in order to destroy those 
 of the defenders, and for this purpose globes of com- 
 pression are employed. These overcharged cham- 
 bers, however, require a great deal of powder, and 
 also much time for their preparation. The besieged 
 has also an advantage in the defense of breaches, be- 
 caase the attacking force may be surrounded, and 
 can only reach their object by a narrow and ditticult 
 ascent. In defending a breach, therefore, all the 
 energies of the defense should be brought into action. 
 Preparations should be made in advance for this 
 period of the siege, and some pieces of artillery should 
 be carefully preserved, to arm at the moment of the 
 assault these works which take in flank and reverse 
 the colunms of attack. At the top of the breach 
 loaded shells are kept ready to roll down upon the 
 assailants; a large fire should be lighted at the foot 
 of the breach, and kept up by fagots. Or, if the 
 enemy has only partially beaten do^\^l the wall, the 
 foothold may be cleared away during the night in 
 such a manner as to make the breach impracticable. 
 Mines may be dug under the ruins by which the as- 
 sailants may be overthrown. Long arms, as pikes, 
 may be given to the soldiers who defend the breach, 
 and those in the front ranks may be protected by 
 cuirasses. If the work attacked lias much capacity, 
 reserves may be held in the interior to charge the 
 enemj^ when he shows himself, and cavalry may also 
 be brought up at this decisive moment. Such are, 
 in general, the steps to be taken to defend a work; 
 but success will at last depend upon the character, 
 firmness, and skill of the Governor, and upon the in- 
 trepiditj' of his soldiers. The army of observation 
 ought not to be too far from that engaged in the 
 siege, because it may be necessary to call for re- 
 inforcements from the latter, and tliey should be able 
 to return to their camps after the action. Such aid 
 furnished at the opportune moment is precious, and 
 may contribute powerfully to defeat or repulse an 
 enemy. When Napoleon covered the siege of Jlantua 
 he did not confine himself to drawing battalions from 
 the Ix'sieging army, in order to tight the numerous 
 troops stri\ing to surroun<i him, but he marched the 
 whole besieging army, and uniting it N^-ith the anny 
 of observation, he gained the celebrated battle of 
 Castiglione, Besides if the army of observation be 
 too far off, there is nothing to prevent the enemy from 
 tmcxi)cctedly attacking tbe l)esieging anny, which, 
 occupj-ing a long line of investment, is rarely in a 
 condition" to repulse such an attack, and may there- 
 fore, without aid, be compelled to raise the siege, 
 with the loss of ordnance and other materia]. Gen- 
 eral rules cannot l3e laid down for tie iwsition to he 
 taken by an army of observation. It must possess 
 
 mobility of action, and seek concentration as much 
 as circumstances admit. It must not fonsider itself 
 tied to the besieging army, and yet be always ready 
 to succor the latter as well as repel a succoring armj-: 
 conditions which demand much consideration, and 
 which will be fulfilled only by varying dispositions 
 according to circumstances. See Sieye. 
 
 BESSEMER SHOT FOR SMOOTH-BORES. — The 
 plan of this projectile is similar to that of the Macktiy. 
 Channels fomied in the exterior of the projectile 
 conduct the pow<ler-gas to the front. The forward 
 ends of these channels are sharply inclined so that 
 the gas escapes nearly at right angles with the bore, 
 and thus causes the shot to reooil in an opposite 
 direction. 
 
 BESSEMER STEEL.— The boldest and most noted 
 attempt which has yet been made to improve on the 
 older methods of making both malleable iron and 
 steel is that of Mr. Henry Bes.semer, whose proce-ss 
 was patented in 1856. Bessemer's first idea was to 
 blow air through molten ciist-iron till the whole of 
 the carbon was oxidized when malleable iron was 
 required, and to stop the blowing when a sufficient 
 degree of decarburization was effected in order to 
 produce steel. He has hitherto failed to produce 
 malleable iron of the least ser\'ice by his process, so 
 that. a.s a metallurgical operation, it is at present con- 
 fined to the manufactiu-e of steel. But neither can 
 serviceable steel be made by the plan first specitied 
 by Bcs-semer, except from the best charcoal-iron, such 
 as the Swedish. In England, where charcoal-iron is 
 not used for this purpose, the process can only be 
 successfiilly conducted by first oxidizing the whole of 
 the carton and silicon, and then restoring the proper 
 amount of carbon by the addition of a small quantity 
 of a peculiar cast-iron of known composition, called 
 spkgeleisen. Moreover, until recently luematite pig 
 was the onlj' kind of English iron which could l)e 
 employed, as that made from clay ironstone con- 
 tainetl too much phosphorus and sulphur; but by the 
 Thomas Gilchrist modification of the Bessemer pro- 
 cess impure ores can now be employed. 
 
 The various steps in the Bessemer process, as at 
 present conducted, are as follow: Pig-iron is melted 
 either in a cupola or reverberatory furnace, and run 
 
 LR™^ 
 
 h 
 
 
 E 
 
 'S 
 
 
 
 
 ■- 
 
 -r, nn Tn;'Mi ifii - 
 
 Conv 
 
 in the liquid slate into a con verting- vessel, such as 
 is shown in the tlrawimr. where a, a, a are tuyeres; 
 b, the air-space; and c, the melted metal. This con- 
 verter, or " kettle" as it is called in Sheffield, is of 
 wTOUght-iron, lined either with fire-brick or with a 
 siliceous material called " ganister," and is suspended 
 on trunnions, so as to admit of its being turned from 
 an upright to a horizontal position by means of
 
 BESSEHEB STEEL. 
 
 180 
 
 BESSEMER STEEL. 
 
 hydraulic apparatus. The capacity of a converter 
 varies from thixt to ten Ions. In the bottom there 
 are seven tuyeres, each with st'ven holes of one- 
 half inch ill" iliiiiiKter. through which atmospheric 
 air is Mown with a pressure of 1.') to 2(1 lbs. [kt 
 square inch l>y n lilii\vini:-fni.nne. The molten iron 
 
 the whole circumference. Round this the ingot- 
 molds are arranged, and the hydraulic machinery is 
 so conveniently iihiinied thai, simply by moving 
 levers, a man standing on a small jilatform can empty 
 the contents of the huge converters into the ladle, 
 raise or lower the ladle it.self, and turn it round from 
 point to ])oint, so as to till the molds by means of a 
 plug in its lx)ttom. Steel made in this way is not 
 sutticiently dense, and accordingl}' the molds are 
 lifted off the ingots by means of a hydraulic crane, 
 and the latter removed while still hot, and condensed 
 under heavy steam-hammers. After this they are 
 rolled into rails, tires, plates, and other heavy ob- 
 jects for which this steel is suitable. Although, as 
 alread}' said, Bessemer steel will not do for tools and 
 cutting instruments, nor even for such companitively 
 coarse objects as the .springs of railway wagons, yet 
 the great value of the invention is unmistakably- 
 shown by the fact that 5(10,000 tons of steel arc now 
 annually made by this process in Great Britain, the 
 total inimber of converting-vessels in use being 91, 
 and their aggregate capacity 467 tons. Large quanti- 
 ties are also manufactured by it in Sweden, Russia, 
 Austria, Prussia, Belgium, and France. It is like- 
 wise extensively employed in America. The capacity 
 of American mills for" the production of this metal 
 may be learned from a notice of the following promi- 
 nent Bessemer-steel mills in the United States. 
 
 Bevel Band-saw Machine. 
 
 in the converter is therefore resting, from the first, 
 on a bed of air, the .strength of the blast being 
 sufficient to keep it from falling through the tuyrres 
 into the blast-way. During the blowing oft of the 
 carbon at this .stage, a striking and magnificent 
 effect is produced by the roar of the blast, and 
 the volcano-like shower of sparks anil red-hot fnig- 
 ments from the mouth of the convert<T, as well as liy 
 the dazzling splendor of the Hame. In about 1.5 or 
 20 mimites the whole of the carbon is dissipated. 
 The first " blow" being over, the converter is lowered 
 to a horizontjil position, and presently a red stream 
 of molten spiegeleisen is run into its mouth, till it 
 amounts to from 5 to 10 p«'r cent of the whole charge. 
 As already stated, the spiegeleisen restores the proper 
 amount of carlion to produce steel; and after it is 
 added, the blast is again turned on for a few minutes 
 to secure its thorough incorporation. There is a 
 circular pit in front of even,- two converters, with a 
 hydraulic piston in its center, and on its counter- 
 poised anu a large ladle is hung, so that it can sweep 
 
 Name. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Albany & Rensselaer 
 
 Iron and Steel Co. . 
 Tho Pennsylvania St'l 
 
 Works 
 
 Clfvelimd KollingMills 
 t'ftnibriii Inm (.'<>. . . . 
 Union KollinK- Mills. 
 North CliifUgo Holling 
 
 Mills 
 
 Joliel Iron and Steel 
 
 Works 
 
 ncthlehem Steel W'ks 
 Eilear ThoinpsonSteel 
 
 Works 
 
 Tlie Ijaekawauna Steel 
 
 Works 
 
 Vulcan Steel Works. . . 
 
 Troy, N. Y. 
 
 Baldwin Sta.Pa 
 Cleveland. O. 
 Johnstown. Pa. 
 Chicago, III. 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Joliet, III. 
 Bethlehem, Pa. 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 Scran ton. Pa. 
 I St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 When 
 Opened. 
 
 Feb., 1865. 
 
 June, 1807. 
 Oct., 1868. 
 July, 1871. 
 July, 1871. 
 
 April, 187T!. 
 
 March.l87S. 
 Oct., 1873. 
 
 Sept., 1875. 
 
 Oct., 1875. 
 Sept., 1876. 
 
 Con- 
 verters. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 7 
 
 6^ 
 6 
 5 
 6 
 
 6 
 6« 
 
 I See Iron and Sleel.
 
 BETON. 
 
 181 
 
 BILL. 
 
 BETON. — A French term for concrete. It is much 
 used in permanent fortitications. BeU>n aggUtmeri: 
 is a species of concrete invented by M. Coignet. 
 This is used in building arches, aqueducts, cellar- 
 ■walls, etc. It differs from ordinary betou, liaving 
 much greater strength and hardness — qualities de- 
 rived from the ramming to which it is subjected. 
 See Cuncreti. 
 
 BETRAY. — To deliver pertidiousl)- any place or 
 Ibotly of troops into the hands of the enemy; to dis- 
 cover that which has been intrusted to secrecy. 
 
 BETTY. — An ancient machine used for forcing 
 open gates and lioors. See Pi turd. 
 
 BEVEL BAND-SAW MACHINE.— A machine de- 
 signed to avoid the instability of inclined tables sup- 
 ported by siegments, pivots, etc., and the difficulties 
 encountered in holding and guiding work upon such 
 tables. The saw is inclined, and the table simultane- 
 ously set to correspond with the inclination, by turning 
 a single hand- wheel, it lx;iug unnecessarj' even to 
 clamp the parts in place, as all remain locked in any 
 position in which they are left, ^^^len a varying 
 bevel Is desiretl on work, it can be easily produced by 
 turning the hand-wheel while the work is being fed 
 to the saw. 
 
 The drawing shows the form of the machine used 
 in the arsenals, which combines all the general fea- 
 tures of the band-saw machine — ha\ing tension 
 spring; rubber-covered wheels; adjusting-screw for 
 inclining the upper shaft, accessiljle to the operator 
 from his position in front of the machine, atid so 
 arranged that the adjustment can be made while the 
 •wheels are in motion; imil self-oiling loose pulley. 
 The machine is suital)le for general work as well as 
 for bevel sawing. For the latter it wUl be found of 
 great value in carriage-factories, dock-yards, and for 
 pattern-making. 
 
 The weight of the machine is about 1875 pounds; 
 the diameter of the wheels, 40 inches; the total height, 
 8 feet; the width, 6 feet; the depth, 21 feet; the 
 height of the .sjiwing space, 1.5 inches; the tight and 
 loose pulleys, 16 inches diameter, 4 inches face. The 
 speed is 400 revolutions per minute. See Baiid-mw 
 Machine. 
 
 BEVELED HANDSPIKE.— A handspike made of 
 ■wood, the end of which is sloped off at an obtuse 
 angle. 
 
 BHEESTIE. — An Indian term for a water-carrier. 
 Bheesties are attached to all regiments in India, 
 whether in barracks or on the march. 
 
 BHIL. — A native trilx; in Central India, friendly to 
 the English, which has done good service in sup- 
 pressing the predatory habits of its neighbors. In 
 common with other hill-tribes, the Bhil are supposed 
 to have been aborigines in their region. They are of 
 dark complexion and diminutive stature, but active 
 and capable of enduring much fatigue. It is with 
 much difficulty that they are reconciled to the life of 
 agriculturists. 
 
 BHOOSA.— An article of forage fed to bullocks in 
 India. It is a finely-chopped straw, 14 potinds of 
 which with <i pounds of grain constitute the ration. 
 
 BIACOLYTES. — A military organization in the 
 Grecian Empire, whose duty was to prevent the 
 committal of any excesses against life or property. 
 Their service was analogous to that of the French 
 Gendarmes. 
 
 BIANCHI DENSIMETER.— The density of the 
 smaller-grained gunpowiier is found by the Binnehi 
 dt'iiKiiiieUr, which consists of a strong glass vessel 
 pro\-ided with stopcocks at each end. Tlie lower 
 end can commimicate with a cistern of mercury, and 
 the upper end with an air-pumi). This ves-sel is 
 attached to the apparatus and tilled with mercurj- by 
 e.\hausting the air from it; both stoji-cocks arc then 
 closed. The vessel is then removed, weighed (sup- 
 pose W the weight found), and iniptied. One hun- 
 dred grams of powder are tlien \m\ in, it is again 
 attaclied to the apparatus, and mercury is forced in by 
 atmospheric pressure; the stop-cocks are again closed. 
 
 and the vessel is detached and the weight (w) found. 
 Then if S and d are the densities of the mercury and 
 gunpowder respectively at the time of the experi- 
 ment, 
 
 IOCS 
 "-W-ir-f 100' 
 See Densimeter and Mallet Denmmeter. 
 
 BIBAUDIESS. — A name anciently given to the foot- 
 soldiers armed with cnintquins. 
 
 BIBAUX. — In ancient times, soldiers who fought 
 on fot)t with cross-bow and lance. Also written , 
 Petauj. 
 
 BICKER. — A word formerly used in the sense of to 
 skirmish; to tight off and on; to make repeated at- 
 tacks. 
 
 BICKFORD FOSE.- An English patent fuse in- 
 tended for miner's use. It consists of a cylinder of 
 gunpowder or other explosive matter covered by a 
 double layer of cord and varnished. A similar fuse 
 covered with a water-jiroof composition was de- 
 signed for submarine blasting. See Fuse. 
 
 BICOQUE. — A term use<l in France to signify a 
 place ill fortified and incapable of nuich deferise. It 
 is derived from a i)lace on the road between Loiii 
 and >Iilan, which was originally a gentleman's coun- 
 try-house surrounded by flitches. In 1.522 a body of 
 imperial troops were stiitioned in it, and stood the 
 attack of the whole French army, during the reign of 
 Francis I. This engagement was called the BatUe of 
 Bicoqtie. 
 
 BICORNEURS.— An ancient name given to the mi- 
 litia of Valenciennes. 
 
 BIDARKEE. — A skin-Iioat of peculiar construction, 
 used by the Aleuts; light and portable. 
 
 BIDAUTS — BIDATJX.— An ancient French corps of 
 infantry; according to some authorities they were 
 armed with two javelins. 
 
 BIGA. — A Roman term apjilied in ancient times to 
 vehicles drawn by two horses abreast, and commonly 
 to the Roman chariot used in processions or in the 
 circus. In shape it resembled the Greek war chariot 
 — a short body on two wheels, low and open behind, 
 where the charioteer entered, but higher and closed 
 in front. 
 
 BIGHT. — The name applied to the bent or doubled 
 part of a rope. Thus, one anchor may " hook the 
 bight " of the cable of another, and thereby cause 
 entanglement. In geographj', bight has much the 
 same sense as " bay." 
 
 BIGLES. — A military corps of Rome, whose parti- 
 cular duty was to furnish sentinels; the bread which 
 these troops received was called biglintieuin. 
 
 BILBO.— 1. A fiexiblebladed cutlass from Billwa. 
 — 2. A form of tetters for prisoners, iiaim-d from 
 Bilboa, Spain, where they were manufactured in 
 large quantities aii<l shijiped on the vessels of the 
 Spanish Armada. Billnics consist of long bars or 
 bolts of iron, with shackles sliding on them, and a 
 lock at one end. When an olTender on shipboard is 
 put "in irons," it implies that bilboes are fastened to 
 him, more or less ponderous according to the degree 
 of his offense. The bilboes clasp the ankles in some 
 such way as handcuffs clas|i the wrist. 
 
 BILBOftUET.— A small 8-inch mortar, whose bore 
 is only half a caliljer in length. It throws a shell of 
 60 pounds aljout 400 toises. 
 
 BILDARS. — .V name given to a certain class of 
 niitivts in India who are entertained as a part of the 
 c-stablislimeiil of a camp or of a siege-train on the 
 march, for the purpose of clearing the camp of filth 
 and dirt, or cutting down brushwood in and around 
 the camp. 
 
 BILL BROWNBILL.— The main offensive weapon 
 of English infantry until the substitution of fire- 
 arms; a two-edged, sickle-shaped knife or swonl, 
 weighing from 9 to 12 pomuls, on a handle 3 or 4 feet 
 long, and wielded with Ixjtli hands. It hail terrible 
 power, sometimes taking off a person's head or cut- 
 ting a man in two in spite of the strongest armor. It
 
 BILLED. 
 
 182 
 
 BILL OF LADING. 
 
 was also called a "glaive." The bill or bill-hook, 
 under the uame of J'aLt or falcula, was a common 
 wejipt>n iimonj; the Romans. A similar implement 
 was u.seii by the Greeks. The ti.L'ures of Persi'us and 
 Saturn are represiaited thus anntd. With this 
 ■vveaixm Jupiter wounded Typhon, and Hercules slew 
 the Lerniean llydni. 
 
 BILLED.— Aterm exclusively confinal to the Foot- 
 guards. It means that a man's name is placed in the 
 list or bill of those who are to undergo drill and con- 
 linenient to larnick. Hence a "' billed man," " seven 
 days' bill," " billetl up," etc. 
 
 BILLET. — 1. A document n'(j\iiring a houseuolder 
 to receive a soldieror soldiers, including officers, with 
 their horses. Oidy innkeepers and licen.sed viclual- 
 ers are liable to have troo[>s billeted on them. See 
 Bilhting. — 2. In Heraldry, billets are small oblong 
 figures, sometimes taken to represent bricks, but 
 more commonly bilUts-doujr. The latter interpretation, 
 ■nhich is that of Guillim, is generally aiUipted by 
 English heralds, and is supix)rlc(l Ijy the authority of 
 Coiiimbiere. The former again, which has the 
 Trtw/r llt-raldique and Sir George Mackenzie on its i 
 side, is further strengthened by the fact that in Ger- 
 man they are called Sc/iiiuitln, shingles. 
 
 BILLETING. — A mode of provisioning and lodging 
 soldiers when not in camp or barrack. It is one of 
 the many vexed questions connected with the organ- 
 iz;itiou and administration of the British army. 
 When in camp or liarrack, the soldier is supplied 
 with hot food daily bv the Commissariat Officers; or 
 rather, with undres-sed food, and the means for cook- 
 ing it. But when it is necessary to keep soldiers for 
 one or more days in a town unproWded with barracks, 
 a ditliculty occurs which has never yet been properly 
 surmounted; a burden is sure to rest on some one 
 ■who is unwilling to bear it. In early times, mon- 
 arehs were often w out to quarter their troops on the 
 moiuusteries. In later times, the soldiers often com- 
 pelled the inhabitants of towns to receive and support 
 them; and the authorities were either imable or un- 
 ■nilling to prevent this. The iluliny Act, passed for 
 the tirst time in 1689, pu\ a stop to this pernicious 
 practice, by declaring that no housekeepers should be 
 comix'lled to accommoilate .soldiers except on some 
 recognized and fairly administered system. The 
 Chief Civil Magistrate of a town, on reqiiisition from 
 the military authorities, quartered the soldiers on the 
 inhabitants as fairly as he coidd. This continued in 
 England until 174.5, when all kinds of persons were 
 exempted from this Ijurdcn except certain traders; 
 and the new system has been m.iintained with minor 
 alterations ever since. The alteration was not made 
 inScotlimd until 18.J7. At present, thepei-sons liable 
 to have .soldiers billeted on them are the keepers of 
 public-houses, hotels, inns, ale-houses, beer-shops, 
 wine-.shops, spirit-vaults, liveri'-stables, and such-like 
 licensed hou.ses. There are certain exceptional cases 
 pro\-ided for; and in and near London there arc 
 special regulations concerning the billeting of the 
 Guards; but the general rule is as here stated. The 
 persous liable are Ixauid to accommodate soldiers, 
 under a system that may be descrilxd in a few words. 
 When troops are on the march from one barnick or 
 station to another, and cannot cover the distance in 
 one day's railway or foctl travelini:; or when they arc 
 to remain for a few days in a town unprovided with 
 barrack accommodation, or where the b.irracks are 
 already oecuiiied — the C'oiiunandintr Officer sends 
 previously to the Chief Civil Magistrate, and demands 
 bill<tj< for a certain numl)er of men for a c<rtjiin time. 
 The Magistrate has a list of all the housi-s subjected 
 to the billeting system, and he quarters the men on 
 those houses as fairly as he can. Rules are laid down 
 to prevent the Magistrate from billeting too many 
 soldiers on one liou.se: any excess in this way is 
 remediable at the hands of a Justice of the Peace. 
 On the evening Ijefore the arrival of the troops, two 
 or three Non-conunis.sioned Otficers enter the low^l, 
 and present an order for the delivery of the billets to 
 
 them, in order Uiat no delay may arise when the 
 main body enter. After the arrival, the soldiers go 
 to the houses on which they are billeted: all those 
 belonging to one comi>any l)eing (juartered as near 
 together as may be, fur convcnienie of niu.ster; and 
 the sick are billeted near headquarters. The licensed 
 victualer, or other jierson, is Imund to proNide each 
 billet-holder witli food, drink, lied, and accom- 
 modation, either in his own house or somew here near 
 al hand. A specified sum of lOrf. )>er day is allowed 
 for this; or, under other circinnslances, a trifling .sum 
 per day is allowed for fire, candles, cooking-utensils, 
 siUt, and vinegar. The sum per day allowed for hay 
 and straw for a horse varies with the price of forage. 
 The officers visit the houses, to see that the men 
 really have one hot meal per djiy, instead of taking 
 the value of it in money. The soldier may demand 
 facilities for cleaning his arms and accoutennents. 
 The tinimcial officer of the regiment makes the pay- 
 ments. There are often unplea.simt disputes between 
 the innkeeper or others, on the one side, and the 
 officers of the regiment on the other, concerning the 
 occupanev of the " best room." and on minor details. 
 The militia are frequently billeted like the regulars. 
 There being many mitoward circumstances connected 
 with this system, a Committee of the House of Com- 
 mons, in 1858, sought how best to remove them. In 
 their report, the Committee could not recommend the 
 cessation of the billeting system altogether, but they 
 pointed out certain possible ameliorations; and since 
 that,' by camping out the troops and other means, 
 great eiforts have been made to reduce billeting to a 
 mininmm. In the United States, the law declares 
 that no soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in 
 any house without the consent of the owner, nor in 
 time of war liut in the manner to be prescribed by 
 law. 
 
 BILLETTE FUSE.— This fuseconsistsof a wrouglit- 
 iron fuse-plug to which is attached the explosive ap- 
 paratus. The plug is .screwed into the eye of the 
 shell, stopping it completely, the rest of the apparatus 
 being inside the shell. In two side-channels are 
 fixed by friction, by means of pieces of parchment, 
 two small tubes of hard wood, one filled with chlorate 
 of potassa, the other with sulphurct of antimony. 
 Through these tubes pass two hard woolen cords, 
 terrauiated at the upper ends by rubbers of copjier. 
 The other ends pass down through the cup and 
 breaker of the fuse, and arc tied together in a groove 
 of the latter. In order to load the side-channels, 
 they are left o]ien at the bottom; that iiart of the ap- 
 paratus being afterwards closetl by means of the two 
 halves of a hollow truncated cone, w liich are fixed to 
 the body of the fuse by means of a screw. These 
 half-envelopes are made of bronze, and leave Ix;- 
 tween them two openings through which the flame 
 is transmitted to the charge. The breaker is fixed to 
 the cup by means of a steel screw through its center. 
 The shells with which these fuses are used are fixed 
 to sabots, the fuse being placed in llio hollow and 
 exactly in tlie axis of the sabot. When tlie shell 
 strikes, the shock breaks off the steel screw connect- 
 ing the cu]) and breaker at the point where they join; 
 the weight of the breaker and sirenglh of the screw 
 iK'ing so regulated as to insure this effect. The 
 weight and motion of the breaker act on the cords, 
 imidurin:.' tlie dettagration of the fulminates. 
 
 BILL-HOOK. — An intrenching tool used for cutting 
 down and clearing jungle, branches of trees, stuff for 
 irabions, fascines, eic. Tliebillliook is much used in 
 Euro]xan armies, the iiioneers of infantry always 
 beim; provided with them. See Bill. 
 
 BILL OF LADING.— Officers of the Quartemia.sler's 
 Departnunt in charge of the transportation of public 
 properly issue bills of lading for the same. When 
 transporljilion is re(|uired from one distant point to 
 another, or over more than one road forming a 
 through line, they ascertain from the projxT repre- 
 sentatives of the through line the lowest through 
 rate, or any special rate less at which the transporta-
 
 BINABT THXaBI. 
 
 183 
 
 BIEAGO BBID6E. 
 
 tion will be performed and cause the same to be in- 
 serted in the bill of lading. The following Ls a form 
 of bill of lading as used in the United States Army: 
 
 No. 
 
 ORIGINAL BILL OF LADING. 
 
 Marine. 
 
 ,18-. 
 
 Received from . Un!te<i States .\rmy, on board of the 
 
 of . whereof the undersifrned is master or agent 
 
 for this present voyage, now lying in the port of . and 
 
 bound for , the following articles of public property as 
 
 specified below (contents and value imknowni, in apparent 
 good order and condition, to be forwarded to . the dan- 
 gers of the seas only excepted, and there to be delivered in 
 
 like good order and condition unto , for which I have 
 
 signed a bill of lading in d\iplicate. Freight to be paid on 
 the original bill of lading by — ■ — ■, Quartermaster, U. S. 
 
 Army, at , and at the rates named below, and to the 
 
 order of . 
 
 Quartermaster's Office, 
 
 , la-. 
 
 I certify that I have shipped this day by the , the 
 
 stores specified in this bill of lading, and that the weight is 
 poimds, and the measurement cubic feet. 
 
 • Qitartermctster, V. S. Army. 
 
 Marks. 
 
 Nos. 
 
 No. 
 packages 
 
 I 
 Contents. Weight 
 
 Meas- 
 ure'!. 
 
 ifcs. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Cb.ft. 
 
 The bill of lading consists of two parts, the 
 original and duplifnte, each to be certified by the 
 shipping officer and receipted l)y the carrier. The 
 original is given to the cjirrier at the time of making 
 the shipment, and upon delivery of the property in 
 good order and condition is receipted by the con- 
 signee and returned to the carrier, with such further 
 indorsement as may lie necessiiry to insure settlement 
 for the service. The duplicate is promptly trans- 
 mitted by mail or otherwise to the officer to whom 
 the stores are shipped, and upon delivery of the prop- 
 erty is receipted by him in lilie manner as the original 
 anil retained, if he is the paying officer; if not, it is 
 forwarded to the pajing officer, to be used in settle- 
 ment for the service. If the shipping officer is not 
 the paying officer, he is notified by letter of the 
 receipt "of the stores, in good or bad order as the case 
 may be, as jjer bill of lading. 
 
 BINABY THEOEY. — This theory in chemistry 
 takes cognizance of the mode of construction of 
 salts. It" assumes that all salts contain merely two 
 substances, which either are both simple, or of which 
 one is simple, and the other a compound playing the 
 part of a simple liody. The Ijcst and most familiar 
 illustration of the binary theory is common salt or 
 chloride of sodium (XaCl), which is constructed of ,j 
 the metal .sodium (Na) and the non-metal chlorine (CI), 
 and is at a glance seen to be a Unary com pound (a 
 compound of two). In like manner, fluor-spar, or 
 the fluoride of calcium (CaF), consists of the metal 
 calcium (Ca) and the non-metal fluorine (F); iodide 
 of pota.s.sium (KI), largely employed in photography, 
 of potassium (K) and iodine (I); and bromide of silver 
 (AgBr), also useful in photography, of silver (Ag) 
 and bromine (Br). Considerable difficulty is ex- 
 perienced in including all salts under the binary 
 theorj-, but in many cases the apparent difficulty may 
 be got over. Thus, saltpeter, or the nitrate of potash 
 (Kt),X06), according to the ordinarj- mode of repre- 
 senting its composition in symbols, naturally breaks 
 up into potash (KO) and nilric acid (NO.,); but in 
 this form it cannot be correctly included in the binary 
 theory. If, however, the same elements I)e arranged 
 diffefentlv, as when the nitrate of potash (KXO.) is 
 represented as contaming the metal potassium (K) 
 and the compound non-metal nitrationide (N0«), the 
 
 latter playing the part of chlorine or other simple 
 substance, the apparent barrier to the introduction of 
 such salts into the list of those comprehended under 
 the binary theory to a great extent di.sappears. The 
 following table will represent this more clearly: 
 
 _^ Symbols. 
 
 ^ Ordinary Binary 
 
 Way. Theory 
 
 Chloride of sodium Na,Cl Na,Cl 
 
 Nilrate of potash KO.XOj K,XO, 
 
 Sulphate of soda NaO,SOa Xa.SO, 
 
 Carbonate of lime CaO.COj Ca.COi 
 
 Much, however, remains to be cleared up, and in 
 very many cases the binary theory does not answer 
 the purpose of including all salts imder one class. 
 
 BIN0CT7LAB HICBOSCOPE, — A microscope adapted 
 to be used by both eyes at the same time. It has 
 only one set of object-gla.sses, but the pencil of light, 
 after pas.sing the.se lenses, is di\ided, and the parts 
 are sent to the eyes separately. The division is 
 cau.sed by a trapezoidal prism that is pushed later- 
 ally into the pencil of light, cutting off one half; the 
 other half goes on directly to one eye. That part of 
 the pencil which is obstructed enters the lower face 
 of the prism normally and is not there changed; it 
 meets the second face internally at such an angle as 
 causes it to be wholly reflected and to pass back 
 through the glass to the third face; here it is again 
 totally reflected, and it pas.ses thence out of the gla.ss 
 normally through the fourth face. The result at all 
 these changes of direction is to give it a path, slightly 
 oblique to that of the unchanged ray, that will carry 
 it through an oblique tube to the second eye. The 
 rays of light cross in the objective; hence, to obtain 
 a stereoscopic effect — that is, to cause the object to 
 stand forth as a solid, its three dimensions being 
 properly appreciated — the light which comes from 
 the left side of the object nuist enter the right eve, 
 and i^iee versa. Should the light from the right side 
 enter the right eye, a pseudoscopic effect follows; pro- 
 jections seem hollows, and hollows look like eleval ions. 
 The binocular microscope has two eye-pieces. It is 
 restful to the e\es, and with low powers gives infor- 
 mation not to be had otherwise, showing the depth, 
 as well as the length and breadth, of the thing ob- 
 served. The binocular telescope has two tubes and 
 two sets of lenses throughout. A pair of opera- 
 glasses is a familiar example. See Fidd-glaxs. 
 
 BINOMIAL. — In algebra, a quantity consisting of 
 two terms or part.s — e.g., a -[- J or 9 — 5; a trinomial 
 con.sists of three terms, as a + 6 + e, or 10 -|- 5 — 8. 
 The Binomial Theorem is that remarkable series 
 of analMical formuliie by which any power of a 
 binomial can be expressetl and developed. Thus, the 
 eighth or any other power of rt + 6 can be at once 
 written down without going through the actual 
 mulliplication of a + b by it.self for the given num- 
 ber of times. The older mathematicians were ac- 
 quainteil with this theorem in the ca.se of integral 
 ex-ponents, though the actual discoverer is unknown. 
 Newton was the first to demonstrate its truth for 
 all exponents — fractional and neg-ative, as well as in- 
 tegral. It is one of the finest of his discoveries, and 
 is engraved on his tomb. Among its many applica- 
 tions, it affords the means of finding any root of any 
 nimtber much more conveniently than by the usual 
 method of extraction. 
 
 BIPENNIS.— A war-axe used by the Phrygians. It 
 was double-edged, having the edges set back to back, 
 and between them the fong shaft or handle Ls pro- 
 duced until it ends in a point. Sometimes the axe had 
 but one edge, while on the other side it had either a 
 hook or a hammer. 
 
 BIPOBUS.— With the ancients this word signified 
 a double prowed boat, so that it could ch.ange its 
 course to the opposite direction -nithout tuminir. 
 
 BIEAGO BRIDGE.— A trestle-bridge, of which the 
 supports are, for a depth of water less tlian 1'.? feet, 
 a peculiar kind of adjtistable horse. For water 
 deeper than this, pontons made in several pieces
 
 BIHD'S-ETE THW. 
 
 184 
 
 BIVOUAC. 
 
 joinixl tojrcthiT, or any Inrjro fliit-l)ottoiiic(l boal.», 
 may U' iisi'd. It may be so laid as to fonn si'veral 
 pa&«igt'ways in the siiiiu' bridge, by joiiiinj; a larsrer 
 number of the jMirts of pontons together, and placing 
 several rows of the horses. The horse is formed of a 
 movable cap sustainetl at each end by a single foot. 
 The Clip is of spnice or jiine, 17 feel long. IS} inches 
 deep, Of inches wide in the niiildle, and ;<i inches wide 
 at the ends for a distance of 3 feet. A mortise 3* inches 
 ■wide by lOA inches long is cut in each head of the cap 
 for the" pas.sjjge of the foot, the bottom of the mortise 
 being inclined 22 . The floor of this bridge is com- 
 post of planks 10} feet long by lU inches by li 
 inches, with a notch at each end i inch deep anci isj 
 inches long, to receive the balks at the side of the 
 bridge. 
 
 BIRD'S-EYE VIEW.— A term applied generally to 
 modes of persi)eclive in which the eye is supposed 
 to liKik <lown upon the objects from a considerable 
 height. If the eye is considered as looking perpen- 
 dicularly ilown while it sweeps o^•er each point of 
 the scene in succes-sion, we have an exact ground 
 plan; no object covers another, horizontal angles and 
 distances are exactly represented; while, on the other 
 hand, no vertical angles or side-^news appear. In 
 sketching or drawing a locality for military or 
 economical purposes, this kind of perspective is 
 always used. The great difficulty is to represent at 
 the same time the relative heights of mountains 
 and steepness of acclivities. But the more usual 
 kind of bird's-eye \iews differ from common per- 
 spective only in the horizontal line being placed con- 
 siderably ab<)ve the picture. In the sixteenth century 
 the only kind of \iews known were of the nature of 
 griHunl-iilans, and the artists of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury tried to combine this method with side-\'iews. 
 
 BISCAIEN. — A name formerly given to a long- 
 barreled musket, the range of which was greater than 
 the ordinary musket. At present this appellation is 
 given to a leaden ball alx)ut the size of an egg, which 
 is uscmI for canister or case-shot. 
 
 BISCAYAN FORGE.— A furnace in which malleable 
 iron is obtained direct from the ore. 
 
 BISCUITS.— Small flat bread rendered dry and 
 hard by baking, in order to their long preservation. ! 
 They arc divided into two classes — Ihe unfermeiit^d and 
 the fei-iiii-nied. XJnfermented or luikateiied biscuits, 
 generally known as eommon sen-biscuUtt or ship-bread, 
 are made of wheaten flower (retaining some of the 
 bran), water, and common salt. The materials are 1 
 kneaded together, either by manual labor — that is, by 
 the hands and feet of the workmen — or by introduc- 
 ing the materials into a long trough or box, with a 
 central shaft, to which a series of knives is attached, 
 and which is made to revolve rapidly by machinery. 
 The mass of dough so obtained is then kneaded aiid 
 thinned out into a sheet the proper thickness of the 
 biscuits, bv being pas.sed an<l repassed between heavy 
 rollers. 'I'liis sheet Ixing i)laced below a roller with 
 knife-edge shapes, is readily ctit into hexagonal (six- 
 sided) or round pieces of dough of the required size 
 of the biscuits. The indentation of the slabs of 
 dough, in the case of the hexagonal biscuits, is not 
 complete, sf) that all the biscuits cut out of each slab 
 remain slightly adhering together. These slabs of 
 biscuits are then introduced into an oven for about 
 fifteen miimtes, and are placeil in a warm room for 
 two or three days to become thoroughly dry. The 
 more modern oven is open at both ends, anil "the l)is- 
 cuits being placed in a framework are diawn by 
 chains through llie oven. So ra))idly isthiso])eratioh 
 conducted that about 21)00 lbs. weight of biscuits are 
 pa.s.sed through one of these ovens every day of ten 
 hours. The extent to which biscuits are now con- 
 .suined may be learned from the fact that several of 
 tlu^ largest biscuit-manufactories eacli prepare atid 
 throw into market every week from ;i(),00() to r)0,000 
 lbs. weight of biscuits of various kinds. One of the 
 largest and most complete biscuit-manufactories in 
 England is that of C'arr at Carlisle, whose biscuits. 
 
 .sold in tin bo.xes, are well known. Another bakery 
 of this kind is that of Harrison of Liverpool. See 
 HardUiek and Midt-biueuil. 
 
 BISET.— A member of the National Guard who 
 perfonued his duty in civilian's dress, before the 
 wearing of uniform on dutv was made obligatory. 
 
 BISHOP'S MANTLE. — A Venetian mail cape, with 
 which the Doges were armed ; it was also worn in 
 Germany diunng the lifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 
 and over the cuirass in Italy during the fifteenth 
 centurj'. 
 
 BISTER— BISTRE.— A pigment of a warm brown 
 color, |>ri|iared from the soot of wood, especially 
 beech. It is used in water-colors after the maimer of 
 Indian ink. 
 
 BITUMEN. — A mineral substance, remarkable for 
 its iuflamnuibility and its strong peculiar odor; gene- 
 rally, however, supposed to be of vegetable origin. 
 The name, which was in use among the ancient 
 Romans, is variously emploj'ed, sometimes to include 
 a luimlier of the substances called mineral rem'iiK, 
 particularly the liquid mineral substances called 
 iiaplitlui and jxtnileiiin or mineral oil, and the solid 
 ones called miiund pi'tr/i, ntfphalt, miiwral Hwntchoue, 
 etc.; sometimes in a more restricted sense it is ap- 
 plied by mineralogists only to some of these, and by 
 some mineralogists to the solid, by others to the 
 liquid ones. All these substances arc, however, 
 closely allied to each other. Na|)htha and petroleiun 
 consist essentially of carbon and hydrogen alone, 84 
 to 88 per cent being carbon; the others contain also 
 a little oxygen, which is particularly the case in 
 asphalt, the degree of their solidity appearing to 
 depend u]X)n the proportion of oxygen which they 
 contain, which amounts in some specimens of as- 
 phalt to 10 per cent. Asphalt also contains a little 
 nitrogen. Bituminous substances are generally 
 found in connection with carboniferous rocks, in dis- 
 tricts where there is, or evidently has been, volcanic 
 agenc}'. See the articles already referred to. In- 
 deed, most kinds of coal contain bitumen, and a sub- 
 stance essentially the same is produced from all 
 kinds of coal by distillation; and whether before ex- 
 isting actually fonned in the coal, or produced at the 
 time by the action of heat, bitumen may often be 
 seen bubbling from pieces of coal after they have 
 begun to burn on an ordinary tire. Some of the 
 shales of the coal-measures are verj- bituminous, as 
 is al.so a kind of nuirl-slatc abundant in some parts of 
 the Continent of Europe. One of the most interest- 
 ing of the bituminous minerals is that called miiieml 
 ca/»iMui)ie or thi-itic bitumen, and for which the new 
 name of elaterite has been devised, as if to support 
 the dignity of its exaltation to the rank of a distinct 
 mineral species. It is a very rare mineral, only 
 three localities being known for it in the world — the 
 Odin lead-mine in Derbyshire; a coal-mine at Slon- 
 trelais, near Angers, in France; and a coal-mine near 
 South Bury, in Mas.Siicbusetts. It is elastic and flex- 
 ible like caoutchouc, and may be used, like it, for 
 effacing pencil-marks. It is easily cut with a knife. 
 Its color is blackish, reddish, or yellowish brown; 
 and its specitic .gravity is somelimes a little less aial 
 sometimes a little more than that of water. It has a 
 strong bituminous odor, and bums with a sooty 
 flame. See Goal. 
 
 BIVOUAC. — The encampment of soldiers in the 
 open air, without tents, where ever3' one remains 
 dres,sed and with bis weajions by him. Even dur- 
 ing the Seven Years' War it was no tmcommon thing 
 for the whole army, when in the vicinity of the 
 enemy, to pass (he iiiglit in their ranks, each lying 
 down in his place, in order to be ready to stand to 
 their arms at a moment's notice. But the French 
 revolutionary armies introduced the practice of dis- 
 pensing with tents altogether, and regularly passing 
 the night en himiiiic. Hence in a great measure 
 that rapidity in their motions which long made 
 them imiforndy successful. The practice was after- 
 wards imitated by the other armies of Europe,
 
 BLACK. 
 
 185 
 
 BLACKING. 
 
 though less by the English. Soldiers in bivouac 
 light fires, and improvise, where it is possible, huts 
 of straw, branches, etc. But this mode of encamp- 
 ment, though favorable to celerity of movement, is 
 purchased at the expense of the soldiers' health, be- 
 sides being destructive of discipline, by leading to 
 plundering and destroying of houses, fruit-trees, etc., 
 in the vicinity. Accordingly, the tent is again com- 
 ing into use, and for permanent encampments regu- 
 larly constructed wooilen huts have lieen introduced. 
 There are still, however, many cases where the biv- 
 ouac is the only resource. 
 
 The bivouac is formed as follows: A regiment of 
 Cavalry being in order of battle, in rear of the 
 ground to be occupied, the Colonel breaks it by pla- 
 toons to the right. The horses of eacli platoon are 
 placed in a single row, and fastened as prescribed for 
 camps; near the enemy, tbey remain sadilled all 
 night, with slackened girths. The arms are at first 
 stacked in rear of each row of horses; the sabers, 
 ■with the bridles hung on them, are placed against 
 the stacks. Tlie forage is placed on the right of 
 each row of horses. Two stable-guards for each 
 platoon watch the horses. A fire for each platoon is 
 made near the color line, twenty paces to the left of 
 the row of horses. A shelter is mside for the men 
 around the fire, if possible, and each man then 
 stands his arms and bridle against the shelter. The 
 fires and shelter for the officers are placed in rear 
 of the line of those for the men. The interval be- 
 tween the squadrons must be without obstruction 
 throughout the whole depth of the bivouac. 
 
 An Infantry regiment going into bivouac forms its 
 line of battle and then breaks into companies, like 
 when it goes into camp. The arms are then stacked, 
 and the fires made. These fires are on the ground 
 that would be occupied by the tents in camp, and are 
 sufficient in number to allow one for every eight or 
 ten men. If possible, shelters are constructed; these 
 are easily built in a wooded countrj'. If liable to 
 sui-prise, the infantry should stand to arms at day- 
 break, and the cavalry mount, until the return of the 
 reconnoitering parties. 
 
 The Artillery can have no fi.xed rule for its biv- 
 ouacs, being obliged to suit itself to localities; but 
 in no case should the fires be near the park. The 
 following arrangement Ls generalh- observed: In a 
 single platoon of a mounted batterj', the pieces and 
 caissons are parked at eight yards' interval ; the 
 horses are tied to the prolonges (twenty-four feet long) 
 stretched Ijetween the hind-wheels of the pieces, the 
 distance between the pieces and caissons being in- 
 creased; the harness, etc., is placed on the carriages, 
 and any implements which could l)e injured by the 
 horses are removed. If there be no forage on the 
 caissons, the prolonges may be stretched between the 
 Lind-wheels of these carriages, the spare wheels 
 being taken off. The men bivouac at a convenient 
 distance in rear of the caissons; the guard is on the 
 flank; the cook-fire is near the guard-tent. In a sin- 
 gle platoon of a horse-hntttry, tlie carriages are 
 parked in one line with ten yards' interval; the pro- 
 longes are lengthened by lariats doubled or trebled. 
 If platoons are lialile to be often detached, a rope 
 should be pro\aded for the cannoneers' horses. A 
 battery bivouacs in a similar manner; the battery- 
 wagon and forge are in line with the pieces; the 
 picket-rope is ordinarily u.sed instead of the pro- 
 longes. When practicable, the picket-rope, or pro- 
 longes, should be stretched between trees, etc., so as 
 not to run the risk of having the carriages gnawed 
 by the horses. See Cump, FieUl-mreiee, and Winter 
 Quarters. 
 
 BLACK. — In Blazonry, <mder the name of sable, 
 denotes constancv. wisdom, and jirudence. 
 
 BLACK-BAND IRONSTONE.— An ore of iron found 
 very extensively in Scotland and elsewhere. It 
 occurs in the Ciirboniferous system of geologists, in 
 regular bands, layers, or strata, and generally as.so- 
 ciated with coal and limestone. It is mainly a car- 
 
 bonate of iron accompanieil by much coaly matter. 
 The following is the composition of several samples: 
 
 „ ,. , A. B. c. D. E. F. 
 
 Carbonate of iron* 51.58 50.40 40.62 2<J.14 5.1.38 63.80 
 
 Carbonate of I inio :i,T6 3.13 1.68 L.'ii 144 iw 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia. 0.11 0.09 0.06 0.04 03 05 
 
 Alumina 0,74 0.82 trace trace trace trace 
 
 Silica 20.96 26.56 8.48 19.84 2.TB 4 48 
 
 Coaly matter 22.64 18.M 49.16 49.46 42.39 30.08 
 
 Water and loss 0.21 0.37 
 
 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 lOO.OO 100.00 
 • Metallie iron, per cent 35.20 35.79 19.61 14.06 25.77 30.80 
 
 The black-band iron.stone is easily reduced. It 
 does not, however, yield a first-class iron when 
 smelted by itself, and is therefore generally mixed 
 with a small quantity of ha'matite (red iron-ore), 
 which communicates strength smd hardness to the 
 iron ol)tained. See fntn. 
 
 BLACK BOOK.— An ancient book of English Ad- 
 miralty Law, compiled in the reign of Edward III. 
 It has always been deemed of the highest authority 
 in matters concerning the Admiralty in England. 
 
 BLACK-COATS. — Mercenary troops employed in 
 the religious wars in the sixteenth century. Their 
 appointments were lilack throughout, and they werc^ 
 armed with swords and pistols. They desolated the 
 countries in which they were employed, and over- 
 whelmed the humbler clas-ses of the populatioas with 
 their cruelties and depredations. 
 
 BLACK FLAG.— xV fiag of a black color, displayed 
 as a sign that no mercy will be -shown the van- 
 quished, or that no quarter will be given. 
 
 BLACK FLUX.— A material used to assist in the 
 melting of varioiLS metallic substances. Black flu.x 
 is prepared by heating in a covered crucible ordinary 
 or crude cream of tartar, or the l)itartrate of pota.sli 
 (KO,HO,C„H.O,«), when the tartaric acid (C.H.O.o) 
 is decomposed and charred, forming carbonic acid 
 (COj), which remains in combination with the 
 pottish (KO) as carbonate of potash (K0,C02), ac- 
 companied by much free carbon. This very inti- 
 mate mixture of carlxjnate of ])otash and carbon, 
 other\vise called black flux, is a tine black powder of 
 great service in the fluxing of metallic ores, as of 
 lead and the separation of the metal therefrom. The 
 black flux is likewise employed as the raw material 
 from which, on the application of heat in iron ves- 
 sels, the metal iiotassium can be obtained. 
 
 BLACK HOLE. — An appellation familiarly given 
 to a dungeon or dark cell in a prison, and which is 
 a.s.sociated in the public mind with a horrible catas- 
 trophe in the history of British India — namely, the 
 cruel confinement of a party of English in an apart- 
 ment cuilled the " Black Hole of Calcutta," on the 
 night of the 18th of .lune, 17.56. The garris(jn of 
 the fort connected with the English factory at Cal- 
 cutta having been captured by the Nabob Suraja 
 Dowlali, this barbarian caused tlie whole of the 
 prisoners taken, 146 in numl)er, to be confined in an 
 apartment 20 feet square. This cell had only two 
 small windows, and these were obstructed by a 
 veranda. The crush of the unhappy sufferers was 
 dreadful; and after a night of excruciating agony 
 from i)re.ssure, heat, thirst, and want of air, there 
 were in the morning only 23 survivors, the ghastliest 
 forms ever seen on earth. 
 
 BLACKING.— The material employed for produc- 
 ing a black glazed shining surface on leather. The 
 main ingredient in the various kinds of blacking is 
 bone-black, which is mixed with an oil, some sugar, 
 and a little sulphuric acid. The materials in Dav 
 & Martin's blacking are finely powdered bone-black 
 ground with sperm-oil, raw sugar or moIa.s.ses, a 
 little vinegar, and some concentrated sulphuric acid 
 (specific gra\nly 1.8.50). The substances are incor- 
 porated together one by one in the order in which 
 they are stated, and the action of the sulphuric acid 
 is to convert much of the lime in the bone-black into 
 sulphate of lime, which causes a thickening of the 
 mixture, and a tenacious paste results. This paste.
 
 BLACKWALL HITCH. 
 
 186 
 
 BLAKELY PROJECTILE. 
 
 diluted wiUi weak vinccnr, is put, while warm, in 
 stoiu-warc bottles, and is then ready for the market. 
 Blackiiiir for shoes, IkIIs, etc., c-ousisls of three 
 parts of white wiu\, seven and a half parts essence of 
 turpentine; one and a half |>arts of ivorj'-black. The 
 wax is cut into small pieces and put into a glazed 
 vessel. Spn-iid the turjK'Utine over it, and lesive it 
 for twenty-four hours. Then mi.v it by degrees with 
 ivory-blaek. To use it, spread it with a rug in a 
 thin layer on the leather, and afterwards rub with a 
 soft brush. 
 
 Blacking for harness consists of yellow wax, four 
 parts in weight, six parts essence of turpentine, one 
 jiart of mutton-suet, and one part of ivory-black. 
 Cut the wax into small jiieces, and 
 leave it to soiik twenty-four houi-s 
 in the essence of turiK'ntine; grind 
 in separately the ivdry-lilack and 
 suet until there is a perfect mixture 
 of the whole mass. When the 
 leather has lost its color, it may 
 be restored by the mud of ink, or 
 by sulphate of iron in a thick solu- 
 tion, spread upon the edges. 
 . BLACKWALL HITCH.— A bend 
 to the back of a tacklc-liook or to 
 a rope, made bj- i)assing the bight 
 round the object and jamming it by 
 its own standing part. See Conlnge. 
 
 BLACK WATCH.— The appellation given to certain 
 aniuil companies employed to watch the Highlands of 
 Scotland. The term hh'ick aro.se from the dress of this 
 species of militia, which was composed of tartans of 
 dark colors. Some Highlanders had been armed by 
 Government as early as 1725, when General Wade 
 wius appointed Comniander-in-Chief in Scotland; but 
 it was not till atwut 1729 or 1730 that the companies 
 assumed a regular form. The companies were six in 
 number— three com|)rising 100 men each, commanded 
 by a Captain; and tBree of 70 men each, commanded 
 by Lieutenants, acting as Captains. Stationed in 
 dilTcrent jiarts of the Highlands, and acting inde- 
 pendently of each other, they were stvled the Inde- 
 pendent Companies of the Black Watch. The body 
 was raised chiefly from the Whig or loyal clans- 
 Campbells, Grants, Mimros. etc.— and many men of 
 good station in society joined it, not only for the 
 .sake of good pay, but for the valued privilege of 
 bearing arms. The duties of the Black Watch were 
 to enforce the Disarming Act, to overawe the dis- 
 affected, to prevent political meetings of a seditious 
 kind, and to check depredations among the clans, or 
 on the Lowland frontier. After being of consider- 
 able u.se for these local purposes, the whole of the 
 companies were formed into the 42d Regiment, 
 under the command of the Earl of Crawford, in 
 1739— their removal gi\-ing facilitv, no doubt, for 
 the outbreak of the Rebellion in 1745. Retaining its 
 original Highland character, the 42d Regiment bc- 
 canie one of the most distinguished Corps in the 
 British army; the whole of its history, for which we 
 would refer to the work of Colonel Stewart on High- 
 lanil Regiments, being a series of brilliant achieve- 
 ments. Embodied under the Earl of Crawford, the 
 regiment would have adopted the tartan of that 
 nobleman, if he had i)os.se.s.sed such a coirnizimce; 
 the Earl, however, being a Lowlander. it was neces- 
 sary to adopt an arbitrary pattern of tjirtaa, which 
 has ever since been known as the 42d or Black 
 Watch tartan. 
 
 BLACKWOOD.— A tree growing in Southern India 
 in the Aniianiallay Forest, and in other parts of India 
 and Burmah. The wood is close-grained, stronsr, 
 flexible, tibrous, durable, and of a ver\- deep pur- 
 ple color. It is used in the Bombay Gun-carriage 
 Agency for Ixjams, cheeks, axle-beds, and poles of 
 field-carriages. 
 
 BLAISE.— A militarj' order instituted bv thcKinsrs 
 of Aniienia, in lunior of St. Blaise the MartjT, an- 
 ciently Bishop of Sebasta, and the Patron Saint of 
 
 Armenia. Justinian ciUls them Knights of St. Blaise 
 and St. Mary, and places them not only in Armenia, 
 but in Palestine. 
 
 BLAKELY GAS CHECK.— This consists of a taper 
 breech-screw, deviseil to realize the advantages of a 
 Iilug pandlel with the bore, and yet to withdraw the 
 plug without unscrewing its whole length. After the 
 plug is imscrewed two or three turns, it may be 
 withdrawn longitudinally, on a prepared .slide, with- 
 out further turning. The thin end of the screw 
 forms a kind of sras-check. 
 
 BLAKELY GUN.- The most approved pattern of 
 the Blakely gun combines in its construction the 
 principles of " initial tension" and " varying elastici- 
 
 Blakely Oun. 
 
 ty," the object of which is to bring the strength of 
 all the metal of the piece into simultaneous play, to 
 resist explosion. The drawing shows the general 
 features of the gun. The inner tube, or barrel, is 
 made of low steel, having considerable but not quite 
 enough elasticity. The next t\ibe is made of high 
 steel with less elasticity, and is shrunk on to the bar- 
 rel with just sufficient tension to compensiite for the 
 insufficient difference of elasticity between the two 
 tubes. The outer cast-iron jacket, to which the 
 trunnions are attached, is the least elastic of all, and 
 is put on with only the shrinkage attained by warm- 
 ing it over a fire. The steel tubes are cast hollow 
 and hammered over steel mandrels, under steam-ham- 
 mers; by this process they are elongated about 130 
 per cent; at the same time the tenacity of the metal 
 is increased. All the steel parts are annealed. 
 
 Captain Blakely uses other combinations of these 
 metals, the simplest of which is a cast-iron gun with 
 hoops of steel surrounding the reinforce. He objects 
 to the use of wrought-iron on account of its tendency 
 to stretch permanently. Blakely guns are rifled with 
 one-sided grooves, and are fired with expanding pro- 
 jectiles. l"he following are the dimensions, etc., of 
 Blakely aU-steel guns : 
 
 
 .a 
 
 °. 
 
 5S 
 
 ■ss 
 
 
 .a o » S Ss 
 
 GCN. 
 
 
 .11 
 
 a 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 is 
 
 
 1=1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 turn in 
 
 
 
 
 Lbs 
 
 In. 
 
 In. 
 
 
 Calibers. 
 
 hbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 lOOpdr.... 
 
 8,000 
 
 6.4 
 
 96 
 
 8 
 
 48 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 laipdr. . . . 
 
 9.000 
 
 
 100 
 
 « 
 
 48 
 
 130 
 
 12 
 
 aOO-pdr. . . . 
 
 17.000 
 
 8 
 
 44-156 
 
 IS 
 
 48 
 
 aoo 
 
 20 
 
 Kil pilr 
 
 ■.>4.(K10 
 
 9 
 
 do. 
 
 VI 
 
 48 
 
 250 
 
 25 
 
 3.W-pdr. . . . 
 
 ;)o.ooo! 10 
 
 do. 
 
 15 
 
 48 
 
 3S0 
 
 35 
 
 35()pdr. .. 
 
 35,000 11 
 
 do. 
 
 12 
 
 36 
 
 5.10 
 
 55 
 
 700-pdr. ... 
 
 40,000 12 
 
 do. 
 
 13 
 
 36 
 
 TUO 
 
 TO 
 
 See Orftmiiid . 
 
 BLAKELY PROJECTILE.— This projectile has an 
 expanding copixT cu|) attached to Us base by means 
 of a single tap-bolt in the center, or other simple 
 means. It is itreventcd from turning by radial 
 grooves cast on the surface of the bottom of the pro- 
 jectile, into whicli the cup is pressed by the jliarge. 
 The angle between the curved sides of the cup audi 
 the bottom of the projectile is filled with a lubricat- 
 ing material. On the forward part of the body arc- 
 soft metal studs, more numerous than the grooves of 
 the bore of the piece, that some of them may always.
 
 BLANCHARD LATHE. 
 
 187 
 
 BLANKET-BAG EQUIPMENTS. 
 
 form a bfarinR surface for the projectile against the 
 lunds. The driving sides of the grooves are deeper 
 than thf oilier. See Expnndin;) PrcyectUes. 
 
 BLANCHARD LATHE.— A lathe for t\irning irregti- 
 l:ir forms, invented by Jlr. Thomas Bkmchanl. It 
 was the first successful lalhc for turning gun-stocks, 
 axc-handles, etc. The idea was partly elicited in 
 Brunei's block-turning machine. The art of turning 
 is most applicable in all the mechanical arts; for the 
 hardest metals, and the most ponderous articles, as 
 well as the softest wood and the most delicate pivots. 
 See Uitlii'. 
 
 BLANCHARD PONTONS.— Tin cylinders termina- 
 ted by hemispheres. 19i feet in length, 3(t feet in 
 diameter, weighing 565 pounds, and with a buoyancy 
 of 7110 pounds. They are divided into nine water- 
 tight compartments, each jirovided with a .screw-plug 
 for the insertion of a sucker-pump. When placed at 
 open order, 12* feet a]iart, they bear infantry, cavalry 
 in sections, or Jight tieldartillery; when placed 8 feet 
 apart they will bear siege-artillery. The heaviest 
 guns may be towed on a raft of three or more pon- 
 tons. The bridge formed with these pontons can be 
 boomed out from the shore at the rate of live minutes 
 per ponton. 
 
 BLANCH-LYON.— A title of one of the English pur- 
 suivantsat-arms. See PufKnicitnt. 
 
 BLANK. — 1. A piece of metal brought to the 
 reiiuired shape and ready for the finishing operation, 
 whatever it may be. A planehct of metal, weighed, 
 testetl, lUid milletl, is a blank ready for the die-press, 
 which converts it into a coin. A strip of .softened 
 steel made into tlie required shape is a hhink, which 
 cutting and tempering transform into a file. A 
 
 Rifle Breech-pin Blank. 
 
 piece of iron with a tlarinir head, and otherwise prop- 
 erly shaped ready for nicking and threading, is a 
 screw -blank, which with the final operations be- 
 comes a screw. The drawing shows the blank from 
 which is made the rifle l)reech-]iin. — 2. The point 
 of a fcirget at which aim is taken, marked with a 
 white spot ; hence the object to which anything is 
 directed. 
 
 BLANK CARTRIDGE. — The blank cartridge con- 
 sists of a copper case, 70 grains of musket-powder, a 
 cup-an\il, + grain percussion-powder, and a patch of 
 black wax. The copper for blank cartridges is rolled 
 in strips :i5 inches long, 8.2 inches wide, and .024 of 
 an inch thick ; each strip will cut forty-two disks. 
 The process of manufacture of the cases, etc., is the 
 same as for the ball-cartridges up to the point of 
 loading. This is done by boys, by hand, the case 
 being loaded by a charger, and closed by pressing a 
 
 piece of soft black wax upon the open end. The car- 
 tridires are then wiped clean and the waxed end 
 touched with shellac varnish. They are afterwai;d 
 put tip in suitable paper lio.xes, whieii are packed in 
 wooden box'S for transportation. The black wax. 
 whieli is entirely dissipated by tiring, is made by 
 boiling lor two hours 15 lbs. beeswax and 1 lb. rosin 
 
 in one gallon of pine-tar. The following materials, 
 are required for 100,000 blank cartridges : 2890 lbs. 
 sheet-copper, scrap one third, .08 inch thick ; 575 
 lbs. sheet-copper, scrap one third, .045 inch thick; 
 1145 lbs. musket-powder (80 grains to each cartridge) ; 
 7J lbs. percussion-powder ; 82 lbs. nails, 8d.; 4 1b.s. 
 nails, wrought ; 15 lbs. paint ; 1 pound twine ; 1028 
 lbs. tarred boards, scrap 10 per cent ; 1 quart varnish; 
 800 feet lumber ; 4f gross screws ; 25 lbs. paste ; 1^ 
 lbs. putty ; 45 lbs. paper covers ; 3 lbs. glue. See 
 Ceiittr-jire ^fl^UlUic■rHtle Cartridge. 
 
 BLANKET. — A course, heavy, open, woolen fabric, 
 aihipted for bed-covering, and usually napped. It 
 may be twilled or otherwise. The name is apjilied to 
 any coarse woolen robe ascd as a wrapping. The 
 jMiirhti is a blanket with a hole in the center for the 
 head to go through. It is worn by the South Ameri- 
 cans, Mexicans, and Pueblo Indians. 
 
 BLANKET BAG EQUIPMENTS.— The blanket-bag 
 now sui)plieil by the United States Ordnance De- 
 partment is a substitute for the clothing-bag formerly 
 issued, and is designed to be worn without the " car- 
 ry ing-l)race." Two "clothing-bag straps" are sup- 
 plied in lieu of the brace system, each 23 inches long, 
 2 inches wide at one end, and H inches wide at the 
 other. On the wide end is sewed a standing leather 
 loo]!, open, on the undres,scd side of the strap, and 
 having a small brass-wire loop, to receive the coat- 
 strap, on the blackened side, attached by a chape 
 sewed and riveted under the leather loop. A double 
 bra.ss-wire hook is attached to the small end of the 
 strap, which is passed through its eye (the back of the 
 hook toward the undressed side) ami secured by 
 another hook riveted on and passing through holes 
 punched in tlie strap to regulate the length. 
 A sliding loop slijiped over the fold in the 
 strap kecjis the double-wire hook in place. 
 The straps are attached to the bag by 
 means of two rectangular brass-wire loops 
 at the fop. To attach the strap, remove 
 the double-wire hook and the sliiling 
 leather loop; pass the strap through the- 
 rectangular brass loop at the top of the bag 
 from the back of the bag toward the 
 side of the flap, holding the blackened 
 side of the strap toward the bag and 
 observing that the straps are "rights" 
 lefts." The straicht edges of the straps 
 
 and 
 
 should be toward the middle of the Img. Next, 
 pa.ss the small end of the strap through the 
 standing, leather loop at the wide end and draw 
 the noose thus formed tip close to the rectangular 
 wire loop on the bag. The small brass loop on the 
 strap should be drawn through the brass loop on the 
 bag so as to remain on the outside. Next, put on the 
 sliding leather loop and then the double-wire hook. 
 Adjust the strap to the desired length by means of 
 the hook at the end, and pass tlie sliding loop over the 
 fold in the .strap. To attach the coat-strap, slip 
 the sliding loop down to the buckle and pass the bil- 
 let enil through the small brass loop on the blanket- 
 bag strap, holding the blackened side of the coat-strap 
 toward the bag ; pull the strap through to within one 
 foot of the buckle ; pass the billet through the sliding 
 leather loop and push the latter down close to the 
 Iirass loo]) through which the strai> pa.sses. The eoat- 
 strap should Im' inserted in simie direction with regard 
 to the bag as the blanket-bag strap.s — that is, .so that 
 when the strap hanns double over the flap of the bag 
 the buckle end will be outside. To sling the bag, 
 first hook the left-band strap to the I) ring on the 
 lower left-hand corner of the bag, pass the left arm 
 through this strap, gra.sp the end of the other strap 
 with the right liaii(l, swing the bag over the shotilders, 
 carrying tlie riglit-hand strap over the heaii ; bring this 
 strap down over the right shoulder and hook it into 
 the D riiur at the lower right-hand conicr of the bag. 
 The webbins loop with biitton and button-hole at the 
 iHitfom of the blanket-bag is designed to carry the 
 tin cup. When the bag is tilled, the flap is fastened
 
 SLANKET-BOATS. 
 
 188 
 
 BLAST-ENGINE. 
 
 down by passing the leather loops at the corners over 
 he buttons on the gussets. A haversack -strap is also 
 made of leather and supplieil with iluublcw ire hooks 
 at each end like those on the blauket l(ag stnips. 
 These hotiks are inserte<l into the buckles at the top 
 of the haversack. Ko change has Ikhju made in the 
 haversack except to enlarge the pocket for the meat- 
 
 ration can. It can be used with either the carrying- 
 brace or the haversack-str.ip now provide^l. A 
 leather stnip similar to the haversackstnip (only nar- 
 rower) is now ))rovided for the canteen. Iron-wire 
 loops are attached to the sides of the canteen to re- 
 ceive the double-wire hooks on the strap. 
 
 BLANKET-BOATS.— A practical and highly useful 
 I.)lan for crossing streams is liy means of boats con- 
 structed of a single rubber blanket, capable of carry- 
 ing a soldier, knaiJsack, anns, and accoutennents, 
 with only 4 inches of flotation. The size of .some of 
 the ordinary blankets is 6 feet long and 4" feet wide; 
 but 7 feet "by 5 feet would be preferable. If the 
 height of the boat be made 1 foot, the lengtli will be 
 4 feet and the width 2J feet, so as to be Completely 
 covered by the blanket. The frame may be made of 
 round sticks, 1 inch and li inch in diameter. In 
 using these boats it will lx> convenient to lash several 
 together, side by side, ui>oii which soldiers can be 
 transixirted. The frames are abandoned or used for 
 fuel when the army has crossed over. See Canvag- 
 
 IxniU. 
 
 BLANKETEERS.— A number of operators who, in 
 IHIT, nut in St. IVter's Fiehl, near Manchester, Eng- 
 land, many of them having blankets, rugs, or great- 
 coats rolled up and fastened to their backs. ' This 
 wa.s termed the " blanket Meeting." They iiroceeded 
 to march towards London, but were dispcrs('d by the 
 Magistracy. It is slated that their object was to com- 
 mence a general insurrection. Eventually the ring- 
 leailers had an inteniew with the Cabinet, and a better 
 understanding between the working chLsses and the 
 (jiiveriinient ensued. 
 
 BLAST.— The longfla.sli from the muzzle of a piece 
 of ordnance, and the rapid rush of the suddenly iiro- 
 duced powder-gas, cause a very powerful hluxt, which 
 acts destructively on objects cl'ose at hand lying in its 
 path. In siege-batteries the parapets become damaged 
 from the effects of their own lire. When the btitxt is 
 confined hi a narrow embrasure (temporary work 
 the sides soon crumble away after repealed firing, eu) 
 
 tailing constant repair. Not only, however, is the 
 embrasure gradually destroyed, but frequently the 
 revetment ot its sides catches tire or smouldei-s, ren- 
 dering great care necessary in taking out fresh car- 
 tridges in loading. 
 
 BLAST -ENGINE.— For .smelting and refining fur- 
 naces, where a blast with a pres.sure of some iwimds 
 per .square inch is required, blowing-engines of large 
 size are usually employed. .Such an engine consists 
 of a sleain-engine, with the orilinary steam-cylinder 
 at one eml and a blast-cylinder at the other end of 
 the beam. Such, at least, is the construction preferRti 
 for the larger-sized engines; but sometimes a horizon- 
 tal arrangement of the cylinders is adopted for those 
 of smaller size. The blowing-cylinder is of ca.st- 
 iron, with an air-tight piston, which, as it a.scends 
 imd descends with the motion of the engine, alteniately 
 inhales and expels the air at each end. A bla.st-cngine 
 at Shelton Iron-works, of which the blowing-cylinder 
 is 8 feet 4 inches in diameter, aiul has a 9-foot stroke, 
 working with 186 horse-i)ower, and making 32 single 
 strokes of the piston per minute, inhales 1.5,700 cubic 
 feet of alnK>s]ihcric air per minute ; but this is com- 
 pressed by the blowing-cylinder to a iires.sure of 'A lbs. 
 l>er square inch aluive the atmosphere, which reduces 
 the volume supi>lied by the cylinder to 13,083 cul)ic 
 feet. Its volume, however, is largely increa.sed again, 
 when rai.sed to the hot-blast temperature, iK'fore enter- 
 ing the furnace. In the Catalan forges of Spain and 
 the south of France there is a very ingenious water- 
 blowing machine in use, called a trimijx; but it can 
 only be advantageously employed where a fall of a 
 few yaixls of water is available. The; height from 
 which the water falls deleiiniues the tension of the 
 blast ; but the height si'ldimi exceeds 27 feet, which 
 gives a pressure of from 11 to 2 lbs. to the .stpiare 
 inch. It is asserted that no other blowing-machine 
 gives so equable a blast as the trompe, and it is the 
 least costly of any ; but it has the serious defect of 
 supplying air more or less saturated with moisture. 
 The theory of this siugidar machine has never been 
 satisfactorily explained, although one or two able 
 philo.sopheis, who have specially studied the matter, 
 incline to the belief that much of the air is carried 
 down the jiipe by becoming entangled in water. It 
 is found (hat the separation of the air from the water 
 is greatly promoted by allowing the falling current to 
 imiiinge on a narrow platform, about midway of the 
 wind-chest. 
 
 The engra\-ing on the o])i)osite page represents the 
 blivst-cngiuc exhibited at the U. S. International Ex- 
 hibition, in 1870, by the I. P. Morris Company, and 
 which is constructed after a style now much in favor 
 with many American furnace-managers. In its de- 
 sign the following [Mjints were sought to be obtained: 
 conqwetness, without Siicrifice of accessibility to 
 moving i)arls; .self-adjustment of jiarts liable to in- 
 equalities of wear; .steadiness of the whole structure, 
 and preservation of aligiunent by being .self-contained. 
 All the parts are proportioned to the work of sujiply- 
 ing blast of 10 lbs. pressure steadily, if needed ; and 
 though the ordinary working of anthracile-coal-lmru- 
 ing furnaces does not demaiul that high incssure, it has 
 been exceeded in one case, 13i lbs. having been blown 
 off for a considerable jH'riod of time without damage 
 to the engine. The AVanieh e(|uilil)riinn valve with 
 which this engine is fitted was aiqilied first about 
 eight years ago to an engine at the Lebanon Furnaces, 
 and soon after it was applied to a second engine at the 
 same furnaces, on both of which it has ]iroved highly 
 stitisfactoiT, saving steam and being entirely manage- 
 able. Doid)le-lieat valves will leak even if ground in, 
 under steam, owing to uiie(|ual expansion between 
 themselves and the chamber eoiilaiiiiiig their seats. 
 The single-beat valve with a " pilot" or sui>iileinenlarv 
 valve is not easily handled on blast-engines, where it 
 is found best, in order to jiroinote regularity ot mo 
 tion, to set the steam-valves late, .sometimes so much 
 that the jiiston has moved one twelfth of its stroke 
 before steam is admitted; consequently the passage.
 
 BLAST-ENGINE. 
 
 189 
 
 BLAST-ENGINE. 
 
 Blast-enfrine— I. P. Morris Company. 
 
 and space within the cylinder to be filled are propor- 
 tionately so qjoit and rapidly inoreasins that steam 
 cannot pa-ss by the pilot-valve fast enoush to equalize 
 the pressure on the upper and imder sides of the main 
 valve unless the pilot- valve be increased largely in 
 
 area, when it becomes nnmanageable by band. To 
 overcome this, Jfr. Wanich. foreman of the machine- 
 shop of the I. P. Jiorris Company, desifrned the valve 
 illustrated, and found its action" to realize ■what was 
 anticipated of it. It consists in the use of a ring cast
 
 BLASTING. 
 
 190 
 
 BLA8TIM0. 
 
 on the back of the main valve, cxtendiiii; upward, 
 and borcti out son* to envelop and slide freely upon 
 the outside of another ring east on the steani-ehest 
 bonnet, droppinj: downwani and turned off. The 
 rinjpi are, of course, concentric, and the ann\dar 
 spaci' between them is quite small in area, very much 
 less than the aggrejrate an-a of tlie holes for the pa.ssape 
 of steam l)elow the pilot-vahe ; consequently any 
 steam pa.ssing the annular opening when the pilot is 
 raised gtH>s freely through into the cylinder, exerting 
 no aiipri'cinble pressure on the back of the main valve, 
 and pi'rmilting it to rise easily. This absence of pres- 
 sure has been proved by connecting with the space 
 inclosed by the rings an ordinary sleam-giuige, which 
 showi-d the pressure when the pilot was seated to be, 
 say, 3.5 lbs., and when the pilot was raised the pres- 
 sure suddenly fell to almost zero until the main valve 
 openefl, when it rose agsiin to 3.5 lbs. The blast -valves 
 are of selected thick sole-leather backed with plate- 
 iron ; blast-piston fitted for either metal, wooii, or 
 bag packing; steam-piston fitted with metal double 
 rings held out by springs; valves arc lifted by cams 
 oiierating direeflj' agiunst rollers fitted into the 
 bottom ends of the lifting-rods. The cams are ad- 
 justable, but not variable, and give facilities for ex- 
 perimenting to detemiine the best distribution of 
 steam without interference with each other. The 
 cam-shaft is driven by spur-gears fitted to the main 
 shaft. The fly-wheels are large, and weigh nearly 18 
 tons. The rini on the side in line with the crank-pin 
 is cored out so that the preponderance of the opposite 
 sides will counterbalance weight of pistons, rotis, 
 cross-heads, etc. The shafts are of wrought-ii-on with 
 ample bearing-.'Jurface. The cro.ss-head swivels in 
 the yoke connecting the two piston-rods, and is pro- 
 vided with spherical journals for the connecting-rods, 
 so that it maj' accommodate itself to any inequalities 
 of wear in the main shaft or crank-pins. The height 
 of the engine compared wiUi its base is suggestive of 
 instability, but that defect does not exist. A founda- 
 tion of hard bricks or goml stone, long and wide 
 enough to take the bed-plalc, and 10 feet deep, is 
 known to be quite sufficient to sustain the engine 
 without perceptible swaying of the top. This height 
 is mainly ilue to length of stroke compared with di- 
 ameter of blast-cylinder, whereby a given quantity of 
 air can be supplied by a le.sscr immber of revolutions 
 — u.sually in engines of this stroke not exceeding 
 twenty — and with fewer beats of the bla.st- valves; and 
 as with fixed diameter of blast-cylinder the loss in 
 delivery due to piston-clearance and space in the pas- 
 sages is a certain quantity, it is clear that the per- 
 centage of loss of tiseful effect from this cause dimin- 
 ishes as the stroke incrca.scs. The dimensions of 
 the principal portions of the engine are as follows: 
 blowing-cylinder, 90 inches diameter, 7 feet stroke; 
 steam-cylinder, .50 inches diameter, 7 feet stroke; two 
 fly-wheels, each 2-1 feet diameter; l>ed-plate, 13 feet 
 by 8 feet; total height of engine, 36i feet; capacity, 
 10,000 cubic feet of air per minute.. See Bloiter and 
 Iron . 
 
 BLASTING. — Before gunpowder was invented, the 
 separalicii of mas.ses of slone from their native rock 
 could only Ije effected by means of the hammer and 
 wedge, or by the slill slower method of fire and water. 
 In .soft and stratified rock, wedges are still used for 
 quarrj-ing stones for building jairpo-ses, but in hard 
 rock, or where regularity of fracture is no object, 
 gunpowder Ls universally employed. Blastins is either 
 accomiilLshed by the miiaU-shdi svstem, orbv large 
 blasts or nnnm. Small shots mav be fired, even 
 under water, by inclosing the charge in a tin case, 
 with a tube of ixjwder reaching to the surface; or 
 in a canvas hag, well tarred, iiiul lie<l at the neck 
 roimd a length of Hickford's fuse, which liurns under 
 water. The charge is inserted in the drjU-hole, and 
 the weight of the superincumbi'nt water acts as tamp- 
 ing. In removing the wall Ixtween the old and new 
 Shadwell basins of the London docks, shots were 
 fired under water within a few yards of ves,sels lying 
 
 in the ba.sin, by using moderate charges, and by keep- 
 uig a nift of timber floating over the hole, as a shield 
 to prevent anything flving upwards. The Voltaic 
 battery has been u.sed for firing shots, chiefly under 
 water,' since 1839, in which year it was employed at 
 the wreck of the Royal George and at the Skerry vore 
 light-house. 
 
 When a large mass of rock has to be removed at 
 once, recourse must be had to large blasts or mines. 
 The greatest isolated example of this kind of bla.sting 
 was the overthrow, in 1843, of the Rounddown cliff 
 at Dover, by 18,.5t)0 pounds of powder, in three sepa- 
 rate charges, fired simultaneously by voltaic electri- 
 city. These large blasts are of two kinds : either 
 sluifts eunk from the top of the rock, or headings 
 driven in from the face. The shaft-holes are 6 feet 
 long by 4 feet wide, of various depths, according to the 
 height of the rock, but seldom much exceeding 60 feet. 
 The deal-box, with the charge of powder, is jjlaced in 
 a chamber cut at one side of the shaft, so that the 
 tamping may not be in the direct upward line of fire. 
 The lamping consists of the stone and debris which 
 have come out of the shaft; and the wires from the 
 battery are protected from injury by being laid in a 
 groove cut in a batten placed up one angle of the shaft. 
 It is evident that the same point in the rock may be 
 reached as well by a heading or gallcrj' driven in from 
 the face of the rock as by a shaft from the top, and 
 often by a shorter route. Headings are made 5 feet 
 high b}' 3 feet 6 inches wide, and are tlrivcn, if possible, 
 along a natural joint in the rock. The direction of 
 the gallery is changed and sunk at parts, to prevent 
 the tamping from being blown out. Four men can, 
 on the average, drive 5 feet run of heading per week; 
 but cannot sink above 3 or 4 feet of shaft, which has a 
 greater sectional area, and is more inconvenient to 
 work in. The charge of powder may be divided and 
 placed in two or more separate chambers, and it is 
 better thus to spread a hea\'y charge over a length of 
 face than to have it in one spot, at a greater distance 
 frojn the face than about 30 feet. The charges for 
 these mines van,- from 600 to 13,000, and even 
 more, pomids of powder; and the produce is from 2 
 to 6 tons of stone to the pound of powder, according 
 to the density of the rock and the position of the mine. 
 In militarj' blasting, or where total destruction is 
 aimed at, an excess of powder is little or no objection. 
 Of late yeai-s great improvements have been effected 
 in the production and application of explosive agents 
 other tiian gunpowder, which latter, until lately, may 
 be said to have l)cen exclusively used for the puqjose 
 of blasting. Nitro-gljxerine and gun-cotton were dis- 
 covered within two years of each other; but while gun- 
 cotton was immediately applied to industrial purjioses, 
 nitroglycerine was destined to remain a chemical 
 curiosit}- for about 16 years. Dynamite is a prepara- 
 tion of nitroglycerine and porous earth, in the form 
 of a pasty mass, which, witliout materially impairing 
 its explosive properties, has the effect of rendering it 
 perfectly sjife to handle. 
 
 A great variety of electric blasting apparatus has 
 been devised and tested in the lust few years; but a 
 remarkably simjile and effective magneto machine 
 made by the Laflin and Rand Powder Company pos- 
 .se.s.ses more points of merit than any other single ma- 
 chine made. It is constructed on the Wheatstone and 
 Siemens principle, ha\ ing a magnet of the horseshoe 
 character, of iron, wound alKnit with coilsof insulated 
 copper wire; between the poles of the magnet there is 
 fitted to revolve an aniuitiH'c of cylindrical construc- 
 tion carrying in its body other insulated wire coiled 
 longitudinally, as to the cylinder. The rapid revolu- 
 tion of the armature, by suitable means, generates imd 
 sustains in the machine an accumulative current of 
 voltaic eleclricily of great power, w hich at the moment 
 of its maximum intensity is, praclically, switched off 
 to the outside circuit in which are the fuses, and in 
 the interior of each fuse the ignition is accomplished 
 instantly. The drawings show the interior arrange- 
 ment of the machine; A, the principal magnet; B,
 
 BLASTING. 
 
 191 
 
 BLASTING. 
 
 the armature revolving between the poles of the prin- 
 cipal magnet; C, the loose pinion, its teeth engaging 
 with the rack-bar, and by clutcliing also engjiging 
 with the spindle of the armature on the downward 
 stroke (only) of the rack-bar; 2), the spring which, 
 when struck by the foot of the descending rack-bar, 
 breaks the contact between two small [ilatinum bear- 
 ings, and this causes the whole current of electricity 
 to pass through the outside circuit, — the' leailing wire 
 and fuses; E, the two plutiimm bearings, one on the 
 upper face of the spring, the other on tlie under side 
 of the yoke over the spring; F, \\w. commutator. 
 
 Platinum-fuses are specially made for Ihis machine, 
 and the manner of using is verj- simple. A fuse 
 should be used with the wires attached, of such length 
 that the ends may protrude from the surface after the 
 hole is charged, the fuse-head being in the center of 
 the charge. Tamp with dry sand, or in such a man- 
 ner that the wires may not be cut or the insulated 
 covering upon them be injured. Whi'U all tlie holes 
 to be fired at one time are tamped, separate the ends 
 
 bringing the rack to the Iwtlom of the box with a 
 -solid thud, and the blast will Ix' made. Platinum- 
 fuses arc not in any ca.se to be fired by a spark or by 
 the effects of free electricity, needing a current of 
 sufficient .strength and pei'sistence that in its pa&sage 
 through the circuit it shall heat to redness a small 
 bridge of tine platinum wire in the body of the fuse. 
 The most extensive operation of blasting ever wit- 
 nessed in the United States was, perhaps, the removal 
 of the reefs in the East River, at Hallett's Point, near 
 New York, known as the " Hell Gate Improvement." 
 The rock to Ijc removed extended more than 100 yards 
 into the river, greatly narrowing tlie chamiel and ren- 
 dering navigation extremely difficult. The plan of 
 operation was to sink a large square shaft on the Long 
 Island shore from which the rock projected, and to 
 run into tlie rock at a pro|)er depth long galleries 
 radiating from the place of entrance like the lines of 
 an ex-panded fan. The entrance-shaft was nearly 100 
 feet square, and its bottom was ;33 feet below low 
 water. Nearly 20 tunnels were bored in all directions. 
 
 Ma^eto Machine. 
 
 of the two wires in each hole, joining one wire of the 
 first hole with one of the second, tlie other or free 
 wire of the second with one of the third, so proceed- 
 ing to the end or last hole. If the wires attached to 
 the fuses should not be long enough, use connecting 
 wire for joining. All connections of wires should be 
 by hooking and twisting together the bare and clean 
 ends, and it will be best if the parts joining be bright. 
 The charges having all been connected as directed 
 above, the free wire of the tirst hole should l)e joined 
 to one of the "leading " wires, and tlie free wire of 
 the last hole with the other of the two leading wires. 
 The leading wires should be long enough to reach a 
 point at a safe distiuice from the blast — say two 
 hundred and fifty feet at least. All being rc.idy, and 
 not until the men are at a .safe distance, connect the 
 leading wires, one to each of the projecting screws on 
 the front side of the nuichinc, through each of which 
 a hole is bored for the purpose, and bring the nuts 
 down tirmlv upon the wires. Now, to tire, taking 
 hold of the "handle for the pui-posc, lift the rack (or 
 square rod toothed upon one side) to its full length 
 and press it down, for the first inch of its stroke with 
 moderate speed, but finisliingthe stroke with all force. 
 
 extending from 200 to 240 feet, and all were con- 
 nected by lateral galleries. All the excavated rock 
 was hauled to the entrance and hoisted to the surface. 
 The work was comiiletcd in September, 187(5, and 
 made ready for blasting with more than .52,000 
 pounds of explosive material in many thousands of 
 holes drilled for the purpose. The explosives were 
 dynamite, rendrock, and vulcan iiowder. On the 
 given day a quarter of a million people found their 
 way to points on land and water w here the exiilosion 
 could be seen. When the eventful moment arrived. 
 General Newton, the Engineer in charge, look the 
 hand of his little girl, a mere infant, and with it 
 pre.s.sed do\vn the key by wiiich the batterj- was tired. 
 There was a rumbling or shaking of the ground, the 
 rising of a great ma.ss of water from 20 to 40 feet in 
 the air, a few small stones thrown a little higher, an 
 immense mass of smoke, and all was over. Xlillions 
 of tons of rock had been shattered, and yet tlie noisi" 
 and the shock were less than would have attetided 
 the simultaneous discharge of half a dozen field- 
 pieces in the open air. There was so much doubt 
 and ignorance about the possible effect of this explo- 
 sion "that many people living one, two, and three
 
 BLASTING-FUSE. 
 
 192 
 
 BLASTS. 
 
 miles away left their houses nnil took positions in the 
 oiX'n air, throujih fear of widespre.ml ruin. Tlie 
 work ■\viis eoMii>lete<i successfully, anil after ilredyrinj: 
 out the hrokeu stone the navifralion of the channel 
 was greatly iniproveil. In previous years much has 
 been done in the liarlior of New York by surface- 
 bla-stinir, i.e., lowering to the face or to soiiie crevice 
 of a rock cans tilled with nitro-glvccrinc and explod- 
 ing it by electricitv, the elleet "being to gradually 
 wt-ar away the rwk. The great work of the Sutro 
 Tuiuiel was another triumph for American engineer- 
 ing. 8ee Miiiif. 
 
 BLASTINO-FITSE. — The common hlnMiiig-f>ise is 
 merely a tulx' tilled with a composition which will 
 burn a sufficient length of lime to allow the person 
 firing it to reach a place of safety before it is burnt 
 out." The sjifety-fuse, by which the charge can Ix- 
 tired by a man at a considerable distance, is also much 
 employed. Some of these consist of a tape of soft 
 material saturated with a highly intlammablc com- 
 pound (fulminates are employed in some to increase 
 the speed of the tlame), and covered with an envelope 
 of water-proof material. Firing by electro-battery is 
 much s;»fer. See Fniv and Platinum-fuse. 
 
 BLASTING-POWDEB.— An explosive, in the form 
 of i^owder, used for blasting. The most powerful 
 blasting-powders in common use are made by adding 
 certain substances to nitroglycerine which, by ab- 
 sorbing it, reduce it to the form of powder, and thus 
 render it comparatively safe against the shocks and 
 jars of use. The tenn blaMing-pincder is also specially 
 applied to a powder analogous to gunpowder, but 
 which contains sodium nitrate in place of pota.ssium 
 nitrate, or stiltpeter. 
 
 There are two grades of hlasUng-poirder, branded 
 " X' and " B." " A," the best grade in quality, is 
 packed in wood or metal kegs of twenty-tive poiiuils 
 each, and is branded as to size, " CC," "C," "F," 
 " FF," " FFF," " FFFF," " FFFFF," " FFFFFF," 
 and "glazed" or "unglazed" as may be desired. 
 "CC" is the coarsest .size, the others being liner, in 
 the order as given above. " B," of which the greater 
 
 " CC " Ulasting-powder. 
 
 quantity is sold, it being best adapted to most work, 
 is packed in the same manner us the " A" The sizes 
 are from " C," coarsest, to " FFFF," finest, " glazed ' 
 or "unglazed." " B" blantiiiti-iioirdtr was first suc- 
 ccs.sfully made at one of the mills of the Latlin & Rsmd 
 Powder Company, and to that success the country 
 is indebted for a. cheaper grade of powder than hail 
 ever been known before, and one as well adapted lo 
 most of the rock-excavation to be done as the higher 
 grade, while for military mining it is entirely supe- 
 rior. It is a slower-burning powder than the "A," 
 but produces n greater volume of expansive gases, 
 and in soft rock lifts a large mass, rather than shat- 
 ters to small fragments n le.s.s quantity. 
 The drawing fairly shows the size" of " CC" blast- 
 
 -mt 
 
 7 . 
 
 
 MlRQITi 
 
 J ■ 
 
 
 - H 1 
 
 
 ' 1 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 ""! 
 
 
 
 !{ 
 
 
 c 
 
 i 1 
 ii 
 II 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 ! 
 
 
 ■, 1 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 LI 
 
 
 
 COU/U' } 
 
 
 KTlrit \ 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 («»» J 
 
 
 U^ 
 
 J 
 
 ing-powder, either "A" or "B." See Gunpoicder 
 
 and Ml IKK. 
 
 BLAST METER. — An anemometer applied to the 
 nozzle of a blast-engine. The CoUiau meter is at 
 presi'iit used by most furnacemmiagers. The fol- 
 lowing are the directions for its use: 
 
 ! 1st. Place the meter in vertical 
 
 I position and as close as po.ssiblc to 
 the blast-gate, connect it with air- 
 l)ox by means of a half-inch gas- 
 l)ipe and a short piece of India- 
 nibber pipe Ix'tweeu gas-pipe and 
 meter. 2d. Pour into the meter 
 about one lialf-])iut of water. The 
 water will stand at the same height 
 in both tubes, at about mark 4. 
 3d. AVhen the blast is put on. the 
 water will descend on one side of 
 
 ■ the gauge: then loosen the screws 
 
 ! of the sliding gauge so that it 
 moves easily and slide the gauge 
 downward until the mark of tlie 
 gauge reaches the level of the 
 water of the descending side. Fix 
 the gauge there by means of the 
 lower screw. 4th. The mark on 
 the gauge corresponding with the 
 level of -water in the a.scending 
 side will then represent the pres- 
 sure in ounces per square inch. 
 5th. The amount of water put in is sultieicnt for a 
 jiressure of 7 to 8 ozs. Should a greater pressure be 
 required, pour in a little more water. 6th. When 
 the water on the lower side descends below the zero, 
 slide down the gauge so that the zero of the gauge is 
 level with the water. 7th. In cold weather it w-buld 
 be better to use spirits instead of water. To let the 
 liquid out, open the small valve at the bottom. 8th. 
 This bla.st-meter is calculated for sea-level. When 
 the altitude is much greater a special gauge is re- 
 quired. See Foundry. 
 
 BLASTS. — Small chambers or holes made in rock 
 or masonry, and charged with powder. The form- 
 ing of blast-holes requires the use of particular tools, 
 called borers, junipers, scrapcm, needles, ami tamping- 
 bars. To form the blast-hole, two or three men are 
 required. One holds the borer with both hands, 
 while the head of it is stnick with sledge-hammers 
 by one or two others. The first turns the borer at 
 each stroke so that the hole may be circular, and 
 from time to time clears it out with the scraper. 
 When the hole required does not exceed 1.") inches in 
 depth, it may be excavated in the above manner; but 
 if 20 inches, or more, deep, the jumper is generally 
 made use of. The miner holds the jumper in both 
 hands, raises it, and lets it fall in the hole, turning it 
 continually; he also clears the hole with the scraper. 
 When the stone is of a very hard description, it is 
 usual to poiu' water occasionally into the jumper- 
 hole. 
 
 Blast-holes are seldom made by hand nowadays, 
 when the use of the rock-drill is possible. The 
 drawing .shows the Burleigh rock-drill mounted on 
 a frame for surface and qu;irry work. When in 
 operation, the drill may be raised from the wheels by 
 means of the jack-screw s rciiresenteil. There are two 
 sets of journals, and by shilling the wheels it can be 
 moved in dilfcrent directions. By the use of this 
 machine great works become easy that could hardly 
 t)c undertiiken with the appliances of hand labor. 
 Having the hole bored to a suitable depth, to load it, 
 fill about one fourth or one third of it with powder, 
 according lo the nature (jf the stone. The charge for 
 a depth of isinchesis from H to ISounccs. To tamp 
 and prime the blast-hole, the needle is fii-st introduced, 
 pltmging it well into the powder and placing it on 
 the smoothest side of the Iiole; then a layer of clay 
 is laid on the powder, and is clo.sely pressed down 
 with the tamping-bar. Other similar layers are then 
 laid, or layers of brick reduced to small bits, the
 
 BLAZINGOFF. 
 
 193 
 
 BLINDAOS. 
 
 needle being turned repeatedly. It is usual to press 
 down the lirst layers with a bar of wood, the helve 
 of a tool, for instance, and the latter ones with the 
 iron tamping-bar. When the hole is thus tilled up, a 
 small shell of clay is formed rovmd the needle, which 
 is then withdrawn, the hole left by it is tilled with 
 tine powder, and it is fired with a monk or a piece of 
 port-fire. The u.sc of the needle is often dispensed 
 with, in which case the priming is rolled up in a 
 sheet of brown paper, or it is introduced in straw- 
 stalks thrust into one another. This priming is 
 placed in the hole at the same time as the charge, so 
 that it may penetrate well into the latter. The tamp- 
 
 Burleigh Rock-drill. 
 
 ing is then executed as before. The use of the tamp- 
 ing-bar and the ordinary tamping may also be dis- 
 pensed with, the hole being tilled over the charge 
 with very fine dry sand, poured iu without any pres- 
 sure. 
 
 The many accidents that have happened in prim- 
 ing bla.sts have led to the invention of priming-fuses, 
 which are made to bum somewhat in the siime way 
 as the fuse in the small Chinese fire-cracker. Their 
 use is far safer than any of the former methods. For 
 blasts under water, the charge is inserted in a water- 
 tight tin case and fired either by a galvanic current 
 or a priming-fuse, which is protected from the water 
 by a small tube connected with the charge, and lead- 
 ing to the surface of the water. The result of many 
 experiments has shown that in blasting rock a large 
 portion of the powder — nearly half — may be saved, 
 by mixing with the remaining part fine, dry sawdust 
 01 elm or beech. In blasts exploded in this way the 
 
 effect is not the same as when the full charge of 
 powder is used; the rock splits into fewer and larger 
 pieces, and to linish di\iding them a more frequent 
 use of the sledge-hammer is required. 
 
 BLAZIN6-0FF. — Tempering by means of btiming 
 oil or tallow spread on the spring or blade, which is 
 heated over a tire. 
 
 BLAZON — BLAZONRY.— These heraldic terms 
 originated in the custom of blowing a trumpet to 
 announce the arrival of a knight, or his entrance 
 into the lists at a joust or tournament. The blast 
 was answered by the heralds, who described aloud 
 and e.xplained the arms borne by the knight. Bla- 
 zon and blazonry thus came to signify the art of 
 describing, in technical terms, the objects (or charges, 
 as they are called) borne in arms — their positions, 
 gestures, tinctures, etc., and the manner of arranging 
 them on the shield. As Heraldry, though an en- 
 tirely arbitrarj', is a very accurate science, the rules 
 of blazoning are observed on all occasions with the 
 most rigid precision. The foUowiui' are the most 
 important: 1. In blazoning or describing a coat of 
 arms, it is neccssarj- to begin with the field, mention- 
 ing the lines by w'hich it is divided — jttr palf, per 
 fess, etc., if such there be — and noticing if they are 
 indented, engrailed, or the like, it being taken for 
 granted that they are straight, unless the contrarj' be 
 mentioned. 2. There must be no unnecessarj- repe- 
 tition in blazoning; thus, where the field is blue, and 
 the charges yellow, we should say, iiziire, a crescent 
 between three st/irs, or, thereby implying that both 
 the crescent and the stars are or. 3. For the same 
 reason, where a color has been already mentioned, 
 and it is necessarj-, in order to avoid ambiguity, to 
 repeat it in describing a subsequent chiu'ge, we say, 
 of the first, or of the second, as the case may be. 
 Thus, we should say, nzure on a saltire argent, 
 three water boiigits nf the first, thus avoiding the 
 repetition of the word azure. 4. Again, recurring to 
 our first example, it would be an error to say, three 
 sUirs with a crescent between them, because 
 we must always begin with the charge which 
 lies nearest the center of the shield. 5. 
 WTiere the charges are of the natural color 
 of the objects or animals represented, in 
 place of describing the color, you simply 
 say proper — i.e., of the proper or natural 
 color. 6. Another general rule in blazon- 
 ing, or rather in marshaling coat-armor, is, 
 that metal shall never be placed iijion metal, 
 nor color upon color. The rules for blazon- 
 ing separate charges, whether animate or 
 inanimate, are indicated in the descriptions 
 which will l)e found of them under their 
 respective heads. See Heraldry. 
 
 BLECHSCHIENEN.— Thin metal plates 
 which the ancient Gauls placed upon the 
 buff coats of the infantry, between the buff 
 and the lining. Also written Blechstreifen. 
 BLEUS. — A name given to the soldiers 
 of the Republic, by the Royalists, dur- 
 ing the wars of La Vendee, on account of their uni- 
 form. 
 
 BLINDAGE.— When a trench has to be pushed 
 forward in a position where the command of the 
 dangerous point is so great that it cannot be shel- 
 tered from the plunging fire by traverses, it is 
 covered on the top and on the sides by fascines and 
 earth supported by a framework, and is termed a 
 blindage. The frames used, termed blindage-frames, 
 are composed of two uprights or stanchions of 5- 
 inch scantling, each 8 feet 6 inches long and pointed 
 at both eniLs; and two horizontal pieces of the same- 
 sized scantlmg, each 3 feet 4 inches long. The hori- 
 zontal pieces are notched upon the stanchions at 12 
 inches from each end. The width of the frame 
 from out to out is 3 feet 4 inches; the distance 
 between the horizontal pieces from out to out, 6 feet. 
 This method of obtaining cover is principally requi- 
 site in trenches which descend towards the dangerous
 
 BLINDED BATTEEIE8. 
 
 104 
 
 BLISTEKED STEEL. 
 
 point; like the passages which lead from the trenches 
 on the placis into the covereti-way, or to the bottoms 
 of shallow ditches. The manner of forming the 
 blindage is to set up a row of l>lindage-frames along 
 each side of the trench or pa.s.sages; to connect the 
 two rows at top by like frames laid across the line of 
 the trench; to cover tlie top frames by fascines and 
 earth; and to till in between the side frames and the 
 sides of the trench with fascines. The trench is 
 made by the double sap. Its width at bottom is 7 
 feet 6 inches; the ividth between the frames, 6 feet. 
 The frames and fa.scines of the blindage are gradu- 
 ally placed as the trench advances, the latter preced- 
 ing the former about "> feet. The work is begun by 
 placing an upright frame on each side; the two are 
 
 they might Ix" sunk, so as to place them in greater se- 
 curity and to effect tlieir construction more readily. 
 See Bdtterit's. 
 
 BLINDS.— Shutters of an embrasure; they are 
 musket-proof, and at a siege, at the <li.scretion of the 
 Officer Conunanding the Artillerj', are made up by the 
 Engineer Department from materials available on the 
 spol. In the Crimea, coils of roin; run round the 
 chase of the gim were used in addition to the ordi- 
 nary blind, to protect the gutmers from the lire of 
 riticmen when laying the gun. 
 
 BLIND SHELLS.— Shells which do not explode on 
 impact, or at the time it is intended they should. 
 Several causes are attributed to this defect, among 
 them the imperfect manufacture of the fuse, the in- 
 secure manner of fitting it in the 
 shell, shrinkage of the composition, 
 whereby the fuse is imable to act 
 and consequently does not ignite, and 
 various other causes. 
 
 BLISTEKED STEEL.— This varie- 
 ty of steel is prepared by exposing 
 alternate layers of bar-iron and char- 
 coal in a close furnace for several 
 days. The purpose for which this 
 steel is to be used determines the de- 
 gree of carbonization. The best quali- 
 ties of iron (Russian and Swerlish) are 
 
 Longitudinal Section of Blindage Descent into Covered-waj-. A, Blindage- ,,op,i fnrtlip tiii«t kinds nfstwl This 
 amei: B. Covered-way: C, GaTlerj- Descent to Ditch; O, P, Direction of use 1 lor lut nmst hmtlsoi sictl. 1 Ills 
 
 frames. , . 
 
 besieged Are coming over end of Traverse. 
 
 next connected by a frame on top, one side of which 
 is lodged on tlie top cross-pieces of the upright 
 frames, and the other supported by two auxiliarj- 
 frames until the next two upright frames arc placed; 
 the fascines are then thrown over the top frame to 
 the depth of about 2 feet, and these are covered with 
 earth or raw hides, to prevent their being set on fire. 
 Fascines are at the same time placed in on the sides. 
 
 The slope given to the bottom of a blinded de- 
 scent should not be greater than one perpendicular to 
 four base. When the descent is to a covered-way, 
 the bottom of it should come out in the covered-way 
 at 43 inches below its tcrre-plein; this will serve to 
 determine the point of departure, the slope being 
 ILxed, which should be five feet below the surface 
 of the glacis, so that when the blindage is put up at 
 this point the top of it shall not be above the level of 
 the parapet of the trench. A horizontal landing 
 about 8 feet in breadth is made at the entrance of 
 the blindage; and this is connected with the bottom 
 of the trench by two ramps of one .sixth. 
 
 The point selected for a blinded descent into a 
 covered-way is usually at the end of a traverse of 
 the covered- way; as the traverse will thus seiTc to 
 cover the outlet of the blindage into the covercd- 
 wav from a pluniring tire in front. 
 
 BLINDED BATTERIES.— In view of the great im- 
 provement in range, and the accuracy of (ire of rifled 
 guns, and of the greatly increa.scd amount of both 
 guns and mortars shown in the more recent sieges, the 
 question of armored parapets and of bomb-proof 
 blinds for the protection of the gxms of the batteries 
 in the position of the second parallel is one demand- 
 ing consideration. When the batteries are not exposed 
 to flank or very oblique slant views, chambers or 
 casemates of timber, with strong bomb-proof roofs 
 and sides with sutlicient cover and strength to resist 
 any chance shots, might be easily constnicted, re- 
 stricting the dimensions of each casemate to what 
 will be strictly requisite for the maneuvers of the gun 
 in it. 
 
 The entire front of the battery might be guarded 
 from direct shot, particularly of (longaled projectiles, 
 by laying heavy logs or iron rails in an inclined 
 position against the exterior slope and covering them 
 with Siiml-bags, leaving only enough embrasure 
 opening in front, Ixitli horizontally and vertically, for 
 the field of fire wanted. Considering the range of 
 these batteries at this distance of the second parallel, 
 
 is the kind of steel from which, by 
 hammering, rolling, etc., certain qual- 
 ities of tools and files are fa.shioued. When broken up, 
 piled, and welded under the hammer, it forms shear- 
 steel, from which a finer cla.ss of tools is made, and 
 when melted in crucibles it forms the finest kind of 
 cast-sttel for cutleiy. Blister -.steel is made from 
 bar-iron of superior quality by a process of cementa- 
 iion, and the furnace emploj'ed for the purpose is 
 tefmed a converting-furnace. This furnace is dome- 
 shaped and inclosed in a conical jacket of brick- 
 work, which serves to carrj' off the smoke from the 
 flues, as shown in the drawing. The hearth of the 
 furnace is divided in two parts by the grate, G, 
 traversing the whole length of the furnace, in which 
 a coal-tire is maintained, the flame of which is made 
 to circulate around the fire-clay chests or pots, C, 
 placed one on each side of the grate, before escap- 
 ing through the flues 
 in the wall, H, and 
 through the open- 
 ing, M. Into each of 
 the.se pots layers of 
 the purest malleable 
 iron bars and layers 
 of powdered char- 
 coal are packed hori- 
 zontall}-, one upon 
 the other, to a proper 
 height and quantity, 
 according to the size 
 of the pots, leaving 
 room every way for 
 the expansion of the 
 metal when it be- 
 comes heated. The 
 bars are cut to certain lengths, according to the 
 lengths of the pots. After the packing oftlie pots 
 is completed, the tops are covered with a bed of sand 
 or clay, to confine the carbon and exclude the air. 
 All the open spaces of the furnace are then closed, 
 and the fire kindled. The heat is kejit up for a week 
 or ten days, according to the flegrce of hardness re- 
 quired, the hardest quality for melting purposes 
 requiring the longest time. When the bars are re- 
 moved after cooling, they are found to have under- 
 gone a remarkable cliange. They are no longer tough, 
 but quite brittle and fusible, aiid covered over with 
 blisters. During the process the iron absorbs and 
 combines with from a half to one and a half per 
 cent of carbon. The blisters are supposed to be due 
 
 Converting-furnace.
 
 BLOCKADE. 
 
 195 
 
 BLOCK-HOUSE. 
 
 to the evolution of carbonic oxide arising from the 
 combination of carbon with a trace of oxygen exist- 
 ing^ in the iron. 
 
 beveral bars of blixttred steel being welded together, 
 and the process being repeated, Ji/war-itoiis the result; 
 this being broken in pieces, and melted in a crucible, 
 forms cast-sleil, which possesses equality of texture 
 and a capability' of being rendered extremely hard, as 
 well .IS of takmg a tine polish. The Bessemer pro- 
 cess of making steel consists in blowing atmospheric 
 air into the meltetl pigiron in the converting-vessel, 
 and this operation is conlinued until the oxygen has 
 eifeeted a combination with all the carbon, except the 
 quantity required to form steel. It has also been 
 manufactured in such a way tliat the bars contain 
 cores of iron, this gives all the hardness of steel and 
 the tenacity of iron: and prevents articles made of it 
 from lireaking off short, as they frequently do, when 
 formed only of hardened steel. See Cementation and 
 Sttcl. 
 
 BLOCKADE.— 1. In a military point of view, block- 
 ade is an operation for capturing an enemj''s town or 
 fortress without a bombardment or regular siege. 
 The attacking party throws up works on the neigh- 
 Iwring heights anil roads; these works may be 
 redoubts, for 200 or 300 men each, raised around at 
 distances of 1000 or 1.500 yards asunder; or they may 
 assume other forms, according to the circumstances 
 of each case. The rest of the besieging force remains 
 under cover in villages, or in a temporary camp, 
 ready to repel any sortie attempted by the besieged. 
 The whole purpose in \-iew is to prevent the besieged 
 from recei\'ing supplies of any kind, in order that, 
 when the food or tlie ammunition is exhausted, they 
 may be compelled to surrender. Fortresses situated 
 on steep and rocky eminences, diificult to conquer by 
 bombardment or a.s.sault, may often be reduced by 
 blockade; because the roads or paths for the recep- 
 tion of supplies are few, and can be watched by a 
 small number of troops. Towns situated on a plain 
 are less frequently invested. If the inhabitants be 
 numerous and commercial, they will soon tje impa- 
 tient of the restraint produced by a blockade, and 
 may compel or induce the Governor to adopt a plan 
 opposed to his wishes as a soldier. If, however, a 
 resistance be determined on, the Giovernor sends out 
 of the town as many non-combatants as possible; all 
 the stores are collected in bomb-proof receptacles; 
 economy is observed in the consumption of food ; all 
 the people within the walls are placed under military 
 rules; and the Governor endeavors, by frequent sor- 
 ties, to prevent the besiegers from making too close 
 an investment of the place. 
 
 2. In international law, blockade is the right, in time 
 ■of war, of rendering intercourse ^ith an enemy's port 
 unlawful on the part of neutrals; and it is carried into 
 effect by an armed force (ships of war), which blocks 
 up and bars export or import to or from the place 
 blockaded. This right is described by all -miters on 
 the law of nations as clear and incontrovertible, hav- 
 ing its origin in the soundest principles of maritime 
 jurisprudence, sanctioned by the practice of the best 
 times. It is explained on the rea.sonable theorj' that if 
 a potentate or government lays siege to a place, or sim- 
 ply blockades it, such potentate or government lias a 
 right to prevent any other power, or representative, or 
 subject of such power, from entering, and totrciitas an 
 enemy any one who attempts to enter the blockaded 
 place, or in any way assists the besieged, for such a 
 pereon opposes" the undertaking and contributes to 
 the miscarriage of it. To be valid, a blockade must 
 be accompanied by actual investment of the place, 
 and it may be more or less rigorous, either for the 
 purpose of watching the operations of the enemy, 
 or, on a more extentled scale, to cut off all access of 
 neutral vessels to that interdicted place, which is 
 strictly and properly a blockade; for the former is, in 
 truth, no blockade at all, as far as neutrals are con- 
 cerned. But to be binding on neutrals, it ought to 
 be shown that they have knowledge or may be pre- 
 
 sumed to know of the blockade; and this knowledge 
 may arise in two ways — either by such a public and 
 formal notification as we have already descril)ed, or 
 by the notoriety of the fact. Yet it is at all times 
 niost convenient that the blockade should l)e declared 
 in a iMililic and distinct manner, instead of being left 
 to creep out from the consequences produced by it; 
 
 [ and the effect of such notitiavtion to the neutral gov- 
 ernment is clearly to include all the individuals sub- 
 ject to the latter. Tlie breach of blockade may be 
 
 ! cither by coming out of the blockaded jxirt or going 
 in; such breach, however, may sometimes be excusa- 
 ble. It has been decided that intoxication on the 
 part of the master of a ship will not lie received as 
 an excuse. That breach of blockade subjects the 
 property employed for that purpose to confiscation is 
 an established rule of the law of nations, and is uni- 
 versally acknowledged by all civilized governments. 
 The violation of blockade by the master, however, 
 affects the ship, but not the cargo, unless the cargo is 
 the property of the same owner, or unless the owner 
 of the cargo is cognizant of the intended \iolation. 
 On the proclamation of peace, or from any political 
 or belligerent cause, the continuance of the invest- 
 ment may cease to be necessiiry, and the blockade is 
 then said to be raistrf. The blockading force then 
 retires, and the port Is open as before to all other 
 nations. 
 
 BLOCK-EATTEBY. — In gunnery, a wooden battery 
 for two or more small pieces, mounted on wheels, 
 and movable from place to place: adapted to Hre en 
 barbette, in the galleries and casemates, etc., where 
 
 i room is wanted. 
 
 BLOCK-HOUSE. — In inclosed works a place of re- 
 treat, into which the troops may retire in safety after 
 a ^^gorous defense of the main "work, will remove the 
 
 Plan of Ground Floor. 
 
 A— 
 
 e 13 
 Q a 
 
 Block-house. 
 
 fears of the garrison for the consequences of a suc- 
 cessful attack of the enemy, and will inspire them 
 
 ■ with confidence to hold out to the last moment. This 
 interior work, which may very properly lie termed 
 the liep, can only Ix; applied to works of large in- 
 terior capacity. It may be formed of earth, or con- 
 sist simply of "a space inclosed by a defensive stockade, 
 or palisiu\inu^ In cither case it" should be about four 
 feet higher than the main work, to prevent the enemy 
 
 ! from obtaining a plunging fire in it from the parapet 
 
 \ of the main "work. The best arrangement for the 
 keep is the construction tenned the WocA-A'?./«'. This 
 work is made of heavy timber, either squared on two 
 sides or four; the pieces which form tlie sides of the 
 block -house are either laid horizontally, and halved 
 
 I together at the ends, like an ordinarj- log-house, or 
 else they are placed vertically, side by side, and con- 
 
 , nectcd at top by a capsill. The sides are arranged
 
 BLOCKS. 
 
 196 
 
 BLOCKS. 
 
 with loop-hole defenses; and the top is formed by 
 laying heavy lojjs, side liv side, of the same thickness 
 as" those ustnl for the sides, luul eovcriug them with 
 earth to the depth of tliree feet. 
 
 The plan of a block-house is selected by the same 
 genend rules which an' used for selecting the trace of 
 a tield-work. It may be stpiare, rectjuigular, octag- 
 onal, and even cruciform in plan, according to the 
 loodity in which it is placed and the lire which it 
 has lodeliver. The dimensions should Ix' sufficient 
 to allow sleeping accommodations for the men who 
 are to occupy it; and in some cases allowance should 
 be made for other accommodations. Its interior di- 
 mensions should give at least a height of si.\ feet in 
 the clear for the rooms; a height of eight or nine feet 
 gives l)etter accommoilations and better ventilation. 
 The width of the interior should not tx- less than nine 
 feet in the clear, as this is the least distance which 
 can tie used and give room for a passageway and a 
 row of bunks. The length will depend upon the 
 numlx?r of men it has to accommodate, after the 
 width has been assumed. Block-houses must be 
 made strong enough to resist the projectiles which 
 may strike Them, and should l)e proof against fire and 
 splinters. They should hv free from dampness, and 
 should be well Ventilated. The conditions given for 
 a bomb-proof are ap|ilicable to the block-house, with 
 the additional one of arranging it.s walls for defense. 
 
 It has been proposed to place a slight parapet of 
 earth on top of the blockhouse. It is thought that 
 this accumulation of earth would be too heavy for 
 the timbers, independently of leaN-ing but little space 
 for the defense. Perhaps a better arrangement might 
 be made on top, similar to a defensive stockade, the 
 uprights being secured at bottom, between two pieces 
 resting on the top pieces, and held firm by an arrange- 
 ment of riband pieces and braces. It has also been 
 proposetl to place the interior and exterior rows of 
 uprights three feel apart, and to till in between them 
 with closely packed earth, for a defense against 
 artillery. This method has Ix'cn tried, and was found 
 to be less .solid than the one here laid down, independ- 
 ently of beiu" more difficult to construct. The top 
 pieces should in no case project more than twelve 
 inches beyond the sides, to admit of logs, etc., being 
 rolled over on the enemy. 
 
 Timber block-houses were used frequenllj' in the 
 War of 1861-5 in isolated spot«-i, as independent 
 works. In these places they were, as a rule, exposed 
 to attack only from infaniry or cavalry, or a few 
 pieces of field-artillery. It was found from experi- 
 ence that it required "a thickness of forty inches of 
 solid timber to resist the projectiles of field-guns. 
 The.se isolated blockhouses were frequently built two 
 stories high. The upper stoiy was usually placed so 
 as to have its sides make an "angle with the sides of 
 the lower story. By this arrangement the comers of 
 the upper story projected over the sides of the lower. 
 This arrangement of the upper story removed the 
 dead space near the sides of the lower story, and the 
 sector without fire in front of the angles. Block- 
 houses exposed to artillerj-firc shoula not have a 
 second story. 
 
 The drawing shows the construction of a block- 
 housi', with dimensions in meters, used by the French 
 in Algiers; or it may be built of logs 18 inches square 
 on the ground-tloor and 12 inches sfjuare in the 
 upper stor)-. Height of each story 10 feet; loop- 
 holed; th(' upper story projecting all round, beyond 
 the ground-story, as machicoulis. Hatches are made 
 in the roof for the escape of smoke, !>nd are grated. 
 See Ai/irrirtin JUnrkhouxe. 
 
 BLOCKS. — 1. Bloekx are of two kmds, mmle and 
 mnrdned. A made block consists of four part.s — the 
 shell, or outside; the sheare, or wheel on which the 
 rope turns; the pin, or nxle on which the wheel 
 turns; and the ntrap, either of roi>e or iron, which 
 encircles the whole and keeps it in its place. The 
 sheave is generally strengthened by letting in a piece 
 of iron or brass at the center, called a hmh. Nearly 
 
 all hea\y blocks for ordnance purposes are made 
 with iron shells and brass sheaves. A iin'rtMti bUick 
 is made of a single block of wood, morli.scd out to 
 receive a sheave. All blocks are single, double, or 
 threefold, according to the number of sheaves in 
 them. There are ulocks that have no sheaves, to 
 wit: a bull's eye, which is a wooden thimble without 
 a sheave, having a hole through the center and a 
 groove round it; and a dead-tyi, which is a solid 
 block of wood made in a circular fonn, with a 
 groove round it, and tliree holes bored through it, for 
 the lanyards to reeve through. SiniMi-bliirks are 
 single blocks, with a notch cut in one cheek, just be- 
 low the sheave, so as to receive the bight of a fall 
 
 Mortised Block. 
 
 without the trouble of reeving and unreeving the 
 whole. They are generally iron-bound and have a 
 hook at one end. A tail-block is a single block, 
 strapped with au eye-splice, and having a long end 
 left, by which to make the block fast tempontrily to 
 the rigging. This tail is usually selvaged, or else the 
 strands are opened and laid up into sennit, as for a 
 gasket. 
 
 Blocks were made by hand imtil about a century 
 ago. But mere workers in wood could not produce 
 them; it required unusual skill and practice to 
 fashion the several pieces and put them together so 
 as to possess the requisite strength and facility in 
 working. In 1781 a Mr. Taylor began to make the 
 sheaves and shells of blocks by a process which he 
 had invented. He made all the blocks for the Roval 
 navy until the expiration of his patent-rights, "the 
 Admiralty then commervced the manufacture on their 
 own account. In 1801 Mr. (afterwards Sir) JIark. 
 Isambard Brunei submitted to the Admiralty a work- 
 ing-model of a very beautiful system of machinery 
 for block-making; it was accepted, and the inventor 
 engaged to set up the apparatus at Portsmouth. So 
 intricate was the machinery, and so great the difficulty 
 in procuring the several working-parts from the 
 machinists of those days, that it was not until the 
 year 1808 that the system was put into effective 
 operation. It was then, however, so perfect that 
 very few additions or improvements have since been 
 needed. The machinery made blocks more accurately 
 than they had ever been made by hand, and with the 
 aid of ordinary workmen only. It could effect 
 ,£50,000 worib of work in a year, or 140,000 blocks, 
 by the assistance of ten men attending the machine, 
 duplicate machinery was made for Chatham. Brunei 
 received ,£20,000 for his invention and for his per- 
 sonal superintendence until the machinery was 
 brought into working-order; this sum was money 
 well laid out, for the machine saved to the country 
 more than £20,000 a year, in the busy warlike i)eriod 
 from 1808 to 1815. The machinery itself is too com- 
 plicated to be (ktscribed except at a length incompati- 
 ble \vith the limits of this work; but it may be staled 
 in a genend way thai the system is made up chiefly 
 of saws and lathes, combined with great ingenuity. 
 The blocks are made of elm, and the sheaves of 
 lignum \it«!; the pins are of iron, carefully prepared 
 to avoid friction as much as possible. 
 
 The dniwing shows a most excellent block-turning 
 machine manufacUu-ed by Messrs. Maiming, Max- 
 well & Moore, New York. It is generally employed 
 at the armories, and has a capacity for blocks up to 
 50 inches diameter. The latest designed block-turn- 
 ing lathe has a large cone-pulley, with 6 steps for a 
 wide belt, which transmits the power through tangent 
 gearing (accurately cut) to the main spindle; this is 
 an extraordinarily steady and powerful method of 
 driving, and is held in high eslimalion in England,
 
 3I0CK-SHIP. 
 
 197 
 
 BLOOD-HOinri). 
 
 -where it has been testefl through a range of work 
 that demands the utmost steadiness, such as cjiinder- 
 lx)ring, etc. The carrier-plate is of the equalizing 
 tj-pc, obviating unequal and lateral strains. On each 
 side of the solid bed-piece are placed rests which slide 
 in and out on graduated surfaces to suit the diameter 
 of the pulley to be turned; these rests can be set 
 angularly to get any desired degree of "crown"; 
 tools are thus operated on both sides of the machine.' 
 The feeds are continuous, not intenuittent (a ratchet 
 and a pawl give an intennittent feed). The feeds 
 can be instantly engaged, disengaged, or chansed. 
 Another admirable feature of this tool is thafthe 
 
 BLOMAEY— BLOOMAEY.— A furnace for trans- 
 forming pig-iron to wrought or malleable iron, or for 
 making such iron directly from ore. When ore is 
 used, a mass of iron called a " bloom" is produced, 
 instead of the impure pig-iron that runs from the' 
 melted metijl in a blast-furnace. The bloniary process 
 is one of the oldest in iron-working, and is" used in 
 rude forms in some still barbarous countries. The 
 best of modern blomaries are the German and the 
 Catalan (Spanish) furnaces, in which ores are reduced 
 chiefly by means of charcoal. The best of ore should 
 be vised, as the waste is much greater in poorore. In 
 the Catalan, the charcoal, with a large part of the 
 
 K turuing Machine. Manning, JIaxwell ,S: JIuoie. 
 
 spindle of the cone-pulley runs at so much higher velo- 
 city than the main spindle that its speed is suitable 
 for polishing when the latter is turning; a steel man- 
 drel and a suitable rest are pronded for polishing. 
 This arrangement secures a combination of machines. 
 The counter-shaft has two pulleys 20 inches in diame- 
 ter, ^i inches face, which should run 130 revolutions 
 per minute. See Mecfmnkal Maneuvers and Tcwkka. 
 
 2. Rectangular prisms of wood employed ex- 
 tensively in all operations connected with tlie move- 
 ments of heaNy artillery. They are usually 8 inches 
 square and 20 inches long. 
 
 BLOCK-SHIP.-— A ship of war too old or too slow 
 in sailing to render elBcient service in action out at 
 sea, but useful as a defense in great ports and naval 
 arsenals. Since war-steamers have almost superseded 
 the old sailing men-of-war, the latter are of little ser- 
 vice except as block-ships, or for training-ships. The 
 numl)er of block-ships in the British na\y in 1859 
 was a'Dout ten. 
 
 BLOCK-TIN. — Tin which has undergone refining, 
 either by Ufjuaiiun or jmling, when it is run into 
 blocks, each weighing about 3 cwt. Tin thus treated 
 is found to form in the melting-basin three stratji, of 
 which the top stratum is most pure, the bottom most 
 impure, and the middle of average purity. The best 
 qualities of this metal are the Baiica. the Cornish, and 
 the Spanish tin. This metal is mixed with copper to 
 form bronze. 
 
 BLOCK-TRAIL.— In artillery, that pattern of gun- 
 carriage the trail of which is formed of one beam, or 
 two beams tabled one into the other. It is stated in 
 Lieutenant-colonel Owen's Modern Artilttry that 
 this nature of carriage was invented in 1792 by Sir 
 W. Congreve. It has now been superseded in lately 
 constructed wrought-iron carriages by the bracket- 
 trail. 
 
 iron, is heaped on a square hearth opposite to the 
 tuyere, charcoal and fine ore being added from time to 
 time, while amoflerate blast is kept up and the mass 
 occasionallv stirred. In about six hours the iron 
 settles to the bottom, is taken out in a mass, and 
 forged into a bloom. For the German or more com- 
 mon bloom, the ore is pounded fine and thrown in 
 small quantities upon a charcoal-fire, with either hot 
 or cold blast, hot being much the better. The metal 
 settles to the bottom, and is drawn off at intervals, 
 and hammered into blooms. The process is avail- 
 able in places where wood (for charcoal) and good 
 iron-ore are found near each other. Iron so made is 
 of the best quality, and is very desirable for convert- 
 ing into steel. 
 
 BLONDEL SYSTEM OF FOETIFICATION.— In this 
 system the Itastions are large and acute; their flanks 
 are long and triple. The bastions are covereil by 
 counterguards, whose ditches, like those of the rave- 
 lins, are defended by low batteries. Small ravelins 
 are substituted for tlie reduit of the re-entering place 
 of arms. It is weak in outline and costly in ma- 
 sonry. See Forlilication. 
 
 BLOOD-HOUND.— A variety of hound remarkable 
 for its exquisite scent and for its great .sagjicity and 
 perseverance in tracking anv object to the pursuit of 
 which it has been trained. It derives its name from 
 its original common emplo_\Tnent in the chase, either 
 to track a wounded animal or to discover the lair of 
 a beast of prey. It was also formerlv called, both 
 in England and in Scotland, ukut-hound or akuth- 
 hnund from the Saxon nUni, the track of a deer. 
 The poetical histories of Bruce and AVallace describe 
 these heroes as occasionally tracked by blood-hounds, 
 when they were skulking from their enemies. The 
 blood-hound was at a later period much used to 
 guide in the pursuit of cattle carried off in border
 
 BLOOD'S PONTONS. 
 
 198 
 
 BLOWEB. 
 
 raids; it lias been frequently used for tlie pursuit 
 of felons imd of lieer-stenlers; and latterly, in Amer- 
 ica, for the capture of fugitive slaves and prist)n- 
 ers of war — an employment of its powers which has 
 contributed not a little to rentier its name odious to 
 many i)hilanthropists. Terrible ideas are also, prob- 
 ably" suirgested t>y the name itself, although the 
 bloiKl-houud is bvno means a panicularly ferocious 
 kind of dog, imtf when employed in the pursuit of 
 human beings can be Iraiueil to detain them as 
 pristmers without offering: to injure them. The true 
 blooil-hound is taller and also stronger in proportion 
 ami of more conii>act tigure than a fox hound, 
 muscular and broad-chested, with large pendulous 
 cars, large i)endulous upper lips, and an expression 
 of face which is variously described lus " thoughtful," 
 " noble." and " stern." The original color is said to 
 have been a dee]) tan, cloudcil with black. The 
 color appears to have l)een one of the chief distinc- 
 tions between the blood-hound and the tallKit, but it 
 is not improbable that this name was originally com- 
 mon to ail blood-hounds. JIany interesting anecdotes 
 are recorded of the persevenmce and success of blood- 
 hounds in following a track upon which they have 
 been set, even whenit has led them through "nuich- 
 frequcnted roads. — The Cuban blood-hound, which is 
 much employed in the pursuit of felons and of 
 fugitive slaves in Cuba, differs considerably from the 
 tnie blood-hound of Britain and of the Continent of 
 Europe, being more tierce anil having more resem- 
 blance to the bull-dog, and probably a connection 
 with that or some similar nice. Many of these dogs 
 were imported into Jamaica in 1796, to be employed 
 in suppressing the Maroon Insurrection, but the 
 terror occasioned by their arrival produced this effect 
 without their actual employment. It was this kind 
 of blooii-hound which was chiefly introduced into the 
 former Slave States of North America. 
 
 BLOOD'S PONTONS.— Flat-bottom boats, made of 
 light wooden frames covered by coatings of canvas, 
 wood, cork, anil leather, cemented together. Their 
 length is 21 feet, breadth .'3J feet, weight 850 lbs., 
 and buoyancy 5i tons. The bridge will readily bear 
 a 64-poii"nder gun. One wagon conveys one ponton 
 and the supcrstructvne for 1.5 feet of bridge. The 
 bridge can be constmcted at the rate of 200 yanis 
 per iiour. See lUinirhnnl Pontons. 
 
 BLOOM CAMPAIGN EQUIPMENT.— The difficult 
 problem of drawing the in-ojier line between the 
 number of articles that shoidil be in hand, when the 
 engagement ensues, and the weight that .should be 
 transported on the person, has received much at- 
 tention of late. The excellent campaign equipment 
 devised by J. E. Bloom, Esq., late of the United 
 States ArtilliT)-, is the nearest approach to perfection, 
 as vet. By this device the center of gravity of the 
 soldier remains nearly normal, and the strain falls 
 upon those portions of the body which can best bear 
 them. It seems that the principal objection to the 
 "roll" as worn during the late war was that the 
 ■weight fell >ipon one side of the body, thus heating 
 it, etc. In .Mr. Bloom's system of equi[iment this 
 objection is entirely overcome, and the soldier is 
 enublc'd to transport the following with great facility: 
 one hundred cartridges (cal. 4.5), one blanket, one 
 shelter-tent, one overcoat, one pair pants, one pair 
 drawers, one undershii't, one woolen shirt, one pair 
 socks, one pinr shoes, towel, soaj), etc., in addition to 
 his ritle. The ef|uipment consists in a system of sup- 
 portinK straps, by means of which the weight to be 
 carried i-; directly transferred to and supported equally 
 by the shoulders, without producing any horizontal 
 pri'.ssure vipon the chest. This object is accomplished 
 by means of a yoke, composed of two leather straps, 
 passing over tlie shoulders and joined by the simie 
 rivets at their ends — front and rear (opposite to the 
 extremity of the stennim bone) — both to plates or 
 stirrups, and also to a dout)le blankct-stra]), for 
 securing the blankets and articles rolled therein. 
 The blanket-roll is adjusted so as to fully clear, by an 
 
 inch, the shoulder over which it passes, Iwing thus 
 suspended from a central ]ioint front and rear, upon 
 a line passing through the center of gravity of the 
 body — thus causing such a disposition of tlie.>ie arti- 
 clesas not to disturb the equilibrium of the body. 
 
 The weight of the cartridge-belt, of any variety, is 
 supported from stirrups, lx)th at front and back, by 
 means of books, or book-plates, which are counectca 
 with the belt through adjustable straps imd snap- 
 hooks. The havei"sack, canteen, gamebags, etc., are 
 likewise sus]K'nded from side slots in the stirriqis by 
 means of straps. The blanket-roll, when firmly 
 made and adjusted, exerts more than sutticient out- 
 iriinl t/inixl to counteract all inward strains (which 
 would otherwise fall upon the chest) due to the 
 weight of the "roll," ammunition-lnlt, etc. This 
 should be pa.s.sed over the left shoulder when the 
 soldier is right-handed or fires from the right 
 .shoulder, and «W' nnn. The following advantages 
 of such an equipment are apparent: 1. Lightnes.s 
 and sim])li(ily; and, being practically in one piece, 
 there are no jiarts to be lost by the most careless. 
 
 2. Facility and quickness of slinging and unslinging. 
 
 3. It does not interfere with the action of the soldier, 
 or the natural equilibrium of his lK)dy. 4. It does 
 not heat the soldier; but allows him to .>ileep with all 
 accouterments upon the person — the upper part of 
 the "roll" fonning a pillow for the hciid. The 
 Eviropean soldier, on going into action, is allowed the 
 followin<; ammunition: France, 92; Gemiany, 117; 
 Russia, "120; England, 100; Au.stria, 119." The 
 equipment described will enable him to carry 100 
 rounds, in addition to his kit, etc., with ease and 
 -sfifetv. See Equipinciils. 
 
 BLOOMFIELD GUN.— An ordinary cast-iron gun, 
 with a charge of one third the weight of the shot. 
 It has from IJ to 4 cwt. of metal to every 1 lb. of 
 shot. The 32-pdr. , of 56 cwt. , and 24-pdr. , o"f 50 cwt. , 
 are still in the English service, as well as some other 
 guns of this pattern. 
 
 BLOUSE— BLOWSE.— A part of the undress uni- 
 form. It is usuall.y employed for fatigues, marches, 
 squad and company drills, and other drills when 
 authorized by the Commanding Officer, and for 
 ordinary wear. In the United States army, it is a 
 sack-coat of dark blue cloth or serge; falling collar; 
 single-breasted, with live buttons in front, same as 
 those worn on the dress-coat. The skirt extends 
 from one third to two thirds the distance from the 
 hip-joint to the bend of the knee. The shoulder- 
 strajis are always worn with this coat. A Chaidaiu 
 wears a plain black frock coat with standing collar; 
 one row of nine lilack buttons on the breast, with 
 "herring-bone" of black braid around the buttons 
 and button-holes. Officers are permitted to wear a 
 jilain dark blue body -coat, with the button desig- 
 nating their respecti\e coqis, regiments, or depart- 
 ment.s, without any other mark or ornament upon it. 
 This coat, however, is not to be considered as a dress 
 for any military purpose. Enlisted men wear a 
 dark blue blousv of navy flannel, according to the 
 p:illcni(lcpositc<l in the Quartermaster-general's Office. 
 Blouses for winter wear are lined. See Dnss-coaU. 
 
 BLOWER. — A machine for creating an artiticial 
 current of air by pressure. A pleiiimi engine, as 
 contRidistinguished from a viicuuni engine, such as 
 an aspirator. Blowers are used to increase draughts 
 in furnaces; to fiuiiish \-ital air to close and fetid 
 ])laccs, as mines, poorly ventilated casemates, etc.; to 
 furnish a current of wanned, cooled, moistened, or 
 medicated air to hosjiitals or closely occupied bar- 
 racks; to furnish a drying atmosphere in powder- 
 mills and lunibcr-kilns; to raise fluids on the princi- 
 ple of the GilTard injector, etc. 
 
 The earlier modern forms of machine-blowers con- 
 sist of cylinders with pistons, the dilTerences between 
 them consisting principally in the means for commu- 
 nicatiiig motion and for securing a iniiform blast. 
 In the blowers at Woolwich, England, the air is 
 forced from the blowing-cylinders into a reservoir.
 
 BLOWEB. 
 
 199 
 
 BLOWIE. 
 
 Sturtevaut Blower. 
 
 whence it issues by the force of its comprcs.sion. 
 The beams of the pistons are so connected tliat when 
 one is at the top of the stroke another is midway of 
 its cylinder and the third at its lowest point, main- 
 taining vcrj' nearly uniform pressure in a wind-chest 
 below with which each cylinder communicates. 
 Blowers on the fan-principle are the favorite suDjects 
 of the exercise of the ingenuity of modern inventors 
 in this line. In these the air is admitted through an 
 aperture at or near the axis of the rotating fan, 
 ■whence it is driven toward the periphery' by means 
 of curved arms, and discharged through an "opening 
 in the case. The Sturtevant blower, in its many 
 ' varieties, is acknowledged to be superior to all others 
 of its kind, and is much used by the United States 
 Government, as also in foreign armories. The draw- 
 ing shows a form of this blower csjiecially adajiled 
 for use where air is to be carried any distance in 
 imderground ducts, and is much used for forcing 
 fresh air into and taking foul air out of hospitals 
 and apartments needing ventilation. These Itlowers 
 are of all descriptions to suit every po.ssible situation 
 and kind of work. In nearly all cases where the 
 
 blast-pipe leads directly upward from the blower it 
 is better to have the blower built with upward blast, 
 with the mouth pointing upward instead of horizon- 
 tally. It saves making an ellKiw, which would 
 have to be used in the case of a horizontal-blast 
 
 j blower; and in most cases where elbows arc put on 
 to the horizontal bla.st, contractors try to economize 
 room, and by so doing make a very short elbow, 
 
 [ which in some cases reduces the force of the blast 
 aliout one lifth, necessitating nearly double the power 
 lo do the same work as would l)e required with the 
 up-blast blower and straight pipe. These blowers 
 may, for example, be used with advantage where the 
 space under the tloor is to be ventilated, and the foul 
 air discharged upward through the roof or into a 
 chimney, or when the blower is attached to a heater 
 and located where floor-space is very valuable, and 
 the hot blast used in dryers overhead or on the next 
 tloor above. 
 
 The pressure - blowers for cupola - furnaces and 
 forges are made of steel, and are built very strong 
 and heavy. The following table shows the melting 
 capacities, speeds, etc. . of blowers of varioas sizes: 
 
 
 Diam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Power Saved by RKDrciNo 
 
 THE Speed 
 
 No. of 
 
 in 
 inches 
 inside 
 
 of 
 cupola. 
 
 Melting 
 
 capacity 
 
 per iiour in 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Number of 
 
 square inches 
 
 of blast. 
 
 Cubic 
 feet of 
 air per 
 minute. 
 
 Speed. 
 
 Pres- 
 sure in 
 ounces 
 of blast 
 
 Horse- 
 power 
 req'ired 
 
 
 AND Pressi-re or Blast. 
 
 
 blower. 
 
 Speed. 
 
 Oz. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 H. P. 
 
 Speed. 
 
 Oz. 
 Pres. 
 
 H. P. 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 1,200 
 
 4 ^^ ^-^ ^ 
 
 334 
 
 4135 
 
 5 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 1,900 
 
 5. t c ^c « '^ 
 
 507 
 
 3756 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3445 
 
 5 
 
 0.8 
 
 3100 
 
 4 
 
 0.6 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 2,880 
 
 8 'r ii i 5^ . 
 
 708 
 
 32S0 
 
 
 1.8 
 
 3000 
 
 6 
 
 1.5 
 
 2750 
 
 5 
 
 1.1 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 4,130 
 
 io.~£S^T5^ 
 
 1.102 
 
 3100 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 2900 
 
 7 
 
 2.5 
 
 2700 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 6.178 
 
 H.2S JO. gg 
 
 l,6t6 
 
 2900 
 
 10 
 
 5.5 
 
 2560 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2890 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 46 
 
 8.900 
 
 18.7 =-.2 ""s II 
 
 2.375 
 
 2820 
 
 12 
 
 9.7 
 
 25ob 
 
 10 
 
 7.4 
 
 2260 
 
 8 
 
 
 T 
 
 S3 
 
 l2,.:oo 
 
 24.3*Sii^S 
 
 3,353 
 
 2000 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 2380 
 
 12 
 
 12.7 
 
 2150 
 
 10 
 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 16.500 
 
 32 gdoaSi 
 
 4,410 
 
 2270 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 2100 
 
 12 
 
 16 7 
 
 1900 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 7*^ 
 
 23,800 
 
 4.1 |3;. -=.2 
 
 6.364 
 
 2100 
 
 16 
 
 85 
 
 1960 
 
 14 
 
 28.4 
 
 1800 
 
 12 
 
 
 10 
 
 84 
 
 33,300 
 
 60 S£S.I§. 
 
 8,880 
 
 1815 
 
 16 
 
 48 
 
 1700 
 
 14 
 
 39.6 
 
 1566 
 

 
 BLOW GUN. 
 
 200 
 
 BLOWPIPE. 
 
 The speed given is rcgiilatcd so as to give the pres- 
 sure of blast stated in ounces per square inch. The 
 number of cubic feet of air jjer minute given against 
 each size cupola is the result of numerous tests taken 
 on cupolas. The tenn "square inches of blast" re- 
 fers to the area of a proper-shaped mouth-piece dis- 
 charging bliist into the Ojx-n air. The melting 
 capacity per hour in pountls of iron is made up from 
 an average of tests on a few of the best cupolas 
 found, and is reliable in cases where the cupolas are 
 •well constructed and driven with the greatest force 
 of blijst given in the table. That portion of the table 
 headed " Power saved by reducing the speed and 
 pressure of blast" shows "that in foundries, where a 
 strong blast is not desirable, the blower can be run 
 and do good work with very much less power. See 
 Fanner, Iron, and Shamfan. 
 
 BLOW-GUN. — A sort of air-gun used by the Bar- 
 bados Indians of Brazil and other aborigine's of South 
 America. A similar contrivance is emploj'ed by 
 some of the Malays, by whom it is called "sumpi- 
 tan." The arrows are about lifty inches long, made 
 of a yellow reed, and tipped ^ritli hard wood, which 
 has a spike of cocourite wood poisoned. The spike 
 is cut half through, so as to break off in the wound, 
 that the arrow -shaft may drop and be recovered. 
 
 BLOWING-BAGS.— Bags tilled with a small charge 
 of gunpowder mul coal-dust, and placed inside a 
 common shell when it is not intended to burst the 
 shtU. The charge is ignited by means of a fuse. 
 Blowing-bags are used in artillery-practice, to show 
 ■where, "if the shell had been a live shell, it would 
 have burst. 
 
 BL0WING-CHAB6ES.— Charges used for different 
 natures of common shells; they are a mixture of 
 gunpowder and coal-dust. The object of using the 
 blowing-charge is when it is not desirable or safe to 
 burst the shell. 
 
 BLOWING-CYLINDEE.— A form of blast-engine. 
 Smeaton introduced the blowing-cylinders at the 
 Carron Iron-works, and bj- the power and volume of 
 blast made effective the earnest and repeated at- 
 tempts of the English to smelt iron by the use of 
 the coke of pit-coal. This was in 1760, and utilized 
 the invention of Abraham Darby, of Colebrookdale, 
 in 173.5. 
 
 BLOW-PIPE. — A small instnunent used in the 
 laboratory for soldering metals, and in analytical 
 chemistry and mineralogy for determining the 
 nature of substances by the action of an intense and 
 continuous heat, its principle depending on the fact 
 that when a jet of air or oxygen is thrown into a 
 
 turned over to admit of the lips closing perfectly 
 round it. Near the lower end, a small tube, fitted 
 with a finely perforated nozzle, is inserted at right 
 angles to the large tube, the s|iace below being in- 
 tended as a chamber for condensing the moisture of 
 the breath. Through this nozzle a fine current of 
 air can be projected against the flame experimented 
 with. 
 
 When a current of air from the blow-pipe is 
 directed against a candle or gas-jet, the flame almost 
 entirely loses its luniinositj', owing to the perfect 
 combustion of the gases evolved from the source of 
 heat, and is projected in a latcml direction, as a long- 
 pointed cone, consisting of three distinct parts. The 
 first or centi-al cone is of a dark blue color, and there 
 the combustion is complete from the excess of air 
 thrown in from the small nozzle. The second cone, 
 or that immediatclj- .surroun<iing the first, is some- 
 what luminous; and here, the oxygen being insuffi- 
 cient for the combustion of the carbon, any metallic 
 oxide subjected to the action of this portion of the 
 flame is deprived of its oxygen and reduced to the 
 condition of metal; for this reason the luminous cone 
 is generally termed the rednHng flame of the blow- 
 pipe. Beyond the second cone, or where the flame 
 comes freely in contact with Uie atmosphere, and 
 abundance of oxygen is present to cfiect complete 
 combustion of the gases, is a third or pale yellow 
 envelope, containing excess of atmospheric air at a 
 verj' high temperature, so that a portion of metal, 
 such as lead or copper, placed at this point, becomes 
 rapidly converted into its oxide: this outer part of 
 the flame is on this account called the oridizing flame 
 of the blow -pipe. 
 
 Hoskins' Hydro-carbon Blow-pipe and Furnace are 
 represented in the drawing. In this apparatus, much 
 used in the armory , P is an ordinan,- force-pump, at the 
 bottom of which (at A) is a valve which closes auto- 
 matically upon releasing the pressure from the pump. 
 C is a check- valve which closes the inlet to the tank, T, 
 completely. F is the filling-screw. H Ls the pipe lead- 
 ing from the tank to the burner, D. E is the burner- 
 regulator, terminating in a fine point, closing the 
 orifice of the burner. B is the crucible-furnace. 
 Upon pumping a few strokes, a pressure is created in 
 the tank, which forces the fluid through the pipe, H, 
 and the tubes of the burner, when it is vaporized by 
 heating the burner, and finally issues from the fine 
 orifice at the end of E as a highly heated gas, and 
 bums as such with a powerful blast. After once 
 being started, the heat of the flame passing through 
 the burner evaporizes the fluid in the tubes, and 
 
 Hoskins' Hydro-carbon Blow-pipe and Furnace. 
 
 flame the rapidity of combustion is increased, while 
 the effects are concentrated by diminishing the extent 
 or space originally occiijiied l)y the flame. The 
 blow-pipe generally consists of a conical tube of 
 metal, about 8 inches long, closed at the wider or 
 lower end, but open at tlie narrow or upper end, 
 ■which latter constitute^ the mouth-piece, and is 
 
 hence it is automatic in its action. The air which is 
 forced in is not used, and therefore it is only neces- 
 sary to occasionally use the pump to mainiain the 
 pressure les.sened bj- the consumption of the fluid, to 
 keep up the blast. 
 
 The folio-wing are exemplifications of the difference 
 of color commimicated to the flame by different sub-
 
 3L0W-PIPE AND AEROW. 
 
 201 
 
 BOARD OF ENGINEEES. 
 
 Stances: salts of potash color the flame riolet; soda, 
 yellow; lithia, purplish red; baryta, yellowish green; 
 strontia, earmine; limo, briek-red; compounds of 
 phosphoric acid, l)oracic acid, and copper, green. 
 The commonly occurring metallic oxides reducible by 
 heating on charcoal alone in the inner flame of the 
 Wow-pipe are the oxides of zinc, silver, lead, copper, 
 bismuth, and antimony; the principal ores not so re- 
 ducible are the alkalies and alkaline earths, as also 
 the oxides of iron, manganese, and chromium. The 
 fluxes generally used in blow-pipe experiments are 
 cither carbonate of soda, borax (biborate of soda), or 
 the ammonia-phosphate of soda, otherwise called 
 micrdcosmic suit. The carbonate of soda, when 
 heated on platinum wire in the oxidizing flame, forms 
 ■with silica a c/lvrless glass; with oxide of antimony, 
 a if/lite bead, etc. The following metals are reduced 
 from their compounds when heated with carbonate 
 of soda on charcoal in the inner flame of the blow- 
 pipe, viz.: nickel, cobalt, iron, molybdenum, tung- 
 sten, copper, tin, silver, gold, and platinum. When 
 compounds of zinc, lead, bismuth, arsenic, antimony, 
 tellurium, and cadmium are similarly treated, these 
 metjils are also formed, but being volatile, the}' pa.ss 
 off in vapor at the high temperature to which they 
 are exposed. 
 
 Boras, as a flux, is generally mixed with the sub- 
 stance under examination, and placed on platinum 
 •wire. When thus heated in either of the flames, 
 barj'ta, strontia, lime, magnesia, alumina, and silica 
 yield colorless beads; cobalt gives a fine blue coUtr ; 
 copper, a green ; etc. With microcosmic salt the 
 results obtained are generally similar to those with 
 borax, and need not Ik specially mentioned, as the 
 test is applied in the same way. The blow-pipe has 
 been long used by goldsmiths and jewelers for solder- 
 ing metids, and by glass-blowers in fusing and seal- 
 ing glass tubes, etc.; it has also been applied in 
 qualitative analj'sis for many years, but more re- 
 cently chemists (especially Plattner) have devoted 
 Iheir attention to its use, and have even employed it 
 ■with great success in quantitative chemical analysis; 
 the advantages being that only a verj' small quantity 
 of material is required to operate upon, whilst the 
 results may be obtained with great rapidity and con- 
 siderable accurac'v. 
 
 BLOW-PIPE AND ARROW. — A kind of ■weapon 
 much used by some of the Inilian tribes of South 
 America, both in war and for killing game. It con- 
 sists of a long straight tube in ■which a small poi.soned 
 arrow is placed and forcibly expelled by the breath. 
 The tulje or blow-pipe, called grurutiina poeuna, etc., 
 is 8 to 12 feet long, the bore not generally large 
 enough to admit the little finger. It is made of reed 
 or of the stem of a small palm. Near Pani it is in 
 general verv ingeniously and nicelj' made of two stems 
 of a palm (Iriartea setigera) of different diameters, the 
 one fitted into the other, in order the better to secure 
 its perfect straightness. A sight is affixed to it near 
 the end. The arrows used in that district are 15 to 
 18 inches long, made of the spines of another palm, 
 sharply pointed, notched so as to break off in the 
 ■wound, and <heir points covered ■with c!/ronpoi.son. 
 A little soft down of the silk-cotton tree is twisted 
 round each arrow, so as exactlj- to fit the tulje. In 
 Peru arrows of only 1^ to 2 inches long are used, and 
 a ditfcrcnt kind of poison seems to be employed. An 
 accidental wound from one of these poisoned arrows 
 not imfrequently jiroves fatal. In the hand of a 
 practiced Indian the weajion is verv deadly, and 
 particularly when directed against birds sitting in 
 the tops of high trees. As his weapon makes no 
 noise, the hunter often empties his quiver before he 
 gathers up the game, and does more execution than 
 an American sportsman could with his double-biu'- 
 reled fowling-piece. 
 
 BLUDGEON.— A short stick, with one end loaded 
 or thicker and hea\ier than the other, used as an 
 offensive weajion. 
 
 BLUE-LIGHT.— An ornamental composition in 
 
 pyrotcchny. For one hundred lights the following 
 materials are required: niter, 9 jxjunds 10 ounces; 
 sulphur, 2 pounds 6i ounces; red orpiment, 11 
 ounces; mealed powder, 11 ounces. The materials 
 should be pure, well pulverized, and thoroughly in- 
 corporated, rubbing them in the hands, and piLssing 
 I them several times through a fine hair-sieve, llemt- 
 j spheriml cups, of well-seasoned wood (beech, linden, 
 1 etc.), with a handle 10 inches long, l|-ineh diameter; 
 j quifk-match; paper; paste. To prepare a blue-light, 
 till the cup with composition, and press it firnd_\-^in; 
 prime the cup with quick-match, and cover th« whole 
 with cartridge-paper i)asled to the bottom of the cup. 
 The brilliancy of the light depends on the purity and 
 ; thorough incurpoiiition of the ingredients. " The 
 composition may also be driven in a paper ca.se, and 
 afterwards cut off to suit the required time of burn- 
 ing. Both ends of the case are closed with paper 
 caps and primed with quick-match, in order that 
 one or both cuds may be lighted at pleasure. A 
 light in which the composition is 1..5 inch in diame- 
 ter can Ije easily distinguished at a distance of 15 
 miles. See Cunijxisitions and Fire-works. 
 
 BLUE PETER.— A blue flag with a white square in 
 the center, used to signify that the ship on which it is 
 raised, or the fleet of which that is the flagship, is 
 about to sail. " Peter" is a barbarism for the" French 
 piirtir, a notice of departure. 
 
 BLUES. — (Jne of the three mounted regiments of 
 household trooiis. This regiment was originally 
 raised at Oxford, and was commonly called the Ox- 
 ford Blues. It is now known as the regiment of 
 Royal Horse-iruards. 
 
 BLUING. — The art of imparting a blue color to 
 finished iron-work or steel, such as gun-locks, barrels, 
 gun-sights, etc. The object in bluing articles, 
 which is simply coating them with a thin film of 
 oxide, is to prevent further oxidation from exposure 
 to the atmosphere. 
 
 BLUNDERBUSS.— A kind of short musket with a 
 very wide bore, sufficient to take in several shot or 
 bullets at once. It has a limited range, but is very 
 destructive at close quarters. As a military weajwn 
 it is chiefly of service in defending p:is.s;igcs, dcwr- 
 ways, stairca.-ies, etc. Some of the English and Ger- 
 man troopers in the .seventeenth century were armed 
 with the blunderbuss; but the carbine has since 
 nearly superseded this weapon. 
 
 BLYDE. — A kind of war-machine, which was used 
 in ancient times to throw stones; some authors com- 
 pare it to the catapult. In the year loS-i, at the siege 
 of the Castle of Rucklingen, Albert, Duke of Saxony 
 and Luneburg, was killed by a stone thrown from a 
 blvde. Also written Bli/ and Blude. 
 
 BOARD OF ENGINEERS.- A Board consisting of 
 not less than three ollicirs to be designated by the 
 Chief of Engineers, with the sanction of the Secretary 
 of War, whose duty is to plan or re\ise, as may be 
 directed by the Chief of Engineers from time to time, 
 projects of permanent fortifications required for the 
 defense of the territory of the Uinted St;ites. and 
 works of river and harbor improvement; also to con- 
 sider and report upon such other matters as may be 
 referred to it by the Chief of Engineers. It is the 
 duly of the ^[embers of the Board, whenever re- 
 quired by the Chief of Engineers, to inspect and 
 report upon anv of the works of construction or 
 other of the operations of the Engineer Department. 
 
 Whenever the defense or improvement of any par- 
 ticular locality or other work is under considenition, 
 the local Entrincer otticer niav be associated with the 
 Board as a member thereof, if, in the opinion of the 
 Chief of Eiurineers, this can be done consistently with 
 his other duUes. Two :Members of the Board consti- 
 tute a quorum for the transaction of business, but its 
 final decisions in imi>ortant matters must be sanctioned 
 by a majoritv of its members. A dissenting member 
 may present "his views or project through the Bojird 
 to the Chief of Engineers, with drawings and esti- 
 mates. The reports" of the Board are made to the
 
 BOAKD OF EXAMINATION. 
 
 20i 
 
 BOARDS OF SURVEY, 
 
 Chief of Engineers. It keeps a journal of its proceed- 
 ings, ami on the first day of «ich month reports to 
 liiin the movements of its meraliers, ami a lirief state- 
 ment of the i)eeupation of tlie assembled Board. The 
 Chief of Engineers submits all important reports of 
 the Boiinl. with his views thereon, to the Secretary of 
 War, without whose sanction no important work can 
 be imdertaken. 
 
 BOARD OF EXAMINATION.— A Board instituted in 
 the Army to determine upon appointments in regi- 
 ments, and for ap|K)iiitnHnls and promotion in the 
 Metlieal St:iff, Engineer Coqjs, and Ordnance Depart- 
 ment. All meinl)ers of these Boards are annj- olli- 
 cers. 
 
 BOARD OF OFFICERS.— A number of officers as- 
 sembled by military authority for the transaction of 
 business. 
 
 BOARD OF ORDNANCE.— A Government Depart- 
 ment formerly having tlie management of all affairs 
 relating to the Artillery and Engineering Corps, and 
 to the materiel of tlie British army. Under this pre- 
 cise designation, the Board no longer exists; a change 
 ha\ing been made which requires brief explanation. 
 The Board existed from the time of Henrj- VIII. un- 
 til. 18.55, when it was abolishetl, its functions being 
 vested in the Secretarj- of State for War as regarded 
 materiel, and in the Commander-in-Chief as concerned 
 the military command of the Artillery and Engineers. 
 The Board of Ordnance until 18.t4 comprised the 
 JIaster-general of the Ordnance, the Survey or-gcnend, 
 the Clerk of the Ordnance, and the principal Store- 
 keeper, all of whom were usually Members of Parlia- 
 ment. There was no chairman at the meetings, and 
 the Board often consisted of only one officer. The 
 Master-general had a veto, ami was in that respect 
 more powerful than the chief member of the Board 
 of Admiralty; although, not having necessarily a seat 
 in the Cabinet, he had less political power. The 
 Board days were thrice a week; and each of the four 
 members had control over certjiin Departments — the 
 patronage of which was generally vested in him. 
 Scarcely any improvements were made from 1828 till 
 1854, aiid the general arrangements were very defec- 
 tive. Of the four members, the Master-general, be- 
 sides his veto, had a general authority; the Surveyor- 
 general had control over the Artillery, Engineers, Sap- 
 pers and Miners, Ordnance Medical Corps, contracts, 
 laboratory, gunpowder, barracks, and navy gunners; 
 the Clerk of the Ordnance managed the estimates, 
 moncy-arr.mgements, ci\il establishment, pensions, 
 superannuations, and ordnance property; while the 
 principal Storekeeper had charge of stores, store- 
 rooms, naval equipments, and naval war-stores. In 
 matters relating to coast-defenses it was often difficult 
 to decide between the Admiralty and the Ordnance, 
 each Board claiming authority. When the Crimean 
 disasters took place in 18.54, the defects of the Board 
 of (Ordnance became fully apparent: it could not work 
 harmoniously with the other Government Depart- 
 ments. The Board was dissolved, and the office of 
 3Iaster-general abolished. By the War Office Act of 
 1870 the post of Survejor-gencral of the Ordnance 
 was revived as one of the principal officers of the Sec- 
 retary of State for War. He is responsible for the 
 miit-'riel and sujiplies of the army. See Ordnance 
 liiiiinl and Ordnnurc Corps. 
 
 BOARD OF VISITORS.— A Board apiiointed by Act 
 of Congress approved August S, 184ti, amended by 
 Acts of March Ifi, lH(i8, and February 21, 1870, to at- 
 tend the Annual Examination and make lui annual re- 
 port on the condition of the United States Military 
 Academy. It consists of seven jiersons apiJointed liy 
 the President of the United Stales, two Senaldrs ap- 
 pointed by the President of tlu! Senate, lUid three 
 Representatives apiK)inted by the Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives. An annual examination 
 of the ela.sses, preparatorj' to their advancement, shall 
 commence on the first day of .June (except when that 
 day comes on Sundaj' or Monday, in which ca.se it 
 shall commence on the first Tuesday), at which lime 
 
 the Cadets shall l>e examined by the Academic Board, 
 or its Committees, in all the branches of study and in- 
 struction through which they have pa.s.sed in the pre- 
 vious academic year, in the presence of the Board of 
 Visitors, or such members as ma.v be present. 
 
 BOARDS OF SURVEY.— Boards of Survey have no 
 power to comltmn public property. They are ciiUed 
 (mly for the purpose of establishing facts or opinions 
 by "which ijuestions of administrative responsibility 
 may Ix- deternuned, and the adjustment of accounts 
 facilitated; as, for example, to assess the amount and 
 kind of damage or deficiency which public property 
 may have sustained from any extraordinary cause, 
 not" ordinary wear, either in transit or in store, or in 
 actual use, whether from accident, lumsual wastage, 
 or otherwise, and to set forth the circumstances lUid 
 fix the responsibility of such damage, whether on the 
 carrier, or the person accountable for the property or 
 having it immediately in charge; to make inventories 
 of property onlered to be abandoned, when the arti- 
 cles have not lieen enumenited in the orders; to as.sc.ss 
 the prices at which damaged clothing may be i-ssued 
 to troops, and the proportion in which supplies shall 
 be issued in consequence of damage that renders 
 them at the usual rate vmequal to the allowance 
 which the regulations contemplate: to verify the dis- 
 crepancy between the invoices and the actual quan- 
 tity or description of projierty tran.sferred from one 
 otflcer to another, and ascertain, as far as po.ssible, 
 where and how the discrepancy has occurred — 
 whether in the hands of the carrier or the officer 
 making the transfer: and to make inventories, and 
 report on the condition of public property in the pos- 
 session of officers at the time of their death. In no 
 case, however, iloes the report of the Board supersede 
 the depositions which the law requires with reference 
 to deficiencies and damage. 
 
 It is required that Boards of Survey shall /«% in- 
 reitigaU the subject of losses submitted to them; that 
 they shall call for all e\idence attainable without lim- 
 iting their inquiry to that submitted by the party or 
 parties at interest"; that they shall scrutinize rigidly 
 the evidence, especially in the matter of propert}' al- 
 leged to have been stolen or embezzled by deserters- 
 or others; and that they shall recommend no officer 
 or soldier to be relieved from responsibility for prop- 
 ert.y till the proof shall be clear and conclusive that 
 he has given it his watchful attention, and fully per- 
 fonned his duty in regard to it. In order to relieve 
 an officer from liability on account of public property 
 which has become damaged, excejit by fair wear and 
 tear, or which is believed to be unsuitable for the ser- 
 \ice, it shall, before being submitted to an Inspector 
 for condemnation, be examined by a Board of Sur- 
 vey. Exceptions will be made in cases of animals or 
 other public property infected with conta.aious dis- 
 ease, which may be summarily disposed of by order 
 of a Commanding Otiicer. One cojiy of the i>roceed- 
 iugs of the Board will accompany the inventory and 
 inspection report which is transmitted, as a voucher, 
 with tlie accounts and returns of the otiicer responsi- 
 ble for the pro|)erty. Another copy of the proceed- 
 inirs of the Hoard and of the inventory aud inspection 
 re|)ort will be tiled with his retained ]ia]xrs. 
 
 Boards of Survey are not conveiu'd by any other 
 than the Commanding Officer present. They are 
 composed of as many officers, not exceeding three, as 
 may be pri'sent for duly, exclusive of the Command- 
 ing Officer, and the otlieer responsible in the matter 
 to be reported on. In ca.se the two latter only are 
 present, then the one not responsible will perform the 
 duties. When the resi)oiisil)le oflicer is the only offi- 
 cer at a post, he will, instead of constituting himself 
 a Board, furni.sh his own certificate of the facts of 
 the case, accompanied by allidavits of Non-commis- 
 sioned Officers at the post cognizant thereof. If this 
 should not be satisfactory, the Department Com- 
 mander, upon notification, may send an Inspector to 
 make the necessary reiiort. iJeither the Commander 
 nor any member of the Board shoidd be parties in-
 
 BOAB'S HEAD OSDEE OF BATTLE. 
 
 203 
 
 BODKIH. 
 
 terested in the matter to be investlpited. A Board 
 of Survey has no legiil power to swear either itself, 
 its member>>, or witnesses before it. 
 
 BOAR'S HEAD OEDEE OF BATTLE.— Among the 
 orders of battles among the ancients, that known as 
 the wtdge, or boar's head, is the most celebrated. In 
 this disposition, the point, or head, Ls formed of a sub- 
 division of the phalanx of greater or less strength, 
 according to circumstances; this being supported by 
 two, three, and four subdivisions of the same force, 
 one behind another. See Order of Batik. 
 
 BOAT.— A small open vessel ascd in military op- 
 erations for crossing rivers, and for forming pontons, 
 flying-bridges, etc. When the serNaces of a bridge 
 rof boats is dispensed with, i.e., no longer required 
 fby the army, thel)oats should be broken up, to prevent 
 their falling into the hands of the enemy. 
 
 BOAT-BEIDGE.— A boat-bridge consists of a track 
 laid on a number of lx>ats anchoreil parallel in the 
 stream, or moored to ropes or chains which pass from 
 bank to bank. The bridge thrown across the Helles- 
 pont by Xerxes when he invaded Greece, 480 B.C., 
 had a length of 500 paces, and was supported on 
 ships used nupmUnM. Suspension-cables of flax and 
 biblos united the ships; transverse beams were laid 
 on the cables; the beams supported planks and earth, 
 and the army marched across, bag and baggage. 
 Many years after, there appears to have been a more 
 pemianent construction of this nature in the same 
 vicinity. At Abydos is the Zeugma, a bridge of 
 boats which could be unfixed at pleasure for the pas- 
 sage of vessels. Cyrus, according to Xenophon, 
 crossed the Meander on a bridge supported by seven 
 boats. Bridges of boats were in general use in the 
 Middle Ages, and are still used on the Continent of 
 Europe. One at Stra.sburg is 1300 feet long. Boat- 
 bridges, in a military point of \-iew, are classed as 
 ponton-bridges, the pontons or bateaux and the road- 
 bed being transported on wagons with inclined plimes, 
 and raised and lowered by means of machinery 
 driven by water-wheels. See Bridges. 
 BOB.— A conoidally shaped piece of metal sus- 
 pended by a cord attached to its 
 upper end, and used for deter- 
 mining vertical or, in connec- 
 tion with a level or straight edge, 
 horizontal lines. It is indispen- 
 sable in engineering operations, 
 sighting guns, and placing vari- 
 ous surseying and astronomical 
 instruments centrally over sta- 
 I tions or points of departure. 
 The dra\s'ing shows an adjusta- 
 ble plum-bob, having a con- 
 cealed reel, B, around which the 
 cord, /, is wound by turning the 
 milled head, K, on top. The 
 friction upon the reel within will 
 hold the bob at any desired point 
 of the line. See Pendulum and 
 Plttntiftet. 
 
 BOCCACCI.— A peculiar kind 
 of fire-arm used by the Italians. 
 It is enlarged towards the muz- 
 zle in the shape of a trumpet. 
 .J- . ui ™ „v V, ., This ffim is prineipallv used, 
 at iiresent, by the t alabnaiis. 
 BOCH MAGAZnjE-CFUN.- Thisgun belongs to that 
 svstem in which a fixed chamber is closed by a bolt 
 by direct action, and in which the lock is concealed. 
 The stock is in a single piece, extending nearly to the 
 end of the barrel, and secured to it by bands held in 
 place by springs. The tang-screw and the screw 
 which passes into the leceiver' secure the latter to the 
 stock. The trigger-guard is fastened by screws. The 
 receiver has two lomritudinal holes, one on each side. 
 The opening on the left side is for the ejection of 
 empty shells, and the one on the right side is for the 
 intro(luction of cartridges, whether used as a maga- 
 zine-gun or as a single-loader. The latter opening 
 
 has at its ends two projections, which fit to corre- 
 sponding surfaces on the magazine when the latter is 
 attached. The receiver Ls perforated at its rear for 
 the reception of the breechbolt. The latter consists 
 of three psirts, viz., the rear piece through which the 
 firing-pin pa.s.ses, the projection of the pin fitting into 
 a cut; the locking-tube, including the handle; and 
 the bolt-head or body, through which the tiring-pin 
 pa.s.ses, and which supports the cartridge at the instant 
 of fire. 
 
 The firing-pin having been introduced into the rear 
 piece is then pas.sed through the firing-pin spring; 
 the movable shoulder is then, bj' sufficiently com- 
 pressing the spring, introduced over the head of the 
 pin, and by giving it a quarter turn is retained on the 
 pin bearing agains't the shoulders of the latter. The 
 spring is then held compressed between the ends of 
 the rear piece and the movable shoulder. The firing- 
 jiin and spring are pa.ssed through the locking-tube, 
 and then through the bolt-head, which is .screwed to 
 the rear piece. The locking-tube has two projections 
 which, when the handle of the bolt is turned down in 
 the receiver, fit into two recesses in the latter, and the 
 bolt is thereby held in position. When the handle of 
 the bolt is turned up from the locked position, the 
 curved surface of a cut cams back the tiring-pin by 
 means of a projection (which slides in the cut), and 
 the latter then rests in a notch and the piece is cocked. 
 When the handle is turned down the cut is brought 
 opposite to the projection which, relea.sed from the 
 notch, is held by the nose of the sear; hence the firing- 
 pin cannot reach the cartridge until the bolt-handle is 
 turned down, and accidental explosions are therefore 
 avoided. The bolt-head canies the extractor, which 
 is fastened to it by means of a dovetail-lenon which 
 tits into a recess in the bolt-head. The bolt-head is 
 prevented from turning bj- a projection titling into a 
 groove in the receiver. The sear is notched for the 
 nose of the trigger. The sear-spring is attached to 
 the under side of the tang by a screw. The trigger 
 when pulled releases the projection of the firing-pin, 
 and the cartridge is exploded. The extractor hooks 
 on the rim of the cartridge when the bolt is closed, 
 and. when it is withdrawn, throws out the empty 
 shell through the hole in the left side of the receiver 
 by deflecting it from the axis of the chamlx'r. The 
 magazine is attached to the right side of the receiver, 
 and is operated by a wheel which, when a cartridge 
 is to be introduced, is turned so that a cartridge can 
 drop into the receiver, when the bolt pushes it well 
 into the chamber. The magazine holds twentj- car- 
 tridges. 
 
 In another pattern of the Boch gun the stock is in 
 ts\o parts, the butt and the tip; these are joined to- 
 gether and to the barrel by a band which passes 
 around the ends of the two parts, at their junction, 
 and the barrel. Another band fastens the front end 
 of the tip-.stock to the banel. In the right side of 
 the butt-stock is a longitudinal opening coincident 
 with a similar one in the receiver. Through this 
 hole cartridges maj' be introduced on the carrier. 
 The butt-stock is grooved to fit the barrel and cut 
 through for the receiver, which is fastened to the 
 stock by means of a tang-screw, passing through the 
 stock into the trigger-guard plate. The butt-stock is 
 also perforated by a hole continuous with one in the 
 tip-stock, through which the magazine-tube pa.sses, 
 the latter being fastened to the receiver by a scTew- 
 thread. This gun carries nine cartridges in the mag- 
 azine and one in the chamber. As a magazine-gun, 
 three motions are neces-siirj- to operate it, viz., opened, 
 closed, fired; as a single-loader, four motions, viz., 
 opened, loaded, closed, tired. See Magaziiie-gini. 
 
 BODKIN. — Anciently a dagger. The bodkin was 
 used by women of antiquity to fasten up tlioir liair 
 behind. It was the method commonly adopted by 
 the prie-sts of Cybele, as well as bv the female char- 
 acters in Greek tragedy, the botlkin Iteing highly 
 ornamented. Silver twilkins are still worn in a simi- 
 lar way by the peasant-girls of Naples. The term
 
 BOOT. 
 
 204 
 
 BOILEB. 
 
 bodkin is also applied to a sharp-pointetl instniment 
 for picrcitifr holes iii cloth, iiiid it was at one time a 
 very (■oiniiioii luune (ov a <l:ii;;cr. 
 
 BODY.— 1. lu tlie iiomeiulature of modern ord- 
 natiee. the part of the jiieee in rear of the trunnions. 
 2. In the Art of War, a number of forces, horse or 
 foot, united and niarchiii!: under one commander. 3. 
 Tliat portion of a carriaire, including framing and 
 boarding, whicli forms the rcceiitacle for conveyance 
 of stores. The frame of the IxKly generally consists 
 of two frame sides, a front and hind earlxui, and two 
 or more summers. 4. That portion of the axletree 
 between the a.xletrcearms. 
 
 BODY-GUARD.— A guard designed to protect or 
 defend the person; a lite-guard. 
 
 BODY OF THE PLACE.— The enceinte of a fort- 
 ress, or main line i<'i liaslions and curtains, as distin- 
 guished from outworks. 
 
 BEOTIAN HELM.— An ancient and favorite head- 
 covering. It was made deej), with neck and cheek- 
 guards, the whole being wrought into a solid mass, 
 which would cover and effectually protect the wearer 
 from the shoulders ui>wards. 
 
 BOGHEAD COAL.— Bituminous coal of Scotland, 
 more valualile for making g-as than for fuel. Named 
 from the chief place of deposit, Boghead, Linlith- 
 gowshire. 
 
 BOG IBON-OBE. — A mineral of very variable com- 
 position, but regarded as consisting essentially of per- 
 o.xide of iron and water; the peroxide of iron often 
 amounts to about 60 per cent, the water to about 20. 
 Phosphoric acid is usually present in quantities vary- 
 ing from 2 to 11 per cent. Silicic acid, alumina, oxide 
 of manganese, and other substances, which seem ac- 
 cidentally present, make up the rest. Bog iron-ore 
 occurs chiefly in alluvial soils, in bogs, meadows, 
 lakes, etc. It is of a brown, yellowish-brown, or 
 blackish-brown color. Some of its varieties are earthy 
 and friable, formed of dull dusty particles; some arc 
 in mas-ses of an earthy fracture, often vesicular; and 
 some more compact, with conehoidal fracture. It is 
 abundant in .some of the northern and western islands 
 of Scotland, and in the northern countries of Europe 
 generally; also in North America. When smelted it 
 yields good iron. From what source the iron in bog 
 iron-ore is derived has often been a subject of dis- 
 cussion; but Ehrenberg appears to have determined 
 that it proceeds from the shields of animalcules, and 
 he regards the mineral itself as composed of inealcu- 
 lal)le multitudes of these shields. He found in the 
 marshes about Berlin a substance of a deep ochre- 
 yellow passing into red„whieh covered the bottom of 
 the ditches, and which, when it had become dry after 
 the evaporation of the water, appeared exactly like 
 oxide of iron ; but which iniiler the microscope was 
 found to consist of slender articulated threads, formed 
 of the partly silicious and partly ferruginous shields 
 of OnillDiii Hit ferruf/i)iea. 
 
 BOG-SPAVIN. — This singular name has been ap- 
 plied to a lesion of the hock-joint of the horse, con- 
 sisting in distension of the capsule inclo-^ing the joint. 
 It usually arises suddenly from a sprain in action. It 
 most conmionly affects young horses with defective 
 hocks, and is a.ssociated with other indications of 
 weakness of the injured joint. 
 
 %;»;jtoH(«.— As the immediate result of a violent 
 sprain, the hock becomes swollen, hot, and tender, 
 and there is considerable huneness. The acute symp- 
 toms subside readily, but a circumscribed swelling 
 remains towards the front, inner, and lower jiart of 
 the joint. The swelling is soft, partlv disapiiears on 
 pressure if tJie joint is moved; biit on the horse 
 standing tirmly on its liml)s, the projection is dis- 
 tinctly Wsible. At every recurring strain lameness 
 supervenes, but commonly passes off within a short 
 time. If the bog-spavin has accidentally occurred in 
 a yoimg horse with good hocks, it may never be at- 
 tcmU'd with inconvenience, and the acute symptoms 
 mentioned do not relapse. 
 
 Treatment.— The treatment of bog-spavin consists 
 
 in the apjilication of stimidating embrocations, or 
 mild blisters, in the early stage; in severe cases the 
 golden ointment of iodine is the best application; but 
 we can oidy obtain a reduction in the inflammatory 
 symptoms, "and disappearance of the lamenes.s. The 
 capsular ligament which is injured is never again 
 completely restored, and the horse is more or less 
 blemished for life. See Vittrinury Art. 
 
 BOILER. — The name given to a vcs.sel in which 
 steam, usually for a steam-engine, is generated. In 
 its simplest form it consists of a close vessel made of 
 metal plate, having ajiertures for the admission of 
 water and egress of steam, fitted with apjiaratus for 
 showing the level of the water and the pressure of 
 the steam, and in connection with a furnace, either 
 internal or external. A\'hen water is boiled in an 
 oiX'ii linn, the temperature of the water and of the 
 steam rising from it remains at or very near 212 F., 
 and the tension or pressure of the steam is no more 
 than sufficient to make its way into the atmosphere, 
 being exactly equal to that exerted in all directions 
 by the atmosphere it.self — namely, 14.7 lbs. per 
 square in(h. In a close vessel, on the other hand, 
 the temiieiuture and pressure to which we can raise 
 the .steam are only limited by the strength of the 
 ve.s.sel or boiler against bursting. The form of a 
 boiler is determined by two considerations — namely, 
 strength to withstand internal pressure, and efficiency 
 in producing steam; and the object of the designer is 
 to combine in one apparatus sufficient strength to 
 work safely at the proposed pressure, with such a 
 form and aiTangement as shall alistract the maxi- 
 mum of heat from the gases of condiustion, and 
 at the same time be in all respects suitable to the 
 special circumstances of the case. The globular 
 fomi is that best adapted for strength, and was the 
 earliest to be used. It presents to the fire, however, 
 the minimtun area in proportion to its contents, and 
 therefore has a minimum efficiency. After spherical 
 boildcrs, cylindrical ones came into use, at first set on 
 end, and afterwards laid on their sides, and later on 
 these were furnished with internal cylindrical tubes 
 for furnaces. Watt's " wagon-lxiiler" (so called from 
 its shape) was used for many years, but, being quite 
 unfit for any but the lowest pressures, it has long 
 been discarded; anil the " egg-end " boiler, or plain 
 cylinder with hemispherical ends, also much used at 
 one time, has now almost disappeared on account of 
 its small eva]iorative efficiency. At present it is 
 quite common to use a working steam-pressure of 50 
 lbs. per square inch in ordinary factory boilers, and 
 in some cases this is already greatly exceeded, whUe 
 the tendency to use higher pressures seems to grow 
 yearly. Under these ])ressures, the oidy foniis of 
 boiler which can be used without heavy and ex- 
 pensive internal stays to prevent the danger of burst- 
 ing are the globular and the cylindrical. The 
 former shajx' is rejected for the reason already given, 
 and the latter form is used almost invariably in the 
 construction of modern boilers, as will be seen from 
 the examples given below. The ends of the cylin- 
 ders, when it is necessary to make them flat, nmst, 
 of course, be strengthened by stays. Boilers may 
 be classified in several ways — as (1) horizontal and 
 vertical; (>') internally and externally tired; and (3) 
 plain multitubular, and tubulous. Large boilers are 
 almost iinariably horizontal, but small vertical boilers 
 are often used. They aie I'mployed in steam-cranes 
 anil other situations where great length would be an 
 inconvenience, and often in traction-engines, where 
 steep inclines have to be traversed, and where, if a 
 locomotive-boiler were ii.sed, one or the other end 
 of its tubes might become uncovered and so get 
 burned. In Great Britain, when moderately good 
 fuel is used, boilers with an internal furnace are 
 generally i)refeiTeil; but in America the conunon 
 brown coal is much inferior to Engli.sh fuel, and a 
 corresiiondingly larger quantity of it nuist be used to 
 generate a given volume of steam. As the .size of a 
 furnace lunits the fuel which it can burn, this fre-
 
 UoiLKiis. 1. Coninioii stettiii boiU-r nnd flre-hox. 2. Thomson's vertical t,.hular Ix.iler. .i. MUle 
 .. Co.m.1,,1, liorizonml l.ihnlar boil,.,-. R. Coinmoi. Coiriwnll lu.ilrr. 9. Hairisoi.-s stt»ai 
 lubiilar b,.,|^r. 12. Claik-s .•o..,p..ui,.l stvani-boiier. i:). Fit-ld'.s steam boiler. 14. Section. 
 
 1 ,^"'"""'""^'"""'8 apparatus and ebaiu-lieater. 19. Georges screw-heater aud smoke-COOM
 
 ar boiler 4 Jordan's tubular boiler. 5. Belleville's tubular boiler. 0. Couimon vertical tubular boiler, 
 of castimu spherical shells). 10. C-omu.on steam-boiler with outer fire-box. 11. Howanl s casliroti 
 ubes. )5. Uells cast-iron t.ibular boiler. 16. 17. Prideaux's smoke-consumer or flre-door. IS. Jukes 
 's smoke-consumer and sectional-heater.
 
 SOILING POINT. 
 
 205 
 
 B0LTCUTTEE8. 
 
 quently involves having a much larger grate than 
 could be conveniently arranged inside the boiler, and 
 on this and other accounts boilers are more frequent- 
 ly externally fired. See Furnace. 
 
 BOILING-POINT.— When heat is applied to a vessel 
 containing water, the temperature gradually rises, 
 and vapor comes silently off the surface; but at a 
 certain degree of heat steam iK'gins to be formed in 
 small explosive bursts at the bottom, and rising 
 through the liquid in considerable bubl)les, throws il 
 into commotion. If, after this, the steam is allowed 
 freely to escape, the temperature of the water rises no 
 higher, however great the heat of the tire. The 
 water is then said to boil, and the temperature at 
 which it remains permanent is its binliny-point. The 
 boiling-point of water is ordinarily 212 ; but every 
 liquid has a point of its own. Thus, suliihuric 
 ether boils at 96°; alcohol, at 176°; oil of turpentine, 
 at 316"; sulphuric acid, at 620; and mercury, at 662'. 
 The boiling-point of liquids is constant under the 
 same conditions, but is liable to be altered by various 
 circumstances. For example, water with common 
 salt in it requires greater heat to make it boil than 
 pure water. The nature of the vessel, too, exerts an 
 influence; in a glass vessel the boiling-point of water 
 is a degree or two higher than in one of metal, owing 
 to the greater attraction between water and glass than 
 between water and a metal. But what most affects 
 the boiling-point is variation of pressure. It is only 
 when the barometer stands at 30 inches, showing an 
 atmospheric pressure of 15 lbs. on the square inch, 
 that the boiling-point of water is 212\ When the 
 barometer falls, or when part of the pressure is in 
 any other way removed, it boils before coming to 
 212% and wheu the pressure is increased the boiling- 
 point rises. Thus, in elevated positions, where there 
 is less air above the liquid to press on its surface, the 
 boiling-point is lower than at the level of the sea. 
 An elevation of 510 feet above the sea-level makes a 
 diminution of a degree; at higher levels, the differ- 
 ence of elevation corresponding to a degree of tem- 
 perature in the boiling-point increases; but the rate 
 of variation once ascertained, a method is thus fur- 
 nished of measuring the heights of mountains. At 
 the city of Mexico, 7000 feet above the sea, water 
 boils at 200 ; at Quito, 9000 feet, at 194'; and on 
 Donkia Mountain, iu the Himalayas, at the height of 
 18,000 feet. Dr. Hooker found it to boil at 180'. 
 Boiling water is thus not always equally hot, and in 
 elevated places many substances cannot be cooked 
 by boiling. Under the receiver of an air-pump the 
 same effect is still more strikingly seen; water may 
 be made to boil at the temperature of summer, and 
 ether when colder than ice. In complete vacuo, 
 liquids, in general, boil at a temperature 140' lower 
 than in the open air. The knowledge of this effect 
 of diminished pressure is now largely turned to 
 account in sugar-boiling, in distilling vegetable es- 
 sences, and in other proces.scs where the substances 
 are apt to be injured bj- a high temperature. 
 
 BOLA. — A loiig strong cord, or small rope, having 
 a stone or a ball of metal fixed at one end; or, some- 
 times, it consists of two such cords, each provided 
 with a stone or ball. The cords being secured by 
 their other ends to the person, he whirls the two balls 
 rapidly, and with great adroitness, about his head, 
 and then discharging them at the object, strikes it 
 as with a blow from a flexible club. Such a blow 
 takes effect with great violence. The management 
 of the bola requires long practice and no ordinary 
 skill. 
 
 BOLADE.— An ancient weapon of the shape of a 
 mace. Now little used. 
 
 BOLAND KNAPSACK.— This knapsack is made up 
 as follows: The body is made of water-proof materi- 
 al, 14i inches square by 4 inches deep for the largest- 
 sized men. The sides are made of sole-leather and 
 have the neces.sary stiffness. Stay-straps pass entirely 
 around the knapsack-lwx proper, and side-straps arc 
 provided to secure the blanket when rolled. The 
 
 shoulder-straps arc secured by buckle on one, and 
 hook and loops on the other. The blanket is carried 
 rolled, and secured to three sides of the knapsack; 
 overcoat on top. 
 
 The advantages claimed for this knapsack are that 
 the weight carried is more equally distributed; that it 
 is kept clo.se to and inside the Ime of gravity of the 
 carrier, and is well up and retained close to the sho\d- 
 ders. The knapsacks arc made of four sizes for dif- 
 ferent-sized clothing. 
 
 BOLAS. — A form of missile used by the Paraguay 
 Indians, the Patagonians, and the Esquimaux. The 
 Putagouians have several varieties. That ased in war 
 consists of a single ball of hardened clay or rounded 
 stone, weighing about a pound, and fastened to a stout 
 rope of sinew or skin. This they sometimes throw at 
 their adversary, rope and all, butgenerally they prefer 
 to strike his head with it, like a slungshot. That used 
 by the hunters in capturing wild cattle con.sists of two 
 leather balls, covered and united by a narrow but stout 
 thong. The cattle hunter holding one ball swings the 
 other around his head until proper momentum is 
 gained, and then launches the lx)las at the legs of the 
 animal, which it instantly ties together, rendering him 
 helple.ss. It is said that the natives can use the bolas 
 effectually at 80 yards. The bolas of the Esquimaux 
 consists of a number of walrus-teeth attached to the 
 ends of strings whose other ends are united into a 
 knot. 
 
 BOLLASS. — Large posts driven into the ground to 
 which hawsers or cables of any sort can be made fast. 
 They are recommended to be provided at the tops of 
 ramps, or in narrow passages, and in masonry-works. 
 
 BOLSTEBS. — Strong stout bars or beams fastened 
 across the under portion of the frame of a wagon- 
 body, or across the f utchclls of the fore-carriage. Their 
 functions are varioas; sometimes they are added to 
 give strength and rigidity to the structure, sometimes 
 to raise its height above the axletree, and sometimes 
 to form a convenient attachment for springs or other 
 necessaiy iron- work. The term bolster is also applied 
 as follows: The lower part of the check of a gun-car- 
 riage. The iron collar in which a gun turns in the 
 boring-ljench. Tlie quoin or wooden bolster by which 
 a mortar is raised in its Ix'd. 
 
 BOLT. — 1. A pointed .shaft or missile intended to 
 be shot from a cross-bow or catapult. 2. An elonga- 
 ted solid projectile for rifled cannon, as the Whitworth 
 and Armstrong guns. See Bolt*. 
 
 BOLT-CUTTEES. — In these most valuable machines 
 for the arsenal, the bolts arc generally cut as with 
 solid dies, at one operation, the dies opening under 
 cut when the work is done, and in releasing the lx)lt 
 remove all trace of the chip made by the cutting- 
 tools. On the back of the large driving-wheel (Fig. 1), 
 is an index or pointer, which must be set to nunilwrs 
 given on a card furnished with each machine. When 
 so set, the bolt will fit a nut of corresponding size cut 
 with the tap sent with machine. An adjustment of 
 the index, one way or the other, will cause the bolt 
 cut to be larger or smaller, thus jiermitting the thread 
 to be adapted to the u.se required of it, and also [icr- 
 mitting an adjustment of ilies to compensate for wear. 
 Some important improvements have recently been 
 made in this machine, viz. : A change in the mode 
 of driving renders it possible to run tliem at a higher 
 speed, and a novel oil -feeding device supplies the 
 oil to the back of the dies, whence flovring out it 
 thoroughly lubricates the cutters and the bolt -end, 
 and washes out the chips as they are cut from the 
 bolt. A regulating cock in the fwd-pipe directs the 
 oil either to the dies as above stated, or to the tap 
 when the machine is used as a nut • tapper. The 
 machines arc constructed with four dies in the die- 
 box. These dies are equally spaced, and each pair 
 has one die diametrically opposite to the other one of 
 the pair. This arrangement insures accurate work, 
 ina.smuch as the opposite dies calliper the bolt while 
 being cut, thus making the bolt round and to gauge. 
 Added to this a conveuicDt adjustable stop-motion is
 
 BOLT-CUTTEBS. 
 
 206 
 
 BOLTCUTTEES. 
 
 provided whereby the dies are opened automatically 
 when :\ given length of thread has lieen cut. These 
 improvements have adiliil greatly to the value of 
 this imjHjrIiuit lix)l, which is made and used ex- 
 tensively in England and on the Continent, and 
 is believed to have no equal in durability and 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 efficiency. The counter-shafts are made with two 
 loose pulleys, one on each side of a fast one, so 
 that open and cross belts can be used to run the 
 machine backwards as well as forwards. This run- 
 ning backwards is only of use in recutting dies or 
 cutting left-handed screws. To sharpen the dies, 
 they must be softened, and then recut with hobs which 
 are specially made for this purpose. The hobs are 
 guided in recutting dies by collars fitting in a hollow 
 sleeve, which guide a prolongation of one end of the 
 hob, while the other end is steadied in the clamp 
 for holding the l)olts to l>e cut. This insures Jier- 
 fect concentricity to the dies. It must be borne 
 in mind that in the use of Ixjlt-cutters oil should 
 be freely used upon the work. This on the new- 
 style machine is accomplished by the automatic 
 feed; and the oil used should be animal, not from 
 coal. The commomst lard or fish oil will answer 
 a good purpose. Fig. 1 represents the Sellers |- 
 inch size of machine intended to cut from i to 
 J inch. This size is admirably adapted to cut set- 
 screws and small bolts. In using it with set-.screws 
 it is well to arrange a socket -wrench to l)c clamped 
 in the bolt-holder, the head of the set-screw fitting 
 the socket loosely. By the use of such a de\-ice 
 the twits can be .set and removed more rajiidly 
 than when each one liiis to be clamped in the lioli- 
 holder. This machine has been nm at the rate 
 of 28()0 bolts in ten hours on J-inch bfOts threaded 
 two inches in length, but this rate is not econom- 
 ical, iniusmuch as the excessive speed is too hard 
 on the dies. The countershaft should be speeded 
 to 2(t0 revolutions per minute; the speed on the 
 dies of the fastest and the slowest speeds will then 
 be at the rate of 13 feet circumferential motion 
 per minute on }-inch and on 5-inch bolts. The j-inch 
 bolt, ha\ing ten threads per inch, will be threaded 
 at the rate of six inches in length of bolt per mimite, 
 and if the thn'ad l)c U inches long, at the rate of four 
 per minute, exclusive of the time consumed in i)Ut- 
 ting in and talking out the bolts; one man can at 
 
 this rate very well run two machines cutting from 
 1500 to 1800 J-inch liolts on each machine. 
 
 The Babbitt bolt cutter will cut screw-threads in 
 nuts and on l)olts by once passing over them, cutting 
 the standard imnibi'r of threads to the inch on all the 
 sizes, and making as great uniformity in the fits 
 between the nuts and bolts as can be 
 desired. The great advantage of this 
 machine consists in the facility and 
 ea.se in changing dies. No backing off 
 is required. This Siives nearly one 
 half the tinie*required to do the" work 
 over the solid die. There is no danger 
 of tearing off the thread or injuring 
 the die in breaking off. A solid die 
 soon wears a little, and the tap the 
 same. The result is that the bolt will 
 not enter the imt without a wrench, if 
 at all, and a new tap or die has to l)e 
 made. This machine, if projxjrly ad- 
 justed, will cut a complete thread, 
 and reduce the bolt to suit the tap, 
 however much it may be woni. It is 
 much praisi'd for its practical effi- 
 ciency and economy in running, as 
 well as adaptation to all kinds of 
 work in the armorj-. The counter- 
 shaft has pulleys fourteen inches di- 
 ameter ami four inches face. Should 
 nm one hundred and fifty revolu- 
 tions. 
 
 The open-die machine made by the 
 Pratt and Whitney Company is a very 
 superior one. Instant ielca.sc of the 
 bolt when threaded, without running 
 back through the dies, is a peculiarity 
 __^J2ZZ1!1_^ of tli's machine. The die-head is 
 constructed to receive finished blocks 
 or cases, with inserted chasers, form- 
 ing the dies, thus doing away with the labor of 
 fitting each die or chaser to tlie head. The cha- 
 sers, four in number, in simpler form, are phmed 
 or fitted to cases with a file, from pieces of flat 
 steel, averaging U inches in length and ^^ inch 
 in thickness, threaded in the machine by liobs or 
 master-taps and set forward bj- a screw in the end 
 of each case for dres.sing when the thread is worn 
 out. Broken or damaged chasers can be replaced 
 by duplicates at little expense. The adjustment 
 of dies to the proper diameter is accomplished by 
 
 Fio. s. 
 
 merely turning a screw in the front of the head. 
 The die-head can l)e quickly stripj)cd without re- 
 mo\-ing it from the machine. One .set of ca.se-<lies 
 can be removed and another inserted in the head in 
 less than one minute by changing a stop-pin, project- 
 ing from the sleeve, from its position when the ma-
 
 SOLTS. 
 
 207 
 
 BOLTS. 
 
 remov- 
 
 chine is working, to a point opposite a hole in the 
 flange at the rear of the head, then, by means of 
 the lever, pushing the sleeve back to the flange, 
 uncovering the cases, and permitting their removal 
 and replacement by band. The machine can be 
 quickly converted into a nut-tapper, 
 ing the ease-dies and putting 
 in their place a steel block 
 to which is secured a uui\cr- 
 sal chuck for holding taps 
 that is furnished willi each 
 single-head machine only. 
 The locking de\ice is posi- 
 tive and requires but one 
 movement of the lever, by 
 hand or automaticallj', for 
 unlocking and opening the 
 dies, when the desired length 
 of thread has been cut, or 
 closing and locking. The 
 hollow spindle allows a piece 
 to be threaded any length de- 
 sired. The machines work 
 rapidly, the bolt being cut 
 to a full thread at one opera- 
 tion. The die-blocks are 
 held rigidly by the inclosing 
 sleeve when locked, and con- 
 sequently cut bolts of more 
 uniform diameter than is the 
 case when the chasers or 
 cutters can spring away from 
 the bolt when cutting. The 
 arrangement and operation 
 of the stop-pin is such that 
 a longer thread cannot be 
 cut on a bolt than is permit- 
 ted by the adjustment of the 
 automatic opening apparatus 
 when the latter is employed. 
 Fig. 2 shows a small hand 
 bolt-cutter adapted for light 
 work on gun-carriages, etc. 
 It is mounted on legs, and 
 is suitable for cutting i-inch 
 to l^-inch bolts and -J- to 
 2-inch pipe. The crank and 
 socket are used on the stud 
 of a small gear to cut | and 
 larger bolts, and upon the 
 spindle of the machine to cut 
 i-inch and smaller bolts, and 
 to back the die quickly off 
 from large bolts after cutting, 
 the spindle and the die re- 
 volving in the direction that 
 the crank is turned. Threads 
 may be cut a length of 
 eighteen inches as the ma- 
 chine is usually consti-ucted. 
 Nine taps and dies are fur- 
 nished with the machine to 
 cut threads of the following 
 sizes: i, 13; |, 11; f, 10; j, 
 9; 1, 8; U, 7; U, 7; If, 6; 
 1+, 6. Weight of machine, 
 with tap-chuck, nine dies 
 anil taps, about 350 pounds. 
 BOLTS. — Stout metal pins, 
 variously employed in ord- 
 nance and artillery construc- 
 tions for holding objects or parts together, and fre- 
 quently screw-threaded at one end to receive a nut. 
 Bolts for permanently fjistening objects may be dis- 
 tinguished, first, by their construction; secondly, by 
 their application. As to- construction, the difference 
 may regard the head; as, round, square, hexagon, 
 octagon, saucercd, countersunk-headed, clinch, col- 
 lared, chamfered, diamond, convex, etc.: some struc- 
 ttiral peculiarity of the head; as, eye, doubled-headed. 
 
 hook, ring, T-headeil, etc.: the mode of securing; as, 
 .screw, fox, forelock, clinch, rivet, rag, bay, barb, jag, 
 key. As to the nature and purpo.se of their application 
 they may be, — a.s.sembling, tish, foundation, bringing- 
 to, carriage, drive, fender, lewis, set, shackle, wagon- 
 skein, tire, king, scarf, through, etc. The following 
 
 Bolts used in Arsenals and Armories. 
 
 list of lx)lts, manufactured by Messrs. Hoopesifc Town- 
 send of Philadelphia, and exhibited at the Centennial 
 in 1876, is approximately complete: 
 
 vVsst'inbliuc-bolt, 
 
 Barbed bolt. 
 
 liavbolt. 
 
 Briut-inK to bolt, 
 
 Carria^re-bolt, 
 
 Clinch-bolt. 
 
 Countersunk-beaded bolt, 
 
 Diamond-beaded bolt. 
 
 Door-bolt, 
 
 Drive-bolt, 
 
 E}-e-bolt. 
 
 Fender-bolt, 
 
 Fish-bolt. 
 
 Flour-bolt,
 
 BOMB. 
 
 208 
 
 BOHB-LAKCS. 
 
 Flush-bolt, 
 
 Forrlockbolt, 
 
 Foundation-boU, 
 
 Koxbolt, 
 
 Half-tuniiug bolt, 
 
 HoltUn^-dnwo bolt, 
 
 Hi>ok-bolt. 
 
 Jo^ed bolt, 
 
 Krj-bolt, 
 
 Lewis-bolt, 
 
 Mauhole-bolt, 
 
 Pointed bolt, 
 
 Rag-bolt, 
 
 Riii>;bolt, 
 KivrU-U bolt, 
 K»-»!*e-iieatleii bolt, 
 Kouuti'beadeU bolt, 
 Bi-aif bolt, 
 Screw-bolt, 
 8e^b<>lt, 
 Slittoklebolt, 
 Shinj;le-bolt, 
 Soi-k.'I Iwlt. 
 S<tuare-lieaded bolt, 
 Tin-bolt. 
 WagoD-skein bolt. 
 
 The impoi-tant bolt.s fabricaled and used in arsenals 
 and armories are shown in the drawing on the pre- 
 ceding page. The following table gives the weight 
 of bolts, of given diameter and length, per hundred: 
 
 DUm 
 
 i 
 
 A 1 1 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 Lgtb.jlbs. 
 
 lbs. lbs. lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 iH 
 
 4 
 
 7 10.50 15.20 
 
 22.50 
 
 30 
 
 39.50 
 
 
 
 
 i« 
 
 4.85 7.50 11.25 16.30' 23.S2' 31.75 
 
 4162 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4.75 8 12 17.40 23.15: ai 5(1 
 
 43.75 
 
 69 
 
 108 
 
 
 2^ 
 
 5.15 8.50 12.75 18.50; 2G.47 35.25 
 
 45.88 
 
 72 1 112.25 
 
 
 2i2 
 
 !i.50; 9 13.5011960 27.SO 37 
 
 48 
 
 75 116.50 
 
 175 
 
 n^ 
 
 S.75' 9.50 14.2520.70 29.12 3S.75 
 
 50.12i 78 121.75 
 
 180 
 
 8 
 
 6.25 10 15 ,21.80 
 
 30,45 4O50 
 
 59.25 
 
 81 126 
 
 185 
 
 SH 
 
 7 11 ,16.50 24 
 
 33.10 44 
 
 56.50 
 
 87 134.25 
 
 196 
 
 Y* 
 
 7.75 IS 18 26.20 
 
 35,75 47.50 
 
 60.75 
 
 93.10 142.50 
 
 207 
 
 4H 
 
 8.5013 ! 19.50 28.40 
 
 38.40' 51 
 
 65 
 
 99 05 151 
 
 218 
 
 5^ 
 
 9.S5'14 21 30.60 
 
 41.05 54.50 
 
 69.25 105.20 159.55 
 
 229 
 
 6>« 
 
 10 15 22.50 32.80 
 
 43.701 58 
 
 73..5U 111.25 ItW 
 
 240 
 
 6 
 
 10.75 16 ,24 135 
 
 46.35, 01.50 
 
 77.75 117.311 176.60 
 
 251 
 
 <H 
 
 11.5017 2.5.5037.20 
 
 49 65 
 
 82 Il23.3il85 
 
 262 
 
 7 
 
 12.25 18 27 139.40 5I.K 68.50 
 
 86.25 129.40 193.65 
 
 273 
 
 TH 
 
 13 
 
 19.25 28.50,41.60, 54.30 72 
 
 90.50 135 202 
 
 2!i» 
 
 8 
 
 13.75 
 
 20.75 
 
 30 
 
 43.80, .59.60, 75.50: 94.75 141.50 210.70 
 
 295 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 48.20! 64.90 82.50 103.2i l.Vj.CO 227.75 
 
 317 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 37.50 
 
 52.60! 70.20 89..51) 111.75 105.70 244.80 
 
 339 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 57 ! 75.50 96.50 120.25,177.80 261. So 
 
 3«1 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 44.50 
 
 61.40 80.80 1(I.')..W 128. 75|lH9.90 278.90 
 
 382 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 86.11) 1111.,')" 137.25 202, 295,95 
 
 404 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 91,40 !i;,.'>0 145.75 214.10 313 
 
 426 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 96.70 124.50 1.'>».25:2-,>6.21) .I'JO.Oo 
 
 448 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 102 131 .50 162.75|2.3S„30 347,10 
 
 470 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 107.30 iaS,.W 171 '-250.40 3(14.15 
 
 492 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 112.00 145..50 179.50262.60 :i81.20 
 
 514 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 
 117.90 1.52.50 188 274.70 398.25 
 
 536 
 
 SO 
 
 
 
 
 
 183.20159.50 196.501286.80 415.30 
 
 III! 
 
 558 
 
 The following general rule is given for the compu- 
 tation of the weight of wrought-iron bolts: Square 
 the radius of the bolt, and multiply it by ten; the 
 product will give the weight in pounds per toot. For 
 cast-iron bolts, multiply the above result by .074. 
 
 BOMB. — A missile which also receives the names of 
 huinh-nhell and shell. It is a hollow ball, usually of 
 cast-iron, fired from a mortar or other large piece of 
 ordnance, and filled with combustibles which work 
 great havoc when the ball bursts by the firing. All 
 such projectiles were formerly fired from mortars 
 only, and there was thus a definite relation between 
 the bomb and the mortar; but since the invention of 
 shell-guns and other modern pieces of artillery, the 
 name shell has been generally substituted for that of 
 bomb. The 13-inch bomb, which is the largest .size 
 used in ordinary warfare, weighs about 195 lbs., with 
 a thickness of metal varying from U to 2 inches at 
 different parts; it bursts with about 8 lbs. of powder. 
 The vent through which it is filled with powder is, 
 after the filling, dosed with a i>lug called a fuse, 
 which sets tire to the powder, and at the jiroper mo- 
 ment bursts the bomb into fragments. The 10-inch 
 bomb, weighing about 90 lbs., is proportion:ibly less 
 in all dimensions than that ju.st described; and "so on 
 for those of smaller diameters. It should be under- 
 stood, however, that the above are conventional quan- 
 tities prescribed and adopted more than half a century 
 ago. iloilcrn artillerists try e.viierimenis on bombs 
 of various degrees of thickness with various charges 
 and fuses. See ShHl. 
 
 BOMBABD. — An ancient piece of ordnance, which 
 was very short, thick, and wide in the bore. It 
 differed from the balista in being worked with gun- 
 powder instead of bv mechanical force, and from the 
 mortar in Bhooting forth stones instead of iron .shells. 
 Some of the bombards used in the fifteenth century j 
 
 propelled stones weighing from 200 to 500 lbs. each. 
 The shape of the first cannon used after the invention 
 of gunpowder was conical, internallv and e.\temally 
 rcsemliling an aiwthecary's mortar. They were called 
 mortars, Ixjinbards, 
 and rasi's; were fired 
 at high angles; and, 
 in consequence of 
 the slow burning of 
 the powder of that 
 d;iy imd the conical 
 shape of the bore, 
 the stone balls pro- 
 jected by Ihcni i)ro- 
 ceeded w'ith very lit- 
 tle velocity and accuracy. Bombanls were made 
 first of wood banded with WTought-iron, then of 
 sheet-iron strengthened by hoojis and bnizing, and 
 later of longitudinal iron bars, connected and hooped 
 like the staves of a cask. As none of these construc- 
 tions gave the requisite strength, cannon were sub- 
 sequently made of wrought-iron, then of cast-iron, 
 and finally of bronze. 
 
 BOMBAEDELLE.— A small bombard which -was 
 used in ancient times. In 1830 one wits disinterred 
 near Laon, France; it is the opuiion of some that this 
 bombardelle was manufactured during the reign of 
 Charles VII., from U36 to 1-440. 
 
 BOMBAEDIEE.— An artilleryman versed in that 
 department of arras which relates especiallj' to bombs 
 and shells, mortars and howitzers, grenades and fuses. 
 He has learned to load shells and grena<ies, fix fuses, 
 prepare composition for fuses anil tubes, etc. ; and on 
 the field or at sieges h5 fires the mortars. In some 
 foreign armies the bombardiers form a separate corps; 
 but usually there are some attached to every battery. 
 
 BOMBAKDMENT.— An attack upon a fortress or 
 fortified town by means of shells, red-hot shot, car- 
 casses, rockets, etc., to bum and destroy the build- 
 ings and kill the people. A bombardment is most 
 likely to be succe.s.sful when the place is destitute 
 of bomb-proof cover; or when the Governor is too 
 humane to expose the unoffending inliabitants to this 
 dreadful ordeal; or when the population is strong 
 enough to compel him to yield. A bombardment re- 
 quires little engineering science; whereas to reduce a 
 place by regular siege requires the aid of engineers to 
 direct the attack against fortifications, guns, and 
 soldiery, leaving the inhabitants and buildings un- 
 touched. Military engineers generally regard a liom- 
 bardment as a cruel operation; it is especially directed 
 against the ciWlians and their buildings, as a means 
 of inducing or compelling the Governor to suiTcnder 
 the place and terminate their miseries. In a well- 
 defended place, the soldiers, the ammunition, and the 
 defense-works suffer comparatively little, seeing that 
 the bombardiers aim at pitching their terrible missiles 
 into the heart of the place. In modern times a 
 bombardment is mostly adopted as an adjunct to a 
 siege, distracting the Governor by an incessant fire of 
 mortars day and night. At Sebastopol, for instance, 
 the mortars fired shells into the center of the city, to 
 weaken the defense of the forts which were cannon- 
 aded by the siege-guns. Bombardment is more fre- 
 quently a naval than a militarj' operation. The 
 stores required for a vigorous bombardment are im- 
 mense. Thus, in 1759 Rodney threw 20,000 shells 
 and carcasses into Ha\Te; in 1793 the Duke of Saxe- 
 Teschen threw 36,000 shot and shell into Lille in 140 
 hours; in 1795 Pichegni threw 8000 shells into Mann- 
 heim in 16 hours; and in 1807 the English threw 
 11,000 sliot and shell into Copenhagen in three days. 
 
 BOMB-CHEST.— A chest filled with bombs, or only 
 with i.ampowder, jilaced underground, to cause de- 
 Strucliim by ils explosion. 
 
 BOMB-LANCE.— A sharp-pointed projectile, used 
 principally in whale-fishing, charged like a gi-enade, 
 and shot from a musket, the slow fuse that explodes it 
 being first lighted. Its power is sufficient to stun the 
 whale.
 
 BOHB-FBOOF. 
 
 209 
 
 BOHO. 
 
 BOMB-PBOOF.— A term applied to military struc- 
 tUTfS of such immense thickness and strength that 
 bombs cannot penetrate them. Jlilitary buildings, 
 generally ^Wthin permanent fortitications, and which 
 are formed so as to withstand the shock of hca\'y 
 shot or shell falling on them. Magazines for holding 
 gunpowder should be placed in the most sheltered 
 position within a fortress, and strongly constructed 
 to resist direct and vertical fire from heavy ordnance. 
 In the forts recently built for coast-defense in Eng- 
 land, 17 feet of masonry has been considered neces- 
 sary against direct tire, and an arch 3 feet thick, with 
 3 feet of concrete over the roof, against vertical fire. 
 
 BOMB PROOF MAGAZINES.— For field-works of a 
 semi-permanent character which are to be indefinitely 
 occupied, have an armament of heavy guns, anil are 
 expected to stand a siege, — like the ilefenses around 
 Washington, for example, — the magazines, bomb- 
 and splinter-proof shelters should be constructed of 
 the heaviest timber, and be covered securely with 
 earth from the assailant's curvated and direct fire. 
 The ventilation of the magazines and precautions for 
 their drainage are of the utmost importance. The 
 drawing shows a cross-section of a magazine con- 
 
 4f (^ 
 
 Cross-section of Bombproof Magazii 
 
 structed in a work of this character. The sides of 
 the interior of the magazine are formed of twelve- 
 inch logs placed vertically in juxtaposition and rest- 
 ing upon a ground-sill. These are capped on top by 
 a two-inch board, a strip of a like kind being spiked 
 on within the cap. The top is fonned of fifteen-inch 
 logs, also in juxtaposition, each having a shoulder of 
 three inches to fit it to the cap and inside strip. Lon- 
 gitudinal logs are laid on these with varying diame- 
 ters, so as to give a projier pitch for the roof. Earth 
 is solidly packed upon the top and between the roof- 
 logs, recei\ing the proper slope for the roofing-boards. 
 These boards, carefully jointed, are laid on in two 
 thicknesses, each being covered with a coating of as- 
 phalt. The flooring of the magazine is of joists and 
 boards. The sides of the magazine are sur- 
 rounded with an air-chamber formed by in- 
 clined logs supported on a groundsill and 
 resting against the top logs; these are placed 
 at three or four feel apart, each one being 
 braced at the middle point to resist flexure 
 from the pressure of earth. The chamber is 
 covered in by saplings laid in juxtaposition. 
 There are ventilators between the magazine 
 and the air-chamlier near the top, and also 
 between the latter and the external air; 
 the two not being opposite, and the usual 
 precautions to guard ag-ainst accidents from sparks 
 being taken. The earth-cover is ten feet on the ex- 
 posed side, and six feet on the other sides and on top. 
 The entrance to the magazine is well secureil by a 
 bomb-proof covering. A slope is given from the in- 
 terior to the foot of the steps leailing to the level of 
 the floor for the jmrposes of draining. 
 
 BOMB-PEOOF aUARTEKS.— Casemated bomb-proof 
 quarters are indispensable to the safety and comfort 
 of the garrison during siege, or any prolonged attack 
 for the annoyance or reduction of the work by a 
 bomluirdment. In small works like most of our forts, 
 which are chiefly designed for sea-coast defense, 
 casemated quarters have been genentUy arranged in 
 
 the rear of the batteries, a portion of each ca.scmate 
 towards the parade being partitioned off and suitably 
 disposed for the object in view. In some ca.ses ad- 
 vantage is taken of a scar])-wall, on a land-front, 
 which is well covered by a glacLs or other face-cover, 
 to form in its rear quarters of this character. In all 
 cases care should be taken to place such qtiarters on 
 those fronts which are best covered from a direct tire, 
 and the parade-walls of which are not exposed to 
 reverse-fire. Whenever the jilan of the work admits 
 of it, quarters of this kind should be arranged for de- 
 fense, by being piercetl with loop-holes and even with 
 embrasures for cannon. Defensive ca.semated quar- 
 ters form a prominent and distinctive feature in what 
 is now known as the German School of Permanent 
 Fortification. 
 
 BOMB PROOF SHELTERS.— These structures are 
 for the |)roU-ction of the troops when not on duty. 
 They should be located on the parade, convenient "to 
 the pieces to be served, yet not so near as to interfere 
 with the defense. They are usually constructed in 
 half excavation of logs built up like a log-house, or 
 of a framework in the manner shown in the drawing, 
 the exterior side being of hea\-y logs placed vertically 
 in juxtaposition, resting on a 
 ground-sill and capped at top. 
 Parallel to this is another 
 row, fonning the other side, 
 which may also be placed 
 side by side or at short in- 
 tervals apart, and capped like 
 the outside row. The roof, 
 '• ""''^ consisting of hca%'y logs laid 
 
 ■ii^,L^ij....,,Si ju juxtaposition aiid covered 
 with thick boards joined, 
 rests on the capping, the 
 whole covered over on the 
 e. side of the enemy with earth 
 
 to a depth of at least 14 
 feet from the wood-work. To i)revent this mass of 
 earth from pushing the stnieture over to the rear, 
 one in every two or three of the roof-logs is cut of 
 sufficient length to extend about 8 feet beyond the 
 front of the "wall, and dovetailed to a longitudinal 
 log held in position by vertical posts, the anchor-log 
 being sufficiently covered with earth to protect it 
 from injury by shot from the enemy. These bomb- 
 proofs are macle to ser^c the purposi' of traverses, and 
 are frequently arranged with a staging or ^Uery 
 along the rear side; for the accommodation of infan- 
 try, who deliver their fire over the top. arranged for 
 this as a parapet. In all interior arrangements, sys- 
 tem and regidarity should be observed from the first; 
 otherwise the work will grow into a labj-rinth of cou- 
 
 Bomb-proof Shelter. 
 
 fusion greatly opposed to efficiency and comfort. 
 See ShelUTS and SpUutfrproof Shdters. 
 
 BOMB SHELL.— A hollow globe of iron, filled with 
 powder, and tlirown from a mortar. See Botiih. 
 
 BONB, — A bond, in law, is simple or conditional, 
 the latter being generally used. It must be in writ- 
 ing, and signed, and sliould be sealed. The condi- 
 tion is the vital part, limiting and determining the 
 amount to be paid or the thing to be done, ami no 
 person can take the benefit of a bond except the 
 parties named therein, save in tlie case of a bond 
 given by an officer for the |X'rfonnance of duty. If 
 a bond "runs to sevend jiersons jointly, all nuist join 
 in suit for breach, although the conditions may not
 
 BONE SPAVIN. 
 
 210 
 
 BOOMDREDOE. 
 
 at all affect some of them. Recovery amiiiist a surety 
 on a bond is not limitetl to the ix-nally, Imt mav go 
 beyond as far as necessary to include interest from 
 the time of default. A i)ond dormant for twenty 
 years cannot afterwards lie recovered, the presump- 
 tion Ix'ing that it has been satistied. If the maker of 
 a bond binds liimself without addinsr "heirs," the 
 heirs cannot be held. b\it the executors and adminis- 
 tniloiN are liable. All Disbursinjr Officers of the army 
 are re(iuired to fiive bond. 
 
 BONE-SPAVIN.— A bony tumor in horses where 
 the head of the splint-bone joins the shank. Inflam- 
 mation of the ligaments of any of the small bones of 
 the hock proceeding to bony tmnor cla.s.ses as spavin. 
 
 BONFIRE. — A tire kindled for .some purpose of 
 public rejoicing, usually in an ojjen conspicuous 
 place, as the top of a hill or the center of a village- 
 green. The burning materials consist of Uir-barrels, 
 coal, and other combustibles. The practice of kind- 
 ling tires of this kind is of so great antiquity in Eng- 
 land, Ireland, and Scotland as to be trjiced to pagan 
 rites. The origin of the word honfire has been very 
 puzzling to etymologists. In Scotland the popular 
 term is banefire or hainfire, which Jamieson saj'S is 
 apparently a corruption of bailfire, which may be 
 doubted. The most probable etyniologj- is the Welsh 
 ban, high, whence ban-ffiif/l, a. lofty blaze, a bonfire. 
 The same hills that in English arc called beacons 
 are in Welsh called bans or miis. In Danish, also, 
 baini is a beacon, and may be traced in such names 
 as Banburif. 
 
 BONING STAFF.— A T-headed staff, used in con- 
 junction with a pliunmet and line for taking short 
 levels. 
 
 BONNET. — 1. In fortification, a small defense-work 
 constructed at the salient angles of the glacis or 
 larger works. It consists of two faces only, with a 
 panipet three feet high by ten or twelve broad. There 
 is no ditch. A larger kind, with three salient angles, 
 is called a priest's bonnet, or bonnet a pretre. The use 
 of the bonnet is to check the besiegers when they are 
 attempting to make a lodgment, ^ee Bonnettes. 
 
 2. A covering for the head, of which there are 
 many varieties. The French, from whom we have 
 the word, applj' it as we do to male as well as female 
 head-dress. From the frequent notice of the blue 
 bonnet in historical records and in song, il would 
 seem that the Scotch were long identified with this 
 kind of head-covering. The genuine old bonnet of 
 the Lowland Scottish peasantry was of a broad, 
 round, and Hat shape, overshadowing the face and 
 neck, and of a dark blue color, excepting a red tuft 
 like a {herry on the top. The fabric was of thick 
 milled woolen, without .seam or lining, and so ex- 
 ceedingly durable that, with reasonable care, a single 
 bonnet worth about 2s. would have served a man his 
 whole life. No head-dress ever invented could stand 
 so much rough visage. It might be folded up an(l 
 jint in the pocket, or laid fiat and sat upon, with 
 equal impunity; it might be exposed to a heavy 
 drencliing rain without the head being wetted, ami 
 when dried it was as good as ever. Besides it coiild 
 be worn on the top of the head, or slouched in front. 
 behind, or sidewise, as a protective against a cold 
 blast ; and from its softness and elasticity it very 
 fairly saved the head from the effects of a blow. In 
 short, there was no end to the adaptability of the old 
 "braid bannet," as the Scotch termed 'il; and one 
 almost feels a degree of regret that, in the progress of 
 fashion, it should have gone so much out of use. 
 The Highlanders have long worn bonnets of the 
 same fabric, but these rise to a point in front and 
 are without any rim. Such is the cap now known 
 as the Glenr/fiiT!/ bonnet. From time immemorial, 
 these various kinds of Scots bonnets hive been manu- 
 factured at Stewarloii, a .small town in Ayrshire. 
 Formerly the Stewarlon bonnet -makers formed a 
 corporation, which, like other old guilds, was gov- 
 erned Iiy regulations conceived in a narrow and often 
 amusingly absurd spirit; one of the rules of the fra- 
 
 ternity, however, can be spoken of only with com- 
 ntendalion, for it eiit'oreed a certain weight of ma- 
 terial in each bonnet, as well as durability in the 
 color. The bonnets used in the Highland regiments 
 are made at Stewarton and Kilmarnock; they are 
 usually distinguished by a clieekered tillel, being the 
 fiss^eheqiii oi the House of Stuart. Latterly, although 
 hats and caps have, to a great extent, superseded 
 bonnets of the old varieties, the lionnet-manufactories 
 of Stewarton have much increased, and are still 
 increasing. 
 
 BONNETTES.— It is frequently desirable that the 
 height of the parapet, at certain points, should be 
 increased for a short distance. This increa.se is gen- 
 erally obtained by making use of the constructions 
 known as bonnettes. A bonnettc extends but a short 
 distance along the parajiet, is made of earth, and is 
 used generally to give greater ])rotection to the men 
 standing on the banquette against a slant or an en- 
 filading fire of the enemy. Bonnettes are jjlaced 
 usually on the salients; they arc sometimes placed on 
 the parapet between guns en barbette. Tliey may 
 be constructed during the jnogrcss of the work, or 
 after the work has been finished. In the fornier case 
 their construction is, to all intents and purposes, sim- 
 ilar to that of the parapet. In the latter case they 
 are constructed generally in haste, and sand-bags or 
 gabions filled with earth are used to build them. 
 
 BONTCHOUK.— A lance oniamented with a horse's 
 tail. When the kings of Poland led their armies, 
 bontchouks were carried before them. 
 
 BOOM. — A strong chain of timber logs or iron em- 
 ployed in barring the passage of the month of a har- 
 bor or river, or to cut off the retreat of an enemj- if 
 he has actually entered. Such a boom should be 
 protected by a battery or batteries. There shouUl be 
 two such chains, one to afford resistance if the enemy 
 has penetrated the other; they need not extend all 
 across the pas.sage, seeing that shallow spots are self- 
 defended. A modern war-steamer would cut through 
 a chain-boom, unless made of very thick and strong 
 u'on. Sometimes hempen cable-booms are used to 
 resist small-craft. The Russians effectually boomed 
 the harbor of Sebastopol in September, 18.54, thcrebj' 
 preventing the entrance of English and French ships; 
 this was done partly by sinking some of their own 
 shi|)s, and jiartlv bv the laying of booms. 
 
 BOOM-DREDGE.— This machine, recently given to 
 the public by its inventor, Mr. Ralph R. O.sgood, of 
 Troy, N. Y., and built by the Osgood Dredge Com- 
 pany, is destined to effect a revolution in dredging 
 methods and operations. Its general outline is shown 
 in the drawing, as also the essential working elements, 
 and the strains to which the various parts are sub- 
 jected, lu this machine we have the dipper and luuidle 
 essentially the same as in the crane-dredge. The ilip- 
 per-handle is held in position by a friction-clutch, of 
 Mr. Osgood's design and patent, placed on top of the 
 boom near to the boat. The excavating power is 
 applied to the dipjier by means of a chain running 
 over a sheave at the outer extremity of the boom, 
 and thence along the boom to the hoisting-drum on 
 deck. Tlie boom is pivoted or hinged to a turn-table 
 at the boat eml and supported al its outer end by a 
 chain passing to an overhead-iiullev, pendant from 
 the combination of timber A-braces and iron ties. 
 This chain is worked by a drum, and therefore al- 
 lows the boom to take any jiosition required by the 
 caprice of the operator. The strains are based n])on 
 the tension occurring in the hoisting-chain, taken at 
 100. Comiiressive sirauis are denoted by a +, while 
 those of a tensile nature are indicated by a — . Each 
 degree is a.ssumed to be working in 2.5"feet of water. 
 In the boom-chain a l.>ton .steel spring is placed, 
 through which all shocks and jars must pass before 
 reaching the machinery. This adds greatly to the life 
 of the iiiacliine. The boom can swing and operate 
 through a complete siniicircle. The hoisting-chain 
 can be changed from the inlermediate sheave to the 
 sheave at the outer end of the boom, for delivering
 
 BOOHEBANG. 
 
 211 
 
 BOOMESANC. 
 
 on banks. The boom can be raised or lowered by 
 means of the chain connecting it with the A-frame. 
 The turnteble is made of iron, and is mounted on 
 friction - rollers which greatly reduce the strain of 
 swinging. All the different levers for working the 
 throttle, spud and hoisting-drum frictions, for swing- 
 ing the turn-table, etc., are placed near together and 
 are operated by one man. The peculiar advantages 
 of this machine will be readily comprehended from 
 the brief description which has been given. They lie 
 
 same length of dipper-handle as the crane- dredge 
 has, can dredge in deeper water. 7. With a slight 
 additional expense, may be made to work as a "clam- 
 shell " dredge. See Crane-dredije, l>redging-machiue, 
 and E.rennit'ir. 
 
 BOOMERANG. — A mis.sile instrument for war, 
 sport, or the chase, much used by the aborigines of 
 Australia. It is of hard wood, of a bent form; the 
 shape is parabolic. It is about two and a half inches 
 broad, a third of an inch thick, and two feet long, 
 
 Osgood Boom-dredge. 
 
 in the fact that material can be dredged at greater 
 depths, raised higher, and dumped further from the 
 center of the dredge-boat than is practicable with 
 any of the old-style crane-dredges. The advantages 
 maybe briefly stated as follows: 1. Greater pulling 
 force or excavating power in the direction of the 
 bank. 3. Le.«s strain in the dipper-handle and hull of 
 boat. 3. Less loss of power liy frictional resistances. 
 4. Greater rapidity In delivering the dipper-contents, 
 thus making, other things being equal, greater capa- 
 city. 5. Dredges on the half-circle. 6. With the 
 
 the extremities being rounded. One side is flat, the 
 other rounded; and it is brought to a bluntish edge. 
 The method of using this remarkable weapon con- 
 sists in throwing it in a particular manner. It is 
 taken by one end, with the Indgcd side downward 
 and the convex edge forward, and thrown directly 
 onward, as if to hit some object thirty yards ahead. 
 Instead of going directly forward, as might be ex- 
 pected, and there falling to the gi-oimd, it slowly as- 
 cends in the air, whirling round and round, and 
 describing a curved line of progress till it reaches a
 
 BOOMINO OUT. 
 
 212 
 
 BOBINO-MACHINE. 
 
 considerable height, when it begins to relrognide, 
 and finally it sweeps over the head of the projector, 
 and falls "Wiind him. Tliis surprisiiii; nioliou is 
 prmluced by the bulwl side of the missile. The air 
 impinixiug therivn lifts the instrument in the air, 
 exactly as by hitting the oblique bars in a windmill 
 it forcfes it to go round. The ingenuity of the con- 
 trivance, which is worthy of the highest scientific 
 calculation, is very extraordinary as coming from 
 almost the lowest nice of mankind. The b<H)merang 
 is one of the ancient iiLstruments of war of the lut- 
 tives of Australia. They are said to be very dexter- 
 ous in hitting birds with it, the animals being of 
 course behind'them, anil perhaps not aware that they 
 are objects of attack. This curiosity, as it must be 
 called, was tirst made known by Ix-in-' brou^'ht licfore 
 the Koval Irish Academy by Prof. M't'uUagh in 
 Mav, ISST. 
 
 BOOMING OUT. — A method of constructing a pon- 
 ton-bridge. A frame of two saddles, connected by 
 their balks, is prepared on shore: a ponton Ijeing 
 launched, the fnmie is lifted up, and the ponton is 
 brought under the first saddle, and fa.stened to it; 
 in the mean while the balks of another frame are 
 bolted to a third saddle, the bridge is biioiiu'd out, and 
 a second ponton is fixed under the second saddle, and 
 so on. The bridge is kept in its proper position by 
 means of ropes secured to anchors. 
 
 BOOTS AND SADDLES.— A sound on the trumpet 
 which is the first signal for mounted drill, and for all 
 other formations mounted; it is also the signal for 
 the tnmiix-ters to a.sscmble. In the English .ser\ice, 
 it is a parade<'all in the cavalry and artillery, sounded 
 half an hour before the furn-ouf. 
 
 BOOTY. — Despoiling a people or city is barbarous 
 and not tolerated in ci\ilized warfare, but legitimate 
 subjects of booty are well described in an Act of the 
 British Parliament; as. arms, ammunition, stores of 
 war, goods, merchandise, and treasure belonging to 
 the State or any pitblk trading company of the enemy, 
 and found in finy of the fortresses or possessions, and 
 all ships and ve.s.scls in any road, river, haven, or 
 creek belonging to any such fortress or possession. 
 It should be the duty of Commanding (Jenerals to 
 cause an exact account of such atptures to be kept, 
 in order that the captors may be remunerated by the 
 Government for such stores as are reserved for the 
 public service, and in order that all such prizes of 
 war may be legally and equitabh- di\'ided amongst 
 the captors. Such is the practice in England. There 
 land-prizes are divided according to an established 
 rule of division. In the Piedmontese army the ad- 
 ministration of booty is intrusted to a special Staff 
 Corps; the French laws (says Bardin, DiHionnaire de 
 I'Armee de Terre) arc silent on this subject, or else 
 those which are m force announce nothing positive; 
 and in their silence there is inhumanity, hypocrisy, 
 and mental reserve. In a memorial presented by the 
 Duke of Wellington, he claimed of his Government 
 for the English army more than a million sterling 
 which had been usi'd in the king's service from cap- 
 tures made by the British army in Spain and France, 
 and the English budget of" 1823 .shows that the 
 amount so claimed was given to the army. An Arti- 
 cle for the government of the armies of the United 
 States provides that " All public stores taken in the 
 enemy's camp, towns, forls, or magazines, whether 
 of artillery, ammunition, clothing, forage, or pro\i- 
 sions, shall be secured for the serrice of the United 
 States; for the neglect of which the Commanding 
 Officer is to be answerable." This Article of War is 
 borrowed from acorrespomling British Article, which 
 directs that the same stores shall be secured for the 
 king's service. But by proclamation in Great Bri- 
 tain the money-value of all captures is invariably 
 divided amongst the cajitors. No pr.ictice can be 
 more wise and just; for although it is necessary to 
 proscribe marauding or piWuji', it is impos,sible to ex- 
 tirpate the desire of gain from the human heart, and 
 it is therefore necessary that the law should frankly 
 
 provide for an equitable distribution of captures 
 amongst the army. The absence of a law of di\isioii 
 tends to introduce into an army the greatest evils: 
 soldiers disband themselves in .search of pillage, 
 and their cupidity leads to the greatest horrors. 
 These great e\ils are avoided by a legjil division of 
 lK)oty, when all soldiers, animate<i by the hope of 
 sharing the fniits of \-ictor)-, are careful not to aban- 
 don to the greedy, the cowardly, and the wicked 
 amongst themselves advantages projierly belonging 
 t(i the giillant \ictors. See I'rize. 
 
 BORDURE. — In Herahlry, coats of arms are fre- 
 quently surrounded with a bordure, the object of 
 which is generally to show that the bearer is a cadet 
 of the house whose arms he carries. The character 
 of the bordure often has reference to the profession 
 of the liiarer: thus, a Iwirdurc einhattUd is granted 
 to a .siildicr; and a bordure ermine, to a lawyer. 
 Also written Border. 
 
 BORE. — The internal cavity of a cannon, mortar, 
 howitzer, rifle, musket, fowling-piece, pistol, or other 
 kind of fire-arm. It is in most ca.ses cylindrical; but 
 in the Lancaster gim the bore is oval; in the ^Vhit- 
 worth gim it is hexagonal; while in the Armstrong 
 and many other kintls of gim it is furrowed by spiral 
 grooves. Technically, the bore of a gim often means 
 simply the diameter of the cavity, as when we speak 
 of a gun " of 8-inch bore;" and in that case its mean- 
 in^is equivalent to "c.iliber." 
 
 The Boring of a cannon is a process which may 
 best be described in connection w ith Cannon-foitm)- 
 ixG and BoRrxG-M.\cirrNE. If is desirable to men- 
 tion in the present place, however, that there is an 
 operation called " boring-up" conducted at Wool nich 
 Arsenal, for enlarging the bore of a gun. It has 
 been found in recent years that many of the old can- 
 non are thicker and heavier than needful for the size 
 of shot propelled, and that they could be fitted for 
 the discharge of larger shot without danger. A 
 change was begun in the armament of the British 
 fleet in 1839 by substituting heavier broadsides; and 
 as one part of the process, many of the old '2-t-pound- 
 ers were" bored-up " to 32's; even some of the 18- 
 pounders were found to be thick and strong enough 
 to undergo this process. More than 2000 iron naval 
 gtms were thus treated at Woolwich preparatory to 
 the change in 1839; and many others have since been 
 similarly bored-up. About 1860, important experi- 
 ments were carried on at Woolwich, to determine 
 whether the old smooth-bore iron guns could not 
 only be bored-up, but rifl<d at the s;ime time. There 
 were 15,000 of such guns belonging to the British 
 Government, and it was suggested that they ought to 
 be improved, instead of being cast aside as useless in 
 the event of the success of the Armstrong and Whit- 
 worth guns. The process has not proved altogether 
 satisfactory. 
 
 BORERS FOR FUSES.— Instruments for boring out 
 fuses. There are two kinds, termeil hm/k and hand 
 borers; the former consists of a hook info which the 
 fuse is placed, and a shank which contains a female 
 screw. The bit pas.ses through the center of the han- 
 dle and male screw, and it is secured by a small 
 screw which presses upon the bit. The hand-borer is 
 a simple instrument, somewhat like a hand-gimlet, 
 but the blade is fluted and not spiral. This instru- 
 ment is supplied to each gun. 
 
 BOBI. — A Turkish term for military trumpets and 
 other similar instnitncnts. 
 
 BORING-MACHINE.— This machine, designed to 
 bore and drill horizontally work resting on a table 
 or platform, has been considered by Engineers and 
 Orilnancc DtHcers as coming next to the lathe in use- 
 fulness in the armory. It should drill work that 
 cannot be operated on in an ordinary vertical drill- 
 pre.ss, and have all the advantages of a faciug-lathc 
 for some kinds of work. 
 
 JIarked advantages which the Sellers machine (see 
 cut) has over similar t(M)ls lie in the nature of the 
 feed-motion, which, by use of the friction feed-disks,
 
 SOBHAinf FUSE. 
 
 213 
 
 BOBMANN FUSE. 
 
 admits of an infinite variety of feeds between its finest 
 and its coarsest: in the ready application of tlie feed, 
 and its quick hand-motion; also in the manner of 
 operating the compound table upon which the work 
 rests, the handles to govern the motion of table being 
 all on one side and within easy reach of the workman. 
 The screws which raise the table require holes in the 
 foimdation below the bed; as when the table is low- 
 ered they project below the ba.se of the machine. If 
 placed in damp places, the bo.xes or reces-ses in foun- 
 dation for these screws should be made water-tight. 
 The machine is provided with an out board hearing 
 when that style of machine is required. This bearing 
 is carried from the bcd-jilate. arching over the knee 
 ■nhich carries the table; it l)olts to the bedplate, and 
 to the knee also. It can be placed 29 inches from the 
 face-plate, or it can be moved otf to o'i inches from 
 the face-plate; it does not interfere with the ready 
 adjustment of the table vertically. The feed motion 
 now applied is arranged in two scries, a tine and a 
 coarse, both of these scries being applicable to any 
 speed or any size of drill. The value of the coarse 
 feed T\'ill be felt in all kinds of boring with bai-s and 
 cutters, inasmuch as it is possible to rough out with a 
 flue feed, and to finish with a light cut and a very 
 coarse feed. In this way the finishing cutter is hur- 
 ried through the work, is less liable to wear in the 
 eugth of tiie hole to be bored, and much time is saved. 
 
 ping and filing. To insure a smooth surface in the 
 bore, all the work on the exterior surface of the gun 
 is suspended while the reamer, or finishing-tool, is 
 being used. The boring Ix-iug completed, the rylii,- 
 dtr-gaugi: is inserted before removing the gun from 
 the lathe, to ascertain if it passes freely to the Ixjttom 
 of the bore; the chamber-reamer should also be mea- 
 sured after use in each gun, and if found coiTect the 
 gun is moved from the lathe. 
 
 A general difference in the style of the tools between 
 those employed for wood and those for metal gives 
 opportunit}' for disringui.shing between the twoclaisscs 
 of machines, although the modes of propulsion in 
 some machines of the respective classes are very 
 similar, and the boring biu for hard wood are much 
 like the drills for metal. See Drilling-machine and 
 Hmdiiir/'Uitfie. 
 
 BOBMANN FUSE.— This fuse is the invention of 
 an (illiccr of the Belgian service. The case is made 
 of an alk)y of tin and lead, c-a.-^t in iron molds. Its 
 shape is that of a thick circular disk; and a .screw- 
 thread is cut upon its edge, by w hich it is fastened 
 into the fuse-hole of the [irojectile. The upper sur- 
 face is marked with two recesses and a graduated arc. 
 The former are made to receive the prongs of a screw- 
 driver; and the latter overlies a circular groove, filled 
 with mealed powder, tightly pressed in and covered 
 with a metal cap. The only outlet to the groove con 
 
 Sellers Boring-machine. 
 
 When turning down gun-castings, the gun while in 
 the machine rests in the journals at the cascabel- 
 bearing and chase; the metal at these points having 
 been turned down to the finished size while in the 
 heading-lathe, the square knob or ca.scabel is secured 
 in the chuck by tightening the screws equally in all 
 directions. The boring-rod is first introduced a short 
 distance into the bore of the gun, and the space be- 
 tween the exterior surface of the boring-iod and the 
 exterior surface of the gun at the muzzle observed. 
 For this purpose a thin wooden gauge is used, pointed 
 at one end and having a notch at^the other, which 
 takes the outer surface of the gun at the muzzle, the 
 gauge being laid on the face of the muzzle, and, of 
 course, perpendicular to the axis of the bore. As the 
 gun revolves, the distance above, below, and on either 
 side is ob-scrved, thus verifying the ix>rfcct concen- 
 tricitv of the axis of the gtiii at the muzzle. The ad- 
 justment is completed at the breech, by slackening 
 the Ix)lts at the cascabel-bearing, leading it free to 
 move on the rest; and should any lateral motion lie 
 perceptible, it is corrected by adjusting the screws in 
 the chuck, after which the concentricity is comjilete 
 from breech to muzzle. During the process of bor- 
 ing, the turning continues, and the exterior is finished, 
 except between the trumiions and about the lock and 
 sight-ma-sses; the former Ix-ing planed off by a ma- 
 chine for the purpose, and the latter reduced by chip- 
 
 taining the mealed powder is under the zero of the 
 graduation; this outlet, or channel, is filled with rifie- 
 powder, and leads down to a circular recess which is 
 filled with musket-powder and covered with a per- 
 forated disk of tin. To enable this fuse to resist the 
 shock of discharge, and at the same time to increase 
 the effect of a small bursting-charge, the lower poT- 
 tion of the fuse-bole is closed vrith a pcrforate<l disk. 
 
 Before the projectile is inserted into the jnecc, a 
 cut is made across the graduated portion, laying bare 
 a small proportion of the mealed powder, which, being 
 ignited by the flame of the charge, burns in lM)th 
 directions until the outlet is reached ;ind the gniin- 
 l>owder ignited. The graduations are .seconds and 
 quarter-seconds, and the time of buniing of the fuse 
 depends on the length of the cohunn of mealed lew- 
 der included between the incision and outlet. If the 
 metal covering be not cut, the projectile mav be 
 fired as a solid shot. The Bonnann fuse is uscu for 
 the field and siege services, and is fo\uid to be accu- 
 rate and relialile, especially for spherical-ca.se shot. 
 The time of liurning not lieing long enough for the 
 general .service of ritie-projectiles, the paper timefuse 
 is used instead of it for all of tho.se projectiles which 
 require the time-fuse. It is inserted into a zinc plug, 
 which is screwed into the fuse-hole of the projectile. 
 
 The action of the Bonnann fuse is as follows: The 
 thin covering of metal above the composition is cut
 
 BOSHES. 
 
 214 
 
 BOSTANJl. 
 
 SO as to lay l)are the upper surface of the composition, 
 and to affonl the tlarae access to it at the part desired. 
 The cut should hv made with the fuse-cutter close to 
 the rijrht of the mark in the index -phile; and it is 
 best made in two or thn-e efforts insteail of trying to 
 effect the cut at once. The combustion occupies the 
 assiinie<l time in passing from the incision towards 
 the origin of the graduation, when it traverses the 
 orifice leading into the magazine, the contents of 
 which explode smartly towards the interior, and then 
 encoimter instantly the charge in the shell. 
 The metal of this fuse being soft and its diameter 
 
 firing furnaces consists of finely pulverized ore and 
 German clay made into a paste; and another for the 
 .same purpose is a paste made by grinding the ore 
 and rendering it plastic by moistening and working. 
 liuU<Ui<i is a decomposeil protosilicale of iron used 
 in Kngiand and Friuice for this purpose. 
 
 BOSNIAKEN. — Formerly light cavalrj'of the Prus- 
 sians, resembling the present Uhlans. Frederick I. 
 formed this cavalry in 174.5. 
 
 BOSS. — 1. A St ml or ornament raised above the lea- 
 ther-work of a cavalryman's horse-trappings. 2. A 
 protuberance raised as an oruameut on any work; 
 
 Bormann Fuse. 
 
 great, there is danger of its screw-thread being strip- 
 ped, and its being driven in by the shock of tiring, or 
 of its being driven out on the ignition of the bursting- 
 charge, thus affording a means of escape for the gas 
 evolved, without bursting the shell. To prevent the 
 former, a broad shoulder, aa, is left when the fuse- 
 hole is tapped. To avoid the possibility of the latter, 
 and at the same time to increase the effect of a small 
 bursting-charge, the fuse-hole below the shoulder is 
 closed by screwing in a comiiosition disk, b, with a 
 small hole in its center through which the tire from 
 the fuse is communicatetl to the charge. 
 
 The peculiar excellence of this fuse consists in the 
 driving of the whole mass of the composition by a 
 single pre.ssurc, and its dis-position in such wise that 
 the combustion occurs not with the stnititication of 
 the mass, but transversely to it, while in the ordinary 
 
 Shouldt-r auil Di^k. 
 
 fuses the solidification and the i^roeess of combustion 
 are just the reverse; that is, the column is composed 
 of a number of layers solidified successively by an 
 equal pres.sure; but as the inferior layers have, be- 
 sides the pressure applied to them, to bear that of the 
 superincumbent layers, it follows that the mass is not 
 homogeneous, but increases in density with the in- 
 ferior position of the layers. See Fu«e and Tiine- 
 
 BOSHES.— The sloping sides of the lo^\er part of a 
 blast-furnace, which gradually contract from widest 
 part of the furnace to the hearth. In a furnace .5.5 
 feet high and 38 feel wide at tlie base of the struc- 
 ture, the lx)shes will 1k' about 8 feet in perpendicular 
 height. 12 feet w^ide at the top, and 2i feet at the bot- 
 tom where they join the hearth. The boslies are 
 built of a coarse-griltcd freestone, alKiunding in 
 small nodules of quartz. A numl)er of newly in- 
 vented puildling and boiling furnaces have iron tioors 
 and boshes. A current of water is caused to circu- 
 late in them to prevent destruction of the iron under 
 the extreme heat. The material which is banked up 
 ag-iinst the lx)shes to protect them from the heal is 
 called firing. It consists of scrap and ore, and re- 
 ceives a preliminary melting. One compotition for 
 
 the part rising in the center of a shield. 3. A plate 
 of cast-iron secured to the back of the hearth of a trav- 
 eling-forge. 4. In architecture, a raised 
 ornament covering the intersections of 
 the ribs of ceilings. They are more fre- 
 quently seen in vaulted roofs, as in the 
 aisles of a church, but occur also where 
 the ceiling is flat. In early Xorman 
 work there are generally no bosses, and 
 they become richer and more frequent 
 as we advance towards the decorateil 
 and perpendicular styles. In the il > 
 rated style the boss usually consi>i- n. 
 foliage, sometimes combined with ani- 
 mals, heads, and the like. Coats-of- 
 arms, charged w ith armorial bearings, came then also 
 lobe used for this jiurpose, though they were more fre- 
 quent in the periundiculiir. — The boss was borne in the 
 arms of the Corporation of Lorimers. Sec Lorimer. 
 
 BOSSE— BOSSE A FEU.— A term used in the French 
 Artillery to express a glass bottle which is very thin, 
 containing four or five pounds of powder, and roinid 
 the neck of which four or five matches are hung after 
 it has been well corked. A cord two or three feet in 
 length is tied to the lK)ttle, which serves to throw it. 
 The instant the bottle breaks, the powder catches fire 
 and everything within the immediate effects of the 
 explosion is destroyed. 
 
 BOSSETTES.— In horse-armor, the ornaments on the 
 side of the bit. The term is also applied to the pieces 
 of leather, or blinkers, which cover the eyes of the 
 mule. 
 
 BOSTANJl. — A class of men in Turkey whO: origi- 
 nally the Sultan's Gardeners (the name being derived 
 from bostan, a garden), now perform, in addition to 
 their garden-labor, a variety of duties, such as mount- 
 ing guard at the Seraglio, rowing the Sultan's barge, 
 and attending on the Officers of the Imperial IIou.se- 
 hold. They are under a Chief called Bostanji Bashi, 
 who holds the rank of a Pa.sha, and is Governor of 
 the Sultan's residences, and Steersman of his barge. 
 He also holds the Inspector-generalship of the woods 
 and forests in the \icinity of the capit.il, has the ju- 
 risdiction of the shores of the Bosporus and Sea of 
 Mannora, and is, altogether, so important a function- 
 ary that onlv personal favorites of the Sultan c.in hope 
 
 j to'fill theofrice. The financial reforms of Sultan Mah- 
 moud, however, have greatly les.sen(d the emoluments 
 of the post. The Bostanji at one time amounted to 
 
 1 .50(M), and were di\ided into comfjanies like the .lan- 
 issaries. with w horn tliey were united in military duty. 
 
 ; In war-time their strength was 12,000. A scarlet 
 
 1 bonnet, of excessive dimensions, formed the dislino
 
 BOTHW Y BLOCKS. 
 
 215 
 
 BOTHITY. 
 
 rive part of their costume. Their number now does 
 not .imount to more than 600. 
 
 BOTHWAY BLOCKS.— Two natures of these hlock.s 
 have been introduced into the English service, the IH- 
 and 1.5-inch. They are each siwjle, double, and tnl'lr 
 blocks. These blocks in the land-service have supi r 
 seded the ordinary common blocks of 18 inches and 
 upwards, but the existing store of iron gy a blocks will 
 be used up. Bothway's blocks are made of the best 
 English elm; the swivel, hooks, and shackles, of the 
 best manufactured scrap-iron; the straps and pins for 
 sheaves, also connecting pins, of the best iron; and 
 the sheaves, of phosphor-bronze. See lilocks. 
 
 BOTON£. — In Heraldry, a cross liotone is a cross of 
 which the ends are in the form of buds or buttons. 
 Also written Bohmny. 
 
 BOTTLE-NECKED CARTRIDGE.— The name given 
 to the Martini-Henry cartridge, from its bottle-necked 
 shape. The neck or smaller diameter of the cartridge- 
 case is formed by means of a die so arranged as to 
 form flutes or folds in that part of the case, and con- 
 sequently reduce the diameter; the paper covering is 
 ilispensed with, a paper lining being substituted. 
 
 BOTTOM.— 1. A circular disk with holes to hold 
 the rods in the formation of a gabion. 2. One of the 
 plates by which grape or canister is built up into a 
 cyliuder suitable for loading into the gun: cast-iron 
 tops and bottoms for grape, wrought-irou for canis- 
 ter. 
 
 BOUCANIER. — A long, hea\-y musket used l\y the 
 American Buccaneers, and with such skill as to give 
 the weapon a high degree of ceiebrity. 
 
 BOUCHE. — 1. The ajierture or mouth of a piece of 
 ordnance, — that of a mortar, of the barrel of a mus- 
 ket, and of e\ery species of tire-arms from which a 
 ball or bidlet is discharged. 2. A cylinder of copper 
 in which the vent of a piece of ordnance is drilled. It 
 has an exterior screw-thread cut on it, so that it may 
 be removed when the vent becomes worn, or a new 
 bouche substituted. Also written Bmwh and Bugh. 
 
 BOUCHING. — The fuse-holes of shells are frequent- 
 ly bouehed with gun-metal to receive the fuse-stock. 
 In lilting the shell to receive the bouching, the bore 
 should be tapped with a full thread, and tlie jiroper 
 shoulder left at the bottom to 
 prevent the bouching from 
 being driven in by the .shock 
 of tiring and causing prema- 
 
 II ^V ture explosion. The object of 
 ;,W the bouching is to prevent rust, 
 ^^9 and to have the siime kind of 
 ii^ metal in contact with the fusc- 
 i stock, so that there will be less 
 
 I danger in extracting or ex- 
 
 ; changing a fuse. The fuse- 
 
 _ holes" of heavy rifle-shell are 
 
 '"iflif ,1 necessarily cast larger than the 
 
 •"" diameter of the regular fuse- 
 
 stock, which can, however, be used with the aid of an 
 tiihtptlnri-riiiH of gun-metal, which is screwed in to 
 reduce the diameter of the hole to the proper dimen- 
 sions. The 1.1-inch spherical shell are cast with three i 
 fuse-holes equally distant from each other, and situa- 
 ted in the angles of a triangle 4 inches apart. See 
 Fiinc-hiilc and Shtils. 
 
 BOUCHING-BITS. -Instruments used for boring a 
 hole in the vent field of guns, to receive the coiiper 
 plug, or bouch, through which the vent is afterwards 
 drilled. ! 
 
 BOUGE.— An ancient war-club, the head of which 
 was loaded with lead; also called plonMc, and fre- 
 quentlv written Boiih/i'. 
 
 BOULAF.— A kind of lialon or very short mace, for- 
 mcrlv uscii bv the Polish Generals. 
 
 BO'ULENGE TELEMETER.— The Boulenge teleme- 
 ter is an inslnnnent devised for ascertaining the distance 
 to a point by means of sound proceeding from the point 
 to the place of observation. The one u.sed for artil- 
 lery purposes consists of a glass tube about six inches 
 in "length, tilled with a transparent liquid that does . 
 
 not freeze except with intense cold. In the liquid is 
 a metallic disk, which moves freely from one end of 
 the tube to the other. It is so adjusted that the mo- 
 tion will be uniform and comparatively slow. The 
 tube is inclosed in a brass case, to which is attached 
 a scale, after the fashion of a thermometer. This 
 scale is marked for each hundred yards up to 4000. 
 The ilivisions on the scale show the distance, in yards, 
 through which soimd will travel in air, during the 
 time required for the disk to descend over the space 
 on the scale marked by the curresponding mmiber of 
 yards. If, for instance, the disk pa.sses from zero to 
 the 500 mark, it indicates that sound would have 
 traveled ,500 yards through the air during that time. 
 The instrument must be held vcrticallj', or as nearly 
 so as possible. To arrest the motion of the disk at 
 any point, the mstrument is quickly turned to a hori- 
 zontal position. 
 
 To use it for determining the time of flight of 
 shells, it is held in the right hand, back of the hand 
 up, with the zero of the instrument to the left; a turn 
 of the wri.st to the right brings the instrument verti- 
 cal, with the zero end uppermost; the disk then de- 
 scends, and a turn of the wrist to the left arrests its 
 motion. The ob.server, holding the instrument as de- 
 scribed, watches for the flash of the shell, and upon 
 seeing it, instantly brings the instrument to a vertical 
 position; upon hearing the report from the shell, he 
 instantly turns it back again. The position of the 
 disk indicates the number of yards frtmi the ob.server 
 to where the shell exploded. To asf eriain the dis- 
 tance loan enemy's battery, the in.strmnent is held and 
 turned in the same manner. The observer watches 
 for the flash of a gun; observing which, he lurns the 
 instrument, and, when he hears the reiiort, turns it 
 back and reads oft the di-stance. Each hundred yards 
 on the scale is subdivided into quarters. See Le Bou- 
 lenge Ckronof;ra]h and Telciiieler. 
 
 BOULEVARD-BOULEVART.— The name given in 
 Frai.cc to the old fortitiealimis, rani])arts, etc., with 
 which towns, or ]iortions of tlicm, were, or still are, 
 surrounded. In France and Germany these ancient 
 works have generally' been leveled, the ditches tilled 
 up, and the space "thus obtained emjJoyed for the 
 formation of parks, promenades, and streets lined 
 with trees. These, however, in France still bear the 
 name of bovlenird. The boulevards of Paris are 
 celebrated, and are of great service as open sjiaees 
 promoting the circulation of air amidst the dense 
 mass of habitations. Some jiarts of them present a 
 veiy dazzling spectacle, and as a whole they afford a 
 striking exhibition of the life and character of the 
 French Capital in all the different classes of society. 
 The Boulevard des ItaUens is particvdarly known as 
 the rendezvous of the fashionable, and the Binilerard 
 du Temple as the place where the small theaters are 
 to be found which are frequented by the conmion 
 people and the inhabitants of the suburbs, for which 
 rea.son the expression T/u'iittr de Boulevard is often 
 employed to denote a theater for the common jieople, 
 or one of an inferior kind. The Thames Embank- 
 ment is essentiallv a boulevard. 
 
 BOUND.— In gunnery, the jialh of a shot comprised 
 between tu o grazes. 
 
 BOUNTY. — A sura of money given to encourage 
 men to enter the army or navy. In time of peace, 
 when there is little or no need to augment the forces, 
 the bounty sinks to a minimum; but in ca.ses of exi- 
 gency, it is raised according to the difficulty and ur- 
 gency of the circumstances. In the British anny no 
 bountvwas paid to recruits until about half a century 
 ago; tlie temptations offered to them, if any, were of 
 some other character. The highest Iwunty ever paid 
 during the great wars against iSai)oloon was in If 12, 
 when"^it amounted to t'18 12«. 6(/. for limited service, 
 and £23 IT.*. 6rf. for life; but these sums were in 
 great part nominal, being subject to many imfair and 
 absurd deductions. Even so late as \M\). when the 
 bounty to an iufantn' recruit was nominally £4, he re- 
 ceived little more than one eighth of this amount, all
 
 BOURBON FUSE. 
 
 216 
 
 BOW AND ARROW. 
 
 the rest being swallowed up in fees and drawbacks of 
 ^iirious kinds. The only l)<>uuty which now exists is 
 a free kit — no other ln-ini; allowed. The young men 
 who used to enter the British army were supposi-d, 
 for the most part, to have iH'en temiited by immediate 
 iHJunly rather than by |)ros|K-ctive pay aiid pensions; 
 and thus it aro.se that the rate of lx>unty varied fre- 
 quently, while tho.si' of pay anil pensions underwent 
 verj- little change. In 18.i.") il was £7 jwr head (for 
 line" infantry): m IWti, only £-i; in 18.")8, t'3; and it 
 afterwanls " underwent further changes. It was 
 always higher to the cavalry and artillery than to the 
 infantn,-; and in the latter ii wiv* higher to the High- 
 land than to the other regiments, on account of mat- 
 ters connected with dress and personal ornaments. 
 The tenn boiiKty is also used in the navy to signify 
 the payment and distribution of moncv to which the 
 otficcrs and crew of Her JIajesty's ships and vessi'ls 
 of war may, on particular occasions of active service, 
 be entitled". See Prize. 
 
 BOURBON FUSE. — This fuse consists of a bronze 
 fuse-plug screwed into the eye of the shell, with a 
 head larger in diameter than the other part and 
 threaded on the exterior, by means of which a cap is 
 screwed on, covering the fuse imtil just Ix^fore it is 
 used. A cap of copper is fixed to the head of the 
 fuse by means of several circular grooves in the fuse- 
 plug; slots and projections Ix'ing formed on the edge 
 of the cap, and the rabbets of the circular grooves, 
 ■which allow the cap to be inserted in its place. A 
 threaded hole is placed at the highest point of this 
 cap, in which the fulminating-cap is screwed just be- 
 fore the fuse is used. A steel nipple is screwed into 
 the body of the fuse just under the cap, which, when 
 the cap is exploded, conveys lire to the charge, com- 
 municating it first to the powder contained in the chan- 
 nel of the fuse. The bottom of this channel is closed 
 with a cork stojjper, which is blown out when the 
 powder in the fuse takes tire. The projectile being 
 supposed to strike with the point first, the shock, in 
 order to explode the cap, must be of sufficient force 
 to flatten the cap; and this cap has been made of such 
 a thickness that nothing less thati striking against a 
 fortification or other c<|ually resisting body is suffi- 
 cient to cause explosion. Ricochets could seldom 
 cause the shell to burst. Such a fuse is evidently 
 good for all projectiles with arrangements to keep 
 particular [larts always to the front. See Fuse. j 
 
 BOURDONNANTE."— A name formerly given to a j 
 kind of bombard of a heavv caliber. j 
 
 BOURGUIGNOTE.— A hejinet worn by the Bur- 
 gundians, and from whom it was named. It was of 
 polished iron, with a visor. Under Louis XIV. their 
 head-<lre.ss was changed lo a kind of bonnet. Also 
 wrillen linnrijenut and Bmirgignolte. 
 
 BOURLETTE.— In antiquity, a mace which was 
 garnished with iron points. 
 
 BOURNOUSE.— The Arabic name of a garment 
 worn in Algeria, Morocco, and other parts of north- 
 ern Africa, and which constitutes a part of the mili- 
 tary clothing of some corps of the French army. It is 
 a large woolen mantle, worn above the other attire of 
 the natives, and having a hood, which is thrown over 
 the head in rainy weather. The bouniouse is gene- 
 rally white, though distinguished individuals wear it 
 of various colors — blue, green, red, etc. It has been 
 long in use among the Spaniards \mder the name of 
 Mjnnuiz. Through the con()uest of Algeria by the 
 French, the bouniouse was imported into France and 
 England, although its origuial form has been con- 
 siderably altered. Also written Boumous, Burnooae, 
 and JtnriiiiK. 
 
 BOUSMARD BASTION SYSTEM. -This system of 
 forlirtcaliim possesses renmrkiiljle features." Taking 
 the enceinte of Vauban's first svstem, both the crest 
 of the flank and the original face are divided into 
 eight equal parts, being re.s])ectively 0, .s, 10, l>, ]4_ 
 16, 18, and nearly 21) yards in length". The new tacts 
 are composed of eight broken lines. The teuaille 
 has flanks without either terre-idein or banguette. 
 
 The casemates are skillfuUv disjiosed, and their rear 
 is protected by the shoulder-angle of the bjistions. 
 The main ditch is reduced to 20 yards, in order 
 that the defenders may throw hand-grenades into the 
 kxigment of the enemy on the covered-way. The 
 covered-way is traced in cremaillere, and extends 
 along the counter-s<arp of the main ditch. The 
 traverses have the form of sedans, and the ravelin is 
 detached be.vond the glacis of the enceinte. The 
 great defect of this system is that the ravelin and its 
 reduit are liable to be taken by the gorge. 
 
 BOUTEROLLES.— The richl'y decorated termination 
 of ancient sword-scabbards. The figures of lions or 
 other animals, haxing their bodies stretched out in 
 the direction of the sword-blade, impart a bold and 
 effective finish to the botiterolle. 
 
 BOUTON.— A kind of war-club, formerly used by 
 the C'aiibs (if the Antilles. Also written BniiUmu. 
 
 BOW AND ARROW.— In the ariiele Ahciieks will 
 be found a orief account of the military arrange- 
 ments imder which bow^nen formed a comi^onent 
 element in the armies of the Middle Ages; and imder 
 Arb.\lest is a description 
 of the cross-bow, which was 
 once so favorite a weapon. 
 We here describe the more 
 effective though simpler im- 
 ])lemenl. The loug-bow first 
 gained ascendency in Eng- 
 land in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury. It was fotmd that a 
 dozen arrows could be dis- 
 charged from this weapon 
 while the Arbalester was 
 winding up his cumbrous 
 cross-bow and discharging 
 one arrow or quarrel from it. 
 Moreover, the long-bow being 
 held vertically, the bowmen 
 were able to stand in closer 
 array than the Arbalesters; 
 they were enabled also to take 
 a greater supply of the muni- 
 tions of war into the field, 
 seeing that the bow and ar- 
 rows were much lighter in 
 weight. In the time of Ed- 
 ward III. a bow was priced 
 \s. to Is. 6(f., and a sheaf of 
 arrows, \s. to 1«. 2(f. In the 
 time of Henry VII. the price 
 
 (fixed by law) of the bow varied from 6rf. to 3*. 
 4(/. The last-named monarch adopted extraordinary 
 means for encouraging the use of the long-bow. 
 Many ordinances were issued for insuring a good 
 supply of bow-staves. The bowyers, string-makers, 
 flctchers, and arrow-head makers were all placed 
 imder stringent regidations. Merchants were com- 
 Iielled to import gooii bow-staves with cargo, in 
 certain projiortions. Very long bow-staves were 
 admitted duty free. Yew was considered the best 
 
 wood; mil 111 iirder that the sujiply should not be 
 loo speedily used up, Itowyers were ordered to use 
 elm, ash, and witch-liazel in certain proportions to 
 yew. The heads of families were bidden to i)ro\ide 
 bows for their sons anil serv:uits; and town-councils 
 or officers were required to provide shooting-butts just
 
 / 
 
 / .
 
 K.J 
 
 Bow AND Ahrow. Ancibnt Weaposs. etc. ]. The Block Prince at Crecy, 2. British An;Wi»- ,n c,M«tlshilif"'-'' '™«'''8 nttoekod by Spaniards. 4. Husslto wnc-ni-fort. r,. Oprman or black kniglit. il. Spanish 
 Arquebus man. 7, Tipstaff. 6. Falconet, 9. Italian kniitht with Are iirni (lfil"«'"'^'i.Mn2e- W IW^„ "i; ,','■ Jnck-snake. 12, Jack-hook tlBth i-entun). Vi. Tarru.') nmaket (SwItKorlandi, II. Tlpstarr 
 Hitli three-biirrflleil portable gun, 16. Moitar, 10, LoadinK sUovel IT Ramn'!'"- ''^i'BiulfrU.^ a HuMi.r^Vw "''■*P''*^ -'■ Guuner'8 helmet, a Rammer, -li. Repeating arm f.>r clone firing. »t, Tip- 
 Htaflfswword, -25 Knights Hwor,!. -iO. Huesito weapon, -r Halberts, * rorUaW'- » " "Mile Weapons, 31. Battle cIubB. 3J, 33. 3). 33, Wall, hooked, chamber and tinder musket. 36. DuJ let- 
 
 molds. 37. Powderrtaska. 
 
 Ji-eso. 
 
 •
 
 BOWIE-KNIFE. 
 
 217 
 
 BOXEE CAETEID6E. 
 
 outside each town. Some of the bows had two arch- 
 es, connected by a middle straight piece. The best 
 length was regarded as about .5 feet 8 inches from 
 nock to noclc; but in earlier times some of the bows 
 were much longer. The first an-ows were made of 
 reeds; these materials were afterwards superseded by 
 cornel-wood; but the wood finally adopted as the best 
 was ash. The arrows had heads pointed with steel, 
 .sometimes barbed to render their action more terrible. 
 They were feathered with portions of goose-wing. 
 The best length for a bow of the above-named size 
 was set down at 2 feet 3 inches. Sometimes the ar- 
 rows were tipped with combustibles. The best ma- 
 kers of arrow-heads, as well a-s of bows, were com- 
 pelled by law to go from town to town, to exercise 
 their craft wherever it was most needed. The bow- 
 man usually carried 34 arrows, called a sheaf, or a 
 quiver, at his right side or at his back; besides others 
 in his girdle. He kept his bow in a case; hence 
 Falstaff's comparison of Prince Hal to a bow-case, in 
 allusion to his slenderness. Bowmen, in their hours 
 of sport, used arrow-heads called rigged, creased, 
 shoiihUred, and sprnm-lwmled, according to the shape. 
 
 BOWIE-KNIFE.— A common hunting-knife used 
 by Southwestern pioneers, and improved by Colonel 
 James Bowie, who has been wrongly represented as 
 a bully and a duelist. The bowie-knife is .seldom 
 concealed, and it is by no means the commonly used 
 weapon which it is represented to be by foreigners; 
 indeed, of late years it is seldom seen at all unless 
 among hunters or .settlers in the extreme frontiers. 
 
 BOWLINE.— A very useful knot, known as the 
 single, running, and double bowline knot. The 
 single bowline serves to throw over a post to haul on, 
 also to sling a barrel; the running liowline, for 
 securing paulins on ammunition-wagons; and the 
 double bowline, for slinging a ca.sk. 
 
 BOW-SHOT. — A term sometimes employed to de- 
 note the space which an arrow m.ay pass over when 
 shot from a bow. 
 
 BOWSING ROPE. — A rope used in the artillery ser- 
 vice for mo\ing a weight by simply hauling upon it. 
 
 BOW-STRING. — 1. Great improvements have been 
 made of late years in the strength of field-axletrees, 
 rendered necessary by the increased strains. The 
 
 Bow-string. 
 
 wooden bed having been given up, the box-girder t6ok 
 its place, and the bmr-string of steel is a further im- 
 provement. In this the bed is the top of a strong 
 girder of deep section, the bottom of which is formeil 
 by the axletree; the latter is only pierced with holes 
 for attachment to the l)ed at it.s thick ends. This 
 arrangement prevents the thinner jiarts of the metal 
 from being nipped or pierced when strained — an im- 
 portant matter, especially in dealing with steel. It 
 is also easily taken off the bed when required. — 2. 
 On the quality of the bow-string depend in a great 
 measure the shooting qualities of the bow. It shoulil 
 not be too thin, or it wjll not last Ions; in the selec- 
 
 tion of it, it is best to be guided by the size of the 
 notch of the arrows. At one end of it a strong loop 
 should be worker! to go over the upper horn; the 
 other end should be left free in order to l)e fixed on 
 to the lower horn: this is done with a peculiar 
 loop, shown in the drawing. When the lower end is 
 fastened, the distance between it and tlie loop at the 
 other end should be such, that when the loop is in it.s 
 place (i.e., the bow sti-ung) the string is, in a gentle- 
 man's bow, six inches, in a lady's, five inches, from 
 the center of the bow. The slnnjj should be lapjied 
 for an inch above the noeking-pomt, and five inches 
 below it, with waxed thread, and this again with fioss- 
 silk — to such a thickness that it completely fills the 
 notch of the arrow, but without being too tight, or it 
 may split it. Never trust a worn string; talce it off 
 and put on a new one— should it break, it will most 
 probaljly snap the fjow.— 3. A stiing used by the 
 Turks for strangling offenders. 
 
 BO'WYER.— the 'militaiy term for the man who 
 makes or repairs the military bows. Not much used 
 at present. 
 
 BOXER CARTRIDGE.- The Boxer cartridges for 
 the Snider and ^Martini-Henr}' rifles are made on a 
 large scale at the Woolwich Arsenal in what is known 
 as the Small-arm Cartridge Department. Although 
 the number of pieces constituting a Boxer cartridge 
 is much greater than those on the American plan of 
 drawing the shell out of a single disk of metal, the 
 cost of manufacture is low, inasmuch as tlie parts are 
 made very rapidly in presses tended by boys. The 
 cost of a single small-arm cartridge at Woolwich Is 
 about one penny. 
 
 The bullets are made in presses of very strong and 
 solid construction, the princ ifiles of which are shown 
 in the accompanying drawing. The lead, hardened 
 
 n 
 
 
 by alloying it with one thirteenth of its weight of tin, 
 is drawn out into wire which is wound on a reel, and 
 from this reel it is fed into a revohing disk of hard- 
 ened steel, (/, which is pierced with roiuid holes of 
 the precise diameter of the finished bullet. This disk 
 revolves vertically, and as it passes the sharp edge of 
 a piece of steel, d, pressing against its side, the lead 
 wire is shaved off, leaving in the die a quantity just 
 sufficient to form the bullet. Revolving a lit tic further, 
 two punches,//, press on the lead in the die from 
 opposite direciions, and give it proper sliajie at the 
 point and- ba.se. In one of the punches there is a 
 smidl hole for the escape of any surplus lead, if there 
 chance to be anv. There is a slight cannelure in the 
 surface of the ^Martini- Ilcnrv- bullet into which the 
 mouth of the case is crimped to secure the l)ullet in 
 its place in the cartridge. The bullets are rolled be- 
 tween a horizontallv-revolviiig disk and a confining 
 rim. The edire of "the disk and inner surface of the 
 rim have a raised rib, which make the required in- 
 dentation or cannelure in the Indlet. 
 
 The l)ullet for the altered Enfield lifle differs from 
 the Martini-IIenrv bullet, inasmuch as it has two 
 cavities and three "cannelures. The cannel ures are for 
 holding the lubricants. The rear cavity has a clav 
 plug in it for the pui-pose of expanding the lead, and 
 the forward cavity is fonned by a punch, and after-
 
 BOXHR TVSE. 
 
 118 
 
 BOXER LIFE-SAVING ROCKET. 
 
 ward closed over in a die. The object of this latter- 
 named cavity is to give a proper adjustment to the 
 position of the center of srravity of the bullui in tirinir. 
 bmull-iirm iimmunition in the BritLsli service is dis- 
 tributed in the tiild by nietuis of carts dcsiirned for 
 this sernce and tlr.iwn by two horses. Artillery am- 
 munition is transported in wagons. See Martini- 
 lit nri/ liifif and tiiiidtr Rifle. 
 
 BOXER FUSE.— A wooden-stock time-fuse. A 
 coned coinposiiion chauuel is bored into the stock 
 parallel to the a.xis. but one tenth of an inch distant 
 from it. This channel receives the paper fuse-casi'. 
 Just above the upjx'r face of the fuse-composition is 
 an unoccupied space from which four gas-vent chan- 
 nels lead to the outside of tlie stock above the point 
 of the shell. Immediatel}- above this gas-veiit cham- 
 ber the bore of the stock is considerably enlarged to 
 receive the igniter. This consists of a small bronze 
 hollow cylinder, closed at the lower end, Avhere it is 
 furnished on the inside 
 with a pierced nipple 
 for percussion-cap. The 
 upper edge of the hollow 
 C3iinder is flanged in 
 such a manner as to rest 
 on the top of the stock; 
 thereby preventing the 
 igniter from being driven 
 bodily into the fuse on 
 discharge of the gun. 
 Inside of this hollow 
 cylinder the plunger is 
 hung on a brittle nire 
 (half copper and half 
 lead). When this aiTangement is in place, the head 
 of the fuse is covered with a piece of paf)cr or linen 
 luted down and shellacked. Thus far the fuse only 
 burns for the full time for which it is pressed. In 
 order to provide for intermediate times, two side 
 channels are bored from the lower end of the fuse 
 upward (one of these is shown in the drawing). 
 Holes bored (at equal intervals) from the outside of 
 the stock connect the exterior of the fuse with the 
 side channels; the lowest communicating hole in each 
 channel being bored entirely through to the fuse- 
 composition. The channels are tilled T\'ith mealed 
 powder, and paper is pasted over the exterior of the 
 communicating or time holes, which are arranged as 
 shown in the drawing. The upper and lower ends 
 of the stock are served with brass wire. 
 
 This fuse, which is viitu.illy the English Boxer, 
 works as follows: With a suitable tool pierce through 
 the communicating hole, which corresponds to the 
 number of seconds desired, into the column of fuse- 
 composition (see arrow), then push the fuse by hand, 
 giving it a slight twist, into the fuse-hole of the pro- 
 jectile, and load the gim. On the explosion of the 
 charge the plunger, by its inertia, shears the brittle 
 suspending-wire, and strikes the percussion-cap, 
 which ignites the comiX)sition, and the fuse burns 
 down to the point at which it was pierced. Then the 
 flame flashes into the side channels, down the latter to 
 the lower communicating hole, and thence to the 
 bursting-charge. If for any reason the flame should 
 not pass through the hole bored at the desired time, 
 the fuse would still act at the end of its time of burn- 
 ing by igniting the charge through the lower com- 
 municatiu;; hole. If the .sliell "strikes the object 
 before sufficient time has elapst-d to enable the com- 
 position to burn to the lower end, it is probable that 
 the stock woidd be split and the whole be driven in- 
 wards; in which case it would act as a concussion- 
 fuse. See Film . 
 
 BOXER LIFE-SAVING ROCKET.— The 12-pounder 
 rocket used by the English Coasi-guard Service is the 
 invention of General Boxer, R.A. Three different 
 patterns of the.'* rockets have been made and issued. 
 The one now in use is known as •' Mark III." The 
 Boxer rocket is composed of a head, head-dip, bo<ly, 
 base-clip, base-plug, and diaphragm. The head "is 
 
 hemispherical in form, with a c}'lindrical tenon that 
 fits in the front end of the ro<'ket-case. The head- 
 dip nearly envelops the front end of the rockel<'ase, 
 with its forward edge coincident with the exterior 
 junction of the case and head. On one side of tlie 
 case the iron strap forming the head-clip is bent out 
 wards to form a short rectangular tul)e, whose axis is 
 parallel to that of the rocket. This short tube receives 
 the front end of the rocket-stick. The body of this 
 rocket consists of two cylinders of sheet metal (Bes- 
 semer i. These cylinders are placed end to end with 
 their axes coincident with the siuue straight line. 
 The front cylinder is shorter than the other, to which 
 and the inner diaphragm it is joined by screws pass- 
 ing through ca.ses into the diaphragiii. The front 
 cylinder is filled with rocket -composition to within 
 .4 inch of its front end. A conicjil-shaped canity is left 
 in the axial portion to furnish a large surface of in- 
 flammation. The rear cylinder is filled in a similar 
 manner with comijosition, leaving a .solid portion of 
 this composition at the front end between the two 
 cavities 1.2 inch in thickness. The cavity or " bore" 
 of tile rear cylinder is also conical in shape. The 
 base-clip is analogous to that at the head, but is longer. 
 It nearly surrounds the rear end of the rocket, 
 and has a rectangidar tubular projection on one 
 side in line with that of the head-clip. The base-plug 
 closes the rear end of the cylinder and is pierced with 
 an axial vent one inch in diameter, through which the 
 g;is escapes after the ignition of the composition. 
 The diaphragm is placed between and inside of the 
 two body -cylinders, and performs the same functions 
 for the front cylinder that the base-plug does for the 
 rear one, and in addition serves as a seat for the as- 
 sembling screws. A paper cap covers the vent, which 
 must be broken before firing. The rocket-cases are 
 protected on the inside from the action of the compo- 
 sition by a coat of anti-corrosive paint; the outside is 
 protected and blackened by burning off oil. Since 
 1870 the exterior of the case is still further protected 
 by two coats of red paint. 
 
 The following are the principal dimensions and 
 weight of the rocket: 
 
 Total length 
 
 Radius of head 
 
 Diameter of rocket-case \ f^^^a^; 
 
 Lengtti of front cylinder 
 
 Length of rear cylinder 
 
 ( Length 
 
 Head-clip ■< Rectangular ( Width . . . 
 
 ( projection. "( Depth. . . 
 
 \ Length 
 
 Base-clip - Rectangular (Width... 
 
 I projection . ( Depth. . . 
 
 Length of clip-piu 
 
 Diameter of vent 
 
 Weight of rocket 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Centi- 
 meters. 
 
 25.0 
 
 63.60 
 
 1.5 
 
 3.81 
 
 2.75 
 
 6.98 
 
 2.6 
 
 6.6 
 
 9.3 
 
 23.62 
 
 14.2 
 
 36.06 
 
 1.5 
 
 3.81 
 
 1.3 
 
 3.30 
 
 1.2 
 
 3.05 
 
 2.5 
 
 6.35 
 
 1.5 
 
 3.81 
 
 1.3 
 
 8.30 
 
 •0.85 
 
 2.15 
 
 1.0 
 
 2 54 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Kilog'ms. 
 
 14.25 
 
 = 6.46 
 
 The rocket-sticks are made of pine and are 9 feet 6 
 inches in length. The portion of the stick that ex- 
 tends through the clips along one side of the rocket is 
 square in cross-section, with a groove on the side next 
 to the rocket to fit the curvature of the case. The 
 slick in rear of the rocket is octagonal in cros,s-section. 
 The lower end of the stick is surrounded by an iron 
 ferrule. Two plates are placed, one at the upper end 
 of the slick and the other at a distance from that end 
 equal lo the dislance between the clips on the rocket. 
 The lower jilate has a small flange that brings up 
 ag.iinst the lower clip w lien the stick is inserted in 
 position for firing; both jilates arc hollowed lo fit the 
 rocket-case. An iron dip-pin widi the head bent at 
 right angles is inserted in a hole through the slick in 
 front of the base-clip, to prevent the withdrawal of 
 
 * Leneth of clip-pin before l>eQdiDg, 1.2 Inch. Size of wire, 
 No. 8 Birmineton wire-gauKe.
 
 BOXEE LIFE-SAVING ROCKET. 
 
 219 
 
 BOXER LIFE-SAVING ROCKET. 
 
 the stick in firing. The stick is partially 8iin-ounded 
 for 18 inches below the vent by a sheathinfr of tin to pro- 
 tect it from tlie burning gases. Axial holes are bored 
 in each end of the stick for the attachment of the line. 
 These holes are curved outward from I he a.xis until 
 they reach the exterior of the slick on the same side. 
 The holes are smoothed by passing a red-hot iron 
 through them, charring the wood." The sticks are 
 unpainted, and are packed in bundles of six each. 
 
 The stand for this rocket is known a.s the Boxer 
 rocket machine or stand, "Mark IV." The material 
 is sheet-iron, except the legs, which are of wood. 
 This stand is lighter and simpler in construction than 
 the older forms. The principal parts are an open 
 rectangular trough or body, a curved trough, called 
 by the English " a pry-pole," a horizontal axis, two 
 legs, and a graduated arc made of brass. The rectan- 
 gular trough or body receives the rocket. Its width 
 is less than its depth. The front end is stiffened by 
 a narrow iron strap around the outside. The up|)cr 
 edges are rolled over wire for the same purpose. 
 Near the rear end. on each side, are cut subelliptical 
 holes to admit the port-fire in firing the rocket. The 
 body and pry-jiolc are connectetl by ijieees of wrought- 
 iroD, rivets, and braces. There aie two of the latter, 
 one on each side. Two pieces of wrought-iron pro- 
 ject from the rear end of the rectangular trough and 
 have holes bored to receive the horizontal transverse 
 
 its construction, are from 17'. 5 to 40°. At the center 
 of this arc is a rivet with a projecting head, around 
 which is fastened a short string with a minute pear- 
 shaped plumb-bob dei)endent. 
 
 The life-siiving rocket-fuse is a frustum of a cone 
 in shape, made of jiaper and covered with kamptuli- 
 con. It is 1.5 inch long and fits the vent in the base of 
 the rocket, which is 1 inch in diameter. The fuse is 
 covered with a paper cap tied on with twine. The 
 bore of the fuse is rilled with al)out an inch of ordi- 
 nary fu.se-compositioii, and burns about five seconds. 
 The iiaper cap may or may not be removed before 
 firing. The fuse is ignited by means of a port-fire. 
 
 The Boxer port-fire for life-saring ajjparatus has a 
 total length of 9.3 inches, and is cylindrical in form. 
 The exterior diameter of the case is'. 7 inch. One end is 
 closed with a tin cap and a jiiece of kamptulicon; this 
 cap is .5 inch long and .(i inch in exterior diameter. On 
 one side the tin band of the cap is perforated to ad- 
 mit a detonating primer that enters a small space 
 under the kamptulicon, and fires the priming of 
 mealed powder. The exterior surface of the port-fire 
 is painted flesh-color. A circular black spot on the 
 eaji indicates the position of the hole for the detonat- 
 ing primer. The time of burning of this port-fire is 
 six minutes. 
 
 The following is the manner of using the Boxer or 
 English life-saving rocket: 
 
 Boxer Life-saving Rocket. 
 
 axis. The long rounded trough or pry -pole extends 
 into the rear end of the body for a .s"hort distance. 
 The upper edges of the pry-pole are rolled over a 
 large wire to stiffen them, and the trough is still fur- 
 ther strengthened by a wrought-iron bar .5 inch thick, 
 running along the bottom the whole length. The 
 lower or rear end of this bar is decurved and ])()inted 
 to form a ground-si)ike or foot. A strap with a 
 Inickle on the end is riveted to the pr3--pole near the 
 rear end, for the luirpose of binding the le.gs to the prv- 
 pole when they are folded up for transportation. The 
 horizontal axis has a small swinging tablet below, 
 through which are pierced two holes for rivets for the 
 legs. The latter have a lateral motion upon these 
 rivets as a.xes. The le.gs are made of tough wood. 
 They have wrought-iron heads or sockets with slotted 
 pro.jeetions to etnbraee the tablet pendant from the 
 horizontal axis. Ferndes envelo]) the lower ends, 
 which are armed with pointed spikes in order to se- 
 cure a firm hold in the soil when placed in position. 
 On the right-hand side of the body, l)etween the open- 
 ing and tile front end. is placed a sheet-brass (piadrant, 
 graduated and marked from to 3.5 . The limits ot 
 elevation that can be obtained with this stand, due to 
 
 With the apparatus on the .irround where it is to be 
 used, place the rocket-stand in po.sition, giving the 
 necessary elevation by means of the graduated arc on 
 the side of the trough and the )ilummet. Take a 
 Boxer rocket, insert the stick through the clips, and 
 drive in the clip-pin. Then wet about 12 feet of the 
 end of the line and insert the end through the hole in 
 the bottom of the rocket-stiek, carry it along the stick 
 to the hole near the upper end. draw it tlimugh and 
 put on, first, a rubber wiisber and then a brass one, 
 and tie a knot in the end, drawing the whole down 
 snugly u|)on the end of the stick. It is better to tie a 
 knot in the line after pa.s,sing it through the hole in 
 the rear end of the stick, so tliat in ease the line burns 
 off between the rocket and lower end of the stick the 
 knot will ealcli and the line still be carried out. Re- 
 move the paper cap on the base of the rocket and in- 
 sert a fuse. Place the rocket and stick in the trough 
 of the stand, sliding them to the rear until the base 
 of the rocket brings u]) against the front end of the 
 curved trough or pry-pole. Put the faking-box, 
 slightly inclined to the front, in n-ar of the stand 
 and a little toone side. Insert a i)ort-tire in the holder, 
 and ignite it with a detonating primer. Advance to
 
 BOXER SHBAPNEL SHELL. 
 
 220 
 
 BRACELET. 
 
 the stand, insert the port-fire in the opening on the 
 side opi>osite to that on wliich tlic fakiiig-lxi.x and line 
 are plactni, light the rockit-fuse, and retire towards 
 the rear. 
 
 As soon as the rockrt-composilion is ignited and 
 sufficient pis is evolTe<l, the roeket start.s, guided by 
 the trough and the roeket-stiek. After traversing a 
 part of its trajeetorv, the eoniposilion in the rear 
 cylinder is consumed, the solid jiart between the 
 cylinders bvirns through and .sets tire to the coniposi 
 tion in the forward cylinder, giving a new impetus to 
 the rocket and prolonging the range. See Lifi-tuiring 
 JiiHrl.1. 
 
 BOXER SHRAPNEL SHELL.— This shell embodies 
 tlie main features of tlie Shrnpiwl. The cliaige is 
 placed in a chaml)er at the ba.se, so that on expIi)sion 
 there is no tendency to increa.se the lateral siiread of 
 the bidlets, but rather to increase their velocity and 
 penetn\lion. The shell has a cylindrical iron body, 
 four longitudinal grooves inside, and is cast without 
 a head. A tin case for the bursting-charge tits into 
 the chamber, on the shoulder of which rests a wrought- 
 iron disk. The sliell is lined with paper and tilled 
 ■with balls imbedded in rosin. The balls for the 
 smaller naturesare of lead and antimony. A wrought- 
 iron tube passes down the middle of the shell and 
 through a hole in the center of the iron disk, to lead 
 the tiame from the fuse to the bursting-charge. The 
 tube is tapped at the top to take a primer. A kamp- 
 tulicon disk is i)laced over the bullets. The head is 
 ogival in form and made of wood, covered with thin 
 wrought-iron. The bursting-charge being confined 
 in the tin ca.se, the shell is not liable to premature 
 explosion from pieces of iron breaking oS the shoul- 
 der of the chamtx?r by the shock of discharge. See 
 Projixtihn and Slim pud. 
 
 BOXING.— Fighting with the fists. It was pr.ic- 
 ticed as a manly exercise by the ancients, among 
 whom it was an art so highly esteemed that Pollux, 
 Hercules, and some of the other gods were repre- 
 sented as having excelled in it. The pugilists of the 
 ancient games had leather thongs on their hands, 
 sometimes loaded with lead or iron; this armature of 
 the hand was called the ea-ntus. Of course their com- 
 bat.s were not imfre(iuently attended with fatal conse- 
 quences, which have resulted also in mam' instances 
 of modern pugilistic encounters, although no arma- 
 ture of the fists is allowed. Among the Greeks the 
 practice of boxing wa.s at first permitted only to free- 
 men, no slave or person attainted with crime being 
 considered worthy to po.s.sess the high jiriWlege of 
 being beaten to the consistency of a jelly. Gradu- 
 ally, however, lx)xing wa.s taken up as a jirofcssion, 
 and its character deteriorated. Boxing was a favor- 
 ite amusement of Englishmen for centuries: it is even 
 said to have had such distinguished patrons as King 
 Alfred an<i Kichard III. But the golden age of 
 pugilism as a profession in England commenced with 
 the accession of the House of Hanover; then men 
 calling themselves Professors publicly announced 
 their intention of giving lessons in "the noble art 
 of self-defense." One Professor challenged another 
 to combat in the most l)oml)astic language In 
 1726, one Ned Sutton, who announces himself ivs 
 " PiiK'maker from Grave.send, and Professor of the 
 Noble Science of Defense," sneers at another Profes- 
 sor, whom he calls "the extolled Mr. Figg," for 
 having by "sleeveless pretense" shirked a combat 
 with him, " which I take," says the Pipemaker and 
 Professor, " to be occasioned through fear of his hav- 
 ing that glory eclipsed by me, wherewith the ej'es of 
 all spectatoi-s have been so much dazzled." He fur- 
 ther a.ssures the said Figg that if he can muster cour- 
 age enough to fight witli him, he (Figg) " will have 
 the advantage of being overcfune by a hero indeed!" 
 Figg had an " amphitjieater" in Oxford Hoail, wherein 
 fighl.s were held; and a larger one was erected in the 
 same locality in 1742 for one Broughton, the funds 
 being subscinbed by some eighty noblemen and gen- 
 tlemcD. The pugilistic encounters that took place 
 
 here were patronized by many of the nobility. Some 
 faint protests against tlie brutality of the pa.«timenow 
 liegJin to be made by the press, but thesi' had little 
 ctfect. Towards the end of the la.st century fights 
 wei"e patronized Ijy Princes of the Blo<jd Roval; and 
 the Prince of Wales, afterwards George iV., was 
 present at one at Brij^hton in which one of the com- 
 batant.s was killed. When the allied Sovereigns and 
 their Generals went over to England in 1S14, Lord 
 Lowther treateil them to a series of boxing-matches 
 in his drawing-room, which were so highly relished 
 that they were re]x?ated a few days afterwards. One 
 of the pugilists, called Jackson, became quite a hero, 
 and made enormous sums by giWng les.sons to young 
 noblemen, among whom was I-ord Byron. In 1817 
 the Czar Nicholas of Russia witnes.sed a prize-fight at 
 Coombc Warren. At the close the \-ictor was pre- 
 .sented to him, with whom he shook hands. This 
 was the last time that Royalty was present at one of 
 these disgusting .spectacles. 
 
 BOX-TRAP.— A connuon method of firing mines is 
 by the use of the frnx-inip. This is a lx)x 18 inches 
 high and 6 inches wide in the clear. The bottom 
 consists of a piece of plank 18 by 10 inches, and its 
 cover is fixe(l at one side only with a wooden pin, 
 al)out which it am be turned. At 6 inches from the 
 top of the box a horizontal slit is made in one of its 
 sides, and grooves in the two adjacent to it, to receive 
 
 a piece of board, which ought to slide freely in this 
 arransement. In the lower iiarl of the box iin ojien- 
 ing is left on the side t)pposite the one cut for the 
 slide, to admit the powder-hose. To fire the triin, 
 place the Ixix against the extremity of the tamping 
 and secure it well; tie a string to the slide and lead it 
 along the stanchions of the gallery on pegs driven for 
 that purjwse; put the eiid of the hose into the box 
 through the hole left for it, and sjiread on the top of 
 it sonie dry, fine powder; then put in the slide and 
 close with earth or rags of sand-bags all communi- 
 cation between the lower part of the box and the 
 branch; place a star-match of six or eight jioints, well 
 lighted, on the slide; reiilacc the cover, then pull the 
 string, and the star will fall IkIow and fire the mine. 
 See Monk and Ri'i-kd-trmnih. 
 
 BOYAUX. — In military engineering, winding or zig- 
 zag ajiproaches dug to form a jiatli or communication 
 between the different armed trenches of a siege-work, 
 and to prevent them from being enfiladed or fired 
 upon in flank. Each branch of an approach over- 
 laps that behind it by about ten yards, to afford pro- 
 tection against enfilade, .md to serve as a trench depot 
 for trench-materials. The dimensions may In- the 
 same as those u.sed in the first jjarallel, and fn'(|uently 
 these are adopted if there is to be much use made of 
 the approach. In both the parallel and the boyau it 
 is recommended to slojie the liottom of the trench to 
 the rear, giving a fall of abovit six inches. This pro- 
 vides for drainage, and also affords greater protection 
 to the men using them. See Sitge. 
 
 BRABANCONS— .Mercenary fighters from Brabant 
 and other countries who, in the later Middle Ages, 
 served any who w nuld |iay them. They were i)oorly 
 organized an<I little better than banditti. 
 
 BRACELET. — An ornament worn on the arm, gen- 
 erally at the wrist. Bracelets and armlets have l)een 
 used by every nation, both savage and civilized, from
 
 BBACKETS. 
 
 221 
 
 BB&NCH 6ALLEBI£S WITH DUTCH CASES. 
 
 the earliest periods to our own. They are frequently 
 mentioned in Genesis as worn both by men and by 
 women, both by the Hebrews and the surrounding 
 nations. Similar ornaments were worn round the 
 ankle.s, but they are stigmatized by Isjiiah as marks 
 of lu.\ury (iii. 16). The Medes and Persians were re- 
 markable, even amongst Asiatics, for their love for 
 ornaments of this class. They wore not only brace- 
 lets and armlets, but ear-rings, collars, and necklaces, 
 which often consisted of strings of \alual)le pearls or 
 were enriched with other jewels. These ornaments 
 were used to indicate the rank of the wearer, and 
 this use has continued to be made of them in the 
 East down to the present day. In Europe, bracelets 
 and armlets were worn both by the classical nations 
 and barbarians from the earliest times. The Gauls 
 wore them; and the Sabines, as early as the founda- 
 tion of Rome, had ponderous golden armlets on the 
 left arm. The same was the case ■with the Samians 
 about the same period. It does not appear that arm- 
 lets were worn by men during the historical period 
 of Greece, but ladies wore both armlets and bracelets 
 of the most various materials and fomis. Both gen- 
 erally passed round the arm several times, and the 
 form of bracelet now most in fashion has been accu- 
 rately copied from those twisted spirals described by 
 Homer in the eighteenth book of the llimh Jlany 
 examples of this^ind of bracelet, as represented oil 
 painted vases, will be found in Sir William Hamil- 
 ton's work. We are indebted to the Greeks even for 
 the idea of giving to these spiral bracelets the form of 
 a snake, the best models of our present goldsmiths 
 being e.xact copies of antique bracelets. The god- 
 desses of the Greeks, like the bles.scd Virgin in Ro- 
 man Catholic countries, were represented as attired 
 in the style of ladies of the highest rank; and the 
 celebrated marble statue of Aphrodite, preser\ed 
 at Florence, e.vhibits traces of a metallic armlet. 
 Amongst the Romans, armlets were frequently con- 
 ferred upon soldiers for deeds of valor, of which an 
 instance is mentioned by Livy (x. 44). Roman ladies 
 wore bracelets, not only for ornament, Ijul also for 
 the purpose of containing amulets, which were sup- 
 posed to effect miraculous cures. On this principle 
 it is Siud that the Emperor Nero wore on his right arm 
 the skin of a serpent, inclosed in a golden armilla. 
 But at Rome, also, it was chiefly as an indication of 
 rank or wealth that these ornaments were worn. 
 
 BRACKETS. — In artillery, the cheeks or sides 
 of ordnance-carriages. Carriages termed " bracket- 
 trail," in contradistinction to the " block-trail " pat- 
 tern, have been introduced into the English .service; 
 all the new field- and some of the siege-carriages have 
 been made of this pattern. 
 
 BEACKET-TKAIL.— The body of the bracket/rail 
 airritige consisted of two brackets, connected to- 
 gether by three transoms, the trail thus formed being 
 termed a hracktt-traiL The length of the tran.soms 
 varied according to the nature of the gun, and there 
 Were two sets of trunnion-holes. 
 
 BRACONNIERE.— In antiquity, a mail armor, of 
 the shape of a petticoat, which "was attached to the 
 cuirass, and reached from the hips to the middle of 
 the thigh, and sometimes below the knee. Also writ- 
 ten Br<if/oiiiihre. 
 
 BRAKE.— A contrivance to stop motion by friction, 
 applied mainly to wheels and hoisting apparatus. 
 Originally it was a flexilile iron baud so placeil that 
 it might "be rirawTi tightly around most of the outer 
 surface of the revoh-ing w"heel, the friction gradually 
 slackening the motion. In carriages curved blocks 
 of wood were used, and pressed against the tire bj- a 
 lever worked with the hand or the foot. ]iIodern in- 
 vention has given us .systems of bnikes that may be 
 instantly applied to everj- wheel in a train of cars. 
 For the Creamer brake, once somewhat in favor, a 
 powerful spiral spring was the power applied. This 
 spring was coiled in a drum through which a shaft 
 pa-sses, and was set free by the brakeman, or all the 
 brakes on a train could be" set free by one act of the 
 
 engineer. The Westinghouse air-brake is now very 
 generally u.sed in America. Each carriage has be- 
 neath its floor a cylinder and piston which may be 
 operated bj" compres.sed air; the piston acts on suit- 
 able levers and rods to set the brakes against the 
 wheels, the brakes being also connected with the or- 
 dinarj' braking mechanism at the platform of the 
 cars. Compressed air is conveyed to the cylinders by 
 tubes leading from a reservoir at the locomotive, ancl 
 this reservoir is tilled by a .special engine which is in- 
 dependent of the ordinary motive mechanism. The 
 special en^ne acts automatically, starting when the 
 pressure of air in the reservoir is below a fixed stan- 
 dard, and stopping when the pressure reaches another 
 fixed standard. The engine-driver comnumicates the 
 compressed air to the cylinders by the simple act of 
 turning a valve-handle through one fourth of a cir- 
 cumference; the brakcsare instantly " .set" with great 
 force throughout the train. A diflerent sj'stem uses 
 a vacuum, and the pistons beneath the cars arc acted 
 on by atmospheric pressure, when the cylinders are 
 in communication with the vacuous reservoir. The 
 Westinghouse and the other air-brakes ser\'e to jOace 
 the train very fully imder the control of the engine- 
 driver; permitting the stoppage of trains from high 
 speed in a verj- short space. See Pneumatic Qun- 
 carriage. 
 
 BRAN. — The material obtained from the outer 
 covering or husk of grain during the process of 
 grinding, and which Is separated from the finer flour 
 before the latter is made into bread. It is generally 
 met with in commerce in thin scaly yellowish-brown 
 particles, with .sharp edges, and its composition in 
 100 parts is as follows: 
 
 Water 13.1 
 
 Albumen (coagulated) 19.3 
 
 Oil .". 4.7 
 
 Husk, ■with a little starch 55.6 
 
 A.sh or saline matter 7.3 
 
 ^ZC 
 
 100.0 
 Bread made of flour containing bran is known as 
 hriDrn bread. The main uses to which bran is put 
 are in the feeding of horses and stock, and in clear- 
 ing and brightening goods during the proces.scs of 
 d>-eing. In the practice of medicine, bran is em- 
 ployed as a warm poultice in abdominal inflamma- 
 tion, spasms, etc., and an infusion is used as an 
 emollient foot-hath. It is also used internally in 
 catarrhal affections. 
 
 BRANCH GALLERIES WITH DUTCH CASES.— 
 These galleries are of the same dimensions as small 
 branches. The frames are made of thick plank, and 
 are placed in the branch galleries touching each 
 other, serving both as frames and sheeting. Each 
 case consists of four pieces ; 
 the stanchions have a tenon at 
 each end, fitting into notches 
 cut in the cap imd ground sills 
 to receive them. When the 
 gallery is an ascent" ing or de- 
 scendmg one, the ends of 
 the stanchions may be cut 
 obliquely, in order that their 
 sides may always be vertical; 
 
 or the ordinarj- cases may be „, .. . j . „ 
 
 . . , i, i:, ,,i"., ,„ Elevation, .\. and pieces 
 
 set so as to be perpendicvihir to ^f frame of Dutch Case, 
 the gallerj- floor. For the pur- 
 pose of limiting the explosive effects of mines upon 
 the branches leading to them, and at the same lime 
 enabling the miner^ acting on the defen.se, to push 
 fonvard and open a new branch towards the crater, 
 a portion of a branch leading towards the mine is 
 made of heavy frames of the foregoing construction. 
 The timber recommended for the purpose is oak, and 
 the pieces of each frame are 12 inches wide and 4 
 inches thick. The portion of this strong frame- 
 work, at the extremity, is solidly filled in with pieces 
 of 4-inch scantlins, from 6 to 10 fi-et in length. For 
 a branch 28 inches high and 24 inches \^^de seven 
 
 \j' 
 
 r^^
 
 BRAND. 
 
 000 
 
 BRASS-FITTING MACHINE. 
 
 horizontal layers will bo required, each layer consist- 
 iug of 6 pieces. The center piece of each layer may 
 have 11 rope lianiUe at it.-; ciiil to allow of its. heiui; 
 dniwn out readily. Fille<l in this way and having 
 earth well packed l)ctween the pieces, branches of 
 IhLs de.-<Tii)tion will not be damaged by the e.xjilosion 
 of mines of from 6 to lit feet line of lejist resistance 
 even when the mines are within -li to 6 feet of the 
 branch. From their chief object these branches are 
 termed by the French rameaiu de combat. See 
 Gti/Un/. 
 
 BRAND. — The old Anglo-Saxon term to"- burnished 
 swords of all descriptions. 
 
 BRANDING. — A mode of punishment practiced in 
 England for various offenses. It was effected by the 
 application of a hot iron, the end of which had the 
 form which it was desired should be left imprinted 
 on the skin. But brandin^^ by such means has long 
 ceiuscil, and now it is practically contined to the case 
 of desertion from the anny; the bnmdinj; or marking 
 being not done by a hot iron, but with ink or other 
 similar preparation. By the Mutiny Act of 1858 it 
 is enacted as follows: "On the first and on everj- 
 subsequent conviction for desertion, the Court-Mar- 
 tial, in addition to any other punishment, may order 
 the offender to be marked on the left side, two inches 
 below the armpit, with the letter I), s\ich letter not 
 to be less than an inch long, and to be marked upon 
 the skin with some ink or gunpowder, or other pre- 
 paration, so as to be \isible and conspicuous, and not 
 liable to lie obliterated." Formerly branding was 
 employed in the ca.se of all c'tergitible offenses by burn- 
 ing on the hand; and, with a view still further to re- 
 press theft and petty larceny, it was enacted that 
 such offenders as were allowed the benefit of clergy 
 should be "burnt in the most risible part of the left 
 cheek, nearest the nose." This additional severity, 
 however, not having the desired ileterrent effect, but 
 the reverse, was repealed by an Act which neverthe- 
 less provided for offenders being burnt on the hand 
 as formerly. The latter punishment, however, was 
 entirely abolished by an Act pas.sed in 18"32. Brawl- 
 ing in church was made an offense punishable by 
 having one of the ears cut off, or, the offemler ha\'iug 
 no ears, l)v branding with the letter F on the cheek. 
 
 BRANDSCHWAERMER.— A small rocket which 
 contains a Imllct. It is tired out of a gun, and used 
 for the puriiosc of setting fire to straw-thatched build- 
 ings. 
 
 BRAQUEHARD. — A comparatively short weapon 
 of the sixteenth century. It held a place midway 
 between a sword and a dagger, had a straight flat 
 wide blade, verj- sharj' at either edge, and pointed. 
 It had on the hilt a cross-guard that curved on both 
 sides towards the point of the weapon. 
 
 BRAftUEMART.— 1. A short sword of Italian origin, 
 used in the fifteenth century, and very nmch like the 
 (iiielare. 2. In antiquity, a two-eilged broad-sword. 
 Also WTJIten Jaequemart. See Braguemanl. 
 
 BRASS. — An alloy of copper and zinc, largely used 
 for ordnance purjioses, certain parts of macliinerj', 
 and other ornamental anil usefiU articles. Techni- 
 cally the term brass is extended so as to include 
 compoimds of copper and tin, as in brass-ordnance, 
 the brasses or bearings of machinery, etc. ; but such 
 alloys of copper and tin, though styled hard brass, 
 are more strictly varieties of bronze," and the pr&sent 
 notice will be confined to the alloys of copper and 
 zinc, or ydUnr bra.ss. In ancient history. Biblical and 
 profane, frequent allusions are made to the employ- 
 ment of brass in the construction of musical instru- 
 ments, vessels, implements, ornaments, and even 
 gates; but as no mention is made of its mode of man- 
 ufacture, or even of its coinposiiiun. it is dovibtful if 
 the bra.ss of the ancients was composed of copper 
 and zinc. In the manufacture of brass on the large 
 scale, two parts by weight of copper to one part of 
 zinc arc u.scd, the zinc iK-ing one half the weight of 
 the copper; but alloys arc made for particular pur- 
 poses with less or greater proportions of zinc. Thus, 
 
 where a material of more than ordinary tenacity is 
 required, the zinc is reduced to one fourtt the weight 
 of the cop]K-r; and where an alloy of a hani and 
 brittle tiature, pos.sessiug little resisting power, is 
 wished for, the zinc is increased to an amount equal 
 with the copjx-r, or greater. In the manufacture of 
 brass either of two processes may be followed. The 
 direct method is to fiLse the zinc in a crucible, and 
 gradually add the copiKr in pieces. But this jirocess 
 is attended with dis;ulvantage, owin^ to the volatile 
 and o.xidizable nature of zinc. The indirect method 
 of forming brass is that which is generally followed 
 in England and elsewhere, and consists in heating in 
 crucibles or pots a mixture of cjilamine (carbonate of 
 zinc, ZnOCOj), charcoal, and thin pieces of scrap or 
 grain copper. The calamine is generally first cal- 
 cined or roasted, so as to expel any traces of sulphur, 
 then mixed with one fourth of its weight of charcoal, 
 and this mixture introduced into the crucible, after 
 which the met;illic cojjper is iliffused through the mix- 
 ture bj' being beaten in with hammers or mallets. 
 The proportions employed are 3 parts of the mixture 
 of calamine and charcoal to 3 parts of copper; and 
 when introtluced into a furnace, and subjected for 5 
 to 24 hours to the action of a white heat, the chaix-oal 
 reduces the calamine anil separates the zinc, which, 
 combining with the copper, forms 3 parts of bra.ss, 
 containing about 2 of copper to 1 of zinc. For ordi- 
 nary purposes brass is first cast into plates of about 
 100 pounds weight, and i to i inch thick, which can 
 be readily broken up, remelted, and cast in a mold of 
 any desirable shape or size. The crude casting so 
 obtained is generally screwed to a turning-lathe, and 
 turned and Iwred into the required form with iron 
 tools. 
 
 BRASSARDS— BRASSARTS.— The name of the 
 pieces which, in plate-armor, protected the upper part 
 of the anns, and united the shoulder and elbow pieces. 
 Brachiale was the ancient name for bra.ssards. When 
 the front of the arm only was shielded, the pieces 
 were called demi-bras.sjirds. Brassards or armlets, 
 made of cloth, and worn on the ami, are nov.- used 
 as a badge of recognition by the jursnunel and all 
 members of the military and international ambu- 
 lances in time of war. The color of the cloth is 
 white, with a red cross woven on it, which is the 
 emblem of the Society for the Help of the Sick suid 
 Wounded. The armlets are issued on the commence- 
 ment of hostilities by the Central Committee of that 
 Societj-, and duly stamped and numbered, so as to 
 prevent fraud. The term brassar is also applied to a 
 piece of defensive armor for the arm. 
 
 BRASSET. — A ca.sque or head-piece of armor much 
 worn in ancient times. 
 
 BRASS-FITTING MACHINE.— The use of brasses 
 entirely unfitted and rough from the sand results in 
 great wear of material mid of the lirasses, in hot 
 brasses and the accidents entailed thereby, in an im- 
 mense consumption of oil, and in such cxces.sive 
 friction as greatly to increiuse the power necessary to 
 draw the train. The ordinary- method of fitting 
 bra.s.ses is by the use of the lathe and file, and the 
 work requires the labor of a skilled mechanic. 
 
 The machine represented in the drawing has not 
 only superseded the above-named t(X)ls for the pur- 
 pose, in all well-equijiped arsenals, but has also ren- 
 dered the accurate fitting of brasses a cheap process, 
 r(r(iuiring no particular exixTiencc or skill. The 
 principal feature of the apparatus is found in the 
 emery-wheels, which arc originally turned and then 
 kept true bv a jiatented diamond tool, the latter being 
 so arranged that it is imjiossible to turn by it any- 
 thing except the geometrically correct circle to which 
 the ma,ster-meelianic sets it." Wheels of 20 inches 
 diameter are used; and though they should be worn 
 down to the flange, it is claimed that they will still 
 grind the full diameter desired, while a speed of from 
 1080 to 1800 revolutions is all that is required. 
 
 The diamond tool, A, is shown in its frame, in the 
 cngra\ing, detached from the ajiparatus proper. The
 
 BBATTICE. 
 
 223 
 
 BRAZING. 
 
 tool, it will be observed, swings on a center in its 
 frame, and can be adjusted to any arc. Once set, it 
 can only turn the prescribed arc with accuracy. In 
 order to avoid the necessity of the foreman having to 
 set the tool, a gauge is also furnished. This consists 
 of a spindle adjustable with a nut in such a way that 
 its two points rest in the centers on which the dia- 
 mond tool revolves. It is only necessar3' for the disk, 
 B, turned accuratelj- to the diameter of the bearing, 
 to be prepared, and this the apprentice can place on 
 the spindle, adjust the latter, and screw down the 
 diamond tool until it touches the periiihery of the 
 disk. A nut is then fastened on the diamond tool, 
 and the frame is lifted on the ways beneath the wheel, 
 when the moving of the handle turns the face of the 
 wheel to the exact circle desired. 
 To adjust the brass in the chuck, C, it is flist set on 
 
 partments, or permits one to be an up-cast or down- 
 cast shaft, and the other a hoisting shaft. 
 
 BRAVI. — Those individuals in Italy, but especially 
 in Venice, who undertook to perform any djmgcrous 
 deeds for money. It is now employed chiefly to des- 
 ignate hired assassins. The Italians also gave the 
 name of Bran to those fanatics in the Turkish anny 
 who, after maddening themselves by opium, rushed 
 upon the ranks of the enemy, and so met death. 
 
 BEAY. — A tower or block-hou.se in the outworks of 
 a fortiticulion liefore the port. 
 
 BRAYETTE.— That part of the armor which covered 
 the ulidomen. It was composed of steel plates, and 
 ended in the tas,sets. 
 
 BRAZINO. — The laboratory process of uniting to- 
 gether two pieces of brass, two pieces of copper, or 
 one of each, by means of a hard solder partaking 
 
 Brass-fitting Machine. 
 
 the axle, D. The chuck is then placed on frame, E, 
 in such a way that the V's (it. Handle F then moves 
 a cam that clamps the brass between the jiiws, G, one 
 set of which swing on a pivot at H. The bra.ss is 
 thus adjusted in such a manner that, despite the ini- 
 perfections in moldins, it is ground accurately with 
 the least removal of metal. The chuck, C. fits into 
 planed guides on the table, I. and is thus brought in 
 exact line with the motion of the wheel. The crank, 
 J, scrs'cs to move the table to and fro on the rods, K, 
 and the table also rises and falls on planed ways, lie- 
 in<: pressed up bv springs. The hanil-wheel gives 
 vertical adiustment to the whole bed by means of a 
 chain beneath it. There is a ]nilley by which a siic- 
 tion-fan, to remove dust, etc., may be driven. The 
 machine is claimed to be capable of fitting from 150 
 to ."iOO brasses per dav. Sec Emt'r>i-nrinder. 
 
 BRATTICE— BRETTICE.— A vertical wall of sepa- 
 ration in a mining-shaft which penuits ascending and 
 descending currents to traverse the respective corn- 
 
 more or less of the composition and properties of or- 
 dinary brnns. The edges or parts of metal to be 
 joined are first filed bright, so as to be thoroughly 
 cknn, then there is strewed over the gap or crevice 
 a mixture of the solder and Ijorax. The solder em- 
 ployed varies in composition according to the kind 
 of work, and may be rendered more fusible by the 
 addition of a larger amotmt of zinc, but the ge'nend 
 proportions are (1) 16 copper, 16 zinc, and 1 tin: (2) 
 12 bra.ss, 4 zinc, and 3 tin; or (3) 18 brass, 3 zinc, and 
 2 tin. Svhen the whole has been fused together, it is 
 allowed to cool, and is then filed down to a coarse 
 powder, in which state it is used. The borax is em- 
 ployed to form a glaze over the brightene<l surfaces, 
 ami thus prevent the oxidation of the metal, which 
 would seriously interfere with brazing, and even 
 stop the ojx'ration. An outward coating or layer of 
 charcoal is likewise serviceable in the exclusion of 
 the air dining the brazing of large pieces of metal. 
 ■\Vhere a very high heat is required in the process, a
 
 BB£ACH-BATTERI£S. 
 
 224 
 
 BBSACHINO. 
 
 little powdered glu^ Is mixed ■with the iKirax. The 
 mixluri' of solder iind borax may be applied dry. but 
 it is iKtUT to moisten it with water and to lay it on 
 the tiletl surfaees with a spoon. The whole is then 
 gently lieated, when the water evaponites and leaves 
 a crust of Ixmix and solder. The work may now be 
 strongly heatiil liefore the blow-pipe, or over a clesir 
 lire, and at a bright red heat the solder fuses and the 
 zinc Itegius to burn with a pale blue tluine. At this 
 stage the solder Jlimhcs or becomes liquiil enough to 
 permeate the .iuint or crevice; but should it be tju-dy 
 in acting thus, several slight taps will insure the 
 proper result. The whole is now cooled, and, to- 
 wanls the close, the articles may be introiluced into 
 cold water for more rapid reduction in temperature. 
 Pieces of metal which have undergone the process of 
 brazing are so lirmly united that they may be rolled 
 anil re-rolled without the parts vielding. 
 
 BREACH BATTERIES.— Exposed revetments of 
 masonry may be breached by heavy smooth-bore guns, 
 at nuiges from 400 to 600 yards, aiid batteries thrown 
 up in such cases arc in all respects like those for en- 
 tjlading or counter-battering. When the revetments 
 are coveretl from distant tire by an earthen mask, the 
 breach-batteries must be placed on the borders of the 
 ditch, cither on the glacis or on the terre-pleins of 
 the defenses, at points where no obstruction will in- 
 tervene to prevent the tire of the guns from being 
 directed at a point of the wall to be opened low 
 enough to form a breach which shall be practicable 
 to the ascent of an assaulting column. The results 
 of tlie recent seiges of Forts Pulaski and Wagner are 
 conclusive upon the question of the vulnerability of 
 the best ma.sonry to rifled projectiles at long ranges. 
 The former work was breached with 30-pounder rifles at 
 about 1700 yards, and (Jeneral Gillmore, in his report, 
 expresses the opinion that the best-constructed brick 
 revetments can be breached with satisfactory rapidity 
 at ranges of 2500 yarils. The range of the batteries of 
 8- and 10-inch Parrott gims against Fort Sumter was 
 from 3500 to over -WOO yards, from which every vul- 
 nerable part of this work that could be reached from 
 the batteries was laid in ruins. The effect of these 
 projectiles tired with long ranges under great angles 
 of elevation, upon scarps covered by earthen masks 
 placed some distance in advance of the scarps, cannot 
 fail to be productive of much damage wherever the 
 projectile attains the scarp, although, from the un- 
 certainty of the tire on a hidden object, breaching un- 
 der such circumstances will seldom be resorted to 
 owing to the length of time and ex-penditure of am- 
 munition that would neces-sarily be required to make 
 a practicable breach in the work. These batteries 
 must be sunk when placed on the borders of the 
 ditches, the level chosen for the platforms being such 
 as to subserve the object in \icw. The embrasures in 
 these cases are usually cut out of the parapet, as an 
 ordinary trench has generally to be first established 
 as a preparatory step to commencing the battery. 
 The forms and dimensions adopted for other sunken 
 batteries will apply to these cases, with such modifi- 
 cations as may be demanded by the site of the bat- 
 tery, the field of fire, and the position of the point to 
 be attained by the fire. 
 
 When a breach-battery is established either on the 
 glacis or upon the terre-plein of a work, its gimswill 
 generally l)e exiwsed both on their fiaiik ami rear to 
 the fire of dangerous commanding ptiints, from which 
 it will be necessary to cover them by traverses. The 
 number of traverses and their position will depend 
 upon the command and position of the dangerous 
 points. To cover from the flank fire, if the com- 
 mand of the dangerous point is considerable, like that 
 of a cavalier within the enceinte of the Ix'sieged. it 
 ma)' be necessary to place a traverse between every 
 two guns, or even between each gun. The traverses 
 used in such cases receive a thickness of fourteen feet, 
 or ses'en gsibions, like those ff)r covering an ordinary 
 trench from an enfilading fire; their length will de- 
 pend upon the relative positions of the dangerous 
 
 point and the exterior point of the battery to be 
 covered; their height is usually not greater than the 
 Iraversi'S for the ordinary tn.iiches that serve only as 
 communications. When the reverse of the Ixitterj' is 
 exix)seil it will generally arise from the sjilient posi- 
 tion of some coniparalively distant point, from which 
 a slant fire may be brought to bear on this part of the 
 battery; in which ciuse it will generally be easy to 
 cover the part exposed by running out, from the re- 
 verse of the battery, an end of trench, to form a wing 
 traverse that shall intersect the lines of fire of the 
 dangerous point upon every part exposed. The guns 
 of lireach-batteries should be so placed that the direc- 
 tion of their tire may be as nesu-ly perpendicular as 
 practicable to the line of wall to be breached; and 
 where these lines are oblique to each oilier, the obli- 
 quity shouUl not exceed 45 , otherwise the effect of 
 the shot will be greatly diminished and the operation 
 retarded. Besides the breach-batteries, it may be 
 neces.sary to place counter-batteries on the glacis. 
 Their object will be to counter-batter mid silence the 
 artillery of those portions of the defenses which can 
 be brought to bear on the breach-batteries, or on the 
 passages of the ditches. These counter- batteries will 
 usually be so placed as to fire along the ditches of the 
 defenses. Their arrangement, in all respects, will be 
 the same as that of the breach-batteries. See Bat- 
 tern X. 
 
 BREACHING. — Escalade being ordinarily very dif- 
 ficult, particularly when the besieged are aware of 
 the intention of tlie besiegers, the latter are generally 
 comi)elled to tlestroj' a portion of the face of the work 
 to obtain an entrance. Such an opening is called a 
 breach; and to effect it vdtix artillery, particularly in 
 a well-constructed work, where no part of the scarp- 
 wall is visible from the adjacent ground, within 
 effective range of siege-cannon, breaehing-batteries are 
 established either on the crest of the covered-tray or 
 on the glacis. When the walls of fortified places 
 were very high and not supported by terraces or ram- 
 parts, stone projectiles were used. From the want of 
 sufficient hardness in these projectiles, the besiegers 
 were forced to commence battering at the top of the 
 wall where the least resistance was offered, and 
 gradually to lower the shot until the breach reached 
 the wrecks already formed at the ba.se of the wall. 
 When the style of fortification was changed, this 
 operation became very laborious, the ascent was very 
 steep, and the breach was often impracticable. This 
 method was abandoned and mining substituted. Iron 
 projectiles superseded stone, and then a more rapid 
 mode of effecting a practicable breach was suggested 
 and confirmed by experience. Vauban recommended 
 increasing the size of the hole first formed, by con- 
 tinually tiring at its sides until the wall should fall; 
 but the ballwiis found to glance into it and injure 
 but slightly the untouched portion of the revetment. 
 The best mode, however, as found by experiment, is 
 to cut the wall up into detached parts, by making one 
 horizontal and several vertical tissures, and tMittering 
 each part down separately, as indicated in the draw- 
 ing. The ca.siest man- 
 ner of making the cut 
 is to direct the shots 
 upon the same line, 
 and thus form a se- 
 ries of holes, some- 
 what greater than a 
 diameter apart, and then to fire a second series of 
 shots, directed at the several intervals between the 
 first, and so on, until an opening is made completely 
 through the wall. 
 
 The first cut is made horizontally, and finished, 
 which will be known by the earth fallins; through it; 
 the vertical cuts arc tlien made, there being one at 
 each end of the intended breach. These cuts are 
 commenced at the horizontal cut. and raised until the 
 wall, isf)lated from its supports, sinks, overturns, and 
 breaks into pieces, which become covered by falling 
 earth. If the earth be sustained by its tenacity.
 
 BB£ACH-KNIF£. 
 
 225 
 
 BREAKING-DOWN MACHINE. 
 
 loaded shells are fired into it, which, acting like 
 small mines, cause it to fall, and make the breach 
 praetieabk, or of easy a.scent. If the portion of the 
 wall between the vertical ctits should not be over- 
 thrown by the pressure of the earth behind, it must 
 be detached by a few volleys of solid shot, tired at its 
 center. This will speedily" brinjr it down in a mass. 
 The moment the wall is down and the p:irapct de- 
 stroyed, the breach will be as jx-rfcct and the slope 
 a.s easy of ascent as it can be nuule by the fire of the 
 batteries. It is important to determiiie the height of i 
 the horizontal cut above the bottom of the ditch, for, 
 if this height be not properly chosen, the breach may 
 be difficult if not impraclieable. If too high, the 
 ramp composed of the debris will lie interceiited by a 
 portion of the wall; if too low, the opening wilfbe 
 masked by the debris and the formation of the cut 
 impeded. The most suitable height is nearly equal 
 to the thickness of the wall where the cut is estab- 
 lished. The thickness, where not known, can be 
 deduced from the dimensions necessary to be given 
 to the wall, to resist the pressure of the earth of the 
 rampart and parapet. Tlie time nece.s.sary to make a 
 breach depends on the size of the breach to be made, 
 the material of the scarp, the number of gtms, etc. 
 For a breach of 20 to 30 yards in lenglb, at 40 
 yards from the battery, 1500 shot of large caliber will 
 be required; but when the Itatlery is at a greater dis- 
 tjince, a greater number of projectiles will be neces- 
 sar\- on account of the diminished accuracv and pene- 
 tration. Thus, at 500 or titM) yards 9000 to 10,000 
 may be needed. See Effectx of Prujectiks, Penetra- 
 tion, and Pmjii-lih'x. 
 
 BEEACH-KNIFE.— A weapon VLsed as late as the 
 eighteenth century. It was especially common in 
 Austria and in other parts of Germany, but in reitlity 
 it was nothing but a Kri/lhe-kidfi'. ' ' . 
 
 BREACH OF ARREST.— A "crime usually punish- I 
 able with cashiering. The Articles of War provide 
 that officers charged with crime shall be arrested and 
 confined in their barracks, quarters, or tents, and de- 
 prived of their swords by the Commanding Officer. 
 And any officer who leaves bis confinement before 
 lie is set at liberty by his Commanding Officer shall 
 be dismissed from the serWce. 
 
 BREAD. — In camps and in barracks of any size in 
 England the bread for the army is baked on the spot 
 by bakers of the Supply Sub-department of Control 
 Organization. Though perhaps a ' little rough in its 
 manufacture, the article suiiplied is made from the 
 best ingredients, and is gemiine and wholesome. On 
 a march, the Control Bakeries supply bread at the 
 several halting-places. In smaller barracks, bread 
 has to be obtained liy contract, but the most vigorous 
 supervision is exercised to secure proper quality. 
 Formerly army-bread was notoriously bad. A con- 
 tractor would sometimes send in a tender so low, in 
 order to obtain the contract, that be could not possi- 
 bly make good bread at a profit; and then he relied 
 on small fees paid him by the soldiers as a means of 
 obtjiining better. This discreditable state of things 
 was ascertained by a Committee of Inquiry some 
 years ago; it was foiuid that the average of army 
 bread was not equal in quality to that of work-house 
 bread. Steps were forthwith taken to remedy the 
 evil; experiments were made to determine whether 
 troops could bake their own bread in the field, and 
 the re.sult was the adoption of the present .system of 
 army tmking. With the improvement of the bread 
 a vi.sible amelioration in the health of the soldiers has 
 taken place. In the United State; army the troops 
 do the bakintr both in barracks and in the field. 
 
 BREAD AND WATER.— The diet of prisoners and 
 parties under charge of the guanl. An authorized 
 military punishment. 
 
 BREAK. — 1. A change from the general direction 
 of the curtain of a fortification near its extremity, in 
 the construction with orillons ami retired tlanks. 2. 
 A commutator or apparatus to interrupt or change 
 the direction of electric currents. 
 
 BREAKER.— A cup-shaped covering, usually made 
 of lead, which .serves to break a tul)c of gla.ss or 
 plaster of Paris at the proper time for igniting the 
 charge in fuses of certain coustruction. See Jv««- 
 siaii FiiKt'. 
 
 BREAKING-DIAMETER.— The diameter of a piece 
 at the instant of rupture may be called its " break- 
 ingKliameter." This would remain the same for the 
 tangential strain : but if we consider the transverse 
 strain only, this diameter increases with the length of 
 stave. For a certain length of stave under pres.sure, 
 say two or three calibers^ the breaking-diameter due 
 to the transverse strain would be the same as the 
 breaking-diameter for the tiuigential. In this case 
 there would be a tendency to rupture l)0th tan- 
 genlially and transversely, and the resistance of 
 the metal would Ijc called fully into play in Inith 
 directions. For greater length of staves the" breaking- 
 diameter due to transverse sti-ain would be greater 
 than that due to the tangential, and the piece would 
 nipture tangentially before reaching its transverse 
 " l)reaking-<liameter," and therefore the transverse 
 resistance would not be called fully into play. For 
 shorter staves the re\erse wiiuld bethe case. 
 
 BREAKING-DOWN MACHINE.— The powder, hav- 
 ing been incorporated, is taken from the mills in open 
 tubs and placed in small magazines, where it is 
 allowed to remain for a day, in order to give the 
 \iewer time to examine the quality of the cake, and 
 to compare the production of one mill with that of 
 another, for it is found that that part of the charge 
 which has been subjected to the last few revolutions 
 of the nmners is generally a little drier than the rest; 
 therefore allowing the whole to remain exposed for 
 a short time tends to equalize the moisture, from two 
 to three per cent of which greatly assists the opera- 
 tion of pressing. The incorporated powder, in the 
 condition of soft cake, has now to be broken up into 
 pieces of a uniform size, so that the spaces between 
 
 Brealiinfr-down Machine. 
 
 the plates in the press-box (hereafter described') may 
 be equally filled and the powder subjected to the 
 same amount of pressure over its whole surface. 
 Reducing the mill-cake to meal of a tmiform size 
 also assists in mixing jfny portions that may be more 
 dense tlian others, due to their ha\Tng been under the 
 nnmers and receiWng the full effect of the incorpo- 
 rating operation up to the last. 
 
 The breaking down of the mill-cake is effected by 
 the breaking-down machine, which consists of two 
 gun-metal side frames, supportinj: two pairs of gun- 
 metal rollers, the one pair being mimediately under 
 the other. Tl^se rollers are 7i inches in diameter, and 
 have a total leiigth for operating upon the cjike of 2 
 feet 6 inches. The surfaces of the upper pair have 
 grooves of 1.05 inch pitch, cut longitudinally upon 
 them to a depth of \ inch. These rollers work at a 
 Sliced of twenty-five revolutions per minute, and mo- 
 tion is imparted to them by means of a main driring- 
 shaft and spur-gearing connecte<l with the motive pow-
 
 BB£AKING GROUND. 
 
 226 
 
 BREAKING UP AHUUNITION. 
 
 cr. The back roller of each pair works in n sliding 
 bejiring, ami is pressed forward to its op|K)silo roller 
 and kept up to its work by means of weighted levers. 
 This is a s;ifety arraugenieni, and is provided in 
 order to admit "of the rollers opening to allow any 
 large quantity of the eake, a hard lump, or any 
 foriMirn substlinee, to pa.ss freely through them, thus 
 preventin;: injury to the maehinery, and iwssibly an 
 explosion. There is also a seraix'f attached to each 
 pair of rollers for removing from them as ihey re- 
 volve anv powder that may uilhere to their surfaces. 
 
 To prevent the dust spreading about the building 
 when the machine is at work, the rollers are inclosed 
 in sheet copper and gun-metal casings; these also act 
 as spouts, and guide the meal into the boxes placed 
 underneath the machine for its reception. 
 
 The workinir of the machine may be described as 
 follows: The incorporated mill-cake is brought from 
 the magazines, and placed in a wooden hojjper that 
 holds about 700 lbs. Underneath the o|jea side of this 
 hopiwr works an endless band of strong canvas, hav- 
 ing strips of leather stitched across it at 4 inches 
 apart. This band passes over two drums, the upper 
 one being driven from the gearing of the machine, so 
 that when in ojieralion this baud revolves, and car- 
 ries a portion of the mill-cake with it from the 
 hopper, and discharges it over the upper drum be- 
 tween the first and uppermost pair of rollers. After 
 being crashed anil passing through these, it falls into 
 the second pair immediately underneath, where it is 
 further crushed or broken up into pieces of the re- 
 quired size. From these it falls into the spout, and 
 is conveyed to the boxes placed imderneath for its re- 
 ception. 
 
 When the hopper has been filled with mill-cake, the 
 attendant retires to a place of safety, and then sets the 
 machine in motion. After working for about half 
 an hour — which is .sufficient time to break down an 
 entire charge of TOO lbs.— he, from his place of re- 
 treat, stops the machine, and, after waiting for a few 
 minutes, enters the house, empties the boxes, and re- 
 moves the powder before refilling the hopper. The 
 meal, as it is taken from the boxes, is conveyed in 
 tubs, and placed in other small magazines, from 
 whence it is taken as required to the press-house for 
 the purpose of undergoing the next process. All 
 the.se dangerous operations are carried on in separate 
 buildings, well removed from each other; and, as a 
 matter of precaution, the machine is entirely con- 
 structed of gun-metal and wood, excepting the shafts, 
 which are of wrought-kon encased in copper. See 
 Ounpoitder. 
 
 BREAKING GROUND. — In inilitaiy operations, the 
 first excavation of the earth to form intrenchments, 
 as at the commencement of a siege. It is apiJlicd 
 also to the striking of tents, and quitting the ground 
 on which troops have been encamped. 
 
 BREAKING ON THE WHEEL.— A very barbarous 
 modi- of intlicting the punishment of death, formerly 
 in use in France and Germany, where the criminal 
 was placed on a carriage- wheel, with his arms and 
 legs extended along the spokes, and the wheel being 
 turned round, the executioner fractured bis limbs by 
 sucf'cssive blows with an iron bar, which were re- 
 peated till death ensued. There was consiilerable 
 variety in the mode in which this punishment was in- 
 flictecl, at dilferent times and in dilTerent places. By 
 way of terminating sooner the sulTerings of the 
 victim, the executioner was sometimes permitted to 
 deal two or three severe blows on the chest or 
 stomach, known as roups de griire; and occasionally, 
 in France at least, the se^ntencc contained a provision 
 that the criminal was to be strangled after the first or 
 second blow. Mercy of this kind was, however, not 
 always allowed to be shown to the victims of the 
 wheel; when Patkul, the envoy of Peter the Great, 
 was put to death on the wheel Ijy order of Charles 
 XII. of Sweden, it is .said that the officer in com- 
 mand of the guard was cashiered by the Swedish 
 king in consequence of having allowed the head to 
 
 be struck olT l)cfore life wa.s extinct in the mangled 
 limbs. The punishment of the wheel Wius abolished 
 in France at the Hevolution; in Germany it has been 
 occasionally infiicled dining the present century, on 
 persons c<>nvicl<-d of treason and parricide. 
 
 BREAKING UP AMMUNITION.— In breaking up 
 small-arm anunimilion, the talilis should he arranged 
 agiiinst the sides of the room, and in front of them, 
 on the floor, boarils one foot « ide are secured on 
 edge, so as to leave a space of three feet between 
 them and the tables, inside of which the workmen 
 stand and the scraj) pai>er is thrown. By these 
 means the center of the tioor remains clear, and 
 should be kept wet. Each workman shoidd lie pro- 
 vided with small wooden boxes or copper pans, one 
 for powder, one for cai)s, and one for bullets. The 
 tables should be kept as clean as possible, counter- 
 brushes being provided for that purpo.se. A square 
 copper box, with screw top and a capacity of about 
 100 iiounds of powder, is placed at one side of the 
 room; into this the men empty the powder obtained; 
 a large copper funnel, 18 inches wide at the top, is 
 used to prevent the powder from spilling on the tioor. 
 When the box is full, it is carried to the magazine on 
 a hand-barrow, the contents packed in liarrels and 
 piled up. One man is detailed to collect, cotuit, and 
 pack the caps, sweep the fioor, ami keep it wet, etc. 
 Powder should be removed from the tables and 
 emi)tied in the box very freciuently. No more car- 
 tridges than are actually needed to work on, one Iwx 
 for ^ach man, should be allowed in the shoj) at a 
 time. A space on the table three feet wide is allotted 
 to each man, a partition one foot high being the 
 dividing-line. The box containing cartridges is 
 placed on the table to the left; about 20 packages 
 are opened at a time, the cartritlges emptied into one 
 end of the bullet-])an. which should beset directly in 
 front of the workman. Take a cartridge with the 
 thumb and forefinger of the right hand, remove the 
 bullet and drop it in its jtan, and empty the powder 
 in the recepUtcle intended for it. Burnside's me- 
 tallic, Maynard's metallic. Smith's foil and rubber, 
 Gallagher's paper and wrapped metal, and all other 
 metallic cartridges are broken up by the hand- 
 breaker, unless it be a cartridge otherwise provided 
 for. Brass shells, before being j)acked, should be 
 taken to an open place on the ground, some distance 
 from the buildings, spread out two or three inches 
 deep in a sj)ace about 10 feet square, and sprinkled 
 witli a little powder; a match is then applied, and 
 any powder which may chance to Ik; in the shells is 
 thus burned out. Brass shells should never be 
 soaked in water, especially those lined with paper, 
 for they are never afterwards thoroughly dried until 
 melted in the crucible. 
 
 The litiKd-breako- is composed of brass and wood, 
 and is 7 inches long. The blade is of bra.ss, \ inch 
 thi<-k. 1 inch wide,"and 4 inches long; oak handle, 1 
 inch sijuare, edges rounded, and 5 inches long. A 
 slot 2 inches long is sawed into one end of the 
 handle; into this "slot 3 in- 
 ches of the blade is inserted; 
 two holes are bored through 
 for rivets that firmly secure 
 the blade in its place. A 
 hole of the size to .suit the 
 ball of the cartridge to be 
 broken up is drilled llp-ough 
 the projecting end of the 
 blade abo\il ,\ in<h from the 
 end. In using this instm- 
 ineiit hold it fiiinly in the 
 left hand over tlie bullet- 
 pan; insert the bullet-end of 
 the cartridge in the bole and 
 pry Ul)ward; the bullet drops 
 out and the powder is dis- 
 posed of as ])n-vi(iusly di- 
 rected. When bniiking up sliellcartridges with a 
 wad between the bullet and i>owder, the bullet should 
 
 o 
 
 <^s
 
 BREAKING UP AMMUNITION. 
 
 227 
 
 BREAKING UP AMMUNITION. 
 
 be removed from two or three Iiundred Ijefore work- 
 iiiir at the ixnvder. A small brass pick and scrajjer 
 coiiiljiiK'd is used, willi ilit- edj;ts and iioiiit sharp- 
 cued, with which the wad is removed and the in- 
 terior of the shell scraped. 
 
 The followiuir-ileseribed machine, consisting of a 
 box, drairer-frame, drairer, mit;i(uine, Jirimj-lxiU , and 
 firiitg-boH bar, is' used for breaking up metallic car- 
 tridges: 
 
 The Ace, 2 feet wide, 4 feet long, and 3 feet deep, 
 is lined with Jinch boiler iron. The lining should 
 taper inward toward the Ixittoni troin lioth ends 
 and sides, forming an ol)long-shaped fininel, the 
 bottom opening being about 1 foot wide by 3 feet 
 long. At each end of the box inside, screwed on 
 about the center, is an upright cleat, oak, 2i inches 
 wide by 2 inches thick; it extends from the bottom 
 edge of the box to witlnn 1 inch of the toj). A rab- 
 bet 1 inch deep and li inch long is cut out of the 
 front of tlie cleat at the top; the shoulder thus 
 formed serves as a rest for the magazine, and the top 
 of the cleat answers the same purpose for the tiring- 
 bolt bar. The cleats arc covered with the .same kind 
 of iron as the box is lined with. The iron shoidd be 
 cut in strips and screwed on. The front is covered 
 tirst, the c(>vering extending from the bottom of the 
 rabbet to the lower end of the cleat. Cover the sides 
 the same way, except that the strips extend to the top 
 edge of the box; this will form a receptacle at the 
 top end of the cleat, and .serve as a, slide for the 
 
 plate. The small plate is then riveted to the large 
 
 one, the rivet-holes coming between the large ones. 
 The holes for the cartridges are then drilleil through 
 the small plate, and should be a little largT in 
 diameter than the cartridge, but not so large as to 
 destroy the shouliler or bearing for the flange of the 
 shell. " 
 
 The firing-bolt bar is made of wood, white oak, 2i 
 inches wide, 3 inches thick, and about 2 inches 
 longer than the magazine. Holes for the bolts 
 should be bored so that they will come directly op- 
 ixisile the holes in the magazine. Care must Ix; 
 taken to have this correct. Iron washers are screwed 
 on the under and upper sides of the bar over each 
 hole, to prevent their wearing by the action of the 
 bolts. (Ko. 2 washers for bolts aie just the size.) 
 
 Firing-boltii arc made of J-inch round bar-steel. 
 They are 7 inches long; about 6 inches are ttirncd off 
 in the lathe to lit the holes in the bar; the other inch 
 forms a iicad, which is the tiring end of the bolt. 
 About 2 inches from the other end a hole is drilled 
 through to receive a pin. The bolts are then put 
 through the holes in the bar and pinned. This gives 
 them a play of 4 inches. The tiring-end of the 
 holt-head end should be hard, and the striking end 
 soft. 
 
 'X\\e frame upon which the box rests is made of 2- 
 ineh pine, and is 1 foot high (the box is designed to 
 set inside this). Two sides and one end are closed. 
 Cleats are nailed inside, about 1 inch from the top 
 
 .iMiiimmiiiiim . 
 
 X. 
 
 ^t-M 
 
 ©=^ 
 
 Section. 
 
 Section. 
 
 End View. 
 
 magazine and bolt-bar that will prevent them from ; 
 shifting out of place. The cover of the box is made 
 of the sam(^ kind of iron as the lining, and in two j 
 parts, forming front and back covers; they rest on | 
 cleats screwed oi\ the ends of the box inside, and ex- 
 tend from the top edge of the perpendicular cleat to 
 the front and back of the liox, the lower end being 
 about 10 inches below the top edge of the box; the 
 covers thus rust on an angle of about 4."> . The top 
 edges of the cover should' tit snugly against the sides 
 of the tiring-bolt bar, but not so as to prevent its 
 being taken out and replaced freely. The back cover 
 may be made fiist, as it is not necessary to remove it; 
 the" front one, however, has to be removed at every 
 discharge of the magazine, and for this reason has to 
 be a little loose. Oak strips 1 X 2 inches are screwed 
 on the tojis of the covers at the lower and ui^jier 
 edges to prevent the iron from warpinrr; the upper 
 one on the front cover also serves for a handle. 
 
 The manazine is made of iron, has two plates 
 riveted tosetlier, the large or tipper plate to be i inch 
 thick, 2i inches wide, and long enough to tit in the 
 box lengthwise, its end resting on the rabbet cut in 
 the cleat, the small or lower plate to be i inch thick 
 and \\ inch wide. Twenty holes, \ inch in diameter, 
 are drilleil through the large plate on a center line 
 from end to end! They should be one inch apart 
 and commence about 6 inches from the ends of the 
 
 edce. Upon these the box rests. The other end of 
 the frame is left open for the drawer. 
 
 The drairer should be made of ,",ri"eh boiler-iron 
 and water-tight, and so constructed that when it is in 
 its place under the box the top edges, both ends, 
 and sides will extend as far as possible inside the 
 lower edges of the lining of the box, thus preventing 
 tlie bullets and pieces of copper from dropping be- 
 hind the drawer. 
 
 Three men are required to operate thcmachine: one 
 to load, one to fire, and one to eject the tired shells 
 from the magazine. An open box .'5 feet long (an 
 ordinary musket-box answers the puqiose) i.s set at 
 the end" of the machine, to the right, across the open- 
 ing, and about 9 inches from each end. Toward the 
 center a tlat strip of i-inch bar-iron is attached, the 
 ends projecting about "lO incites over each side of the 
 box. These are to rest the magazine on when Ining 
 charged, and when the shells are being ejected. 
 They should be far enough apart to catch the maga- 
 zine about 2 inches from the ends, so as not to m- 
 terferc with the holes. Three or four magazines are 
 required: also two small hanmicrs, punch, etc. 
 
 Everything is now^ rcadv to commence operations. 
 The loader (operator No. i) seats himself at the front 
 of the shell-box, takes a handfid of cartridges m his 
 right hand and charges the magazine: passes it to the 
 tiring-operator (No. 2), who places it on its rest mthe
 
 BS£AKING UP AUMUNITION. 
 
 228 
 
 BREAKING UP AMMUNITION. 
 
 firing-box; takes the firing-bolt bar (which maybe 
 placed on the back cover when not in use), sets it on 
 the matrazine so thai the heails of the l)olts drop into 
 the lioles; throws down the front cover, that has in 
 the mean time been lifted, takes the hanmicr from a 
 convenient place and strikes each bolt one smart blow- 
 in (luick succession. lie then lifts ihe cover and 
 rests it agsiinst Ihe front of Ihe box inside, lakes out 
 the liring-bolt bar, and lays it on the back cover; 
 takes out the magazine and passes it to operator 
 No. 3, who sit.s directly op|)Osile the loader. IS'o. 3 
 then examines it, lo ascertain if any of the (-artridges 
 have mis.st'd tire; if so. he takes tliem out luid jilaces 
 Ihem in a .small box for that purposi-. turns llie 
 majrazine. small holes up, i)uiulies the remaining 
 .shells out into the open box, and then slides il across 
 lo No. 1; the other operations in the mean time con- 
 tinuing. The drawer may contain water or not. 
 There is less smoke, however, when water is used, as 
 the ignited powder is sooner extinguished. When 
 about .jOOO cartridges have Ix'cn exniloded, the bullets 
 are removed from the drawer and wa.shed, and what- 
 ever pieces of copper are among them picked out. 
 Three men can break 1(),(H)0 in « hours. All primed 
 cartridges, rim and center tire, can be broken up by 
 
 turns the bag wrong side out and cleans it. The 
 
 strajiped shot are taken to the door of Ihe labora- 
 tory, where Ihe shot which still require cleaning are 
 sep.'irated from their sabots and immersed in Ihe 
 tub of water; after .standing some time they are 
 washed and cleaned; the others remain strapped. 
 The serviceable, reparable, and unserviceable car- 
 tridge-bags are separated from each other; Ihe last 
 are immersed in water and used for rags; Ihe i)ieces 
 of twine are tied up in bundles; Ihe shells arc put 
 a.side to lie uidoaded and cleaned in a like manner. 
 
 The breaking up of fixed ammunition requires 
 many precautions, and should never be done in Ihe 
 magazine, but as much as ]H)ssil)le in the open air. 
 Never have but little i)owiler and a few cartriilges in 
 the shop at one time. 
 
 Cit It isters.— Turn up the .slit ends of Ihe canisters 
 by means of a small chisel; take off the cover and 
 pull out the balls and sawdust into a Ixjx by means 
 of a hook; take out the bottom plate and straighten 
 the cylinder with a mallet on an an\il. 
 
 /'(>(•^/i;r.v— Split the |iapcr; take out Ihe com- 
 position, and iiulverize il by rolling for two hours. 
 It may be made to burn more or less quickly by add- 
 ing mealed powder or sulphur. 
 
 Rear View. 
 
 the above process. The flring-ends of the bolts 
 shoidd be pointed for the latter. Of course the 
 larger the cartridge the more necessary it would be to 
 have Ihe box larger and stronger. 
 
 An improvement is contemplated for the purjiose 
 f)f preventing the pieces of copper from droi>))ing 
 among Ihe bullets. This impro\emcnt would neces- 
 sitate the enlargement of the Ikix, and instead of one 
 drawer Ihree would be required. The box would be 
 partitioned off lengthwise into three compartments, 
 the top edges of the two center partitions to be about 
 •2 inches below the points of Ihe bullets as they hang 
 in Ihe magazine. The pieces of copper always strike 
 the cover and fly towards the front and back of the 
 box, and would eonstquenlly drop down the side 
 compartments, the bullets dropping down the center 
 one. 
 
 BnE.\KiNn UP Uk9ervice.\ble Stokks. 
 
 FiJ-ed Amrnunition for Cannon.— \ paulin; 1 box; 
 2 baiTcls; 1 knife; 2 brushes; 1 punch; 1 hammer; 
 1 .scraiwr; low; a tidj half full of water, to clean 
 Ihe balls; stools. 
 
 One man holds Ihe cartridge over Ihe Iwx, while 
 another cuts the twine near the knot, lakes off the 
 strapped shot, brushes il, and stands il on the pau- 
 lin on its sjd)Ot; ihe first man pours the good jiow- 
 der into a barrel, Ihe caked jiowder into another, 
 
 End View. 
 
 Unloading SpnERic.\i, Case and Shells — Bor- 
 M.^A-N Fuse. 
 
 The fi.xtures consist of tables, protector, water-boxes, 
 drill-presses, drill-braces, drills, etc., as shown in the 
 drawing. The tnbk on which the protector is |)laced 
 is about 3 feet high, an<l is necessarily hea\y, the top 
 being 6 feet long, 21 feet wide, and 3 or" 4 inches 
 thick. The protector is composed of. iron; Ihe lx>t- 
 tom and toi) plates have bent ends, 4J feet long and 
 13 inches wide. Near each end, leaving space 
 enough between them and the bent ends for the ad- 
 mission of the end plates, two 1 inch bolt-holes are 
 drilled; and 1« inches from each of these, towards 
 the center, corresponding-sized holes are drilled, mak- 
 ing eight Ixilt-holes in each plate. These holes are 
 extended through the t:ible. The bottom plate is 
 laid on the table, l)enl ends up, and its front edge 
 flush with the front edge of Ihe table; the end plates 
 (18 inches long, 12 inches high) are .set edgewise on 
 the bottom plate against the bent ends; the top plate 
 is laid on, bent ends downward. The bolls are 
 pa.s.sed throtigh from l)enealh Ihe table, thread-end 
 upwani, Ihe nuts are adjusted and .screwed down to 
 keep the plates together,' and Ihe middle or parlilion- 
 plates are fixed in jiosition. Two jiartilioii-plates 
 are necessary in consequence of the front plate having 
 a hole in the center, a partition being placed each
 
 BKEAST-HEIGHT. 
 
 229 
 
 BEEECH-INSEETION. 
 
 side of the hole. Three compiirtnienls are thus 
 formed in the jtrotector, l)ut the middle one beiujif I 
 usele:is is tilled iu with a block ol' wood. A hole If 
 inch in dianutcr is drilled tliroiiirli the loj) i)late over i 
 the center of each of the working conipartinents for 
 the entrance of the drills. The lower edge of the 
 front i)late rests on wooden siipijoils; the upper 
 cdire ]>rojects abovit 1 inch above the surface of the 
 to]) plate; it is held in position by four braces, one 
 lower and one upper, at each end. The outer ends 
 of the braces are boltetl to the corners of the plate, 
 and the inner ends are clamped together by means 
 of a screw-bolt and nut; the l)olt pas.sing through 
 the table and bolt-braees. The iruter-lmxes are 
 made strong, about T inches deep. They are 16 
 inches long and 10 inches wide, outside measure- 
 ment. The ends are 4 or fi inches thick. Hav- 
 ing the box in the same po.sition in its compart- 
 ment every time it is replaced is essential; and for 
 this purpose strips are made fast to the botlcmi jilate 
 to serve as guiiles for the bo.x to slide between. The 
 dnll-jinsiii'x are fixed to the .table at each end of the 
 protector anil have sliding arms. The thread-end of 
 the perpenilicular bar passes through the table, and 
 by means of a nut is tirmly fastened. The sliding 
 aims have set-screws, one to make it fast to the per- 
 pend i<ular bar, and one at the other end to press on 
 the drill brace. The press is so attached to the table 
 that the points of the set-screws are in a direct line 
 above the drill-holes in the top plate. The drill- 
 /)mcej< are iron; one end having a socket for the drill, 
 and the other end is countersunk for the point of the 
 set -screw. Tim flrilln are steel and are about 10 inches 
 long; the small ones are i inch wide at the drill-end 
 and pointed; the large ones are If inch wide and 
 i inch thick at the drill-end. The blade has a round 
 l)lunt point projecting trom its center, and is straight 
 each side of the point, with slijrhtly beveled opposite 
 eilges. A smaller table is used in the operation of 
 removing the iron plugs, the water-box for this pur- 
 pose being screwed fast to the surface of the table; a 
 small iron wrench with two teeth to tit the holes in 
 the plug is used. A bench-vise should be attached 
 lo this table. A small haiul-punch, monkey-wrench, 
 heavy riveting-hammer, and a small 1-ineh cold- 
 chisel are neces.sary tools. A tub or iron |)ot to hold 
 water, in which to place the shells after having the 
 plugs removed, is used. When coies/iot are being 
 unloaded, a heavy hand-hammer is needed to strike 
 the shell on the outside so as to crack the casing in- 
 side. 
 
 All xp/irrual pnrjectUe^ can 1)e unloaded by the 
 above plain; and if the following directions are care- 
 fully followed explosions cannot po.ssibly occur: 
 
 First. Fl.t the shell tirmly by means of a W(M)den 
 wedge in the water-box. Be sure that the ijuantity 
 of water in the box is sufficient to cover the fuse; 
 then slide the box in its compartment in the protector 
 so that the location of the fuse is in a direct line be- 
 neath the drill hole. 
 
 Second. I'lace the point of the small drill on the 
 center of the fuse, and set the other end into the 
 socket of the brace, lower the brace on the drill to 
 avoid displacing the point; bore the hole through the 
 fuse and iron plug, if a Bormann fuse; remove the 
 drill and work the water into the powder with a 
 brass wire; set the large drill in the same manner as 
 the small one, and remove enough of the fuse lo >m- 
 cover the entire surface of the iron jilug; remove the 
 shell from the box and put in the water-'ub. 
 
 Third. The .shell is taken from the tub by another 
 operator, who secures it in the fixed water-box, and 
 with the cold-chisel cut.s through one side of the 
 fuse; he then strikes one end of the ring at the cut 
 and drives it in toward the center of the iron phur; 
 this will detach it from the thread of the shell. 
 With the toothed wrench extract the iron plug. The 
 shell is rejilaced in the tub from whence it is subse- 
 (juently taken and the powder removed. 
 
 Three men can unload from 100 to 115 shells, 
 
 Bormann fuse, in 8 hours; and four men can unload 
 the same number ol case in the same lime. Sec 
 Aiiiniiinitio)!. 
 
 BEEAST-HEIGHT.— The inUrioriilotic in forlifica- 
 tion, sometimes called the brta^l-hiiijlit, is the part 
 against which the a.ssailed natundly lean in the act 
 of tiling. It has usually a slopeof three l)eri>en- 
 dicular lo one bsi-se. This is a result of ex|x;rience, 
 being the most con\enient one for a soldier leaning 
 forward to tire over the parapet. See Fkld-fortifi- 
 catiint. 
 
 BEEAST LINE.— The rope connecting the pontons 
 of a military 1)ridge in a straight direction. 
 
 BEEASTPLATE.— In ancieiit armor, a phileof iron, 
 steel, or other metal, so fastened as lo prolecl the 
 chest or front of the wearer. The back-plate, in like 
 maimer, was worn to protect him from attack from 
 behind. In modern European annics, almost the only 
 representative of the breastplate is the front half of 
 the <•'//;•««.*, worn by the ctiirnsKkrs in certain foreign 
 Stales, and by the Household Cavalry (Lifeguards 
 and Horse-guards) in England. 
 
 BEEASTWOEK.— In fortitication, a hastily con- 
 si rueted earthwork ; not so high as to need a Ixinguelte 
 for the defenders to stand u|ion, but sutlicient to af- 
 fonl shelter when they are standing on the level of the 
 ground and tiring over the crest. The dry ditch or 
 trench from which the earth has been taken to form 
 the breastwork affords an additional defense. A 
 breastwork is midway between a parapet and an 
 epa It It' me til in size and importance. 
 
 BEEECH.— The mass of solid metal behind the 
 bottom of the bore of a gun extending to the rear of 
 the base-ring. The base of the breech is a frastum of 
 a cone or spherical segment in rear of the breech. 
 The excess of metal at the breech is to enable the gun 
 to withstand the shock occasioned by the explosion 
 of the gunpowder. Small-arms have also an increase 
 of metal at the breech. See Canium. 
 
 BBEECHBLOCK.— A movable piece at the breech 
 of a breech-loading gun, which is withdrawn for the 
 insertion of a cartridge and closed before tiring, to re- 
 ceive the impact of the recoil. This is the great 
 problem of the breech loading gim. There are at 
 least one hundred species of breech-blocks, cla.ssitied 
 according to the mode of moving the block relativel.v 
 to the barrel, or the barrel to the block. See Spring- 
 Hell/ Rip. 
 
 BEEECH - CASING. — A component part of most 
 machine-guns. It is usually a hollow cylinder, ex- 
 tending from the front end of the lock-cylinder to the 
 rear portion of the frame. Flanges on its sides rest 
 on and are screwed to the frame ; near the rear end 
 is a partition called the eliupfir<ir/m-plaU\ which di- 
 vides the cylinder into two parts and separates the 
 lock - cylinder and revolving -gear. In the forward 
 division are placed the cams for forcing forward 
 and drawing back the locks. See Qatling Qun. 
 
 BEEECHING. — 1. The breeching of a gun or car- 
 roiiade is a strong rope by which the recoil of Hie 
 gun is cheeked at such a i)oiut that the muzzle is 
 brought wholly within the port-hole, where the sea- 
 men can sjxinge and reload it. 2. Harness adapted to 
 the wheel-horses of gun-carriages, near and off, for 
 the purpose of facilitating the slopping of a gun in 
 motion. Bnechings, near and off, are strengthened 
 with a lav of leather. 
 
 BEEECH-INSEETION.— The difficulties of securing 
 perfect weldings in coiled wroughl-iron tubes have 
 led in some instances, in the history of the emiiloy- 
 ment of linings conslmeled in the manner and on the 
 present plan of muzzle-insertion, lo the development 
 of grave accidents in ser\ice, tubes being blown out 
 and the muzzles torn off, all from defective welds. 
 The most satisfactorv and secure remcdj for this 
 imperfection undoubtedlv lies in the provision of a 
 shoulder on the tube (in front of the charge), the gun 
 being reces.scd for it.s reception. An otherwise strong 
 and durable construction, emlxwlying this feature, 
 must accordingly have an important advantage over
 
 BK££CH-LOAO£R. 
 
 23U 
 
 BREECHLOADEE. 
 
 the present plan of muzzle-insertion, in which no 
 adecimile provision cun be made to prevent the de- 
 structive effects of a tulie beini; blown out. This 
 accident is likely to occur if all the welds are not 
 sound— a perfection which it is imiKissible, from the 
 nature of the construction of coiled wrouirht-iron 
 tubes, to uniformly and certainly attain. Tlie uni- 
 form success of our pre.si'nt j;uns is in a measure due 
 to excellence of work and care in manufacture; but 
 it is e\ident that a decided improvement attains, if 
 ■we can have perfect immunity from the defect alluded 
 to above, while securiufj a perfectly reliable construc- 
 tion in other res|K'Cts. A consideration of the ques- 
 tion has led to the construction of a gun on an im- 
 proved plan of hietcliiiigertioii, having, it Is believed, 
 more durability than the present plan of muzzle in- 
 sertion, and securing the other advantages above 
 quoted. The imperfections of breech-insertion, in 
 alterations heretofore made, have arisen from the 
 mode of construction employed, to wit, separating 
 the breech-plug from the strengthening tube shrunk 
 on the inner tube or lining; also from the solid con- 
 struction of the plug. The throwing of the entire 
 longitudinal strain on to a breech plug by depriving 
 it of all assistance from the longitudinal strength of 
 the enveloping jacket produces a line of longitudinal 
 ■weakness at the junction of the tube and plug, where 
 the longitudinal anil tangential strains, under lire, 
 combine to produce rupture. This fact is well estab- 
 lished by experiments in England. 
 
 In the construction under consideration, the jacket 
 is shrimk on the tube, and extends continuously with 
 
 tion of the general features of the construction. It 
 will be seen that the jacket (I..') inch thick) extends to 
 the front a distance of about 40 inches from the bot- 
 tom of the bore, thus reinforcing the inner tube 
 (1.2.J inch thick) to a greater length thiin in the case of 
 the B tulx's of the present constructions, and con- 
 sequently fully strcngthcnhig it over all the space 
 where the pressures are at all dangerous. 
 
 The drawing reiireseuts a 10-inch Hodman smooth- 
 bore gun, with its lining inserted from the breech. 
 The giui is es.scntially composeil of three l)arts: (A) 
 the original 10-inch smooth-bore, bored out to receive 
 the lining; (B) a lining tube of coiled wrought-iron 
 (welded), with a jacket (C) of wrought-iron with its 
 hollow base or plug extending to the face of the 
 breech; and the breechplug (I)). The bottom of the 
 tube is closed by a wrought-iron ba.sc or cup (F). A 
 shovilder, on the inner tube, prevents the tulx? from 
 being thrust forward by the effects of repeated fir- 
 ings, or blown out from imperfect coil-welds. A 
 screw collar, K, at the nuizzle, gives additional .secur- 
 ity, resisting any forward thrust of the metal of the 
 tiibe in front of the shoulders. It will be seen that 
 the play between the cast-iron body and tube and 
 jacket "does not exceed .01 inch for a length of 88 
 inches from the muzzle, nor .004 inch from this 
 point to the commencement of the screw-thread. 
 The greatest diameter of the tube and jacket is 14.7 
 inches. The diameter of the tulx- from the muzzle- 
 collar to the first shoulder is 10..") inches. The ma.xi- 
 inimi thickness of the tube and jacket Is therefore 
 3.35 inches, and the minimum thickness of the tube Is 
 
 Ten-inch Rodman Smooth-bore Gun, with Lining inserted from the Breech. 
 
 n uniform thickness from a point a short distance in I 
 front of the trunnions to the breech-cup of the inner 
 lube, and thence, with an increased thickness, clear 
 through the brcccli to its face. This unbi'oken con- 
 tinuity, and the yielding, hollow, wrought-iron l)reech 
 Urns formed, give all the strength desirable at the 
 bottom of the bore to resist the combined longitudinal 
 and tangential strains at that point; and the breech 
 portion of the jacket, by its hollow form being per- 
 mitted to expanil in unison with the tube ■when the 
 latter is distended under the strains of discharge, 
 avoids the danger of rupture liable lo result from the 
 rigidity of a solid, imyielding breech. A square-cut 
 plus thread cut on the breech portion of the jacket 
 corresponds with a minus thread <u1 on the cast-iron, 
 each to form the union of one with the other. The 
 area of cross-section of the wrought-iron is such as to 
 have its strength pioijortional lo the strength of the 
 thread on the cast-iron, reference being had to the 
 relative strength of the two metals. The breech por- 
 tion of the jacket, it will be observed, is so constructed 
 as to overlap the bottoTU of the tube and the exterior 
 portion of its cnii. The longitudinal thrust con- 
 sequently is, at this ])oint, princi))ally borne by the 
 wrought-iron jacket, and not by the sj'condarv 
 breech plug, simply used to close the holliiw jiart of 
 the former. By these arrangements, I he greatest re- 
 sistance is secured to longitudinal strains. A breech- 
 plug of ca.st-iron completes the construction of the 
 breech. The inner tulw, nhouMered and closed at 
 the bottom in the usual maimer, completes the men- 
 
 1.2.5 inches. The rifling of the gun consists of 15 
 lands and grooves, each of ecjual width. 
 
 Width of lands and grooves.' 8377 inch 
 
 Depth of grooves 075 
 
 Twist uniform, one turn in 40 feet. The rifling 
 stops at a point 10 inches from the bottom of the 
 bore, and the diameter of the unrifled portion of the 
 bore is equal to that of the rifled ]iortion across lands. 
 The old vent is closed (the copijcr l)usliing haN-ing 
 been removed) by a wro\ightiron screw plug, and 
 2.75 inches nearer the muzzle a new one was Ijored, 
 parallel to the vertical plane through the axis of the 
 bore, and distant therefrom '^.50 inches. The axis of 
 the vent enters the bore at 3.5 inches from the bot- 
 tom See Cimrcrted Guns i\n(\ Ordnance. 
 
 BREECH LOADER.— A fire-arm that receives its 
 load at the breech. Breech-loading small-arms of the 
 new system may be divided into simple brirrh-lmiders 
 and repiiitirs. The i)rincipal jiarts iieculiar to the 
 former are: 1st. The moiyihle hricdi-blork, by which 
 the chamber is opened and dosed; 2d. The breech- 
 fronit' upon which the breech-block is moiuited and 
 united lo the barrel; 3d. The chambtr. with its 
 counterl>i)red recess, to receive the rim of the cart- 
 ridge; 4th. Thvjirinr/-piii, which transmits the blow 
 of the hammer to the priming of the cartridge; 5th. 
 The ritr(ictm\ by which the cmiXy case is removed 
 after firing. In addition to these parts, the repeater 
 has a magazine attatched to it to contain a certain
 
 BBEECH LOASEB. 
 
 231 
 
 BREECH LOADEB. 
 
 number of cartridges, which are successively brought 
 into the chamber by peculiar mechnnism. 
 
 The foregoing-named parts may be said to be 
 essential to all breech-loading arms in which the 
 metallic cartridge is used; the ditferent ways in 
 which they are combined mark the different systems 
 now in vogue. These coml)inali«)ns have reference 
 cliietly to the modes of operating and locking tbe 
 breecb-block. The breech-block may Ik? ojx'rated 
 in two waj's: 1st, by rolatiuii, where it swings on a 
 hinge; 2d, l)y ulldiiiff, where it moves in grooves. 
 The fonner mode is generally to be preferred, as the 
 rubbing surfaces are small, and the iiower is ap- 
 plied at the end of a lever: in the siune way that it is 
 easier to close a hinged door than a sliding one. In 
 the rotjiting breech-block, the position of the hinge 
 has an important influence on the facility of operat- 
 
 slide. There is another system, however, in which 
 the breech is opened by mo\-ing the barrel. This 
 system is better adapted to sporting than to militarj' 
 guns. 
 
 The following are among the more important 
 conditions to be fultilled in constructing a breech- 
 loading gun of the new .system, vi/..: 1st. The 
 strength and imion of tbe parts should be such as 
 not only to resist repeated discharges, l)ut the t)urst- 
 ing of a cartridge-case, which sometimes occurs 
 from defective material or workmanship. 2d. The 
 locking of the breech-block should not only he 
 secure, l)ut all the part.s by which it is effected should 
 work freely — without sticking. ;ld. The parts 
 should be so ananged that the hammer cannot strike 
 the firing-pin until the breech-block is i)roperly 
 locked. 4th. The piece should not be carried 
 
 ft 
 
 FiG.l. 
 
 Fio. 
 
 ing the block, inserting the cartridge and -n-ithdraw- | 
 ing the emiity shell, and the most suitable position is 
 deemed to be in front of the center of the block. In 
 this ca.se the motion of opening and closing the block | 
 is natural and easy, the cartridge is pushed into its 
 place bv the block, and a very simple retractor serves j 
 to withdraw the empty shellafter firing. The Allin ; 
 (Springfield altered), "Berdan. Millbank, Lamson, 
 Kenungton, Laidlev, and others belong to this class. | 
 In the last two named the hinge is below, in the i 
 others it is above, the a.xis of the block. In the Sni- I 
 der (Enfield altered), Warner, Maynard, and others 
 the hinge is on the side of the block; while in the 
 Peabody, Roberts, and othei-s it is in rear. In the 
 Prussian Needle, the French Chassepot, Root, ileigs. 
 Sharp, and other guns the breech-block is made to 
 
 FlQ. 3. 
 
 loaded with the hammer resting on the firing-pin. 
 oth. Avoid, if possible, the necessity of bringing the 
 hammer to the full cock in order to unlock the 
 breech-block. 6th. The working parts should, as 
 far as possible, be covered from dust and water. 
 7th. The extractor should be so arranged as to re- 
 quire no cuts or openings in that part of the cham- 
 ber which surrounds the body of the cartridge-case. 
 In relation to muskets and fowling-pieces, Mr. 
 Greener, of Birmingham, who has written much on 
 the subject, disputes the usefulness of breech-load- 
 ing; he denies that it is more safe, more accunite, or 
 more forcible than muzzle-loading; while certain 
 advantages which it niav possess are. he thinks, 
 counterbalanced by the greater cost of the weapon. 
 The relative merits of breech- and muzzle-loading
 
 BR££CH LOADING CANNON. 
 
 232 
 
 BREECH MECHANISM. 
 
 fowlinir-pieces were tested in 1859-60 by various 
 trials, uudcr the luanairenient of the editor of The 
 Fiehl, and resulted in favor of the breeeh-loaders. 
 The deniaml fur the latter has. in eonse(iuenec, 
 enornKiusly inriejusetl. The drawinij illustrates tlie 
 Fox hreeeii-loadiiiijj Kun, one of the most s;itisfaclorv 
 arms yet inventeil. Fig. I shows the ]Hisitioii 
 when about to detaeh the barrels: Fig. IS, «hen 
 about to attaeh the barrels; and Fig. 2 shows the 
 stoek and barrel apart. The various breech-aetions 
 and distinguishing features are notieed in various 
 parts of the Encyelopedia, in eoiuiection with cer- 
 tain kinds of ordnance and small-arms expres.sly con- 
 structed on the l)reeeh- loading principle. 
 
 The introduction of breecii-loailers in the United 
 Slates dates properly from 18().5, from wliich date 
 muzzleloading arms were no longer manufactured 
 at the Springlield Armory. A short time Ixfore the 
 late Rebellion, the Government tested a number of 
 breech-loading guns, such as the Burnside. C'osmo- 
 politan, Gallagher, Joslyn, Merrill. Maynard, Smith, 
 Lindner, and Sharp. None of these are now used 
 except the Sharp gun, which has been adapted to 
 the metallic cartridge. During the war the Spencer 
 rille was much used by the L. S. cavalry; it has a 
 magazine in the butt of the stock, holding 7 car- 
 triiiges that are admitted one at a time by the move- 
 ment of the trigger-guard used as a lever. The 
 shell of an exploded cartridge is expelled by the 
 same movement. It may be used also as a single 
 breech-loader, but the magazine must first be shut 
 otT. The Ilenrj- gun (not to be mistaken for the 
 Martini-Henry) has the magazine under the barrel. 
 By inovemeiits of the lever IT metallic cases or 
 cartridges can be brought into the chamber in suc- 
 cession. This gun, like the Silencer, can be used as 
 a single breech-loader by shutting off the magazine. 
 It has been changed, however, by (). F. Winchester, 
 and is now termed the Winchester gim. Among 
 other magjizine-gTins may be mentioned the Ball, 
 Fogarty, and Gardner guiis. The well-known Rem- 
 ington gun is a .single breech-loader, and has an iron 
 receiver that is .screwed to the breech of the barrel, 
 in which the breech-block and lock are to be found. 
 It uses metallic-cased cartridges, and has been 
 adopted by the Governments of Egypt, Spain, and 
 several other countries. 
 
 In 1866 the Secretary of War called a Board of 
 Officers, General Hancock acting as President, to 
 report the form and calil)er which should be adopted 
 for breech-loading muskets and carl)ines, and the 
 method of converting muskets from nuizzle-loading 
 to breech-loading arms. After an examination of 'H 
 different breech-loading muskets and IT different 
 breech-loading carbines, the Board reporteil the best 
 caliber for miiskets to be .45 of an inch, the best 
 charge of powdei- from 65 to TO grains, and the best 
 weight of ball from 480 to 500 grains. In 186i>, a 
 Board of Officers, presided over by General Sclio- 
 tield, was called to meet at St. Louis to select the six 
 best patterns of muskets for infantry and carl)iues 
 for cavalry. After examining a great nundjcr of 
 dllTerent breech-loaders, they reported that the only 
 guns suitable for military .service were those of the 
 Remington, Springfield, and Sharp systems. These 
 guns were tried accordingly until 18T2, when, in 
 compliance with an Act of Congress, a Board of Otfl- 
 cers. General A. II. Terry as President, was ap- 
 ]K)inted to nieil in Ni-w York and Siuingfleld, "to 
 recommend a bieecli-li>ading system for muskets and 
 carbines to be adopted for the military service, which 
 system, when so adopted, shall be the only one to be 
 used bv the Ordnance Dejiartment in the manufac- 
 ture of muskets and carbines for the military ser- 
 vice." After testing over lOU breech-loading guns, 
 the Board reconunended (.May, 18T;i) that the S|iriiig 
 field breech-loading system be adciplcd f(jr military 
 service, and this report being aipproved, tliat system 
 is now used by the Government for the I'. S. anny 
 and militia. This breech-loader has u receivei 
 
 .screwed to the breech of the barrel. The shell of 
 the exploded cartridge is ejected by a combine<l cam 
 and spring through a motion of the hinge in the 
 opening of the breech-block. The fiiiug-|)in goes 
 through the breech-block in an inclined direction 
 from the nos<' of the hammer at the side to the center 
 of the rear of the (handier, w here it strikes the heail 
 of the cartridge, exploding the fulnunate when its 
 rear end is struck by the hammer. See Spriugfidd 
 Hijte. 
 
 BSEECH-LOADING CANNON. — Intimately con- 
 necteil willi tlie suliji'ct of the different systems of 
 rifling is that of the advantages and disjidvantages of 
 breech-loading for camion. There are strong argu- 
 ments lx)lh for and against the use of the breech- 
 loaders — .some nations using them altogether, and 
 others not at all. A jirinciiial advantage claimed for 
 the breech-loading ginis is lapidity of fire, but the re- 
 sult does not seem to have been attained in the large 
 guns. The gun can be loaded when run out, with- 
 out exposing the men, antl worked in a smaller space 
 by limiting the recoil. Any igiuted substance left in 
 the bore can lie seen and removed; and there is no 
 danger of the jjrojectile not being home. The breech- 
 loading gun may be made longer, occasionally, which 
 is a great advantage where there is difficulty in burn- 
 ing the powder; moreover, a large powder-chamber 
 may beemployed for the better burumg of the charge. 
 The advantages of the compressive system of rifling 
 may be claimed in favor of breech-loading. 
 
 'fhc breech-loading cannon is heavier and more ex- 
 pensive than one loading at the muzzle. There are 
 more parts to be damaged. In heavy guns, far from 
 there being any increased facility in loading, consid- 
 erable force has to be used and applied in a very 
 careful way to the breech-closing apparatus, or the 
 gun may be rendered temporarily unserviceable. 
 Escape of gas, fouling or corrosion of the closing 
 surfaces, and injury to the delicate Broadwell ring or 
 gas-check, are among the contingencies that may arise 
 in service. Much additional labor and outlay are re- 
 quired to construct and fit up interchangeable hollow 
 screws or sliding stoppers; to fit and renew gas- 
 checks; to apjily opeinng and closing apparatus, 
 which caimot lie very sim|)le, liut which must be very 
 strong and ilurable; to faliricale, keep clean, and 
 tnaintain all these parts on such a plan that two or 
 three men can manipidate them with ea.se and cer- 
 tainty, and without unusual risk of disaster from ex- 
 citement or carelessness; and of such .size and strength 
 that the heaviest iirojectiles can be tired, with large 
 charges of powder. 
 
 The adoi)lion of a system of working and loading 
 guns by hydraulic power must have an importaTit 
 bearing u]iim the question of the comparative merits 
 of breech and nuizzle-loaders. One of the chief ad- 
 vantages claimed for breech-loaders isthat any length 
 of bore can be adojited without increa.sing the diffi- 
 culty of loading, and that therefore a higher duty 
 tan be obtained from the powder. It has also been 
 urged that a gun of larger size can be worked in a 
 given turret as a breech-loader. Successful mechani- 
 cal methods for loading at the muzzle would seem to 
 negative these advantages. The stippression of wind- 
 age and the power of placing the vent in the breech- 
 block are important advantages claimed for breech- 
 loaders. The \cnt is a serious trouble in very heavj- 
 guns, from its rt\y>U\ erosion by the gases of discharge. 
 But it is claimed that the windage can be elfeclually 
 suppresseil in many muzzle-loading systems of rifling 
 and pnijeeliles, and an arrangement has been devised 
 for stopping altogether the jias.sage of gas through 
 the vent, thus removing the difficulty of its erosion. 
 See Onhinncf. 
 
 BREECH MECHANISM.— The mechanism used for 
 opening and closing the liieech of a fire-arm and se- 
 curing it against tlii' escape of Ihega.s. In small arms 
 this is readily accomplished. The use of the metallii: 
 cartridge-case renders any siwcial gas-check unneces- 
 sary, OS the case itself by being exi)ai}ded against the
 
 BB££CH PIECE. 
 
 283 
 
 BEEOES CHRONOGRAPH. 
 
 ■walls of the chamber serves the purpose. The vari- 
 ous mechanisms used in small-arms have heeii cla.ssi- 
 tied as foUows: Isl. Fi.\etl chamlier; 2(1. Movable 
 chamber. The second class is now obsolete. The 
 tixed-ehamber class is subdivided into — 1st. Barrel 
 moves; 2d. Breech-block moves. The tirst cla,ss 
 comprises many of the shotguns in use; the second, 
 the l>est known of military arms. Under this latter 
 clas-s are the following sulxiivisions: 1st. Sliding 
 block; 2d. Sliding and rotating; 'M. Rotating about 
 an a.vis. We find excellent guns under each of these 
 classes, which are further subdivided as to the direc- 
 tion of the motions. The Sharp may be taken as 
 typical of the first of these classes, the Hotchkiss 
 magazine-gun of the second, ami the Springfield of 
 the thiid. A similar cla.ssification may he made for 
 breech-loading devices in heavy orilnance, but the 
 pioblem here is not so simple. The pressure is much 
 greater, the ma.ssi'S of metal much larger, and the 
 cartridge must be used without a ca.se to check the 
 gas. Breech-loaders were im|)0ssible imtil the prob- 
 lem of checking the gas had been solved. Tlie in- 
 ventor of the first successful ga.s-check was an Ameri- 
 can, L. W. Broadwell, now residing abroad. The 
 term " Broadwell ring" has been applied to all .simi- 
 lar devices. This is a steel ring which tits in a recess 
 reamed out in the rear of the chamlKir and abutting 
 upon the brcech-lilock. The inside of the ring is so 
 shaped as to l)e pressed by the gas outward and 
 backward, thus closing both the space outside the 
 ring and between it and the block. Broadwell is also 
 the inventor of a breech mechanism which, with a 
 few modifications, is that \ised by Krupp for all 
 of his guns. The breech-block slides horizontally 
 through a rectangular slot in rear of the chamber. In 
 the Armstrong l3reech-loader, the block called the 
 vent-piece is taken out and put iu through a rectangu- 
 lar orifice on the top of the gun. It is locked in place 
 by a hollow breech-screw. The French vise a breech- 
 screw with the threads cut away in longitudinal row s. 
 The female screw being similarly arranged, a very 
 smidl rotation enables it to be entirely withdrawn. 
 Among American devices are Thompson's, a breech- 
 block which rolls to the side and opens or closes the 
 bore: Sutcliffe's, a cylindrical block, with its axis 
 parallel to the one hanging on a pin inojecting from 
 the front perijjhery of the hollow screw. — the l>lock is 
 raised and locked by turning the screw, and falls into 
 a recess below when the screw is half turned back: 
 Mann's, in which the gun rotates upward about the 
 trunnions .something like a shotgun: and many 
 others. 
 
 BREECH PIECE. — A solid forging of wrought-iron. 
 It is l)oied, turned, and shrimk on to one end of the 
 barrel. The breech-piece of the larger natures is 
 welded to the coil in front of it. 
 
 BREECH-PIN. — A plug screwed into the rear end 
 of a barrel, forming the bottom of the charge-cham- 
 ber. It is frequently called a breech-plug or breerh- 
 screir. See Bhink. 
 
 BREECH-SCREW. — A screw comiiosed of a body, 
 tenon, and tang, em]iloyed to close the bottom of the 
 bore. The screw usually fits into the thread cut in 
 the breech-piece, and is worked forward or back- 
 ward by the lever and tappet so as to press home or 
 release "the vent-i)ieee. If is bored hollow to allow of 
 the charge Ix'ing pas.sed through in loading the gun; 
 the dianieter of the hollow is rather larger than that 
 of the jxiwder-ehamber. It is made of steel for 
 20-pdrs. and lower natures of gun, of wrought-iron 
 or steel for 40-pdi-s. , and of wrought-iron faced with 
 steel for the T-ineh guns. See Bmrh-pi k . 
 
 BREECH-SIGHT.— With the exception of mortars, 
 all modern jiieees arc furnished with two sights, a 
 front one and a rear one. These are situated either 
 on the line of vietal, or slightlv to the right of it in a 
 plane parallel to the plane'of tire. The front sight is 
 securely attached t<j the piece by means of a screw, 
 and for the heavier class of guns is over the axis of 
 the trunnions. The rear sight is on the bR-ech, fitting 
 
 into a socket attached to the piece with screws, and 
 when the gun is to be discharged is removed from the 
 socket. For the 10- and 1.5-iiich guns the breech-sight 
 is witliout graduation, and serves merely to give di- 
 rection to the piece, the elevation iK-ing given by 
 mcaas of the ehcatintj-arc, or, when i)ractical)le, with 
 the quadrant applied in the muzzle. 
 
 For siege and Parrott gmis the breech-sights arc 
 graduated to correspond to degrees and parts of de- 
 grees of elevation of the axis of the bfire, and have a 
 slide to move up or down. This slide has a screw- 
 thread cut on one end of it, upo| which works a nut 
 with four short anns; through each of these arms is 
 a small hole for sighting. 'I'he screw ujion the slide 
 is for the purpose of giving lateral motion, when al- 
 lowing for ilrift. Each kind of gun has its particular 
 breech-sight, but, as there are in service manv of old 
 or experimentiil pattern, they should be verified for 
 the particular pieces upon which they are to l)e used. 
 This is done by <lirecting the piece at some well-de- 
 fined point at a distance of 1000 yards or more, and 
 on the same hoiizontal plane with the axis of the 
 trunnions. A straight-edge and spirit-level applied 
 to the face of a trunnion suffice for this operation. 
 Place the slide of the breech-sight at any degree of 
 the gradtiation, and, sighting through it at the object, 
 give the i)iece the corresponding elevation. Insert 
 the gimner's quadrant into the Imre, and a.sccrtain 
 from it the inclination of the axis of the piece. If 
 the reading on the breech-sight corresponds to that of 
 the quadrant, the former is correct. The line of sight 
 pas-*ing through the zero of the breech-sight is ])andlel 
 to the line of fire. 
 
 For 10- and 15-inch guns an cleniliiKj-nrc is used. 
 This consists of a strip of brass attached to the base 
 of the breech parallel to the ratchets. It is graduated 
 into tlegiees and parts of degrees, and a pointer, at- 
 tached to the ratchet-post, indicates the elevation or 
 depression of the piece. AV'heu the jiointer is at zero, 
 the axis of the piece is horizontal. Besides the grad- 
 uation on the arc, the ranges in yards for the ordinary 
 charges for shot and shell are given. In batteries for 
 garrison and sea-coa.st defen.se, where the platforms are 
 fixed, the line of metal may Ix' considered as perma- 
 nent; but with siege-guns, mounted on traveling-car- 
 riages, the wheels are liable to vary in position from 
 unevenness of ground or unequal settling in newly- 
 constructed platfoniis. This line is constantly chang- 
 ing, and approximates the higher wheel in proportion 
 to the ditfcrence of level between the wheels; hence, 
 to secure accuracy of tire, allowance must be made 
 by obser%'ing where the shots strike and correcting 
 the aim accordingly. Deviation from this cause is 
 alwavs towards the side of the lower wheel. 
 
 BREECH-WRENCH. — A wrench employed in turn- 
 ing out the breech-pin of a fire-arm. 
 
 BREGER CHRONOGRAPH.— This apparatus, or a 
 modification of the Le Boulenge chronograph, is 
 intended to measure the interval of time, T, which 
 elapses between the successive ru]itures of two 
 electric cuiTents. It is principally emiiloyed to de- 
 termine the velocity of i>roieetiles. in w hich case two 
 vertical frames are placed in froiU of the gun. on 
 each of which is stretched the conducting wire of 
 one of the two currents. In traversing the frames 
 the projectile cuts the circuits and causi-s the chrono- 
 graph to act. The distance. D, between the frames 
 being known, the mean velocity of the projectile 
 
 during the time, T, is V =: =■ AVhen T is compressed 
 
 iHJtwcen 0'.0.5 and O'.lo the conditions are favorable, 
 although the apparatus may be used to measure a 
 shorter time. 
 
 The chronograph consists of a vertical colunm. to 
 which are affixed two electromagnets; one magnet is 
 actuated l)y the current of the first frame aM<l sup- 
 (lorts an armature called the chronometer; the other 
 is actuated by the current of the second fr;mie and 
 supports an armature called the registrar. The chro-
 
 BS£0£B CHBONOGRAPH. 
 
 234 
 
 BB£6£B CHB0N06BAPH. 
 
 nometer is a long cylindrical brass lube terminating at 
 its upiHT I'Xlri'niity in a piece of .soft iron and bearin" 
 at its lower extri'niily a sleel bob. It is surrounded 
 bv a zinc or copper cylinder calk-d the recorder, 
 "fhe registrar is of the same weight as the chro- 
 nometer, and is a tube with soft iron and bob. The 
 cores of the electro magnets and the soft iron of the 
 arntatures terminate in cones slightly rounded at 
 their vertices in order that the armatures when sus- 
 pended can take a vertical position. When the re^s- 
 trar is set free it strikes a horizontal plate, which 
 turns upon its a.xi^^and releases a s|iring furnished 
 with a square knife, which strikes the recorder and 
 
 Breger Chronograph. 
 
 leaves an indentation upon it. If the two currents 
 be ruptured simultaneously the indentation is found 
 upon the recorder at a "height, h, indicating that 
 since the chronometer commenced to fall the time t 
 
 has elapsed t= i/ — It 's e^^dcnt that t is the 
 
 * a 
 
 time required for the apparatus to operate; it is a 
 systematic retardation iidierent in the instnnnent. 
 A special organ, called the disjunclor. permits the 
 simultaneous niplure of the circuits to be produced, 
 so that the time, /, is always known. A very simple 
 de\ice is resorted to in order to render it constant. 
 
 If the current of the registrar is not rupttired until 
 after that of the chronometer, and if an interval, T, 
 has elapsed between these ruptures, the time during 
 which the chrono'ineter will fall iK'fore receiving the 
 indentation of the knife will simply he augmented by 
 T; and calling H the height of the indentation, we 
 will have 
 
 « + T=V 
 
 2H 
 
 Thus the determination of any interval, T, always 
 comprises two operations: the measurement of the 
 time, t, required for the instrument to operate, and 
 that of the time, t -j- T. The difference of these 
 two measurements gives the time sought. This in- 
 direct method of a.sccrtaining the result is the 
 characteristic of the instrument and explains its 
 accuracy. When the rupture of the currents is 
 produced by the projectile, the portion D of the 
 trajectory between the targets is regarded as recti- 
 linear, and the mean velocity, V, is 
 
 V = 
 
 D 
 
 V2(H-/0 " 
 
 A table may be calculated giving the values of V 
 for different values of D and H. If D, h, and II 
 have been accurately measured and the disjunctor 
 has ruj^tured the currents at precisely the same in- 
 stant, the velocity, V, will l)e subject to no error, 
 ])rovided, however, that the time recjuircd for the 
 operation of the instrument has remained the same at 
 the time of di.sjunclion and of exi>erimcnt. The 
 time necessary for the operation of the instrument is 
 composed, first, of that which elapses from the in- 
 stant the registrar commenced to fall until the blow 
 of the knife is given to the recorder of the chro- 
 nometer, and this first part will necessarily be the 
 s;ime in two successive operations if the element of 
 the recorder which receives the mark falls in the 
 same vertical line. From the instant that the current 
 is ruptured until the armature is free to fall, a time, 6, 
 elapses which is called the retardation of demagnHiia- 
 tioii; therefore 'he time, t. includes also the algebraic 
 difference (< — of the retardation of demagnetiza- 
 tion of the regist^-ar and chronometer; but as both 
 electro-magnets are similarly constructed, as the 
 weights of their armatures and the currents that 
 actuate them are equal, as, in a word, they are in the 
 same magnetic state, the limes and 'i are sensibly 
 equal. In fact, these times do vary with the mode 
 of rupture, and conse(|Uently when a projectile is 
 substituted for the disjimctor, but by liie sjime 
 quantity, as everything remains the same in the two 
 electro-magnetic systems. It will be remarked that 
 it is not necessary that the times ami should 
 be exactly the same, but only that their difference 
 should remain constant in the successive operations 
 in which the instrument is used. The suspension of 
 the armature is effected in the same manner as with 
 the original instrument. In the instrument .supplied 
 to the i'niled States by Mr. Ilotchkiss and constructed 
 I by Mr. Froment, several details have been improved. 
 I 1st. The niagnetshave been jiroviiled with a movable 
 j core, worked by a set-screw and coimler-screw. This 
 I allows a more perfect regulation of the currents than 
 j when the rheostat only is used. 2d. The instrument 
 ! is provided with a spherical spirit-level, which al- 
 ' lows to place it vertically without difficulty. 3d. 
 The knife, trigger, and indexes are all ]>rovided with 
 set-screws, enabling lliem to be ])erfectly and easily 
 adjusted. One of the most important points Ijeing 
 j the constancy of the currents, Mr. Froment has 
 I studied a special modification of the Callot battery 
 for the use of the chronograph. Each battery is 
 actuated by a liattery of forty elements, coupled in 
 four scries of ten. This l)alterv will work for scvcnd 
 months without any perceiitible variation. See Li' 
 lioulengi' C/iroiwgrap/i.
 
 BEEITHAUPT FUSE. 
 
 235 
 
 BRICKS. 
 
 BREITHAUPT FUSE.— This fuse, sometimes called 
 the Field-artillery fuse, resembles the Bormann in its 
 general appearance, and is made of a mixture of tin 
 and lead. The body of it is formed like that of the 
 Bormann; but the outside has no screw, and it is 
 placed in the eye of the shell by means of a projection 
 from the bottom, which is threaded, and winch screws 
 into a corresponding aperture at the Iwltom of the 
 eye. The composition is laid m exactly the same 
 kind of u channel, which communicates with the 
 magazine in a somewhat different way from the Bor- 
 mann fuse. At the top two mortises are placed, in 
 which the prongs of the screw-driver tit when screw- 
 ing or miscrewing the fuse from the shell. In the 
 center is a socket with the thread of a screw to re- 
 ceive the end of the pregsure-screw, which is made of 
 iron. The stopper and regulating disk is cast of the 
 siime kind of metal as the fuse, and has through its 
 center a cylindrical hole for the jwssage of the pres- 
 sure-screw. A small priming-chamber, in the form 
 of a hopper, is placed at the side, one of the lateral 
 projections of which, marked with a red line, serves 
 as an index to regulate it. A small projection on its 
 surface gives a hold to the linger to turn the disk on 
 its axis, in order to bring the index opposite the re- 
 quired point on the scale of the fuse. A iiiece of 
 pliable leather or skin is jiasted on the under surface 
 of this disk, in order to insure contact throughout 
 and preserve the composition from moisture. The 
 composition is prcs.sed into its jilacc by machinery. 
 It is meal-powder for Shrapnel fuses, but ordinary 
 fuse-composition for the fuses of other shells. In 
 the first case the fuse burns 7 seconds; in the second, 
 14 seconds. The regulating .scale is a rondelle of 
 white paper pasted on the outside upper edge of the 
 fuse. It is made like a dial, with strokes, half- 
 strokes, and (juarter-strokes, radiating from the cen- 
 ter, corresponding to intervals in the combustion 
 equal to 1 second, i second, J second, and i second. 
 The rondellcs are cut with a stamp-iron or punch. 
 Care must be taken in pasting the scale on to make 
 the zero of it coincide with the edge of the solid part 
 where the magazine-vent debouches into the comjio- 
 sition-channel. The priming consists of a small 
 strand of quick-match, bent'double, with the bend 
 tixed in the priming-chamber by means of a paste of 
 meal-powder. The ends are free, so that when the 
 priming is imcapped the ends project outside the lit- 
 tle hopper-shaped chamber. The priming-cap is a 
 small circular-sided trapezoid of gold-beater's skin, 
 ■which is pasleil over the priming-chamber by its four 
 edges to protect the priming as well as the fuse-com- 
 position from dampness. A rontlelle of soft leather 
 is cut out and fitted on the bottom of the fuse around 
 the bottom stem, as a packing to the joint between 
 the shell and fuse. The magazine and vent leading 
 to the fuse-composition axe filled with fine powder, 
 and the bottom closed with a thin sheet of lead, kept 
 in its jilace by four notches; a coat of varnish being 
 given to the outside to keep out moisture. 
 
 It is an improvement to engrave the .scale upon the 
 metal itself instead of placing it on a strip of paper, 
 which in service is liable to be worn or torn off, or 
 the graduation made illegible. This fu.se was in- 
 vented after the Bormann and Baden fu.ses had been 
 extensively adopted by different nations, and the 
 great objection to its' adoption was the extensive 
 changes retiuircd in the ci/e« of the shells already 
 maniifactured. This difficulty was obviated, how- 
 ever, by transforming the Baden into the Breitliaupt 
 fuse bv means of some slight changes which did not 
 affect "the form or exterior dimensions, nor its scale 
 or coin|iositio!i-channel. See Fii»e. 
 
 BREVET.— In the British army, a promotion of 
 officers, now strictly limited in its application, but 
 Ix'fore 18o4 a recognized though occasional mode of 
 conferring a large measure of general promotion 
 throughout the army. It took place under various 
 circumstances. If no special cause interfered, a gen- 
 eral promotion by brevet used in former times to be 
 
 made once in about six years; but in more recent 
 years it was limited to very special occasions, as a 
 coronation, the birth of an heir to tbe throne, the ter- 
 mination of some great war, etc., and was limited to 
 officers who had some particular claim to promotion. 
 The officers so promoted obtained an increase of 
 rank, and in some cases pay, even if they had never 
 served in the field. A brevet was deterniined on by 
 the Cabinet, and carried out by the Commander-in- 
 Chief. The officers expected it, as one of the im- 
 plied conditions on entering the service, and it bad 
 formed part of the British military system ever since 
 the time of .James II.; but it was unsiitisfactory, Ix'- 
 cause the fiow of promotion caused by it was arbi- 
 trary, imcertain, and much liable to idjuse. There 
 were brevets, arismg out of the various circimistances 
 above indicated, in 1837, 1838, 1841, 1846, 18.')1, and 
 1854. On these occa.<?ions, Lieutenant-generals, Ma- 
 jor-generals, Colonels, Lieutenant-colonels, Majors, 
 and Captains received a promotion of one grade in 
 rank. On one of these occasions, 200 Colonels were 
 at once made Major-generals. The higher the rank 
 the higher the pay, as a general nile; and therefore 
 the cost to the nation is always increa.sed for a time 
 after each brevet. Thus the brevet of 1837 occasioned 
 an annual increase of £11,000; that of 1838. £7000; 
 of 1841, £1.5,000; of 1846, £21,000, etc.; but it must 
 not be forgotten that death and sales had in the inter- 
 vals cleared off perhaps an equal number of officers 
 at the higher rates of pay. In 1854 the new Major- 
 generals alone involved an additional charge of 
 £18,000 a year. This description applied before 
 1854. In that year general brevets were abolished, 
 a fixed establishment of General Officers being sub- 
 stituted. The only brevets now are obtained by ser- 
 vice of five years as Lieutenant colonel (making the 
 officer brevet Colonel without increase of jiay); by 
 distinguished service in the field, applicable to Lieu- 
 tenant-colonels, Majors, and Cajitains (carrying the 
 substantive my of the higher rank, except in the case 
 of the Lieutenant-colonel); and by succession, when 
 a death occurs among the establishment of General 
 Officers. In this last ease there is no brevet promo- 
 tion to the rank of Colonel, but the senior Major in 
 the whole army and Maiines becomes a brevet Lieu- 
 tenant-colonel without increase of pay, and the senior 
 Captain a brevet Major with 2«. a day extra. Offi- 
 cers become Major-generals, in accordance with their 
 
 I .seniority as brevet Colonels, and it will be seen, from 
 the above description, that the brevet rank of Colonel, 
 
 j which is the stepping-stone to Major-general, is ob- 
 tainable A.V Si'riiee only. 
 
 ' In the I'nited States army the brevet is a commis- 
 sion giving an officer a nominal rank higher than 
 that for which he has a salaiy. A great lumdx'r of 
 these honorary titles were bestowed during and after 
 the ( ivil War. 
 
 BRICHE. — A machine of war used in ancient times 
 to throw stones; now obsolete. 
 
 BRICKS. — The earliest examples of this branch of 
 the ceramic art were doubtlessjhe sun-dried bricks of 
 Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia. Remarkable to say, 
 many of these, which, "in a northeni climate, the 
 frosts of a single winter would destroy, have lx>cn 
 preserved for some 3000 years by the dry, warm 
 atmosphere of those countries. Sun-ljaked bricks of 
 
 ' ancient date are also found in the mud walls of old 
 towns in India. Kiln-liaked bricks must have been 
 the products of a later time; but they are found in all 
 the chief ruins of ancient Babylonia, where they were 
 often used to face or bind together walls of sun-dried 
 bricks, and occasionallv they were even ornamented 
 with enameled colors. " Burnt bricks were employed 
 in the foundations of the Tower of Babel (Gen. xi. 3). 
 These ancient bricks, whether baked by the sun or by 
 fire, were all made of clav mixed with grass or slniw. 
 The ancient Greeks, probably owing to their ixissess- 
 ing plenlv of stone, cared little for building with 
 burned cliiy; but most of the great ruins in Home are 
 built of brick, and the Romans appear to have intro-
 
 BBICKS. 
 
 236 
 
 BBICKS. 
 
 duced the art into EnsrluiHl. Interesting liistorienl 
 information lias \tevn nlitaini'<l from I lit- imiircssions 
 on Homaii and csiiecially on Babylonian Ipriiks. In 
 many instances the Honian bricks found in Enurland 
 have bwn removed from their oritrinal [wsition, and 
 employi'd in the construction of liuildiiisrs of later 
 date. The earliest instance in which liricks of the 
 modern or Flemish make occur iu England is Little 
 Weidiam Hall, in Suffolk, Vim. 
 
 Clay suitable for the manufacture of common 
 bricks is at\ abundant substance, but there is a great 
 dilTerencc in the nature and ([uality of the clays 
 found in various localities. The basis of clay consist.s 
 of hydnttcd silicate of alumina, with a varying pro- 
 portion of other rainend matters, chicHy free silica 
 (sand), iron, lime, majrnesia, and potash. Great ad- 
 vantasre is derived from digjrinir clay in autumn, and 
 exposing it all winter to the disintegratins action of 
 frt>st. 'Phis is not always attended fo, Init when neg- 
 lected the bricks made from it are apt to be unsound. 
 
 Brick-making Machine. 
 
 and faulty in shape. The next process is that of tem- 
 pering or nuxiug the clay into a homoireneous paste, 
 whicli is s<jnietimes done by the sparle, but more 
 commonly in the pug-mill (at least in England), or 
 by crushing between a pair of rollers; often, indeed, 
 both are employed. In making brick-s by the old 
 hand process, the shape is given by a mold either en- 
 tirely of woo<l, or of wiMid faced with metal, and 
 ■without top or Iwttom. This admits of the clay being 
 ])res.sed into it by a tool called a plane, which is also 
 \ised to producer an even surface on the upper and 
 lower beds of the brick, by working off the su]H,'rtluous 
 clav. Sand is used to part the wet clay from the mold 
 and the table on whicli it rests. 
 
 Allhouirh band-made bricks are still verj' common, 
 yet machinery is now always employed when large 
 (juantities are required. Brick-making machines are 
 of two leading kinds; one chtss of them being con- 
 stnicted to work the clay in a wet plastic stale, the 
 other class requiring it to lie in a semi-dry condition. 
 Of the two sorts, the wet-clay machines are the sim- 
 
 pler, chcj>ix;r, and can be worked by less-skilled 
 workmen. On the other hand, the dry -clay machines, 
 which make the bricks liy forcing the clay into molds 
 by strong pressure, shorten the prcK-ess, as no lime is 
 leiiuired for drying them. The bricks so made, too, 
 are not only of a more perfect shape, but they can be 
 molded into any fonn, and may even be made highly 
 ornamental at a very slight additional cost. 
 
 One of the best-known brick-machines is that 
 which bears the name of the inventor, .Martin, and is 
 represented in the drawing. It is automatic in its 
 conslniction, grinds and tempers its own clay, and is 
 particularly adapted to the working of hard and heavy 
 clay. It docs ils own molding, and delivers the bricl^ 
 in front, ready for the carrier to place them on the 
 yard. The molds are delivered by the ]x»wer of the 
 machine while the press is on; therefore it does not 
 draw up the bri<ks while delivering, but molds them 
 slilfer tliau any other machine, and delivers them with 
 good, square corners and wellKletined edges. The 
 lever connected with the haul-out is arranged with a 
 movable center, held by a friction-pulley, so that, 
 should any stone or hard substance get into the mold, 
 or the moid be in any way obstructed, the lever sim- 
 ply moves forward, gi\ing time to remove it without 
 stopping the machine, aid preventing the breaking of 
 molds or any ])art of the machinery. Then, by raising 
 the small lever connected with the friction-pulley, the 
 center moves back, and the machine operates as be- 
 fore. The capacity of the steam-power machine is 
 4(XK) bricks an hour, and the horsepower 25tX), 
 although in many instances it has largelj' exceeded 
 that number. 
 
 The green bricks, after Ix-ing carefully dried, either 
 in the sun or by artificial heat, are usually baked in a 
 kiln with a suitable arrangement of tires and tlues. 
 Kilns are of many forms, and the time required for 
 firing in them varies from 40 to 60 hours for common 
 red and white bricks, while for some fire-bricks 150 
 hours are neces.s;iry. Where kilns are not used, bricks 
 are burned in clamps, the clay requiring to be mixed 
 tip, in the process of tempering, with a quantity of 
 ground coal sufficient to bum them. A good test of 
 the character of a clay is obtained by the result of 
 tiring. The average contraction in the kiln for [ire- 
 pared clays is Ti per cent. If a brick contracts much 
 more than this, the clay is too fusible; if less, then it 
 is likely to be of an open jwrous body, which retjiins 
 its shape well during the firing process. All brick 
 clays contain iron, and the color of a burned brick 
 almost entirely depends on the amount of it which is 
 present; thus clays containing less than 1 or IS per 
 cent of iron change in the kiln to various .shades of 
 cream-color and buff, whilst those containing more 
 than 2 per cent range in color from yellowish fawn 
 to dark red. Blue bricks arc made from the same 
 clay as the red. by controlling in a peculiar way the 
 supjily of air in firing, and by carrying the heat 
 slightly further. It is asserted by some that the red 
 is changed to the black oxide of iron in the process. 
 Fire-bricks are made from clay as free as possible 
 from oxide of iron and alkaline substances, so that 
 there may be no tendency to fuse in the kiln, however 
 high the heat. Fire-clays are abundant in the coal- 
 measures, some of fine quality being found alK)Ut 
 Newcastle and Glasgow, but the most celebrated is 
 that of Stourbridge, which is exported to all parts of 
 the world. 
 
 Mortar composed of lime and sand is the common 
 cement for brickwork. It should Ix" equallv and care- 
 fully applied; and the bricks wetted, in order that the 
 mortar may ailhere more firmly, by being absorbed 
 into their pores. The force with which g(X)d mortar 
 is capable of adhering to l)ricks is very remarkable. 
 It is found to lie the greatest in old structures that 
 have been exposed to the continuous action of water. 
 Such bricks are Siiid to tx- " water-bound " by work- 
 men, and can s<-arcely be seiiarated without breaking 
 the bricks. A fundamental principle to be rigidly ol) 
 served in laying all kinds of brick is, that no tiro con-
 
 BRICOLE. 
 
 237 
 
 B£IDG£H£ADS. 
 
 tiguous perpendicular joints shall fall immediately be- 
 low each other. The mode of arranjrcment of the 
 l)rick.s to effect tliis is culled the bunil; a layer or 
 stratum of bricks is called a diurse. Bricks laid with 
 their lengths in the direction of the course, and their 
 sides to the wall-face, are called stritchem; those 
 laid across the line of the course, with their ends 
 forming the wall-face, heudera; a layer of headers, a 
 heading coil rx,'; of stretchers, a stretching course. The 
 two kinds of bond almost exclusively used in England 
 are the English and Flemish bond. English bond 
 conMsts of alternate stretching and heading courses; 
 Flemish Ixjnd, of a stretcher and header laid alternately 
 in each course. English bond is the strongest; Flemish 
 bond, the more ornamental; and they are used accord- 
 ingly. There are two other kinds of bond occasional- 
 ly used — herrinji bond and garden-irall bond. The 
 former is applied to form tlie core of thick walls, 
 where Flemish bond is used for the facing. A course 
 of bricks is laid obliquely at an angle of 45 to the 
 face of the wall; then above it another coui'se at the 
 same angle, but inclined in the opposite direction, so 
 that the joints may crot^ the tirst. This is considered 
 to add to the strength of Flemish bond, but is ob- 
 jectionable on account of the triangular interstices 
 neces.s;irily left between the obIi(iue bricks and the 
 bricks of the facing. Garden-wall bond is only used 
 for 9-inch walls, and formed by laying three stretchers 
 and one header, and so on in each course. In order 
 to strengthen Flemish Ixjnd, bands of hoop-iron are 
 sometimes laid flatwise between the courses. This 
 " hoop-iron l)ond " has superseded the old practice of 
 using bond-timbers, which were inserted the whole 
 length of the wall. The hoop-irou should be slightly 
 rusted, to secure the complete adhesion of Ihe mortar. 
 
 In constructing arches of lirickwork much care 
 and skill are required. A wooden centering is always 
 used; and when very rude work only is required, 
 common bricks are laid upon the centering, and the 
 gaping interstices at the upper ends tilled with rough 
 biick wedges. For better work each brick has to be 
 properly iK'veled, according to the curve. When 
 semicircular arches are made, all Ihe bricks require 
 an ei|ual bevel, and therefore bricks molded uniform- 
 ly to the reciuired angle may be used; but for other 
 curves, and for flat arches, each brick has to be separ- 
 ately shaped by the bricklayer. In order to do this, a 
 drawing of the required arch is made of the full size 
 on a board; the bricks are laid upon this side by side, 
 and shaped to Ihe lines of the drawing; they are then 
 transferred to their corresponding place in the struc- 
 ture. The bricks are tirst rudely shai>ed by tlie brick- 
 axe, then finished on the ri/bbinf/st'ote, a piece of 
 rough-grained stotie about twenty inches in diameter. 
 In all kinds of brick, the walls should be built up 
 level throughout, in order that the settlement m;iy be 
 ecpial. An unequal settlement may produce a rupture 
 of Ihe wall. 
 
 BRICOLE. — An improved kind of traces used by Ihe 
 French in drawing and maneuvering artillery; anal- 
 ogous to the old (Irag-rope, but having the addition 
 of a leather strap or girdle with a buckle, to which 
 the drag is afli.xed, aud an iron ring and hook at the 
 end to drag by. 
 
 BRIDGE. — In gimnery, two pieces of timber which 
 go between Ihe two tpansoms of a gtm-earriage. Not 
 useil in the liiited Slates sernce. See Hridf/es. 
 
 BRIDGE CRANE.— Cranes of this tyjie are designed 
 for operation by hand or power. As constructed for 
 general yard-use, a bridge-crane consists of a station- 
 ary bridge, supported at each end by a suitable trestle, 
 and jirovided with a trolley moving transversely on 
 the bridge. The load is carried by a nuuiing block 
 suspended from the trolley, and the mechanism for 
 hoisting and traversing is attached to one of the ver- 
 tical frames or trestles" near its foot. Cranes of this 
 construction are built of capacilies of from 2 to 13 
 tons for operation by hand, and of any desired capa- 
 city for operation by power. There is another foriii 
 of bridge-crane, in "which one end of Ihe bridge Is 
 
 supported by a building and the outer end by a frame 
 
 or trestle, so that Ihe frame is available for transfer- 
 ring weights into or out of the building. In some 
 ca.ses a crane of this type Is placed between two ad- 
 joining buildings, its ends being sujiported by the 
 adjacent walls of each building; while in other casta 
 the bridge of the crane is carried through the door- 
 way of a building, so that the load can be transferred 
 from a truck or car outside of the building to .some 
 point within it. When arranged for operation by 
 hand it is built entirely of iron, and is provided with 
 mechanism substantially identical with thai of Ihe jib- 
 crane, to which reference is made for further ))articu- 
 lars. The sjime mechanism Is utilized for hoisting 
 and lowering at several speeds, and for causing the 
 trolley to travel upon the bridge. When arranged 
 for operation by power the operating mechanism is 
 located within the building, and driven Ijy power 
 taken from the line shafting. The levers for control- 
 ling the several motions are placed upon Ihe wall of 
 the building at any convenient point within, and 
 arranged so that they may be used from either of the 
 several floors. The operating mechanism is substan- 
 tially identical with that employed in the power 
 traveling-cranes. Cranes of this type are available 
 for yard-uses of all kinds in connection with foun- 
 dries, machine-shops, quarries, etc. They are jiarticu- 
 larly available for loading and imloading heavy 
 artillery from cars, and are an excellent substitute for 
 the pillar-crane. As compared with the latter tliey 
 have the advantage of not requiring any foundation 
 except that necessary to resist the direct pressure due 
 to the load. They may be made to span two or more 
 tracks and are thus available for transferring loads 
 from one car to another, or from a car to a truck or 
 platform. See Cranes and Rotary Bridr/e-crane. 
 
 BRIDGE-EQUIFAGE. — The United States bridge- 
 equipage is composed of two distinct trains, — Ihe 
 reserve and the advance trains. The former is intend- 
 ed to accompany large bodies of troo]is in the field, 
 and is provided with th» material for Iheconslrucliou 
 of bridges of sufficient capacity to pass large armies 
 ■with their heaviest trains over rivers of any size and 
 capacity. For these the French ponton is adapted. 
 The advance-guard train is intended for the use 'of 
 light troops, such as advance-guards, cavalry expedi- 
 tions, etc. It is organized, both as regards material 
 and carriages, wiUi a view to rapidity of movement. 
 At the same time it is capable of furnishing a bridge 
 «-hich will fulfill all the requirements of troops en- 
 gaged on such service. For this train the canvas 
 ponton is adapted. See Bridges. 
 
 BRIDGE - HEADS. — The works planned for the 
 defense of a river will depend on the object to be at- 
 tained, whether it be simply to prevent the enemy 
 from crossing, or to give the as.siiiled Ihe means of a 
 secure communication with the opposite shore. 
 
 The points most fa\oralile to Ihe passage (if the 
 enemy are fords; and when the river is not fordable, 
 the points where an elbow is fonned, the re entering 
 being towards the enemy. To guard lhe.se weak 
 points, works should be placed in a suitable position 
 to prevent the enemy from approaching Ihe opposite 
 bank; and in the ease of a ford, every olistruction 
 should be accumulated on these, and the plan of Ihe 
 works should be so arranged that their fire can be 
 concenlraled on the ford; and, if the as-sjiiled have 
 cavalry, a free space should be left between Ihe water 
 and the works for the cavalry to act on; the olm-ct 
 being to charge the enemy whilst crossing the ford in 
 di.sofder. 
 
 To keep open a free communication with the oppo- 
 site shore, it will be necessary to throw up wtjrks 
 there of sufficient strength to allow the a.ssaiUd time 
 to effect a safe retreat," should they be attacked by 
 sui)erior forces. As these works serve to cover the 
 bridges in the rear, thev are termed tetes-de-pont, or 
 bridge-heads. The best points to erect a bridge head 
 are the bends, or elbows of the river, Ihe re-entering 
 being towards the assailed. The reasons for selecting
 
 SBIDOE OF BOATS. 
 
 238 
 
 BBIDGE OF BOATS. 
 
 these points arc tliat the bridge-head may Ix- proleclcd 
 by a good tlaiik and cross tire from the opposite sliore, 
 which from ils sliape is most favorable for tliis i)ur- 
 jKjse; secondly, from the maimer iu «hicli elbows are 
 formed, the point occupied by the bridgehead will 
 commonly Ik- eommandeil by the opix>site shore, and 
 sliould the enemy succeed in obtaining possession of 
 the l)ridge-head, "he will have all Ihe disjidvantages of 
 a ciimmanded position; thirdly. Ihe elbow is not only 
 unfavunible to the eniiny, by prevc nling hitn from 
 placing a battery in a position to destroy the bridge, 
 but it also may prevent tloaliug bodies, thrown 
 into the eurreni by the enemy with the same 
 view, either l)y their shock, or by lire, from 
 coming directly in contact with the biidge, as 
 the chances are that tliose l)odies will strike one 
 or the otlier shore before reaching the bend. 
 
 The plan of a bridge-head should be care- 
 fully studied on the ground; and it should, as 
 far as praclicable, satisfy the following condi- 
 tions: 1. Admit of a defense until all the troops 
 have effected a safe passage. 2. Cover the 
 bridge from Ihe enemy's artillery, so thai the 
 retreat may not be cut off by Ihe destruclion 
 of the l)ridge. 3. Be suilcil to the end in view; 
 if, for example, its object is to afford the means 
 to small detachments of making incursions on 
 the opposite shore, a small unimportant work 
 will be all that isretpiiied; but if a large corps 
 is to pass, either in retreat or to act otiensi\e- 
 ly, then the works should be arranged with 
 wide intervals, to allow the troops to de- 
 I)Ouch in mass, and display readily in order of 
 battle. 4. The Hanks of the works should rest upon 
 the hanks, to prevent their being tunied; and. when 
 practicable, they should be protected b}- tlanking 
 aiTangeinenIs from Ihe opposite shore, ."j. A strong 
 interior redoubt should secure the bridge against an 
 attempt on the part of the enemy to obtain posses- 
 sion of it by storming Ihe works. 
 
 The practicability of obtaining flanking arrange- 
 ments from Ihe opposite shore will materially affect 
 the plan of the bridge-head. If the breadth" of the 
 liver is over one hundred yards, not much reliance 
 can be placed on a flanking arrangement for muslietry ; 
 and if the breadth is from 600 to 800 yards, it will 
 still admit of a very effective flank tire of artillery, 
 but not greatly beyond this. For an unimportant 
 ■work, therefore, wllich can be flanked by musketry 
 
 .suitable distance from it to give the work sullicienl 
 interior capacity, and of I wo wings which close the 
 Hanks. When "the flanking from the opposite shore 
 is iuetlicienl, a crotchet is added to each wing to 
 defend ils ditch and sweep in flank lheap|)roa<li to it. 
 This work is only suitalile where a large detachment 
 holds the point it defends. 
 
 The simple crown consists of a central bastion, niid 
 two half-ba.stions near the banks. In planning this 
 work, the banks which protect the central bastion 
 should be longer than the other two, as it is hardly 
 
 Fio. 1. -Plan of a Priest-cap, A, for a Tote-de-pont for a single bridge, B : 
 C C, Batteries. 
 
 from the opposite shore, a redan or a lunette will be 
 a very suitable form; and if tlie work can only be 
 flanked liy cannon, a priest-cap, as shown in F'{g. 1, 
 or a redan, with (votrhtH, or flaidts, near the extremi- 
 ties of Ihe faces, and perpendieuhir to them, arranged 
 for musketry, will be a very suitable form. Xeither 
 of these works, however, admits of sufficient strength 
 to cover a very important point, whose loss might 
 compromise the safety of an army or Ihe success of 
 a campaign. The best arrangement for this imrpose 
 LS either a liorn-irork, shown in Fig. 2, or a nimple. or 
 comjiUx emini. The horn-work, like the liriest-cap. 
 Is best adapted to a position where the shore for .some 
 distance is nearly a straight line. It consists of a 
 bastioned front nearly iiarallel to the shore ami at a 
 
 Fis. 2.— Plan of a Horn-worlc THte-de-pont. A. Traverse to cover 
 outlet in the curtain; B li, Stoelcade head of bridge; C, Outlets on 
 the Flanks; E, Redan covering Outlet at A; D, Batteries. 
 
 probable that the enemy will attempt nn attack on 
 any other point but the salient. The batteries on 
 the opposite shore sliould sweep the ground imme- 
 diately in front of the faces, and cross their fire in 
 advance of llie sdient. The complex crown-work 
 consists of a polygon of three or more sides, on each 
 of which a bast ion-front is constructed. If Ihe bridge- 
 head is to cover Ihe maneuvers of a large army, either 
 advancing or retreating, a strong simple crown, with 
 a system of detached lunettes, about 600 yards in 
 front of it, presents a ver>' suitable arrangcmenl. The 
 lunettes may be arranged as in the system of General 
 Rogniat. The central bastion of the crown-work 
 should be armed with a strong batter}' of heavy guns 
 to protect the lunettes; and heavy batteries, on Ihe 
 opposite shore, slioidd sweep the ground between the 
 lunetles and crown-work. If there are 
 islands in the river near the works, they may 
 be fortified with advimtage to flank them. 
 Besides the aiTangemcnls already mentioned, 
 intervals of from ten to twenty yards should 
 be left between the shore and Ihe works, for 
 the troops to dclile through; the interior is 
 covered by a travei'se in rear of the interval. 
 A small tlefcnsivc slockafle shoidd be formed 
 immediately at the head of each bridge, to 
 enable a company of picked men to defenil 
 it until the bridge can be cast loose from 
 the shore. An interval of at least 100 yards 
 should be left between the bridges, if more 
 than one is used, and about Ihe same distance 
 .should be left between each liridge and the 
 wings of the work. There are no works that demand 
 more cue in their i>lan and construction than tOtcs- 
 de-pont on imjKjrtant points. They should receive a 
 strong iirofile so as to command all Ihe approaches, 
 and be flanked, so as to render an open assault im- 
 practical ile. 
 
 BRIDGE OF BOATS.— A military liridge formed of 
 lioats, barges, etc. .\s there arc a variety of shaped 
 boats, there are many rules for their construction, 
 taking into consideration the s]iecies of rivers to be 
 bridged, Ihe pressure of Ihe water, etc. In India, 
 bridges of boats are generally formed from the boats 
 of the country. They are united to each other at a 
 distance of about 6 feet, and anchored; they are then 
 connected by planks imd thus afford a safe iia.s.sage.
 
 SBIDGES. 
 
 239 
 
 BRIDGES. 
 
 BRIDGES. — An army moving forward oftentimes 
 tiiids its march intiTniptcfi by a large stream or river, 
 intersecting the general line "of advanec. The army 
 may be cros.scd over either by fording, by ferrying, 
 or by bridging the stream. Which of these methods 
 shoidd be adopted will depend upon the depth of the 
 .stream, its width, the character of the bottom, the 
 strength of the ciirreni, and the means at hanil. 
 
 When wishing to cross a narrow but deep and 
 rapid river, on the banks of which trees grow long 
 enough to reach across, one or more should be felled, 
 confining the trunk to its own bank, and letting the 
 current force the head round to the opposite side; but 
 if the river be too wide to be spanned by one tret — and 
 if two or three men can in any manner be got across 
 — let a large tree be felled into the water on each side, 
 and placed close to the banks opposite to each other, 
 with their heads lying iip-streamward. Fasten a 
 rope to the head of each tree, contin(! the trunks, 
 shove the heails off to receive the force of the current, 
 and ease off the ropes so tliat the branches may meet 
 in the middle of the river, at an angle pointing up- 
 ward. The branches of the trees will be jammed to- 
 gether by the fon-e of the current, and so be suffi- 
 ciently united as to form a toleralilc commtniication, 
 especially when a few of the up])er branches have 
 been cleared away. If insufficient, toward the mid- 
 dle of the river, to beaf the weight of men crossing, 
 a few stakes, with forks left near their heads, may be 
 tliru-st down through the branches of the trees to sup- 
 port them. Fig. 1 shows the positions of three tiees, 
 a, h, c, judiciously selectctl and felled so as to have 
 their tops unite in the current at d. 
 
 Fio, 1. 
 
 When a river which cannot be forded must be 
 cro.s,sed by animals and carriages, a bridge becomes 
 neccssjiry; and in all eases it is better, if possible, to 
 cross bya bridge than by a ford, unless the latter be 
 e.xceedingl}- shallow. Jlilitary bridges may be of three 
 kinds: 1st. Fi.xed structures of timber. 2d. Floating- 
 bridges. 3d. Flying-bridges. Timber bridges may 
 be either supported on piles or on trestles. Pile- 
 bridges are the most secure, and where bridges are 
 required to remain in use for a considerable iJeiiod, 
 as those which may be constructed on the lines of 
 communication of an army, with its l)a.se of opera- 
 tions, this form of bridge will generally be adopted. 
 To construct a good i)ilebridge over a considerable 
 river much skillc<l labor is neces.sary, and an ample 
 supply of materials essential. When the bottom of 
 the channel is timi, and the river not subject to floods, 
 a pile-bridge may be constructed without difficulty, 
 and will Ije very durable. The piles must be driven 
 by an engine, which may be constnicled of an 8inch 
 or lO-inch shell nm full of lead, suspended by a rope 
 over a pulley. This may be worked by hand, and 
 will drive piles to a depth sufficient to allow of the 
 passage of the heaviest artillery' over the bridge. The 
 pulley of the pile-engine should be supported on a 
 framework some 16 feet hiirh, which may be made to 
 act as a guide to the shell during its fall, and also for 
 the pile while it is being driven. This framework 
 should be erected upon a large flat-bottomed boat. If 
 such a boat is not to be procured, a raft must be made 
 
 to answer the purpose. M'hen timber of a considera- 
 ble length can t)e iirocured for the joists of tlie bridge, 
 it will lie advisable to make the intervals between the 
 piers or rows of piles as great as the length of the 
 joists will allow, so that the current of theriver mav 
 be impeded as little as possible, and its action on tlie 
 bridge be reduced loaminimum. By this arrangement, 
 too, as much space as possible is given for thepas.Mige 
 of floating bodies, and the danger of their damaging 
 the I)riilge is proportionately (liminished. When all 
 the piles have been driven as far as the power of the 
 engine can accomplish, they must be sjiwii off to tW 
 -sjime level, and the superstructure of limber be 
 strongly and carefidly tilted. With bays of 20 feet 
 and a roailway 14 ftet wide, there mu.'-'t be at least 
 tive or si.\ licams not less than T inches by 8. With 
 wider bays, timbers of larger dimensions will be 
 necessary. The planking shovdd not be le.ss than 2 
 inches thick, laid transversely. Bridges on piles, for 
 the passage of infantrj' over shallow rivers onlj-, may 
 be expeditiously constructed, as the pijcs may be 
 slight — 6 inches in diameter would sufhce — andthcy 
 can be driven liy hand by heavy mauls, or by two 
 men using a beetle. Here the pile is r^et and kept in 
 its |)lace by means of two spars of jilanks resting 
 their extremities upon a stool placed on the bank. A 
 plaidi is then laid across, on which one or two men 
 ma^- stand to drive the pile. The weight of the men 
 may be increased, if uecessarj', bj- stones placed on 
 the platform assisting to force the piles into the 
 ground. When one row of piles is placed, and the floor 
 laid to a crossbeam fi.xed ujion them, another row- 
 may be set and driven in the sjime manner, fixing the 
 stool on that |)art of the floor which will thus have 
 been completed. Piles driven in this way may be 
 safely deitended upon to Jiear infantry w ith a front of 
 two or three tiles in open ranks, not keeping step. 
 
 AVhen rivers are shallow and not liable to sudden 
 floods, and when their channels are tirni and even, 
 very useful bridges may be constructed on trestles. 
 Trestles for this purpose .should each consist of a 
 stout transom or ridge-piece .some 8 inches square and 
 16 feet long: to this should be fitted four legs adapted 
 to the depth of the river slanting, outward from the 
 vertical, and strengthened by diagonal bracing. For 
 large bridges it will be found aihanfageous to add an 
 additional pair of legs to each trestle. These, from 
 the difficulty of fitting six legs to the uneven suiface 
 of the Ijottom of the river, should not he attached 
 until the trestle is placed in ]K)sition; Ihey should then 
 be driven into the bed of the river, and their upper 
 extremities should be firmly nailed to the lidge-piece. 
 When the different parts of the trestles arc all prepared 
 beforehand, they can be speedily put together and 
 the l)ridge comijleted with great expedition. Fascines 
 may be vised for flooring v hire jilaiik cannot be ob- 
 taiiied. If there be a strong current, a cable should 
 be stretched across the ri\er on each side of the 
 bridge, and the trestles be firmly lashed to them. It 
 may, moreover, sometimes be iiece.s.sary to load the 
 trestles with shot or stones, to keep Ihcin in their y<o- 
 sition until the flooring is laid upon them. 
 
 Boats of almost any kind w ill make a senMceable 
 bridsrc. For wide rivers the boats should be large. 
 The boats of which a bridjfc is constructed should, if 
 possible, be neariy of the^^Muie size, unless ihey arc 
 all very large, and then variations in dimensions will 
 be of "little consequence. Should .some be large 
 and some small, the passage of large bodies of troops, 
 of hea\y ginis and anununilion-wagons will depress 
 them uneqtially, causing the flooring of the bridge to 
 a.ssimie an irre'irular line, straining and injuring, and 
 in st>me cases fracturinc, the timber and destroying 
 the bridge. When boats all of the same size cannot 
 be obtained, the larger boats should be placttl at 
 wider intervjils, so that they may sustain a heavier 
 weight, proportioned to their greater capacity, during 
 the passaire of troops, and be depressed to an equal 
 distance with the smaller. The superstructure will 
 consist of balks of timber laid across the gunwales of
 
 BBIOOES. 
 
 240 
 
 BBIDOES. 
 
 the boals, anii swun-lv fastened, and tlie flooring of 
 planks laid tninsversely over. A certain riijidity re- 
 sults from this arran^remenl , by which, if the boats 
 were subject to much nuiiioii. the bridge would be 
 sjx^tlily destroyed. In tidal rivers, where a consid- 
 erable swell must generally be encountered, this man- 
 ner of securing the timbei's will not answer. In this 
 case it will be foimd athanlageous to erect a trestle 
 or sup|)ort in the center of each Iwat, over which the 
 timlx'rs may be Iwlted to each other: thus each boat 
 will be allowed independent motion, and this will 
 not endanger the fracture of the bridge. The boats 
 should Ik' moored head and stern, and should 1k' kept 
 at their relative distances by limbers tixed at the head 
 and at the stern, stretching across the bays, so as to 
 remove unneces-sary strain from the timbers of the 
 bridge. The timbers should be as nearly as possible 
 square, and of dimensions i)roportioned to the space 
 of the intervals. With good timlxTS, 8 inches by 6, 
 20 feet may be allowed from trestle to trestle. The 
 width of the bridge shoukl also be proportioned to 
 the dimensions of the tinilxTs. \Vith live l)alks of 7 
 inches by 8, the bridge should not e.\cced l-I feet in 
 width. If too wide there will be danger of the beams 
 being broken by the overcrowding of troops on the 
 bridge. 
 
 When there is no regular ponton-train, and boats 
 cannot be procured, rafts may be used in place of 
 
 in this ca-se is the siune as that of a kite in the air. 
 In the .sei^ond case, the cable stretched across the 
 stream nmst be carefully secured when the current is 
 great. The ma.xiniuni pull of the raft will be SV*, 
 in which S is the area of the immei>ied side of the raft 
 in square feet, and V the velocity of the current in 
 
 Fia. 2. 
 
 boats. These rafts may be made of otsAs, which, if 
 properly arranged and securely lashed, will aaswer 
 all the purposes of pontons. To make the raft, the 
 casks are placed in a row, side by side, with the 
 bungs up; two rails or .saplings called gunnels are 
 laid along them about foin- inches from each end. 
 Slings of strong rope are pas,sed under the casks, 
 from end to end of the giuniels. The ends of the 
 sling should be made fast to the gunnel, by means of 
 the buii'liiu: nudjiri/ierwnn'n bend. Between the casks 
 there are brace lashings, as shown in Fig. 2. In the 
 absence of sullicient rope the gunnels must be nailed 
 or spiked to the c-a.sks; liul the use of nails or spikes 
 in rafts or floating bridges is to be avoided when pos- 
 sible, as they admit of insutlicient play. To deter- 
 mine the number of casks required to construct, a raft 
 that will sui)i)ort N poimds, lind the solid contents of 
 one cask in cubic inches and multiply it by the speci- 
 fic gravitv of water, from the |)r<iduct .subtract the 
 weight of the cask; the remainder will Ix' the weight 
 it will su|)port without siidving. Take a suflicicnt 
 number of ca.sks to bring this weight up to N jiounds. 
 Unfordalile streams may be readily cros.sed by 
 means of flyingliridges or rafts, when there is sufli- 
 cicnt current and when ropes and timber are handy. 
 The flying-bridge or raft may be .successfully navi- 
 gated by attaching it to a swinging cable made fast 
 up stream, or by making it fast to a traveler running 
 on a cabli' stretched across the stream. In the tirst 
 ca.si', the lower end of the cable should terminate in 
 a bridle. On leaving the .shore, the end of the bridle 
 farthest from it is gathered in, while the other one is 
 slackened, and the raft shoots across tb<' stream. To 
 re-cross, tlie end of the bridle farthest from the shore 
 is hauled in and the other again slackened. The 
 same may be ctfecled by means of rudders as shown 
 in Fig. ;!, the cable being made fast to the raft about 
 one thiril of il.s length from the bow, while it is kejd 
 headed obliquely up slreiuii. The principle of action 
 
 Fig, 3. 
 
 feet per second. To insure proper progress, the 
 velocity of the current should not be less than two 
 miles per hour. Referring to Fig. 4, the component 
 cif the force of the current which tends to force the 
 raft directly across the stre;im may lie readily traced. 
 If the raft is kept on the course MN,and the current 
 is running in the direction AX, it is plainly seen how 
 such a force, AB, is divided into two com])onents, 
 AC and AD, acting parallel and perpendicularly to 
 MN. The component AD is again subdi\ided into 
 two components, AE and AF, acting parallel and 
 perpendicularly to AX. DE = AF 
 is the component of the power of the 
 current tending to force the raft 
 across the stream. To produce the 
 best effect, the side of the raft should 
 be kept at an angle of 55 with the 
 direction of the current, or BAC = 
 55'. The cal)Ie may be tjiken across 
 the stream by a swimmer, or by 
 means of a lobstick — made by split- 
 ting a stick, inserting a rock or peb- 
 ble, and lashing the slick with twine. 
 A small line is flrst made fast to 
 the ca>)le, the end of which is sent across; where- 
 upon the end of the cable is drawn over. Under 
 certain circumstances, the small line maybe sent over 
 by means of an arrow, rocket, or kite. 
 
 The mountain streams, during the seasons of high 
 water, remain above the fordingstage for several 
 weeks, anil often render it necessary, when time is 
 an important element, to cross them by swimming 
 or ferrying rudely-constructed boats or rafts. Tim- 
 ber rafts may be quickly constructed in a wooded 
 country. The size and description of the timber 
 must determine the luiniber of layers there should 
 be. The cubic conteiUs. in feet, of round timber = 
 L (G- X .07958), in which L = length of the log in 
 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 feet, and G is the mean between the girths at both 
 ends in feet. The floating power of any log may be 
 readily calculated when ilie specific gravity of the 
 wood is known. The raft of logs has little biioyancy, 
 wants general manageability, and is inapplicable 
 when the passage of a river is likely to be contested 
 with animation. Its merits are that, at the expense 
 of time, it can be constructed with less experienced 
 workmen; it s;ives tarriage, as it can only be made 
 of materials near the spot. It is, however, an in- 
 different substitute for boats, pontons, or ca.sks. An 
 independent raft will rcijuire two rows of trees, at 
 least, to float as many men as can stand uix)n it, and
 
 BBIDOE-TBAm. 
 
 241 
 
 B£IOAD£. 
 
 the logs are best bound together by withes or ropes, 
 and stiffened with cross and diagonal traces. 
 
 As sliown in Fig. 1, large trees may be felled to 
 enable infantry to cross narrow streams, placing them 
 so that their butts may rest upon the banks with the 
 tops directed obliquely up the stream; if one is not 
 long enough, others mav be floated down so as to ex- 
 tend across, being guided and secured by ropes: a 
 footway may be formed by laying planks, fascines, 
 or hurdles over them, and their branches should l)e 
 chopped off nearly to the level of the water and in- 
 tertwined below; poles also may be driven into the 
 bed of the river, to aid in supporting the trees by at- 
 taching the boiighs to them. Whni-eiin-ut;ies used to 
 form a foot-bridge may be connected by beams; or a 
 single pair of wheels with an a.xlctree to admit two 
 strong posts may be attached and placed in the center 
 of the stream if it is not too wide, i'oles reaching 
 from each bank may be secured to the posts, and the 
 wheels would act as a trestle. With a flooring over 
 the poles, a slight bridge could be rajiiilly con.structed 
 for an advanced-guard. Hiik bnntH are made of four 
 buffalo-hides strongly sewed together with buffalo- 
 sinew, and stretched over a basket-work of willow or 
 Cottonwood 8 feet long and .5 feet broad, with a 
 rounded bow, the seams then being covered with 
 ashes and tallow. E.xposed to the sun for some 
 hours, the skins contract and tighten the whole work. 
 Such a boat with four men in it draws only four 
 inches of water. Inflated skiitu have been used since 
 the earliest times for crossing, and if four or more are 
 secured together by a frame, they form a very buoy- 
 ant raft. CfiDrai (rendered water-proof by a compo- 
 sition of pitch 8 lbs., beeswax 1 lb., and tallow 1 lb., 
 boiled together and laid on quite hot) will serve as a 
 raft or ponton, if placed over framework or wicker 
 work. See Military Bridge and Ponluti. 
 
 BEIDGE-TSAIN. — A bridge-equipment or ponton- 
 train, consisting of a military bridge composed of por- 
 table boats. 
 
 BKIDLE. — An instrument with which a horse is 
 governed and restrained, consisting of a bead-stall, a 
 bit and reins, with other appendages, according to its 
 particular fonn and uses. 
 
 BRIDLE-AEM PKOTECTOB.— The term for a guard 
 used by the cavalry, which consists in ha\-ing the 
 sword-hilt above the helmet, the blade crossing the 
 back of the head, its edge directed to the left and 
 turned a little upwards, in order to bring the mount- 
 ing in a proper direction to protect the hand. 
 
 BEIDLE-BIT.— Bridle-bits are of great antiquity, 
 as is proved by the Egyptian and Assyrian paintings 
 and sculptures. Xenophon (400 B.C.) describes sev- 
 eral kinds, smooth, sharp, and toothed. The curb is 
 a modern invention, and was introduced into Eng- 
 land from the Continent in the reign of Charles I. 
 Etruscan and Grecian sculpture represent the bridle 
 substantially as we yet have it. The Greeks had a 
 severe bridle, armed with teeth, whioh came over the 
 nose like the carezon, a European bit but little known 
 among us. Another rough bit was aUso known as a 
 lupiifiiii, owing to its sharp prongs like wolves' teeth. 
 Bridle-bits may be classed under three heads : giinjflex, 
 curb-bit*, and ittiff bits. The snartle has two bars, 
 jointed together in the middle of the mouth, and has 
 rings at the ends for the rein. It sometimes has 
 cheek-pieces, to keep the ring from pulling into the 
 mouth of the animal. The'curb-bit constsls of the 
 cIuek-pieeeK or branches with eyes for the clwek-strups 
 and for the reins, and boles" for the curb-chain ; a 
 iiiottth-piecf, uniting the cheek-pieces and forming the 
 bit proper ; sometimes a bar uniting the lower ends 
 of the branches; .and a curbehniii. In the Mexican 
 bit, the curb-chain and its strap are replaced by a 
 curb-ring. By means of the branches of a bit a 
 leverage is obtained upon the horse's jaw, the curb- 
 chain behind the jaw forming the fidcrum. The 
 Whitman bit with snap-hook attachment, used in 
 the Uniteil States army, is to be commended for iU 
 lightness, elegance, economy, and, above all, strength. 
 
 It combines the common riding-bit and bradoon-bit 
 in one, makes it easier for the horse, and at the s;imc 
 time invests the rider with a greater control over the 
 horse than by means of other bits. With a proper hal- 
 ter this bit only requires a pair of reins and curb to 
 fonn a perfect bridle. A large numlxT of contrivances 
 have been patented for giving a greater command 
 over the horse, by means of pulling the bit upward 
 into the angle of the mouth instead of pulling against 
 the jaw. ; 
 
 BEIDLE-REIN.— A rein passing from the hand to 
 the bit, or from the check-hook to the bit ; or, in 
 wagon-harness, from the top of the hames to the bit. 
 The bridle-rein may Ix; a c/wrA-rein, gdf/n'm, or a 
 ridinij-ltridle rein ; the latter a »n<iffle or curb-rein, ac- 
 cording to the kind of bit. 
 
 BElboON. The snattie-bit and rein u.sed in Euro- 
 pean military equipments in connection with a curb- 
 I)it which has its own rein. In the United States the 
 term is sonutimes applied to a simple snartle without 
 cross-bars, and ha\ing a rein attiiclied to its rings. 
 
 BEIGADE. — In the military service a brigade is a 
 group of regiments or battalions combined into one 
 body. When a British army takes the field, it is 
 customary for three battalions to form a brigade, and 
 two Ijrigades a dirisi'in. Thus, at the battle of the 
 Alma each of the live divisions of British infantry 
 comprised two brigades; and of these ten brigiides, 
 nine consisted of three battalions each, the tenth 
 being somewhat stronger. It is nothing more than a 
 temporary grouping, which can be broken up when- 
 ever the Commanding Orticer thinks fit. The House- 
 bold Troops, compri.sing the Hoi-se-guards, Life- 
 guards, and Foot-guards, are sometimes called the 
 Household Brigade. 
 
 In the United States army the brigade may be 
 formed in one or two lines. The distance between 
 the lines varies both with the nature of the ground 
 and the state of the action. If on the offensive, the 
 second line is held at close supporting distance; if on 
 the defensive, it is held at sufficient distiincc in the 
 rear to enable the first line to reform behind it, and 
 to prevent the enemy from passing over it with the 
 first line, should thatline be driven back. Battalions 
 arc designated from the right when in line, and the 
 head when in column, /r*< battalion, second battalion, 
 and so on. If in two lines, the battalions of the first 
 line are designated from the right first and second; 
 those of the second line, third mv\ fourth. If in two 
 columns, the battalions last in the front line are desig- 
 I nated from the head of the column //•«< and secemd; 
 those of the second line, third and fourth. These 
 designations change whenever, in facing to the rear, 
 the left of the line becomes the right, and the rear 
 the head of the column. The battalion movements 
 incident to the commencement and comiiletion of all 
 brigade evolutions, the advance in line, and all move- 
 ments in double time, are executed in the cadence<l 
 step. The remainder of the time, imless otherwise 
 ( ordered, each Colonel marches his battalion in the 
 ' route-step. When not in the route-step. Colonels 
 t cause their pieces to be carried habitually at a right 
 \ shoulder. The brigade is formed on the principles of 
 successive formations, and is presenied to the General 
 by the Adjutant -general, as explained for the AdjuUuit 
 of a battalion, the Colonels repeating commands. 
 The General takes post, facing the line, about seventy 
 yards in front of its center. 
 
 At forms of ceremony the pioneers arc postetl 
 twelve yards to the right of the first battalion, the 
 band twelve yards from the right of the pioneers. In 
 the evolutions the band, and the regimental bands, 
 take anv position prescribed on the parade-ground. 
 In line "of battle, composed of several brigades, the 
 Generals of briirade place themselves atout seventy 
 yards in rear of the centers of their brigades. In 
 "column, thev hold them.selves at the beads of their 
 brigades. In brigade evolutions, the General gties 
 wherever his presence is necessarj-. The General is 
 attended by his personal Staff; the Adjutant-general
 
 BBIOASS DEPOT. 
 
 242 
 
 BRIOANSIITE. 
 
 riding on his left, bis Aidcs-rte-camp in roar, the senior; 
 on Ihc right. On the march, the remaining members 
 of his Staff march according to rank iu rear of the 
 Aides-de-camp, the senior of each ranli on the right. 
 
 The Colonels, unless otherwise directed, repeat all 
 the commands of the General. Each preparatory 
 command of the General is repeated as .soon as it is 
 given; the last preparatory command having been 
 repeated, the Colonels at once add such commands, 
 and execute such movements in their battalions, as 
 may be necessary before the general movement. The 
 General looks to the prompt execution of these pre- 
 paratory movements, and rectifies every error that 
 may Wcommilted by the Colonels. The Lieutenant- 
 colonels and Majors" repeat the general conunands, 
 and the commands of execution, jis often as the wind 
 or noise of anns may prevent them from being easily 
 heard from one battalion to another. 
 
 In successive formations, the line of battle is deter- 
 mined by Staff-officers, three in number, in the follow- 
 ing manner: The first officer, at the preparatory com- 
 mand of the General, i)Osts himself at the point of rmt 
 for the first battalion, facing in the direction the line 
 is to extend; the second posts himself, facing the first, 
 lit the jMint of rest for the second battalion; the third 
 posts hiuLself, covering the other two, at \\xe point of 
 rest for the third battalion; the first then moves at a 
 giillop and posts himself for the fourth battalion 
 Should there Ije more than four battalions, the Staff- 
 officer for the second, as soon as the head of this 
 battalion arrives, hastens to mark the jioint for the 
 fifth, and .so on. If the formation be central, the 
 ]x>ints of rest are marked in both directions from the 
 battalion first on the line. In brigade evolutions, 
 successive formations embrace, besides the formation 
 from column into line, changes of front, formation 
 into line from erhdim, and t?i€ formation from tine into 
 single and double rank. 
 
 In the British service the artillery is divided into 
 two brigades, which consist of seven batteries each, 
 under the command of a Colonel. 
 
 BBIOADE DEPOT.— The headquarters of a sub- 
 district of tlie army. Under the new localization of 
 the British arm}', the military districts of Great 
 Britain and Ireland are divided into 13 districts, 
 which are subdivided into 70 infantry and 13 artillery 
 sub-districts, and 2 cavalry districts. The infantry 
 sub-districLs, as a nile, correspond with the several 
 Counties into which the United Kingdom is divided. 
 In connection therewith the following arrangements 
 have been made: To each infantry sub-district are 
 assigned 2 battalions of Infantry of the Line, one of 
 which is ordintirily at home, and the other abroad. 
 The battalioiLs are linked together for the purposes 
 of enlistment and service. In each infantry sub-dis- 
 trict is located a brigade depot under the command 
 of a Lieutenant-colonel, composed of 3 companies 
 from each of the Line Battiilions assigned to the sub- 
 district. The Line Battalions, Militia Battalions, the 
 Brigade Depot, the Ritle Volunteer Corps, and the In- 
 fantry of the Army Reserve, constitute the infantry 
 sub-district brigade, and the whole, with the excep- 
 tion of the Line Battalion, are under the command of 
 the olHcer commanding the brigade depot. A Lieu- 
 tenant-colonel is appointed to each artillery sub-dis- 
 trict, and he is invested with the command of the 
 Auxiliary and Reserve Forces of artillery of the sub- 
 di.strict. The cavalrj' of tlie Auxiliary Forces is di- 
 vided, as before stated, into two districts. A Lieu- 
 tenant-colonel is ai)poiiil(cl to each district, who is 
 invested with the command of the Yeomanry regi- 
 ments ami of the corps of Light Horse an(l Mounted 
 Rifle Volunteers within his district. The veKiments of 
 Guards, the BOth Ritles, and the Ritle Brig;ide are 
 outside the sub-district organization — i.e., they have 
 no special connection with any territorial sub-district. 
 The depot of the Guards contin\ies as at present con- 
 stituted. The (iUth Rifie Brigade have one consolidated 
 depot at Winchester. 
 
 The above explains the organization, as laid down 
 
 by the warrant, for the maintenance of the sub-dis- 
 tricts. It is further directed that iu exercising au- 
 thority over the auxiliary and reserve forces, otiicers 
 appointed to command must remember that these 
 forces have been enrolled under conditions very dif- 
 ferent from those of the regular army. They must 
 therefore take great care not to exceed the i)ower8 
 conferred upon them by law, and, in exercising the 
 ])owers which they do possess, must endeavor to 
 carry with them as far as jxjssible the opinions of the 
 Commanding Otiicers of the Auxiliary Forces. In all 
 cases of iloubt, the warrant says, they wfil do well 
 to refer to the Inspector-general of the Auxilijiry 
 Forces. It is ordered in the Queen's Regulations 
 that "a mess shall be established at the headquarters 
 of each brigade dejxjt, which will be credited with 
 one fifth of the contributions of the Company Officers 
 of each Line Battalion belonging thereto, asse.s.sed 
 agreeably to paragraphs 32 and 83, as well as with 
 the annual subscriptions of the .officers of two com- 
 jianies thereof. The Lieutenant-colonel, the Major 
 imd Staff will pay subscri])tions only. The two com- 
 panies of the Line Battalions will bring, on joining a 
 i)rigade depot, a sum of 'M., for the purchase of such 
 articles of equipment as may be nece.s.sary, or in lieu 
 thereof a sutticient amount of mess property." The 
 plan adopted in forming the brigade depots was to 
 associate with the militia of each County certain Line 
 Battalions, selecting as far as possible such regiments 
 as had any connection with the County, besides such 
 volunteers and army reserves as may be in each 
 brigade district. Each brigade has its depot stationed 
 permanently in the district it belongs to; the Line 
 Battalions are moved as the ser\'ice may require, one 
 being at home and the other abroad; the militia arc 
 embodied periodically as heretofore; but all recruits 
 for either branch of the serWce are intended to ])ass 
 through the same hands, and to receive their training 
 together. The Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers, Guards, 
 and Rifies are exceptions to these arrangements, and 
 remain not localized. 
 
 BRIGADE-INSPECTOE.— An ofticer whose duty it 
 is to ins])ect troojis in companies before they are mus- 
 tered into the service. 
 
 BRIGADE-MAJOR.— A military officer who exer- 
 cises duties, in a brigade, analogous to those of the 
 Adjutant of a Regiment. He attends to matters of 
 discipline, and to the personal movements of the men. 
 When regiments or battalions are brigaded, a Brigjide- 
 major is appointed, usually from among the Captains. 
 He conveys orders, keeps the rollster or roster, in- 
 spects guards and pickets, and direct.s exercises and 
 evolutions; but he nevertheless remains on the books 
 of a particular regiment, and returns to his regimental 
 duties when the brisrade is broken up. 
 
 BRIGADIER— BRIGADIER GENERAL.— An officer 
 in rank next above a Colonel. He commands a bri- 
 gade. In the British service the Brigadier is an offi- 
 cer of a regimcnit (usually a Colonel or Lieutenant- 
 colonel), who, for a limited time and for a special 
 service, is placed ujjon brigade duties. He is then a 
 General or Commander of a Brigade, which usually 
 contains his own regiment as one of the number. 
 When the brigade is broken up, he falls back to his 
 Colonelcy, unless his services lead to his promotion 
 to the rank of Major-general. 
 
 BRIGAND.— A species of irregular foot-soldiers, 
 fnquenlly mentioned by Froissart. From their plun- 
 dering prnjiensities comes the modem use of the tenn. 
 Somclimcs written Tirii/tiii.i. 
 
 BRIGANDINE — BRIGANTINE. — An article of 
 armor worn during the Middle Ages. It was an 
 a.s«eml)lage of small [ilates of iron, sewed upon 
 quilted linen or leather, and covered with a .similar 
 substance to hide the glittering of the metal. It 
 formed a sort of coat or timic. The brigandine was 
 named from the lirifjans, a kind of light armed irregu- 
 lar corps, employed something like llie Cossacks and 
 Bashi-bazouks of recent days, and, like them, addicted 
 to marauding and i)ilferiug; hence the word brigand.
 
 3BINS D'EST. 
 
 243 
 
 BBITISH ABHT. 
 
 BBIKS D'EST.— Large sticks or poles resembling ' 
 imiill iiicket-s, with iron at each end. They were 
 OLseil to cross ditches, particularly in Flanders. 
 
 BBI8E-MUE.— A heavy piece of ordnance which 
 was used during the fifteenth centurj' to batter down 
 walls, etc. 
 
 BBISUBE. — In fortification, any part of a rampart 
 or parajjtt which de\iatcs from the general direction. 
 
 BEITANNIA METAL.— The present composition 
 of britannia metal at Birmingham is usually 90 tin + 
 8 antimony + 2 copper, without any zinc of bismuth; 
 although "some manufacturers deviate a little from 
 this formula, by ailding one or Ixith of the melals last 
 named. The manufacture was begun at Shedield by 
 Hancock and Jessop, in 1770; it reached Birmingham 
 towards the close of the century, and made gradual 
 progress. At first the articles were made by stamp- 
 ing with dies, and soldering up into form; this lx;ing 
 a .slow operation, rendered the articles expensive. 
 Afterwards the curioiLs process of iiulal spinning 
 -was introtluced; and this, with the subsidiary opera- 
 tion of swa''ging, rendered a great rtnluction in price 
 j)0ssible. In the .spinning process, a thin sheet or 
 piece of britannia metal is placed upon a wooden 
 model shaped like the article to lx> made; the model 
 is made to rotate in a lathe; and burnishers and other 
 tools are employed to press the yielding metal into 
 all the curvatures of the model. Ductility is an 
 •es.sential qualitj' to the attainment of this end with 
 the metal; how complete it is may be seen in such 
 articles as britannia-metal teapots and dish-covers, 
 the principal forms of which are not given by ham- 
 mering, stamping, or ca.sting, but by spinning. 
 Besides spinning and swagging, the processes include 
 stamping, soldering, casting, and polishing. When 
 electro-plating was introduced, an increased use of 
 britannia metal arose, as it forms a good ground or 
 basis for the deposited silver. Britannia-metal spoons 
 and ladles, made by ca.sting, stamping, and burnish- 
 ing, have been nearly driven out of the market by 
 German silver; but the former metal is largely used 
 for many purposes in the laboratory. 
 
 BBITISH AEMY.— Like other modern armies, the 
 British army originated in the feudal .system. When 
 regal power, tempered by a Parliament, superseded 
 that system, the people, according to their rank in 
 life, were ex'pected to provide them.selves with certain 
 kinds of weapons and defensive armor. The Justices 
 of the Peace were empowered to see to these militarj- 
 duties of the people. When the nation was either 
 actually engaged in war, or apprehensive of invasion, 
 the Sovereign issued commissioas to experienced offi- 
 cers, authorizing them to draw out and array the fit- 
 test men for ser\nce in each County, and to march 
 them to the sea-coast, or to any part of the countr3' 
 known to be in most danger. It was in the time of 
 Henry VIII. that Lord-lieutenants and Deputy-lieu- 
 tenants of Counties were first appointetl as standing- 
 officers for assembling and mustering the military 
 force. During the earlier years of tlie Tudors, con- 
 tracts were made by the K:ng with" Captains," who 
 undertook to provide, clothe, and feed so many fight- ! 
 ing-men for a given money-allowance; but the power 
 intrusted to the Lord-lieiitenants gradually changed 
 this system, in relation at least to home-defense. In 
 the reign of C.'liarles I. the important (|UPstion arose 
 whether tlie King of England did or did not possess 
 the right to maintain a military force without the ex- 
 press consent of Parliament. This question was all : 
 the more bitterly discussed when the King billeted 
 Lis soldiers on tlie people. After the troubles of the 
 civil wars and the commonwealth, Charles II. found 
 himself compelled to agree, on his restoration, to the 
 abandonment of all the army except a kind of iKjdy- 
 guard or household brigade of 5000 men, siuictioned 
 by the Parliament. Iii the thirteenth year of his 
 reign he succeeded in obtaining a statute declaring 
 that "the sole and supreme iMwer, government, 
 command, and disposition of the militia, and of all 
 iorces by sea and land, and of all forts and places of 
 
 strength, is the imdoubted right of His Majesty; and 
 both or either of the Houses of Parliament cannot nor 
 ought to pretend to the same." Both Charles II. anil 
 James II. found, however, to their mortification, that 
 this statute did not in elTect give them so much real 
 military command as they had wished and intended 
 — becau.sc the Commons, by holding the purse, virtu- 
 allv held the power. 
 
 It was in the time of William and Mary that the 
 real basis for the modem British army was faid. The 
 declaration of rights settled, in positive terms, "that 
 the raising and keeping of a standing army in time of 
 peace, without consent of Parliament, isVontrary to 
 law." The fir.st Mutiny Act was pas-sed in 1689, to 
 last for six months only; but it has Ix'cn annually re- 
 newed ever since, except in three particular years; 
 and it constitutes the warrant on which the whole 
 militarj- system of England is exerci.sed by tlie Sov- 
 ereign, with the consent of Parliament. Since then, 
 with only three interruptions, the Ministers of the 
 Crown have annually applied to Parliament for per- 
 mission to raise a military force, and for money to 
 defray the expenses. The Sovereign can make war, 
 and can bestow military employments and honors; 
 but the Commons, as the representatives of the tax- 
 pajing nation, provide a check on the gra.sping by 
 courtiers of military pri\-ilcges. The law on anny 
 regulation has tieen re\-ised, and the British anny 
 made the subject of special legislation in the Army 
 Discipline Bill pas.sed in 1879. The great distinction 
 Ijelween the British army and that of almost every 
 other State in Europe is that the ser\ice is Toluntnry. 
 The subjects of the Crown engage, bj- free choice, to 
 serve in the army for a definite tiumber of ycai-s. In 
 the rare cases where forced service by ballot is ob- 
 tained, it is in the militia, not the regular army. The 
 British soldier has much hard colonial life to bear, 
 and many long voyages to make; he is, moreover, 
 almost entirely shut out from the chance of being a 
 commissioned officer. As a consequence, the ranks 
 are mostly filled from the more necessitous classes of 
 the communitj' — by those who, from want of steady 
 habits or of education, are the least fitted for indus- 
 trious pursuits; whereas in France and many other 
 foreign countries the profession of amis is regarded 
 as an honorable one, of which even the private sol- 
 dier feels proud. Mr. De Fonblanque, comparing 
 the peace establishments of the chief European armies 
 in 1857, found that of England to be the sTnallest in 
 ratio to population, but the most costly in relation to 
 its strength. The English ratio was 1 in 128; the 
 French, 1 in 95; the Prussian, 1 in 80; the Rus,sian, 
 1 in 72; the Austrian, 1 in 68. An English private 
 soldier costs the country £52 per annum; French, 
 .£36; Pmssian, £31; Au-strian, £18 10*.; Russian, 
 £13 5«. The English cost per man is still higher 
 now than it was in 1857, on account of increased at- 
 tention being paid to the well-being of the soldier. 
 
 The British arm}-, in all its completeness, is sup- 
 posed to be commanded by the Sovereign, a.ssisted by 
 the Secretary of State for War in .some matters, and 
 by the Officer Commanding in Chief in others. The 
 component elements are the Household Troops; ihcln- 
 fantry of the Line; the Cavalry of tlie Line; the Ord- 
 nance Corps, comprising artillery and engineere; other 
 bodies of native troops, maintained out of the reven- 
 ues of India; the Militia; the Yeomanry Cavalr\-; the 
 Reserve; the Volunteer Artillerj- and Riiics; and some- 
 times, during war. Foreign Legions. The "peace 
 establishment" of the British army varies acconling 
 to the political aspect of affairs abroad, and to the 
 strength of the economizing principle at home. In 
 1814, when England w-as engaged in tremendous con- 
 tests abroad, the regular anny reached 200.000 nun, 
 exclusive of Fencibles, Foreign Legions, and Jlilitia 
 In the first few years after the temiination of the 
 great war agaiast Napoleon, the reductions in the 
 British army involved the compulsor)- retirement of 
 no less than 10,000 military officers, who thereupon 
 went on half-pay; these, by filling vacancies, trans-
 
 BBITTEN QTTS. 
 
 244 
 
 BBOADWELL BIKO. 
 
 fers, and ilcatbs, have nearly disapponrcil. The 
 elasticity which permits the eulargemeiit or contrac- 
 tion of tlie army arises from varyinj; not so much 
 the number of regiments as the nunilxT of battalions 
 in a regiment, of companies in a battalion, or of men 
 in a company. If we compare the strength of the 
 regular army at various periods Ix'tween IX'M and 
 1879, we shall lind that llic actual number of regi- 
 ments has varied but little, the (inference of strength 
 being made up in the three modes just mentioned. 
 
 The strength of the British army declined from 
 181.5 to 18U5, since which last mentioned year it has 
 incresused. These augmentations have been occa- 
 sioned partly by the contests in China, India, KatTra- 
 ria, Persia, "the Crimea, Afghanistan, and Zululaud, 
 and partly by a sense of insecurity amid the vast 
 armaments of the Continent. In comparing the 
 strength of the forces at different periods, much con- 
 fusion is apt to arise from different modes of inter- 
 preting the words " British army." This designation 
 may include the whole of the Royal troops in India, 
 whether supported out of Imix-rial or of Indian rev- 
 enues; it may include the Militia, the Volunteers, the 
 Yeomaniy Cavalry, the Foreign Legions — or it may ex- 
 clude any one or more of these. The " British army" 
 and the" Military Force of the British Empire" are 
 often treated as convertible tenns; to the production 
 of much confusion where actual numbers are given. 
 In the following table, relating to the official year 
 1879-80, it is shown of what component elements the 
 British army consists. The Militia and the Volunteer 
 Corps are not here included. 
 
 Home Total 
 
 and India. British 
 
 Colonies. Army, 
 
 Horse-artillerr 3,131 2,478 = 5,609 
 
 Cavalry, includiug Household 
 
 Cavalry 12.907 4,312 = 17.319 
 
 Artillery 19,225 9,667 = 28,892 
 
 Engineers 5.198 428 = .5,6s;6 
 
 Infantry, including Foot-guards. 76..366 45,768 = 122,134 
 
 Service Corps 2,990 = 2,990 
 
 Colonial Corps 2,485 = 2,485 
 
 Army Hospital Corps 1,745 = 1,745 
 
 Additional force in consequence 
 
 of reinforcements to Natal 3.900 = 3,900 
 
 127,947 62,653 
 
 190,600 
 
 Under the column "India" are included only those 
 troops of the Royal army which are lent to India, and 
 paid for out of Indian revenues; the other milit;iry 
 forces in that region are enumerated under East 
 India Akmy. Of the total 190,600, 7980 are officers; 
 16,5.50 non-commissioned officers, drummers, and 
 trumpeters; and 166,070 rank and file. There are 
 voted for the use of this army 11,325 horses. The 
 total cost cannot well be estimated per head; because, 
 beside-s pay and sustenance for the soldiers, there are 
 stores and wages for fortifications and military build- 
 ings, military weapons and combustibles, and the 
 various kinds of half pay and pensions. The total 
 expenditure sanctioned by Parliament may, however, 
 conveniently be thrown under four headings, and 
 given in round numbers as follows: 
 
 Pay and allowance of cntnliatants £4,944,200 
 
 Auxiliary and Reserve Fon'es 1.258,500 
 
 Stores and works of every kind 6,817,200 
 
 Pensions, Militia,,Volunteers, etc 2^625,800 
 
 £15,M5,700 
 
 This is the charge for a Pmce Establishment, in 
 which to admit of expansion for actual war, the 
 upper ranks (which aiiinol be summarily creiited) are 
 di.sproporlionately large. 
 
 All the component elements of the anny, in prr- 
 aonnel and materu'l, and tlut organization aiul duties 
 of the troojis, will be foimd noticed under their 
 proper headings. See Armi/. 
 
 BBITTEN GUN.— This "gun has five shallow 
 grooves, and the projectile is cxpfiiiiUng, being made 
 of iron, but having a lead envelope and a wooden 
 sabot. The shell loads easily, being less in diame- 
 ter than the bore ; but when the gun is fired, 
 
 the ga.s drives the saliot against the envelope and 
 expands the lead into the grooves, .so that the .shot 
 acquires a rotatory motion. The wooden sabot is 
 now replaced by an iron s/ioc pure, which is soldered 
 to the soft-metal envelope ; it is not liable, like the 
 siibot, to jiartial .separation, and serves to protect the 
 soft metal. 
 
 BBITTEN PROJECTILE.— The most novel imd val- 
 uable part of this ]ii(iji(tile is the fastening of a lead 
 ring to an iron shot, by zinc solder, .so firmly that the 
 explosion will not strip it off. The jirocess of coating 
 is as follows : The iron projectile is heated to a dull-reu 
 heal, dipped in sal-ammoniac, which thoroughly cleans 
 the surface, held for al)out two minutes in a bath of 
 melted zinc alloyed with antimoi'V. and then jilaced 
 in a bath of melted lead, hardened with zinc or tin, for 
 three or four mimiles. It is finally plai'ed in an iron 
 mold, and lead from the last bath is jioured around it. 
 The projectile, thus coatcil, is squeezed out of the mold 
 by a screw. A wooden plug, usually screwed to the 
 bottom of this projectile, is driven against the lead, 
 and causes it to expand into the grooves. The amount 
 of projection on the ring, as the jirojectile Wiis 
 formerly constructed, regulated the pressure of the 
 lead against the bore, and was adjusted so as to just 
 stop windage without wasting power or straining the 
 gun. See Britten Chin. 
 
 BRIZUBE.— A term used with Brise and Brize, ia 
 Heraldry, to indicate that a charge is bruised or 
 broken. See liDtnpii. 
 
 BROACH. — A tapering steel tool, of prismatic form,, 
 and whose edges are used for reaming out holes. It 
 is particularly used by armorers in enlarging holes in 
 the small parts of fire-arms, etc. When smooth, it is 
 no longer a broach, but a burnisher, and is u-sed for 
 burnishing pivot-holes. The number of sides vary : 
 the smaller the numlxT, the more salient is the edge. 
 The end of a broach has as many facets as the shaft 
 has sides, and the tjing is 4-sided. 
 
 BROAD ARROW.— The English Government mark, 
 stampetl, cut, or otherwise fixed on all solid materials 
 used in Her Majesty's ships or dock-jards, and on 
 government stores generally, in order to prevent em- 
 bezzlement. The origin of the mark is obscure. 
 Previous to the year 1698, the Naval Authorities 
 prosecuted a dealer in marine stores, for having in 
 his posses,sion certain stores bearing the broad arrow 
 of His Majesty. The defendant allowed the e\idcnce 
 against him to go on, and when asked what he had to- 
 Siiy, replied that it was very carunin that the king and 
 he, as a dealer, should both have the same private 
 mark on their jiroperty. The receiver of stolen 
 goods was acquitted, and this led to the passing of the 
 Act that persons in possession of naval stores or 
 goods of any kind marked with the broad arroir, or 
 other marks therein mentioned, and usually employed 
 in marking naval stores for the navy, .shall forfeit 
 all such goods and £200, and also pay costs. The 
 mark is for iron, wood, etc., while the color-thread 
 is for sailcloth and ropes, which enables the Govern- 
 ment to identify the smallest piece of such articles. 
 
 BROAD-AXE. — A militarj' weapon used in ancient 
 times. Now obsolete. 
 
 BROADSWORD.— A sword with a broad blade, for 
 cutting only, not for stabbing, and therefore not 
 sharp at the" point, like a saber. It is but little used 
 in the service. This weapon is better known under 
 the name of dai/more. 
 
 BROADWELL RING.— A steel ring fitting into a 
 lodgment called the ring reces,s. The jiressure of the 
 powder-gas expands tht> ring agjiinsl the walls of the 
 bore and the face of the screw-plug, thus preventing 
 the escape of the ga.s. The French guns of old model 
 had the gas-check fixed to the axis of the brcech-jilug, 
 but this led to difficulties of working, particularly 
 when using very ((uick powder, and wlien the initial 
 velocities become considerable. These guns had 
 two loilgmeuts for the gas-check, the one nearer 
 the breech being reserved for the time when degra- 
 dations of the bore at the other had occurred sulfl-
 
 SBOILINO. 
 
 245 
 
 BBONZE. 
 
 cienlly to prevent a complete closure. This chaoge 
 ■was verj' efficacious in prolonging the life of the 
 piece, and only required a shorter axis for the new 
 gas-check. In the model of 1871 only one lodgment 
 IS made in the gun ; the gas-check is of the same 
 shape, but is placed by hand in the lodgment, and 
 driven up by the breech-screw. It remains m place 
 throughout the firing. The central opening is made 
 of the same diameter as the powder-chamber, and the 
 side is strengthened by a projection. It freely admits 
 the pas.sage of the ammunition. In the large guns 
 the gas-checks are made of copper, and in the small 
 ones of steel. If destroyed, they are ea.sily renewed. 
 
 'The screw-plug is made of steel, and around its cir- 
 cumference is cut a screw-thread, corresponding to 
 the one cut around ttie .screw -Ix)x in the tube ; the 
 plug and screw-box are reciprocally slotted in three 
 places, so that it can be shoved down to its licarings 
 by hand before engaging the threads. In cutting the 
 slots on the plug, the outer thread is not cut through, 
 and prevents the plug from entering beyond the 
 point where the threads vdU take each other fairly. 
 The plug is revolved by means of a rack and pinion, 
 one on the end of the lever-handle and the other on 
 the face of the breech. Two t\irns bring the handle 
 vertical with the blanks on the plug oppo.site the full 
 threads in the screw-tx)x. The plug is withdrawn 
 from the screw-box, and slides on to a curN'ed bracket 
 hinged to the right side of the breech, on which it is 
 swung around, leaWng the breech clear for loading. 
 A bronze bearer, hinged to the other side of the 
 breech, can now be swung around and pushed into 
 the screw- box. This serves to guide the projectile 
 and cartridge clear of the threads, as shown in Fig. 1. 
 On the iinier face of the plug a circular nos<--platc is 
 fitted, which is held in position by the nose plate 
 stem which passes through a hole in the center of the 
 plug, and is set up with a screw-nut in the recess of 
 the plug. The vent is axial through the center of 
 the nose-plate stem : there is no miiI -check. To 
 olnnatc the danger re- 
 sulting from a neglect 
 to screw up flic plug 
 when the breech is 
 closed, the lock-laniard, 
 which has a Ijob on it, 
 is made to pa.ss through 
 the eye, e (Fig. 2), of a 
 piece of iron fixed to 
 the bivccli. When the 
 handle is not in its place, 
 that is, when the plug is 
 not properly screwed in, 
 a spring, b, closes the 
 eye and does not allow 
 the lx)b to pa.ss. When the handle is in position with 
 the plug screwed up, it opens the eye and allows the 
 bob to pass, when the gun can be fired. See Gas- 
 check. 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 BROILING. —A convenient and expeditious mode 
 of cooking small pieces of meat, by troops in the 
 field, by laying them on a gridiron over a bright fire 
 or even on the coals themselves. This is perhaps the 
 most primitive mode of preparing meat for eating, as 
 may l)e supposed from the great ease and simpHcity 
 with which the oiwration is managed. Broiling is, 
 in fact, a quicker sort of roasting. ' The albumen of 
 the outside being sealed up at' once, the meat is 
 rendered extremely nutritious, and therefore this pro- 
 cess is much to be recommended. But fo broil meat 
 so as to preserve its odor, juice, and tiavor re(|uires 
 care. The meat should be i)re])ared for the cridiron 
 by lieing Ix-atcn slightly with the rolling-iiiii, trim- 
 med of su|X'rtiuous fat and skin, and cut «> as to look 
 Will on the dish. The lire should be perfectly clear, 
 and of a red-hot surface to answer to the size" of the 
 gridiron, that all parts of the meat may be equally 
 cooked. .lust before setting the giidiroii over, some 
 salt should be sprinkled on the "fire to prevent the 
 flare. The gridiron should be perfectlv clean and 
 smooth, being always rubbed when it is put away; 
 and, before using, it" should Ijc wanned, peasi'il wiih 
 suet, and rubbed again wiUi paj^er. When it is 
 placed on the fire, the back should be higher than 
 the front. The meal should never be touched with a 
 fork, but turned rapidly with the broiling-tongs; and 
 when sufficiently done,"should be .servwl Immediately 
 on a verj- hot dish, being sea.'ioned according to taste. 
 In large ranges in the garrison there should be a 
 broiling-stove, and an apparatus for broiling suited to 
 il; by this the heat of the fire can be easily regulated. 
 But for all ordinan,- purposes, a fire of charcoal, or of 
 common coal, and a grooved gridiron to preserve the 
 gravy, are all that is necessarj'. 
 
 BROKE. — The sentence of a Court-Martial depriv- 
 ing an Officer of his commission, or a Non-com- 
 missioned Officer or Warrant-officer of his warrant. 
 Also said of a Non-commissioned Oflicer being re- 
 duced bv ordo!-. 
 
 BROKEN LINE OF BATTLE.— A line of battle in 
 which some of the fiaitions, as brigades, diWsions, 
 etc., are .separated by the nature of the ground so 
 that it is not practicable to form upon it a continuous 
 line. This arrangement is sometimes known as a 
 line of Iiattle vith intenah. It follows that in a line 
 of battle of this kind, the different corps or divisions, 
 being separated from each other, cannot give that 
 mutual aid and assistance which is so essential to 
 success. It is therefore an arrangement which is not 
 to be recommended except under jxculiar circum- 
 stances. When used, it is more generally employed 
 for a defcn.sivo than for an offensive battle, and 
 especially under the circumstances where it becomes 
 neces.saiy to give a great extent to the line of defense. 
 Although the fractions on the same line c.innot come 
 to each other's assistance, great care is taken lo have 
 the reserve so placed that it may have free and easy 
 ac< ess to all parts of the line. 
 
 BRONCO. — The name applied to the Mexican pony, 
 extensively reared and used west of the Rocliv 
 Mountains. The power of endurance of these ani- 
 mals is veiT great, and they are well adapted lo the 
 cavalrj- service in Uio rugged and arid coimtry of the 
 AVestern frontier. 
 
 BRONZE. — Bronze is a mixture or alloy of copjier 
 an<l tin. That particular sort of bronze formerly 
 used for gims is often called gim-metal, and consists 
 of about 90 parts of copixr and 10 of tin Bronze is 
 a tough and tenacious metal, but when cast or 
 founded in the ordinary way it is comparatively soft 
 and is easily indented and damaged by the projectile. 
 When heated, as, for instance, by rdjiid tiring, this 
 metal l)ccomcs still softer and so more readily dam- 
 aged. For the small smooth-bore gims formerly tise<l 
 in the field bronze answered tolerably well, as the 
 weight of shot was comparatively small ; but with 
 rifled guns using much luinier charges, bronze is not 
 found to be a sufficiently gooil material. Besides the 
 faults above mentioned, which are inherent to bronzo
 
 BRONZE. 
 
 246 
 
 BEONZE. 
 
 cast in the ortUmiry wny, even when the casting is 
 sound, (his alloy has the serious tiefeet of never l)eing 
 quite homogeneous. The tin has a much lower melt- 
 ing ]X)itil than copper (442 F. as compared to 1800' 
 F.), while its s|K'citic gravity is also very dillerent 
 (and although lietinite alloys cjin he fountf, they are 
 not represented by the al)ove i)roportion, nor such sis 
 would answer lor gun-inetals). While cooling, the 
 two metals fonning the alloy seem to separate more 
 or less from one another, the tin liquating or sweating 
 out in parts and causing white spots or blotches called 
 "tin-spots," which are readily acte<l upon by the 
 p)Owder-gas and eaten away, leiuTng flaws or holes in 
 the bore of the gun. In rifled guns this defect is 
 much more serious than in smooth-bore pieces, for 
 the grooves cut in the bore lay open a further surface 
 and exjwse more tin-spots, while the powder-gas acts 
 with greater force (on account of the larger charges 
 and heavier projectiles used), and eats away the .spots 
 more quickly. With smooth-bore bronze guiLS much 
 inconvenience was ocuisioned by the softness of this 
 alloy, especially when heated by rapid firing; and as 
 experience was gained concerning rifled ordnance in 
 the field, it was foimd that the defects inherent to 
 ordinary bronze were, as mentioned above, still more 
 serious in .such pieces. Their accuracy was affected 
 by much firing, and the greater pressure in the pow- 
 der-chamber quickly developed flaws by burning out 
 the tin-spots. The cutting of the grooves also laid 
 bare many of these spots, which otherwise would not 
 have been apparent. 
 
 Various attempts have been made to discover a 
 modification of bronze, or some analogous alloy, suf- 
 
 iron mold) showed n tenacity of about 25 tons per 
 sijuare inch. Notwithstanding this, however. Colo- 
 nel l{<5s.set concluded that it was not adWsjible to em- 
 ploy such an alloy in gun-manufacture on account of 
 the unstable character of phosphiirus, and the great 
 (iilficulty of securing uniformity of re.siUt in the mix- 
 ture of this element with bronze. Russia, too, has- 
 been making much advance in the working of bronze, 
 and is manufacturing some pt)werful ex-perimental 
 field-guns (LavToflf guns) of this alloy treated in the 
 sjime way as described with regard to the Austrian 
 " I'chatius" field-pieces. 
 
 In Austria great attention has always been paid to 
 brony.e and analogous alloys, and General Von Ucha- 
 tius, the Director of the Gun-foundry at Vienna, has 
 for years studied the subject. In a lecture lately de- 
 livered by him, he tells us that about three years ago 
 his attention was particularly called to a fragment of 
 bronze, cast under pressure, which the Archduke 
 ^Villiam had brought from Russia. lie found the 
 properties of this inetal so far superior to those of 
 bronze cast in the ordinarj' way tliat he was led to 
 researches which resulted in his casting bronze in an 
 iron mold, or chill-casting, and at the same time 
 chilling the interior of the mass by means of a core of 
 solid copper, or otherwise. This bronze, which is an 
 ordinary alloy, containing 8 per cent of tin, can be 
 forged cold, and po.s.scs.scs man.y of the properties of 
 steel, and has, consequently, been termed " bronze- 
 steel"; it possesses, however, apparently, the advan- 
 t^ige over steel of being a safer material when em- 
 ployed alone. The following table exhibits the me- 
 chanical properties of United States bronze: 
 
 Nature. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Tenacity 
 
 per sq. 
 
 mch. 
 
 Limit of 
 
 elasticity 
 
 per sq." 
 
 inch. 
 
 Elo.ngation. 
 
 Hard- 
 
 Ulti- 
 mate. 
 
 Elastic. 
 
 ness. 
 
 y, - ,- 1 P^pppch sfiimrft 
 
 90 parts copper.... 
 10 parts tin 
 
 8.765 
 8.444 
 
 Lbs. 
 46,500 
 27.400 
 60,000 
 29,8.59 
 42,754 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Perct. 
 
 
 0.8. Navy guns -j Qun-head?... ..."....: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Do 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8.497 
 
 8.M7 
 
 8.766 
 
 8.800 
 
 8.4142 
 
 8.79T3 
 
 
 
 
 
 TT o » -rt«T,i Small bars 
 
 90 parts copper. . . 
 10 parts tin 
 
 
 
 
 4 57 
 
 U.S. Army fleld-guns..-^ Finished gua 
 
 
 
 
 5.94 
 
 1 Small bars 
 
 52,000 
 
 55,800 
 50,SJ1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Reed bra«s (South Boston Iron Company) 
 
 West Point fomidry bronze, for life-saving ( 
 
 Copper, zinc 
 
 90 parts copper 
 
 9,000 
 17,000 
 20,000 
 
 24 
 
 56 
 42 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 200 
 
 6.27 
 4.57 
 
 South Boston Iron Company bronze, condensed 1 
 
 Uucondensed 
 
 Condensed 
 
 8 .WIS 
 8.7065 
 
 35,810 
 51,571 
 
 5.40 
 
 
 
 
 18.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ficiently hard, elastic, and strong for the purpose re- 
 quired; but as yet, unless the bronze-steel mentioned 
 below be a success, all these attempts have failed. 
 It has also been attempted to improve its quality both 
 in hardness and homogeneity by altering the propor- 
 tions of the two constituents, and by adding small 
 portions of other metals or non-metals, such as man- 
 ganese and phosphorus. Phosphor-bronze contain- 
 ing small quantities of phosphorus has been exten- 
 sively tried, and gives a metal of more uniform char- 
 acter and also stronger than bronze. In 1872 an ex- 
 haustive trial was undertaken at Bourges by the 
 French Government with 4-pdrs. ; four of these pieces 
 were cast, two being of onlinarv bronze and two of 
 an alloy of i)liosphor-bronze. 'f he superiority of the : 
 latter over the guns cast from orilinary bronze was so 
 slight that the Committee carrying on "the experiments 
 concluded that any advantages were more than neu- 
 tralized by the necessity of adding the phosphoms iu 
 very exact proportions, and so further complicating 
 themainifa<'ture of bronze .sruns. Colonel R<j.s.set, of 
 th<' Italian Artillery, Superinten<lent of the Arsenal at 
 Turin, has for some years past been carrying on a 
 series of interesting trials with regard to lironze and 
 other metals in the Arsenal at Turin, where a 7..5c. 
 gun of phosphor-bronze was tested in comparison 
 with others of ordinary bronze. This gun stood the 
 trial well, and the alloy from which it was cast (in an 
 
 The work done in stretching to the elastic limit, 
 and the point of fracture, is less for ordinary bronze 
 than for wrought-iron of maximum ductility, and for 
 low steel. This defect, added to the costliness of 
 bronze, to the various embarrassments experienced in 
 the casting of large mas.ses, its softness and conse- 
 ((uently rajiid wear and compression, and to its injury 
 b\' heat, has not warranted its employment for large 
 calibers and high charges. The mean ultimate cohe- 
 sion of bronze, according to European authorities and 
 the experiments of the United States Government, is 
 aljout 33,000 pomids per square inch. Rifled bronze 
 guns would l)e naturally more liable to rapid deterio- 
 ration than smooth-bores, as the w<'ights of projectile 
 and charge are much greater in the former in com- 
 jnirison to the area acted upon, and consequently the 
 local heating at the seat of the charge is much more 
 intense, thus tending to separate the copper and tin 
 more or less from each other, forming those tin-spots 
 and jiorous patches which injure the strength of the 
 material. The reduction of windage also, in the 
 rirte-gnn, would tend to increase this local heating, 
 and it must Ix; remembered that bronze becomes hot 
 very easily, and tin melts very soon (442° F.); more- 
 over, the grooves in a rifle-gun o))en out many tin- 
 spots which would remain unexposed in a smooth- 
 Iwre. See Cannoii-metaU, Vmitpramsd Bronze, and 
 Pho»phor-brome.
 
 BBONZE GUH8. 
 
 24^ 
 
 BBONZ£ OXmS, 
 
 BBONZE GUNS.— The circumstances of chief diffi- 
 culty and import;ince in the manipulation of bronze 
 affectinjr the production of cannon are: 1. The chemi- 
 cal constitution of the alloy as intiucncinij the balance 
 of hardness and tenacity. 2. Its chemical constitution 
 and other conditions influencing the segregation of 
 the cooling mass of the gun when cast into two or 
 more alloys of different and often variable constitu- 
 tions. 3. The effect of rapid and slow cooling and of 
 the temperature at which tlie metal is fused and poured. 
 4. The effect due to repeated fusions and to foreign 
 constituents in minute proportions entering the alloy. 
 In bronze, suflicient hardness must be secured to 
 resist longest the abrasions of projectiles and deflagra- 
 tion of powder; along with the greatest ultimate tena- 
 city, there must be certain rigidity and ductility with 
 ultimate cohesion; hardness and rigidity increase with 
 the proportions of tin; ductility and tenacity with that 
 of the copper, but not in direct ratio; .specific gravity 
 increa.ses with copper. The fusibility is greater than 
 copper, and less than tin; ultimate colii-sion less than 
 that of tough copper, but greater than that of tin; 
 ductility greater than tin, but less than copijer; hard- 
 ness greater than either. In consequence of the dif- 
 ference in the fusibility of tin and copper, the perfec- 
 tion of the alloy depends much on the nature of the 
 furnace and treatment of the melted metal. Bj- these 
 means alone the tenacity of bronze has Ix'cn carried at 
 the Wa.shiugton navy -yard as high as 60,000 lbs. 
 
 The first step in tJie fabrication of bronze guns at 
 the foundry is to make an accurate working drawing 
 of the gun, on a convenient scale, showing all lines 
 clearly and with all its dimensions distinctly marked. 
 The subsequent steps vary according to tlie method 
 proposed to be used in casting, formerly bronze 
 guns were cast in loam or sand molds, but these have 
 been superseded by a thick mold of cast-iron, called a 
 chill. When cast in chills, bronze is denser, stronger, 
 and more uniform than in sand; there is less liability 
 of a separation of tin, or forming of a tin-copper alloy 
 differing from bronze. A description of the process 
 of casting in .s<ind will supply details required for an 
 understanding of the chill-ca.sting. W/uii a cnsliiuj U 
 desired in siiiid, a wooden pattern of the gun is made, 
 following the shape of the drawing, but larger in all 
 its dimensions, both by the shrinkage of the casting 
 and also by the amount allowed for finishing, of 
 never less than 1 inch over the finished diameter. 
 The pattern is also made longer than required for the 
 gun-casting, to form a sinking-head of a diameter 
 about equal to that of the gun at the muzzle, and with 
 a volume or weight, for ordinarj" guns, a1)out one 
 third that of the whole casting. This sinking-head 
 supplies fluid metal to the casting as the latter cools, 
 and receives any cinder or dross that would otherwise 
 remain in and injure the casting. The sinking-head 
 is cut off as soon as practicable after casting. The 
 pattern is formed by planing the surfaces of moderate- 
 ly thick, clear plank, and gluing pieces of different 
 widths together, the widest next the center of the 
 
 Eattern, until a sufficient thickness is obtained f^reach 
 alf the entire pattern, divided longitudinallj-. Two 
 or more steadying- pins are then fixed in one half of 
 the rougli pattern, with corresponding holes in the 
 other half, the surfaces ha\-ing been fitted neatly to 
 each other. The halves are clamped firmly together, 
 carefully centered and turned in a lath to the proper 
 dimensions. All projecting parts not annular must 
 he attach(;d to the patteiTi in separate pieces fitted to 
 the turned surfaces of the partly finished pattern. 
 Thus, separate pieces are turned for the trunnions. 
 Including the rimbases, the siglit-ma.sscs, etc., and 
 fastened to the pattern in their proper positions by 
 pins in the wood, so that they may be readily re 
 niovcil. The whole pattern is carefully finished and 
 smoothed with sand-paper, the angles and corners 
 well rounded, and varnished to protect the wood from 
 the moisture of the Rjind. The pattern and loose.: 
 pieces are legibly marked. i 
 
 The/<M/fc is longer than the entire pattern including I 
 
 the sinking-head, and contains sufficient sand around 
 the pattern to permit proper ramming and to make 
 the mold sufficiently secure, leaving room enough for 
 the runner or gate" at the side of the patteni. The 
 fla.sk Is of hexagonal shape, divided longiluduially in 
 two parts; each half has strong longitudinal flanges, 
 and is strengthened crosswise by ribs running from 
 flange to flange. Each side of the half fla.sk which 
 adjoins the flange is solid, but the third side, which 
 lies uppermost in molding, is open save where the ribs 
 ero.ss it. This opening from one end to the other is 
 for ramming, and is closed by movable plates, which 
 are held down upon the sand by means of wedges 
 ilriven under the ribs. For mvlding, half of the pat- 
 tern is laid upon a flat surface — " follow-bourd" — 
 which is somewhat larger than the flask. The latter 
 is placed over the half pattern. AV ell-tempered .sjmd 
 mixed with clay and beer-lees is then nmimed uni- 
 formly all around and over the pattern, so as to be of 
 equal density and hardness throughout. The loose 
 Iilates are then keyed down, the flask raisiil and 
 turned over, and the surface of the sand closely 
 sprinkled with fine, imadhesive parting-sand. The 
 second half of the pattern is laid exactly on the firet 
 and kept in place by the steadying-pins; the other 
 half of the flask put on, keyed to its fellow, tilled 
 with sand, and rammed evenly round as before and 
 its plates keyed down. The two halves of the flask 
 are then separated, the pattern removed, the main 
 runner cut with a suitable tool along the sand on the 
 surface where the flasks part, being made funnel- 
 shaped at the top. Half the runner lies in each part 
 of the flask, the main gate is cut from the bottom of 
 the runner into the mold, and other gates above it. 
 The main gate is cut tangent to the circumference of 
 the mold, that the metal as it rises may receive a ro- 
 tary motion. The mold is put into a drjingoven, 
 rai.sed to a high heat, 300 degrees or more, and thor- 
 oughly dried. The whole surface of the sand-mold 
 is carefully coated with a wash of graphite, fire-clay, 
 and molasses and water, and the mold dried afiain for 
 a few houi-s. When it is ready for the casting the 
 flask is placed in the pit upright on end. 
 
 When a chill is used, the process is as follows: The 
 chill conforming to the curves of the pattern unites 
 the functions of the flask and of the sand-mold, and 
 by its high conducting power rapidly extracts the 
 heat of the metal cast within it. The working draught 
 of the gun being made as before, a drawing of the 
 chill is made giving the dimensions required. From 
 this the pattei-n is prepared, so much being addtd to 
 even,- dimension, that when cold after casting the in- 
 terior sizes of the chill may be those required by the 
 ca.sting of the gun. The "chill is best dividctl longi- 
 tudinally into halves on a plane at right angles to fhe 
 trunnions, and also horizontally into two, or, if the 
 gun is long, into more sections, the lower two of 
 which, one'on each side, contain thereces.ses forming 
 the trunnions and rimba.ses. Four pieces are provided 
 with flanges for clamping them together. An addi- 
 tional section, added for the cascabel. is made with a 
 broad flange upon which the whole chill when keyed 
 together st'curely stands. The gun-casting proixT is 
 thus inclosed in a cast-iron mold, and is quickly 
 chilled. The sinking-head is molded in dry sand, 
 that it mav remain liquid to feed the casting as long 
 as possibfe. The pattern for the sinking-head is a 
 cvlindrical piece of wood, of proper diameter and 
 length, which is placed within a long cylindrioil 
 flask, open at both ends, and withdrawn after the .sand 
 has been rammed around it. This flask, or '•pot," 
 is made, fitted, and fa.stened to the top of the chill 
 Two patterns are requisite for the chill proper, and 
 one for the base. They are made frt)m the projicr 
 drawing like those for o"rdinary sand-castings, die in- 
 ternal dimensions being fixed as in the method pre- 
 viously described, bv the shrinkage of the alloy and 
 the amount left for "finishing. The walls of the chiU 
 mav be from 2A to 3i inches thick. After the castings 
 are" made they are carefully smoothed or bored out
 
 fiBONZ£-ST££L. 
 
 248 
 
 BB0NZ£.8T££L. 
 
 ■when practicable; and all corners, especially in ibe 
 trunnion-molds, likclv to retain pis or to catch dross 
 in i-nstinj: uR' carefully snuMithed over and rounded, 
 
 W/i,ii ii c<i,sliiig M I'/ b( iiiiule, the parts of the chill 
 are cleaned, fi\slened together, covered inside with a 
 wash of tire-day, molasses and water, and heated to 
 a niwlerately lii!:h heal in an oven. At casting, the 
 chill is brought out and the sinking-head mold 
 keye<i to it. The metal may be poured direct into the 
 mold or through a si'panite runner at the side opening 
 into the chill "at the bottom. If poured direct, the 
 stream falls from the top straight downwaifl from a 
 small 1ki,\ lined with .sand, which receives the metal 
 from the ladle. If a side runner is used, it is divided 
 longitudinally: the halves are fastened together by 
 tlauges and liolts. The base of the chill is" fitted to 
 receive the runner, which is, at the bottom, contained 
 in a ca.st-iron liox twlted to the chill and leading hori- 
 zontally into the opening. Each half of the pijie 
 receives the sand fortlienmner, which is also molded 
 as above and dried in an oven. The side runner has 
 the advantage of keeping the metal cleaner in the 
 casting tlirough the rotary motion imparled by the 
 stream flowing into the mold tangentially, but it is 
 apt to leave the sinking-head too cool, and hence the 
 latter is, in any case, best poured direct after the mold 
 or chill has been filled above the top of the gun. 
 
 Jil/r ranting it is most convenient to place the chills 
 or flasks in a pit, P, in such a position as to lie easily 
 reached by the crane-ladle, O, used for pouring. The 
 
 
 pit may contain several chills at once, and the crane, 
 M, commands Ixilh the furnace .nnd the))il. As soon 
 as the lircmze is melled the liidle is brought beneath 
 the tapping-hole, X, the metal tapped into it, and the 
 ladle swung around over the chills. Tin fiiriKtff is 
 reverbcratorj-, fired with soft bilununous coal, and is 
 so conslnicted that the metal as it mells nms into a 
 pool at the end furthest from the lire, thus remoxing 
 it from the immediate action of the flame. The bot- 
 tom of the furnace is made of fire-clay rammed hard. 
 A door of convenient size is placeil in the side of the 
 furnace for charging, taking samples of molten metal 
 for test, etc., and the tapping-hole is usually placed 
 under it for convenience of acress. The furnace is 
 charged by laying the metal selected, which may be 
 either old guns or sinking-heads, or new cojjper. or 
 chips from the latlie, on iKiards on the lH)ttom of the 
 furnace, disiributing it carefully s(j as to expose all 
 pieces properly to the flame, that they may come into 
 
 fusion at about the same time. The copper is charged 
 as Iwught ir pigs, Ijut guns and heads are cut up into 
 pieces of convenient size. The tin is charged in the 
 shape of small ingots recast for the purpose, alxmt 1'2 
 inches long by i mch square. 
 
 The roiiijkiiition of (he charge is varied to suit the 
 metal u.sed, but the total weight must be sufficient to 
 cast the gun and sinking-head an<l leave some surplus. 
 For the 'Si-inch rifle cist in 187(5 the charge was as 
 follows: 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Old guns cut up 2650 
 
 New copper in ingots 830 
 
 Tin, in small bars 104 
 
 Total 351M 
 
 The whole casting weighed 3126 jiounds, for a fin- 
 ished weight in the gun of 1323 pounds. The riser 
 when cut off weighed TOO pounds, and there was a 
 waste in the furnace of 1.6 per cent. After the old 
 bronze or copper has been charged, the furnace is 
 closed and fired up genlly at first and more strono:ly 
 as the metal shiks down away from the flame, which 
 must always 1h> kept smoky, i.e., of a reducing char- 
 acter. Wiien the bronze or copper is melted the tin 
 is added ; it is thrown into the bath at dlffereut 
 lioints and worked under the surface as much as jios- 
 sible, as it floats buoyantly till alloyed. The bath may 
 be stirred thoroughly wiih an iron bar, or, if much 
 old metal be iised, with a pole of green wood. After 
 the metal is wholly melted it is kept in fusion for some 
 time — about htdf an hour — in order that a thorough 
 alloy may be effected, and a proper temperature be 
 reached for casting. The alloy is examined for its 
 cold fracture by means of specimens taken out of the 
 furnace in a small ladle. When the fracture is 
 brought to the proper yeilow-red color, judged by ex- 
 perience, and the heat has reached the proper point, 
 the bronze is ready for casting. For the gun alwve 
 quoted, the furnace was lighted at 8 a.m., the 
 metal melted at 10.25 a.m., and the casting was made 
 at 11.30 A.M., or in 3 hours and 30 minutes in all. 
 
 The tendency of bronze to separate into alloys of 
 different composition is so strong that specimens taken 
 at different heights in the mold exhibit very different 
 densities and strengths. A series of specimens cast in 
 the same .sand-mold with the gun and contiguous to 
 it. but separate from the gun-casting proper, showed 
 a constant decrease of strength from the cascabel to 
 the siuking-head, as follows: 
 
 AVBRAOB. 
 
 Bottom 
 of sink- 
 ing-head. 
 
 Side 
 speci- 
 men A. 
 
 Side 
 speci- 
 men B. 
 
 Side 
 speci- 
 men C. 
 
 Finished 
 
 gun as a 
 
 whole. 
 
 Densitv 
 
 Tenacity 
 
 8.440 ' 8.597 
 26 760 < .19 S(U 
 
 8.B60 
 41,974 
 
 8.686 
 43,062 
 
 8 649 
 
 
 
 
 The average density of one hundred and twenty-four 
 34-pounder bronze howitzers, made for the Xavy De- 
 partment ill 1863 and 1864, between the South Boston 
 foundry-numbers 1417 and 1693, was 8.722, and aver- 
 age tenacity ■'ill. (141 pounds per scpiare inch. The 
 averages of forlv-five guns, from No. 434 to 478, in- 
 clusive, were (lensity 8.653, and tenacity 33,665 
 pounds per square inch. On the other hand, nine 
 guns included in the first series, and made between 
 foundry-numbers 15.56 ;uid 1615, exhibited an average 
 densitv of 8.804. aiul an average tenacity of 60,6l0 
 IxuinJs to the s(|uareinch. See /)<"«» Field-gun, Ord- 
 niinri', and I'rlmtiiiK (hit). 
 
 BRONZE-STEEL.— This name is given to the metal 
 obtained by the process of General Von Uchatiusof the 
 Ausiri;in service, anil Lavroff in the Russian service. 
 The metal is obtained bycnsling bronze in a chill- 
 mold and forging it cold. The guns are made by 
 casting on a core in a chill mold. The gun is then 
 inclosed in a steel casing, and the bore expanded by
 
 BEONZINO. 
 
 249 
 
 BBOWNINO. 
 
 forcing in steel mandrels slightly tapered, and grad- 
 ually increasing in size, by which tin- diameter of the 
 bore is increased 5 or 6 per cent, and tlic Imrdncss in- 
 creased. This has the effect of ])iittnig the interior 
 metal in a state of compression, and llie exterior in a 
 state of tension, while the metal has almost the 
 strength, hardness, and elasticity of steel. See Bronze 
 anil ffUvl. 
 
 BRONZING. — The process of covering articles so as 
 to conmiimicate to them the apiieanmce of ordinary 
 bronze. Gun-barrels are bronzed by acting upon 
 them with the chloride or butter of antimony {hronz- 
 jHi/ salt), or with hydrochloric or nitric acids, when 
 the surface of the iron gets partially eaten into and 
 covered with a thin film of o.xide; after whieli tlic 
 gun-barrel is thoroughly cleaneti, oiled, and bur- 
 nished. A browni.sh shade is thus communicated to 
 the barrel, which protects it from rust and at the 
 Siime time renders it less conspicuous to an enemy. 
 In the bronzing operation known as the Damascus, 
 the barrel is treated with dilute nitric acid and vin- 
 egar, to which sulphate of copjx-r has been added. 
 The result is that metallic copper is deposited ir- 
 regularly over the iron surface; and when the latter 
 is wa.shed, oiled, and well rubl»ed with a hard brush, 
 a very pretty aj)i>earance is commimicated to the 
 barrel. See lin^iriiinii. 
 
 BROOKE HOOPED GUN.— A cast-iron gim, hooped 
 with wrought-iron rings. Although slightly hooped, 
 the tine quality of material insures considerable en- 
 <lurance. One gim is stated to have tired double 
 charges without injury. The T-inch gun (all other 
 calibers are similar in design) is used with 14 pounds 
 of powder and an 80-pound shell. The following are 
 its particulars: 
 
 Total length 146.0.5 inches. 
 
 Length of bore 119.90 " 
 
 Length of wrought-iron rein- 
 force ■. 30.00 " 
 
 Length muzzle to center of 
 
 tnnmions 80.50 " 
 
 Length center of trunnions to 
 
 forward end of reinforce. . . 10.90 " 
 
 Diameter of bore 7.00 " 
 
 Diameter of muzzle 14.55 " 
 
 Diameter of cylindrical ]iart 
 
 of casting under reinforce.. S7.20 " 
 
 Diameter over reinforce 31.20 " 
 
 The rifling consists of seven grooves -^ inch deep, 
 veni' slightly rounded at the corners, with one turn 
 in forty feet. The grooves vanish as they approach 
 the chanil)er. The gtm reseml)les Parrotf's in shape 
 and construction, except that the reinforcing band is 
 made u]! of rings not welded together. See Ordimiirf. 
 BROTH. — An infusion or decoction of vegetalile 
 ■and animal substances in water. It is customary in 
 the army to use more or less meat, generally ox-flesh, 
 with bone, and certain vegetables, as cabliage, greens, 
 turnips, carrots, jjeas, beans, onions, etc. The whole 
 are mixed together in cold water, heat slowly aii]ilied, 
 and the materials allowed to simmer f:;r sonx' hours. 
 The meat yields up certain ingredients, whilst others 
 are retained in the residual flesh. The following 
 will illustrate this : Ox-flesh heated with water 
 yields to the water albuminous matter, gelatine, kre- 
 iifinc, extractive matters or osmazomc, lactic acid, salts, 
 fat, and saccharine matter; and leaves in the l)oiled 
 me;it flbrin, coagulated albumen, gelatinous tissue, fat, 
 and nervous matter. The vegetables yicM albumi- 
 nous constituent.s, coloring and mucilaginous matter, 
 and volatile oils and sjilts. The real nutritive mate- 
 rial present in broth is less than is generally thought, 
 though it aids in satisfying the cravings of the ajipe- 
 tite. In the hospital," however, the form of broth 
 known as l)eef-tca is of great imiuirtancc. as it aflfords 
 the weak and sickly stomach a light jjalalable article 
 of cliet at ;i time when stronger food would do the 
 weakened system much harm. 
 
 BROUGHTON GUNS.— A variety of very excellent 
 anas bearing this name have been mventcd and tested, 
 
 — three of which compare verj' favorably with the 
 well-known arm.s of their respective systenis. 
 
 No. 1 is a breech-loading nfle having a tixed cham- 
 ber closed by a movable breech-block rotating al)out 
 a vertical axis at 90 degrees to the axis of the barrel, 
 and not in the plane of the a.xis of the barrel (all to 
 the right and in front). This piece is opened by 
 drawing back the firing-bolt to cock the |)iece, and 
 pressing down on the thumb-piece to liberate a spring- 
 catch in the breech-block from its notch in the re- 
 ceiver, and to allow the block to swing outwar-l and 
 fonvard until nearly parallel to the barnl. The 
 guard is connected with the receiver by an underctit 
 groove in front and a .spring-catch in rear, and when 
 detached from the gun carries with it the lock 
 complete. 
 
 Ko. 2 is a breech-loading rifle having a fixed cham- 
 ber closed by a movable breech-block which rotates 
 about a horizontal axis at 90 degrees to the axis of 
 the barrel, lying alwve the axis of the band and in 
 front. This piece is opened by cocking the )iiece so 
 as to withdraw the nose of the hannncr from the 
 counter-bore of the firing-pin hole, and dien pressing 
 forward the latch-lever, which passes through tlie 
 firing-pin, until the head of the ]iin is disengaged 
 from the corresponding cavity in the receiver, and 
 the breech-block is free to swing ujiward and for- 
 ward over the barrel. The action does not differ ma- 
 terially from that of the Springfield. 
 
 Xo. 3 is a breech-loading rifle having a fixed 
 chamlx-r closed by a movable breech-block which ro- 
 tates about a horizontal axis at 90 degrees to the axis 
 of the barrel, lying below the axis of the barrel and 
 in front, being moved from Ix'low by a lever. By 
 the first motion of depressing the lever, which is 
 pivoted on the breech-block near its rearmost comer, 
 its upper end prc.s.ses back the locking-brace from 
 mider the lock. It thus allows the block to swing 
 downward and backward, as .soon as by the contin- 
 ued motion of the lever it strikes the under surface 
 of the block so as to cause its revolution aI)out the 
 block-pin, and to cx]K)se the chamber for the insertion 
 of the charge. As the locking-brace is pushed back 
 it also lirings the hammer to the half-cock. 
 
 BROW-BAND.— A band of a bridle, head -stall, or 
 halter, which passes in front of the horse's forehead, 
 and has loops at its ends, through which pass the 
 check-straps, 
 
 BROWN BESS.— A very ancient and quite renowned 
 smooth-bore fire-arm. This mn.skel helped to win 
 the battles of Marlborough and old Fritz, of Welling- 
 ton and Xppoleon, and figures largely in militarj" 
 history. 
 
 BROWN BILL. — The ancient weapon of the Eng- 
 lish loiit-sohliers, resembling a battle-axe. 
 
 BROWN COAL. — A mineral substance of vegetable 
 origin, like common coal, l)ut differing from it in its 
 more distinctly fibrous or woody fonnation, which 
 is sometimes .so perfect that the original structure of 
 the wood can be discerned by the microscoiH', while 
 its external fonn is also not unfreciuently preserved. 
 In this state it is often called iriuHl-nntl ; and it some- 
 times occurs so little mineralized that it may be u.sed 
 for the purposes of wood, as at Vitry, on the banks of 
 the Seine, where the wood-work of a house has ln'cn 
 made of it. From this to the most ix'rfcctly miner- 
 alized state it occvirs in all different stages. It is 
 often brown or brownish black, more rarely gray. It 
 bums without swelling or nnmiiig, witli a weaker 
 flame than coal ; emits in burning a smell like that 
 of peat, and leaves an ash more resembling that of 
 wood than of coal. Wherever it occurs in sullicient 
 abundance it is used for fuel, although verj- inferior 
 to common coal. Borey coal, so called from Bovcv 
 Tracey, in Devonshire, where extensive ix'ds of it 
 occur," and where it has long Ix-cn wrought, is brown 
 coal, and often exhibits the woody stmclure vei-y 
 beautifully. See Coal. 
 
 BROWNING.— Browning is the coating given to a 
 gun to protect it from the'action of the atmosphere,
 
 BBOWN FIOMENTS. 
 
 250 
 
 BBOWN SIGHT. 
 
 and to prevent the surface from reflecting the sun- 
 light. The process of browning small-arms consists 
 in forming a coat of rust, with a mixture of such 
 inaterials as tipirits of iriiu; blue vitriol, tiiifttire of 
 »ted, nitric acid, etc., on tlie clean surface of the biir- 
 rel, and then rubbing it well with a »teH ncnitc/i-c/ird 
 until it has a metallic luster. This operation is 
 repeated about a dozen times, until the coating has a 
 deep brown color. The barril is then washed with 
 boiling water, to disst)lve away any of the corroding 
 mixture that may remain, imd, when cold, is covered 
 with spenn-oil. AVhen the browning has l«?en worn 
 away in places, it may be entirely removed — fii-st by 
 boiling in lime-water, to remove the varnish or 
 grease, and then soaking in vineg-ar, which loosens 
 the browning so that it can be wiped away with 
 a rag. 
 The following method, embodj'ing seven operations. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 is used for browning small-arms at the National 
 Armorj': 
 
 First Operation.— The first operation with the barrel 
 is to oil the bore wdth pure sperm, and plug each end 
 to prevent the entrance of cither lime-icaUr, boiling 
 water, or the browning mixture. 
 
 Secvnd Operation.— V\&ce a number of the barrels in 
 a tank of boiling ^Hf-watcr, and allow them to 
 remain thirty minutes, until all grea.se is removed. 
 After this brush off the lime with a clean brush, and 
 avoid touching the barrels with the hand. 
 
 Third Operation. — Apply evenly with a clean fine 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 sponge a coating of the browning mixture"; the bar- 
 rels are then placed on a rolling or movable frame 
 (Fig. 1). The frame is then rolled into the steam-case, 
 having received its complement of liarrels. 
 
 Fourth Operation. — Kusting the barrels is accom- 
 plished in six or seven hours in the steam-case, at a 
 temperature of 85' and humidity of 70 ]jer cent, 
 determined by the thermometer and psychrometcr.' 
 By reducing the supply of steam the 'barrels can 
 remain for a greater length of time (overnight). 
 
 Fifth Operation.— \\vma\e the barrels from the 
 steam-case and iMace them in the hot-water tank 
 (water heated by coils of steam-pipe), where they 
 
 remain iea fifteen minutes, when all trace of acid dis- 
 
 apiK-ars. 
 
 Sijcth Operation. — An expert operative then passes 
 the barrel obliquely acro.ss the surface of a revolving 
 brus/i-icheel, thereby removing all loose particles of 
 oxide (Fig. 2). This wheel is about twelve inches in 
 diameter ancl four or live inches thick, set on peri- 
 phery with Russia bristles, and has about eight or 
 nine hundred revolutions per minute. 
 
 S-'fenth Operation. — The operative, after brushing 
 the barrel (which is accomplished in a few mo- 
 ments), in like manner holds it obliquely across the 
 face or surface of the card-wheel (the teeth of which 
 are Ix'nt backward) until the surface of tlie ban-el is 
 carded or bvimished evenly. The card-wheel (Fig. 2)^ 
 
 FiQ. 3. 
 
 revolving at the same rate as the brush-wheel, accom- 
 plishes its work in a few moments. After the seventh 
 operation the barrels are ready to receive the second 
 coat of browTiing, when the seven operations before 
 enumerated are repeated. In like manner the third 
 and fuurth applications of the mixture are followed 
 by the several steps before noted. 
 
 The browning of bayonets, bayonet-scabbards, bay- 
 onet-clasps, and ramrods is accomplished in the same 
 general manner as for barrels (Fig. 3). For con- 
 venience a steel spring handle is used to hold the 
 rammer. After the varioas parts are browned they 
 are well coated with cosmoline or olive-oil. 
 
 To Broirn a G-un. — Scrape clean ; scnib with fresh 
 water, .sand, and canvas ; allow to dry ; wipe off ; 
 apply a strong solution of salt and vinegar three or 
 four times a day for two days, or until a good coat of 
 rust is formed ; allow to dry, then rub lightly with 
 old canvas ; apply a thin coat of the following mix- 
 ture, rubbing it in well : 4 lbs. beeswax, melted and 
 strained ; .50 oz. pure vilrol (white), or 1 oz. pul- 
 verized alum ; 1 gallon spirits of turiientinc. Allow 
 to dry until next day ; then put on another thin coat, 
 and when dry rub with a clean cotton cloth. In case 
 of a (lull apjK'arance, by reason of ha\ing been han- 
 dled, rub over with a cotton cloth and siiirits of tur- 
 poiitiiu'. and then with a drv cloth. See Bronzing. 
 
 BROWN PIGMENTS.— Substances in which the 
 thiee ])i'iniaiy colors unite in luiecjual proportions, 
 red being in excess. Brown pigments are chiefly 
 mineral, and are u.sed in the laboratory, sometimes in 
 a raw but usually in a burned state. The most im- 
 portant are bister, asplialtuni, umber, terra di sienna, 
 .Mars l)r(iwn, C'assel earth, and brown madder. 
 
 BROWN SIGHT.— A valuable iinprovenKiit in the 
 rear-sight on the U. S. service rille lias been recently 
 proposed by Lieutenant W. ('. Brown, V. S. Army. 
 The rear edge of the buckhorn plate is t)eveled nearly 
 or quite to a .sharp edge, and the graduation for wind- 
 allowance being brought down to this edge, the 
 p{)inls and fractions thereof are easily read against 
 the outer edge of the leaf. To further facilitate the 
 reading of fractious of a point, a straight line has-
 
 BEUCE STOP. 
 
 251 
 
 BUCCANEEBS. 
 
 been drawn on each branch of the leaf, and at such a 
 distance therefrom us to coincide with the outer 
 division when the wind-gauge is at zero. See Point- 
 iiKj and 8i(/lit. 
 
 BKUCESTOP.— A stop intended to .sustain the 
 Springlield breech- block in the position of loading, 
 when the muzzle of the gun is elevated, or the piece 
 is much shaken, as on horseback at a trot. It con- 
 sists of a spring and spindle like those ased for the 
 ejector, and lying in a counterbore on the oppasile 
 side of the receiver. When the block is open, the 
 point of the spintUc lies within a shallow cavity in 
 the front surface of the hinge on the breech-block, 
 and is pressed against it by the spring with sufficient 
 force to hold it up, and yet to permit the pressure of 
 the hand jiroperly a]iplied to easily close the piece. 
 
 BRUGEEE POWDEK.— An explosive compound of 
 ammonium picrate and niter. It has been experi- 
 mented with for use in shell in Enjrland, as it acts 
 when strongly confincil more violently than gim- 
 powder. See Exphmce Agents and Pirrates. 
 
 BBUNEL TARGET.— A canvas target used by the 
 Dominion of Canada Rifle Association at Ottawa. 
 The framework of the target is made of iron, about 
 one inch thick, and sharpened like a V in front. The 
 target moves up and down along two iron guide-rods, 
 having a counterbalancing weight attached. When the 
 target is hit, the marker (sheltered by a parapet and 
 trench) draws it down the guide-roils, until it stands 
 before him. He then hangs in the bullet-hole a card- 
 board disk (provided with a wire hook), painted to 
 indicate its value, lifts the handles, and raises the 
 target to view again. The marker repeats this opera- 
 tion at each hit, taking the disk out of the former 
 hole, patching that hole up, and hanging the disk in 
 the new hole. These disks may be shot through and 
 through several times, and wlicn worn out may be 
 cheaply replaced. See Tarr/et. 
 
 BBUNIA. — A coat of mail worn by the early Franks. 
 It was a short and tight species of paleM, more or less 
 closely covered with small pieces of metal sewn upon 
 the fabric of which the piece of armor was com- 
 posed. 
 
 BRUNSWICK BLACK.— A varnish employed for 
 coating over coarsely finished iron-work. It is main- 
 ly compounded of lamp-black and turpentine, and 
 when applied with a brush quickly dries, and leaves 
 a shining jet-l>lack surface. 
 
 BRUNSWICK GREEN.- A pigment used in the 
 laboratory, and consisting of the liydrated chloride 
 and o.xide of copper (CuCl,3CuO,4HO). It may be 
 prepared (1) by acting upon metallic copper with 
 common salt and diluted .sulphuric acid; (3) by act- ; 
 ing upon metallic copper with moistened sal-am- 
 moniac; or (3) by mixing sulphate of copper and 
 common salt into a paste with water. It is found 
 native at Atacama, in Peru, in the fonn of a green 
 sand, hence the name Alacamite. 
 
 BRUNSWICK RIFLE.— This rifle, with back-action 
 book-lock, was intnidueed into the English army in 
 the reign of William IV. Its weight v.ith sword- 
 bayonet and scabt)ard was 11 pounds 'li oiuices; 
 weight of barrel, 3 pounds 14 ounces; length of 
 barrel, 3^ feet; number of grooves, 2, making one 
 turn in the length of the barrel; weight of Inillet 
 (which was spherical and belted), 5.")" grains; diame- 
 ter, .696 inch; charge of powder, 2i drams. This 
 rifle, from the ball ha\ing a belt round it with a 
 patch to prevent it.s "stripping," was foimd an in- ; 
 convenient weapon, in consequence of the delay ex- i 
 perienced in placing the belted ball jiroperly in the | 
 grooves, without which loading was impos.sible. 
 The rifle soon fouled, and its shooting beyond 400 
 yards was wild. 
 
 BRUNT.— The troops who sustain the principal 
 shock of the enemy in action are said to bear the 
 brunt of the battle. i 
 
 BRUSHWOOD.— Rough, low, close thickets; under 
 wood, branches of trees cut off. The use it is put to 
 is in making gabions, fascines, and pickets. Brush- 
 
 wood for the above purposes should not exceed IJ 
 to 2 inches in diameter at the butt or thick end. 
 Brushwood is cut and tied up in bundles, weighing 
 from 40 to .50 lbs. each. 
 
 BUCCANEERS.— A celebrated association of piratical 
 adventurers, who, from the commencement of the sec- 
 ond quarter of the sixteenth century to the end of the 
 seventeenth, maintained themselves in the C'aribt)ean 
 Seas, at tirst by systematic reprisals on the Spaniards, 
 latterly by less justifiable and indiscriminate piracy. 
 The name is derived from the Carilibee bmimii, a 
 term for preserved meat, smoke-dried in a peculiar 
 manner. From this the French adventurers formed 
 the verb houcaner and the noun hiniainier, which was 
 adopted by the English; while, singularly enough, 
 the French used, in preference, the word flibvuHer, 
 a corruption of our "freelwoler." The Buccaneers 
 were also sometimes called " Brethren of the Coast." 
 The aiTogant assumption by the Spaniards of a di 
 vine right— sanctioned by the Pope's Bidl— to the 
 whole New World was not, of course, to be tolerated 
 by the enterprising mariners of England and France; 
 and the enormous cruelties practiced by them upon 
 all foreign interlopers, of which the liistorj' of that 
 time is full, naturally led to an association for mutual 
 defense among the adventurers of all other nations, 
 but particularly among the English and French. The 
 fundamental principles of their policy — for they, in 
 course of time, formed distinct communities — were 
 close mutual alliance, and mortal war with all that 
 was Spanish. Their simple code of laws bound them 
 to a common participation in the necessaries of life; 
 locks and bars were proscribed as an insult to the 
 general honor; and every man had his comrade, who 
 stood by him when alive, and succeeded to his pro- 
 perty after his death. The principal center of their 
 wild and predatory life was for some time the Island 
 of Tortuga, near St. Domingo. When they were not 
 hunting Spaniards, or being hunted themselves, their 
 chief occupation and means of subsistence was the 
 chase. From the flesh of wild cattle they made their 
 "boucan"; their skins and tallow they sold or bar- 
 tered to Dutch and other traders. The histoiT of 
 these men embraces, as may be supposed, narratives 
 of cruelty and bloodshed unsurpassed in the annals of 
 crime. It has, however, not a few stories of high 
 and romantic ad\'enture, of chivalrous valor, and 
 brilliant generalship. Among the " Great Captains" 
 whose names figure most prominently in the records 
 of buccaneering, were the Frenchman ^lontbars, sur- 
 named by the terrible title of "The Exterminator"; 
 and his countrymen, Peter of Dieppe, .surnamed " The 
 Great" — as truly, perhaps, as others so distinguished 
 — and L'Olonnas, Michael de Busco, and Bartolo- 
 meo de Portuguez, Mansvelt, and Van Horn. Pre- 
 eminent, however, among them all was the Welsh- 
 man, Henrj' Morgan, wlio organized fleets and 
 armies, took strong fortresses and rich cities, and dis- 
 played throughout the bold genius of a born Com- 
 mander. He it was that led the way for the Bncca- 
 ucei's to the Southern Ocean, by his daring march in 
 1670 across the Lsthnuis of Panama to the city of that 
 name, which he took and phmdcred after a desperate 
 battle. This brilliant but most unsenipulous person- 
 age was knighted by Charles II., and became Deputy 
 Governor of Jamaica. A higher subordination of 
 the love of gohl to the passion for di.minlon In him 
 might probably have made him Emperor of the West 
 Indies, some dream of which seems at one time to 
 have occupied his mind. In 1680 and 1681) extensive 
 buccaneering expeditions were made to the Pacific, 
 even as far as the coasts of China, of which the best 
 record is prescried In the lively pages of AVilliam 
 Dumpier, him.Hlf an imiX)rtant partner in these Ixild 
 adventures. The war lietween France and Britain, 
 after the accession of William III., dissolved the an- 
 cient alliance of the French and English Buccaneers. 
 After the peace of Ryswick, and the acces.sion of the 
 Bourbon Philip V. to the Spanish crown (1701), they 
 finally disappeared, to make way for a race of mere
 
 SUCCELLABBII. 
 
 252 
 
 BUFFINGTON MAOAZINE-OUK. 
 
 cut-thronts luul ^•ulga^ (li'spcradoes, not yd utterly ex- 
 tinct. Tlic hist great eveut in tlieir history was the 
 capture of Carthageuu in 1697, where the booty was 
 enormous. 
 
 BUCCELLAHII. — An order of soldiery wider the 
 GriU Kinperors, ap|H)inled to u:uard and dislriliutc 
 the anuiiunili(in-l)read, thouirh authors are somewhat 
 divided as to their otliee and quality. 
 
 BUCEPHALUS. — The favorite eharcerof Alexander 
 the Great; probahly also the n imeof a peculiar breed 
 of horst'S in Thessiily. Accoidinj; to tradition. Alex- 
 ander in his Ixiyhood wsis the first to break in the 
 steed Bucephalus, and thus fultilled the condition 
 stated by an oracle as neees.sary for irainiiijj: the crown 
 of JIacedon. The town Bucephalia. on the river 
 Hydaspes. in India, was founded neiir the grave of 
 Biicephalus, which died during Alexander's Indian 
 Expedition. 
 
 BUCK-AND-BALL CARTRIDGE.— A small-arm car- 
 tridge containinija rimml niusUet-l>alland three buck- 
 shot, formerly much used in smooth-ljore muskets, 
 
 BUCKLE.— A metal instrument, consisting of a rim 
 and tongue, \ised tor fastening straps or bauds iu 
 equipments and harness. In the latter half of the 
 last centurj' the maiuifacture of buckles was carried 
 on most extensively in Birmingham, there being at 
 one time not less than 401)0 people employed iu that 
 town and its \icinity, who turned out 2,5l)0,0(K) pairs 
 of buckles annualh", at the average value of 2s. 6d. 
 per pair. 
 
 BUCKLE PROJECTILE.— In this projectile, a cup of 
 lead at the base of the shot is held iu place by a thin 
 brass sleeve which is forced into the grooves of the 
 gun. 
 
 BUCKLER. — In old armor, a kind of shield worn on 
 the lift ann. The bucklers worn by the liaMati. or 
 spearmen, among the ancient Romans, were about 4 
 feet long by 3t in width, made of boards, covered 
 on the inside with linen and sheepskin, and on the 
 outside with iron ])late. In the Middle Ages the 
 buckler was round, oval, or square in shape, and was 
 frequently made of wicker-work or of hide, strength- 
 ened by metal plates. 
 
 BUCKSHOT.— A kind of leaden shot, larger than 
 swun-shol, now used in hunting game, but formerly 
 used in military service. Those employed for making 
 musket-cartridges weighed about 160 or 170 to the 
 pound: 15 (sometimes 12), or a caliber .69 ball and 
 3 buckshot, were put in a cartridge. Buckshot are 
 Usually made by molding or compression. 
 
 BUCKSHOT -CARTRIDGE. — A cartridge usually 
 containing 12 liuckshot, arranged in four layers. 
 The layers are kept in proper position by passing 
 one half-hitch of the choking-thrcad between every 
 two layers; the thread is lirml)- secured by jjassing 
 two half-hitches around the upper layer. For rifle- 
 arms, the shot-end of the cartridge should be dipped 
 in the composition commonly used for lubiicating 
 bullets; with this precaution all leading of the 
 grooves will be avoided. In the United States buck- 
 shot-cartridges are principally used in Indian war- 
 fare, and especially in night-tiring. Until very re- 
 cently, they were nnich used in military service," and 
 were adapted to a variety of arms. 
 
 In England this cartridge is \ised with the Snider 
 arms of .577 bore. The cartridge for the muzzle- 
 loader consists of two jiaper cylinders, one containing 
 21 drams of K. F. G. powder, the other containing 
 12 l)ucksliot, weighing about 220 to the i>ouMd, Buck- 
 shot-cartridires for the breech-loaders are similar, and 
 are issued to convict-warders, ^kk Multibdll Cartrnlr/e 
 and Wii'jlit Mnltibiill Citrtridge. 
 
 BUCKSKIN. — A fanciful name for a heavy-made, 
 strong-twilled woolen fabric for military trouserings, 
 highly milled to about the usual wiilth for siich 
 goods — 27 inches; and cropped and finished, with the 
 pile or nap so shorn as to show llie texfure through it 
 
 BUDGE BARREL.— A small copper-bo\md l)anel 
 Inning only one head, its mouth iK-iiig closed by a 
 leathern bag with a cap and draw-string. It is used 
 
 for supplying the guns of forts and siege-batteries 
 with cartridges from the magazine. 
 
 BUFF. — The leather of which belts and certain 
 equipments are usually made. The following is the 
 prcx'csw i)ursued iu its i)reparation: 
 
 Buff or " losh " leather is maimfactured chiefly 
 from the hide of the buffalo. The process of soften- 
 ing, removing the hair, cleansing, etc., is precisely 
 the same as that for common leather (ride Leather), 
 until the " pelt" is ready for tanning, when it has to 
 be prepared for a process of oiling. This is done by 
 carefully removing or forcing off the upper gndn of 
 the hide, wiiich renders both sides of it as nearly 
 alike as possible. The hides are then subjected to 
 the process of " brtmning," that is, being steeped in 
 fermented bran from four to twelve hours, according 
 to the atmosphere. They are then wrung out or 
 scraped over, and subjected to the pulling mill or 
 stocks for two or three hours; afterwards they are 
 spread out and oiled. Cod-oil is the best for this 
 purpose. The oiling is repeated during the first 
 three or four da\s until each hide has absorbed 
 J of a gallon. For the following three weeks the 
 hides are subjectetl to alternate soaking and drying, 
 in which greatcareand attention are required, 'fhey 
 arc then exposed to a heating i)roce.ss, in hot-houses 
 prepared expressly for the purpose, for two or three 
 days, the heat not exceeding lisO' Pidirenheit. Hav- 
 ing arrived at this stage, the oil has now to be ex- 
 tracted, which is effected by a solution of potassa, in 
 mills constructed for this ]>ur])ose. The buff is next 
 carefully cleaned from all alkaline matter by fre- 
 quent washings, and each hide hung uji sei)arately to 
 dry. The facing or surface is completed by rubbing 
 both sides with pumice-stone, and the buff is then in 
 a lit state to be cut up into accouterments. 
 
 BUFFALO. — An animal of the ox tribe, very use- 
 ful as a pack-animal. It is a native of the East In- 
 dies, where it has long been domesticated, and whence 
 it was carried to Egypt and the south of Europe. It 
 was jntrotluccd into Italy al)0ut the close of the sixth 
 century, and is now very generally used as a beast of 
 burden in that country, as it is also iu India. It is 
 used in India to a very great extent by the military in 
 field operations. See Patk-nnimdls. 
 
 BUFF COAT. — A close military outer garment, with 
 short sleeves, and laced tightly over the chest, made 
 of buffalo-skin, or other thick and elastic material, 
 worn by soldiers in the seventeenth century as a de- 
 fensive covering. 
 
 BUFFER. — A contrivance, as applied in the service 
 of artillery, for checking the recoil of hea\-y guns. 
 The hydraulic buffer consists of a wrought-iron cylin- 
 der, clo.sed at one end, the other end fitted with a cap 
 and stuffing-box, through which a piston-rod-passes. 
 The piston fits well into the cylinder, and is per- 
 forated with four small holes, the size of \vhich 
 varies with the size of the gun. The cylinder is tilled 
 with l{jingoon oil or with ^yatcr, enough air-space 
 being left to act as an elastic buffer, winch takes off 
 the ^iolence of the first impact of the ])iston on the 
 oil. The cylinder is firmly attached to the platform 
 on which the carriage recoils, and the end of the pis- 
 ton-rod to the caiTiage itself; so that on the discharge 
 of the gun, the carriage drives the piston through the 
 oil or water with great velocity, gradually bringing 
 the gun and carriage to rest in the required distance. 
 See Hiniir and Piiriima/ir Buffer. 
 
 BUFFING AND POLISHING MACHINE. — One 
 having a wheel covered wilb InitT-lciithcr, though not 
 usually made out of cow-bide. The leather holds 
 the polishing material, crocus, rouge, or w hat not. 
 Bufling has come to mean polishing, from the de- 
 rived name of the material which is used in applying 
 the ])0lis!iinLr material. 
 
 BUFFINGTON MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gtin be- 
 louirs to that system in which a fixed chamber is 
 closed liy a movable breech-block, sliding and rotat- 
 inir, and oiienited by a lever from below. The re- 
 ceiver, to \vhich the barrel is attached iu the usual
 
 BUFF JEEKIN. 
 
 253 
 
 BUILT-UP GUNS. 
 
 ■way, has a vertical slot entirely through it for the re- 
 ception of the breech-block, and two grooves, at right 
 angles to each other, on the inner surface of each 
 side. In these grooves the flattened ends of pivots 
 passing through the breech-block slide. The various 
 points of the breech-block, not in the a.\es of the 
 pivots, thus describe arcs of ellipses when the block 
 IS opened or closed. The block is hollowed out to 
 receive the hammer, mainspring, etc. The hammer 
 is slotted to receive one branch of the mainspring 
 which abuts against a pin. The other branch bears 
 against a similar pin through the breech-block. The 
 piece is locked by lugs projecting from pieces screw- 
 ed to the sides of the receiver, i)artly across its top 
 and entering grooves on the hammer. The tiring-pin 
 is retracted, when the block is unlocked or the ham- 
 mer cocked, by a slot which receives the head of the 
 pin. The extractor is a bent spring hook secured at 
 it.s rear to the breech-block by a jjin and supporte<l 
 at its front by a pivot. In order to open the Ijlock, it 
 is necessary to draw back the hanuner to a point a j 
 Httle beyond the full cock, and then control the 
 motion by a lever. Should the hammer Ix; let down 
 while the block is open, it is cocked in the act of 
 closing by the edges of a surface striking on projec- 
 tions on the inner rear surface of the recei ver. The 
 magazine is in the tip-stock. It is provitled with two 
 cartridge stop-springs. The carrier is made of sheet , 
 steel brought to a spring temper, and is secured to 
 the breech-block by a pivot. When the breech- 
 block Is closed the carrier-block descends, its spring 
 keeping it in contact with the breech-l)lock, bears 
 down on a stop spring, and slides under the end of 
 the magazine-tube. As it pa.s.sea under the tulx; in- 
 clined planes raise the ends of a cros,s-piece riveted to 
 the stop-spring, when a cartridge is forced by the 
 magazine-spring into the carrier. A cut-off enables 
 the piece to be used as a single-loader. As a maga- 
 zine-gim, three motions are necessarj- to operate, viz., 
 opened, closed, fired. As a single-loader, four 
 motions are necessjirj', ^iz., opened, loaded, closed, 
 fired. This gun carries .six cartridges in the maga- 
 zine and one in the chamber. See Magazine-gun. 
 
 BUFF JESKIN.— Originally a leathern waistcoat; 
 afterwards one of a buff color, worn as an article of 
 dress by Sergeants and Catchpoles; used also as a 
 dress. 
 
 BUFFLETIN.— A stout covering for the hotly, hav- 
 ing a very high stock. It took the place of the cui- 
 rass in (Germany and in France during the Thirty 
 Years' War. 
 
 BUFF-STICK.— A wooden stick covered with buff- 
 leather, used by soldiers in cleaning their equip- 
 ments. 
 
 BUGLE— BUGLE-HOEN.— A very old Saxon horn, 
 now used by numy infantry regiments. By its 
 soundings their maneuvers are directed, either in 
 advancing, skirmishing, or retreating. The calls to 
 quarters and academic duties, at the United Stiitcs 
 Military Academj', have for many years been soimd- 
 etl on the bugle. 
 
 BUOLEB. — One who plays the bugle. In the 
 United States ser\ice the buglers are enlisted men, 
 in the Drum Corjis or attached to Companies. 
 
 BUILT-UP GUNS.— No modern theory of construct- 
 ing guns can be called new, since guns are in exist- 
 ence that have been either recovered from wrecks, or 
 preserved in other ways, showing every variety of 
 coils, hoops, casting, wire-binding, and so on, as far 
 as the appliances then in iLse could furnish the quon- 
 dam inventors with means of carrjing their inven- 
 tions into effect. That in which novelty has iK-en at- 
 tjtined is the improvement of proces.se« by which 
 large castings or forgings, accurate turning and iMir- 
 ing, can be secured, or by which chemical knowledge 
 can l)e brought to bear on the manipulation of 
 metals; but no such progress can make a built-up 
 
 fun, or machine of any .sort, .stronger than a perfectly 
 omogeneous one, in which the varjing strains are 
 closely calculated and properly met "by the scientific 
 
 disposition of the necessary stiren^. The terms 
 " built-up" and "hooped "are applied to those can- 
 non in which the principal parts are formed sepa- 
 rately and then united in a peculiar manner. They 
 are not necessarily composed of more than one kinil 
 of metal ; some of the most important are made of 
 steel alone; and they may be made by welding or by 
 screwing the parts together, and by shrinking or 
 forcing one part over another. The object of this 
 method of manufaetiu-e is to correct the defects of 
 one material by uniting with it opposite qualities of 
 the same or other materials. Tlie defects which 
 follow the working of large ma.s.ses of iron or steel, 
 such as crystalline structure, false welds, cracks, etc., 
 are avoided by first forming the parts in small ma.s.scs 
 of good quality and then uniting them sepanitely. 
 
 In considering the effect upon a yielding material 
 of any force which may Ix; ajiplied, the rate of ajv 
 plication of the force, or the time which elapses from 
 the instant when the force begins to act until it at- 
 tains its maximum, should not be neglected; for, 
 with equal ultimate pressures per square inch of sur- 
 face, Uiat force will be most severe upon the gun 
 which attains this pressure in the shortest period of 
 time. The most obvious metho<l of enabling a gun 
 to sustain a greater elastic pres.sure is simply to 
 thicken its sides, thus increasing the area of the parts 
 to be torn asunder. ThLs rule has been found to 
 work practically with guns of small calitxr; but in 
 larger gtms it does not work, from the fact that, in 
 cast guns, of whatever metal, the outside helps but 
 very little in restraining the explosive force of the pow- 
 der, the strain not being communicated to it by the 
 intervening metal. The consequence is that, in large 
 guns, the inside is split while the outside is scarcely 
 straine<i. This split rapidly increases, and the gim 
 ultimately bursts. 
 
 If we take any transverse section of a gun, any 
 unit in length, and suppose the metal to be divided 
 into any numljer of concentric rings, it will be evident 
 that the greater the distance of any ring from the axis 
 of the gun, the less will it be .stretchc-d by the ex- 
 pansion of the bore when the piece is discharged, and 
 consequently the less will it contribute to the general 
 strength of the gun. If the strain uiwn the bore from 
 the discharge \k considered merely as a pressure — 
 statical force — the resistance offered to it by any two 
 rings will be inversely proportional to the s<juare of 
 their circumferences or distances from the axis of the 
 gun. It will, therefore, appear that there is a certain 
 limit beyond which it would be useless to increa.se the 
 thickness of the metal; \tz., when the force e.xerted 
 on the surface of the bore would be sufficient to 
 rupture the interior portions of tlie metal before the 
 strain acteil to any extent upon the exterior parts. 
 Any arrangement of the parts by which the explosive 
 strain is distributed equally over the entire thickness 
 of the piece necessarily brings a greater amount of 
 resistance into play. In order to obtain the requisite 
 resistance, and wiih a moderate thickness of metal, it 
 is desirable to equalize, as far as possible, the strain 
 upon every portion of the metal. 
 
 There are two general methods of accomplishing 
 this, viz.: first, by giving the e.xterior portions a 
 certain initial kngion, gradually decretu-iing and pa.ss- 
 ing into compression towards the interior, which is 
 done by shrinking heated iron liands or tubes around 
 the parts to lie compressed, or by slipping a lul)e into 
 the tore, which has been slightly enlarged by heat.- 
 .secondly, by means of the system of ran/iiig eltm- 
 ticity: this "is accomplished by placing that metal 
 which stretches most within its elastic limit around 
 the surface of the bore, so that by its enlargement 
 the explosive strain is transmitted to the other parts. 
 These two methods of equalizing strains without an 
 inordinate increase of thickness are so important that 
 they deserve more than a passing notice. They are 
 called the systems of Initial Tension and Varying 
 Elasticity. 'Some gun makers use the one, some the 
 other, some a combination of the two, and even in
 
 BirXOHS. 
 
 254 
 
 vmxvt. 
 
 our own liollow-cast jnins the idea of initial tension 
 is one of primiirv ini[X)rtance. 
 
 It will be oWrved tlmt Iniilt-up jrun-oonstructions 
 are alone considenxi iis atlonlinir a reasonable solu- 
 tion of the problem; that steel tiilies in conil)iniition 
 ■with wrousrht-iron or stwl constitute the pn)minent 
 tjnxs; that breech-loadiiii; systems, usins the inter- 
 rupted screw or French pattern, are nipiilly super- 
 se<ling muzzleloadinjr guns; and, tinally, the more 
 advance<i opinions lead strongly to the belief that the 
 true direction in which projrress is to lx> made and 
 light guns secured, combining great strength wiOt 
 high power, ri'sulling from the use of large charges of 
 powder and hea\'>' projectiles, and in bores ranging 
 from 26 to 30 csililwrs in length, is to iutroiluce a 
 greater degree of subdivision than found in the pres- 
 ent systems by the use of steel wires superiniijosed 
 on steel tubes, which in their turn are jackctecl and 
 finished extemallj' by steel bands. See ArmMroTig 
 Oitnn, BUikely Oun, Cannon, Fraser Gun, Initial 
 TenJtiim. Ordnance, Palliner Onn, Parsons Oun, Vary- 
 ing EltiJ-tifily, and Wovlirich Gun. 
 
 BUKORS.— Kettledrums of the Swedish cavalry. 
 Tliey do not dilTer materially from the usual kinds. 
 
 BVLLABD KIFLE.— A repeating rifle recently in- 
 troduced by a Mr. Bullard, who was for five years 
 master-mechanic at the well-known Smith & Wesson 
 AVorks. The action of this ritie is positive and not 
 dependent upon springs. It is self-cocking, with a 
 solid breech-block behind the bolt, which must be in 
 place and securely locked before it is possible for the 
 hammer to reach the tiring-pin. It is passible to tire 
 thLs ritle with very great rapidity, from the fact that 
 it works easily and smoothly by reason of its direct 
 leverage on the work to be done, the heaviest work being 
 done with the best leverage, as in extracting the car- 
 tridge, which is started when the lever is in position 
 to exert the greatest strain. Cocking the hanuner is 
 
 tiring-pin until the brace, C, is in its proper place. 
 It will also Ix' observe<I that it is impossible to dis- 
 arrange the parts, as all are pinned and hinged to- 
 gether, and that there are no sliding surfaces. 
 
 To dismount the gun, take out tang-screw : half- 
 cock hammer and take out lock friune and hammer- 
 screws ; ])ull out lock-frame down and backwards; 
 disconnect links from brace ; take out side-plate 
 screws and remove side jilate; remove carrier-lever 
 spring ; take out guard-lever bolt ; take cut ex- 
 tractor-pin and remove extractor ; push back i)in be- 
 fore removing the bolt ; draw out guard-lever with its 
 connections ; take out breech-block bolt ; take out 
 breech-block ; draw out carrier-lever imd take out 
 carrier. The gun is a.s.semblcd by reversed operations. 
 
 To remove the barrel, take out the magazine-plug 
 screw and the two tip-screws, pull out the magazine- 
 tube, and take off the fore-arm. If the bolt lias not 
 been pre\iously removed, pull it back so as to pre- 
 vent the breaking of the extractor while unscrewing 
 the barrel. 
 
 To load the gun, cnrrj' the guard-lever forward as 
 far as it will go, and then insert the cartridges in the 
 magazine through the opening under the carrier. 
 
 To use the gun as a single-loader, carry the lever 
 as far forward as is necessarj- to extract the spent 
 shell, remove the shell, and insert another cartridge in 
 the chamber of the gun; or, carry the guard-lever as 
 far forward as it will go and insert a cartridge in the 
 magazine through the opening under the carrier. 
 
 If the top cover is drawn "back, the magazine can 
 be quickly loaded by simply pressing against the 
 under side of the carrier, which will force it up, ex- 
 posing the entrance to the magazine, and also place 
 the hammer at half-cock. See Magazine-gun. 
 
 BULL-DOG. — A refractory material used as a lining 
 for the toshes of puddling or smelting furnaces. It is 
 a decomposed protosilicate of iron. 
 
 also done by direct leverage inside the receiver or 
 frame instead of a sliding motion of bolt or firing-pin 
 on and over the top of the hammer, which is very 
 often liable to grind and always makes the arm work 
 hard and unpleasantly. This rifle has been fired 
 twelve shots in five seconds, using the U. 8. Govern- 
 ment cartridges. The magazine is charged from the 
 under side, and it can be done with equal facility by 
 a right- or left-handed person. And as there are no 
 holes or spring covers on the side, it is not possible to 
 have it clogged by passing through bnish or laying it 
 on the ground or in trenches, etc. It is also" much 
 easier to load on horseback than any other gun, as 
 there is more choice of position than "when the open- 
 ing is on the si<le. It can be loaded as a sinsrle-loader 
 cither top or bottom, leaving the magazine full at all 
 times for an emergency. The drawing shows the 
 working parts of the arm, in position after tiring. 
 The breech-block, A, is held finnly in place by-tlic 
 brace, C, which is pivoted and cradled on the ham- 
 mer-pin and lock-frame. C is lirouL'ht into place 
 and flrmly held l)y the links, I? (only one sliown'), 
 which are connected by strong pins to the guard- 
 lever, D. It will be seen from the drawing that it is 
 absolutely impossible to get the hammer to strike the 
 
 BULLET. — The leaden projectile discharged from 
 a musket, fowling-piece, pistol, or similar weapon. 
 When the smooth-bore muskets alone were used, the 
 bullets were made by casting. Molten lead was 
 poured into molds; and the molds were dipped in 
 cold water, to hasten the solidification of the lead. 
 The molds were cooled after every few times of 
 using; and the lead was heated only just to the 
 degree for maintaining fluidity. Bullets are now, 
 however, made more expeditiously, and more truly 
 .spherical in form, bv compressing -machines, one 
 fonn of which has been invented by Mr. CJeorge 
 Napier. The lead is first fashioned into a rod abo\it 
 a yard long by five or six eighths of an inch thick; 
 this rod is jiassed between rollei-s to condense it; then 
 iM'tween other rollers to i)rcss it into a row of nearly 
 globular pieces; then a spherical die gives the proper
 
 BITILET-EXTBACTOB. 
 
 255 
 
 BTILL8ETE. 
 
 form to each of these pieces; and, lastly, a treadle- 
 worked punch separates them into bullets. With 
 •one of these machines and two dies, nine boys can 
 make 40,000 bullets in a day. 
 
 Spherical bullets for the old muskets, carbines, 
 and pistols varied from 14 to 20 to the pound, and 
 from .60 to .68 of an inch in diameter. There is 
 a particular ratio, depending on the specific sravity 
 of lead, by which the number to the poimd will frfve 
 the diameter, or vice tenia. Such bullets are, how- 
 ever, becoming every year less and less used in the 
 army, being superseded by other forms better suited 
 for rifles. These forms are singularly numerous. 
 Robins' bullet was egg-shaped, with the center of 
 gravity at the larger end; Beaufoy's was ovoid, with 
 a hemispherical cavity at one end; Man ton's was a 
 
 after every few times of using; and the lead was 
 heated only just to the degree for maintaining 
 fluidity. Very few bullets are molded at the present 
 time, since they are made more e.xpeditiouslj-, and 
 truer in form, by compression. When molding, 
 use 1 part of tin to 16 of lead, and keep the molds 
 very hot and the handles tight together. It often 
 happens that the handles become too hot for comfort 
 and are not held together projierlj'. The result is a 
 bullet that Ls not round and one that will not fit the 
 shell. See that the grooves of the bullets are filled 
 with beef-tallow or Japan wax; wipe off all surplus 
 grea.se before loading. When pressing the bullet 
 mto the shell, see that it is forced into the chamber 
 of the reloading tool as far as it will go. 
 The tlrawiug represents an effective mold. The 
 
 Bullet-mold. 
 
 spherical ball put into a wooden cup, with projections 
 on the exterior; Greener's was oval, with a plug of 
 mixed metal driven into a hole barely large enough 
 for it; Xorton's, Delvigne's, Minie's, and others are, 
 or were, of various elongated shapes, mostlj- with 
 some kind of plug, which, driven into the lead by 
 the force of the explosion, causes it to fill up the 
 grooves in the rifling of the barrel. This expanding 
 or dilating action has been claimed by manj- inventors; 
 but the English Government in 1857 awarded Mr. 
 Greener £1000, as the person who had practically 
 solved the diflicuity as far back as 1836. The bullets 
 for the Enfield rifles are now made with extraordinary 
 speed, by machinerj' of beautiful construction. The 
 machine draws in a coil of leaden rod, unwinds it, 
 cuts it to the required length, stamps out the bullets 
 ■nith steel dies, drops them into boxes, and convej's 
 them away. Each machine, with its four dies, 
 makes 7000 bullets per hour; and four such machines, 
 in an ea-sy day's work, turn out 300,000 bullets. So 
 nearly are the machines automatic that one man 
 can attend them all. Other machines, attended by 
 children, produce an equal number of little lx)xwoo<l 
 plugs for tilling the cavity at the hinder end of the 
 bullet. See Obhng BnUet. PereitmoniuUets, Pro- 
 jectiles, Rnunfl BiilM. and Shot. 
 
 BULLET-EXTEACTOB.— A pair of pinchers with 
 projecting claws, adaiited to imbed themselves in a 
 bullet so as to draw it from its bed and extract it. 
 When closed these form a smooth, blunt surface, 
 like a probe, and are opened against the bullet so as 
 to spread apart the vessels which might oppose the 
 retraction. 
 
 BULLET-HOOK.— A hook-ended tool for extracting 
 bullets. An iron bullet-hook was disinterred at 
 Pompeii in 1819 by Dr. Savcnko, of St. Petersburg. 
 It was in company witli a number of surgical 
 instruments. 
 
 BTJLLET-LADLE.— One for melting lead to run 
 ■bullets. It is usually a hemispherical ladle with a 
 .spout, but in one case the ladle has a hole in the 
 bottom guarded by a spring plug and opersited by a 
 trigger on the handle; in another case a part of the 
 ladle is covered, and the lead thus flows out at a 
 guarded opening which keeps liack the dross of 
 oxide. 
 
 BULLET - MOLD — BULLET MOULD.— When the 
 smooth-bore muskets alone were used, all bullets 
 were made by casting or molding. Molten lead 
 was poured into molds of the desired shape; and the 
 molds were dipped in cold water, to hasten the 
 solidification of the lead. The molds were cooled 
 
 melted lead is poured into the mouth at the top, is 
 trimmed just as solidification begins, and the mold 
 is locked by piessing the handles towards each other. 
 After solidification the handles are pre,«scd apart, the 
 mold opens, and the bullet is withdrawn. After the 
 bullet is taken from the mold it is swaged in a die 
 to the proper size and shape. 
 
 BULLET-PBOBE.— A soimd for exploring tissue to 
 find the situs of a bullet. It is usually a soft steel 
 wire with a bulbous extremity. Kelaton used a sound 
 with a file-like extremity which might receive trr ces 
 of the bullet, in cases where there is doubt of the 
 character of the body with which it is brought in 
 collision. He afterwards used a i<(mde with a termina- 
 tion of an clive-shaped body of white unvarnished 
 porcelain, which would receive a black mark by con- 
 tact with the bullet. 
 
 BULLET-SCEEW.— A screw at Ujc end of a ramrod 
 to ]xnetrate a bullet and enable the latter to be with- 
 drawn from the piece. See Ballscnir. 
 
 BULLET-SHELL.— An explosive bullet for small- 
 anns. Jncobs's liuUet-shells, used with tlie rifle of 
 General Jacobs of the East India service, have an in- 
 closed copper tube containing the bursting-charge, 
 which may be of fulminate or common powder, and 
 is exploded by a percussion-cap or globule on striking 
 In experiments made with them at Enfield in 1857, 
 caissons were blown u]i at distances of '20O0 and 2400 
 yards, and brick walls much damaged at those dis- 
 tances by their explosion. 
 
 BULLOCK. — This beast is admirable for slow 
 draught, especially over rough roads, or through for- 
 ests, or other places where there are no roads. Bul- 
 locks stand fire better than any other animals, and 
 used to he employed in India for draught in field-bat- 
 teries. They must not be hurried; their ordinarj- 
 pace is from' 2 to 2i miles an hour. If u.sed over hard 
 roads the)' require shoeing. They neetl but little care, 
 and thrive on poor food. They attain their prime at 
 six years; the age is known by the annular swell- 
 ing "on the horns, allowing three j'cars for the 
 first ring and one year for each of the others. They 
 are at present used in many parts of India and else- 
 where as pack-animals, and carry a load of 2(K) jxiunds 
 with comparative ease. Sec Draug/it-animah and 
 Plll•k^-^l>iimllh. 
 
 BULLS-EYE. — In gimnery and archery, the center 
 of the target. In England the Inill's-eye is a black 
 rectangular figure on a white ground which is painted 
 on targets, var.ting in size according to the distance 
 at which the target is placed, and "according to the 
 class of marksmen tiring at it. Outside the bull's-eye
 
 BTTLWABK. 
 
 256 
 
 BTTEEAU OF MILITABT JTISTICE. 
 
 is a while spjice lx>undi-(l liy rectanjnilar Ijlack linos. 
 The space within tliese lines anil IxMween them anil 
 the bull's-eye is called the center. Outside these lines 
 is the remainder of the tarj.'et. In the United Stales 
 the smallest circle, always painted hlack, is called the 
 buU's-eve. The rinfr embraced between Ihe buUs- 
 eye and the circunifercuce of the next larger circle is 
 
 Bull's-eye, 
 
 called the c^nUr; and the ring between the second 
 and third circles (regulation target) is called the 
 inner, the space outside Ihe larger circle being called 
 the oiiUr. In the target represented, the space be- 
 tween the second circle and the vertical lines is the 
 iniifr, and the space outside the vertical lines is the 
 ouUr. See Targets. 
 
 BULWARK, — Tlie old name for a rampart or bas- 
 tion. In a ship the bulwarks are the boarding above 
 the level of the upper deck, nailed to the outside of 
 the limber-heads and stanchions. In ordinarv vessels 
 they form a parapet, protectin.g the seamen from the 
 waves, and prevent loose articles from being swej)! 
 off the deck; in men-of-war they, in addition, serve to 
 protect the men from an enemy's shot. In an inquiry 
 made a few years ago concerning the availabiliU' of 
 merchant-steamers as ships of war, it was found that 
 the bulwarks would not afford sufficient protection 
 to the men from musket-shot; but that if hammock- 
 stanchions were lixed all round the bulwarks, and the 
 men's hammocks placed in a netting upheld thereby, 
 a very nooA protection might be obfained. 
 
 BHMFOED GUN,— A ceUbrated gim cast at South 
 Boston in 1846, It is a 12-inch smooth-bore, having 
 the following particulars: 
 
 Total length 134,00 mches. 
 
 Length of bore and chamber, 116,20 " 
 Diameter over the chamber, . 38.20 " 
 Weight 25,510 lbs. 
 
 Before it was hooped the greatest enlargement of 
 the chamber with 20, 25, and 28 pounds of powder 
 and a 15il-potmd shell, after ninety-three tires, was 
 .005 inch, and the greatest enlargement at the lodg- 
 ment of the shell ,074 inch. The maximum range 
 in riciKhet-tire, with 181-pound shell and 28 pounds 
 of powder, was 58(X) yards. This gun was hooped in 
 1802 with wrought-iron rings about 1 inch wide each, 
 making a reinforce 31 ■{ inches long, 4 inches thick, 
 and 46 inches in total diameter. 
 
 BUNG-STOPPERS.— In submarine mining, bung- 
 8to]>pers are the contrivance for closing the hole in 
 the case througli w hich the charge isinserted, and 
 through which the insulated wires pass from the fuse 
 to the caljle leading to the fort. The essential condi- 
 tif)n to be fullilled is to have it water-tight anil keep 
 the arrangement in proper condition for ignition at 
 any moment reiiuired; it should likewise 1m' callable 
 of licing unscrewed, so that the fusi? may be taken 
 out for examination and replacement if defective. 
 
 Various forms of stoiipers have been devised, the 
 principal feature of each l>einga stulling-box, in wliich 
 gutta-percha packing is used. When regularly-con 
 stnicted mines are supplied for service, stoppers will 
 accompany them. For extemporized mines, any de- 
 vice which will hold the insuluted wires and at the 
 
 same time keep the water from the charge will an- 
 swer. A composition composed of 1 part of tallow, 
 8 of pitch, and 1 of beeswax will be found good for 
 lightening the .ioints. It iK'Comes plastic at about 
 150 F. The addition of a little gulla-iKMcha hardens 
 the composition and renders it less liable to be iilfect- 
 ed by atmospheric heat. 
 
 BUNK. — The term emjiloyed by soldiers for 
 a bed, or place for bedding. 
 
 BUNTINE,— A thin woolen material, of 
 which flags and signals of stations are made. 
 Also written Biintiiiy. 
 
 BUOYS, — Buojs are used for temporarily 
 marking the positions of mines, circuit-closers, 
 etc. Small nut-buoys of iron are the l)est; but 
 when these are not to be had. empty casks, 
 such us beer-kegs, well lashed with rope, are 
 convenient to handle, and answer every pur- 
 pose. In all cases they must be sufficiently 
 large, or have enough of flotation, to secure 
 the mooring-cable or other object which they 
 are intendeil to hold. 
 
 BURDEN OF PROOF.— In legal procedure, 
 the obligation to establish by evidence certain 
 disputed facts; and, as a general rule, this Ijurden lies 
 on the party assertinir the affirmative of the issue to be 
 tried or question in dispute, according to the maxfm, 
 Ei incumbit pnihutui qui (licit iwn qui negat ; that is, 
 proof is incumbent on him who asserts, not on him 
 who denies. The principle of Ihe law is that the 
 burden of proof is on the party who would fail if no 
 evidence were adduced on either side. Accordingly, 
 it almost always rests on the plaintiff in an action, or 
 on the party asserting the facts on which the result of 
 the litigation must depend. In one ca.se tried before 
 the late Baron Alderson, that learned .ludge laid 
 down that the proper test was. Which piirty tcmtld 
 be successful if no et-i<lence at all irere gicen f — the 
 burden of proof, of course, falling on the party not in 
 that position. This test hits since been generally 
 adopted and applied; but Mr. Best, in his work on 
 the Principles of Ecidence, improves on it by the sug- 
 gestion that in strict accuracy the test ought to be, 
 "Which party would be successful if no evidence 
 at all, or no >m>re ecidence, as the ca.se may be, were 
 given'?" — a consideration on which the discretion 
 and judgment of counsel frequently de|)end. But 
 although such, in general, is the position of the plain- 
 tiff, it sometimes happens that the burden of pnwf is 
 imposed on the defendant, and in consequence of his 
 having the affirmative of the material issue to be 
 tried. 
 
 It is this rule as to the burden of jiroof that demon- 
 strates the real nature of Ihe plea of Not ijuiltt/ in a 
 criminal prosecution, and which divests that plea of 
 the objections to it which are frequently heard ex- 
 pressed by overscrupulous sentimentalists; for the 
 meaning of that plea is not necessarily an assertion 
 by the prisoner that he is absolutely guiltless or iimo- 
 cent, but that he wishes to be tried, and that as the 
 burden of proof is on the prosecutor, while he has 
 meanwhile the presum]itionof innocence in his favor. 
 — Besides Ihe work referred to, see on the subject of 
 this article Slarkie on the Tmip if Eriilencc in Kiig- 
 liind. and Dickson on the same subject in Scotland. 
 
 BUREAU OF MILITARY JUSTICE.— In the Iniled 
 States ser\nce this Bureau consists of one Judge Ad- 
 vocate General, with the rank, pay, etc., of Bri.tnidier- 
 general. The riiiorts which tlie .ludge Ailvocate 
 General mav make upon cases requiring the action 
 of the President are addressed to the Secn'larv of 
 War, and forwanlid through the General of the 
 Army, for such remarks and lecomnienilations as he 
 may see lit to make. The original proceedings of all 
 General Courts- Jlartial, Courts of Inquiry, and Mili- 
 tary Commissions, after the deci.sion thereon of the re- 
 viewing iiuthorilv, and all proceedings that require the 
 decision of Ihe t'residint under Ihe Articles of War, 
 and copies of idl orders contii-minL'. disapprovinc^or 
 remitting the sentence of Courts-Martial or Military
 
 BUEEATJX OF THE WAE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 ^07 
 
 BUENSIDE CABBINE. 
 
 Commissions, are forwarded direct to and filed in the 
 Bureau of Militarj- Justice. Communications i^- 
 lating to questions of military justice, or proceedinifs 
 of Military Courts, upon wliich the opinion of the 
 Judge Advocate General is desired, are forwardeil 
 through proper channels to the Adjutant General 
 when such questions cannot be decided by an inter- 
 mediate authority. Questions of an abstract, general 
 character are not considered. Judge Advocates for- 
 -,vard to the Judge Advocate General, at the end of 
 each month, a list of all cases trieil and to be tried ! 
 within their jurisdictions. See Judge Advocate Gen- 
 eral. I 
 
 BUREAUX OF THE WAR DEPARTMENT.— During 
 the absence of the Chief of any Military Bureau of 
 the War Department, his duties in the bureau, pre- 
 scribed by law or regulations, devolve upon the officer 
 of his Department empowered by the President to 
 perforin them in his absence. See Military Depart- 
 ments throughout this work under appropriate head- 
 ings j 
 
 BURGESS MAGAZINE-GUN.— I'his gun belongs to 
 that system in which a fixed chamber is closed by a 
 bolt, sliding in line with the axis of the barrel, and 
 operated by a lever from below. The Iwlt is a single 
 piece, the rear of which serves as a guide to its mo- 
 tion by sliding in grooves on the inner surface of the 
 receiver. The bolt is locked by the interposition of i 
 a portion of the breech-bolt lever, between its head 
 and the rear of the receiver. The firing-pin, which 
 is in this portion of the lever, passes through the ' 
 pivot and prevents it moving eitlier way. The firing- 
 pin is retained in the lever by a screw. The ejector 
 lies in a groove across the front of the bolt, just be- 
 low the firing-pin hole; its rear terminates in a split 
 spring, which, by friction against the side of an 
 undercut groove in the side of the bolt, retains it in 
 position. The ejector is driven forward against the 
 under side of the head of the cartridge, when the 
 lever is thrown open by its rear striking against a 
 .shouldor on the inner rear svu'facc of the receiver. 
 The bottom opening in the receiver is clf)sed by a 
 plate, called the lever guide; its rear is tenninatcd by 
 a piece the tenon of which enters a corresponding 
 mortise in the plate. An elongated hole in the tenon, 
 through which passes the pin connecting the pieces, 
 permits motion of the smaller jiart to and from the 
 plate. A spiral spring is comprised between the two 
 pieces. The motion of the lever in opening and clos- 
 ing is a sliding one. The carrier is pivoted on two 
 short screws through the sides of the receiver. It is 
 operated by a hooked projection on the bolt-head, 
 which, sliding under it, sujiports it until the forward 
 motion of the lever is nearly completed, when, by 
 striking against the surfaces, the carrier is rotated 
 about the pivot-screws, its front descending opposite 
 the mouth of the magazine, which is in the tip-stock. 
 When the lever is closed, the projecting hook, ])ass- 
 ing out of the recess, slides under the carrier, raising 
 it to a position parallel to the axis of the barrel, when 
 its upward motion is limited by pins projecting from 
 the inner surfaces of the receiver. The hammer is 
 cocked by the backward motion of the bolt when the 
 lever is thrown forward. The piece is fired by a 
 center-lock of the usual pattern. The magazine is 
 loaded through a side cover in the recei%'er. Xo 
 wiping-rod is provided, and there is no cut-off to the 
 magazine. As a magazine-gun, three motions are nec- 
 essary to operate it, viz , opened, closed, fired. As a 
 single-loader, four motions are necessary, viz., opened, 
 loaded, closed, fired. This gun carries ten cartridges 
 in the magazine and one in the chamber. See Mngn- 
 zini'-nmi. 
 
 BURGONET.— A helmet that dates from the end of 
 the fifteenth century. It has a rounded cro^vn with 
 a crest, and is distinguished by a shade over the eyes, 
 cheek-pieces, and a neck-giiard. Also written Bur- 
 gund wnd H'lrgoniiU'. 
 
 BURGOYNE.— An instrument formed by the com- 
 bination of a spade, axe, and mantlet. It is intended 
 
 to form a portion of the equipment of a soldier, and 
 to be used for digging rifle-pits, etc. When used as 
 a mantlet against bullets, the soldier fires through a 
 small hole in the blade. The handle is jointed to 
 facilitate packing. 
 
 BURLEY. — A common name for the butt end of a 
 lance. 
 
 BURNING.— Joining metals by melting their adja- 
 cent edges, or heating the adjacent edges and nmning 
 into the intermediate space some molten nulal of the 
 , same kind. The process differs from soldering in 
 j this; In burning, a heat is required sullicient to melt 
 1 the original metal, and a flux is si'ldom used. In 
 soldering, a lower heat is used and a more fusible 
 metal employed, assisted by a flux. The superior 
 quality of hitrniiig arises from the fact that the joint 
 will withstand the same heat as the body of the ar- 
 ticle. Cast-iron is frequently united by Imniing. It 
 was first i>racticed by the native smiths of India and 
 China, who occasioned much surprise to their Occi- 
 I dental neighbors by the way in which they mended 
 cast-iron kettles and pots which were supposed to be 
 irretrievably ruined. The first notice of it by 
 Europeans appears to have been by Van Braam, in 
 ITO-l-y.j, who was attached to the Dutch Emba.s.sy at 
 I'ekin, and who afterwards settled in the United 
 States. 
 
 BURNISHING.— The process of giving a peculiar 
 luster to a gun-barrel or other part of a rifle by rub- 
 buig it with a piece of steel. It is generally forbidden 
 in tlie service as injurious to the gun. 
 
 BURNS AND SCALDS.— These injuries are not un- 
 fre(iueut in the laboratory and field. They are nmch 
 the same in both cases; therefore the din'Ctions for the 
 treatment of burns will be applicable Aw to scalds. 
 These injuries may be divided into three classes: 1. 
 Burns resulting in .simple rechiess of the skin; 2. 
 Burns resulting in vesication or blistering; 3. Bums 
 resulting in sloughing, or death of the part. The 
 first object, after the accident has occurred, is to re- 
 lieve the suffering; and cold apjilied either in the form 
 of ice or water seems in most cases to have almost a 
 specific power in allaying pain and checking the ad- 
 vance of inflammation. In other cases moderate 
 warmth is found more efficacious, and we must be 
 guitled mainly by the sensations of the sufferer as to 
 which of these remedies we make use of. In very 
 severe cases opium or chloroform may he employed. 
 But if the injury the body has received l)e very 
 serious, the patient complains less of pain than of colli ; 
 be shivers, is much depressed, and must be well sup- 
 plied with stimulants, to prevent his dying from the 
 shock. The best local ajjplication is tiie Carron oil, 
 which derives its name from the famous iron-works, 
 where it has been u.sed for many years. It consists 
 of e(|ual parts of olive-oil and lime-water, and should 
 be ajiplicd on linen rags or cotton-wool. Blisters may 
 be ]ii'i(ked and the contained sennn allowed to trickle 
 away, but on no account is the raised skin to lie 
 removed. The dressings should not lx> changed 
 oftener tliiin cleanliness requires; and as each portion 
 of the old dressing is removed, it nmst at once be re- 
 placed with fresh, so that as little expasure as possible 
 of the burned surface may take place. The main 
 jirinciple of treatment is exchision of the air from the 
 iiijure<l part; and so Ions: as this is effected, it matters 
 but little what remedial agent is employed. Great 
 care must be taken in the treatment of a sore resulting 
 from a burn, that the contraction of the scar does not 
 cause distortion of the neighboring parts. 
 
 BURNSIDE CARBINE.— An arm fonnerly used in 
 tlic niilitary service. It has a movable chamber w liich 
 opens by tviruing on a hinge. A bra.ss cartridge-case 
 is used which packs the joint and cuts off the escape 
 of the gas. The advantages of this arm are its 
 strength, waterproof cartridges, perfectly tight joint, 
 and working machinery. Its disadvantages are the 
 cost, and difficulty of getting the cartridges. When 
 first made, the metallic case of the Burnside cartridge 
 (either of bra-ss or steel) was capped at the larger end
 
 BTrSNT ITHBEB. 
 
 258 
 
 BUTLEB FBOJECTILE. 
 
 with 11 k".iil riiis. The case was slijrhtly conical, with 
 a siimll hole at the smaller eiui. The mauuer of in- 
 serting the cartridge and extracting the shell after 
 tiring was similar to that employed at the present 
 time. Sw Cnrhinf. 
 
 BUBNT UMBEB.— A pigment of a russet-brown 
 color. It is semi-transparent, mixes well with other 
 pigments, and dries (luickly. It is obtained liv burn- 
 ing uml)er, an ocherous earth containing niaiigaiiese, 
 and deriving its name from the place where it was 
 lirst discovered — I'mbria, in Italy. 
 
 BUBQUB. — A kind of cnirass which in ancient times 
 was worn with the brig-antine. 
 
 BUBB. — 1. In gunnery, a round iron ring which 
 serves to rivet the end of the bolt, so as to form a 
 round head. 2. ^Vny roughness or uneveuness ob- 
 scrx'ed in the barrels of guns after manufacture, or on 
 balls which have been cjist, or on the edge of tools 
 when ground, or in woodwork when turned, caused 
 by the inequality of the libers of the material. 
 
 "BTJBBEL-SHOT. — A medlev of shot, stones, chunks 
 of iron, etc., to be projected from a cannon at short 
 range. Frequently called itiiergency-shot. 
 
 BUESTIKG-BAGS. — Bags for the bursting charges 
 of common shell. In order to prevent the liability to 
 occitsional premature bursts when firing filled com- 
 mon shells from M.L.R. guns of 7-inch caliber and 
 \ipwarils, it h.as been found necessarj' to inclose the 
 burstimr-charire in a serge bag. 
 
 BUBSTING-CHABGE.— 1. A small charge of fine 
 powtler, placed in contact with a charge of coarse 
 powder or uitrolemn to insure the ignition of the lat- 
 ter. It is usually fired by voltaic means. — 2. The 
 charge of powder requireil for bursting a shell or case- 
 shot; it may be poured in loose, or placed in a burster- 
 bag. 
 
 BTJBTON. — A peculiar style of tackle. It has at 
 least two movable blocks or pulleys and two rojics. 
 The weight Ls suspended to a liook-block in the bight 
 of the running part. This arrangement of cords and 
 pullej's is suscejitible of great variation, so as to in- 
 crea.se in a twofold, fourfold ratio, or otherwise. 
 Each pulley has but one sheave, and there are as 
 many ropes as movable pulleys. 
 
 BUETON MAGAZINE-GUN.— In principle this gun 
 does not differ from the Ward-Burton. The points 
 of diiTercncc in construction areas follows: The joint 
 between the body of the boll and its head is trans- 
 ferred in this gun to the rear, so that the body of the 
 bolt takes the place of the head, while the rear portion 
 serves simply to lock it. As the body of the bolt 
 does not rotate, the .sear-bolt slot at right angles to its 
 axis is dispensed with, giving, it is claimed, a stronger 
 bolt. The extnictor, though called a lever-extractor, 
 is a spring hook pinned to the bolt near its front. 
 The rear of the extractor is thickened so as to bear 
 against a cam on the firing-pin, which prevents the 
 descent of its rear with the corresponding rise of its 
 front. In withdrawing a shell the spring can oidy 
 be from the front portion alone. The trigger-spring 
 serves also to hold the carrier in place. The carrier 
 is composed of two i)rincipal parts, separated at front 
 by a flat spring. The lower portion, which is pivoted 
 at its rear to the upper, has on its front a sort of fin- 
 ger, which may be made to pass through a slot in the 
 upper portion so as to jiroject partly across the mouth 
 of the magazine, cutting oil the escape of cartridges 
 by simi)ly turning a set-screw in rear of the pi\-bt. 
 The motions are the sjune as in the Ward-Burton. 
 This gun carries eight cartridges in the magazine and 
 one in the chamber. See Mdfjazint-niin. 
 
 BUSBT. — The head-dress worn by the artillerv and 
 hus.sars in the British army. It consists of a fur bat, 
 with a bag hanging from the top over the right 
 shoulder. The bag, which is made of the sjime color 
 as the facings of the regiment, appeai-s to be of Hun- 
 garian origin, and intended to ward off a sword-cut. 
 In India the artillery whose head-dress in Europe is 
 a busby do not wear it, but are provided with wicker 
 helmets covered with white cloth. The head-dress 
 
 worn by the fusiliers is called a "busby," and is 
 made of black raccoon-skin for the olhcers, and 
 of sealskin for the non-commissioned officers and 
 men. 
 
 BUSHEL. — A dry measure for gntin, etc. The 
 quarlcr contains H bushels, and the bushel 8 gidlons, 
 the gallon measuring 277.274 cubic inches, and hold- 
 ing 10 pounds avoirdupois of distilled water. Hence 
 the imperial bushel contains 80 pounds of water, and 
 measures 2218.2 cubic inches. The old Winchester 
 bushel measured 2150 cubic inches; hence 33 Win- 
 chester bushels equals 33 imperial bushels nearly. 
 
 The following weights and estimates are often" valu- 
 able when i)urchasing supplies in the field: One 
 bushel of wheat w eiglis tiO pounds; of rye, .'58 jwuniLs; 
 of barley, 54 ])ounds; of oats, 42 pounds; of beans, 
 62 pounds; of peas and maize, (56 ix>unds; of pota- 
 toes, 60 jjounds; of onions, 56 pounds. About 50 
 pounds of wheat and 30 pounds of oats go to the 
 cubic foot. One cubic yard of well-pre.s.scd hay 
 weighs 225 pounds; one cubic yard of straw weighs 
 145 pounds; one cubic yard of grain will average 20 
 bushels. The following numbers of bushels will 
 safely go to the acre; wheat, rye, and beans, 25; oats, 
 45; barley. 37J; peas, 25; maize, 30; potatoes, 250. 
 
 BUSHING.— When a pure copper vent is fixed in 
 a gun, the gun is said to be biis/ud. It is done by 
 drilling a hole in the piece where the vent is usually 
 placed, about one inch in diameter, and screwmg 
 therein a piece of wrought copper, with a vent of 5 of 
 an inch through the center of it. There are two 
 kinds of vent-bushes — a cuiie and a t/innigk vent. The 
 first is used when the gun is new, and, if practicjible, 
 when re-vented; the latter when the cone of the bush 
 is not sufficiently large to remove the wear roimd the 
 bush. 
 
 BUSHING TENTS.— A method re-sorted to when the 
 soil will not hold well, or in stormy, blowing weather. 
 It is generally necessiiry under these circumstances to 
 biis7i the main outer ropes of the tent, which is effected 
 by burying to a sufficient depth under the groimd a 
 strong busli at each angle of the tent, to which ropes 
 are attached. 
 
 BUSHWHACKEBS.— A term much in u.se in the 
 War of the Heliellion (though well known before) to 
 indicate men who pretended peace or neutrality, l>ut 
 who were ready to make secret attacks whenever 
 opportunity otl'ered. They were numerous in some 
 Western Siates, where many of them were summarily 
 shot as outla\ys. 
 
 BUSKINS.— A kind of shoe, or half-boot, adapted 
 to either foot, and fonnerly part of the Roman dress. 
 They arc now \voru by some European annies. 
 The ancient tragedians wore buskins (rot/iiiriti), often 
 with thick soles, to add to their stature. Hence the 
 buskin is often put for tragedy, as the sock (xoceiis, 
 a flat-soled shoe) for comedy. In ancient sculpture, 
 Diana, and hunters in general, as well as men of 
 rank and authority, are represented in buskins often 
 highly ornamented. 
 t BUTIN. — Booty or piiiage. At the beginning of 
 the French Monarchy, and for a long time after its 
 establishment, a particular s|)ot was marked out by 
 the Prince or General, to which all persons lielong- 
 mg to the victorious armj' were directed to bring 
 j every species of booty that might have fallen into 
 their hands. This booty was not <li\i<led, or appro- 
 [ priated according to the will anil iileasure of the 
 Prince or General, but was thrown into dilTereiit lots, 
 and drawn for in common. The soldiers who dis- 
 tribnteil iliese spoils were called B\itiniers. 
 
 BUTLEB PEOJECTILE.— This projectile consists of 
 a cast-iron body having a doulile-lipped expanding 
 ring attached by a screw-thread to its ba.se. Upon 
 discharge, the powder-gases entering the cannelure 
 of the ring expand the outer lip into the grooves 
 commimiealing rol;ili<)ii to the inojeetile, and press- 
 ing the inner liii lightly against the base of the pro- 
 jectile tends to prevent stripping. The ring may be 
 of brass (75 parts of copper to 25 of tin) or of an
 
 BUTT. 
 
 259 
 
 BUTTON. 
 
 alloy of copper, tin, and brass, the brass being fused 
 with the copper. 
 The Butler canister consists of a hollow cj'linder made 
 
 up of truncated iron wedges inclosed in an envelope 
 of tin. The cylinder is closed at the bottom with a 
 lead cup inclosing a disk of wood, and at the top 
 with a sheet-iron plate, disks of 
 tin being employed on the out- 
 side at both eii(is to facilitate 
 soldering. The interior of the 
 cylinder is filled with the round 
 iron balls. See Ex/xi nding Pro- 
 jectiles and Prrijectiks. 
 
 BUTT.— 1. In gunnery, a solid 
 earthen parapet, to tire against 
 in the pro\'ing of guns, or in 
 practice. 2. That extremity of 
 a musket which rests against 
 the sho\dder when the piece is 
 brought up to the position of 
 firing. The term butt end is 
 usumIIv emplnved in this .sense. 
 
 BUTTEEIS.— A knife with a 
 bent shank, used by farriers to 
 pare the hoofs of horses. It 
 has a blade like a chisel, and 
 is oix'rated by a thrust move- 
 ment, the handle resting against 
 the shoulder. The term is prob- 
 ably from the French boutoir ; 
 provincial, 6owtam«. Some old 
 Roman paring-implements of 
 iron are yet extant. 
 
 BUTTON. — 1. In gunnerj', a 
 part of the cascabel, in either 
 a gun or a howitzer, being the 
 bind part of the piece, made 
 roimd in the form of a ball. 
 
 2. A part of the uniform; 
 used both for ornament and 
 for buttoning. In the United 
 States army the button is pre- 
 scrilx,-d as follows: 
 
 For General Officers, Store- 
 keepers, and Officers of the General Staff. — Gilt, con 
 vex, with spread eagle and stars, and plain border 
 
 large size, seven eighths of an inch in exterior dia- 
 meter; small size, one half inch. 
 
 For Officers of the Corps of Engineers. — Gilt, nine 
 tenths of an inch in exterior diameter, slightlj- con- 
 vex; a raised bright rim, one thirtieth of an inch 
 wide; device, an eagle holding in his beak a scroll, 
 with the word " Essayons," a bastion with embntsures 
 in the distance surrounded by water, with a ri.sing 
 sun— the figures to be of dead gold upon a bright 
 field. Small buttons of the same form and de\Tce, 
 and fifty -five hundredths of an inch Lq exterior di- 
 ameter. 
 
 For Officers of the Ordnance Department. — GWt, 
 convex, plain border, cross cannon and bombshell. 
 
 Button-shank Machine. 
 
 with a circular scroll over and across the cannon, 
 containing the words " Ordnance Corps;" large size, 
 
 Engineer. 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Infantr>. 
 
 Ordnance.
 
 BUTTOH. 
 
 260 
 
 BTITTOK. 
 
 Maine. 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 Ohio. Missouri. 
 
 seven eighth.s of an inch in exterior diameter; small 
 size, one half inch. 
 
 Ki/r Officen of Artillery, Infantry, and Ciimlry. — 
 iGilt, convex; device, a .spread eagle with tlie letter 
 A, for Artillery — I , for Infantry — C, for Cavalrj', on 
 the shield; large size, seven eighths of an inch in ex- 
 terior diameter; small size, one half inch. 
 
 Aides-dc-Vdinp may wear the liutton of the General 
 Staff, or of their regiment or corps, at their option. 
 
 For all EnlMfd Men. — Yellow, the Siime as is used 
 by the Artillery, etc., but omitting the letter in the 
 shield. 
 
 The various State buttons, full size, are shown in 
 the drawings above. 
 
 The history of button-making is in many ways a 
 curious one. Dating no further back as a triKle of 
 any importance than the reign of Elizabeth, it has 
 undergone several extraordinary changes, produced 
 
 Massiichusetts. 
 
 New York. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 Michigan. Wisconsin. 
 
 chiefly by the ever-varying fa.shions in dress, but alsc 
 by soine simple though ingenious inventions, as well 
 as by foreign competition. In Groat Britain, Bir- 
 mingham has always been the principal seat of the 
 button-manufacture. What has l)ccn called the 
 " Augustan Age" of button-making in that city in- 
 cluded the latter portion of last and the early i)art of 
 the present century, when even tradesmen wore coats 
 "loaded with innumerable gilt buttons," and when 
 employers on a moderate scale in this manufacture 
 were making incomes of from £20(10 to taOOO a year, 
 and their workmen from £3 to £4 pPr week. Karly 
 in the presiMit century Mr. B. Sanders intro<liiced 
 the cloth-covered button, which initiated the change- 
 from those made of mtUil, and by which he rapidly 
 made a tortune. His son in ISi.'i ctTected the ap- 
 parently trivial but really ingenious improvement of 
 making it with a canvas tuft instead of a metali
 
 BUTTBESS. 
 
 261 
 
 CAB1TLZ. 
 
 shank, by which both the button-holes and the gar- 
 ment itself were less subject to injuiy. This kind of 
 button had an enormous sale, and is still much used. 
 A further alteration was made on it by Mr. W. 
 Elliott, who patented in 1837 a mode of covering 
 the button witli silk, having a pattern in the center, 
 the demand for which was at one time so great that 
 sixty looms were employed iu London in making the 
 special material reciuired for them. Metal buttons, 
 although not relatively so im])ortant as fonnerly, 
 have never ceased to form a prominent section of the 
 trade. They are a numerous class, and include all 
 sorts for uniforms, troaser-buttons, fancy buttons 
 which arc gilt, stamped, chased, or enameled, ami 
 many cheap varieties in iron and other metals for 
 export. Numerous kinds of composite buttt)ns are 
 also partly composed of metal. Glass buttons form 
 another interesting branch, carried on to a consider- 
 able extent in Birmingham, Init more largely in 
 Bohemia and Paris; so also do porcelain buttons, 
 which, although an English invention, are now 
 almost exclusively made in France. Vulcanite but- 
 tons have l)een extensively made in the United 
 States. As to other materials, a Birmingham manu- 
 facturer siiys it were easy to write out a long list 
 from which buttons have been made, but very diffi- 
 cult to name one from which they have not been 
 made. 
 
 Briefly described, the processes in making the mili- 
 tary bra.ss buttons are as follows: Circular disks, 
 called "blanks," are first cut out of sheet-brass or 
 other metal by means of fly -presses, usually worked 
 by girls. The fly-press consists of a vertical iron 
 screw with a triple thread, to which screw is at- 
 tached a horizontal arm, bending downwards at the 
 tnd to form a handle. A pimch attached to the 
 press rises and falls with the motion of this handle, 
 and rapidly cuts out the blanks. When large quan- 
 tities of one pattern are required, a self-feeding, self- 
 acting machine is used, wliieh cuts out the blanks in 
 rows at one blow, turning them out at the rate of 
 2000 gross per daj'. After teing annealed, the blanks 
 are next made convex by a blow from a stamp. The 
 shanks are formed of wire by a separate machine 
 shown in the drawing, which cuts off pieces and 
 bends them into loops of the required fomi. When 
 these are soldered on, the buttons are dressed on a 
 Jathe. They are then gilded and burnished; some, 
 
 however, are only lackered; and some, though gilt, 
 are finished in a dead or fro.sted style. — "Shell" 
 buttons are those with a convex face, a flat or con- 
 vex back, and hollow. These are made of two 
 blanks, that forming the face being larger than the 
 back to which tlie shank is attached. These blanks 
 are pres-sed into the required shape by dies worked 
 in the fly -press, and then, by another die, the edge of 
 the larger blank is lapped over the smaller, and thus 
 attached without soldering. Militnry and other Imt- 
 tons having a device in strong relief are stamped by 
 a die placed in a stamitiiigiiress. 
 
 BUTTEES8.— A counterfort or sustaining wall or 
 pillar, built agauist and at right angles to the wall to 
 which it forms a revetment. In the classical style 
 there were no buttresses, their place being to a cer- 
 tain extent supplied by pilasters, anta', etc. The 
 different stages of Gothic architecture are marked by 
 the form of buttresses employed, almost as distinctly 
 as by the form of the arch. The Norman buttress 
 was broad, often semicircular, sometimes dying into 
 the wall at the top, and never projecting from it to 
 any great extent. Early English b\ittres.ses project 
 much more twldly, and are considerably narrower, 
 than the Norman. They are frequently broken into 
 stages, which diminish in size as they ascend. In the 
 decorated style, this division into stages is almost in- 
 variable, the buttress being often supplied with 
 niches tenninating in pinnacles, and verj' higlilj' or- 
 namented with carving, statues, etc. In the lurpen- 
 dicular style they retain the forms which had Ijeeii in- 
 troduced during the decorated period, the ornamenta- 
 tion of course being varied to suit the character of 
 the style. Flying-buttre.s.ses — i.e., buttresses in the 
 form of a sloping arch, connecting the upper and 
 central portions of an arelied structm-e witli the 
 vertical buttresses of the outer walls — were introduced 
 into England at the period of the early English, though 
 they existed on the Continent jircviously, where they 
 continued to be u.sed to a greater extent. They were 
 also veiy common in Scotland. In England they are 
 generallv called arch-buttre.sses. 
 
 BYL.— One of the early Norman arms, resembling a 
 war-hatchet. Now obsolete. 
 
 BYRNIE.— A name apjilied to the very ancient Eng- 
 lish body-armor. Now obsolete. 
 
 BTSSA. — An ancient cannon for throwing stones. 
 The byssa was a formidable weajjon in its time. 
 
 c 
 
 CABACLE.— A military coat worn by the modem 
 Grecians. Now obsolete. 
 
 CABAL. — A term cmiiloyed to denote a small, in- 
 triguing, factious party in the State, and also a union 
 of several such, which, for political or ]icr.sonal ends, 
 agree to modify or .sacrifice their principles. The 
 word was u.sed to describe an English Ministry in the 
 reign of Charles II., the initials of whose names com- 
 posed Cabal — viz., Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, 
 Arlington, and Lauderdale. This was not the origin 
 of the word, however, as some have su]iposed, but 
 merelj' the ingenious application of a word pre\-iously 
 in use, and which appears to have been derived from 
 the French caliale, possessing a very similar significa- 
 tion. 
 
 CABAS. — 1. A basket made of rushes, used in an- 
 cient Languedoc and Kous.sillon for the purpose of 
 conveying stores and ammunition. 3. A large shield 
 or buckler which .serveil to protect the archers who 
 attacked in intrenchments. 
 
 CABASSET.— The common infantrj- head-piece in 
 the sixteenth century. It was a light mrm'oii. or iron 
 cap, with a wide brim that was nuich lowered. It 
 ■was frequently called cenelU-rc, because it only cov- 
 
 Also ■written Cabatet 
 
 ered the upper part of the head, 
 and Capndte. 
 
 CABINET.— The Heads of Departments who are 
 the immediate ad\isers or counselors of the Chief Ex- 
 ecutive. In the United States the Cabinet consists of 
 the Secretaries of State, Treasury, War, Navy, and 
 Interior, the Attorney General, and the Postmaster 
 General. They meet whenever desired by the Presi- 
 dent, but not publicly. No minutes are kept of their 
 doings, nor are the names of those present recorded. 
 The President presides; and he may at any time re- 
 quire in writing the opinion of any of the members 
 upon matters concerning his Department. But the 
 Cabinet has no responsibility, as that rests with the 
 President alone. 
 
 CABOCHED— CABOSSED.— An heraldic term, from 
 the old French word rahiirht', mean- 
 ing the head. When the head of an 
 animal is borne, without any part of 
 the neck, and exhibited full in face, 
 it is said to lie caboched or cabossed. 
 See Ileralilry. 
 
 CABtlLE.— A machine of war, tised in eiu-ly times, 
 but mostly during the twelfth century, to throw stones
 
 CACHE. 
 
 262 
 
 CADENCE. 
 
 CACHE. — A hiding-place, usually a cavity, natural 
 or artitieiul, in the ground or among rocks, where 
 voyagers, explorers, and troops stow proxisions or 
 records, to l)c found by themselves or others. If con- 
 taining provisions, the cache needs to be very strong 
 
 Cacolet. 
 
 to resist the depredations of animals. The name was 
 early used by parties of travelers in the great Western 
 Prairies of the United States. Designing to return on 
 their tracks after crossing the Rocky Mountains, they 
 disburdened themselves of whatever articles coiild be 
 
 spared, and, to conceal them from the Indians, con- 
 structed places of deposit in the wilderness. The 
 making of a cache is a matter of much labor and in- 
 genuity. A hole is dug to a tkpth of perhaps 6 or 8 
 feet and several feet broad, and then the articles being 
 interred, the surface is replaced witli the utmost pos- 
 sible rare. The excavated earth is also carefully 
 removed, so as to leave no trace whatever of the ex- 
 cavation. The situiition of the cache, however, is 
 known to the party by some landmark, and returning 
 
 are used for carrying the sick or woimded in the day 
 of battle. The most approved pattern weighs 58 
 pounds the pair. The pack weighs the same. Add 
 the weight of two men, say 1.50 pounds each: total 
 weight to be carried, more than 400 pounds — rather 
 an excessive weight for any but a large-built mule or 
 horse. The drawing shows some of the details of 
 the French ami British Crimean cacoliU. This nature 
 of chair is very tiring for the sick man, and it is, 
 moreover, very difficult to place hint in the cufnU t. 
 
 In 1801 the United St;ites Qmirtermaster's Depart- 
 ment i)urchased a number of ntaihts of the jjattem 
 used in the French army, and emjjloyed a French 
 agent to give instruction in their use, and purclia.sed 
 animals specially adapted for their transport. The 
 Quartermaster-general has remarked that these horses 
 and mules were gradually appropriated as draftani- 
 mals, and that the eacoU'ta were, for the most part, 
 condemned as unserviceable. 
 
 A very convenient litter used by the FVench, under 
 favorable circumstances, but never .s:Uisfactorily tested 
 in the United States, was so constructed as to be read- 
 ily detached from the pack-saddle and unfolded to 
 form a comfortable bed for the patient. This like 
 all other forms of aicolct has been considered un- 
 suited to the requirements of field-service in this 
 country. Scarcely a word in favor of them is to be 
 found in any reports of the Medical Directors or Field- 
 surgeons. See A)nbulance. 
 
 CADASTRAL.— A term derived from the French 
 word cadastre, a register of lands, or from cadrer, to 
 square, and signif jnng a survey on a large scale, such 
 as has been adopted of late years on the Continent of 
 Europe, and is now used in England in the ordnance 
 maps. The measurement corresponds so nearly to 
 2.5 inches to the mile that it is usually spoken of as 
 the 25-inch scale. It has the further advantage of 
 bearing, within a very small frac- 
 tion, the proportion of one inch to 
 an acre. A cadastral as opposed to 
 a topographical map may be defined 
 to be one on which the subjects 
 represented agree, as to their rela- 
 tive position-s and dimensions, with 
 the objects on the face of the coun- 
 try; while a topographical map, 
 drawn on a .small .scale, exaggerates, 
 for the sake of distinctness, the di- 
 inen.sions of houses, and the breadth 
 of roads and streams, and is, owing 
 to its smaller size, neces-sarily less 
 -' '~ correct than a cadastral plan. 
 
 CADENCE.— 1. A unifomi time 
 and pace in marching, indispensable 
 to the correct movements of troops in large' bodies. 
 2. In music, cadence is the finish of a plira.se, of 
 which there are three principal species, viz., the whole, 
 the half, and the interrupted cadence. The whole 
 cadence, which finishes on the harmony of the tonic, 
 is also calletl the perfect cadence, smd is always used 
 at the end of a comiiosition, and frequently called the 
 final cadence. In its most perfect use it consists of 
 three chords — the one before the final being always the 
 dominant. The half -cadence, also called the imperfect 
 
 i 
 
 3h 
 
 2?=^ 
 
 -«— i- 
 
 m 
 
 Cadences. 
 
 months afterwanls, they probably find its contents 
 undisturbed. 
 
 CACOLET.— A folding-chair made to he slung on a 
 pack-saddle, one on each side of an animal. They 
 
 cadence, istised to mark the termination of an idea or 
 phrase, like the colon and semicolon; showing a con- 
 siderable division, but at the same time that a continua- 
 tion is neccs-sary. The harmony of the half-cadonce is
 
 CADENCY. 
 
 263 
 
 CADET. 
 
 the reverse of the whole cadence, as it falls from the 
 tonic to the dominiint, and sometimes to the subdomi- 
 naut as in a. In Uie mterniptcd cadence, the prepara- 
 tion for the ordinary perfect cadence is made; but in- 
 stead of the harmony of the tonic following the domi- 
 nant, another harmony quite strange is introduoedj so 
 that the ear is deceived. The more iiarlicular tlie 
 preparation for the usual cadence is made, the more 
 strange anil unexpected is the interruiition, which can 
 be made in so many ways that Keicha, in las TmiUi 
 de Haute Cimiposithn, Mimcale, gives Vl'-i interrupted 
 cadences. Tliose generally in u.se are written in b. 
 
 CADENCY.— The marks by which the shields of 
 the younger members of families are distinguished 
 from those of the elder, and from each other, is an 
 extensive, and, in so far as that term can be applied 
 to Ueraldrj' at all, an important branch of the science. 
 No distinction is usually made by writers on Heraldrj-, 
 and probably the practice of heralds in general scarcely 
 admits of any being made, between nuokx of cadeney, 
 differences, diMinclions, or even bri/mren, lliough the 
 last term is pretty constantly, and quite appropriately, 
 used to include not only ditferences in general, but 
 also abatements or bearings Ijy which the arms of the 
 family are broken or diminished. But there is a 
 manifest convenience in the practice which is usually 
 followed in Scotland of aiiproprialing the label, the 
 crescent, the mullet, and the rest of the series of 
 marks, commonly known as marks of cadency, to the 
 purpose of distinguishing the sons from the father, 
 and from each other, during the father's lifetime; 
 and of adopting other distinctions — such as the bor- 
 dure of various kimls, the chief engrailed, embattled, 
 and the like, as ditferences between the coats of 
 brothers, after the ileath of their father, and of the 
 houses descended from them. Another very common 
 mode of differencing the shielils of brothers in early 
 times was by changing the tinctures; but this is now 
 regarded as too extensive a change for such a pur- 
 pose. The method of differencing by means of the 
 ordinary marks of cailency will be understood from 
 the accompanying illustration. Fanciful reasons have 
 been imagined by heralds for assigning these different 
 
 Second HotU'\ 
 
 Distinction of Houses: 
 
 In the First House, the first, secoud.etc. sons are denoted by 
 1, till- label; 2. the crescent; .3. the mullet; 4. th«- martlet; 
 5. the .innulet; 6. the Heurde-lis; 7. the rose inot flpured in 
 the cuti; 8. the cross innline; 9. the double qimtrefoil. In 
 the Second House, or family of the second son, the first 
 son is denoted by (ll the crescent, with the label upon it; 
 the second, by 1 2'l the crescent, with the crescent upon it; 
 and so on. lit the Tliinl House, or family of the third son, 
 the first son is denoted hv the mullet, witli the label upon 
 it; the second, by the mullet, with the crescent upon it; 
 and so on. 
 
 marks to the different sons. The differences at present 
 used by the royal fitmily will be founil in most of the 
 peerages. The rule with regard to them seems to be 
 that, unlike subjects, they all bear the label of three 
 points argent; but the label of the Prince of Wales is 
 plain, whilst those of the other princes and princes,ses 
 are charged with crosses, flemsde-lis, hearts, or other 
 figures, for the stike of distinction. One of the most 
 frequent rea.sons for matriculating the arms of the 
 vounger branches of f;unilies <if distinction in the 
 Lord Lyon's Register, is tluit they niiiy lie jiroperly 
 distingiiished from those borne by the head of the 
 house. See Heraldry. 
 
 CADET. — A term applied in a general sense to a 
 junior menilier of a noble family as distinguished 
 from the eldest ; and in France, any officer junior to 
 another is a Cadet in respect to him. In a strict niili- 
 tiiry sense, however, a Cadet is a youth studying for 
 the public service. In Englimd, military cadelship 
 has presented two aspects, according as it Is related 
 to the East Intlia Company's or to the Koyal service. 
 When the Company posse.s.sed political and military 
 authority in hulia, there were about 5000 English 
 officers in their pay. Those who conimandctl the 
 Company's own regiments had been professionally 
 educated by the ComiJany. A youth, nominated by 
 the Directors, was exammed as to his protieieney in 
 an ordinary English education, and admitted between 
 the ages of 14 and 18 to Atldiseombe School or Col- 
 lege, near Croydon. If a prtibatifin of six months 
 residted satisfactorily, he entered U|)on a two years' 
 course of study. If he i)as.sed through this ordeal 
 well, he became a Cadet in the Company's service, 
 recei\ing jiay or salarj', and Ix'ing available for ser- 
 vice in Inilia, as opportunity might offer. The .sys- 
 tem of Indian Ciidetsliip umierwenl varicais modilica- 
 tions by the introduction of comix'tition in the 
 appointments, and by the transference of the Com- 
 p;niy's powers to the Crown ; and cciised in IHOl, 
 when the accession of fresh officers to the local Indian 
 armies was stopped. The second aspect of military 
 cadetship in England, adverted to above, is that of 
 the Royal or t^ueen's Cadets. 
 
 Cadets at the United States Milil.nry Academy are 
 subject to the Kules and Articles of War. Each 
 Cadet, u])on his admission, is retiuired to take the 
 oath of office prescribed by Act of Congress of .luly 
 2, 1862, and before rereiring his varrnnt shall, in 
 the ]iresence of the Sujieriritendent, or of some officer 
 dcimted by him, subscribe to an engagement in the 
 following form ; 
 
 I, , of the State of , aged years 
 
 months, having been selected for appointment as a 
 
 Cadet in ilie Military Academy of the L uiled States, do 
 hereby enjjage. with the consent of my (Parent, or Guar- 
 dian), in the event of my receiving such appointment, that i 
 will serve in the .\rmy of the United States for eight years, 
 mdess sooner discharged by competent authority. And "I, 
 
 , DO SOLEMNLY SWEAR, that I will support the 
 
 Constitution of the United Slates, and bear true allegiance to 
 the National Government ; that I will nuiintt'iu and defend 
 tlie sovereignty of the United States paramount to any and 
 all allegiance, sovereignty, or fealty I may owe to any State, 
 county, or country whatsoever: and that I will at all times 
 obey the legal orders of my superior ofllcers and the rules 
 and articles governing the armies of the United States." 
 
 Sworn and subscribed to, at , this day of , 
 
 eighteen hundred and , before 
 
 The punishments to which a Cadet is liable are 
 comprised in the three following classes, ^^z. ; 1st. 
 Privation of recreation, etc. ; extra duty (not guard ) ; 
 rcpiimands ; arrests, or confinement to his room or 
 tent, or in the light prison ; reduction of officers or 
 non-commissioneil officers. 2d. Confinement in dark 
 prison. 3d. Suspension ; dismission, with the privi- 
 lege of resigning ; public dismission. The pmiish- 
 ments of tht^first cla.ss mentioned may be inflicted by 
 the Superintendent ; these of the second class only by 
 \-irtue of the sentence of a General Court-Martial, 
 except in cases of mutinous conduct, or breach of 
 arrest ; and those of the third class only by the Sec- 
 retarv of War. 
 
 When a Ciidet shall receive a regular degree from 
 
 ! the Academic Board, after going through the clas-ses, 
 he is considered as among the candidates for a com- 
 mission in the Engineers,\)rdnancc. Artiller> , Infan- 
 
 ' try, or Cavalry, according to the <Iuties he may be 
 judged competent to perform. General ^ mtield 
 
 : Scott said : " I irivc it as my fixed (-pinion that, l)Ut 
 for our gradtititeil Cadets, the w:ir between the I nitetl 
 States aiid Mexico might, and probably would, have 
 lasted some four or live ve:irs, with, in its first half, 
 more defeats than victories falling to our J^'jarp; 
 
 I whereas, in less than two campaigns, wc conquered a
 
 CADETS' C0LL£6E. 
 
 264 
 
 CAISSOH. 
 
 great country and a peace, without the loss of a sin- 
 gle battle orskirmish." See Rnyal MUitary Academy, 
 aiiitlAiiml. iylaff dAUge, and United Statu Military 
 Aciidiiiiy. 
 
 CADETS' COLLEGE.— A college with this desigua- 
 tioii was establishud in 18-58 by a renuKlelins of tlic 
 Junior Department of the Hoyal Military C'oUcire at 
 Siindliurst. Its objects were to give a sound military 
 education to youths intended for the army, and to 
 facilitate the obtaining of coniniissious when the edu- 
 cation -was tinished. The age of admission was 
 between 16 and 19. The fiieuds of a youth able to 
 pay the sums of money presently to be named 
 applied to the Commander-in-Chief for iwrraission to 
 place the youth on the list of Candidates ; this per- 
 mission W!is usually minted on production of siitis- 
 factorj' certificates and references. The youth might 
 go upfor examination on any half-year. The list of 
 subject.s included English composition. Continental 
 languages, mathematics, history, geograi^hy, natural 
 sciences, experimental sciences, and drawing. After 
 the examination, the Candidates were reported to the 
 Commander-in-Chief in their order of merit. Those 
 who had the most marks were admitted tis Cadets as 
 soon as vacancies occurred in the College. When 
 entered, they studied for two years on a great variety 
 of subjects connected with militarj- science and jirac- 
 ticc. The friend supjilied clothing, books, and instru- 
 ments. The annual payment for education, board, 
 and lodging varied from €100 per annum down to 
 £20 ; the highest sum being demanded for " the sons 
 of private gentlemen," while the lowest was deemed 
 sutlicient for " the sons of officers of the army or 
 navy who had died in the ser\ice, and whose fami- 
 lies were proved to be left in pecuniar}' distress." 
 Twenty of the youths were "Queen's Cadets," sons 
 of officers "who had fallen in action, or h;id died 
 from the elTects of active service, and liad left their 
 families in reduced circumstances." These twenty 
 Cadets were admitted and educated gratuitously. 
 This system was abolished in 1870. Sul)-lieutenants 
 of cavalry and infantrj', styled "Student Officers," 
 who have done duty with a regiment for about 12 
 months, are now required to attend the College at 
 Sandhurst, and go through a course of study for a 
 year. At the end of it, on passing a sjitisfactory 
 examination, they are promoteil to the rank of Lieu- 
 tenant, and rejoin tlieir regiments. 
 
 CAGE DE LA BASCULE^— A space into which one 
 part of a drawbridge falls, whilst the other rises ami 
 conceals the gate. 
 
 CAIMACAN. — A Turkish officer corresponding with 
 Lieutenant or Lieutenant -governor. The Cainia- 
 can of Constantinople is the Lieutenant of the Grand 
 Vizier, whom he represents in processions. Such 
 officers also act as Governors in the principal towns. 
 Also written Kainuikam. 
 
 CAIRN — CABN. — A Celtic word, signifying a pro- 
 tuberance, a heap, a pile. In that sen.se it appears in 
 the names of hills and other natural objicts in Scot- 
 land, Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany. 
 It is also applied to artificial heaps of unhc\vn 
 Stones, which, among arclueologists, have come 
 to Ix! generally known as " cairns." There are 
 several kinds of cairns. The simplest and 
 most common form seems to be a conical pile 
 of stones of no great size. Next is what 
 may be called the fence or ringed cairns — a 
 heap of stones girdled ro\md by large uidiewn 
 stones set upright in the ground. Some 
 cairns have two and a very few have three 
 such concentric girdles ; in some instances 
 there are concentric rows of tiiiright stones 
 within the cairn. Many cairns are found in the 
 7ieightiorhood of the circles of \inbewn stone pillars 
 which antiipiaries used to style " Druidieal. ' In 
 a few instances cairns .'Wc found at the end of 
 an avenue of standing stones. Some cairns arc 
 fenced round by a nan-ow ditch and a small earthen 
 rampart. A verj- few cairns have unhewn flat stones 
 
 on their tops ; a still smaller number are surmounted 
 by an unhewn stone pillar. A few are oblong in 
 shape. Cairns were erected, doubtless, for sevend 
 Ijurposcs. It appears from record that they were 
 often raised to distinguish the marches or boundaries 
 of lands. One cairn, near Balmond, on the High- 
 land Dee, is said to have been erected as a nmstering- 
 place for the men of Strathdee, who took its name, 
 Ciiirn-na-cuimhne, or " Cairn of Remembrance," for 
 their slogan or war-cry. In later times, places where 
 great crimes had been committed were marked by 
 cairns ; thus, " Mushet's Cairn," in the Queen's Park, 
 at Edinburgh, shows the spot where a wife w;is mur- 
 dered by her husband, under circumstances of pecu- 
 liar atrocity, in 1720. But that the great puriwse of 
 the cairn was sepidchnd is shown by the human 
 remains found in so many of them. "Dhjectin et 
 erulM, OSM iitceniuiitiir, tl r/ititjusdam honor nominis 
 adhuc manet," says Hobert Gordon of Straloch, writ- 
 ing of Scotch cairns in IG'A. " For the cainis or 
 heaps of stones in several parts of Ireland," wrote 
 Thady O'Roddy in lt)17, " some of them weie heaped 
 as monuments of battles, some nwde in memory of 
 some eminent jiersons buried in such a place." A 
 Highland suppliant would have .said to his bene- 
 factor: Curri mi eliich er do charne—" I will add a 
 stone to your cairn." The bones found in cairns are 
 generally calcined or half-burned, and inclosed either 
 in what are called cists — small rude coffins of unhewn 
 stones — or in earns of earthenware, which, again, are 
 in many cases protected by stone cists. Along with 
 the l)ones are often found flint arrow-heads, flint axe- 
 heads, stone hammers, stone rings, glass beads, im- 
 plements of bone, bones of horses and oxen, spear- 
 heads, and other weapons of bronze. In some 
 instances human Imnes are found unburned, inclosetl 
 in stone cists about 3 feet long, or, more rarely, of the 
 full size of a man. In one case as many as seventeen 
 stone cists were found in one cairn. 
 
 CAISSON. — 1. A carriage used to transport amniu- 
 nition; in light field-batteries there is one caisson to 
 each piece, in heavy batteries there are two. The 
 ammmiition is contained in three chests — two mounted 
 on the body, and one on the limber. The number of 
 rounds for each chest varies with the caliber of the 
 piece, as follows, viz. : 
 
 6-pdr. gun and Sinch rifle-gun 50 
 
 12 pilr. gun 32 
 
 12-pdr. howitzer 39 
 
 24-pdr. howitzer 23 
 
 32-pdr. howitzer . . 15 
 
 The whole number of rounds for each piece may be 
 a.scertained by multiiilnng the above numbers by 
 four. The caisson is comjiosed of a body and a lim- 
 ber. The body is composed of one m iddle and two side 
 rails (1), one stock (2), and one (ulelree (3). It carries 
 two ammunition-chests (4, 5), a spare ir/ieel (6), which 
 fits upon an iron axle arm attached to the rear end of 
 the middle rail, one spare pole (7), fastened to the 
 
 Artillery Caisson. 
 
 under side of the stock, and a spare handspike. The 
 spare articles are neeiled to replace broken parts. 
 The caisson also carries a fiiliiig-<ixi , sfmnl, and jiick- 
 a.n\ to remove obstructions, rejiair roads, etc., a tar- 
 paulin strapix-d on to the limber-chest, a tar-bucket, 
 and a wati-rinfi-biicket. See Field-carriages. 
 2. In engineering, a hollow bos of iron or wood,
 
 CAK£-POWD£B. 
 
 265 
 
 CALCULUS. 
 
 open at the bottom, sunk where piers arc to be placeil. 
 The largest caisson yet sunk was for the tower of the 
 Brooklyn bridce on the New York side. At the 
 bottom' it was 172 feet long and 102 feet wide, with 
 an air-chamber 9+ feet high, the roof 22 feet thick, 
 and the sides carried up 82 feet from the lower edge. 
 It had a cofferdam in the upper part; was built of 
 timlxT lineil with boiler-iron, and bolted together. In 
 its construction there were used of lumber, board 
 measure, 4,200,000 feet, and of iron, including bolts, 
 620 tons. When completed it weighed 13,271 tons, 
 and there were 30.000 tons of masonry laid within it. 
 There were two double air-locks extending into the 
 air chamber, in which were steam-pipes to keep an 
 even temperature. Two shafts pas.sed up through well- 
 holes in the masonry, with an elevator in one jmd two 
 spiral stairways in the other. Below the lowe.st edge 
 of the caisson extended two water-shafts, each 7i feet 
 in diameter, in which dredges and scoops grappled 
 the stones and soil, raising their loads to cars above, 
 which convej-ed the refuse away. At the same time 
 sand and fine dirt were blown out by air-pressure 
 through forty or more pipes in various" parts of the 
 structure. The interior was illuminated by gas, and 
 constant communication by telegraph was kejit up 
 with the workmen inside. There were four shafts, 
 each 2 feet in diameter, for the introduction of male- 
 rial for the concrete with which the whole interior 
 was finally filled. The cais,son was sunk 78 feet be- 
 low mean tide, a work that required a presssue of 34 
 pounds per square inch in addition to the normal 
 pressure of air; and to supply this addition, thirteen 
 large compres.sors were used. The earliest caissons 
 for such purposes were used in England in 1738-40 
 in laying the foundations of the Westminster bridge 
 over the Thames. 
 
 CAKE-POWDER.— Gunpowder which has become 
 lumpy from ha\ing imbibed moisture. In this state 
 little permanent good can be done to it by reeling and 
 redrying it, unless it is u.sed at once, as after a time it 
 absorbs more moisture than it did before; powder, 
 therefore, in this state should not be re-stowed. This 
 does not apply to pebble-powder, the grains of which 
 are too large to cake. 
 
 CALABAS. — An early light form of musket with a 
 ■wheel-lock. Bourne mentions it in 1778. Also writ- 
 len Calabuss. 
 
 CALATBAVA. — An order of knighthood in Spain, 
 instituted at Calatrava. The statutes of the Order, 
 framed by the C'hai)ter-general of the Cistercian 
 monks, were sjmctioned by the Bishop of Toledo in 
 1164, and afterwards by the Pope. At subsequent 
 periods manj- pri\'ileges were adtled After the death 
 of the king, their patron, some of the knights were 
 no longer willing to obey the abbot, and they conse- 
 quently separateil themselves from the monks, and 
 elected a Grand-master, Don Garcias dc Redon. At 
 a later period they again united themselves to the 
 Cistercians, after they had gained rich possessions 
 from the floors both in S[)ain and Portugal. When 
 Castile had fallen into anarchy, and the other king- 
 doms were exhausting themselves by internal feuds, 
 the war against the unbelievers was almost entire- 
 ly carried on by the Knights of Calatrava. Their 
 almost uniform success, however, gave rise to rash- 
 Bcs-s; the knights were defeated by Emir Jacob Ih'Ii 
 Yuseff, nearly all of them perished, and Calatrava 
 ■was occupied by the Moors. After this disaster the 
 knights transferred their seat to the Castle of Salva- 
 tierra, by the name of which they passed for a long 
 time afterwards. A truce of twelve years ha\ing been 
 concluded, during which the order was re\"ived, the 
 knights were able, at the battle of Las Navas de To- 
 losa^ in 1212, again to turn the tide in favor of the 
 Christians. Thev then returned to CalatRiva. 
 
 CALCANS.— The bucklers of the Turks. These 
 were worn and so called durins the Jliddle Ages. 
 
 CALCINATION — CALCINING.— The process of 
 heating or roasting in furnaces or in heaps the various 
 nietallic ores. It is resorted to as the fii^st stage in 
 
 I the extraction of the majority of the common metals 
 from their ores, and is essentially a process of oxida- 
 tion. 
 
 CALCIUM. — The metal present in chalk, stucco, and 
 other compounds of lime. It maj' be obtained by 
 passing a powerful current of voltaic electricity 
 through fused chloride of calcium (CaCl), when the 
 metal si'parates in minute globules. It is a yellowidi- 
 white metal, can be rolled into .sheets, anil hammered 
 into leaves, and is intennediate between lead and gold 
 in hardness. It is represented by the symlwl Ca, has 
 the atomic weight or equivalent 30 (new system, 40), 
 and luis the density 1..578, or nearly half as heaNy 
 again as water. At ordinary tcmiwratures it slowly 
 tarnishes by oxidation; and when placed in contact 
 with water it rapidly decomposes the water (HO), 
 forming lime (CaO), whilst hydrogen escaix;s. To be 
 retained bright, calcium must Ije kept under the sur- 
 face of naphtha. At a red heat it melts and bums 
 with a dazzling white light, accompanied bj^ scintil- 
 lations. 
 
 CALCULUS. — The infinitesimal calculus, otherwise 
 sometimes called the transcendental analysis, is a 
 branch of mathematical science which commands, by 
 one general method, the most difiieult jiroblems in 
 gunnery and physics. The merit of the invention of 
 this powerful mathematical instrvmient has been 
 claimed for Leilinitz, but is undoubtedly due with 
 equal justice to Xcwton, who laid the fovmdations for 
 it in that celebrated section of his Pi-ineipia in 
 which he demonstrates the chief theorems reg:irding 
 the ultimate values or limits of the ratios of variable 
 quantities. The \iew of one cla.ss of writers is that 
 these distinguished men invented the calcidus simul- 
 taneously and independently; audit is the fact that 
 Leibnitz's system is unfolded from premises differing 
 somewhat from those of Newton. Another class of 
 writers hold that Newton is the real inventor, and 
 that to Leibnitz no more can be conce<ied than that 
 he was the first who, using the suggestions of New- 
 ' ton's genius, gave a svstematic statement to the i>rin- 
 ciple of the transcendental analjsis, and invented its 
 appropriate sjTTibolic language. He had the doctrine 
 of limits before him when lie wrote, and did little 
 more than unfold more fully the logic of the processes 
 therein suggested, and exhibit them in algebniical 
 fonns. The calculus is oidy apiilicable where num- 
 Iwrs have the continuous character— i.e., where they 
 are or may be conceived as being variable. If two 
 unknown quantities are connected by a single equa- 
 tion only, we clearly have the condition sjitisfied, as 
 I where y and j are connected Ity the equation 
 
 where i'^is a sign denoting some/M«c?WH of x, as tan. 
 I r, COS. J-, T-, etc. This equality "may be satisfietl by 
 innumerable values of y and .r. One question which 
 the calculus solves is, how does >/\nTy when j- varies? 
 To solve it, and at the s;une time show how the doc- 
 trine of limits affects the definition of a differential, 
 suppose r, y. and x + Dj; y + Dy, to lie two paira 
 of values of the variables which satisfy the above 
 equation; then 
 
 (2) y = F(i\ and (3) y + By = F{x + Dx). 
 From (2) and (3) we have, by subtraction, 
 (4) Dy = F(x + J>x) — Fix); 
 whence we have the ratio 
 
 Dy F(x+Dx)-F(x) 
 
 Dx~ Dx 
 
 #his ratio will generallv change in value as Dx and 
 Dy dimini-sh, till, as t"hey both vanish, which they 
 
 must do simultaneously, it assumes the form ^. 
 
 Taking this form, it ceases to have a determinate 
 actual value, and it Is necessary to resort to the 
 
 ' method of limits to ascertain the value to which it 
 was approachins as Dx and Dy approached zero. 
 
 1 Let, then, dx atkl dy be any quantities whose- rano
 
 CALEBASSEBIE. 
 
 266 
 
 CALIBEB. 
 
 dx^ 
 
 F"{x), 
 
 is equal to the limiliug ratio of the iucrcments Dx, 
 Dy, so that 
 
 |^ = Umit^ 
 tlx Dx 
 
 as Di and Dy approach zero. Then dx and dy arc 
 the diffeR'ntials of x and y. It may ho observed that 
 where x and y are connected as above they cannot 
 vary independently of one another. In the case as- 
 suincd, X has been taken aswliat is calhdthe iiide]Kn- 
 dent variable, the question being, how does y vary 
 when X varies'/ If .v were made the inde|X'ndent van- 
 able, it -would be "necessary to solve the equation 
 y = F(x), if possible, so as to express x in terms of 
 y. The result would be an equation x = ip(y). This 
 
 beincr obtained, we should find —- = limit ^^ as be- 
 
 ^ dy py 
 
 fore. It will be seen that on this view differentials 
 are defined merely by their nitio to one another. 
 Their actual magnitude is perfectly arbitrary. This, 
 however, does not rentier an equation involving dif- 
 ferentials indetenninate, since their relative magni- 
 tude is definite, and since, from the nature of the 
 definition, a differential cannot appear on one side of 
 an equation without another connected with it appear- 
 ing on the other. 
 
 The idea of a differential being once comprehend- 
 ed, the reader will be able to understand, in a gen- 
 eral w-ay, the main divisions of the calculus, which 
 we shall now briefly delineate. So nmch is clear 
 from what has been stated, that there must be two 
 main di\isions — one by which, the primary quantities 
 being known, we may determine their differentials; 
 and another by which, knowing the differentials, we 
 may detect the primary quantities. These divisions 
 constitute the Differentiiil Calculus and Integral Cal- 
 culus respectively. 
 
 1. The Differential Calculus. — Recurring to the 
 formula already given, we know 
 
 dy ,. .by ,. F(x + Dx) — F{x) 
 
 -f- = limit ^ = limit -— ^ — ■ — =,- ^—. 
 
 dx Dx Dx 
 
 It is clear that, in the general case, 
 
 F(,x + Dx) — F{x ) 
 
 Dx 
 
 at the limit will still be some function of .r. Calling 
 
 it F(x), we have generally ~- = ^'i')- ^'(f) is 
 
 called the first differential coefflcient of y or F(x). 
 Being a function of x, it may be again differentiated. 
 The result is written 
 
 F"ir) being the second differential coefficient of y or 
 F{_x); and again F '{x) may be a function of x, and 
 so capable of differentiation. Now it is the object of 
 the differential calculus to show how to obtam the 
 varioiis differentials of those few simiile functions of 
 quantity which are recognized in analysis, whether ; 
 they are presented singly or in any forni of combina- 
 tion. Such functions are the siim, dilTerence, pro- 
 duct, and quotient of variables, and their powers and 
 roots; exponentials, logarithms; and direct and in- 
 verse circtilar functions. The calculus so far is com- 
 plete as we can differentiate anv of those functions or 
 any combination of them— whetlier the functions l)e 
 explicit or implicit; and with equal case we may dif- 
 ferentiate fheni a second or any niimlx'r of times. 
 This calculus is capable of many interesting appli- 
 cations as to problems of maxima and minima, llilk 
 tracing of curves, etc., which cannot here be particu- 
 larly noticed. 
 
 2. T/ie Integral Calculus deals with the inverse of 
 the former problem. The former was: Given F{x), 
 to find F\x), F ■ (.r), and so on. The present is iii 
 the simplest case — viz., that of an explicit function: 
 
 Given -£ = F'(x), to find F(x). The methods of the 
 
 integral calculus, iiLstead of being general, are little 
 better than artifices suited to particular cases; no 
 ]>opular view can be given of these. In many cases 
 inlegnition is (juite inijx)ssible. The e.xi)lanation of 
 iulegratioH by juirlg, by approxiiiuttion, defiiite inte- 
 grals, and singular solutiitns, is far beyond the scope 
 of the present work. The reader is referred to any 
 of the numerous text-books on the subject. The in- 
 tegral calculus has a|)plicalions in almost eveiy 
 branch of mathematical and physical science. It is 
 specially of use in determining the lengths of curved 
 lines, the areas of curvetl surfaces, and the solid con- 
 tents of regular solids of whatever form. The whole 
 of the lunar and planetary theories may be lie.scribed 
 as an aiiiilication of the integral calculus, especially 
 of that branch of it which deals with the integration 
 of differential equations. It is applied, too, in hydro 
 statics and hyilrodynamics, antl in the .sciences of 
 light, sound, and heat. In short, it is an instrument 
 without which most of the leading triumphs iu phy- 
 sical science could never have been achieved. 
 
 CALEBASSERIE.— A Belgian method of remelting 
 iron in a sort of cupola furnace, with good results. 
 
 CALIBER— CALIBRE.— A technicar name for the 
 diameter of the bore of a fire-arm. whether a piece of 
 ordnance or a small-arm. The ordnance from which 
 solid shot are projected are usually denoted by the 
 weight of each shot, as 24-pounder, 68-pounder, etc.; 
 but mortars, and such guns as i)roject shell or hollow 
 shot, are more usually denoted by the caliber, such 
 as 13-inch mortar, 10-inch shell-gun, etc. The cali- 
 ber of the chief kinds of tire-arms will be noticed 
 under the proper headings; l)Ut it may here be ob- 
 served, generally, that the caliber of ordnance has 
 been greatly increased ^^^thin the last fifty yeai-s, 
 partly by boring up old guns and partlj- by casting 
 new. 
 
 Three important points are to be considered in de- 
 termining the caliber of small-arms : 1st. The cali- 
 ber should be as small as po.ssible, to enable the sol- 
 dier to carry the greatest nuni1)er of cartridges; with 
 the present calilxT, the number of musket-cartridges 
 is limited to 40; the total weight of which is about 
 31 lbs. 2d. To diminish the amoimt of ammuuitioa 
 required to supply the wants of an army, and to pre- 
 vent the confusion that is liable to arise from a vari- 
 ety of calibers, there should not be more than two 
 for all arms of the same service, viz., one for the 
 musket and one for the pistol. 3d. This ijoint relates 
 to the force and accuracy of the projectile. The in- 
 troduction of elongated projectiles affords the means 
 of increasing the accuracy and range of fiBe-arms, 
 without increasing the weight of the projectile, sim- 
 ply by reducing the caliber, which diminishes the 
 surface opposed to the air. Too great reduction of 
 caliber, however, gives a very long and weak jtrojec- 
 tile; and besides, the effect of a projectile on an 
 animate object depends not oidy on its ix'iietration, 
 but on the shock communicated by it to the nervous 
 system, or upon the surface of contact. A projectile 
 of very small caliber, having but little inertia, docs 
 not expand well into the grooves of the bore by the 
 action of the ]x)wder; it is not, therefore, suited to 
 the present method of loailing at the muz;'.Ie. 
 
 Tile caliber of a piece of ordnance will be deter- 
 mined to a great extent by the purpose for which it 
 is intended. It is necessiuy in the first [ilace to de- 
 cide the amoimt of powiler in the charge, and how 
 much ex|>ansive action is to be allowed for each 
 ))Ound of powder. The interior capacity of the bore 
 being determineii. the question then is to fix the rela- 
 tion between the diameter and length. The ca|>aeity 
 increases with the square of the former and with the 
 first jiower of the latter. The solution of this prob- 
 lem will be hirgely govi rned by considerations affect- 
 ing the projectile. Assuming its weight to be fixed, 
 its length will determine it-s diameter, so that a long 
 shot implies a small bore. A lengthened projectile 
 has both advantages and disaiivantages: It meets with 
 less atmosiiheric resistance and therefore loses le&s.
 
 CALIBER-COUFASS. 
 
 26; 
 
 CALLING FOETH MILITIA. 
 
 energy in its flight. It has greater penetration be- 
 cause it has a smaller hole to make. On the other 
 hand, the lengthening of a shot increa-ses its tendency 
 to crush or break ou striking. Used as a shell a long 
 projectile contains le.ss powder than a short one of 
 equal weight and larger diameter, and is more liable 
 to break by impact before explosion. Finally, a long 
 projectile re(piires more rapid rotation to steady it, 
 and this involves a greater expenditure of power in 
 producing rotation. The question of Cidiber is there- 
 tore a very complex one, and it can only be settled 
 by a compromise of conflicting considerations. The 
 tendency, recently, lias been towaril a reduction in 
 the caliber of guns for armor-piercing, this accom- 
 panied, however, by a proportional great increase of 
 power. See Cdnwiii antl Ordiianee. 
 
 CALIBER-COMPASS.— A form of calipers adapted 
 to measure the sizes of bores. Another kind is used 
 for measuring shot and shell. Also written Culiper- 
 coiiipiinx. See Ci(///)(7's and Shell-gau{)c: 
 
 CALIBEE-BULE. — A gunner's calipers, having two 
 scales to delermine the weight of a ball from its diam- 
 eter, and con\ersely. Also WTittcn Cnlibrc-ride. 
 
 CALICO BAGS.— A nature of bag used in England, 
 in and attached to the interior of metal-lined and 
 brass pentagon cases, for the preservation of loose 
 powder in a damp climate when it cannot be pre- 
 served in ordinary baiTcIs. 
 
 CALIGAE.— A "kind of half -boots worn by the Ro- 
 man soldiers. Such soldiers were sometimes called 
 CnU(jiiti. 
 
 CALIPERS. — An instnmient, jointed like a pair of 
 dividers, but with arched legs, and adajited for 
 taking the diameters of convex or concave bodies. 
 It is said to have been invented by an artificer of 
 Nuremberg in 1.540. Numerous instruments of this 
 cla.ss have been devised for different clas.ses of work. 
 Gunners' calipers are intended for measuring the 
 bore or caliber of guns and projectiles. A scale like 
 a sliding-rule has different sets of numbers engraved 
 on it, to exhibit the corresponding diameters in inches 
 and weights in pounds. The graduation is in ac- 
 cordance with the rule that with balls of the same 
 metal the weights of the balls are as the cubes of 
 their diameters. Calipers for insjiecting hollow pro- 
 jectiles comprise those for measuring the thickness 
 of metal at the bottom, at the .sides, and at the fuse- 
 hole reinforce. The first consists of a semicircular 
 arm having a diametrical sliding index; the second, 
 of a .similar arm pivoted; and the third, of a gradu- 
 ated bar with a stationarj- and a sliding toe. 
 
 The drawing shows a micrometer caliper adapted for 
 the small work in the arsenal. For all sizes less than 
 
 Micrometer Caliper. 
 
 one inch diameter this caliper will be found a reliable 
 and convenient substihite for the vernier caliper, 
 and will prove invaluable to armorers engaged on 
 small ami fine work. The binding and adjusting 
 screws furnish the ready means of compensating for 
 any wear resulting from use. Being small and light, 
 it can be used as a pocket-tool. Although graduated 
 to read to thousandths of an inch, half and quarter 
 thousandths are readily obtained. 
 
 A calipers designed especially for ti.sc in connec- 
 tion with the construction of tubes for 8 inch con- 
 verted rifles consists of a curved steel plate and two 
 attached measuring-points movable along the same 
 
 right line. One of these points is fastened to n rod 
 which slides in a socket attached to the steel plate. 
 The rod is designed to occupy one of two positions, 
 according to the size of the diameters to be measured, 
 and is secured in either of these positions by a clamp- 
 screw. At the other end of the curved plate Ihc 
 second measuring- point tenninates a graduated limb, 
 which, 'oy lyeans of a vernier and sliding microscoix-, 
 can be read to .001 inch. This linil) is fitted with a 
 clamp and slow-motion screw, and has two sets of 
 graduations, the one above the other; the lower read 
 from about 9 inches to 14 inches, and the upper 
 from about 12 inches to 17 inches. The lower 
 graduations arc used when the rod opposite is pushed 
 in and clamped at its inner limit; the upper gradua- 
 tions, when the rod is pulled out and clamped at its 
 outer limit. In making nice measurements, it is in- 
 dispensable that the plane of the instrument Vie kept 
 at right angles to the axis of the tube. This is 
 secured by a wooden guide, which is held in rear 
 of the instnmient and is slid along the tul)e from 
 one position to another. The ba.se of the guide has 
 the same curvature as the exterior of the tube, and is 
 held firmly upright by two projecting amis extend- 
 ing in rear from either side, and which rest on the 
 surface of the tulx-. By keeping the curved plate of 
 the calipers in contact with the face of the guide, its 
 true position is secured. See Gauge and Iimpection 
 of Ordriancf. 
 
 CALIVEB. — A hand gun or arquebuse — supposed 
 by many to be the old name for the matchlock or 
 carabine. It was so called because the bore was of a 
 fixed size, in order that the common stock of bullets 
 might fit everj' piece in a regiment. It was of 
 greater caliber than the arquebu.se, was lighter than 
 the musket, and was fired without a rest. 
 
 CALK. — A projection from a shoe or clog which 
 digs into the ice or frozen grounil to prevent slipping. 
 The word is al.so allied to the Anglo-Saxon word 
 calc, a shoe; or the Latin calrar, a spur. In a horse- 
 shoe the calk consists of a downward projection from 
 the heel, made by turning over the iron of the heel and 
 I sharpening it. The calk attached to a boot consists 
 of a plate with spui-s which project a little below the 
 i heel. 
 
 j CALL. — A niilitarj- musical term, meaning a signal 
 on the drum, bugle, or trumpet for the assembling 
 of troops, etc. 
 
 CALLING FORTH MILITIA.— Congress has power 
 to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the 
 laws of the Union, suiipress insurrections, and repel 
 invasions. By Act of Congress, February 28, 179.5, 
 the President is authorized to call forth the militia 
 whenever — " 1. The United States shall 
 be invaded or be in his judgment in im- 
 minent danger of invasion (from any 
 foreign nation or Indian tribe); and to 
 issue his orders for that purpose to such 
 officer or officers of militia as he may 
 think proper. 2. In cjise of an insur- 
 rection in any State against the govern- 
 ment thereof, on application of the 
 Legislature of such State, or of the 
 Executive (when llie Legislature cjin- 
 not be convened). 3. AN henever the 
 laws of the United States shall be 
 opposed, or the execution thereof ob- 
 structed in any Stale, by combinations too [wwcr- 
 fiil to be supi>res,scd "by the ordinary- course of 
 judicial proceedings, or by the powers vested in the 
 Marshals; but whenever it may be necessarj-, in the 
 judgment of the President, to me the military force 
 hereby directed to be called forth in case of insurrec- 
 j tion or obstruction to the laws, the President shall 
 j forthwith, by proclamation, command such iiisur- 
 j gents to disperse, and retire peacealdy to their re- 
 I spective abodes within a limited time." In cases 
 where it is lawful for the President to call forth the 
 militia, it shall be lawful for him to employ for the 
 ! same purposes such part of the land or naval forcea
 
 •CALONES. 
 
 268 
 
 CAMEL. 
 
 of the Uiiitetl States as shall be judged necessjir}', 
 flaring Jirst obgerrtd all tlu prerequmUa of the law in 
 that rifij)>ft. See Militia. 
 
 CAL0NE8.— A term aiiiilicd to menials of the Ro- 
 man armies; also slaves beloiiffin,!? to the lioman sol- 
 diers, wild followed their masters to the wars. 
 
 CALOSIEKS.— Soldiers of aneieiit KjrM>l. "ho with 
 the Ilcrmotvbes composi'd the particular jruard of 
 tin- Uiiiir, 
 
 CALOTTE.— The back pl^ite of a sword-handle; the 
 cap of a pistol; a s|ieeies of skull-cap worn by French 
 cavalry, sjiber-proof and made of iron or dressed 
 leather. 
 
 CALOTTES.— Caps and iron fniraeworks of the 
 sevenleenlh and ci^diteenlh centuries, which were 
 used inside other hat-; or helmets. 
 CALTHOBP— CALTHEOP.— An obstacle in military 
 ■warfare, consisting of a 
 fourjironged piece of 
 iron, each (jroni; about 
 four inches in length. 
 When it is wished to 
 check the approach of 
 the enemy's cavalry 
 over a plain, or of his 
 besiegers in the ditch 
 of a fortification, cal- 
 thorps are sometimes 
 thrown down ; from 
 their shape, one prong 
 is sure to stand up- 
 right, and may work terrible mischief to the enemy's 
 horses or men. Obstacles of other kinds having the 
 same object In view, as small pickets, are sometimes 
 used. Ordinuiy harrows turned upside down with 
 the teeth ui>wards and the frames buried; planks 
 with spikes driven into them, placed so as to have the 
 points upwards, etc., may be used when practicable. 
 Also written (/altraji. See Croif's-feti. 
 
 CALTHKOP KNIFE.— A weapon about nine inches 
 long, used in Saxony during the Seven Years' War. 
 These knives were screwed on to beams of wood and 
 placed under water in moats. The hole in the blade 
 wa-s intended to put a piece of stick through, so as to 
 form a handle to screw the knife. Sometimes writ- 
 ten Culth/irp Knife. 
 
 CALUMET.— the peace-pipe of the North Ameri- 
 can Indians. It is a tobacco-pipe having a stem of 
 reed about two feet and a half long, decorated with 
 locks of women's hair and feathers, and a large bowl 
 of polished marble. It plays an important "jiart in 
 the conclusion of treaties, of which, indeed, it may 
 be descrilied as the ratifier. After a treaty has been 
 signed, the Indians till the calumet with the best to- 
 bacco, and present it to the representatives of the 
 parly with whom they have been entering into alli- 
 ance, themselves smoking out of it afterwards. The 
 presentation of it to strangers is a mark of hospitality, 
 and to refuse it would be considered an act of hostili- 
 ty. When a tribe wishes to go to war, messengers 
 are sent to numerous other tribes asking for warriors 
 for the expedition. The calumet (sacred and public 
 projierty) goes with the missi<jn. 'l''he whole subject 
 is thoroughly discussed in council, and such tribes as 
 grant the request accept the pii)e and smoke. 
 
 CAM.— In gun-machinery, a curved plate or groove 
 bv which motion is communicated and controlled. 
 The movini: plate or groove is a drirer ; the rod, bar, 
 or other thing moved is called the foWnrer. The fol- 
 lower is held against the driver by it.s weight, or by a 
 .spring or other device. The rariii of the driver "de- 
 termine by their length the motion of the follower, 
 and the angles which they make with some one, 
 chosen us a i)a.se of calculation, lix the time at which 
 change of lufition occurs. For example, it may be 
 desired that the follower shall move upward, and 
 then downward, with a uniform velocity. From the 
 center of the driver any convenient number of radii 
 may be drawn, dividing equally the ;i()() of angidar 
 space. On one of these radii we mark the distance 
 
 from the center of the driver at which the jwint of 
 the follower will stand when in its position nearest to 
 that center. Upon the op])osite radius, distant 18t>' 
 from the tirst, the point is marked which gives the 
 farthest position of the follower; the dilTerence be- 
 tweer. the.se radii being divided into as many equal 
 l>arls as we have made angular spaces in the 180', 
 we increase the length of each radius in succession, 
 beginning with tlie shortest, by one of thosi' parts, 
 ami «'c draw a curve connecting the ends of the radii 
 so terminated. Of course the greater the number of 
 parts chosen for the division of the angular space and 
 of the diifereiice of the first and last radii, the more 
 accinately will the curve !«■ drawn. The edge of the 
 driving-plale being cut to this curve, the follower be- 
 ing made to press couslantlj- ag-ainst it, and the driver 
 being turned with a uniform rotation, the follower 
 will move through its limited space with an equable 
 motion, because the radii of the driver increase by 
 constant amounts, at constant intervals of time. If 
 the curve is reverseil, the second part being the sym- 
 metrical opposite of the first ])art, the follower will 
 descenil as uniformly as it rose. The cam thus 
 drawn is one of frequent use, and is called the heart- 
 shaped cam. To avoid friction the end of the fol- 
 lower often carries a roller which works against the 
 surface of the cam; in this case the cam-surface is 
 found by drawing a line parallel to that above de- 
 sciibed, at a constant distance equal to the radius of 
 the roller. If we wish the follower to rest at any 
 part of a cycle of motion, the radii for that time will 
 be made equal, and the corresponding cam surface 
 will be a circular arc; the time will be such a part of 
 that of a complete cycle as the angle between the 
 radii of the ends of this arc is of 360 . The cam- 
 plate has .sometimes a groove cut upon its fl.at side, 
 and the end of the follower runs in the groove. A 
 spiral groove m;iy be cut into the surface of a cylin- 
 der as in a screw; if a follower be inserted in this 
 groove it will be driven forward as the cylinder 
 turns; when the groove reaches the end of the cylin- 
 der, it may turn back, and cause the follower to re- 
 turn with the same motion, or if the pitch of the 
 groove be made shorter or longer, the return of the 
 follower will be changed accordingly. By a judicious 
 construction and arrangement of cams, almost every 
 variety of motion may be jiroduced with the greatest 
 precision as to time and amount. A cam-form which 
 does not make a complete revolution, but after monng 
 a short distance in one direction oscillates in the op- 
 posite direction, is called a !ry»r. A familiar exam- 
 ple may be seen in the engine-room of a steamlwat. in 
 the rocking arms which raise and let fall the valve- 
 rods. See the various descriptions of gun-machinery 
 and engines throughout this work. 
 
 CAMAIL. — A neck-guard of chain, added to the 
 baseinet. The word is either corrupted from cap- 
 mail or owes its origin to the camail resembling the 
 lower part of the capuchon, ciaumonly worn by all 
 classes, but which among the higher ranks was made 
 of camel's hair, and therefure termed cuincliii by the 
 French, from whence our word cmnlit. afterwards 
 applied lo ;ni inferior slutT made in imitation of it. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE ASYLUM.— A charitable institution 
 fotmd( il by the father of the ])re.sent Puke of Cam- 
 bridge to form a home for one widow of each British 
 regiTuent. It is not yet comiileted, and is only capa- 
 ble of receiving, at jiresent, about fifty widows. 
 
 CAMEL. — The camel is of great value as a ])ack- 
 animal, and is admirably adajMed for carrying long 
 articles, such as .scaling-ladders, ponlcms, etc. Of the 
 two species, that known as the Arabian camel has 
 only one hump on the back, whilst the Bactrian 
 camel has two. Some confusion has arisen from the 
 occa.sional employment of the name dromeihirji as a 
 designation of the lurtuer species, il being, however, 
 more properly limited to a particular variety of that 
 species, more slender and graceful than the ordinary 
 variety, and of nnicli greater fieelness. BulTon's no- 
 tion, that the hump is u badge of servitude, and the
 
 CAMELOITN. 
 
 269 
 
 CAMERA LUCIDA. 
 
 consequence of barsh treatment throughout many 
 generations, is singularij' at variance with what we 
 know of its uses. The hunip is a wonderful provi- 
 sion of nature, to adapt the animal to the endurance 
 of long abstinence from food, or subsistence on very 
 scimty supplies, to which it is often subjected in the 
 desert, and without a capacity for which it would be 
 comparatively of little value to man; and the wide 
 deserts across which he journeys and transports his 
 merchandise by its aid wouM be altogether unpass- 
 able. The hump is, in fact, a store of fat, from 
 which the animal draws as the wants of its system 
 require; and the Arab is very careful to see 
 that the hump is in good condition before the 
 commencement of a journe}-. After it has 
 been much exhausted, three or four months 
 of repose and abundant food are necessary to 
 restore it. The backbone of the camel is as 
 .straight as that of other quadrupeds. — An- 
 other very interesting adaptation to the desert 
 is to be noticed in ihe thick sole which pro- 
 tects the feet from the burning .sand, and in 
 callosities of similar use on the chest and 
 on the joints of the legs, upon which the 
 camel rests when it lies down to repose, or 
 kneels, as it does for various purposes, jmd 
 is taught to do that it may be loaded, or 
 that its rider may mount upon its back. — 
 The wedge-shaped cutting-teeth of the lower 
 jaw are also particularly fitted for browsing 
 on shrulrby plants, such as the desert pro- 
 duces — the camel's thorn, tamarisk, etc., 
 which form a large part of the food of the 
 camel; the eyes are furnished with long eye- 
 lashes, to protect them from the glare and 
 from the drifting sand, whilst the exclusion 
 of the Simd from the nostrils is also prodded 
 for by a power of closing their obli(iue open- 
 ings at will. But most interesting of all is 
 the provision made for the endurance of long 
 drought, by the lining of the inside of the 
 second stomach, or honeycomb-bag, and of a 
 portion of the first stomach or paunch, with 
 great mas.ses of cells, in which water is stored 
 up and long retained. This store of water 
 is well known to the Arabs, who, when sore 
 pressed by thirst, sometimes avail themselves 
 of it by killing some of the camels of the 
 caravan. 
 
 The Arabian camel carries twice the load of a 
 mule. The Bactrian camel is sometimes loaded with 
 1000 or even 1500 lbs. weight, although not generally 
 with .so much. The East India Company had at one 
 time a corps of camels, each mounted by two men, 
 armed with musketoons. The use of the camel for 
 the ccmveyance both of ti-avelers and supplies has 
 won it the name of the ship of thf diwrt. A caravan 
 sometimes contains 1000, sometimes even 4O00 or 5000 
 camels. The supply of food carried with the caravan 
 for the use of the camels is very scanty: a few beans, 
 dates, carob-)X)ds, or the like, are all that they receive 
 after a long day's march , when there is no herbage on 
 which they may browse. The pace of the loaded 
 camel is steady and imiform, but slow; it proceeds, 
 however, from day to day, accomplishing journeys 
 of hundreds of miles at a rate of aliout 2i miles per 
 hour. Some of the slight dromedaries, however, csui 
 carry a rider more than 100 miles in u day. The mo- 
 tion of the camel is peculiar, jolting the rider in a 
 manner extremely disagreeable to those who are un- 
 accustomed to it ; both the feet on the sjime side being 
 successively raised, so that one side is thrown for- 
 ward and then the other. Camels are particularly 
 handj- for fording rivers that are deep but not rapid; 
 and where the bottom of the river is shifting s;ind, Ihe 
 passage of a number of camels over it renders it hard 
 and tirm. The average weight of the camel is about 
 IITO pounds. See Paek-aidmah. 
 
 CAMEL-GTJN.— When guns, like the Gatling gun, 
 accompany expeditions in which it is impossible to 
 
 use wheeled vehicles, they are carried on mules, 
 horses, or camels. The guns designed for such use 
 are called " camel-gims," and are lighter and shorter 
 than the field-guns, but fire the musketcartridgc and 
 have the musket range. Each gun with its carriage 
 or tripotl is carried on pack-saddk-s, and fifteen or 
 twenty loaded feed-ca.ses can be carried on the same 
 saddles. The ammunition, with additional feed- 
 cases, should be carried on the animals which march 
 directly in rear of those which carry the gun and 
 tripod. The drawing .shows the new-model, mus- 
 ket-caliber, five-banel Gatling gun, mounted on its 
 
 New-model Five-barrel Gatling Gun. 
 
 tripod and ready for action. Its weight is 100 
 pounds, and fires 800 shots per minute. It is designed 
 for transportation by mules or camels, or on the 
 shoulders of men for short distances. The Gatling 
 gun and its tripod are verj' conveniently transported, 
 in the United States, in a packing-box invented by 
 Mr. James Madi^n. This Ikjx with the old-model 
 Gatling gun is indeed requisite on account of the 
 many projecting parts that woidd be exposed to the 
 danger of being broken or damaged in timber, or 
 clogged with leaves, twigs, etc., in the bmsh. The 
 box is adapted to the shape and size of the gun and 
 fixtures, and is so arranged internally that the motion 
 of the pack-animal, when on the march, will not 
 chafe or disarrange any of the parts of the gun or its 
 appurtenances. The box is constructed and adapted 
 for use with a pivoted pack-siddle, the upper arms of 
 which have been arranged for this purpose, so as to 
 bring the weight of the lx)X as low as possible, and to 
 support it firmly. See Oatling (fun. 
 
 CAMEEA LUCIDA. — An optical instrument con- 
 sti-ucted of various forms, and for various purposes. 
 Dr. WoUaston's in.strument. intended to facilitate the 
 perspective delineation of oljjects, consists of a small 
 quadrilateral prism of glass, of which AB in the 
 drawing is the perpendicular section, held in a brass 
 frame, which is att;iched to an uprijrht rod, ha\-ing at 
 its lower end a scR'w<lamp to fix it to the eilgc of a 
 table. The prism being at Ihe height of about a foot 
 from the table, has its upper face horizontal. Two 
 of its faces, as in the figure, are at a right angle at A;
 
 CAMEKA OBSCUKA. 
 
 270 
 
 CAUZBOITIAN B£OIHEKT. 
 
 the contiguous faces miikc respectively with than 
 angles of tJTl ; so that the renuiiuing ol)tuse angle at 
 B eontains 135 . liiiys coming from an object, PQ, 
 and falling nearly perpenilicularly on the first surface, 
 enter the prism," and undergo totjil reflection at the 
 contiguous surface; they then fall at the same angle 
 on the next surface, aiid are totally retieeted again; 
 liuallv, they emerge nearly perpendicularly to the re- 
 maining surface. An eye. as in the tigure, then re- 
 ceives the emergent pencil through one part of the 
 pupil, so that an image, pq, of the object is seen pro- 
 jected upon a sheet'of paper upon the table. The 
 rays from the drawing-iMiacil passing the edge of the 
 
 prism, enter the other part of the pupil; and the pencil 
 and image being seen together ujiou tlie paper, a 
 sketch oi' the latter can be taken. There is, however, 
 a practicid ditBculty — the image and the drawing- 
 pencil are at distances sensibly dilTerent from the 
 eye, and so cannot be seen together distinctly at the 
 same time. To obviate this, a plate of metal, with a 
 small aperture as an eye-hole, is placed at the edge 
 under the eye, so that tlie rays through the prism, and 
 those from the drawing-pencil, which both pass 
 through the eye-hole, form only very small pencils. 
 By this the difficulty is greatly diminished. It is 
 still, however, ditflcult to use the instrument satisfac- 
 torily; and though many acquire great readiness in 
 its use, others have never been able to attain the same 
 facility. The instrument is remarkable for its small 
 bulk and portabilitj-. A good one will pack in a box 
 8 inches by 3, and A inch ileep. Besides this form of 
 the instrument, which is the most common, there are 
 others. Its simplest form is merely a piece of smooth 
 glass fixed at an angle of 45° to the horizon. An 
 image from a horizontal object falling on this glass 
 will be perfectl)' reflected, and that in the vertical, so 
 that the eye looking vertically down will see the 
 image, and, owing to the transparency of the glass, 
 the artist will be able to trace it out upon paper below. 
 In this Ciise, however, the image will be inverted. 
 
 The optigraph is an instrument for the same pur- 
 pose, bur of dilTcrent construction. 
 
 CAMERA OBSCURA.— An instrument invented by 
 Baptista Porta in the sixteenth century. It is known 
 in its simplest form as a familiar toy, consisting of a 
 rectangular box, fm-nishcd at one end with a lens 
 whose fo<,-al length is equal to the length and depth 
 of the box; at the opposite end of which a plane re- 
 flector is placed at an angle of 45', which throws the 
 image of any objects to which the lens may be di- 
 rected on a piece of ground glass on the top of the 
 box in a non-inverted position, so that they may be 
 ^^ewed or sketched from as in nature. The camera 
 obscura being now an in(lis]ieiisal)]e article in the 
 practice of photography, has received a number of 
 recent improvements, which make it rank as a 
 scientific instrument. The principle, however, in- 
 volved in the simplest and most retined forms is the 
 same, and may be illustrated and made intelligible bv 
 the following experiment: Let a small hole be bored 
 in a window-shutter, and the room be darkened. If, 
 now, the beam of light entering the room by Ibis hole 
 Ije intercepted by a sheet of white jiajier. held at a short 
 distance from the hole, an inverted image of objects 
 
 without will be seen upon the paper. By placing a 
 small convex lens over the hole, this image is 
 rendered much more distinct, or sliarp, in photo- 
 graphic language. Moreover, it will be found that 
 at a certain distance from the hole the image attains 
 a maximum degree of sharpness; and that if the 
 paper be removed from this point to any position either 
 nearer to the hole or further from it, the image be- 
 comes indistinct and confused. At the point of 
 greatest distinctness the image is said to be focused. 
 Such being the jirinciple of the camera, it is evident 
 that in practice the instrument may a-ssume many 
 forms, provided always that it coasists of a darkened 
 box or chamber having a hole at one end for the inser- 
 tion of a lens, or conibinatioii of len.ses, and at the 
 other a screen, generally made of ground glass, on 
 which to receive the image. The lx)dy of the instru- 
 ment may be made of any opaque substance; the tube 
 or tubes are generally formed of bra.ss, and contain 
 one or more lenses; there is the obscured or ground 
 glass, upon which the image is thrown for the pur- 
 pose of adjusting the focus; and the rack behind, by 
 means of which, and the double sides of the camera, 
 the body of the insti-ument may be lengthened or 
 shortened till the image on the ground screen is ac- 
 curately focused. This rack is most frequently placed 
 upon the tubes carrying the lenses. The interior of 
 the whole ajjparatus is blackened, to prevent reflec- 
 tion of the rays falling on their sides, and to impart 
 greater distinctness to the picture. — The camira-itlide 
 is a thin, dark box, and is used for conveying a sen- 
 .sitive plate from the operating-room to the camera, 
 and back again after exposure. It consists of a rect- 
 angular frame, made to fit exactly into the back of 
 the camera when the focusing-screen is removed. At 
 the back is a hinged door, by means of which thb 
 plate is introduced into the slide; and in front is a 
 shutter, which is pulled up when the plate is to be 
 exposed, and shut down after the time requisite for 
 the action of the light upon the plate has axpired. It 
 must be constructed so that, when substituted for the 
 focusing-screen, the surface of the prepared plate, 
 which is intended to receive the image, .shall correspond 
 exactly in distance from the lens with the ground 
 surface of the focusing-screen. The plate rests upon 
 projections of silver wire in the corners of the slide; 
 and the ssime slide mav be used for plates of different 
 sizes, by introducing into it thin frames of suitable 
 ilimensions also fuinislieii with silver- wire corners. 
 
 CAMERON HIGHLANDERS.— The designation giv- 
 en to the 79th Regiment of Infantry in the British 
 service, in consequence of the Corps having been 
 raised by Allan Cameron of Erroch in 1793. Origi- 
 nally it consisted of 1000 men, but a second battalion 
 was added in 1H04. This gallant regiment, which 
 wears the Highland garb, performed distinguished 
 services in the Peninsula and at Waterloo, and in the 
 chief warlike struggles of more recent times. 
 
 CAMERONIAN REGIMENT.— The 26th Uegiraent 
 of Infantry in the British service, so called from 
 having had its origin in a tody of Cameroniaiis dur- 
 ing the Revolution of 1688. Taking advantage of 
 their zeal and eounige, the Convention which sat at 
 Edinburgh induced a number of them to assist in the 
 Revolution, which it was imagined by some was to re- 
 establish the reign of the Covenants'. They were in- 
 duced to enlist on the understanding that the special 
 object of the Corps was "to recover and establish the 
 work of reformation in Scotland, in ojtposilion to 
 poi)ery, i)relacy, and arbitrary power, in all the 
 brandies and .steps thereof, till the government in 
 Church and Slate be brought to that luster and integrity 
 whicli it hail in the best of times." Thus was formed 
 the celebrated Cameronian Regiment, with the youth- 
 ful Lord Angus as Colonel, and ^Vllliam Clel'and as 
 Lieutenant-colonel and actual Commander. Inder 
 Cleland, not yet in his thirtieth year, the Regiment 
 was sent norlhwards to quell the insurrection, after 
 the fall of Viscount Dundee. Suriiuinded bv from 
 4000 to 5000 Uighliuiders, the Camerouiaus, only SOO
 
 CAXION. 
 
 271 
 
 CAMPAIGN. 
 
 Strong, trallantly defended themselves during a whole 
 day m Dunkeld, August 21, 1689. In this tcrrilic 
 struggle the brave Cleland was liilled. Considering 
 the issue of the Revolution, they had l)een entrapped 
 into military service, and their emplo\-ment on foreign 
 service afterwards greatly scandalized the t'ameroniaii 
 sect. The Regiment lias ever done credit to its 
 origin, being distinguished alike for gallantry and for 
 good conduct. 
 
 CAMION.— A substantial dray u.sed for transport- 
 ing heavy ordnance and ordnance stores. 
 
 CAMISASO. — 1. A shirt formerly worn by soldiers 
 over tlitir uuifonii, in order to be able to recog- 
 nize one another in the darkness, in a night-attack. 
 2. An attack by surprise at night, or at break of day, 
 when the enemy is supposed to be in Iwd, by soldiers 
 wearing the rammido. 
 
 CAMOUFLET. — A -small mine iLsed to suffocate the 
 enemy's minere without producing an external explo- 
 sion. It is sometimes formed in the wall or side of a 
 giiUerj', in order to Wow in the earth and to cut off 
 the retreat of the miners. The charge is usually 
 about ten pounds of powder— sufficient to compress 
 the earth all around it without disturbing the .surface 
 of the ground. 
 
 CAMP. — The signification of this word in English 
 is rather that which belonged to the Latin eastrinn, 
 an encampment, or aistra, a collection of tents, huts, 
 and other structures, for the accommodation and pro- 
 tection of troops, than that which its etj-mology would 
 more directly indicate. The regular system of en- 
 campment ultimately adopted by the Romans was 
 forced upon them Ijy degrees. The most complete 
 account of it is furnished to as by Polybius. When 
 a Roman army was about to encamp, a Tribune and 
 several Centurions were sent on before, to select a 
 suitable site for the purpose. As soon a.s the locality 
 was determined on, they chose the spot for the Pne- 
 torium or (Jeneral's tent, and marked it with a white 
 flag. Around the Prretoriimi, as a sort of center or 
 heart to the whole system, the rest of the camp was 
 laid out. It was generally placed on an elevated 
 position, in order that the General might have the 
 rest of the encampment under his eye, and be able to 
 transmit hLs orders with greater facilitj'. Polybius 
 himself tells us that the best conception which can 
 be formed of a Roman camp of the more permanent 
 kind is hy regarding it as a military town, resembling 
 in many respects no doubt that which has recentlj' 
 grown up at Aldershott. The streets were broader 
 than those usually to he foimd in towns, the wider 
 ones mea-suring 1(M) and the narrower .50 feet; and 
 the Forntn, as its name indicates, was a sort of public 
 market-place. A space of 200 feet was left vacant all 
 round between the tents and the ramparts, partly to 
 afford space for the arrangements of the army, and 
 for stowing away any Iwotj- that might be captured, 
 hut chietly to protect the .soldiers' huts from incen- 
 diary attempts from without. In fonn ihe Roman 
 camp was square, except in the case in which it was 
 intended to embrace i;\ithin its ramparts four legions, 
 or two consular armies, when it became an oblong 
 rectangle. The camp was surrounded by a fo.s.se or 
 trench, which was generally 9 feet deep and 12 broad. 
 On the top of tlie rampart, which wjis of earth, there 
 were stakes. The labor of constructing the rampart 
 and the fosse was divided between the allies and the 
 Roman legions, the former making the sides along 
 which they were stationed, and the legions the rest. 
 The task of superintending the construction of the 
 camp amongst the Romans was intrusted to the Tri- 
 bunes; amongst the allies, to the Prefects. Before 
 the arrival of the troops, the different parts of the 
 camp were so distinctly marked out and measured 
 off that they at once proceeded to their respective 
 stations, as if they had entered a well-known city and 
 were marching to their quarters. The discipline of 
 the camp was of the strictest kind. The Tribunes 
 administered an oath against theft both to freemen 
 and slaves, and two maiiiples were chosen to keep the 
 
 via principalis, which was a place of general resort, 
 clean and in good repair. The other occufjations 
 connected with the camp, too numerous to be men- 
 tioned here, were portioned out in like manner; and 
 the superintendence of the whole was intrusted to two 
 Tribunes chosen by lot from each legion, and ap- 
 pointed to .serve for two months. The PrcfecU of 
 the allies pos.sesged a similar authority, which, how- 
 ever, seems to have been limited to tlieir own troops. 
 Every morning at daybreak the Centurions and 
 horsemen presented themselves to the Tribunes, and 
 these, in their turn, received their orders from the 
 Con.sul. The watchword for the night, marked on a 
 four-cornered piece of wood, was given out with 
 much formality. The night was divided into four 
 watches, each of three hours' length; and there was a 
 curious arrangement for ascertaining that guard was 
 kept with vigilance. The soldiers of the watch com- 
 panies received from the Tril)UMe a number of small 
 tablets, with certain marks upon them, and these 
 tablets were collected during the night by the horse- 
 men whose duty it was to visit the post.s", from such 
 of the guards as they found on duty. Where these 
 inspectors found the guards asleep" or absent, they 
 called upon the bystanders to witness the fact, and 
 then passed on to the next. In the morning the in- 
 spectors appeared before the Tribunes, antl gave up 
 the tablets they had received, when the guards whose 
 tablets were not produced were required to account 
 for them. A regular scale of rewards and punish- 
 ments was established in the camp. In comijaring 
 the encampments of the Romans with those of his 
 own coimtrymen, Polybius tells us that the Greeks 
 trusted mainly to a judicious selection of their ground, 
 and regarded the natural advantages which the}- thus 
 secured as supplying in a great measure the place 
 of artitieial means of defense. The Greeks, conse- 
 quently, had no regular form of camp, and no tixed 
 places were assigned 'to the different divisions of the 
 army. When the practice of drawing up the army ac- 
 cording to cohorts, introduced by Marius and Cii'sar, 
 was adopted, the internal arrangements of the camp 
 experienced a conespouding change. Latterly even 
 the square form was abandoned, and the camp was 
 made to suit the nature of the ground. It was always 
 held to be of importance, however, that the camp 
 occupied a defensible iiosilion; that it coulil not be 
 overlooked; and that it had a command of water. 
 ■When stationary camps (rostra statira) came into 
 more gencnd u.se, we hear of several parts which are 
 not mentioned by Polybius; for example, the infir- 
 marj- (mMiidinarium), the farrier)- (reterinarium), the 
 forge (fabrica), etc. ; and as a great variety of troops 
 then came to !« employed, they must, of course, have 
 had new stations appointed to them in the camp. 
 Many of the stationaiy camps \dlimately became 
 towns, and to this is ascriljed the origin of most of 
 the towns in England the names of which end in 
 cexter or chtstfr. Among the most perfect of those 
 which retained the form of the simple encampment 
 is that at Ardoch in Stratheam, Perthshire, in the 
 gra.s.s-covered mounds and ri<Iges of which most of 
 the divisions of the camp hav-e been distinctly traced 
 by antiquaries. It is believed that during the Middle 
 Ages the plan adopted by the Romans in their camps 
 was more or less adhered to, seeing that the weapons 
 employed, which mainly determined the character of 
 the troops, were nearly the sjjme. In Britain, iK-fore 
 the arrival of the Romans, and also during the Saxon 
 and Danish periods, the camps, usually circular in 
 form, ap|>ear to have been somewhat rude in ch.ir- 
 acter, with the cavalrv- grouped rt)und the standard in 
 the center, and the infantry placed near the front. 
 The principles of castrametation, or camp-formation, 
 underw-cnt much change after the invention of gun- 
 powder, owing to the necessity for defending the 
 camp from artillery. See Bimuhr Cnnl'inmcnts, Cni- 
 tramtUition Encampment, and Fielif-serriri , 
 
 CAMPAIGN.— A connected series of military o|)cra- 
 tions, forming a distuict stage or step in a war. Under
 
 CAMPAIONZB. 
 
 272 
 
 CAUFHOB. 
 
 till- old system of wnrfari', when armies kept the tieUl 
 only (luriufT the summer nK)iiths, a campaigu was 
 tiiulerstoocl to include all that was done by an army 
 from the time it took the field till it went "again into 
 winter quarters. Now that winter is no longer al- 
 lowed to arrest military O]ierations, it is more difficult 
 to say where one campaiirn ends and another begins. 
 Some writers make a campaign incliule all the .steps 
 taken to acconi))lish some one immediate object. 
 
 CAHPAIGNEB. — One who has served in an army 
 throuirli several campaiijns; an old soldier or veteran. 
 
 CAMP AND GARRISON EftUIPAGE.— All the tents, 
 tittiugs, utensils, etc., carried with an army, applica- 
 ble to the domestic rather than to the warlike wants 
 of the soldier. The allowance of camj) and garrison 
 equi]iage to United States troops is prescribed in Gen- 
 eral Orders from the War Department. 
 
 CAMP BEDSTEAD.— A liedstead made to fold up 
 within a narrow space, so as to be easily transported, 
 and suitable for use in war. The dnwing shows 
 such an arrangement, which was patented by Mr. 
 Jolrn Boyle, in France and the United States, not 
 long since. It weighs complete about 9i pounds, 
 and when folded it occupies a space less than 7 inches 
 square by 25 inches in length. After being properly 
 set it is exceedingly strong and durable, and cannot 
 be broken except by violent usage. It can be set 
 anywhere and will remain stationary on a boarded 
 
 Camp-cbair. 
 
 Boyle Camp-bedstead. 
 
 floor or a plowed ticld. To set it, spread the can- 
 vas out face-side down; open the four arms which 
 have iron caps at the ends (the short ones), and insert 
 the ends having the caps into sockets which arc used 
 in folding as hinges, the same being about twenty 
 inches distant on each side from the head and foot 
 respectively; put the thinner stick (the one with pins 
 in the end— not screws) through the hem or tabline; 
 in.sert the pins in the holes, .severally, Ixhind the legs 
 at the foot; open the arms which give elevation to the 
 head; run the hea\-y rovmd stick (the same having a 
 round-headed screw at each end) through the hem. 
 Insert the.se pins or screws in the slots or grooves; 
 last of all, open the legs, coiinnencing with the center 
 ones; turn the bedstead over right-side up, and it is 
 then ready for using, without mattress, bed, or pad- 
 ding of any descriiilion. 
 
 CAMP-CHAIR. — A form of folding chair adapted 
 to be carried by a pedestrian, or packed away m the 
 
 ambulance or wagon when on 
 the march. Sec Cii in p-gtovl. 
 
 CAMP COLORS.— In the Unit- 
 ed Stales army, the camp-colors 
 are the stars and stripes, as de- 
 scribed for the gan-ison - flags, 
 printed upon bunting, 18 by 20 
 inches, on a pole of ash, 8 feet 
 long and li inch in diameter; 
 the butt end of the l)ole is arm- 
 ed with a pointed iron ferrule, 
 screwed on with four wooden 
 screws. See Colors. 
 
 CAMPE8TRE.— A kind of gir- 
 dle or apron worn by the Koman 
 soldiers around their waists at certain exercises where 
 the rest of their bodies remained naked. 
 
 CAMP-FOLLOWERS.— The sutlers and dealers in 
 small wares who follow an army. In India, owing 
 to the peculiar habits and customs of the Hindus, and 
 the large number of servants retained by Engli.sh offi- 
 cers, the camp-followers are in immense number, 
 comprising the .servants, sutlers, cantiniers, hostlers, 
 water-carriers, snake-charmers, dancers, conjurers, 
 and women. In February, 1839, when a Bengal army 
 of 15,000 men left Shikarpoor for Afghanistan, it was- 
 accompanied by no fewer than 85,000 camp-followers; 
 the Commander took with him six weeks' food for the 
 whole 100,000. All English Com- 
 manders in India find this regula- 
 tion a verj' burdeasome one. Even 
 in the European armies, however, 
 camp-followers are regarded as ne- 
 cessiiry; they are under the control 
 of the Commanding Officer, and are 
 subject to the Articles of War — not, 
 however, in cantonments, only in 
 the field. French armies are ac- 
 companied by women much more 
 largely than English. 
 
 CAMP-QTJARD. — A guard consist- 
 ing of one or two rows of sentinels 
 placed around a camp and relieved 
 at regular intervals. The composi- 
 tion and posts of the camp-guard 
 ■will depend upon the character of 
 the ground and the degree of danger 
 apprehended. 
 
 CAMPHENE.— The name applied 
 to a variety of spirit of turpentine 
 obtaineil from the Pinua aimtralis 
 of the Southern States of America, 
 and rather extensively sold and used 
 in Britain for burning in out-of- 
 door lamps. It is very volatile, and 
 burns very freely, giving off a pure 
 white brilliant light; and when the 
 vapor diffuses itself through air, and 
 ,is .set tire to, it forms a dangerous 
 and violently explosive mixture. 
 CAMPHOR.— A solid essential oil which is found in 
 many ijlants, and may be separated from many essen- 
 tial oils. It particularly alwunds in certain species of 
 the natural order L<iur<'m(r. Almost all the camphor 
 of commerce is the produce of the camphor-laurel, 
 (CamplMra officinaru in , formerly known as Ixiiinig 
 canip/iom), a native of China, Japan, Formosa, and 
 Cochin-(Jhina, and which has lieen introduced into 
 Java and the AVest Indies. The camphor-laurel is a 
 tree of considerable height, nuich branched, with 
 lanceolate, evergreen leaves on short stalks, and small 
 yellowish-white flowers in axillary and terminal jwni- 
 cles. The fruit is in size and appearance not unlike 
 an imperfectly ripened black currant. Every part of 
 the tree, but especially the flower, smells stron.gly of 
 camphor. The woo<l is light and durable, not liable 
 to be injured by insects, and much valued for ord- 
 nance work. In the extraction of camphor from 
 the camphor-laurel, the wood of the stem and brandies
 
 Rr/^mcr le St. 
 
 
 
 '//" Cjna,fu 
 
 iF-wi 
 
 1'. Petl 
 
 
 rrCafWell 
 
 
 
 
 
 S l;t)tir. 
 
 land 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 Bra.,1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^
 
 CAMPIDOCTOBES. 
 
 273 
 
 CAHBINO. 
 
 is chopped up into fragments, and introduced into a 
 still with water and heat apjjlied, when the steam 
 generated carries off tlie camphor in vapor. Tliese 
 vapors rise, and iu passing through rice-straw, with 
 which tlie head of the still is tilled, the camphor 
 solidifies, and is deposited round the straw in minute 
 grains or particles, somewhat about the size of raw- 
 sugar or coarse sand, 'i'he.se grains of impure cam- 
 phor are detached, and being introduced into a large 
 globular glass vessel in quantities of about 10 Ib.s., 
 are reheated, when lirst the water rises in .steam, and 
 is allowed to escape at a small aperture; and there- 
 after, this aperture l)eing closed, the camphor sul)limcs 
 and resolidifies m the interior upper part of the fiask 
 as a semi-transparent cake, leaving all the impurities 
 
 a small compas.s for convenience of packing or car- 
 riage. Camp-stools were known in ancient Eg)-pt, 
 and were constructed in a manner similar to ours. 
 
 Camp'8tool. 
 
 They frequently occur in the paintings, and some 
 have been preserved until our time. One found at 
 Sakkarah is in the Ablx)tt Collection, New York. 
 See Cdtiip-ehair. 
 
 CAMP-STOVE.— A light sheet -iron stove, specially 
 arranged with a \ievv to portability, and adapted for 
 beating a tent or hut, and for cooking purposes. 
 The drawing shows such a stove, capable of cooking 
 for a mess of six or eight persons. When packed for 
 transportation, all the apparatus is inside, and the 
 
 ■"V^L^ 
 
 Camp-stove. 
 
 behind. The flasks arc then cooled and broken by 
 throwing cold water on them, and the cainj)hor taken 
 out and sent into market. The glass globes employed 
 are called l)v an Italian name, hiinilioJoe.i, the sublima- 
 tion of camjihor ha^^ngbcen first jiracticed in Venice. 
 — Camphor was \inknown to the Greeks and Romans, 
 and was first brought to Eurojie by the Arabs. It is 
 a white tough solid, slightly lighter than water, and 
 floats thereon. It is very sparingly soluble in water, 
 but freely soluble in alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and 
 the essential oils. It fuses at 347°, and boils at 399 , 
 and when set fire to is very inflammable, and burns 
 ■with a white smoky flame. Thrown iijion water, it 
 floats, and may be set fire to when the currents gene- 
 rated alike from the solution in water and the irregu- 
 lar burning of the pieces cause a curious rotatory 
 motion. It has a peculiar hot aromatic taste, and an 
 agreeable characteristic odor. In consequence of its 
 combuslilile ]iowers it is much used in fire-works. 
 
 CAMPIDOCTORES.— Otticers to whom was assigned 
 the duty of drilling the Roman soldiery. 
 
 CAMP-KIT. — A box, with its contents, for contain- 
 ing soldiers' cooking and mess utensils, such as the 
 (■aiiii>-kettles, plates, etc. 
 
 CAMP-MILL.— A mill adapted for the use of an 
 army, to grind grain on the march or in camp. It is 
 carried on a wagon or running-gear, and is .some- 
 times driven by the wheels in traveling, sometimes 
 by a sweep operated by horses or men after the 
 wheels are anchored or sunk in the ground. The 
 first portable mill thus adapted to its own carriage 
 appears to have been invented by Pompeo Targone, 
 Engineer to the Manjuis Ambrose Spinola, about the 
 end of the sixteenth centurv. 
 
 CAMP OF INSTRUCTION.— An encampment of 
 troops in the field tn liabiluate them to the duties and 
 fatigues of war. They may be either temporar)' or 
 pennanent. Of the latter description are the camps 
 at Aldershott, England, and the Curragh of Kildare, 
 Ireland. 
 
 CAMPOOS.— Regiments of Infantrj' in the service 
 of the Maliratta Confederates. 
 
 CAMP-STOOL.— A chair whose frame folds up into 
 
 ! total weight is 22 pounds. The ware is so con- 
 ' stnicled that it nests and packs in the oven, which 
 has a cajjacity suflicient for roasting 20 pounds of 
 j beef. The oven packs inside the stove, and leaves 
 i s\iffieienl room for packing the plates, knives, forks, 
 .spoons, and driidving-cups. This stove boils, bakes, 
 [ or broils; and when fuel is scarce its excellence is 
 , very apparent, as it requires so little. In cold wea- 
 ther it may be placed inside the tent, where it is a 
 great luxury and s;ives much trouble. 
 ) CAMPUS. — In ancient Rome, a vacant space in or 
 [ near a city, for public combats, etc. There were 
 eight aroinid Rome, of which the Campus JIartius 
 j (Camii of Mars) w'as the nio«l inijjortant. It was out- 
 I side the walls, oceui\ving the level sj^ice between the 
 I Quirinal, Pincian, and Cajiitoline Hills. In this met 
 [ the ctniiitiii ecntiiriota and the rwiiiim (ritniia; and in 
 it was the Public Hall for the use of the Magistrates 
 and Foreign Ambassjidors, who were not permitted to 
 enter the city. In later times it Iwcame a pleasure- 
 ground, with shaded walks, gardens, baths, theaters, 
 and a race-course. Julius Ca'sar built within it the 
 marble halls for the comitia; Agrippa, the baths and 
 the Pantheon; Augustus, his own mausoleum; and 
 Statilius Taurus, the first stone amphitheater. Later 
 emperors crowded this particular campus with pul)lie 
 buildings and private residences. Under Aurelian it 
 was taken in as a part of the city. The district in 
 which the old campus was situated is now called 
 Campo Marzo. Another ancient campus was the 
 Sceleratus, the Polluted Field, where vestals who had 
 been untnie to their vows of chastity were buried 
 alive. The drill-groimds around modem colleges 
 often I)ear the name of eampiin. 
 
 CAM-RING. — A portion of the firing mechanism 
 in certain machine-guns. In the Gatling gim, within 
 the cylindrical breech-case attached to the frame, a 
 hea\'y ring not quite the Icn^h of the lock-cyliniler 
 is fa.stened to the case and diaphragm, which nearly 
 fills the space between the inside of the ca.se and the 
 cylinder. Portions of the inside of this ring arc so 
 cut away as to leave a truncated, wedge-.shapcti, an- 
 nular or spiral cam projecting from the inner surface
 
 CANDITEEK. 
 
 274 
 
 CANI8TEK-8H0T. 
 
 of the ring, having two helicoidal edges inclined to 
 each other, and united by a short, Hat plane. Ainiinst 
 these edges the rear ends of the locks or breech-pliigs 
 continually bear, there being r(X)m enough for tlie 
 locks to lie loosely within the parts of the ring which 
 are cut away. The apex of the wedge-shaiX'd cam 
 points to the barrels. Each lock is held back ajr.iinst 
 the cam by a lug or horn projecting laterally from 
 the end of the lock and entering a groove formetl at 
 the base of the cam, in the thin part of the ling. 
 
 The drsiwing shows Iht; cam -ring as it would appear 
 it cut open and spread out tlat, the lower lines being 
 the develo]Mncnt of the edges of the helicoidal cam- 
 surfaces. The ten locks are shown in their relative 
 positions abutting against the cam-surfaces, si.\ of 
 them being shown in section. It will be seen that the 
 points of the tiring-pins, or lock-hammers, protrude 
 beyond the front ot the locks, while the spindles pro- 
 ject from the rear, where they are fa.shioned into 
 knobs by which the hammers are drawn backward 
 and cocked while passing through the groove in the 
 rii. It will be observed that the distance of the apex 
 of the cam from the ends of the barrels is such that 
 the breech-plugs or locks exactly till the space, so 
 that each plug there forms an abutment which closes 
 the breech of its barrel and abuts against the apex of 
 
 Cam-ring of Galling Gun. 
 
 the cam, which serves to resist the recoil of the plug 
 when the charge is fired. 
 
 The locks are guided in grooves formed in the lock- 
 cylinder, and therefore cannot deviate from their 
 alignment with the barrels. The cartridges will, as 
 the carrier-block channels come successively under 
 the hopp)er, drop into the channels in front of the 
 locks, and be kept in place by the hopper-plate. The 
 revolution of the lock-cylinder carries the locks 
 around with it, and Ciuises them to receive a longitu- 
 dinal reciprocal motion by their ends sliding along 
 the inclined surfaces of the stationary cam. Each 
 lock, then, one after the other, is pushed forward to- 
 ward its barrel. As the revohition of the parts keeps 
 the locks in contact ■mth the advancing side of the 
 cam, each lock in succession closes it.s barrel, and its 
 longitudinal motion cejuses, while it pas.ses the tial 
 surface of the cam, and then each slides backward 
 from its barrel when constrained to move along the 
 retreating side of the cam bj' the corresponding cam- 
 groove; and so on, each lock repeating the.se move- 
 ments at each successive revolution of the shaft. The 
 position of the cam relatively to the cartridge-hopper 
 is such that each lock is drawn backward to its full 
 extent when it pas.ses the hopper, so that the cartridges 
 may fall into the carrier in front of tlie locks. The 
 explosion of each cartridge takes place as its proper 
 lock passes over the flat apex of the cam which resist.s 
 the recoil. The hammer is cocked by the knob or 
 
 bead at its rear end coming into contact with a flat 
 rib locateil inside of the cam. This rib restnuns the 
 hammer from moring forward, while the forward 
 movement of the body of the lock continues; the 
 spiral mainspring is coinpres-scd until the revolution 
 carries ttie hammer-knob beyond the end of the cock- 
 ing-rib, when the hammer will spring forward and 
 strike with il.s|«jint the center of the cartridge-head, 
 and explo<ie the charge. The point in the revolution 
 at which the barrels are discharged is below and at 
 one side of the axis. Each breecli-plug or lock car- 
 ries a hooked extractor which snaps over and engages 
 the cart ridge- flange when the plug is pusheii forwani, 
 but which, when the plug retreats, withdraws imd 
 ejects the empty case. The drawing shows the ten 
 locks, each in a difTerent part of it.s cycle of action. 
 At I the cartridge has just dropjx^d in front of the 
 lock; at II it ha.s In-en pushe<l forwiu-d somewhat; at 
 III the point of the cartridge hjis entered tlie barrel; 
 at IV it is pushed nearly home, and the head of the 
 hammer is retained by the cocking-rib, the main- 
 spring being partlj' compressed. At V the lock has 
 reached the liat pdrt of the cam, the cartridge is 
 pushe<l quite home, and the mainspring has been 
 fully compressed by the retention of the hammer by 
 the cocking-rib, the end of which is just reached by 
 the hammer, which is about being re- 
 leased. At VI the hammer having been 
 released has sprung forwani and exploded 
 the cartridge, the end of the lock or 
 breech-plug being tirmly bracetl against 
 the flat surface of the cam. At Vll the 
 lock has commenced to retreat, and at 
 VIII it has partially iiNithdrawn the emp- 
 ty cartridge-shell from the barrel. At 
 a IX it has completely extracted the shell, 
 
 J\ which is falling away from the gun. At 
 
 I X the lock is fully drawn back, and is 
 li I about to pass ag-ain into its first position. 
 J I See Giitling Gun. 
 
 CANDITEEH.— In fortification, a pro- 
 tection for miners, consisting of brush- 
 wood, etc. 
 
 CANDJIAE.— A kind of crooked Tur- 
 kish s;(ber Also ^Titten Canjar. 
 
 CANDLE-BOMBS. — Pasteboard shells 
 tilled with pyrotechnic compositions, 
 which make a brilliant display on explo- 
 sion. They are used for signaling, and 
 are made up vn\ii a powder-charge at- 
 tached to one side ; a strand of <iuick- 
 
 -•-J 
 
 match leads to the charge when placed in the mortar. 
 
 dIIow 
 They 
 
 The mortars used are very light, being simply hollow 
 cylinders of stout paper, sole-leather, or wood. 
 
 are made thus light for ea.'^e of transportation. 
 
 CANSTS. — A lf>ose gown, worn by the Medes and 
 Persians over their other garments. It was made of 
 woolen cloth, which was either purple or of some 
 other brilliant color, and had wide sleeves. In the 
 sculptures at Persepolis nearly all the personages are 
 represented as so attired. A go\\Ti of a very similar 
 kind is still worn by Arabians, Turks, and other Ori- 
 entals. 
 
 CANE GUN. — A weapon comprising a gun-barrel 
 with its discharging devices an-anged within the shaft 
 of a cane so as to present the appearance of an ordi- 
 nary walking-stick. See Air-gun. 
 
 CAN-HOOE. — A device for slinging casks in hoist- 
 ing. The ends of a piece of rope are reeved through 
 the eyes of two flat hooks and stopped. The tackle 
 is hooked to the middle of the bight. 
 
 CANISTER-SHOT.— A canister-shot is a metallic 
 cylinder about one caliber in length, filled with 
 balls and closed at both ends with wooden or metal 
 disks. They are supplied for all guns. For 8-inch 
 canister, and all those of less caliber, the envelope is 
 made of tin, while canister for the larger calibers 
 have an envelope of iron. The bottom of 1.5-inch 
 canister is made of two thicknesses ot l-inch hard 
 wood, crossing each other, and put together with
 
 c 
 
 CiNKON.etc. Antique: 1. French six-pound false culverin flSSO). S. FrenchammunitioDcart(lMfl). 3.^^«J^^^ 4. German eigliteen-pound raortor, calle.l " Eleplianf flM.-!!. 5. 
 
 flve-pound mortar (iMibr";rStorm7Mg]i^^^^^^ 
 
 ,, ,-, — ~.-^..™.^ „„^,„. ai. Italian Bombamejiwu^ "••rr-;g 8t^™"-;^ '^ n, i j>n/it,.„.=h„^»i .jh i»=™. 
 
 BaU extractor. 32. Double-barbed spetti-, 33. Stormiivr sp^ar. ^KSlo^nmcclu^^^ngim. tli 
 
 o. &i;ormiiigKet,'(10«ll. T. German Hi&-6liield (HBW). o. ™'7r^, u. CenMiii_7;',L "■ ' "T "' "'""'■ !"• "■ LlHalu a"'' st*-" 
 ithcarriage. H. Firebomb. 15. Overman actional fldd^eceas*).'»'^*^n[y-l^^ nilvenn hmO). IT. French cul' 
 mb. 3L Explosive fli-^bomb. Si. Italian Borabarde(lM«.^^^IKj|^'' ^ fc^J'^^;|j^''l";|.'t-e. ^_. Loading-ahovel. 2B. Ramn, 
 
 tweotr-pound 
 
 bomb, 20. Excentric bomb. 
 
 S.T'^S?''- ■^'- IJaU extractor. „. .™.„.„=^™, «.^. ^^..^..^ 
 
 8lt. Fire-jiip. 40. Fir*- ball. 43. Gim-L-artridge. -li Forty-pound cam 
 
 iwflv^ )M.i„>.l ti.-lii pie isia,. 49. Petard. M. German breech-'""-' 
 
 non, u irii ,,^il| I .,, . ii,s.i, ,-,7. Danish three-pound fleld-p 
 
 li heavy ordliiance. 01. French 
 
 filJiO' 
 
 IDOl 
 
 (1'KJO). ■ 
 
 7.2 Pnisffian twijuly-five-pound howitzer. 
 Uerriok (17201. 
 
 "e-DOimdhowit^r; Tl ru««. nWi'-^""'** ^ Preach brake tlwjBj 
 
 Darii-.li iron gun-carriage for forts ilTia). 
 
 ball, 4(1. German tnelve-pouiid fl< 
 illzer (ISI-J). 53. Cartridge, M. 
 
 Of rill an twenty- 
 ,vi|. la. (iermaa 
 10. ( oiicentrio 
 i|iL'. 30. Chare>3 
 ''■\ Anchor baQ. 
 • 1. 49. I'rUKsiaD 
 M. German d 
 
 00. Prussian petanl-rocket. til, Kocket with ».ide.fiNiff. ili, Hochet. without 
 
 110, Probe. 70, High-chassis, with iwcntyfuui-pound cannon. 71. I're"«» 
 
 tlWJBj. 70. Traugreocart. 80. Field-forge. HI. English soven-pouua uowllaur (IBOl* 
 
 :',
 
 CANEEB. 
 
 275 
 
 CANNOH. 
 
 wToughtiron nails clinched. A spindle, with a 
 wrought-iron handle passing through the center of 
 the canister, is riveted on the bottom through a square 
 plate. All other canister have bottom-heads of one 
 thicknes.s of hard wood. Top-heads are all made of 
 white pine. The case Ls notched, turned over the 
 heads, and tacked down. The balls for all canister 
 are 1.3 inch diameter, and the number used varies 
 with the caliber. To give more solidity to the mass, 
 and prevent the balls from crowding upon each other 
 when tte piece is tireil, the interstices are closely 
 packed with sawdust. See Oise-a/iot, l^cjectilen, 
 lUHe-canhter, and Siege and Garriwtt Amiiiunition. 
 
 CANKER. — A disease of the foot of the horse, 
 believed by Gerlach, of Berlin, to be truly cancerous, 
 is observed in two different forms : in the acute stage, 
 ■when the malady is chiefly local ; and in the chronic 
 stage, when the constitution suffers, and all local 
 remedies fail to restore a healthy function of the 
 structures of the foot. 
 
 Symptotinf. — It usually commences by discharge 
 from the heels, or the cleft of the frog of the horse's 
 foot. The horn becomes soft and disintegrated, the 
 vascular structures beneath become inflamed, and the 
 pain which the animal endures is intolerable. It is 
 therefore very lame on one, two, or all feet, according 
 to the number affected. Though there is no consti- 
 tutional fever, the horse becomes emaciated and unfit 
 for work. During wet weather, and on damp .soil, 
 the symptoms increase in severity. The .sore struc- 
 tures bleed on the least touch, and considerable fun- 
 goid granulations, commonly called proud flea/i, form 
 rapidly. 
 
 Cauus. — This disease is occasionally hereditary, 
 
 fired. No military weapon in use before the inven- 
 tion of gunpowder can fairly come under this desig- 
 nation; they were more generally of the kinds de- 
 scribed under Balista. At what exact date cannon 
 were first u.«cd is not known; but cannon, called 
 "cnikjs of war," were employed oy Edward III. 
 against the Scots in 1327, by the French at the siege 
 of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and by Edward III. at 
 Crecy, and at Calais in 1346. The first cannon or 
 bombards were clumsy, wider at the mouth than at 
 the chamber, and made of iron bars hooped together 
 with iron rings. The balls fired from them were 
 first made of stone, aftenvards supcrsedtvi by iron. 
 In the fifteenth century various kinds were known 
 by the names of cannon, bombards, culverins, ser- 
 pentines, etc. Bombards of great length and i)ower 
 were employed by Louis XI. during his Flemish 
 campaign in 1477, some with stone balls, .some with 
 iron. About this time cannon begimi to Ix' made by 
 casting instead of with hooped bars; and bronze or 
 bra-ss as a material began to be used as well as iron. 
 The cannon of the sixteenth centurj- were generally- 
 smaller, but better finished, than those ot the fif- 
 teenth. The large.st cannon made in tlie seventeenth 
 century, so far as U known, was the Bejajtoor cast- 
 iron gun, " Malick e >Ieidan," or " Lord of the 
 Plain," made either by Aui-ungzebe or by the >Iah- 
 rattas; it was 14 feet long, 28 inches bore, and required 
 a ball of 1600 lbs. weight. From the time of the 
 great European wars in that century, cannon have 
 undergone vast improvements, as well as the science 
 "and art of artillery necessary for their management. 
 Cast-iron cannon may generally be divided into five 
 principal parts, viz.. Breech, Cylinder, (Juru, Cltase, 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Breech. A M, 
 iacluding — 
 
 f Hemisphere ) 
 
 I or Base of -AL. 
 
 1 Breech. * 
 
 1 Cascabel, L M. 
 
 1 Jaws, e f 
 
 [_ Block and Pin,»i m. 
 
 Base-ring, A. 
 Trunnion. E F. 
 Rinibase..D G. 
 
 Cylinder, A C. 
 
 Curve, C H. 
 
 Chase, HI. - , 
 
 It 1 Ti^ In, Swell of Muzzle. Breech SiKht-niass. t. 
 
 Muzzle, I K. ■, J Pace of Muzzle. Front SiRht-mass. /. 
 
 ( Cylinder. 6 c. lAKk\\xgs, g. 
 
 'i Gomer-chamber.fl 6. Vent, h t. 
 
 Bore, a c. 
 
 and it is most frequently seen in low-bred draught- or 
 coach-horses. Dirt, cold, and wet favor the [iroduc- 
 tion of the disease, and there is always a tendency to 
 relapse when once an animal has been affected. 
 
 Treatment. — Pare away detached portions of horn, 
 and, in mild ca.ses, sprinkle powdered acetate of cop- 
 per wer the sore : apply over this pledgets of tow, 
 fixed over the foot by strips of iron or woo<l passed 
 between shoe and fool. In severe cases tar and nitric 
 acid, creosote and turpentine, chloride-of-zinc paste, 
 and other active caustics have to be used for a tirnc 
 ■with the regular employment of pressure on the dis- 
 eased surface. The animal requires to be treated 
 constitutionally by periodical purgatives and alteiii- 
 tives. Good food, fresh air, and exercise often aid 
 much in the treatment of the disea.se. 
 
 CANNELURE.— A cut in the lead round the pro- 
 jectile near the base in order to receive a lubricant or 
 any lead tliat may be drawn down during the passage 
 of the projectile through the bore. 
 
 CANNON. — A general name for large pieces of 
 ordnance or artillerj', as distinguished from those 
 pieces whicli can be held in the hand while being 
 
 and Muzzle. The Breech is the mass of solid metal 
 in rear of the bottom of the liore: the thickness is 
 usually somewhat greater than the greatest thicknc-ss 
 of metal in the cylinder. The Cylinder is that por- 
 tion between the base-ring and trunnions, including 
 the .seat of charge and tlie point where the greatest 
 strain is exerted upon the gun. The Curte is the 
 portion connecting the cylinder with the chase. It is 
 made somewhat thicker than necessary to resist the 
 pressure of the powder, in order to serve as a proper 
 jioint of support for the trunnions, and to compen- 
 sate for certain defects of metal liable to occur in the 
 vicinity of the tnmnions of all cast cannon, arising 
 from the crystalline arrangement and unequal cooling 
 of the different parts. The Chase is the long, taper- 
 ing portion of the sun ex-tending from the curve t© 
 the muzzle. The principal injury to which the chn.sc 
 is liable in smooth-bore guns arises from the striking 
 or balloting of the projectile against the side of the 
 bore; and the thickne.ss of metal should be sufficient 
 to resist it. The Muzzk is the increase<I thickness of 
 metal which terminates the chase. Inasmuch as the 
 metal situated immediately at the muzzle is supported
 
 CANNON. 
 
 176 
 
 CANNON.. 
 
 ^ 
 
 a-e 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 only in rear, it has been usually considered necessary 
 to increase its thickness to enable it to resist the ac- 
 tion of the projtHlik- at this point; but in tin- liiijrcr 
 ^uns the sinll of l/ic iiiu:zh' ha.s been omitted. The 
 swell strengthens a part liable to be impaired by an 
 enemy's tire, and atrords, al.so, a gootl position for a 
 notch or sij^hl. 
 
 The Trniiiw>ii», Fijr. 1, are two cylindrical arms 
 attached to the sides of a cannon, for the purpose of 
 supportiu": it on its carriage. They are i>laeed on 
 opposite sides of the piece, with their axes in the same 
 line and at riirht angles to its axis. The size of the 
 inmnions depends on the recoil of the piece and tlie ; 
 material of which lliey are made. The resistance 
 which a cylinder opposes to rupture is proiiortioual 
 to the cube of its diameter; on the supposition that , 
 the strain is proportional to the weight <if the charge, 
 it is usual to make the diameter of the triumions 
 eipial to tlie diameter of the bore. The positicai of 
 the trunnions, with reference to the axis of the bore, 
 inHuenccs the amount of recoil and the endunmee of 
 the carriage. By reference to Fig. 2 it will be seen 
 that if the axis of the trunnions be placed below the 
 
 axis of the piece, the resultant of the force of the 
 charge, which acts against the bottom of llie bore, 
 will act to turn the jiiece around its truimiou, and 
 cause the breech to press upon the head of the elevat- 
 ing-screw with a force proportioned to the length of 
 the lever-arm, or distance between the axes. The 
 effect will be to throw an additional strain on the 
 carriage by pressing down the rear part of it, and 
 checking the recoil. If the truniuons be placed above 
 the axis of the piece, rotation will take place in the 
 opposite direction, and the effect of the discbarge 
 upon the carriage ami recoil will be reversed. By 
 lilacing the two a.xes in the same plane, the force of 
 the charge will be communicated directly to the 
 trunnions, without increasing or diminishing its ef- 
 fect on the carri.age or recoil; this position is given to 
 them in all guns in the United States service. The 
 unequal distribution of the weight of a cannon, with 
 reference to the axis of the trunnions, is ealli'd the 
 preponderance. It is the jiressure which the bneeh 
 jtortion of the gim, when horizontal, exerts on the 
 elevating arrangement. To ascertain the preponder- 
 ance practically, support the gun at the trunnions as 
 freely as possible, and bring it horizontal by means 
 of a long hands|)ike in the bore. Place a i)latform- 
 scale under the breech, and tix a block of wood on 
 it, touching tlie gim underneath at the elevating- 
 lioint. The handspike being then removed from the 
 bore, the pressure on the block is indicated on the 
 arm of the scale, and is the preponderance of the 
 gun. 
 
 In larger guns destined to throw heavy elongated 
 projectiles, where the weight of the charge increa.ses 
 rapidly in coni|iarison with the caliber, the chamber 
 is of the size of the bore, and lately usefid results 
 have been obtained by making the chamber of greater 
 diameter than the bore. The necessity for a small 
 chamber lieing assumed, and its capacity decided 
 upon, the determination of its proper form will Ije 
 governed by .several conditions. 1st. The chamber 
 must be deep enough to receive a cartridge manage- 
 able in length. 2d. As the chamber adds mate- 
 rially to the length of the bore, it must evidently be 
 no deeper than tln' service of the gun renders neces- 
 sary. 3d. It should contain no angles, on account of 
 the well-known tendency of a split to begin at an 
 angle; hence the bore should terminate in a curve, 
 the hemisphere, semi-ellipsoid, paraboloid, and ogival 
 being those most frecpiently used. The shape of the 
 chamber generally in use for S. U. guns is conical. 
 
 The particular kind of chamber represented in the 
 dniwing is called a Oomir f'/mmbir, after its inven- 
 tor. Its laiiicipal advantages are, distributing the 
 force of the charge o\er a large jjortion of tlie sur- 
 face of the ])rojectile, thereby rendering it less liable 
 to break if it be hollow, and reducing the windage 
 when the projectile is driven down to its proper 
 place. 
 
 The ]'</>( is the channel passing through the metal, 
 from the exterior of the breech into the bore, by 
 means of which fire is comiuunicated to the charge. 
 The size of the vent should be as small as pos.sible, 
 in order to diminish the escape of gas and the erosion of 
 the luetal, which results from it. In naval ordnance 
 vents are constructed two tenths of an inch in diame- 
 ter. In bronze pieces the heal of the inflamed ga.ses 
 would be sufficient to melt the tin and rapidly en- 
 large its iliameter. For this reason they are boucheil 
 by screwing in a perforated piece of pure wrought- 
 copper, called the iriit-pieci: This arrangement al- 
 lows the vent to be renewed when too much enlarged 
 by continued use. Copper vent-pieces are especially 
 necessary in rifle-guns, in consequence of the pro- 
 longed action of the gas arising from the resistance 
 of the projectile. In the largest caliber the interior 
 orifice is lined with jilntiiiiini. The upper jiortiou of 
 the copper is replaced by steel to obtain a harder sur- 
 face for receiving the blow of the hammer. Some 
 guns have two unbiniched vents, situated on opposite 
 sides of the axis of the ixire, and inclined at an angle 
 of 70 degrees with that axis. The one on the right 
 side is bored entirely through; the other is simply 
 initiated to give it direction. When the o|ien vent is 
 too much enlarged by wear for further use it is clo.sed 
 with melted zinc, and the other is bored out. Each 
 vent should endure about live lumdred service-rounds. 
 In smooth-bore cast guns the vent enters the bore 
 very near the bottom; the vents of heavy built-up 
 guns are I'.sually bored vertically, and in such a posi- 
 tion as to strike the cartridge at about four tenths of 
 its length from the bottom of the bore, it having been 
 ascertained by experiment that tlir ignition of the 
 charge at about this point realizes the greatest pro- 
 jectile force that can be produced by a given charge: 
 but in some of the heaviest rifled guns and in most 
 breech-loading guns the vent is bored in the line of 
 the a.xis through the breech, and is termed ;in ai'ial 
 rent. Experiment shows that the actual loss of force 
 by the escape of gas through the vent, as compared 
 to that of the entire charge, is inconsiderable, and 
 it may be neglected in practice. 
 
 In designing a gun, it is neces.sary in the first place 
 to endeax'or to determine what thickness of metal is 
 required for that part of the gun surrounding the seat 
 of the charge, for it is here where the greatest strain 
 from the explosion of the charge is exerted. No pre- 
 cise rules can be laid down for the regulation of this 
 thickness in various kinds of ordnance, as so much 
 depends upon the jihysical properties of the material 
 used. The general results of experience, or of experi- 
 ments carried on for the purpose of estalilishing thid 
 point, can alone furnish us with the requisite data. 
 The amount (;f metal in a gun must depend upon the 
 charge, the weight and form of the projectile, the 
 material emiiloyed, and the methoil of construction. 
 When a charge of guni)owder is ignited in the bore 
 of a gun. the gas exerts equal pressures in all direc- 
 tions, and therefore, neglecting windage, the )ircssure 
 in the bottom of the bore is equal to that on the ba.se 
 of the projectile, and the pressures on the top and 
 bottom as well as those on the sides of the iKire bal- 
 ance each other. The metal of a gun is subjected to 
 two jirincipal strains: one a traiixrcrKu or laiif/cntial, 
 which tends to rend the metal lengthwise, <ir from 
 end to end; and the other a loni/itm/iiitil, tending to 
 fracture the gun across, or to drive out the breech. 
 As the projectile moves towards the muzzle, .so will 
 the space in which the gas is contuied be increased, 
 and the i)re.s.sure be decreased; the portion of metal 
 surrounding the space originally occu])ied by the
 
 CANNONADE. 
 
 277 
 
 CANNON-FOUNDING. 
 
 cartridge, and a little in front of it, i.s that upon which 
 the muj-iiniim premure from the gas is exerted. The 
 maximum pressure will be intluenccd by the nature 
 of the powder, the resistance oifered by the i>rojeelile 
 to motion, ami by the absence or amount of windage. 
 Many experiments have been made to detennine 
 the gradual dicrea.'^e of sirain ujiou the metal of a 
 ]jiecc of ordnance, from breech to mu'zzle. The lirst 
 were accomplished by perforating a gun in several 
 places from the exterior lo the bore, at right angles 
 with the bore, and succes-sively screwing a pistol-bar- 
 rel containing a steel ball into each perforation, and 
 discharging the gun with the pistol-banel at the dif- 
 ferent perforation.^: the relative velocities with which 
 the pistol-ball (received by a ix-ndulum) is forced out 
 at these different positions indicate the ft>rce exerted 
 there to burst the gim, and consequently the relative 
 strength of metal neces.siiry in the various parts to re- 
 sist explosion. The following formula, which is 
 used for calculating the exterior form of cannon of 
 large caliber for the land service, was deduced by 
 Captain Rodman from a series of original experiments 
 on the strength of hollow cylinders, etc.: 
 
 of the carriage on ordinarj- ground ; W, the weight of 
 the piece; V. velocity of recoil; (', the weight of the 
 carriage; H, the pressure of the Inul on the ground, 
 arising from the recoil; and y, the force of gravity. 
 From the principle before enunciatcil, we have 
 
 ff P 9 ^ g ■' ' 
 
 or, by reduction, 
 
 tcv + cN- 
 
 W- 
 
 CV-Vf-Rf 
 
 ,, -Zpr \ t 
 
 B^'L 
 
 [{R - r)(3rZ + R)(R + r)iR - r) ^^^ 
 
 in which C'is a constant quantity, /• = interior radius 
 and R = exterior radius, p = pressure of ga.s, I = 
 length of bore pressed required to fully develop 
 transverse resistance, L = length of bore correspond- 
 ing to assumed values of R, S= tensile strength of 
 metal, and /'= length of bore .subjected to maximum 
 pressure. The pre.s.sure of the gas is supposed to 
 vary inversely as the square root of the length of the 
 tore behind the projectile. The exterior forms thus 
 obtained are entirely made up of cuned lines. 
 
 For many years cast-iron cannon have been made 
 in Sweden of a form nearly approaching that called 
 for by the actual pressure of the powder at different 
 points of the bore (Fig. 3). In the construction of 
 bronze gims, the thickness of the metal at the neck, 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 or thinnest part, is about equal to ,\ of that at the 
 first reinforce, or j\£:, given in the empirical for- 
 mula E = D\' -p, to which D represents the di- 
 ameter of a solid cast-iron shot suited to the bore. C 
 the proof-charge, and P the real weight of the 
 projectile. . • i i .i 
 
 The weight of a cannon is detennineil bv tlie 
 weight of the projectile, the maximum velocity it 
 may be nece.s.sarv to communicate to it, and the ex- 
 tent of the recoil. The extent of the recoil IxMiig 
 limited bv the conditions of the service, the weight 
 of the piece may be deduced from the principle that 
 action and reaction are equal and opposite; or that 
 the quantity of motion exiwnded on the inertia of 
 the piece and carriage, and friction, is e<jual to that 
 expended on the projectile, and the air set in motion 
 by the charge. Let w be the weight of the projectile; 
 -!•," its maximum velocity; c. the weight of the charge 
 of powder; N, a constant linear quanHty, represent- 
 ing the velocity communicated to the piece by a unit 
 of weight of the charge, arising from its action on 
 the air. independent of the projectile (for American 
 powder this has been found by experiment with the 
 gun and ballistic pendulums to be equal to lOm) fwt); 
 / the velocity lost bv a unit of mass, from the friction 
 
 V + f 
 
 For field-guns the velocity of the recoil should not 
 exceed 12 feet. See Exterior Form of Ciiimon, Ji\riu;j, 
 Jiiji/n'is t)> Cannon, Ordnance, and Pointing. 
 
 CANNONADE.— The act of discharging shot or 
 shells from cannon for the purpo.se of destroying an 
 army, or battering a town, ship, or fort; usually ap- 
 plied to an attack of some coiiliiuiance. Al.so "writ- 
 ten Ciuinonn/. 
 
 CANNON-BALL — CANNON-BULLET. — Properly 
 sjieaking, this tcmi should only be applied to spheri- 
 cal solid projectiles; but it appears to have iKxonie 
 generic, extending to elongated bullets for rifled 
 guns, and even to hollow projectiles. Technically, 
 balls are termed "solid shot," or simply ".shot." to 
 distinguish them from hollow projectiles" They are 
 I now universally made of cast-iron, though stone was 
 fonnerly employed, and was used in some in.stances 
 i by the Turks as late as 1827. In South America 
 balls of copper were formerly used, this metal beiii'j 
 there, at that period, cheaper than iron. Elongated 
 bullets for rifled cannon are now freiiuently, espec- 
 ially by English writers, termed "bolts." I'he.se are 
 often made flat pointed or angularly pointed, to more 
 readily penetrate iron jilating. See Piijectilen. 
 
 CANNON-BASKETS.— The old Engli.sh phrase for 
 gabions. Not used at present. 
 
 CANNON-CLOCK.- A cannon with a l)uming-gla.s.s 
 I over the vent, so as to fire the priming when the sun 
 reaches the meridian. Such pieces were jilaced in 
 I the Palais Koyal and in the LiixcnilMUirg, at Paris. 
 
 CANNONEER- CANNONIEE- CANONNIEH. — 
 An artillerv' man or gunner. In 1071, during the 
 administration of Louvois in France, the name of 
 Cunonniers was given to the first company of the 
 regiment of the king's fusileers; in April, 1693, 
 this regiment was named Arti/Urie Rot/al, but the 
 first companv retained the name of Ciinnnnitrn. 
 
 CANNON-FOUNDING.— Since Sir William Ann- 
 strong succeeded, by a process first brought under 
 the notice of the British Goveniment in 18.54, in 
 making of malleable iron a field-gunof fargrealeretti- 
 ciency than any previously in u.sc, cannon founding has 
 in most European countries gradually ceased. This 
 manufacture, which was formerly an important one, 
 is, however, still carried on in the United States. 
 Sweden, and Russia, all three of which countries 
 liroduce cast-iron of a verj- superior (inality. Can- 
 non are cast in molds of loam or .sand preparetl with 
 the help of a pattern. They are usually cast verti- 
 cally, with an extra mass of metal poured in at the 
 to]) end of each mold to secure by its pressure greater 
 solidity in its walls, as is often done in the case of a 
 hydraulic cylinder. This su]iertluous portion is, of 
 eours<', aftefnards removed. Cannon are, or at least 
 were, often cast .solid with the same object, and after- 
 wards bored, although it is by no means certain that 
 such are generally sounder or of closer texture than 
 those which are cast hollow. In either case the 
 inner surface of the cannon is accurately fini.shcd 
 with a lioring-lool to the re(|uiied caliluT, and Ihe 
 outer surface turned. Brass, or rather bronze, can- 
 non were usually cast in loam by means of a clay 
 moilel on which "were often stuck omainental figures 
 in wax, thest^ being melted out of the mold Iiefore 
 casting. In the United Statc-s, cast-iron guns are 
 made by Rotlman's process; that is, they are cast 
 hollow on a core-barrel which is filled with ^fater.
 
 CAITNOH-LOCK. 
 
 278 
 
 CANNON-METALS. 
 
 This is applied so as to cool the metal of the cruii in 
 layers, thus luoilifviiig the initial stmiu upon il, anil 
 producing the best result that can Ix- obtained from 
 cast-iron for ordnance purposes. Within the last few 
 years guns as large in the bore as 20 inches have been 
 cast by this method at Pittsburg, and one of the same 
 size has been made by it in Russia. The latter 
 ■weighs -44 Ions, throws a spherical ball of 9 cwt., and 
 took 3i months to finish. Its cost was not more 
 than one fourth that of a built-up gun of steel for 
 the same weight of projectile. .>lany of the earlier 
 pieces of ordnance, it is curious to observe, were 
 made of hooped bars, in which one can trace the 
 germ of the process bv which the Armstrong gim is 
 made. Indeed, it is doubtful if any modern plan of 
 constructing large guns was not tried in olden times, 
 as is seen by an examination of the different kinds of 
 old cannon still preserved. These, however, had to 
 he constructed without the aid of the steam-hammer 
 and other appliances, which render such work com- 
 paratively easy nowadays, and were accordingly de- 
 licicnt in strength. The earlier wrought-iron cannon 
 were eventually superseded by those made of cast-iron 
 and bronze, but not entirely for some considerable 
 time after the latter had been in use. The mortar, 
 which was introduced about tlic commencement of 
 the fourteenth century, appears to have been not only 
 the most ancient form of cannon, but the first Eu- 
 ropean fire-arm as well. From the bcgiiming of the 
 fifteenth centui;)', cannon were cast in bronze, and 
 some of great size are stated to have been used at the 
 siege of Constantinople in 1463. Probably hand- 
 cannon of cast-iron date as far back as bronze guns, 
 and at any rate we know that large and excellent 
 cjinnon were made of cast-iron in the early part of 
 the si.xteenth century, they having been used" at Flod- 
 den, and England having" even then acciuired a repu- 
 tation for this kind of ordnance. Cannon-founding 
 has therefore been practiced for nearly 500 years; and 
 although the art is now to all appearance doomed 
 to decay, no one can predict, in these days of met- 
 allurgical wonders, what further change improve- 
 ments in the manufacture of iron and steel may 
 bring about as respects the making of large fire-arms. 
 In order that the cast guns made on the old system 
 may still be available for some purposes in modern 
 warfare, Colonel Hay Camjibcll, some years ago, 
 proposed a plan for lining bronze, and Major Palli.scr 
 another for lining cast-iron cannon with a tube of 
 wrought-iron. Some have been transformed on the 
 Palli.ser system, which consists in boring a certain 
 thickness off the old gun and forcing a coiled 
 wrought-iron barrel into the interior, and are said to 
 liave given very remarkable results as regards en- 
 durance. Certam peculiarities in the manufacture 
 of special kinds of ordnance are noticed in the arti- 
 cles relating to them. See Ordnance. 
 
 CANNON-LOCK.— A contrivance, like the lock of 
 a gun, placed over the vent of a cannon to explode 
 the ( harffe. 
 
 CANNON-METALS.— The qualities of metals with 
 which we are more particularly concerned in the con- 
 struction of orrljiance are the"physical i)roperties of 
 malleability, ductility, hardness "or softness, toutrh- 
 ness, elasticity, and tensile strength, while we must 
 also understand what is meant by tenacity and 
 elastic limit as applied to metals. MaUmbiUty is the 
 property of being iiermaneutly extended in all direc- 
 tions without rupture- by prcssiire (as in rolling) or by 
 imjiact (as in hammering). It is opposed to briUk- 
 n<KS, which is the tendency to break more or less 
 readily under compression either gnidual or sudden. 
 BuctUity is the proi)crty of permimently extending or 
 drawing out, by traction, as in wiie-drawing. A 
 metal is said to be mft when it yields easily to com- 
 pression without breaking, and (iocs not return to its 
 oriirinal form on the removal of the compressing 
 stress. These terms are, of course, only comparative; 
 thus we have hard leads and soft leads, while any 
 sort o1 lead whatever is soft ascompared with wrought- 
 
 iron, which latter again is called soft when we com- 
 pare it with cast-iron. Steel is called itoft or l</ic when 
 the proportion of carbon contained in it is small, and 
 hard or high when the contrary is the case, lx>cause 
 when treated in a similar manner one variety is much 
 harder than the other. It shouM, however, be remem- 
 bered that a tolerably soft steel may be made very 
 hard by temix-ring. " It is easy to understand what 
 UnighiieM means, but not so easy to define exactly 
 what it is. Dr. Young gives the following explana- 
 tion of the term lus applied to steel: " Steel, whether 
 perfectly hard or of the softest tem}x?r, resists flexure 
 with equal force w hen the deviations from the natural 
 state are small, but at a certain point the steel, if soft, 
 begins to undergo an alteration of form; at another 
 point it breaks if much hardened, but when the hard- 
 ness is modenUe it is capable of a much greater cur- 
 vature without permanent alteration or fracture, and 
 this quality, which is valuable for the pnrixjses of 
 springs [and also forgim-barrels], is called toughness, 
 and is opposed to rigidity and brittleness on the one 
 side and to ductility on the other." EhisHciiy is the 
 property possessed by a metal of resisting permanent 
 deformation wheti subjected to a stie.«s, and is mea- ■ 
 sured by the ratio of stress to strain, so that the 
 modidus of elasticity is equal to the cotaiigent of the 
 angle H A J. in the following figure. The ehutic 
 limit of a metal is the tension which causes permanent 
 elongation, and in the figure is represented by the 
 abscissa A J. Tenacity is the tension required to 
 produce rupture, and is represented by the abscis-sa 
 A D. Ttnrile strength we shall employ to denote the 
 work done upon the metal to produce rupture bj' 
 traction. It would be measured in the figure by the 
 area A B D. 
 
 In order to understand these several terms more 
 clearly, let us take the fi.srure below, in which the 
 absci^se represent the tensions, and the ordinates the 
 extensions, of a bar of metal (experimentally deter- 
 mined) corresponding to the tensions. If the bar be 
 subject to a constantly-increasing tension, the exten- 
 sion is at first in a constant ratio to the tension, in- 
 creasing after a cert;iin point in a varying ratio. This 
 point, represented in the diagram by the extension, 
 H J, and measured by the tension represented by the 
 abscissa A J, is termed the elastic limit. After this 
 point is reached, the extensions increase in a higher 
 ratio for every increment of tension, and the Hue 
 joining the ordinates becomes a cur\ed line, as shown 
 by H B in the figure. As we continue to increase the 
 tension, we arrive at a point where the bai- will fracture. 
 
 Suppose the total extension of the bar at that point to 
 be represented by B D. and the breaking tension by 
 the abscissa A D, which is the measure of the tenacity 
 or limit of fracture: we have then, as will be seen by 
 the figure, three extensions of the bar, the total, elas- 
 tic, and i>ermanent, the former being in all cases the 
 sum of the two latter; while, until the elastic limit is 
 reached, the total extension is .synonvmous with the 
 elastic extension. The ordinates of the curve (a 
 straight line as far as H) A B represent the total ex- 
 tensions, and the ordinates of the straight line A C 
 the elastic extensions of the bar, while the work re- 
 quired to jiroduce rupture is measured by the area 
 A B D, which thus measures the tensile strength. 
 
 Siuularly. the work necessary to ])roducc a total 
 extension, 'E F, is measured by the ana A F E. If 
 we move the tension represented V)y A F, after the bar
 
 CANNON-PEREE. 
 
 CANNON-PEIMEKS. 
 
 I 
 
 has been extended by E F, the greatest extension of 
 the bar will not exceed F G; then reimpose it and 
 once more remove the tension, the bar will revert to 
 its former lenjcth. Here, of the total work done on 
 tlie bar reiircsented by the area A F E, thai portion 
 corresponding to the area H KG liiis b((;n absorbed 
 by it and applied to tlie rearrangement of its mole- 
 cules, bi;ing the measure of the loss sustained in the 
 tensile strength of the bar. Its tenacity may, how- 
 ever, be increased, and we see that its elastic limit is 
 so, for any ductile metal increases (within certain 
 limits) in elastic limit and ultiniale sireiiglh (as repre- 
 sented by the tenacity), though not in absolute or ten- 
 sile strength (as shown bj' the total work required to 
 produce rupture), when subjected to drawing, ham- 
 mering, or rolling. In fact, a material strained 
 beyond its clastic limit will exhibit the same charac- 
 teristics as an originally harder meljil. To retm-n, 
 however, to the case in the figure. .Suppose we now 
 subject tlie bar, which has been elongated by the per- 
 manent extension E G, to a greater tension, then the 
 total exten.sions may be represented by the same line 
 G K, and we see that the breaking tension, shown 
 by A L, is greater than l)efore. Tlie total work to 
 produce rupture will now be repre-scnted by the area 
 A K [j, which, however, can never exceed the me- 
 chanicid work represented by A B 1). or, what is the 
 same thing, F G K L cannot exceed B L) F E, so that 
 the absolute or tensiU^ strength of the metjd is not 
 uicreased by permanent extension beyond it.s original 
 elastic limit, although its tenacity and elasticity may 
 be increased by the operation. 
 
 To recapitulate, then, wc must remember that in- 
 crease in the tenacity (or breaking tension) and limit 
 of elasticity do not necessiirily imi)ly greater working 
 strength in a given bar of metal. We do, however, 
 gain very much, as we all know, by subjecting metals 
 to the operations of rolling, hammering, etc., for we 
 obtain a higher limit of elasticity and tenacity in 
 smaller bulk by making the mass more homogeneous. 
 It will be seen that the tensile strength of a metal is by 
 no means the same as the tenacity, which latter is 
 often termed tensile strength, and which 
 is measured here by the weight in tons 
 that a bar of )i square inch in sectional 
 area will just support without breaking. 
 The former is proportional to an area and 
 the latter to a straight line in the figure 
 above. In order to fracture steel of great 
 tenacity, less work may in fact be done 
 than is required to fracture a similar bar 
 of soft wrought-iron. Again, the elasti- 
 city of the iron may equal that of the 
 steel, but the limit of elasticity might be 
 very different in the two cases. The 
 elasticity is measured by the cotjingent of -^-■ 
 
 the angle C AD, in the figure, while the 
 elastic limit is represented by the tension 
 measured by the line A J, and the work 
 required to overcome it bj' the area II A J. 
 
 The metals used for the constniction of ordnance 
 are bronze, cast or wrouglit iron, steel, and numerous 
 alloys of these metals. These are treated under spe- 
 cific headings. The fitness of metals for cannon 
 depends chiefly upon their elasticity. It also depends, 
 if the least possible weight is to l)e combined with the 
 greatest possible preventive against explosive buratiiig, 
 upon the ductility of the metal. Hardness to resist 
 compression and" wear is the other most important 
 quality. Cast-iron has the least ultimate tenacity, 
 elasticity, and ductility; but it is harder than bronze 
 orwrought-iron, and it"is homogeneous. The unequal 
 coolingof solid castings leaves them under initial 
 rupturing strains; but hollow casting and cooling 
 from within remedies this defect and other minor 
 defects. Wrougbt-iron has the advantage of a con- 
 siderable amount of elasticity, a high degree of due 
 tility, and a greater ultimate tenacity than cast-irf)n; 
 but "as large masses must be welded up from small 
 pieces, the want of homogeneity becomes a serious 
 
 defect. Another .serious defect of wrought-iron is its 
 softness and consequent yielding under pressure and 
 friction. 
 
 Low cast -steel has the greatest ultimate t<'nacily and 
 hardness; and, whjit is more important, it has the 
 highest elasticity. It has the great advantage over 
 wrought-iron of homogeneity in mas.ses of any size. 
 It is, unlike the other nietsUs, capable of great varia- 
 tion in density, by the simple i)rocesses of tempering 
 and annealing, and, therefore, of being adapted to the 
 different degrees of elongation to which it is subjected 
 in either solid or built-up guns. 
 
 Bronze has greater ultimate tenacity than cast-iron, 
 but it has little more elasticity and less homogeneity; 
 it has a high degree of ductility, but it is the softest 
 of cannon-metals, and Ls injuriously affected by the 
 heat of high charges. In view of the duty demanded 
 of modern guns, it would seem that simple cast-iron 
 is too weak, although it can be used to advantage in 
 combination with other metals. VVrought-irou in 
 large masses cannot be trusted, and is in all cases too 
 soft. Bronze is impracticably soft, and destnictible 
 by heat. Low steel is, therefore, by reiuson of 
 the as.sociated qualities, which may he called strength 
 and toughness, probably tlie oiily material from 
 which we can hope to maintain resistance to the high 
 pressure demanded in modern warfare. See Bronze, 
 Cast-iron, Iron, Ordnance, Wroiig/it-iron, and !^Uel. 
 
 CANNON-PERER.— An ancient piece of ordnance 
 throwing stone shot. 
 
 CANNON-PRIMERS. — Both friction and electric 
 cjmnon-primers have recently been remodeled and 
 improved. Those made since 1883 differ from those 
 formerly made in ba\-ing the body, branch, and the 
 serrated wire of the friction-primer made from car- 
 tridge copper instead of bra.ss, and in ha\nng the end 
 stopped with a tinfoil cup instead of a wax plug. 
 To perfect and reduce the cost of their falirication, 
 improvements have been made in several details of 
 the process. The platinum - wire "bridge" of the 
 electric primer has been reduced in diameter and 
 to one fourth of its fonner length. New machines 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 anil tools ha\e been designed and constructed for the 
 production of both varieties (>f primers. The more 
 important of the machines and tools are the charging- 
 machine, the foiling -machine, and their auxiliary 
 tools. 
 
 The chargin.g-machine, represented in Fig. 1, is a 
 tin-lined wooden hopper, having two supports across 
 its upper end, serving to hold a nick containing the 
 primers to be charged and the charging-tool. A 
 drawer under it.s lower end receives the overflow of 
 powder from the charging-tool. " Rifle" powder is 
 used to charge the primers, each charge containing 
 about 7 grains by weight. Before charging, both 
 varieties of primers are " primed," the friction-primer, 
 with its .serrated wire, packed in friction c:,nii>ositioii, 
 of which the tersiilphide of antimony (sulphuret) is 
 the bitsis; and the electric primer, with its bridge of 
 platinum wire and copper connecting-wires, a small 
 wisp of gun-cotton being attached to the bridge. For 
 the charging and foiling operations the primers are
 
 CANNON-BOTAL. 
 
 280 
 
 CAHNON SIGHTS. 
 
 assembled iu a niotal rack which has dowels to re- 
 ceive aiiil adjust the charginir-tiK>l over the open ends 
 of the primers. The chargiutt-tool consists of two 
 plates held together, but susi>ci)lible of a slight move- 
 ment of the upper upon the lower one. The upper 
 one has tajx^red holes and the lower one cylindrical 
 holes, correspondinji to the primers iu the rack. The 
 upper one measures the cliarires, and its movement, 
 by meaas of a cam and thumb-nut, ui>on the lower 
 one, opens or closes the lower eml of the tapered 
 charge-holes. The charging-tool, having the charge- 
 holes closed at the lK)ttom by its motion on, the lower 
 plate, is placed upon the rack of primers. A quantity 
 of powder is poured over the charge-holes, tilling 
 them, and the surplus is stroked off with a straight- 
 edge. The upper jjlate is now moved so as to empty 
 the charges, throu.gh the holes in the lower plate, into 
 the primers. A slight .shock or jar settles the powder 
 in the primers, the charging-tool is lifted off, and the 
 rack passed to the foiling-machine. 
 The new foiling-machine, represented in Fig. 2, is a 
 
 Fig. a. 
 
 double-action press, arranged to feed the rack of 
 primers horizontally under a gang of punches and 
 dies. The tinfoil, in the form of a coiled ribbon 
 about 1.25 inch wide and .004 inch thick, is fed in 
 between the punches and dies. These cut and form 
 the tinfoil cup, in the usual way, and the cupping- 
 punch pres.ses it down through the die into the end 
 of the primer, at the same time slightly compressing 
 the charge of powtler. The tinfoil cup is subsequently 
 secured by means of shellac varnish. The cartridge 
 copper is a more durable metal than brass, which is 
 liable to rot and break easily after long storage or 
 exposure to the atmosphere. The tinfoil stopper is 
 more permanent under wide variations of temperature 
 than the wax one. At high temperatures the latter 
 was sometimes softened and forced out by the expan- 
 sion of the air, etc., confined in the primer. The 
 charging-machine insures a full charge of powder in 
 every primer, which was not made certain by the old 
 method of charging them by hand. The foiling- 
 machine effectually closes the charge in the jirimir 
 until it is exT)loded". It is not improbable that many 
 reported failures of both varieties of primers may 
 have Iwen due to an insuflicient charge, if not to its 
 entire ab.sencc; anil that primers fully charged have 
 often lost their powder by the displacement of the 
 wax stopper. These machines and tools not onlv work 
 with certainty', but with a rapidity that effects" a con- 
 siderable sjivmg in the cost of their ])roducts. See 
 Electric Primer and Frictioii-priimr. 
 
 CANNON-ROYAL. — An old grade of service-cannon, 
 8.1 inches iHire and firing a 66-pound .shot. 
 
 "CANNON SIGHTS.— In order that a projectile fired 
 from a gun may strike a required object, it is neces- 
 sary to adjust the line of fire with reference to the 
 horizon and the vertical plane jiassing through the 
 object in such a maimer that the trajectorv will reach 
 it. The axis of the gun is not visible, anil it is neces- 
 sary to resort to notches or sights on the exterior sur- 
 
 face to determine practically the position of the axis. 
 The line of metal is a visual line, joining the notches 
 cut on the highest points of the base-ring and swell of 
 the muzzle. The inclination of the line of mctid to 
 \ the axis of the bore varies in guns of the same class 
 as well as in those of different cla.sses. Aiming, 
 therefore, by the line of metal cannot be relied on for 
 definite ranges; besides that, within those ranges it is 
 apt to mislead by giving too much elevation to the 
 piece. If a gun lie pointed at an object by means of 
 a line of metal, it will be seen, by prolonging that 
 line and the axis of the bore, that the latter will pass 
 over the object. 
 
 A dispart is a piece of metal placed on the top of 
 the gun to give a line of sight parallel to the axis of 
 the bore. Half the difference between the diameters 
 of the gun at the base-ring and swell of the muzzle, 
 or at any intermediate point on the line of metal, will 
 give the i>roper height of the dispart-sight at the 
 point where the least diameter was taken. In the 
 absence of other means of sighting, wooden dispart- 
 sights lashed on the cylinder can l)e used. A narrow 
 groove in the upper surface of the wooden sight, 
 inade to coincide with the [ilane of the line of sight 
 marked on the gun, will assist in getting the true 
 direction. The guns of the Dahlgren pattern are 
 cylindrical for a certain distance forward of the base- 
 line, always giving a line of sight parallel to the axis 
 of the Iwre. Guns are marked on the top of the base- 
 ring, the sight-masses, and swell of the muzzle, by 
 notches, wliich indicate a vertical plane pa.ssing 
 through the axis of the bore at right angles to the 
 axis of the trunnion. In range at level, the bore be- 
 ing horizontal, the dispart-sight is directed at a point 
 above the water-line or point struck equal to its own 
 distance above that line. If the gim is pointed by 
 dispart directly at an object, the projectile will fall 
 short, more or less, depending upon the distance. In 
 pointing by dispart, therefore, it is ncces.s!iry to direct 
 the sight a certain height above the object, to allow 
 for the fall of the projectile during flight; the height 
 to be pointed above must depend ujion the distance of 
 the object. To facilitate the operation of pointing 
 guns according to the distance of the object aimed at, 
 sights are prepared and fitted to each gim, distin- 
 guished as top sights and .side sights. The top or 
 ordinary sights consist of two pieces of bronze gun- 
 metal, one of which, called the front .sight, is a fi.xed 
 point, firmly secured to the sight-mass, upon the 
 upper surface of the gun between the trunnions. The 
 other, or rear sight, is a square bar or stem with a 
 head, in the top of which is a sight-notch. It is set 
 diagonally so as to expose t\\ o faces to the rear ; the 
 rear angle chamfered, to afford a bearing for the 
 clamiJ-screw. This bar or stem is made to slide in a 
 vertical plane, in the sight-box fixed to the breech- 
 sight mass, and is held at the various elevations for 
 which it is graduated by means of a thumb-screw. 
 Its length is suHicieiit for all the elevation which can 
 be given — about .5" — before the muzzle appears above 
 the front sight, after which a long w(x>den sight must 
 be used, graduated for the whole length of the gun, 
 using the notch in the muzzle. The rear sight may 
 be said to be a tangent to an arc the radius of which 
 is the distance from the outer point of the front sight 
 to the fore part of the rear sight, and the divisions 
 are calculated accordingly ; this distance is called the 
 short radius. The rear sight is marked on the two 
 rear faces for every hundred yards ; on one face for 
 the shell and its proper charge, and on the other for 
 shot. The wooden rear siglxt may be said to be a 
 tangent to an arc of which the radius is the distance 
 from the notch on the swell of the muzzle to the 
 front of the rear sight ; this distance is called the long 
 radius. The rear sight is .set at an angle of 60 , so 
 that it may slide up and down w illiout touching the 
 breech of the piece. Every gun is furnished with 
 two sight-bars, a long wooden and a .short bra.ss one ; 
 the longer is used for ranges over 1700 yards; for 
 all ranges less than this, which is the extreme dis-
 
 CANONNIEEE. 
 
 281 
 
 CANTEEH. 
 
 tance at which accurate practice may be expected at 
 sea, the short bar is used. Pivot-jruiis are fitted with 
 side-sights placed on tlie side of the breecli, and on 
 the trunnion or riinbasi'. The advantage of tliis 
 arrangement is that the siglits can be used at any ele- 
 vation ; for, being placed at the side of the gun, the 
 muzzle of the piece does not interfere with the line of 
 sight when pointing. The sights of all howitzers are 
 fitted in this way ; the front sight is a notch in a 
 small mass cast on the muzzle ; the rear .sight is a 
 bronze cylinder pointed at the top and marked for 
 seconds to correspond with the Bormann fuse. The 
 rear sight slides in a small mass cast on the breech, 
 and is held by a thumb-screw. Sights for Parrot M. 
 L. R. guns consist of a fixed sight upon the rirabase, 
 and a movable sight in a socket which is screwed 
 into the breech of the gun. The movable sight is 
 furnished with a sliding eye-piece, and is graduated 
 up to 10 . The eye-piece is also jcapable of lateral 
 adjustment to allow for the drift as far as 10', and 
 for the effect of the wind. It is desirable that the 
 sights should be placed on both sides of the breech ; 
 otherwise, in tiring from a port at extreme train, 
 there may be considerable loss of lateral aim. The 
 8-ineh M. L. rifle is furnished with the usual top 
 sights, and has also side sights, the rear one being 
 set at a permanent angle of i 47'. The rear sight is 
 a rectangular bar with a square shoulder slotted for a 
 movable eye-piece to allow for deviations due to the 
 force of the wind, etc. It is marked on the rear side 
 for charge, kind of powder and shell ; on the left 
 side, range in yards, time of flight in seconds, 
 charge, kind of powder and shell, and initial velocity ; 
 the siime on the right side for a different charge, and 
 in front for degrees of elevation. The front .sight is 
 screwed into the rimhase and is pierced with two 
 holes connected by a slit. 
 
 The adjustment of ciinnonsights requires the most 
 careful attention. The bore ha\'ing been thoroughly 
 cleansed, its axis is leveled by inserting a small steel 
 T-square in the bottom of bore at the muzzle. The 
 square itself is first leveled by placing an ordinary 
 level on the transverse branch. When the T-.square 
 is leveled, the level is then placed on the longitudinal 
 branch of the T-square lengthwise with the bore of 
 ^un, and the axis of gun is then leveled bj' .striking 
 the chocks preWously placed on each side under chase 
 of gun, which of course either raise or lower the 
 muzzle. When the gun has been leveled as to axis 
 of bore, it is to be leveled as to axis of trunnions. 
 To level as to axis of trunnions: First, scrape off the 
 paint on top of each trunnion, then place the trun- 
 nion-square as seen in the drawing, and put the spirit- 
 
 level on it as at S. Adjust the piece by means of the 
 chocks under the trtinnions until they are horizontal. 
 This leveling the gun by axis of trunnions may throw 
 the axis of the gvm out of level, in which ease return 
 to that, and then to the oilier, approximating closer 
 and closer each time until the gim is leveled. If the 
 gim be lying on wooden skids, the leveling must be 
 verified from time to time, as the great weight will 
 cause it to sink trifle by trifle, thus throwing the level 
 out. The distance that the sights should 1h> apart is 
 furnished by authority. With a straight-edge mark 
 off this distance, anddrill « hole for tlie front sight. 
 Then counter-liore the front .sight. As soon as it is 
 screwed in, lay one end of the straight-edge on it, and 
 its other end on the notch of rear sight. Place a level 
 on the straight-edge. Now the level will generally be 
 
 foimd to be sli.ghtly out, and it can be brotight to a 
 level by either screwing the front .sight up or down as 
 occasion requires, or by cutting do\vn the notch of the 
 rear sight if it should want to \k- lowered at that end. 
 For side sights, the rear bar is gt'nendly supplied 
 with the proper firing-distances markeil onit. \Vlien- 
 ever a sight-bar is received already marked with 
 ranges, the level should never Ix; remedied by cutting 
 away the shoulder of the bar. as the edge of the'shoulder 
 is the initial point from which the bar is marked. If, 
 however, the sight-bar is markefl after it is fitted to 
 the gun, tlie shoulder can be thinned down. The 
 leveling-bar is not used in side-sighting a gun. The 
 straight-edge is now applied as before, resting on 
 from sight and notch of rear sight-bar, and verified as 
 to the level of that plane. If the spirit-level remains 
 at level, the gun is properly sighted as to the level of 
 sights. See Pinntiug. 
 
 CANONNIEEE.— 1. A name formerly given to a 
 tent which servwl to shelter four cjinonniers, but 
 later the term was applied to all infantrj- tents which 
 contained seven or eight men. 2. An appellation 
 formerly given to a gun-proof tower; ii also desig- 
 nated an opening in the walls of cities, forts, etc., 
 through which the defenders of the.se places could tire 
 on an cneniv without being ex-posed. 
 
 CANONNIEES GAEDES-'COTES.— Guards instituted 
 in 1703 by Louis XIV. of France for the ser\ice of 
 coast-batteiies. They are similar to the Artillery 
 Coast Brigade in the British service. 
 
 CANTABEI. — A rude race of mountaineers in an- 
 cient Spain, of Iberian origin, and who live<l in the 
 district now known as Burgos, and on the coasts of 
 the Bay of Biscay, which derived from them its name, 
 OrKinus Cantiib'iieiis. The most im])ortant of their 
 nine towns were Juliobrica (nejtr the source of the 
 Ebro), Velliea, and Concana. The Cantabri are de- 
 .scribed as like the Scythians and Thracians in hardi- 
 hood and martial character, sleeping on the bare 
 earth, enduring extreme pain without a nmrmur, 
 and. like most savages, leaving agricidtural toil to 
 their women. Their bravery was evinced in the Can- 
 tabrian war, a six years' contest with the Romans, 
 begun under Augustus, and concluded by Agrippa, 
 25^19 B.C. Tiberius afterwards stationed garrisons 
 in the towns of the conquered Cantabri; but some 
 portion retreated into their fastnesses among the 
 mountains, where they preserved their independence. 
 Thev are supposed to "be the ancestors of the Basques. 
 
 CANTABEUM.— A large banner used during the time 
 of till' Homan emperors, and tmmc on fi-slive occasions, 
 i CANTEEN.— 1. A vessel used by soldiers to con- 
 tain whatever beverage may be ob- 
 : tainable on the march or in the 
 I field. It is sometimes of tin, some- 
 times of wood. In the British 
 armv, the canteen is a wooden ves- 
 sel. " holding about three pints, 
 painted blue, and inscrit>ed with 
 the muntx>r or designation of the 
 regiment, battalion, and company 
 to which the soldier Ixdongs. 
 
 2. A leathern or wooden chest, 
 dixided into compartments, and 
 containing the plate and table- 
 equipage for a military officer when 
 on active ser%ice. 
 
 3. In the French ban-acks, the 
 canteen is a sort of club-room for 
 the whole regiment. The Canti- 
 neer is a non-commissioned officer, 
 who acts merely as an agent for all, 
 selling the liquors and commodi- 
 ties at prime cost. 
 
 4. In the British service, a re- 
 freshment-house in a barrack, for 
 the use of the soldiers. The chief 
 
 ' articles of food are supplied to the 
 troops direct bv the government; 
 but wine, malt liquor, and small grocer)- wares the
 
 CANT-HOOK. 
 
 282 
 
 CANTAS-BOAT. 
 
 wildier is left to bviy for himself; and the Canteen is, 
 or is intended to be. n shop where he can make these 
 purchases economically without the necessity of 
 ttoing beyond the precincts of the barrack. No sol- 
 liier is obliged to buy anything at the Canteen: he 
 may lay out his small sums elsewhere if he prefer. 
 Formerly the Canteens were luider civilians called 
 Canteen-tenants, and spirits were sold. Between 
 the years 1836 and 1845 it was found that among 
 Hi Canteens in the United Kingdom the rent and 
 head-money paid variitl from £4 per annum (one at 
 Guernsey) to £1344 i>er annum (one at Woolwich): 
 they brought in collectively to the government about 
 £70,000 annually. Great ihto.xication ha\ing resulted 
 from the sale of spirits at the Canteens, the \\ ar Office 
 prohibited such siile in 1847: as a consequence, the 
 rents had to be lowered to the e.\tent of £20,000 in 
 the following year, the Cantineers finding their 
 profits much reduced. The rent paid was found to 
 ix- injurious to the soldieiN, who were charged higher 
 prices within the barrack than without, and who 
 were thence driven to places where dangerous temj)- 
 tations are at hand. The result of this system being 
 undeniably bad and demoralizing, the War Office 
 now makes the Canteen a regimental establishment, 
 controlled by a Committee of Officers and with a Can- 
 teensergeant as salesman. Pensioned non-commis- 
 sioned officers may be appointed Canteen-sergeants. 
 The profits are applied for the benetit of the men of 
 the corps. See Pu^t-trmkr and tSutli r. 
 
 CANT-HOOK.— A lever and suspended hook adapt- 
 ed for turning or canting timber iu the yai'd, on the 
 
 Cant-hook. 
 
 skids, or on the mill-carriage. The term is also ap- 
 plied to a sling with books for raising and tilting 
 casks to empty them. 
 
 CANTINIERE.— Women who are authorized to 
 establish themselves in the barracks or follow the 
 troops in time of war, selling them liquors and pro- 
 visions. The aiiilinures, whether attached to regi- 
 ments or barracks, are selected from the wives of 
 non-commissioned officers or privates, and wear a 
 uniform. See Virtindure. 
 
 CANTLE. — The hind-bow or protuberance of a sad- 
 dle. Sometimes written CanM. See SuddU. 
 
 CANTON. — In Heraldry, the canton occupies a 
 corner of tlie shield, either dexter or sinister, and iu 
 size is the third of the chief. It is one of the nine 
 honorable ordinaries, " and of great esteem." 
 
 CANTONMENTS.— When, aft'cr long fatigues, some 
 repose must bi' given to an army, it must be dispersed 
 over a sullicieut extent for subsistence. This disposi- 
 tion of the troops is termed cuntoning, and the 
 camps occupied, enntunmenU. This state supjioses 
 that the enemy will not for some time be in a condi- 
 tion to attack." Still, even this assurance should not 
 induce any relaxation of ]iroper military precautions 
 to prevent a surprise, and to permit a concentration 
 on some suitable i)oint either for olfensive or dcfcn- 
 .sivc movements. The dispositions to be made for 
 this purpo.se resemble, in their principal features, 
 those for one of advanced-posts. Advanced points 
 are held by some of the troops where there is no 
 rela.xation of discipline allowed; other points, in their 
 rear, are occuiiicd as su))ports to the first; and all are 
 connected with some main central position where the 
 armj' is to be concentrated in ca.se of need. The 
 communications to the rear, at least of all these de- 
 tached portions, should be kipt in good travelins 
 order, and no obstruction to the free inovement.s of 
 the troops be even for an hour allowed to exist. 
 When cantonments are taken up in winter they are 
 termed winter qiiarUra. They dilTer from the pre- 
 ceding only in being often of greater extent; and 
 
 therefore, from their weakness, requiring all the 
 additional means of defense at hand. 
 
 As cantonments are taken up either during seasons 
 when operations cannot be well canied on, or to give 
 the troops some extraordinary rejwse after a harass- 
 ing campaign, more advanced-posts will generally be 
 necessjiry than under ordinary circumstances; and to 
 fulfill their end they ought to be placed on ground 
 favorable to a strong resistance, in order to give the 
 separated corps time to concentrate against an earnest 
 attack of the enemy. A good disposition of stations 
 for outposts, from which the enemy can be seen at 
 a distance; a line of supports placed on strong ground 
 in the rear; ea.sy comnmnications for concentration 
 on the main body; active and vigilant l)atroIs, kept 
 mo\ing not only along the front, but penetrating on 
 the Hanks and "rear of the enemy, to get wind of his 
 strategical plans: such are the general precautions 
 demanded of it.s advanced-posts by an army in 
 station for some time. In the disposition of the main 
 force, to concur with the precetling, one precaution 
 should not be omitted in a stay of any duration; and 
 that is, not to allow any one body to remain long 
 enough in a village, or inhabited place, to become in 
 a degree domesticated. Nothing is more likely than 
 this to injure the vtorale of the Ix'st trooi>s. The 
 seductions of otherwise harndess pleasures may lead 
 to fatal habits of remissness in duty. 
 
 In India, cantonments are permanent places, regular 
 military towns, distinct anil at some little distances 
 from the principal cities. If on a large scale, such a 
 cantonment contains baiTacks for European cavalrj', 
 infantry, and artillerj'; rows of bungalows or houses, 
 each inclosed in a garden, for the officers; rows of 
 huts for the native soldiery; magazines and parade- 
 grounds; public offices and buildings of vaiious 
 kinds; and a bazaar for the accommodation of the 
 native troops. During the revolt in 1857-58 most of 
 the outbreaks began in the cantonments. It was in 
 the cantonment outside Cawnpore that Nana Sahib 
 commenced his treachery. See Camp, Fkld-aercke, 
 and Winter Quarters. 
 
 CANTONNEE.— When, in Heraldry, a cross is 
 placed between four other objects, as, for example, 
 scallop-shells, it is said to be cantonnee. See Utraldry. 
 
 CANTONS PHOSPHOKUS.—^V combustible obtained 
 by heating in a close ves.sel 3 parts oyster-shells and 1* 
 part sublimed .sulphur, when the sulphuret of calcium 
 (CaS) is formed, which takes fire when exposed to 
 or thrown into the air. Frequently spoken of as pyru- 
 pharus. 
 
 CANVAS. — A material made from hemp, and much 
 u.sed for artillery purposes, such as the covering of 
 the seats of gun-carriages, caps for sponge-heads, 
 soldiers' bags, aprons for the vents of guns, and pau- 
 lins for covering stores ; it is also used iu the manu- 
 facture of tents. The canvas in use in arsenals in 
 India is of two kinds — English and that manufactured 
 in the country. The canvas made in India is used 
 for all puqioses where rough material would be 
 required, such as ariillery- practice curtains, sand-bags, 
 bags for charcoal, etc. The chief places of mann- 
 facturc of Indian canvas arc in Bengal, and at Cud- 
 dalore and Travancore, in the JIadras Presidency. 
 Being " imder canvas " means being in camp or in 
 the field. 
 
 CANVAS-BOAT. — A boat has been invented by 
 Colonel H. C. Buchanan, of the United States Army, 
 which has been u.sed in several expeditions in Oregon 
 and in Wa.sliington Territory, and has been highly 
 commended by several experienced officers, who have 
 had the opportunity of giving its merits a practical 
 service-test. Itconsistsof an exceedingly light frame- 
 work of thin and narrow boards, in lengths suitable 
 for packing, connected by hinges, the different sec- 
 tions folding into so small a compass as to be con- 
 veniently carried upon nudes. The frame is covered 
 with a sheet of stout cotton canvas, or duck, secured 
 to the g\mwales with a cord running diagonally back 
 and forth through eyelet-holes in the upper edge.
 
 CANVAS CAPS. 
 
 283 
 
 CAPITULATIOK. 
 
 When first placed in the water the boat leaks a little, 
 hut the canvas soon swells so as to makeit suflRcicntly 
 tight for all practical purposes. The great advantage 
 to be derived from the use of this boat is that it is so 
 compact and portable as to be admiral)ly adapted to 
 the requirements of campaigning in a coimtrv where 
 the streams are liable to rise alxive a fording stage, 
 and where the allowance of tnuisportation is small. 
 It may be put together or taken apart and packed in 
 a very few minutes, and one mule suffices to trans- 
 port a boat with all its appurtenances, capable of sus- 
 taining ten men. Should the canvas become torn, it 
 is easily repaired by putting on a patch, and it docs 
 not rot or crack like india-rubber or gutta-percha ; 
 moreover, it is not affected by changes of climate or 
 temperature. See Blanket-boats. 
 
 CANVAS CAPS.— Caps used, after having been 
 water-proofed, for covering the mouths of mortars, 
 and for covering sponge-staves. 
 
 CAP.— 1. A cover for the head, with or without a 
 visor, but without a brim ; worn generally by the 
 militarj-. 2. A sheet of lead laid over the "vent of a 
 cannon. 3. A copper capsule containing a fulminate, 
 and placed upon the nipple to explode the charge on 
 the fall of the hammer. 
 
 CAP-A-PIE.— This term was applied in the Middle 
 Ages to a knight or soldier armed at all points, or 
 from head to foot, as the words imply, with armor 
 for defense, and with arms for offense. 
 
 CAPABISON.— The bridle, saddle, and trappings 
 complete of a horse for militarj" scr\-ice. Caparisoimd, 
 in Heraldry, is said of a waf-horse completely fur- 
 nished for the "field. 
 
 CAF-COBD. — A gilt cord worn on the forage-cap 
 as an ornament. The drawing represents the new 
 
 or offer any violence to his Superior Officer, being in 
 the execution of his office, or shall disoljey any law- 
 ful command of his Supeiior Officer; or" (U)" who, 
 being confined in a miliUirj- prison, shall offer any 
 violence against a visitor or his Superior 3Iilitary 
 Officer, being in the execution of his otfice. 
 
 By Article 20 it is declared that no judgment of 
 death by a Court-Martial shall pa.ss, unless two thirds 
 at least of the officers i)resent sliall concur therein; 
 and by Article 21 it is provided that judgment of 
 death may be commutc'd for penal servitude for any 
 term not less than four years, or for imi>ri.H)i)ment for 
 such term as shall seem meet. It would apjiear that 
 the employment of a soldier in the service subsequent 
 to his arrest on a capital charge mav operate as a re- 
 mission of the sentence of death. 'I'his is illustrated 
 by the following case, mentioned by Mr. Prendergast 
 in his Lair Selatinr/ to Officers in the Army. In 1811 
 Private John 'Wcblin of the 3d Buffs was sentenced 
 to be shot. The Commander-in-Chief, the Duke of 
 Wellington, in his '■ remarks" upon the proceedings, 
 took notice that, through some extraordinary inat- 
 tention, the prisoner had actually been permitted to 
 serve in an engagement with the enemy after he had 
 been put into arrest for his crime. On this ground 
 the Duke pronounced that he was under the ntctmty 
 of pardoning the prisoner. In the armv, capital 
 punishment is inflicted by the offender being either 
 shot or hanged — the latter being the more disgrace- 
 ful mode of execution. 
 
 Under the laws of the United States, capital pun- 
 ishment may be inflicted for treason, murder, arson, 
 rape, piracy, robbery of the mails with jeopardy to 
 the lives of persons in charge, rescue of a convict 
 going to execution, burning a vessel of war, imd cor- 
 
 Cap-cord. 
 
 pattern cap-cord recently adopted in the United 
 States army. A similar cap-cord is worn by United 
 Stiites Naval Officers. 
 
 CAPELINE.— A helmet without a visor, nearly in 
 the form of a round head. It was formerly much 
 worn by the infantry. 
 
 CAPITAL.— In fortification, a capital is an imagi- 
 iiarr line dividing a defense-work into two similar 
 and" equal parts. " The capital of a bastion is a right 
 line drawn from the point or salient angle to the mid- 
 dle of the gorge or entrance in the rear. The capital 
 of a ravelin is a right line drawn from the re-entering 
 angle of the counterscarp to the salient angle of the 
 ravelin. See fnld-forlifcalion. 
 
 - CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.— The law on this sub- 
 ject in England is contained in the 19th of the 
 Articles of War now in force, which prescribes death 
 as the punishment of the following offenses, or such 
 other punishment as bv a Court-JIartial shall be 
 awarded: (1) Any officer or soldier who shiill excite 
 or join in anv mutinv or sedition in any forces be- 
 longing to Her Majesty's Army, or Royal Marines, or 
 who shall not use his utmost endeavors to suppress it, 
 and knowing of it, shall not give immediate infor- 
 mation of it to his Commanding Officer; or (2) who 
 shall hold correspondence witl^, or give advice or in- 
 telligence to, anv rebel or enemy of Her Majesty; or 
 (3) who shall tre'at with any rebel or enemy without 
 Her >Iajesty's license, or license of the Chief Com- 
 mander; or" (4) shall misbehave himself Ix-fore the 
 enemv; or (.5) shall shamefully abandon or deliver 
 up any garrison, fortress, post, or guard committed 
 to his" charge; or (6) shall compel the Governor 
 or Commanding Officer to deliver up or aban- 
 don such place; or (T) shall induce others to mis- 
 behave before the enemv, or abandon or deliver up 
 their posts; or (8) shall "desert Her Majesty's ser\nce; 
 or (9) shall leave his post before being regulariy re- 
 lieved, or shall sleep on his post; or (10) shall strike 
 
 ruptly destroying a private vessel. Until within a 
 few years capital punishment was the rule for the 
 highest crimes in all the States, but it was abolished 
 in'Wisconsin and in Maine in 1874, and had been 
 about that time abolished in Iowa; but in the latter 
 State it was restored in 1878, the argument showing 
 from the record that duruig its abolition crimes of 
 violence had largely increased. Under the present 
 law a year must intervene between the sentence and 
 execution, and the term may be further extende<l by 
 reprieve. There is much d"ifference of opinion as to 
 the effect of the abolition of the death-penalty, and 
 perhaps no settled conclusion can be reached. The 
 effect of its abolition has not thus far supplied any 
 veiT strong reasons for the stand of those who would 
 abo"lish it altogether. Perhaps the mo.st notable 
 suspension of this punishment in all history was 
 during the War of the Rebellion in the United States, 
 when, in the face of the most powerful, open, and 
 dangerous treason, not one person was deliberately 
 executed for that crime, the extreme jx^nalty visited 
 even upon the captured leader of the Rebellion. being 
 the loss of the political (but not the personal) rights 
 of a citizen. 
 
 CAPITULATION.— A treaty consisting of several 
 specified conditions. In the militarj- sense of the 
 word, a capitulation is a trcatj- of stirrender to an 
 enemv. When a place can no" longer he defended, 
 on account of failure of ammunition or provisions, 
 or the progress made by the besieging party, a white 
 flag is commonlv put up, as a sign that the bwieged 
 are willing to ca"pitulate. According lo the kind and 
 degree of peril in which the fortress is placed, so are 
 the terms which the Governor may rea.souiib!v expect 
 
 ! from his successful opixjnent. Sometimes the anna 
 and militarv stores are left to the hesicgwl, but more 
 frequeullv "thev are taken by the besiegers, except 
 articles of private property belonging to the officers 
 
 ' and men. The " honors of war, " the marching out
 
 CAP OF MAINTENANCE. 
 
 284 
 
 CAPSTAN. 
 
 with drums beating anil colors flying, are asually 
 stipulated for. unless the conqueror exacts very 
 severe terms. The mildest form of a capitulation is 
 a Coiirention. agreed to when the conqueror is not 
 strong enough to insist on stringent conditions. See 
 Aniii/iliiY. 
 
 CAP OF MAINTENANCE.— A cap of crimson vel- 
 vet lined with ermine, with two points turned to the 
 back, originally oidy worn by Dukes, but afterwards 
 assignetl to various families of distinction. Those 
 families who are entilletl to a cap of maintenance 
 phice their crests on it instead of on a wreath. 
 Aeconling to Sir John Fearne, the wearing of tlie 
 cap hail a beginning from the Duke or General of an 
 army, who. having gotten victorj-, caused the chiefest 
 of lie subdued enemies whom lie led to follow him 
 in his triumph, bearing his hat or cap after him in 
 token of subjection and captirity. Most of the 
 reigning Dukes of Germany, and various families 
 belonging to the peerage both of England and of 
 Scotland, bear their crests on a cap of maintenance. 
 Sometimes called riiji cf diqnitt/. 
 
 CAPONIEKES— CAPONNIEEES.— The surest de- 
 fense for a ditch is a good flanking arrangement of 
 the work itself; but as this is in many cases im- 
 practicable, owing either to the relief or to the plan, 
 flank defenses must be procured by a construction 
 made in the ditch. Several methods may be re- 
 sorted to for this purpose, termed caponiereti, seurp, 
 and counterscarp gulleries. 
 
 The caponiere is a work made across the ditch, 
 and may be either single or double. A single capo 
 nicre is nothing more than a defensive stockade, or 
 palisading, made at the extremity of a ditch, as in 
 
 Caponiere for Ditch Defense. 
 
 the case of a redan. It wUI obviously be of no ser- 
 ■vice, unless the enemy is forced to attack it in front. 
 A double caponiere is arranged to Are in two direc- 
 tions, and is usually placed at the middle of the ditch 
 which it is to protect. It is made in all respects like 
 a block-house with upright sides; its width may be 
 only eight feet, and its height the same. The bottom 
 of the caponiere may be on the same level as the 
 ditch, or below it; in" the latter case, the loop-holes 
 should not be more than eighteen inches above the 
 level of the ditch, to prevent the enemv from using 
 them against the assailed within. In the former, a 
 small ditch should l)e made round the caponiere, 
 and the earth from the ditch be thrown again.st its 
 sides. The plan of lh(- caponiere should be arranged 
 to admit of being flanked by a defensive stockade, 
 placed at the foot of the scarp; for this purpose the 
 end next to the counterscarp shf)uld l)e in the form 
 of a salient flanked by the stockade. To prevent the 
 enemy from jumping on the caponiere from the crest 
 of the counterscari), a space of at least twelve feet 
 should Ix- left between the two. Moreover, the top 
 of the cai)oniere should be covered from the enemy's 
 artillery, either by the counlerscarj) crest or liy" a 
 glacis. The comiiiunication to the caponiere from 
 the work may be by a timber gallery under the 
 parapet, formed of frames and a sheeting similar to 
 the construction used for a powder-magazine. 
 
 CAPOTE. — A hea\-j- coat wi'.h a hood, worn by sol- 
 diers, sjiilors, anil others when on dutv. 
 
 CAP-SQUARE.— In artillery, that part of the iron- 
 work of a eun-carriage which folds or laps over the 
 exterior portion of the trunnions of a piece of ord- 
 nance, when it is laid in its Ijed or carriage. The 
 cap-squiire is secured by a key or some other stronger 
 contrivance. This fa.stening prevents the gun from 
 jumping out of its trunnion-lx'd. 
 
 CAPSTAN. — A hoisting or hauling machine, con- 
 sisting of a drum set veriically and revolvi-d by hand- 
 spikes. The capstan dilfers from the windlass in 
 having an upright axle, the bars being placed in the 
 sockets of the (Irum-head and revolving horizontally 
 as the men walk around, pushing the bars before 
 them and winding the cable on the whelps. Tlie 
 capstan has many advantages, among which maj' be 
 enumerated — compactness; facility for allowing a 
 large number of men to work at it simultaneously; 
 continuity of its work, as the bars do not require to 
 be unshipped after making a quarter of a revolution. 
 Frequently, when moving artillery, it Incomes nece.s- 
 sar)' to improvise a capstan with a limber. To do so, 
 dismount a siege-limber; place a half-block under the 
 pintle and each axle-arm, close to the shoulder. Drive 
 a stout stake in rear of each axle-arm agjiinst the half- 
 blocks. The pole is turned from the weight, its axis 
 in the direction of it. Lay the wheel on the pintle, 
 outside down, and secure four handspikes to the 
 spokes and felloes, dividing the circumference into 
 four equal parts. Take a round turn with the fall 
 around the lower part of the nave, the free end com- 
 ing off below. The man who holds on to the fall 
 sits on the end of the pole. Keep the fall as high as 
 the nave and clear of the groimd. The power is 
 multiplied fifteen times. 
 
 The drawing represents the capstan as employed 
 
 an. 
 
 'sZ^ 
 
 Capstan,— U. S. Service Model. 
 in the United States service. It is held in position 
 by stout chains attached to holdfasts. The rope is 
 pa.ssed two or three times around the barrel of the 
 capstan, the free end coming off abnrc the turns; the 
 standing part is attached to the weight to be moved. 
 The rope is drawn taut by hand, the bars inserted 
 into the mortises, and the free end of the rope held 
 and taken in by two men seated on the ground. 
 Twelve men— three at each bar — are all that can l)e 
 advantiigeously employed. When additional power 
 is required, the bars are s%Wfted: that is, the ends of 
 the bars are lashetl together with ropes, by which ad- 
 ditional men arc enabled to take hold. 
 
 To use the gin as a capstan, put it together on the 
 ground in the usual manner; place the feet of the legs 
 toward the weight, and secure them well with stakes 
 against the cross-bars, feet, and head of the gin; rig 
 the fall as usual, and attach the luwk of the lower 
 block to a rope of suitable .strength rumiing to the 
 weight to be moved; the windlass is worked in the 
 same manner as when the gin is standing. Or the 
 gin, with its pry -pole in the direction of the weight 
 to be moved, may Ix- raised almost to its usual jxjsi- 
 tion for hoisting. A block is hooked to the clevis, 
 and through it the rope is passed from the weight to
 
 CAPSULES. 
 
 285 
 
 CAPTURED PKOPEBTY. 
 
 the windlass; the latter is worked as usual. See Me- 
 elinnkitl Maneiicers. 
 
 CAPSULES. — Copper caps for percussion-locks. Not 
 used at present. 
 
 CAPTAIN. — This is perhaps the most general 
 desicnatiou given to an officer of land forces; some- 
 thiiij; equivalent to it being found in most European 
 languages. As a word, it simply means a /lead or 
 Ifuder, and mav he applial to a Chief over any num- 
 ber of men. Captain-general is in some countries a 
 very high command. In the time of Queen Eliza- 
 beth there was, among other high military officers, a 
 C'aptain-gencRil of footmen. In the orgiuiization of 
 the British armj' at the present day, there is one Cajv 
 tain to every onnpany of infantry, and everj' troi>p of 
 cavalry. Formerly every batterj' of artillerj- had two 
 Captains — a first and a second, the latter being called 
 Captain-lieutenant. Now, the first in command has 
 the title of Major, and the second that of Captain. 
 The first in command of a battery of arlillerv, even 
 when styled Captain, was considered higher "llian a 
 Captain of infantry or cavalry, and was privileged to 
 l)e mentioned by name in military dispatches like 
 Colonels and Majors. The duly of the Captain is to 
 see to the men of his company in everything that re- 
 lates to discipline, exercises, billeting, pay, settlement 
 of accoimts, mess, kit, clothing, arms, ammunition, 
 aceoutenuents, stores, barracks, cooking, etc. ; to re- 
 ceive orders concerning the.se matters from the Major, 
 and to enforce these orders among the men. He is 
 responsible to the Major, and is a.ssisted in his duties 
 by the Lieutenant and Sub-lieutenant. The number 
 of Captains on the peace establishment of the British 
 army, in its several branches, are about 239 Cavalry, 
 1236 Infantry, 248 Artillery, 11.^ for Engineers, and 
 28 for Colonial Corps — 1866 in all, in full commission. 
 In the United States army, a Captain is responsible 
 for the camp and garrison equipage and the arms imd 
 clothing of his company. The rank is between Lieu- 
 tenant and Major. 
 
 CAPTAIN-GENERAL.— The appellation of a Com- 
 mander inChicf till .Marlborough's time, if not later. 
 The rank is sometimes still given on extraordinary 
 occasions. It was borne by the Marquis of Welleslej' 
 during his government in India, and is aiiplied to the 
 Governor-general of the Canadas. In the United 
 States, the Governor of a State is Captain-general of 
 tlie militia. 
 
 CAPTAIN-LIEUTENANT.— A rank formerly held 
 in the English army. This position carried the rank 
 of Captain in the Army, similar to what the rank of 
 Lieutenant and Captain does in the Foot-guards at 
 the present day. A Captain-lieutenant did Subal- 
 tern s duty in his company, and covdd hold the post 
 of Adjutant. He was also the Subaltern who com- 
 manded the " Colonel's Company" in each regiment 
 of infantrv. 
 
 CAPTAINRY.— The power or command over a cer- 
 tain district; Chieftainship; Captainship. 
 
 CAPTAINSHIP.— The condition, rank, post, or au- 
 thority of a Cai)tain or Chief Commander. The term 
 also signifies skill in military affairs; as, to show good 
 captainship. 
 
 CAPTIVES.— It is laid down by Blackstone that, 
 as in the goods of an enemy, so also in his jjerson, a 
 man mayacquirc a sort of "qualified properly in him 
 as a captive, or prisoner of war — at least till the ran- 
 .som of the Citptive is p.iid. In Scotland all leg-al 
 proceedings ag-ainst aeaptive are stopped till his lilx'ra- 
 tion, although in some cases execution against his 
 estate mav iirocced. 
 
 CAPTIVITY.— The state of being a prisoner, or of 
 being in the power of the enemy, by force of the fate 
 of war. 
 
 CAPTURE. — Prize taken in time of war. The law 
 on this subject is stated with precision in a paper ad- 
 dres,sed on behalf of the British Government to the 
 American And)it.ssador at London in September, 
 1794: " When two powers arc at war, they have a 
 right to make prizes of the ships, goods, and effects 
 
 I of each other, upon the high sc;is. 'Whatever is the 
 j property of the enemy may be acquire<l bv capture 
 I at sea; but the property of a friend cannot be taken, 
 provided he observes his neutrality. Hence llie Law 
 of Nations has established that the gixxls of an ene- 
 my on board the ship of a friend may be taken, tliat 
 the lawful goods of a friend on board the ship of an 
 enemy ought to be restored; that contraband goods 
 going to the enemy, though the properly of a friend, 
 may be taken as prize: becau.se supplying the enemy 
 with what enables him better to carry on the war is a 
 departure from neutrality." 
 
 During the Russian war in 1854 there appeared in 
 the iMiidon GcneUi, under date the 28lh Marcli of 
 that year, a declaration stating, iuler alia, that Her 
 Majesty would waive the right of seizing enemy's 
 property laden on hoard a neutral vessel, unless it "be 
 contraband of war, and that it was not Her Majesty's 
 intention to issue letters of marque for the comm"is- 
 sioning of privateers. The right of seizing enemy's 
 property on board a neutral ves.sel, whether contra- 
 band of war or not, had always before been main- 
 tained by England. On the re-establishment of peace 
 with Russia, a treaty was signed, and the following 
 declarations adopted: 1. Privateering is and remains 
 abolished; 2. A neutral flag covers an enemy's goods, 
 with the exception of contraband of war; 3". >«eulral 
 goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are 
 not liable to capture under an enemy's flag; 4. Block- 
 ades, in order to be binding, nmst be elTeclual — that 
 is to say, maintained by force sufficient to prevent 
 effectually access to the coast of the enemy. See 
 Booty and Prize. 
 
 CAPTURED PROPERTY.— A victorious army ap- 
 propriates all inililic money, seizes all i)ublic mova- 
 ble property until further direction by its govern- 
 ment, and sequesters for its own benefit or that of 
 its government all the revenues of real jtroperty be- 
 longing to the hostile government or nation. The 
 title to such real property remains in abeyance dur- 
 ing military occupation, and imtil the conquest is 
 made complete. A victorious army, by the martial 
 power inherent in the same, may suspend, change, or 
 abolish, as far as the martial power extends, the re- 
 lations which arise from the .«cr\'ices due, according 
 to the existing laws of the invaded country, from 
 one citizen, subject, or native of the same to another. 
 The commander of the army must leave it to the 
 ultimate treaty of peace to settle the pennanency of 
 this change. It is no longer considere<l lawful — on 
 the contrarj-, it is held to be a serious breach of the 
 law of war — to force the subjects of the enemy into 
 the service of the victorious government, except the 
 latter should proclaim, after a fair and comjilcte con- 
 quest of the hostile coimtry or district, that it is re- 
 solved to keep the country, district, or place permanent- 
 ly as its own and make it a portion of its own country. 
 As a general rule, the property belonging to 
 churches, to hospitals or other establishments of an 
 exclusively charitable character, to establishments of 
 education, or foundations for the promotion of knowl- 
 edge, whether public schools, universities, academies 
 of learning or observatories, museimis of the fine 
 arts or of a scientific character, may be taxed or 
 u.sed when the public ser\-ice may reciuire it. Clas- 
 sical works of art, libraries, scientific collections, or 
 precious instruments, such as astronomical telescopes, 
 as well as hospitals, must be secured against all 
 avoidable injury, even when they are containeil in 
 fortified places whilst besieged or bombarded. If 
 such works of art, libraries, collections, or instru- 
 ments belonging to a hostile nation or government 
 can be removed without injur}-, the ndcr of the con- 
 quering State or Nation may order them to be seized 
 and removed for the benefit of the s)ii<l N;ition. The 
 ultimate ownership is to be settled by the ensuing 
 treaty of peace. In no case shall they be .«old or 
 given away, if captured by the armies of the United 
 States, nor shaU they ever" be privately appropriated, 
 or wantonly destroyed or injured.
 
 CAFUCHIK. 
 
 286 
 
 CABATAir. 
 
 The United States acknowlediie and protict, in 
 hostile countries occupied l)y them, relijrion and 
 morality; strictly private property; the persons of the 
 inhabitants, especially those of women; and the sa- 
 <5redness of domesticrclations. t)ffenscs to the con- 
 trary shall be ri!;orously punished. This rule does 
 not interfere with the right of the victorious invader 
 to tax the people or their property, to levy forced 
 loans, to billet soldiers, or to appropriate properly, 
 especially houses, land, bouts or ships, and churches, 
 for temporary and military uses. Private property, 
 unless forfeited by crimes or by offenses of the 
 owner, can be seizeil only by way "of military neces- 
 sity, for the support or other benefit ot the Amiy or 
 ofthe United Slates. If the owner ha.s not fled, the 
 Commanding Offlcer will cause receipts to be given, 
 which may serve the spoliated owner to obtain in- 
 demnity. 
 
 The siilaries'of civil officers of the hostile govern- 
 ment who remain in the invaded territory, and con- 
 tinue the work of their office, and can continue it 
 according to the circumstances arising out of the 
 war — such as judges, administrative or police officers, 
 officers of city or communal governments — are paid 
 from the public revenue of the invaded territory, 
 until the military mvernment has reason wholly or 
 partially to discontume it. Salaries or incomes con 
 nected with purely honorary titles are always stopped. 
 There exists no law or body of authoritative rules of 
 action between hostile armies, except that branch of 
 the law of nature and nations which is called the law 
 and usages of war on land. All municipal law of 
 the ground on which the anaies stand, or of the 
 countries to which they belong, is silent and of no 
 effect between armies in the field. 
 
 Slavery, complicating and confounding the ideas 
 of property (that is, of a tfdiig) and of personalty 
 (that is, of h inuaiiity), exists according to municipal or 
 local law only. The law of nature and nations has 
 never acknowledged it. The digest of the Roman 
 law enacts the early dictum of the pagan .iurist, that 
 "so far as the law of nature is concerned all men 
 arc equal." Fugitives csc^iping from a country in 
 which they were slaves, villains, or serfs, into an- 
 other country, have, for centuries past, been held 
 free and acknowledged free by judicial decisions of 
 European countries, even though the municipal law 
 of the country in which the slave had taken refuge 
 acknowledged slavery within its own dominions. 
 Therefore in a war between the United States and a 
 belligerent which admits of slavcrj', if a person held 
 in bondage by that belligerent be captured by or 
 come as a fugitive under the protection of the "mill 
 tary forces of the United States, such person is im- 
 mediately entitled to the rights and pri\ileges of a 
 freeman. To return such person into slavery would 
 amount to ensla\ing a free person, and neither the 
 United St;ites nor any officer under their authority 
 can enslave any human Iwing. Moreover, a person 
 so made free by the law of war is under the shield 
 of the law of nations, and the former owner or Stjite 
 can have, by the law of postliminy no belligerent lieu 
 or claim of service. 
 
 All wanton violence committed against persons in 
 the invaded covnitry, all destruction of i)roperty not 
 commanded by theauthorized offlcer, all robl)ery, all 
 pillage or sacking, even after taking a i)lace by "main 
 force, all rape, wounding, maiming, or killing of 
 such inhabitants, are prohibiletl luider the jienalty of 
 death, or such other severe pimi.shment as may seem 
 adcijuate for the gravity of the offense. A .soldier, 
 officer or private, in the act of committing such vio- 
 lence, and disobeying a Sujierior ordering him to ab- 
 stain from it, mav be lawfully killed on the spot by 
 such Superior. All captures and booty belong, ac- 
 cording to the motlern law of war, primarily to the 
 government of the captor. Prize-money, whether on 
 sea or land, can now only be claimed under the local 
 law. 
 
 Neither officers nor soldiers are allowed to make 
 
 use of their position or power in the hostile country 
 for private gain, not even for commercial transac- 
 tions otherwise legitimate. Offenses to the contrary 
 committed l)y commissioned officers will Ix' punished 
 with cashiering or such other punishment as the 
 nature of the offense may reijuire; if by soldiers, they 
 shall be punished according to the nature of the 
 offense. 
 
 Crimes punishable by all penal codes, such a.s 
 arson, murder, maiming, a.s.saiilts, highway robbery, 
 theft, burglary, fraud, forgery, and rape, if com- 
 mitted by an Americiin soldier in a hostile countrj' 
 against its inhabitants, are not only punishable as at 
 home, but in all cases in which death is not inflicted 
 the severer ininishment shall be jtreferred. 
 
 CAPUCHIN. — A piece of mail generally 'wom in 
 early days under the great basclnet. 
 
 CAPUCHONS.— A society formed in France, from 
 1181 to 1183, for the suppression of the brigandage 
 of the Hauliers; the}' exterminated 7000 brigands id 
 an engagement near Verdun. 
 
 CARABINE A TIGE.— A very ancient and cele- 
 brated rifle. The tige is a sort of small anvil grow- 
 ing like a stem out of an ordinary flat breeching, so 
 that the powder-charge, instead of resting centrally, 
 is distributed all around the tige. Notwithstandiiig 
 the great military defects of tliis stem-principle, the 
 carabine a tige has been recently and extensively em- 
 ployed bv the French infantrv. 
 
 CARABINEEKS—CABBINEEES.— Dragoons armed 
 with carbines, who occasionally acted as infantrj'. 
 They are said to have derived their designation from 
 the Arabs, among whom the Carabiiis or Karabim 
 were light horsemen, stationed at outposts to harass 
 the enemy, defend narrow pas.ses, etc.; in action, 
 they took the place of skirmishers. A corps under 
 the same name was raised in France in lij60; but the 
 designation has not been much used in that country 
 since the introduction of Hussars and Lancers. In the 
 English army. Carabineers was at one time a frequent 
 designation for cavalry; but now there is onlj- one 
 regiment, the 6th Dragoon Guards, known by this 
 title; and the distinction between them and "other 
 cavalry is little more than nominal. 
 
 CARABINS. — Light horsemen, sometimes called 
 Karabins, among the Arabs, who were stationed at 
 outpost-s to harass the enemy, defend narrow pa.sses, 
 etc.; in action they took the place of skirmishers. 
 Troops called Carabins, a sort of light cavalrj- from 
 Spain, are first mentioned in England in 1559. 
 
 CARACOLE. — In horsemanship, a sudden half-turn 
 sometimes performed in an attack of cavalry to mis- 
 lead the enemy as to the point at which the assault is 
 to be made. 
 
 CARAVAN. — The name given to the assemblages of 
 troops or travelers which at stated times traverse the 
 ile.serts of Asia and Africa. Many caravans arc en- 
 tirely for the purposes of trade, the merchants asso- 
 ciating themselves for mutual help and protection. 
 A caravan sometimes has as many as KtOO camels, 
 w-hich follow each other in single iile, so that it may 
 be a mile or more in length. The most celebrated 
 caravans are those formed by pilgrims going to 
 Mecca, particularly those which annually assemble 
 at Cairo and at Damascus. The latter consist of 
 30,000 to 50,000 pilgrims, and is under the special 
 protection of the Turkish Sultan. The caravan by 
 which the Persians travel to Jlecca starts from Bag- 
 dad, and is the vehicle of a very imporliint trade. 
 The great Indian caravan to ilecca, which started 
 from Aluscat, has been long given up. Mecca, upon 
 the arrival of the caravans, bringing goods from so 
 many different parts of the world, presents all the ap- 
 pearance of a vast fair. The trade between Tripoli 
 and the interior of Africa is exclusively carried on by 
 caravans, likewise that between Darfur and Egypt. 
 The great trade between Russia and China is also a 
 caravan trade. In the East, caravans in which the 
 camels have a load of 500 to GOO ll)s. are called htary 
 caravans; light caravans are those in which the camels
 
 CABBINE. 
 
 28^ 
 
 CAKCASS. 
 
 have only half that weight, so that tlie dallv journeys 
 may be longer. Ueaty caravans travel from IT to 18 
 miles a day; light, from 22 to 23. The caravans are 
 generally conducted with great regularitv, and as.sena- 
 ble at and start from stated places on" stated days. 
 The leader of the Mecca caravans is called Emir-el- 
 Hadsch, i.e., Prince of the Pilgrims. In trade-cara- 
 vans, a leader, who is calletl Karwan-Baschi, is elected 
 by the merchant.s from their own numljer. 
 
 Among the Knights of .Malta, caravans meant the 
 troops of Knights appointed by the Order to serve in 
 garri.sons, and also the cruises of their gallevs aeainst 
 the Turks. " ^ 
 
 CABBINE. — A small-ami with a short barrel, 
 adapted for the use of cavalry, and having a bore of 
 .44 to .50 inch, or thereabout. Carbines appear to 
 have come into notice in the armv of Ilenrv II. of 
 France, 1559. The arm was 8i feet long, .ind the 
 practice was to tire and fall back behind the rear 
 rank, who tired and followed suit. The troops were 
 light cavalry, and the arm seems to have had a 
 wheel-lock. The term now is applied to a short suii 
 adapted for cavalry, of which many brcech-loadln" 
 varieties have becii tried in the United States armv 
 with greater or less success. Previous to the general 
 introduction of breech-loaders, the lire-arm in com- 
 
 Of heat, the lighter varieties of carbon, such as wood- 
 charcoal, are verj- bad conductors; graphite in mas.- 
 has very considerable conducting powers. At ordi- 
 nary temperatures all the varieties of carbon are e.v- 
 tremely unalterable: so much so that it is customary 
 to char the ends of iiiles of wood which are to he- 
 driven into the ground, so as bv this coating of non- 
 decaying carl)on to preserve the interior wood; and 
 with a similar object the interior of casks and other 
 wooden vessels intended to hold water during sea- 
 voyages are charred (coated with carbon), to keep 
 the wood from passing into decay, and thereby to pre- 
 serve the water street. Its power of arrestinsr odor.j 
 and colors likewise varies much. In the simple i)rop- 
 erty even of combustion there is a marked differ- 
 ence. Wood-charcoal lakes lire with the greatest 
 readiness, bone-black less so; then follow in order of 
 difficulty of combustion— coke, anthracite, lamp- 
 black, black-lead, and the diamond. Indeed, black- 
 lead is .so non-combvistible that crucibles to withstand 
 veiy high heats for prolonged periods without break- 
 age or burning are made of black-lead; and the dia- 
 mond completely resists all ordinary- modes of .setting 
 fire to it. In the property of hardness, carlxjn ranges 
 from the velvet-like lamp-black to diamond, the hard- 
 est of gems. In 1879 it was aimounced that a method 
 
 Carbine. 
 
 mon ase for cavalry, as well as engineers and heavj' 
 artillerj', was a species of carbine denominated m u's- 
 Kvtoon, differing from the masket only in length and 
 in the fact that the arm for the cavalry was provided 
 with a sling-bar for more convenient carriage on 
 horseback; those for the engineers and artillery were 
 generally furnished with sword-bayonets. These all 
 appear to have corresponded nearly in caliber and 
 
 feneral dimensions with the modern French enrabiiie. 
 'he ramrod of the muzzle-loading carbine is attached 
 to the barrel by a swivel, which permits it to be 
 handled freely, but at the same time prevents it from 
 falling to the ground. The carbine is secured to the 
 person of the soldier by the sling, which hooks on to 
 a ring moving on a smvel-bar attached to the left 
 side of the carbme, thereby affording a play to the 
 piece in loading and tiring. See Carabiniera and 
 Sprinafidd Carbine. 
 
 CARBON. — One of the elementarj' substances large- 
 ly diffused in nature. It occurs imcombined in fhe 
 mineral graphite, or black-lead, and in the diamond, 
 which is pure crj'stallized carbon. It is much more 
 abundant, however, in a state of combination. Uni- 
 ted with o.xygen, it occurs as carbonic acid (C'0») in 
 the atmosphere, in natural water, in limestone, dolo- 
 mite, and ironstone. In coal it is foimd combined 
 with hydrogen and oxj-gen; and in plants and ani- 
 mals if occurs as one of the elements building u\t 
 wood, starch, gum. sugar, oil, bone (gelatine), anil 
 flesh (tibrinc). Indeed, there is no other element 
 which is so characteristic of plant and animal organ- 
 isms, and it ranks as the only element never absent in 
 substances obtained from the two kingdoms of organic 
 nature. Wood-charcoal, coke, lamp-black, and ani- 
 mal charcoal are artificial varieties, more or less im- 
 pure, of carbon. The atomic weight or e(|uivalent of 
 carbon is 6 (new system 12); the specific gra\ity 
 .ffrcatly varies; that of the diamond is 3.330 to 3.550 
 (water being 1.000), and of graphite 1.800. Carbon 
 in its ordinary forms is a good conductor of elec- 
 tricity; in the form of diamond it is a non-conductor. 
 
 of producing pure crystallized carbon, or diamond, 
 had Ix-en discovered in Glasgow. See Charcoal 
 
 CAEBON TOOL -POINT.— An application of the 
 diamond to mechanical purposes. These points are 
 much used in the amiory to point, edge, or face tools 
 for drilling, reaming, sjnviug. planing, tumins, shap- 
 ing, earring, engraving, and dressmg flint," grind- 
 stones, whet-stones, emery, corundum, tanite, or trip- 
 oli-wheels, iridium, nickel, enamel, steel, hardened or 
 otherwise, chilled iron, cojiper, or other metals 
 
 CAECAIEE.— The spur of the Middle Ages, com- 
 posed of a shank, a spur-neck, and a rowel. 
 
 CAECAS.— The name given to a quiver durmg the 
 Middle Aires. Now obsolete. 
 
 CAECASS.— In military pyrotechny a hollow ca.se of 
 iron, sometimes globular aiid sometimes ovate, filled 
 with eoml)ustibles. It is fired from a mortar. Its 
 chief use is to ignite buildings in the enemv's quarter, 
 and to give sufticient light to aim the shot and shells. 
 Carca.sses are said to have been first u.sed bv one of 
 the princely ecclesiastics of Germany, the Bishop of 
 Munster, when he fought a.irainst the Duke of Lu.\em- 
 bourg at Groll, in 1672. The oval carca-sses, bcins 
 uncertiuu in their flight, are now nearly aljandoned. 
 The round carcasses now made are chiefly those here 
 indicated: 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 13 iuch 
 
 10 " 
 
 Composition. 
 
 18 lbs 
 
 7 " 
 
 Weight. 
 . . . 213 lbs. 
 100 " 
 
 8 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 51 " 
 
 5 " .... 
 
 19 ozs 
 
 17 " 
 
 41 " .... 
 
 7 " 
 
 . .. 9 " 
 
 In the United States serrice the composition is the 
 same as for jxirt-fires, mi.\ed with a small quantity of 
 finely-choppt'd tow, and as much white Iuri)entine 
 and .spirits of turpentine as will give it a compressible 
 consistency. The comiwsition is compactly pres.sed 
 into the .shell with the drift, so as to till it entirely; 
 one of the sticks is then inserted into each fuse-hole 
 with the points touching at the center so that when
 
 CABCHEBA. 
 
 288 
 
 CAEPENTEY. 
 
 withdrawn corrcspoiulinir holes shall remain in 
 the composition. In each hole thus formed three 
 stninds of ijiiickmatcli are inserted and held in place 
 tiy drj' port-lire composition, which is pressed around 
 them. About three inches of the (inick-matcu hans.'s 
 out when llie carcas.s is in.st<rted in the piece; pre 
 viously to that it is coiIe<l up in the fuse-hole, and 
 closeil with a patch of cloth dippe<l in melted kit. A 
 common shell may be loailwl as a carcass by placinc; 
 the bursting-charge on the Iwttom of the cavity, anil 
 covering it with carcass-composition driven in until 
 the shell is nearly full, and then in.serling four or live 
 strands of (luick-mateh, .secured by driving more 
 composition. This projectile, after burning as a car- 
 cass, explodes as a shell. Sec Casesfwt, Compoai- 
 twm. Fire-work^, Project iks, and SMIs. 
 
 CAECHEEA. — A name given by the Corsicans to 
 their cartridge-belts. Now little u.sed. 
 
 CAEDUCHI. — A warlike people once inhabiting the 
 mountains of Kurdistan, supposed to have been the 
 ancestors of the Kurds of the i^re-sent day. The 
 Greeks, in the famous Retreat of the Ten Thousand, 
 had to pass through their country, and were greatly 
 haras.<ic(l bv them. 
 
 CAEE OF SMALLAEMS.— To clean the barrel— 
 1. Draw a rag through the slol in the head of the 
 ramrod; moisten or wet it with water (warm, if it can 
 be had), and p;i.ss it up and down through the bore 
 from muzzle to chamber, until idl the residuum is 
 removed, or so moistened and dissolved that it may 
 be entirely removed with a dry rag. 2. Replace the 
 wet rag by a drj' one, and wipe the bore as before, 
 changing the rag until the bore is perfectly clean; 
 take pains to see that Uie well of the receiver is care- 
 fully wiped an<l cleaned out, and that the surfaces of 
 the cam and breech-screw are free from dirt, dust, 
 and rust. 3. Wipe the outside of all metal parts, the 
 lx)re, well of the receiver, and surfaces of the cam 
 and breech-screw with a siightly-oiled rag. 4. To 
 clean the exterior of the barrel, lay it flat oh a bench 
 or board, to avoid bending it. Since the arms now 
 issued are browned, abrasive substances, such as em- 
 ery, tripoli, Siind-paper, etc., should necerhe used to 
 clean them. If the browned parts become rusty, 
 they should be rubbed down with a scratch-brush, 
 and then oiled. 5. After tiring, the bore should al- 
 ways be wiped with a wet rag as soon as practicable; 
 afterwards wi|ie it drj-, and then pass into it a rag 
 moistened willi oil. 
 
 To clean the lock — wipe every part with a moist 
 rag, and then a dry one; if any part of the interior 
 shows rust, jnil a <lrop of oil on the point or end of a 
 piece of soft wood dipped into Jlonr of emery; rub 
 out the rust clean and wTpe the surface dry; then rub 
 every part with a slightly-oiled rag. For the mount- 
 ings, imd all of the iron and steel parts, use the scour- 
 ing material described in the contents of bo.\- of 
 ckauing materiah. Remove dirt from the screw- 
 holes by screwing a piece of soft wood into them. 
 Wipe clean with a linen rag, and leave the parts 
 slightly oiled. In cleaning the arms, great care 
 should be observed to preserve the qualities essential 
 to service, rather than to obtain a bright polish. 
 Burnishing the baiTcl (or other part.s) should be 
 strictly avoided, as it tends to crook the barrel, and 
 also to destroy the uniformity of the exterior finish of 
 the arm. It is very imiiortant to use no other imple- 
 ments than those before mentioned. By using nails 
 to drive out the wires their holes are enlarged. The 
 mainspring should never be heated for the piupose of 
 either raising or lowering its temper; this destroys the 
 elasticity of the spring, and the lock no longer ex- 
 plodes the cartridge. The notches of the tumbler, 
 the mainspring-s'wivel, and, in general, all the joints 
 of the lock, should be frecpunlly oiled, after lirst 
 wiping off the hard grea.se and the dust. 
 
 Browned arms arc clciUied by rubbing them hard 
 with an oiled rag until the oil is well incorporated 
 with the browning, or by rubbing them with bees- 
 wax on a rag or cork. Ritied arms should not have 
 
 the ramrod sprung in the Iwre with unnecessiiry force. 
 It halters the head of the rod and weai-s injuriously 
 the grooves. The soldier should let the rod slide 
 down gently, sujiported by the thumb and tinger; 
 and the inspecting ollicer can satisfy himsi'lf of the 
 condition of the bottom of the bore by gently tapping 
 with the rod. The face of the breech can be polLshed, 
 after washing, by means of a cork tixed on the wijxT 
 or ball-screw; the polished surface can be seen if the 
 muzzle is turned to the light. 
 
 Habitual care in handling is necessary to keep arms 
 in good, serviceable condition. In ordering arms on 
 parade, let the butt be brought gently to the ground, 
 cs|)ecially when the exercises take place on pave- 
 ments or hard roads. This will save the mechan- 
 ism of the lock from shocks, which are very injurious 
 to it, and which tend to loosen and mar the screws 
 and split the wood-work. In slacking arms, care 
 shoidd be taken not to injure the bayonets bv forcibly 
 straining tlie edges against each other. The stack 
 can be as well .secured without such force being used. 
 Xo cutting, marking, or scraping in any way the 
 wood or iron should be allowed; and no part of the 
 gun .should l)e touched with a tile. Take every po.ssi- 
 ble care to jirevent water from getting in between the 
 lock, or barrel, and stock. If any should get there, 
 dismount the gun as soon as possible, clejm and oil 
 the parts as directed, and see that they are perfectly 
 dry licfore reassembling them. 
 
 The iron and brass parts of swords and sabers are 
 cleaned in the same manner as those of muskets. 
 When the oil on the Iilade of a sword is dried up, it 
 will leave a sjiot which may be removed by covering 
 it with oil, and, after a short lime, rubbing it .smartly 
 with a linen rag. When a leather scabbard has be- 
 come wet, draw the blade aud dry- the .scabbard 
 slowly without heating it; wipe the blade dry, and 
 pa.ss an oiled rag over it and the scal)bard before re- 
 turning the blade. Oil the blades of arms in store, 
 also the scabbards, especially on the seams. See 
 Cleuning MaterinU and SinuUarms. 
 
 CAEIPI.— A kind of cavalry in the Turkish army, 
 which, to tlie number of 1000, are not slaves, nor bred 
 up in the seraglio, like the rest, liut are generally 
 >Ioors, or renegade Christians, who have obtained 
 the rank of Horse-guards to the Grand Seignior. 
 
 CARMEL.-The Knights of the Order of Our Lady 
 of Mount C'armel were instituted by Henry IV. of 
 France, and incorporated with the Order of the 
 Knights of St. Lazarus of .Jenis;dem. The Order of 
 Jlovuit Camiel consisted of 100 gentlemen, all French, 
 who were to attend the king in his wars, and had 
 considerable revenues assigned to them. The Order 
 was conlirmcd by bull by Pope Paul V., in 1607. 
 The Great Master was created by the king putting 
 about his neck a tawny riltbon, suspending a cross of 
 gold, with the Cloak of the Order, and granting him 
 power to raise 100 knights. None were admitted but 
 those who had four tlesccnts of nobility both by 
 father and mother. 
 
 CAROLING.— A custom of the ancients before 
 going to war. which consisted of .singing, etc. 
 
 CARPENTEY.— The art of framing limber for 
 architectural and other purposes. Technically, the 
 term is restricted to the framing of hea\'>' work, such 
 as the roofs, floorings, partitions, and all the wood- 
 work concerned in maintaining the stability of an 
 edifice, while the minor and ornamental fittings are 
 called joinery; but popularly the workman who does 
 either kind of work is called a cari)enter. The pres- 
 ent article will be confined to a iioimlar description 
 of the most useful methods of framing timber and 
 smaller wowl-work. The preliminary preparation of 
 timber is the work of the sawyer, who, Ijy the saw- 
 mill or pit sjiw, divides the trunfes of trees iiito planks, 
 etc.; these are further divided by the carpenter, who 
 uses hand-sjiws of various kinds, acconling to the 
 work. For dividing wood into separate pieces in the 
 direction of the fiber, the rippiiig-saw is u.sed; for 
 cross-cutting, or sawing thin pieces in the dircc-
 
 CAHPET-KNIGHT. 
 
 289 
 
 CABSAGO. 
 
 tion of their length, the common hand-mw or the 
 tiner-toothed panelsair; for making an incision of a 
 •riven (Icptli, and fur cuttinf: small pieces across the 
 tibcr, the Unon-saie, the msh-mir, or dmeUiil-mw is 
 used. These are thin saws, slilfened by a strong 
 piece of metal at the back to prevent crippling. 
 When a curved cut is to be made, a very narrow saw 
 without a back, cjilled a compata-aair or a k-ei/hoksair, 
 is used. The general name fur these is ttiriiiiig-sairn; 
 they have their plates thin and narrow towards the 
 bottom, and each succeeding tooth finer, and the 
 teeth are not bent on contrary sides of the plate for 
 dealing, as in broad saws. "The surface of wood is 
 smoothed by planing. According to the work, dif- 
 ferent kinds of planes are used: ihejnck-plane, which 
 is large and rough, for taking away the rough of the 
 saw; the tryiiigphiiw, for bringing the surface per- 
 
 FlG. 1. 
 
 fcctly level and true, or the hng-plnnf, for the same 
 purpose, where the work is of great length, as for the 
 joining edges of long boards "to be glued together. 
 The mnoolhing-plane, which is much smaller than 
 these, gives the smooth finished surface. The spoke- 
 share, a sort of plane with a double handle, is ased 
 for paring and smoothing rounded work. Orna- 
 mental moldings are cut by means of molding-platm, 
 wliich have their culfiug edges curved to the lequired 
 pattern. A good stock of these is one of the most 
 e.\-pensive items of the tool-chest. The paring of 
 wood, and the cutting of rectangular or prismatic 
 cavities, notches, etc., are done by means of cfiisels. 
 Those for cutting across the fiber are called firmers 
 or paring-chmh: those for cutting deep and "naiTow 
 cavities, nmrlm-ehmln, which are made veiy thick 
 and nanow, and fitted in the handles with a strong 
 fiange, to bear heavy blows with the mallet. Chisels 
 for paring concave surfaces are called gouges. For 
 boring holes, bradawls, gimUU, center-bits, and gouges 
 are used — the two latter are fixed in a stoek or revolv- 
 ing handle, and are used for large holes. Wlicn it is 
 required to ascertain if an angle be square, or of any 
 .iriven inclination, the square, or the beni set to the 
 required angle, is ajiplied to test the work .i-s it pro- 
 ceeds. When parallel edges are required, the tnark- 
 tiig-gauge is used to draw the line to be worked to. 
 W^hen a simple straight line is required for working 
 to, a piece of string is chalked, then stretched tightly 
 over the wood and lifted in the middle, when, by 
 its recoil, it strikes the wood and leaves a straight 
 chalked line. The straight-edge, a strip of wood with 
 one of its edges perfectly straight, is applied to detect 
 superficial irregularities. The operation of planing 
 the edge of a board straight is called shxttiiig, and 
 such edges are said to be shot. AVhen the joiner re- 
 ((uires to ascertain whether the surface of a piece of 
 wood is all in one piano, he takes two slips of wood 
 with edges perfectly straight and parallel, and of 
 efiual width; these slips, called irinding-stieks, are 
 placed edge upwards, one at each end, across the 
 Itoard, and the workman looks in the longitudinal 
 direction of the board over the upper edges, and if 
 the two edges be not in the same plane, the board is 
 planed down at the elevated parts until it is out uf 
 wind. For setting work level, a spirit-Urel. set in a 
 wooden frame, or a plumb-level is ust>d. When two 
 pieces of timber have to be united at their ends, as in 
 lengthening the beams for roofing, partitions, etc., 
 the operation is called scarfing, and the joint a scarf. 
 The methods of scarfing are very numerous. That 
 shown in Fig. 1 will .serve to illustrate the principle, 
 together with the use of strengtliening bolts and 
 straps. The length of the scarf should" be, if bolts 
 are not used — in oak, ash. or elm, six times the depth 
 of the beam; in fir, 12 times the depth of the besim. 
 
 I If Iwlts and indents are combined, the length of the 
 scarf shoidd be— in oak, ash, or elm, twice the depth 
 of the beam; in fir, four times the depth. In scarfing 
 beams to resist transverse strains, straps driven un 
 tight are better than bolts. The siyn of the areas of 
 the bolts should not be less than one fifth the area of 
 j the beam, when a longitudinal strain is to be borne. 
 I No joint should be used in which shrinking or ex- 
 pansion can tend to tear the timbers. No joint can 
 I be made so strong as the timber itself. When two 
 pieces of timber are connected so that the joint runs 
 I parallel with the fibers of both, it is called a Umgi- 
 1 tudiiial joint; but when the place of the joint is at 
 \ right angles to the fibers of both, &n abutting joint. 
 A very short tenon is called a Mub tenon. When a 
 second minor tenon is made projecting from the 
 principal tenon, it is called a tusktenon. For lighter 
 joiner's work, other methods of fram- 
 ing are used, and adapted to the 
 work— to boards generally instead 
 of beams; thus, lor example, the 
 mortise and tenon .ioint, made ob- 
 long instead of square, is used in 
 framing doors, shutters, drawing- 
 boards, or any other kind of extended superficial 
 work liable to warping. An outside frame or 
 skeleton is made with a panel or panels in the 
 middle, and each piece of the frame has the 
 grain at right angles to the piece into which it is 
 mortised, in order that they shall eventually correct 
 the warping. Dovetailing" is extensively "used for 
 
 7\ 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 connecting boards at right or other angles, as in mak- 
 ing boxes, drawers, etc. Common dovetailing is usu- 
 ally glued. Nails or pins and glue are v«'d with the 
 miter and other notched joints. Applications of dove- 
 tailing timbers, also the mortise and tenon joint, are 
 show n in Fig. 2. The cavity a is the mortise, the pro- 
 jection on b, the tenon. The common miter and the 
 lapped miter are shown — ^— 
 
 in Fig. 3. Boards may 
 
 be united at their edges 
 to fonn an extended 
 surface, as a flat plank 
 partition, etc., either by 
 simple gluingof the shot 
 edges, by a rebate, or by 
 a plowed groove and 
 a plain corresponding Fio. 3. 
 
 projection. The rebate is cut bj- means of a rebating- 
 plane. The groove, a sort of extended mortise, is 
 cut by a jilane with a projecting iron called the plow. 
 In all cases where glue is used in joints, it should be 
 applied to both surfaces, which should be rublx'd and 
 pres.sed together imtil nearly all the jjluc is forced 
 out, then kept pre.s.sed by a cramp or weights. White- 
 lead is used for out.side" joints. Special departments 
 of this subject are treated under their respective 
 heads. 
 
 CABPET-KNIGHT.— A man who obtains knight- 
 hood on a pretense for services in which he never 
 participateil. 
 
 CABQUOIS.— A quiver of iron, wood, leather, etc., 
 which was worn slung over the right shoulder. 
 
 CABBAGO.— A kind of fortification, consisting of a 
 great number of wagons, placed round an army. It 
 was employed by barbarous nations, as, for instance, 
 the Scythians arid Goths.
 
 cAbkeau. 
 
 290 
 
 CABBOHASES. 
 
 CABBEAU.— A bolt or tlnrt, with n large steel head, 
 for a eross-bow. C'ouiinonly written (Vic;r, Carnl, 
 and QiKirrtiiii. 
 
 CABRIAOE-BRIDGE.— A roller-bridge to t)C moved 
 up a glaeis ami form a bridge from eountersearp to 
 scarp, for the passage of the attacking column. It 
 hits beams and uprights. The latter act its posts, to 
 rest on the bottom of the ditch, and are shiftable to 
 adapt them to the depth of the ditch or fosse. 
 
 CABBIAGE DEPARTMENT.— The Hoyal Carriage 
 Deparlraeiil. at WiKihvich, is one of the great na- 
 tional mimufacturiug establishments maintained for 
 warlike armaments— its duty being the construction 
 of gun-carriagefi for army and navy, military wag- 
 ons and vehicles of all kinds, and the joinery of the 
 army genendly. The Department was organized as 
 a distinct establishment in 1803, and ha.sbeen under- 
 going gradual enlargement ever since. Since the re- 
 cent introduction of iron carriages for heavy guns, 
 the Department has had a new section added for iit)n- 
 work. Until 18")5 the Board of Ordnance had the 
 direction of this Department, but in that year it 
 passed under the direct control of the Secretary for 
 War, who, since 1869, administers it through the 
 Surveyor-general of the Ordnance. The works, 
 store-rooms, and yards are of vast size, often employ- 
 ing from 2000 to 3000 bauds. There are many 
 steam-engines in various parts of the establishment; 
 and the iron and wood cutting and shaping machines 
 are of the highest order of excellence. The internal 
 communications are carried on bv locomotives on a 
 tramway of 18-inch giiuge. See txuii-carruige». 
 
 CARRIAGES. — A gun-carriage is designed to sup- 
 port its piece when tired, and also to transport can- 
 non from one point to another. Field, mountain, 
 and siege artillery have also limbers, which form 
 when imited with the carriage a four-wheeled vehicle. 
 Sea-coast carriages are diWded into barbetU, cage- 
 mate, and flank-defense carriages, depending upon 
 the part of the work in which they are mounted. 
 They are now made of \\Tought-iron and found to 
 possess lightness, greath strength, and stiffness. The 
 sea-coa-st carriages are made in a similar manner, and 
 one carriage can be altered to fit another piece by 
 changing the trunnion-iilates and transom-straps. 
 The carriage consists of two cheeks of thick .sheet- 
 iron, each one of which is strengthened by three 
 flanged iron plates bolted to the cheeks. Along the 
 bottom of each cheek an iron shoe is fixed with the 
 end bent upwards. In front this bent end is bolted 
 to the flange of the front .strengthening-plate. In 
 rear the bent portion is longer, and terminated at top 
 by another bend, which serves as a point of appli- 
 cation for a lever on a wheel, when running to and 
 from battery. The trunnion-plates tit over the top 
 ends of tlie strengthening-plates, which meet around 
 the bed, and are fastened to the flanges of the latter 
 by movable bolts and nuts. The cheeks are joined 
 together by transoms made of bar-iron. The front 
 of the carriage is mounted on an axletree, with truck- 
 wheels similar to the wooden casemate-carriages. 
 The elevating-screws are of two kinds: one for low 
 angles of elevation, and the second for columhiads 
 where great angles of elevation are required. The 
 elevating arc is made of brass and attacheil to the 
 upper edge of llie riirht check, and maybe folded 
 down. It is employed to measure the elevation of 
 the piece. 
 
 The verj' diverse purposes for which military car- 
 riages are intended necessitate many varieties of 
 form, as may be seen in the carriages of the field and 
 siege artillery, of the iwnton and telegraph equip- 
 ments, of the transport and ambulance services, etc. 
 The many varieties may be classed under one of two 
 heads, viz.: 1. Those \is<(l in the transi)ort of stores; 
 2. Those which, be.sides fultilling the usual functions 
 of a carriage, are especially adapted to facilitate the 
 working of field- and siege-guns. For a description 
 of the carriages of the second class, see the various 
 artillery-caiTJagcs. The coniiwneut parts of the 
 
 transport-carriages are the following: Axletree (armi 
 or iijcktree-annn, Hnch-pin, IhmIi/, n/iouldtr, luid iKiint); 
 axletree-bed; splinter-l)ar; futchells; sweep-bar; fore- 
 carriage; body {fram(-gUU:s,J'riiiit ear-bed, h'nd ear- 
 bed, mid mini iiiers); bolsters; main-pin; stays; knees; 
 sweep-plate and wheel-plate; shaft-irons; scroll- 
 irons; sides, headboard and tailboard; floating 
 raves; and wheels (/wrc, nace-bands, nace-bux or pipe- 
 boj-, spoken, felloeti, and lire). In the construction of 
 all carriages the following conditions should be 
 realized: Adaptability of form to the load (in- 
 cluding convenience in loading, as well a.s suitable 
 capacity); strength; stability; durability; ease and 
 convenience of draught; suitability for shipment; 
 facility of repair; and economy of manufacture. 
 The ease of draught is chieflj' affected by the follow- 
 ing considerations: Weight of carriage and load; 
 height of wheels; mean diameter of pipe-box; de- 
 gree of smoothness of the surfaces of arm and box, 
 and the (juality of the lubricants applied to them; 
 width of tire; position of trace-loops, and inclination 
 of the traces; and the presence or absence of springs. 
 The width and length of carriages should be limited 
 by considerations of convenience in turning and pas- 
 xing along naiTow roads and other conlined spaces. 
 See ChiiKaia and &iin-carriage)i. 
 
 CARRICK. — An old Gaelic term for a castle or fort- 
 ress, as well as for a rock in the sea. 
 
 CARRICK-BEND.— A knot formed on a bight by 
 putting the end of a rope over its standing part, so a.s 
 to form a cross: reeve the end of the other rope 
 through the bight, up and over the cross and down 
 through the bight again, on the opposite side from 
 tlie other end. See Cordage. 
 
 CARRIER -BLOCK.— A component part of most 
 machine-guns. Direct!}' behind the ojien barrels a 
 hollow cylinder of metal, called a earrkr-blork, is 
 fastened to the shaft, and in the exterior .surface of 
 this carrier-block .semi-cylindrical channels are cut, 
 which form trough-like extensions of the cartridge- 
 chambers of the barrels to the rear, and are designed 
 to receive and guide the cartridges while they are 
 being thrust into the baiTels, and to guide the empty 
 cases while they are being withdrawn. This block 
 is covered above the frame bv the hopper-plate, and 
 beneath everrthing is open. See OatUng Gun. 
 
 CARRIEBPIGEON.— The term carrier, as applied 
 to pigeons, evidently was first employed to signify 
 those breeds that were used to convey or carry 
 me&sages to their own homes from disUint places. 
 In the process of time it has been usi'd by English 
 fanciers to signify a very artificial or high -class 
 breed, the birds of which arc never employed for 
 carrying messages, but are valued solelj' in proportion 
 to the jJcrfection of certain "properties" that they 
 possess. This is an unfortunate circumstance, for by 
 the public at large the term carrier is always taken to 
 express the fact that the birds to which it is applied 
 are really those employed to "caiTy" mes.sages; 
 whereas the long-distance-flying birds, those known 
 more correctly as ' ' homing " birds, or ' ' les pigeons 
 voyagers," are totally distinct. See Homing Pigeon. 
 
 CARROCCIO.— A very large four-wheeled carriage, 
 wliicli was used l)y the C'rusiiders during the Middle 
 Ages. On its platform, which was large enough to hold 
 fifty persons, was erected a tower surmounted with a 
 cross, and a standard, and to it was attached a bell 
 which indicated the passing of the carroceio. Before 
 engaging in battle, an effigy of Christ of life siz^e was 
 placed on the platform, and at its feet an altar; then 
 a ina.s-s was held. A number of knights guarded it, 
 and it was drawn by oxen richly caparisoned. Its 
 invention is attributed to the people of Lombardy. 
 
 CARRONADES.— Short iron guns invented by Jlr. 
 Ga.scoigiic. and named after the Carron Iron-works 
 in Scotland, where they were first made. They are 
 lighter than ordinary guns, and have a chamber for 
 powder, like mortars. They were made standard 
 navy guns in 1779, to be carried on the poop, fore- 
 castle, ifud upper works. Being manageable by a
 
 CASKOUSAL. 
 
 291 
 
 CASTEL. 
 
 smaller number of hands than guns, and being very 
 useful in close engafreraents, they were held in much 
 favor during the great war: the seamen called them 
 "smashers. ' A GH-pounder carronade weighed not 
 much more than half as much as the ■12-pounder gmi 
 in use in 1779. They range from t)8-pounders down 
 to 6-pounders. Some carronades are made shorter 
 with a given bore. Carronades are but little used, 
 except by the English and French. Though valuable 
 at close quarters, they are no match for long guns at 
 a distance; and therefore a ship armed only with 
 carronades would fare badly in a general action. In 
 recent years carronades have to a considerable extent 
 been replaced in the English navy by howitzers, long 
 guns, and shell-guns. See OidiKtnn . 
 
 CARKOTJSEL. — A si)ecies of knightly exercise 
 which, down even to the beginning of the eighteenth 
 centun,', wa-s very common in all the courts of 
 Europe. Carrousel was a kind of imitation of the 
 tournament, and for a time after the discontinuance 
 of the latter seems to have supplied its place. The 
 <iresses, for the most part, were those of the knights 
 of former times, and the combalant.s, or rather com- 
 petitors, were divided into two parties, usually ac- 
 cording to their different nationalities. One of the 
 favorite exercises in France consisted in running at 
 the pasteboard head of a Jloor or Turk with a lance, 
 cutting it down with a sword, or tiring at itwith a 
 pistol. Another of these tests of skill and horseman- 
 ship, if not of courage, consisteil in carrying off a 
 whole line of rings, which were suspended for the 
 purpose. The atrrousel in France was not known 
 earlier than the reign of Henry IV. ; but it had existed 
 for some little time previously iujtalv. There were 
 brilliant carrousels imder Louis Xllf , and two cel- 
 ebrated ones were given in honor of Mademoiselle de 
 la Valliere — the one at Paris in lfi(i2. the other at 
 Versailles in 1664. The place where the first of the.se 
 f?tes was held has ever since been called the Place 
 du Carrousel. A revival of the carrousel was at- 
 tempted at Berlin in 1750; antl in 1828 the Cavsdry 
 School at Sauniur held one in honor of Madame la 
 Duchesse de Berry. The so-called Eglinton Tourna- 
 ment — an enlerlainment given some years ago by 
 the chivalrous Earl of Eglinton — was in reality a 
 carrousel. 
 
 CABBY ABMS.— A word of command in the Man- 
 ual of Arms, directing thai the musket be taken lo 
 the fundamental position, which consists of the piece 
 being held in the right hand: the barrel nearly verti- 
 cal, and resting in the hollow of the shoulder, the 
 guard to the front ; the arm hanging nearly at its full 
 length, near the body, the thumb and forefinger era- 
 bracing the gtiard, the remaining fingers closed lo- 
 getherand grasping the stock just'imder the hammer, 
 which rests on the little finger. See Manual of Arim, 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 CAST.— A framework of wood, with sides, front 
 and end boards, placed upon two wheels, and drawn 
 by one or two horses. In the artillery, cart.s are very 
 generally used. A new-pattern cart was introduced 
 a few years ago into the English service for the car- 
 riage of small-ann ammunition in the field. There 
 are about eighteen carts in service of different patterns 
 and for various purposes. See Iland-cart. 
 
 CABTE. — A movement of the sword in fencing, as 
 tierce and carte. Also a movement in the bayonet- 
 exercise. Frequentlv written Qiiaiie. See Fenring. 
 
 CABTE-BLANCHE.— In a military sense, a full and 
 absolute power which is lodged in the hands of an 
 officer to act accordmg to the best of his judgment, 
 without waiting for superior instructions or orders. 
 It likewise strictly means a blank paper sent to a per- 
 .son, to fill up with such conditions as he may think 
 proper to insert. In the general acceptation of the 
 tenn, it implies an authoritv to act at discretion. 
 
 CABTEL.— i\ji agreement between the belligerents 
 for an exchange of ^ prisoners. Sometimes the name 
 is given to a ship, called by the French a biitiment 
 parlementaire, commissioned" to convey the exchanged 
 
 prisoners, or to carry messages to the enemy. A ship, 
 when thus employed, must cany no c'argo, ammuni- 
 tion, or implement of war, except one gun for sig- 
 nals. 
 
 The following may be taken as a form of the cqr- 
 tel, the pro\isions being liable to modification, accord- 
 ing to agreement, by the agents appointed by the 
 proper authorities: 
 
 The tmdersigned, having been commissioned by 
 the authorities they respectively represent lo make ar- 
 rangement.s for a general exchange of prisoners of 
 war, have agreed to the follow ing articles: 
 
 AJiTici.E 1. It is hereby agreed and stipulated that 
 all prisoners of war held by either party, including 
 those taken on private armed vessels known as pri- 
 vateers, shall be discharged upon the conditions and 
 terms following: 
 
 Prisoners to l)e exchanged man for man and officer 
 for officer; privateers to be placed upon the footing 
 of officei's and men of the Xa\y. 
 
 Jlen and officers of lower grades may be exchanged 
 for officers of a higher grade, and men and officers of 
 different services may be exchanged according to the 
 follow ing scale of equivalents: 
 
 A General commanding-in-chief or an Admiral 
 shall be exchanged for officers of equal rank or for 
 .sixty privates or common seamen. 
 
 A JIajor General or Flag Officer shall be exchanged 
 for officers of equal rank or for forty privates or com- 
 mon seamen. 
 
 A Brigiidier General or a Commodore carrying a 
 broad pennant shall be exchanged for officers of 
 equal rank or for twenty privates or common sea- 
 men. 
 
 A Colonel or a Captain in the Navy shall be ex- 
 changed for officers of equal rank or for fifteen pri- 
 vates or common seamen. 
 
 A Lieutenant Colonel or a Commander in the Navy 
 shall he exchanged for officers of equal rank or for 
 ten privates or common seamen. 
 
 A Major or a Lieutenant Commander shall be ex- 
 changed for officers of equal rank or for eight pri- 
 vates or common seamen. 
 
 A Captain in the Army or Marines or a Lieutenant 
 or a blaster in the Xa\-y shall be exchanged for offi- 
 cers of equal rank or for sis privates or common sea- 
 men. 
 
 Lieutenants in the Army .shall be exchanged for 
 officers of equal rank or for four privates or common 
 seamen. 
 
 Midshipmen, Warrant Officers in the Navy, Mas- 
 ters of merchant-vessels, and Commanders of pri- 
 vateers shall Ix' exchanged for officers of equal rank 
 or for three privates or common seamen. 
 
 Second Captains, Lieutenants, or Mates of merchant- 
 vessels or privateers, and all iX'tty officers of the 
 Navv and all non-commis.sioned officers in the Army 
 or >farines, shall be severally exchanged for persons 
 of equal rank or for two privates or common seamen; 
 and imvate soldiers or conmion s<anien shall be ex- 
 changed for each other, man for man. 
 
 Article 3. Local, State, ci\il, and militia rank 
 held by persons not in actual military service will not 
 be recognized, the basis of exchange being the grade 
 actually held in the naval and military senice of the 
 respective parties. 
 
 Article 3. If citizens held by either party on 
 charges of anj' alleged civil offen.se are exchanged, it 
 shall only be for citizens. Captured sutlers, team- 
 sters, and" all civilians in the actual service of either 
 party, to be exchanged for persons in similar posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Article 4. The surplus prisoners not exchanged, 
 if paroled, shall not l)c permitted to take up arms 
 agiiin, nor to ser%-e as military police or coiLStabulary 
 force in anv fort, garrison,' or field-work held by 
 either of the" respective parties, nor as gtianls of pris- 
 ons, depots, or stores, nor to discharge any dut>" usu- 
 ally performed by soldiers, until exchanged imder the 
 provisions of this cartel. The exchange is not to be
 
 CABTEl-SHIP. 
 
 292 
 
 CABTRIDOE. 
 
 consuloreil complete until the officer or soldier ex- 
 cliiingi'd for has been actually restored to the lines to 
 which he belongs. 
 
 AuTici-E 5. hacb party, upon the discharKe of 
 prisoners of the other party, is authorized to discharere 
 an equal number of their own otlicers or men from 
 parole, acconlins; to the scale of eeiuivalents already 
 agreed u|K)n, furnishinft at the same time to the other 
 party a list of tlieir prisoners discharjzed and of their 
 own' ollicers and men relieved from paroli' — thus 
 enablinvr each i)arty to relieve from parole such of 
 their own officers aiui men as the party may choose. 
 The lists thus mutually furnished will keep both par- 
 ties advised of the true condition of the exchange of 
 prisoners. 
 
 Aktici.e 6. The stipulations and pro\isions al)ove 
 mentioned to be of binding obligation during the con- 
 tinuance of the war, it matters not which party may 
 have the surplus of prisoners, the great principles in- 
 volved being — 1st. An equitable exchange of i)rison- 
 ers, man for man, otlicer for officer, or officers of 
 higher grade exchanged for officers of lower irrade, or 
 for jirivates according to the sc.ile of e(iuivalcnts; 'id. 
 That privateers and officers and lucn of dilTerent ser- 
 vices may be cxchansed according to the same scale 
 of e(iiiivalent.s; 'M. 'That all prisoners, of whatever 
 arm of ser\ice. are to be exchanged or paroled as soon 
 as it is practicable to transfer them to their own lines; 
 4th. That no officer, soldier, or em|iloye in the ser- 
 vice of either party is to be considered as exchanged 
 and absolved from his parole until his e(|uival(nl has 
 actually readied the lines of his friends; 5th. That 
 the parole forbids the performance of field, garrison, 
 police, or guard, or constabulary duty. 
 
 Article ~. For the purpose of carrying into effect 
 the foregoing articles of agreement, "each part}- will 
 appoint two agents, to be called agents for the ex- 
 change of prisoners of war, whose duty it shall be to 
 communicate with each other, by correspondence and 
 otherwise, to prepare the lists of prisoners, to attend 
 to the delivery of the prisoners at the places agreed 
 on, and to carry out promptly, effectually, and in I 
 good faith all the details and provisions of the said : 
 articles of agreement. 
 
 Article 8. In civse any misunderstanding shall 
 arise in regard to any clause or stijiulation in the fore- 
 going articles, it is nuitually agreed that such misun- 
 flei-standing .shall not intt-rriipt the release of prison- 
 ers on parole, as herein pro\-idcd, but shall be made 
 the subject of friendly e.xjjlanations, in order that the 
 object of this agreement may neither be defeated nor 
 postponed. See Exchaiuje 'of PrUururs, Parole, and 
 Primntrn of War. 
 
 CABTEL • SHIP. — A ves.sel used in exchanging pris- 
 oners or carrying proiwsals to an enemy. See Cartel. 
 
 CARTHOUN. — The ancient cannon-roval, canying 
 a fiO-pound ball, with a point-blank range of " 185 
 paces, and an extreme one of about 2000. "it was 13 
 feet long and of 8i inches diameter of bore. 
 
 CARTOUCH.— 1. A roll or ca.se of paix-r, etc., hold- 
 ing a charge for a tire-arm. 2. In gunnerv, a ca-sc of 1 
 wood about 3 inches thick at the bottom, bound i 
 about with marline, holding about 400 musket-balls, 
 besides 8 or 10 iron balls of"a pound each, to be dis- 
 charged from a howitzer for the defense of a pa.ss, 
 etc. 3. An article of leather to sling over the shoul- 
 der of the gunner, who therein carries the ammunition 
 from the tumbril for the service of the artillery when 
 at exercise in the tield. 
 
 CABT - PIECE.— An eariy battering cannon mounted 
 on a peculiar cart, and thus moved from place to 
 place. 
 
 CABTBIDGE. — The requirements of a good service- 
 cartridge are strength, durability, uniform dimen- 
 .sions, and cheapness. Its power should be stored up 
 in as small a space as [wssible, that a soldier may 
 earn,- a maximum munber of rounds with a minimuiii 
 effect upon his endurance. It uhisI possess certainty 
 of fire combined with uniform accura<y, range, anil 
 penetration. After firing, the .shell must be easily 
 
 extracted from its chamber. To unite all these 
 qualities the greatest care is required in the different 
 proccs-ses of nnuuifacture. The materials from which 
 the component parts of the cartridge are made, 
 which are the shell, the primer, the ]X)wder, the 
 bullet and lubricant, must be of the best quality. A 
 variation of .001 inch in the thickness of the mctjil 
 disk from which the shell is drawn, from slandartl 
 dimensions, produces waste of material and unneces- 
 sary wear upon the tools if above the standaril, and 
 other complications if below. The priming or ex- 
 plosive compound for igniting the cartridge must be 
 made with such care and of such ingredients as will 
 almost absolutely insure ignition from a blow of 
 calculated strength upon the cup or cap containing it. 
 The component parts of the powder must be sufti- 
 cieutly pure that when uicorponited, pressed, and 
 grained, its density may be so nearly constant that a 
 fixed charge will give a nearly constant initial veloc- 
 ity to the bullet, prcducing a corres]ionding con.stant 
 range anil accuracy imder like conditions of the 
 atmosphere. Electric ballistic machines readily de- 
 termine the initial velocity, enabling us, by slight 
 variations of the charge, to keep that velocity practi- 
 cally a constant quantity, thus solving the problem 
 of a cartridge with a measured or fixed amount of 
 work stored up in it to be given out with deadly 
 effect when needed. This is the state of perfection to 
 which the cartridge is now made. 
 
 The cartridge-cases for ordnau'^e or large guns are 
 chietiy made of serge and flannel, sewn up into the 
 form of a bag, which, sujiplied with a given weight 
 of powder, is tie<l rounil the neck and strengthened 
 by iron hoops. T)ie weight of powdir varies from 
 about 300 lbs. for au 81-ton gun, to a few ounces for 
 a mountain-gun. 
 
 Cartridges for small-arms which load at the muzzle 
 are usually paper tubes, containing a leaden ball and 
 a few drams of powder. The tubes are made in 
 such a way that the powder has two or three thick- 
 nesses of paper around it, while at the mouth of the 
 tul)e and o\er the bullet there is oidy one. The paper 
 over the bullet is lubricated generally with a com- 
 position of beeswax and tallow. In loading, the 
 paper at the mouth of the tube has to be twisted or 
 bitten off; the powder is then poured into the barrel, 
 the tulH," reversed, and the bullet inserted into the 
 muzzle, and the tube broken away. Cartridges for 
 breech-loading small-arms in England are generally 
 foiTued of a thin sheet of bra.ss coiled into a cylinder, 
 and having an iron ca.se, in the center of which is the 
 percassion arrangement. Besides the cartridge-ca.se 
 of coiled brass, there are others made of solid 
 bra.ss or copper (American invention), and these seem 
 to be gaining favor abroad, the Prussians having 
 adopted such a case for the new JIauser rifie. 
 
 For sporting rifles the cartridges are quite numer- 
 ous and varied. With large-bore rifles the same car- 
 tridge-case is generally used as for shot-guns, but 
 loaded with powder and ball (spherical, solid conical, 
 hollow conical, or shell i. For small-bore, or what 
 are known as e.rpn-K.'i rifles, either a coiled bra.ss 
 cartridge-case, similar in construction to that for the 
 Snider or Martini-IIenry rifle, but made to contain a 
 larger charge, or a solid brass case is u.scd. The 
 coiled case can be reloadi'd twice or thrice, while the 
 solid case can be reloaded as often as twenty times, 
 and on this account the latter is rapidly gaining favor 
 with sport.smen in India and Africa. The express 
 cartridge contains a very heavy charge of jiowder, 
 with a light hollow conical bullet giving very great 
 velocity, low trajectory, and immense killing power. 
 In the Henry express cartridge the charge of pow- 
 der is 4 drams, while the bullet weighs only 270' 
 grains. 
 
 Cartridges for breech-loading pistols and revolvers 
 are generally small metal cylinders containing a 
 charge of powder and a bidlet, and with rim, pin, or 
 central-fire ignition, the diameter varying from .230 
 of an inch upwards.
 
 CAKTRIDGE. 
 
 293 
 
 CABTKIDOE. 
 
 la the manufacture of metallic cartridges the 
 "United States leads the world. Besides the various 
 patterns described under other headings in this work, 
 the United States Cartridge Company, of Lowell, 
 Mass., make a specialty of the central-tire solid- 
 head reloading cartridges, of which some full-size 
 varieties are shown in the drawings. This Company 
 commenced operations in the year 18ti9, having for 
 its object the manufacture of the Meigs solid-head 
 
 metal upset by heading joined, rupture was liable to 
 take place. These dillicullies have In^en entirely 
 overcome by the new method of manufacture; anil 
 since its introduction, and during the manufacture 
 and trial of .several millions, not one shell has been 
 ruptured by tiring, nor has a gim been impeded by 
 any failure. During a remarkable test by the United 
 Slates Navy Department, of tiring iOO.UOO car- 
 tridges consecutively in the Galling gun, not a single 
 
 Central-fire Solid-head Hfloailin;,' Cartriilges.— Kille. 
 
 •cartridge, which could not be burst or ruptured by 
 any possible charge of jiowder, antl wliieli could lie 
 depended ujjon at all times for rapid tiring in maga- 
 zine, repeating, and ordinary guns. New and im- 
 proved machinery, the result of e.xlensive, exhaustive, 
 and costly experiment, was erected. By the usual 
 
 failure occurred which ]ireventcd the operation of the 
 gun for a .second, although fi4,(MM) rounds were tired 
 in a single day, without sto]iping to clean the gim. 
 
 This method of manufacture has been fully de- 
 veloped and perfecteil by this Company, and the cost 
 is hut little more than the usual one. This cartridge 
 
 ntral-tir. 
 
 a.l Reloading Cartridges.— Pistol. 
 
 method of manufacture, good cartridges were made, 
 yet when fired they frequently failed, bursting near 
 the head, or aroiuul the body of the shell near the 
 head, clogging the gun or endangering the u.ser. 
 After long and careful exaniiuation, .study, and ex- 
 periment, it was discovered that part of the metal of 
 the shell at or near the head, as hardened l)y the usual ; 
 process of drawing, was rendered brittle and com- j 
 ])letely demoralize(i by the then known process of 
 heading, and when this harddniwn metal and the ! 
 
 is of the reloading type, and the methorl of priming 
 has been brought to such great perfection that during 
 llie trial above referred to but two primers failed to 
 explode in tiring 100,000 roimds. During the e.x- 
 l)erience of this Company very many of the great 
 number of iirimers which'have"been introduced have 
 been tested and abandoned, and not until the one 
 now in use was invented was any lu-imer found 
 which could be relied upon under all conditions. In 
 this primer the anvil is tinnly secured directly in line
 
 CABTBIDOE BAGS. 
 
 294 
 
 CABTBID6E BLOCK. 
 
 with the tirlnp-pin, ami tho fuhnin.'iting-compound is 
 fullv protwtod from (iisplaceiiieiit lUid iiijurv. The 
 merits claiineil for this cartnilire arc: jrreat strenglh 
 and non-liability to rupture; adaptability to reloading; 
 ease of extraction; eertaiutv of tire, ami water-proof. 
 See Ammunition, Hhiuk Cartridge, Vinttrjire Mctal- 
 lic-raxe C<irtri(/;/< , and RiUxuJiny-fn rtridges. 
 
 CABTRIDGEBAGS.— t'artridj.'eba!rs are made of 
 twosliaiX's; conical, forgomer chambers, and cylindri- 
 cal, for other ordnance. The cartridge-cloth from 
 which the bags are ma<le is woven expressly for the 
 purpose, being entirely of wool, and of close and 
 uniform texture. It is manufactured in pieces vary- 
 ing in width from sixteen to thirty-six inches; the 
 different widths being adapted for the several lengths 
 of cylinders to s;ive waste in cutting. Cartri<lge-bags 
 for cylindrical chambers are made of a rectangle to 
 form the cjiindcr, and a circular piece to form the 
 bottom. The flat patterns are consequently to be 
 made rectangular for the cylindrical part of the bag, 
 and circular for the bottom. The length of the rect- 
 angle is equal to the development of the cylinder, 
 together with the allowance for seam; and its width, 
 to the whole length of the bag before sewing, in- 
 cluding the allowance for seam and lie. Special pat- 
 terns are furnished for those of 1.5-inch, 11-inch, and 
 9-inch gims. Cartridge-bags for gomer-chambered 
 ordnance are made conical in shape, and out of two 
 pieces. In cutting, the length of the rectangle should 
 be taken in the direction of the length of the stuff, as 
 it does not stretch in that direction, and the 'material 
 should be chosen, as nearly as possible, of the width 
 required for the length of the bags, to save waste in 
 cutting. 
 
 The cartridge-bags for field and mountain service 
 are made as follows: A marker and assistant spread 
 out the cloth on the table in two thicknesses, and 
 make it fa.st at each end of the table on three or four 
 hooks driven in the ends of the tiibles, or by means of 
 weights, drawing it sufficiently to take out" the folds, 
 and no more. They mark out the rectangles and bot- 
 toms with the patterns and ruler, so disposing and 
 combining them as to cut the cloth to the best ad- 
 vantage. The length of the rectangle (development 
 of the cylinder) should be taken in the direction of 
 the length of the stuff, as it does not stretch in that 
 direction. The selvage, if there be any, ought to be 
 at the mouth of the bag. The cutter takes a piece 
 thus marked to another table, and cuts out the rect- 
 angles and bottoms with a pair of .shears. The bot- 
 toms may be cut out with a hollow punch of the 
 proper size. JIarks for the .seam are traced on the rect- 
 angles and bottoms by means of patterns of the proper 
 size. The seam should be at least a half-inch from the 
 edge. The bag is sewed with woolen yarn, with a 
 back-stitch, 12 to the inch. The edges are turned 
 down on the simie side of the seam and basted, to pre- 
 vent the powder from sifting through; the edges of 
 the bottom are basted down upon the sides. Bags 
 may be sewed advantageously by the sening-niachine. 
 Bags for fixed ammunition are sewed to within three 
 inches of the mouth for la-pounders; all others up to 
 the mouth. A bag is given as a model to sew l)y. 
 
 Cartridge-bags, when filled, should pass through 
 the small shot giiuge of their caliber; those used for 
 patterns should be thus verified. The empty bags 
 should be measured by laying the bag, flattened out, 
 between two marks on a table, showing the width of 
 the pattern-bag; a variation of .1 iiich greater or 
 less is allowed. Those sewed with too large stitches 
 are rejected. I 
 
 Bags for practice or blank cartridges may be 
 formed by sewing t )gether two rectangular jneces "with ; 
 semicircular ends; the cloth is marked for cutting and 
 sewing, with stamps made of 1-inch boanls of the di- 
 mensions of the cutting-stamp, with a strip of tin or 
 copper fastened to the edge of the board, and [iroject- 
 ing about J inch perpendie\ilar to the side; another 
 .strip, parallel to the lirst, is inserted in a groove .^ 
 inch from it; the edges of these strijis are made 
 
 rough to retain chalk or paint used in marking. A 
 handle is placed in the middle of the face opposite to 
 the marking-strips. Width of cutting-stamp for 12- 
 pounder, 7.6 inches; length, including semicircular 
 ends, for 12-pounder, 10..5 inches. 
 
 Cartridge-bags are preserved from moths by being 
 packed with pounded camphor and black pepper, or 
 dipped in water with arsenic dis.solved in it, or a so- 
 lution of sulphate of copper, 1 pound of sulphate to 
 25 pounds of water; or the.y may be sealetl up in 
 bundles of fifty in cases made of cartridge-paix'r, 
 carefully closed with strips of thin paper iiasted over 
 the seams. Each bundle is marked with the number 
 and kind of bags. They may be preserved from 
 moisture by being enveloped in" water-proof paper. 
 
 The charge of powjler for siege and garrison guns 
 is inclosed in a cartridge-bag made of merino, "raw 
 silk, serge, cotton, or paper, or of paper with woolen 
 bottoms. Bags made of woolen or silk materials are 
 preferable, as they arc not so liable to leave fire in the 
 guns, and are more durable; but they are much more 
 costly. Merino or cotton biigit are cut in two pieces, 
 in the form of a rectangle, with semicircular ends, 
 and sewed together to form the bag, as described in 
 making bags for field-service. 
 
 The paper for paper hagx is cut into rectangles to 
 form the cylindrical part of the bag. the length of the 
 rectangle being the development of the cylinder, al- 
 lowing ..linch on each side for the lap, and into cir- 
 cles for the bottoms. The sides of the rectangle are 
 lapped and sewed with woolen yarn; one end of the 
 bag is slit with longitudinal cuts. 1 inch long, .7.1 inch 
 apart, and these strips are jxisted on the paper bot- 
 tom over a C3iindrical form ; or a circular piece of 
 merino is sewed in the enrl of the paper bag, forming 
 the bottom. To close a pa|)er bag after being filled^ 
 the open end is folded down about .7.5 inch wide, and 
 this fold is rolled on it.self down to the powder, and 
 the part which iirojccts beyond the cylinder is turned 
 in on the top of it. Two turns are taken with strong 
 twine around the cartridge in the direction of its 
 length, 90° apart, and then tied. 
 
 For mori<irs, cartridge-bags may be made in the 
 same way as for guns, their dimensions correspond- 
 ing to those of the chamber of the mortar. But as 
 the charge is geuerallj" poured loose into the cham- 
 ber, the bag being u.sed only for carrying it to the 
 mortar, a gun cartridge-bag of any convenient size 
 may be used for mortar-service. 
 
 For ricochet firing, or other occasions when very 
 sm;dl charges are required, a cartridge-bag for a piece 
 of an inferior caliber may be used. Or else, after 
 the charge is poured into the bag, place on it another 
 bag tilled with hay, pressing it wilb the hands to re- 
 duce the diameter; after having shaken this bag 
 down and rolled and flattened the enijny part of the 
 two hags, tie them with woolen yarn, like a bimdle 
 of musket-cartridges, placing the knot on top. 
 
 For proring ordnance, cartridge-bags may be made 
 of cotton cloth. They should lie of the full diameter 
 of the bore or chamber. 
 
 Fur hot-shot, cartridge-bags should be iiuide ilouble 
 by putting one bag within another. The charge 
 ought not to exceed three fourths the service-charge, 
 for in consequence of the expansion of the shot the 
 windage is reduced, and a greater strain will be ex- 
 erted on the metid of the gun. The expansion of the 
 gas will also be increased by the heat generated with- 
 in the bore; and, moreover, very gi'cat penetration is 
 not re^iuired, the object to be attained being that the 
 shot sliall merely lodge in the timber See Aninin- 
 nitiiin. 
 
 CARTRIDGE-BELT. — A belt for carrsing small-arm 
 cartridges. A form extensively used in the Western 
 United States, called the prairie-belt, has a number of 
 leather or canvas loops sewed on the outside in which 
 the cartridges are stuck. 
 
 CARTRIDGE-BLOCK. — A contrivance for more 
 readily supplying ammunition when tiring rapidly or 
 when it is not convenient to go to the cartridge-box
 
 CARTBISGE-BOX. 
 
 295 
 
 CABTBIDQE-PAPEB. 
 
 for cartridges, in certain situations. Cartridge-blocks 
 are usually made detachable, and are made fast to the 
 piece when desirable. See Benton, Hare, and Metcalfe 
 C(i rtridfie-blochK. 
 
 CABTBIDGE-BOX.— A leathern ca.se, with cells for 
 cartridges, which are protected by a Hap of leather. 
 This box is either suspended by a leathern strap, which 
 
 A 
 
 plements used in reloading cartridge-shells. These 
 are variously constructed. A tool for recapping and 
 relmding, of very light weight, manufactured by the 
 United States Cartridge Company, has been used 
 with much success both in our army and abroad. Its 
 parts are shown in the drawing. A is the crimping- 
 die and ball-seater, cut open; B is the cap-extractor; 
 
 £ 
 
 L 
 
 Recapping and Reloading Tool. 
 
 passes over the left shoulder and under the right arm 
 of the wearer, or is attached to the waist-belt, as in the 
 United St^ites ser\'ice. 
 
 CARTBIDGE-GAUGES.— Gun metal rings of the re- 
 quired size, with a handle to each gauge, on whicli 
 is stamped the nature and size of the cartridge. 
 There are two kinds: one for testing the diameter of 
 the filled cartridge, the other for showing the length 
 of the cartridge. 
 
 CAETRIDGE-LOADEB.— An apparatus for loading 
 cartridge-shells.- The drawing 
 represents a complete cartridge- 
 loader, combining in one com- 
 pact and portjible machine all 
 the various implements em- 
 ployed in loading paper or 
 metallic shells, viz.; powder 
 and shot reservoir and gauges, 
 rammer, wad-starter, shellcut- 
 ter, and crimper. 
 
 This machine loads very 
 quickly, and during the opera- 
 ' tion of loading the cartridges 
 the powder is inclosed in a 
 covered reservoir. Tlie cart 
 ridges are loa<led unifomdy, 
 and the wads sipiarely placed, 
 thus inipro\-ing the shooting of 
 the gim. An adjustable shelf 
 adapts the cartridge-receiver to 
 loading shells of any length. 
 The machine can be carried in 
 a gun-case, occupying smaller 
 space than the paraphernalia 
 in general use. No practice is 
 required to make it perfect in its use. and there are 
 no complicated parts liable to get out of order Al 
 the parts are in one, and the loss by the s<.paration ot 
 any, and danger of breakage, are thus reduced to a 
 minimum. , , 
 
 The accuracv with which the powder is measurid 
 will be best understood when it is stated that tilty 
 charges being cut off in one tray of the most sensitive 
 scale, and tiftv in the other, no (lUTereiice can be 
 detected in the' balance, the equipoise being per.ectl> 
 preserved. The machine is not simply a combination 
 of old parts, but embodies several new inventions. 
 The device for cutting shells disposes of the rings 
 which form upon all other knives to the inconvenience 
 of the operator; and by the lever employed iii crimp- 
 ing no lateral motion is imparted to the « ic".;"»'j 
 shell only an inch in lencth can be closed or turned 
 over if desired. See Rihrndino Tmpleynentf. . 
 
 CABTEIDGE-LOADING IMPLEMENTS.-The im- 
 
 C is the collar; D is the capping-pimch; and E is 
 the safety-block, cut open. 
 
 To cap the shell, place the collar upon it and insert 
 the shell into the long die or ball-seater and crimper. 
 Put the cap in the pocket by hand, then place the 
 .sjifety-block down over the shell and die. Put the 
 eapinng-punch through the hole in the safety-block, 
 the solid end resting upon the cap, and force the ca)! 
 home by striking upon the end of Ihe punch with the 
 hammer. The convex surface on the cap])iiig-punch 
 is for the purpose of forcing the cap beUne the surface 
 of the head of the shell. 
 
 To load the shell, remove the safety-l)lock and take 
 the collar from the shell; till the shell with the re- 
 quired amount of powder, drop a ball into the ball- 
 seater, and place it over the shell. Then insert the 
 head of the shell into Ihe safety-block, taking care to 
 remove the capping-punch from the hole in the block 
 to prevent the premature discharge of the cartridge, 
 and force the ball home by striking upon the end of 
 the ball-seater with the hammer. At the same time 
 the ball is driven home the end of the shell is crimped, 
 and upon removal from the tools the cartridge is 
 ready tor use. 
 
 After tiring the cartridge, to remove the cx-ploded 
 cap, place the head of Ihe shell in the safety-block 
 and'insert the cap-extractor in the shell, the small i>in 
 will pa.ss through the vent-hole in the shell, and a 
 light blow will remove the cap. Should the loaded 
 cartridge stick in the ball-seater, it can be easily 
 started by inserting the pin in Ihe end of the cap-ex- 
 tractor ill the slot in Ihe end of the ball-seater under 
 the tlauffe of Ihe shell. As the collar is only neces- 
 sary in recapping those shells that are crim|)ed upon 
 the ball, none are useel with tools for shells that do 
 not require crimping. 
 
 With all reloading tools for straight tapered shells 
 a reducing-die is generally employed to restore Ihe 
 shell to its oridnal size and shape. None are made 
 for straight orlxitllc-necked cartridges. Moisten the 
 shell sliCdilly with oil, to prevent it from slicking in 
 the die;''enler the shell at the large end of the die; 
 place the safety -block over the head of the shell, and 
 drive the shell down into the die by striking on the 
 end of the block with the hammer. 
 
 To extract the shell from the die, hold Ihe die 
 firmly in the hand with the head of the shell down; 
 insert the hollow end of Ihe extractor in the mouth of 
 the shell, and strike several quick blows on the 
 rounded end. To reduce the shell easily it will lie 
 neces.sary to let the end of the die rest upon a hrm 
 foundation. See Ethiading Varlrultrfn. 
 
 CABTBIDGE-PAPEE.— A strong paper of which 
 cartridges are made. It comc-s of various sizes and
 
 CABTBIDOE-FBIHEB. 
 
 296 
 
 CASTBIDOE-PRIHEB. 
 
 thicknesses, iicconlinc; to the kiud of cartridge to be 
 made, ranginit from a quality similar to bank-note 
 paper, eniploj-ed for small-arm cartridges, to that 
 used for cannon -cartridges, which is about the 
 thickness of thin pa.steboard, but rougher and more 
 flexible. The latur is, however, now seldom or 
 never used. The different qualities are in the United 
 States service numbered from 1 to 6, the latter being 
 the coarsest and thickest. 
 
 CARTRIDGE PRIMER. — The percussion-cap used 
 in loading metallic cartriilge-cases, and set in a recess 
 in the head of the shell. When the tiring-pin strikes 
 the outside end of the caj). the fulminate is exploded 
 by being tlrivcn against a perforated cone called the 
 anvil, which is usually a part of the shell. In the 
 Winchester primer, recently invented, the anvil is a 
 part of the primer itself, being in.serted upon the 
 fulminate. A shoulder in the recess holds the anvil 
 when the cap is struck. The Frankford Arsenal 
 cartridge-primer is designed and manufactured as a 
 component of the solid-head reloading cartridge, 
 which has a pocket, formed in the exlcricir of tlie 
 ba.se of the sh^ll, to receive and securely hold the 
 inimer. It is essentially a re\'ival of the percussion- 
 cap, which served for mau_v years as an adjunct to 
 muzzle-loading small anns, and now, modified in its 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 form, construction, and application, fills an equally 
 important purpose in the modern breech-loader, 
 being an integral part of the cartridge, instead of a 
 detached au.xiliarj- to the arm. It consists of a copper 
 cap contjiining a pellet of fulniinaling-composition, 
 protected by a disk of tinfoil, and a copper anvil, so 
 formed as to permit the llame from the fulminating- 
 composition to pass, throuirh a \eiil in the iiocket of 
 the cartridge-shell, to the powder-charge, and at the 
 same time afford resistance to the blow of tlic firing- 
 l)in of the arm, which explodes the fulminate. The 
 primer-cap is formed, charged, and dried before the 
 anvil is iaserted. 'When the two are as,sembleil the 
 <omplctc primer is readv for insertion in the jwcket 
 of the shell, prior to loading the latter with powder 
 and bullet. The materials entering into its com- 
 position are as follows: 
 
 Matriiiils. Components. 
 
 Sheet cartridge copper 'l 
 
 Fulminating composition. ... '- Primer-cap. 
 
 Tinfoil ) 
 
 Cartridge copper wire Primer anWl. 
 
 The shciet cartridge -co|iper is ntceived from the 
 manufacturers in the form of a ribbon, about 50 feet 
 long, from .:i6 to .:!7 inch wide, and from .025 to 
 .027 inch thick, coiled for automatic feeding to the 
 machine which forms the caps. The blanks for the 
 
 caps are cut from the sheet-metal ribbon as liisks aud 
 formed into cajis by a double-action (jri'.ss re)>re.sented 
 in Fig. 1. the disk being cut by a die and hollow 
 punch, and pushed through the die to form a cap by 
 another punch following it down through the hollow 
 one. This machine is automatic, re(iu!ring attention 
 only when a riblwn is cut up anil is to be replaced 
 witii another. The skeleton or scrap ribbon is also 
 cut into short pieces by the machine, to facilitate its 
 packing and return as scrap to the manufacturer. 
 The metal ribbon having lieen oiled to facilitate the 
 formation of the caps, they nuist be washed in an 
 alkaline .Mjlution to remove every trace of oil, which, 
 if present, would destroy the fulminate. After wash- 
 ing and drying, the cajis are varnished on the interior 
 surface of the base, to protect the fulminate from 
 injurious chemical action with the metal, and to a.s- 
 sist in attaching and sealing it in place. A .solution 
 of gimi shellac in alcohol, four pounds of the former 
 to one gallon of the latter, constitutes the vamLsh 
 used. The varnishing machine (Fig. 2) consists of an 
 iron bed-plate and two uprights, upon which a cross- 
 
 m\\\m\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^^^^ 
 
 ajHIMlUHHIlimHHHIIHHWWWWWI 
 
 mmmmm 
 
 W^^^^MM 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 head, carrying a gang of wire pins, moves vertically 
 over a vessel containing the varnish. .lust above the 
 varnish-pan the bed-plate is grooved to receive and 
 adjust accurately, under the gang-pins, a plate con- 
 taining the caps, in receptacles arranged in rows 
 corresponding to the pins. The plate is tilled by 
 shaking it, with a handful of caps placed over the 
 receptacles, with a horizontal motion. The caps 
 settle into the receptacles, open end up generally, and 
 the surplus caps are shaken off. The tilled plate is 
 inspected, and any caps requiring it are reversed by 
 the aid of a forceps. The caps remain in the plate 
 initil they are cliarge<l, inspected, and ready for 
 removal to the drying-room. A jjlate holds 326 cajis. 
 and a tally is ke]it of each plateful, to keep account 
 of the nunilx'rof caps completed. In varnishing, the 
 ends of the pins are made to diji into the varui.sh by 
 lowering the cross-bead to a stop. When it is liftetl 
 each i^in carries a drop of varnish. The jilate of caps 
 is pushed into the groove in the bed-plate, the cross- 
 head is lowered until the pins touch the caps, and 
 then raised, leaving a drop of varnish in each cap. 
 The plate of caps is willidrawn and laid for a few 
 minutes upon the lieater. which consists of an iron 
 plate heated by steam-pipes vuuler it to a temperature 
 of about 200' Fahrenlieil, the object being to dry the 
 varnish. The plate of caps is removed to the cooler, 
 which is an iron plate cooled by contact with water 
 on its iHidcr surface. By the reduction of their tem- 
 perature the cai)s may be safely charged without fur- 
 ther delay. The fulminate composition consists of — 
 Moist fulminate of mercury . . 6 pounds. 
 Powdered chlorate of potash. 1.75 " 
 
 Ground glass cr3'st«ls 1.66 " 
 
 Mucilage 14 fluid ounces.
 
 CABTEIDGE-EETEACTOK. 
 
 29( 
 
 CARTBIDGEKETKACTOB. 
 
 The preparation of the fulminate of mercury is i>re- 
 pared as usual, except that aquafortis of the same 
 specific gravity is used instead of nitric acid, the 
 former being the commercial nitric acid and less ex- 
 pensive. Tlie grr)und glass is sifted between Ixilting- 
 cloths of 100 and 160 meshes per linear inch, to re- 
 move coarser and tiner particles. Owing to its 
 liability to sour in warm weallier, the mucilage should 
 be made only in such quantities as can be u.sed before 
 it spoils. The moist fulminate is well drained of its 
 water, spread upon a board, and rolled out into a 
 thin sheet, like pastry. The dry chlorate of potash 
 and glass-dust are spread evenly over and thoroughlv 
 incorporated with it, by means of a wooden rolling- 
 pin and a spatula, using care not to allow any of it 
 to become scattered and dry. The mucilage is next 
 added, and the whole mass well stined and mixed, 
 after which it is placed in a delf bowl and the latter 
 covered with a damp cloth. If too moist, it is left 
 spread out a short time until it has the consisteucj' of 
 a stiff paste. The charging-machine consists of a 
 rectangular iron bed-plate, 18 by 20 inches. At one 
 edge is a "roove to receive the plate of caps from the 
 cooler. ISear the inner edge of this groove a plate, 
 perforated with holes corresjionding to the caps, is 
 hinged to the bed-plate, to measure and convey the 
 charges to the caps. The tinfoil is iirocured in strips 
 about 150 feet long, 2.25 inches wide, and from 
 .003 to .0035 inch thick. It is cut into strips about 
 4 feet long for convenience in handling and feeding 
 to the machine. This short strip is laid flat upon a 
 table, and its upper surface is coated with shellac 
 varnish, after which it Ls laid aside to dry. A num- 
 ber of strips having been thus iirepared, one at a time 
 is taken and again coated with a thinner shellac 
 varnish immediately before feeding it to the foiling- 
 machine. The last coat of varnish softens and com- 
 bines with the first and facilitates the attachment of 
 the edge of the tinfoil disk to the varnished surface 
 of the bottom of the cap around the charge. The 
 foiling-machine is a single-action press ananged to 
 receive and move horizontally the plate of capsunder 
 a gang of punches and dies. The strip of foil is fed 
 between these tools, and by them cut into disks. The 
 caps are ne.xt shaken out of the plates into trays 
 having woven brass-wire Iwttoms, in which they are 
 removed to the drjing-room (Fig. 3), where they re- 
 
 gradually renewed. This process is necessarj- to drj- 
 and harden the charge. At tirst sight it woiild seeiii 
 to impair the sealing between the tinfoil disk and the 
 ba.sc of the cap, for that is the only avenue of escape 
 for the moisture of the charge; but it is probable that 
 the temperature slowly dries the charge and keep- 
 the varnish soft enough to renew the staling at such 
 points where it may Ije temporarily ojK'ncd by the 
 
 I 
 
 Fio. 
 
 main for six or eight weeks. The room is kept at a 
 temperature of about 100' Fahrenheit, and by suitable 
 ventilation its atmosphere is kept in motion and 
 
 Fro. 4. 
 
 escaping moisture. A comparison of the water- proof 
 quality of caps dried in this slow manner and more 
 rapidly, at higher temperature, shows a decided ad- 
 vantage for the former method. Although they are 
 not absolutely water-proof, they are suflkiently so for 
 the ordinary vicisitudes of service, and the risks of 
 serious accidents attending the use of dry fulminate, 
 for the sake of hermetical sealing, are obWated. The 
 primer-anvil is made from cartridge copper wire, 
 which is procuretl in coils alx)Ut 30 feet long, for 
 automatic feeding to the machine which forrns the 
 anWi. The anvils are cut from this wire by a punch 
 and die operated by a single-action press 
 (Fig. -1). after which" they are w.ished to free 
 them from oil. dried, and churned in clean 
 hard sjiwdust to brighten them and remove 
 any burr formed in the oixralion of cut- 
 ting them from the wire. This machine is 
 automatic, recjuiring attention only when a 
 new coil of wire is iieeded to supply it, an<l 
 it cuts .the skeleton wire or scrap into small 
 pieces for convenience in packing and ship- 
 ment to the manufacturers. The anvils 
 and caps are a.-isembli-d by means of a lever 
 hand-pre.ss. They are shaken into recep- 
 tacles in plates prepared for each. These fit 
 together by dowel-pins, and a plate having 
 pins corresponding to the anvils forces 
 them, by aid of the press, securely into the 
 caps. The complete primers are now ready 
 for insertion into the pocket of the shell, 
 or for Ix'ing packed, for issue separately. 
 in tin .seandess Iwixes containing 500 primer- 
 each. After its insertion in th<' shell a drop 
 of varnish is put upon the jirimer, in nilo. 
 b.v a machine similar to that for varnish- 
 ing the cai>s. This varnish flows around 
 the junction of the primer and [xxkel. and 
 renders the cartridge practically waterjiro-of. 
 See Cthkr-iii-iiiieii M,l,illii-.i-ii»e Ciiiriilgi. 
 Cfi'irt/i»f/-W'"'/iin> . and /■'<ii/iiifjiniir/iiii(. 
 CAETEIDGE-BETEACTOB.— That part of 
 a breech-loadinu' tire-arm whi<-h catches the empty 
 cartridge-case bv its flange and draws it rearwardly 
 from the bore o! the gim.
 
 CARTEIDGE-VARNISHING MACHINE. 
 
 298 
 
 CASE. 
 
 CAETRIDGE-VARNISHING MACHINE— The (le- 
 sion of this iiiiuliiuc is Ui coiit Ihc interior of metallic 
 ritleshells with am imi>ernu-al)lc cliistic varnish that 
 will prevent chemical action between the salts of the 
 gunpowder imd the material of the shells. The re- 
 sult is to insure the preservation of the shells, anil of 
 the qualitv of the cartridges, for an indefinite i>eriod. 
 The operjuion is also adapted to the preparation of 
 once-discharged shells, making tliem available for 
 recharging. The shells are placed in a hopper, 
 scvcnd hundred at a time, and fed singly, 40 passing 
 through the different sUiges of the process at once, at 
 the rate of 200(1 or mote per hour. Besides revolving 
 around the central spindle, the shells are rotated in 
 the chucks which hold them, to prcvcnl the accumu- 
 lation of the varnish in any one spot, and to insure its 
 
 wanting. The object of the auscabel is to facilitate 
 ! handling the piece when mounting, di.smounling, and 
 j transporting it. The cancabeh of ships' gims have 
 bireffiin/i-loops in place of knobs, intended for the 
 breic/uiig, whose ends pass to ring-bolts on each 
 I side of the port, and whose duty is to limit the re- 
 coil. 
 
 CASCABEL BLOCK.— A device employed in the 
 iuspecliuu of cannon. It consists of a wootlen cylin- 
 der of the proper diameter of the breeching-hole, the 
 size of which it is use<i to verify. The opening 
 between the jaws may be ascertjuned by measuring 
 the iron block which is tilted to go between them, or 
 bv a temi)latc. See Inspection of Ordmince. 
 i 'CASCABEL-PLATE. — In machine guns, a plate 
 1 closing the rear end of the breech-casing, and serving 
 
 Cartridge-varnishing Machine. 
 
 being spread evenly. This rotary motion "sets" the 
 varnish, which should afterwards be hardened and 
 thoroughly dried, by means of a cheap sluet-iron 
 furnace, that may be readily heated by steam-pipes, 
 or in any other "convenient manner. One operator 
 jnay attend two or three machines, as all the motions 
 of the machine are entirely automatic, iiuludiiig an 
 effective stop motion, that acts promptly at any ob- 
 struction. To insure uniforni results, the tempera- 
 ture of the room in which the machine is used should 
 be kept, as nearly as iwssible, at 70° Fahr , and the 
 air shoulel be drvand free froin dust. The machine 
 mav be a<lapte(l to shells of any caliber. It weighs 
 1800 pounds. 
 
 CARTRIDGE-WIRE. — 1. The priming-wire where- 
 by the cartridge is connected to the conducting-wire 
 of the voltaic battery. 2. The needle whereby the 
 cartridge-envelope ispierced, in order that the prim- 
 ing may connect with the powder. 
 
 CASCABEL— CASCABLE.— The projection in rear 
 of the bret'ch. It is comiiosed of the knob and the 
 neck; the latter unites the knob to the base of the 
 breech. In heavy gvnis of recent model the cascabel 
 is quite rudimentary, while in mortars it is entirely 
 
 to incase and protect the revolving-gear. See Gatling 
 
 Gun. 
 
 CASCANS.— In fortification, holes in the form of 
 wells, serving as entrances to galleries, or giving vent 
 to the enemy's mines. 
 
 CASCHETTO.— An Italian ca.sque of the sixteenth 
 century, in iron beaten work, chased and also damas- 
 cened. 
 
 CASE.— 1. The charge-holder of a submarine mine. 
 Whatever may be its form, the following conditions 
 are essential : 
 
 1st. It must be water-tight, to prevent damage to 
 the charge by leakage. 
 
 2d. It must be sufficiently strong to bear handling 
 without danger of becoming leaky by straining, and 
 must be able to sustain the external pressure due 
 to the depth of water at which it is to be placed. 
 
 3d. When gunpowder, or gim-cotton tired with 
 an ordinary fuse, is used, it must be sufficiently 
 strong to hold the charge together, as it were, for an 
 instant at the moment of ignition, so that its full 
 effect may be obtained by as thorough a combustion 
 a.s jiossible of the charge. 
 
 4th. In the case of a buoyant mine, it must be ca-
 
 CASE HARDENING. 
 
 299 
 
 CASE HAKDENIN6. 
 
 pable of being arranged with a large excess of flota- 
 tion, so tbat when moored it may remain as stationary 
 as possible at the required point. 
 
 ■5th. It should be of such form as to be capable of 
 licing handled and moored conveniently. 
 
 6th. It should be of such form as to secure the 
 thorough ignition of the charge with the smallest 
 po».sible number of fuses. 
 
 7th. It should be easy of construction and not too 
 costly. 
 
 First, with reference to the form of the case. This 
 gencially is either conical, spherical, or cylindrical. 
 The former is the best for selfactijig buoyant iiiincs. 
 The a])ex (Fig. 1) of the cone forms a convenient 
 point to which the mooringcable may be attached, 
 while the base, terminating by a curved portion, 
 serves as an air-chamber, giving the necessary buoy- 
 
 the protection of the charge, which is contained in a 
 
 water-tight envelope, and may be an IndiarublKT 
 
 bag or a tin or zinc can. The strengthening of the 
 
 cask is to g\iard against collapsing when submerged 
 
 in deep water. Under ordinary circumstances the 
 
 depth of the water will not be so great as to require 
 
 strcDgthening of good ca.sks beyond stout hoops of 
 
 j iron. As the charge must generally remain a con- 
 
 1 siderable time — perhaps many months— under water 
 
 t)efore explosion, it is most essential to have the ca.se, 
 
 I whatever it may be, completely water-tight ; and with 
 
 1 this view the ca.sk is coated, lioth inside and outside, 
 
 with a composition of pitcli and tar. The envelojx; 
 
 containing the charge within the cask shoidd be 
 
 lirmly fixed, so that no independent motion may dis- 
 
 1 turb the connections of the electrical apparatus. See 
 
 I Submarine Mines. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fio. 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 ancy to keep the mooring-cables taut, and to hold the 
 mine in a comparatively stationary position in a cur- 
 rent or tide-way. The nipples containing the fulmi- 
 nating composition are placed on the rim uniting the 
 base with the conical surface. In this position they 
 are most likely to be struck by a passing vessel. 
 There should be four or more of these nipples, 
 depending upon the size of the case. For all other 
 cases, except the one just mentioned of a floating 
 mine, intended for small charges to be exiiloded by 
 mechanical means, the cylindrical form is best, anil 
 the one most frequently adopted for both ground and 
 buoyant mines containing heavy charges. Fig. 2 
 represents the form so successfully used by the Con- 
 federates, 1861-65. Fig. 3 repre-sents that of the 
 Austrians, For large ground-mines the best form of 
 case seems to be that of the turtle-mine. A heavy 
 charge may be contained in it ; it fonns its own 
 anchor, and it would withstand an explosion of an 
 adjacent mine without sustaining any injur}'. This 
 is the best form for resisting strong currents. The 
 difficulty and cost of making s|iherical cases have 
 heretofore deban-ed their adojition on 
 a large scale, but recently General 
 Abbott, U. S. Engineers, has sinipli- 
 lied the process of manufacture and 
 made them practicable. This pro- 
 cess consists in pressing circular disks 
 of steel into hemispherical segments, 
 which are united by tlangcs, as repre- 
 sented in Fig. 4. As regards the ma- 
 terial of which the cases may be most 
 advantageously constructed, several substances have 
 been tried and used, such as wood, iron, and vul- 
 canized India nibber. For actual war-service, regu- 
 larly-constructed torpedoes or mines would generally 
 be turned over to the posts ready for use ; but it 
 might become necessary to improvise cases out of such 
 materials as would be available. Tight barrels and 
 hogsheads, when properly strengthened, are a good 
 substitute for even the most improved form of case. 
 The barrel or cask is simply an external shield for 
 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 3. To give a portable fonn to compositions, they 
 are inclosed in ca.ses, cast in molds, or attached to cot- 
 ton yarn, rope, etc. Cases are generally paper tubes, 
 made by covering one 
 side of a sheet of paper 
 with paste or gum-ara- 
 bic, then wrapping it 
 around a former, and 
 rolling it under a fiat surface until all the layers 
 adhere to each other. The quality of the paper, and 
 the thickness of the sides of the case, should depend 
 upon the pressure of the gases evolved in the burning. 
 To fill a ca.se, it is first cut to the proper length, and 
 placed in a mold ; the composition is then poured in, 
 a ladleful at a time, and each ladleftil is jiacked by 
 striking a certain number of blows on a drift with a 
 mallet of a given weight. The height of each ladle- 
 ful of composition should be about equal to a single 
 diameter of the bore of the case. Small drifts, 
 receiving heavy blows, should be made of steel, and 
 tipped with bronze ; large drifts may be made of 
 wood or bronze, depending on tlie force of tlie blow. 
 In driving liigldy inflammable compositions, as that of 
 the rocket, care should be taken to settle the drift, so 
 as to exclude the air before striking with the mallet, 
 as the heat generated by the sudden condensation of 
 air might be sufficient to ignite the composition. 
 Preliminary tests of all new materials should be made 
 by burning one or more specimens of the composi- 
 tion, and the proportions of the ingredients corrected, 
 if neces,«ary. The length of the flame from a given 
 compositio"n depends on the size of the vent and the 
 extent of the buniing surface. The vent is made 
 small by choking the end of the case with stout twine ; 
 and the burning surface is increa-sed by driving the 
 composition arountl a spindle, which on being with- 
 drawn leaves a conical-shaped caxity. A vent may 
 be also fonned by drivinir in moist plaster of Paris or 
 clay, and boring a hole in it with a gimlet. If the 
 end of the case is to be closed up entirely, the Iwring 
 is omitted. Sec Conijmiritiims and FuM. 
 
 CASE-HARDENING.— A process by which the ex-
 
 CASEKATE. 
 
 300 
 
 CASEHATE-OIR- 
 
 tcrnal surface of wrouglit-iron is converted into steel 
 to enable it to resist the wear and tear of friction ami 
 to receive a tine ix)lisli. It protluces the external 
 hardness of steel without its brittleiicss. Case-hard 
 ening consists in heating the wrought-iron to a cherry- 
 red in a close vessel in contact with animal-charcoal, 
 and then plunging the healeil iron into cold water or 
 sperm-oil. Bone-dust is usually ciiiiiloyed at the 
 armory, although old shoes, leather scraps, hoots 
 and horns of animals, and soot may he used. The 
 bones are first pulverized and then charred. The 
 work to Ih.' case-hardened is packed as follows: First, 
 a layer of animal charcoal or bone-dust is jilaced over 
 tlje bottom of the iron retort, and then rows of the 
 iron jiieccs to be case- hardened are placed side by 
 side, but not in contact, until the stratum of bone- 
 dust is covered. Enough bone-dust is now put in to 
 cover the metal parts, and then another layer of com- 
 ponents put in as before. Continue to put in these 
 alternate layers until the retort is full; an<l lastly, 
 pour a quantity of the finest bone-dust on the top of 
 the retort, anil i>a<U it down well to exclude the air. 
 The retorts thus packei.1 are transferred to an o\eii or 
 revcrberatory furnace and brought to the proper licut, 
 when the}' are removeil and plunged into colli water 
 or sperm-oil. where they are left until cold. The 
 process is called cane-hardening in oil or case-harden- 
 ing in irater, according as sperm-oil or water be used 
 for the cooling medium. If plunged in oil the metal 
 is tmiforinly blackened on the exterior, provided the 
 air does not strike it and produce a film of oxide, | 
 which will "scale" off and leave a marred surface. 
 When water is used the "steeled" surface will often : 
 exhibit fine colors, and will be harder than that ' 
 chilled in oil. The iron will be more liable to crack \ 
 (" check"), especially at sharp angles, and to warp by 
 sudden and unequal contraction when immersed in 
 water than it would in oil. In packing, the small 
 parts are fretiuently strung together on wires f<ir con- 
 venience in handling. See Fnhricatpjn of Fire-ann.i. 
 CASEMATE.— Various modes have, from time to 
 time, been proposed for arranging defensive case- 
 mates for the exterior defense of laud-fronts. The 
 difTiculty in covering the masonry from the batteries 
 of the assailant has l)een the chief objection to these 
 structures, and is the more prominent as the fire of 
 artillery Ijccomes more accurate, as such casemates 
 would soon be ruined or rendered untenable by em- 
 bra.sure shots. The structure for this purpose which 
 has been most applit'd within late years is what is 
 termed the ILuo cjinemtite ; the details having lieen 
 first proposed by General Haxo, one of the lirst 
 authorities of the French school of engineers. These 
 casemates consist of a series of arched bomb-proof 
 chambers closed in front by a thin mask wall which, 
 except around the embrasures through it, is covered 
 from the assailant's artillery by the jjarapet. To pre- 
 sent but a small surface of masonry to tire, the arches, 
 which are horizontal and perpendicular to the mask 
 wall for the greater portion of their length, descend 
 toward the front, leaving where they join the mask 
 wall just siiHicient height within for ihescrvice of the 
 gun. To effect this tlui anterior portion of the arch 
 must be conoidal in shape. The piers of the arches 
 are pierced with wide arched openings, which serve 
 the doul)le purpose of a communication between the 
 casemates and to give the gun a wider traverse for 
 firing. Embrasuresare pierced in the parapet in pro- 
 longation of those of the mask wall. an<l it is pro- 
 posed to cover the small portion of the masonry neces- 
 .sarily exposed by this arrangement by i)laeing several 
 thicKnes.scs of heavy timber in front of it to receive 
 the shot, or to case "it with wrought-iron. When the 
 casemates serve simi)ly for the cover of the cannon, 
 the arches are covered with from 4 to (i feet thickness 
 of earth, and arc left open to the rear for the more 
 )irompt escape of the smoke, and a ditch is sometimes 
 made just in rear of the casemates to catch bombs 
 and limit the effects of their explosion. When the 
 arches are made longer than for the service of the 
 
 guns alone, the earthen covering is sometimes ar- 
 ranged with a parajJet to cover cannon in the barbette, 
 
 : or for small-arms. 
 
 In the ca-semated batteries for sea-coast and harlx)r 
 defenses, the scarp or mask walls of the chambers for 
 
 1 the guns, being cvjiosed to the tire of ships alone, are 
 not covered, as on land-fronts, by an earthen mask; 
 these walls being built of sufficient thickness and 
 strength to withstand the fire of the heaviest guns 
 within the range that ships can venture to attack, 
 and being far less vulnerable than the wooden or iron 
 sides of vessels thus far brought into general use. 
 These batteries in our own and European works con- 
 sist of a series of arched bomb-proof chambers which 
 serve for the ser\ice of the guns alone; or else they 
 receive such dimensions that the portions of the 
 
 j chambers immediately in rear of the mask wall are 
 
 I appropriated to the service of the battery, and the 
 rear portions are converted into quarters, store rooms, 
 and other necessary purpo.ses for the garrison. In 
 the earlier .sea-coast ca.semated defenses constructed in 
 our service, the gun-chambers have received dimen- 
 sions to admit of two guns in each chamber. The 
 chambers are usually formed of .segmental brick 
 arches of 120 , which rest upon stone piers built back 
 perpendicular to the mask wall. When the case- 
 mates serve also as quarters for the garrison, the rear, 
 towards the parade, is closed by a brick or stone 
 parade-wall, which forms the front wall of the quar- 
 ters. A brick partition-wall separates the quarters 
 from the gun-gallery. Arched reces.ses and Hues are 
 made in the piers for chimneys, and the parade-wall, 
 the sides of the piers, and sotfit of the arch are suit- 
 ably finished to give a dry and well-ventilated dwell- 
 ing. In most of our earlier casemated worlcs there 
 is but one tier of casemated guns; this tier being sur- 
 mounted by a barbette batter}- covered either by an 
 earthen or stone parapet on the water-fronts. Case- 
 mates adapted to two guns in each room present a 
 more vidnerable mark in the jiortion of the mask 
 wall between the piers; exjiose more men to danger 
 from embrasure shots; present a greater opening in 
 rear to the as.sailant's fire when not closed by a 
 parade-wall; offer less resistance to the shock of 
 shells; and are more difficult to construct without set- 
 tling than rooms for single guns. These advantages 
 in favor of casemates for single gims are the more 
 marked where, for the purpose of obtaining a heavy 
 fire in some fixed direction, it is desirable to n^sort 
 to a castellated structure consisting of several tiers 
 of casemates. See Covered Defenses and Mortar Case- 
 ma lex. 
 
 CASEMATED EETRENCHMENTS.— Fortifications 
 projiosed 1)V t'arnot. They consist of a wall S6 feet 
 liigh and 9 feet thick, erected at the gorge of the bas- 
 tions, and iiro\ideil with two rows of looi)-holes. the 
 upper for musketry, the lower for small mortars of a 
 jieciiliar description. Behind this wall is a ditch 30 
 feet wide, and on the rear of it stands a casemated 
 battery. 
 
 CASEMATE-GIN. — The garrison and casemate gins 
 differ from thi< siege-gin in having two cross-bars of 
 iron instead of the three wooden cross-bars, and in 
 having the pry-pole inserted between the legs, which 
 are kept together by the clevis-bolt. The upper block 
 (generally treble) is hooked to the clevis. The ca.se- 
 mate-gin is made shorter than the garrison-gin, so 
 that ii may be hoisted in casemates. With the guns 
 now usually moimted in ca.semates it is essential to 
 use a bail for slinging, in order to gain the necessjtry 
 flistaiice from the head of the gin for the working of 
 the tackle. The gin is put together across the piece, 
 or on the ground near it. and raised by moving up the 
 legs and pry-pole towards each other. The pry pole 
 has cleats nailed to it to enable a man to mount to the 
 head of the gin to hook on the block and to reeve the 
 fall. 
 
 To reeve the fall, fasten one end of a trace-rope to 
 the upper block by passing it through the shell of the 
 block. An expert man ascends the pry -pole to tlie
 
 CA8EHATE-GUN. 
 
 301 
 
 CASTELLAH. 
 
 head, and passes the free end of the rope through the 
 clevis, from whence it is carried down to the windlass, 
 where a couple of turns are taken. By heaving on 
 the windlass, the block is laised and the hook passed 
 through the clevis, with its ix)int (oirardg the pole. 
 The upper block may be hooked to the cleWs and 
 raised ^vilh the gin; the fall may also be rove and the 
 whole raised together. The extra weight thus given 
 makes the gin more difficult to lift. 'I'he gin is low- 
 ered by gradually' drawing out the pry-pole until the 
 men can get near enough toward the head to support 
 it; it is then lowered upon the piece or on the ground, 
 as the case may be. See Gin and Mechanical Ma- 
 m'lirerx 
 
 CASEMATE GUN.— A gun mounted in a casemated 
 battery. Casemated batteries are generally used on 
 the sea-faces of works, and in defending the entrance 
 of harbors, in which case they consist of a bonil)-i)roof 
 arch, open to the rear. Iron plating and shields of 
 various thickness are used in the protection of the 
 embrasures. 
 
 CASEMATES NOUVELLES.- Arched batteries which 
 are constructed under all the openings of revetments 
 or ramparts. The different forts of Cherbourg are 
 defended by these casemates; the works erected 
 around Dover Castle come likewise under this de- 
 scription; the works at Fort Columbus, New York, 
 are erected on the s;ime principle. 
 
 CASEMATE-TRUCK.— This machine is intended for 
 moving pieces and their carriages in the galleries of 
 casemate-batteries, or through posterns. It consists — 
 old pattern, of a stout frame of wood; new pattern, 
 of wrought-iron, mounted on three low wheels. Two 
 of the wheels arc placed at the sides, like those of a 
 cart; the third is placed in a fork at the middle of 
 the front end; the fork turns around its vertical 
 a.xis as the direction of the truck changes. The fork 
 and wheel are removed by raising the end of the 
 truck and allowing the fork to drop from its socket. 
 A tongue, likewise removable, is attached for the 
 purpose of guiding the truck. To better understand 
 the u.se of this construction, we will notice the man- 
 ner of placing a casemate chassis on the truck. 
 
 The chassis is on the ground, the truck near it, 
 with its front wheel and tongue removed. The chas- 
 sis, either side down, is raised, by successive pur- 
 chases, with handspikes, and blocked up to a height 
 sufficient to allow the truck to go under it. The 
 truck is then run under the chassisand turned so that 
 
 its axis is parallel to that of the chassis, and is so placed 
 that the center of gra\ity of the chassis is, as near as 
 pos.sible, over the a.xle "of the truck. The blocking 
 is then removed and the chassis allowed to rest on the 
 truck. The tongue of the truck is replaced. The 
 truck is moved to the designated casemate, and the 
 chassis lowered from the truck as it was placed 
 thereon. If it is upside down, it is turned over and 
 placed properlv on the traverse-circles. The tongue 
 of the chassis is then Ixilted to the front transom and 
 securccl by the pintle in the throat of the embrasure. 
 The chassis may be lowered from the truck by means 
 of the gin. 
 
 To remove the chassis from the casemate, the 
 tongue of the chassis is unbolted from the front tran- 
 som and the chassis raised, either by prjnng and 
 blocking or with the gin; the truck is then jplaced 
 under it as before. It is generally preferable to re- 
 move the front wheel from the truck and to pry up 
 but one end of the chassis; the truck is then worked 
 under it from the side, and, after the chassis is low- 
 ered upon the truck, the raised end is borne down 
 
 until the front wheel of the truck can be replaced. 
 See Mcffiimieal Mamiirers. 
 
 CASERNES.— In fortification, buildings for the sol- 
 diers of the garrison to live in; generally erected be- 
 tween the houses of fortified towns and the rampart. 
 In a general acceptation, ca.sernes signifv barracks. 
 
 CASE-SHOT.- An jusscmblage of buflets or small 
 balls inclosed in a cylindrical case or canister. The 
 diameter of this canister is a little less than the bore 
 of the gun from which it is to be discharged. Ac- 
 cording to the size of the canister, the balls vary from 
 1 i)OUnd to i ounce each, from 30 to 280 in number, 
 and from 3i pounds to 85 pounds in total weight. 
 The canister bursts immediately on leaving the gun, 
 and the balls spread out into an irregular sort of cone. 
 Within a range of 500 yards they work great execu- 
 tion among troops. They are generally used at 200 
 or 300 yards. 
 
 In a more modem and effective kind, called 
 Sp/ierical Vase, the bullets are inclosed, along with a 
 charge of powder, in an iron shell, instead of a tin 
 canister. It is often called Shrajmtl, from the name 
 of its inventor. A spherical case-shot for a 68-pound 
 caiTonade, or for an 8-inch howitzer, contains 337 
 balls; for a 2-1-pounder gun, 128; and for an 18- 
 pounder, 90. It is exploded by a fuse the length of 
 which depends on 'the distance of the point where 
 the destructive effect is to Ix; wrought. Its effect is 
 something like that of a prolonged rauskct-tire. The 
 Shrapnel shell is not of much use against the hull 
 of a ship, but is very destructive agamst inas.ses of 
 men on shore, or on the decks of a ship, with a 
 greater range than that of ordinarj' canister. Artil- 
 lerymen prefer just .such an amount of charge as w ill 
 burst the sphere, without scattering the balls very 
 widely. See Canister-s/wt, Grape-shut, Projectiki, 
 SluUii, Shru 11)1)1, and Splieri)-al Case-shot. 
 
 CASHIERING.— A punishment for officers in the 
 army and na\'j'. It is a severe fonn of dismissal 
 from the service, and implies that the officer, by some 
 disgraceful conduct, has deserved not only (lismissal, 
 but dis(|ualitication for ever acraiii entering the .service. 
 Sometimes there are words adiled implying still deeper 
 ignominy and degradation. On .some rare occasions, 
 when aC'ourt-JIartial has awarded cashiering, the 
 Commander-iu Chief has mitigated the punishment to 
 simple dismis.sal. " Scandalous and infamous con- 
 duct," and ■' Conduct unbecoming the character of 
 an officer and a gentleman," mark two decrees of 
 offense which may lead, the one to cashiering, the 
 other to dismissal. 
 
 CASING. — 1. The middle wall of a blast-furnace. 
 Beginning from the inside, we find the lining, stuffiDg, 
 cai<i))g, and mantle. 2. A wooden tunnel for powder- 
 hose in blasting. 3. The cast-iron case of converted 
 guns. 
 
 CASK.— A round wooden vessel of more length 
 than breadth, bulging out in the middle, and closed 
 up at either end. In military operations casks are 
 used to form bridges across rivers when no pontons 
 can be had. They should be about 4 feet 3 inches 
 long, and diameter at head and Inilge 2 feet 2 inches 
 and 2 feet 9 inches respectively, which is the size of 
 the water-butts of the navy; but any barrels available 
 will answer. Casks filled with earth may also be 
 used as gabions on an emergency, and also in the erec- 
 tion of barricades when it is"necessiiry to build a 
 revetment. 
 
 CASQUE.— The French name for helmet, and which 
 in ancient armor was the name by which that head- 
 piece was known. Aso written Ca*k: 
 
 CASSE-TETE. — A mace or war-dub, made of very 
 hard wood, used formerly in savage warfare. 
 
 CASSINE.— A small house, especially in the open 
 cnimtrj-; applied also to a house standing alone, 
 where "soldiers mav lie hid, or may take a jiosition. 
 
 CASTELLAN.— A Governor or Constable of a ca.«tle. 
 The office and the rank of the Castellan were various 
 in various countries. In France and Flanders the 
 title Castellan belonged to the holders of certain de-
 
 CASTING. 
 
 303 
 
 CABT-IBON. 
 
 mesnes, and wiis next in order of rank to that of a 
 Bailiff. In Germany tlie Castellan had the jurisdic- 
 tion of a Burjr-irraf durini; the Ages of Chivalry. In 
 Poland, the lille of Caslellaii, ■\vilh its appendages, 
 remained in later times, and, after the si.\tcenth cen- 
 ttiry, the Castellans, with the Waiwodes and Bishops, 
 formed the Senate or SuiX'rior Legislative Chamber. 
 CASTING.— The operation next after molding, in 
 the fabrication of csust guns. The metal for the gun 
 is melted in re\erl)cnitory air-furnaces, of the con- 
 struction shown in the drawing, two or three being 
 .sometimes required for casting the heavier guns. In 
 these furnaces the draught is produced by high chim- 
 neys instead of a bla.st, which is used in the cupola- 
 furnace. The metnl for what is termed a "heat" is 
 all placed in the inetal-chaml)er. A, before the lire is 
 lighted. The fuel, biluniinons coal, is placed on 
 grate-bars, K, in the fuel-chamber, B, and, when ignil- 
 •cd, the flame passes through the nietal-chambtr on its 
 way to the chimney. The iron is melted by this 
 flame without coming in contact with solid carbon at 
 all, unlike the cupola-furnace, where the fuel and 
 iron are mixed together. D is the charging-door, and 
 C the ash-pit. The furnace is prepared for charging 
 by coveting the bed of the metjil-chamber with a layer 
 -of sand evenly distributed and firmly packed. Boards 
 
 Reverberatory Air-furnace. 
 
 are laid down, upon which the pigs of iron are piled. 
 If a number of guns are to be cast from the same 
 grades of iron, it is very important that the beds of 
 the furnaces should be prepared in every instance as 
 With the standard gun, as the treatment of a given 
 charge of iron may be varied by the manner of dress- 
 ing the bed of the furnace. The different grades of 
 iron to be used for the heat are weighed and piled 
 in proper proportions in the metal-chamber. Care 
 should be taken to have the furnace perfectly dry 
 throughout. When it has been out of use long 
 cnougli to become damp, it should lie dried l)y a fire 
 in the fire-chamber before l)eing charged. When two 
 or more furnaces are used in casting a gun, (he lap- 
 lioles, E, are connected by troughs with a reservoir 
 called a mixing-basin, in which the different charges 
 are thoroughly mixed before entering the mold. The 
 furnaces being charged and everything in readiness, 
 the fires arc stjirted and regulatf'd so that the iron in 
 all will be melted or " down." as near as jiracticable, 
 at the same time. The length of time re(|uired to 
 obtain complete fusion depends in great measure upon 
 the state of the atmos|>here and (juantity of metal in 
 the charge; it may vary from T) to 12 hours. When 
 the charge is nearly down, wooden jioles or iron rods 
 are inserted in boles provided for that imrpose in the 
 walls of the furnaces, and the melted metal fre(|uently 
 stirred or puddled to bring the vnunclted lumps iii 
 contact with the llame. As soon as the charge of a 
 furnace is ascertained to be fairly down, specimens 
 
 are taken out to determine whether the iron is suffi- 
 ciently decarbonized or " high" to be in a proper con- 
 dition for casting. These specimens are ca.st in green 
 sand-molds and broken as .soon as they Ix^come cold. 
 The condition of the iron is indicated by the appear- 
 ance of the fracture, and varics.so nuich with different 
 brands useci that its determination is largely a matter 
 of experience. If the first s])eeiinens show insulficient 
 deearbouization, the iron is kept in fusion still longer 
 and the puddling process is continued. When it is 
 found that the deearbouization has gone far enough, 
 the puddling is stopped. As the density and tensile 
 strength of the iron <lepend in a great measure upon 
 the highness to which it is brought, a correct dccLsiou 
 is very important. As soon as the melted metal in 
 all the furnaces is found to be in proper condition f(jr 
 casting, the furnaces are tapped simultaneou.sly and 
 the metid conducted by troughs to the mixing-basin, 
 where the several charges are thoroughly mixed. It 
 then flows on through other troughs connecting with 
 the side-gates of the mold, and, pa.ssuig down, enters 
 the mold-cavity by the branches. These branches 
 connect with tlie side-gates at regular intervals, and 
 are so constructed that the metal enters in a horizon- 
 tid direction toward the axisof the mold-cavity. The 
 surface of the metal, as it enters, is stirred to prevent 
 the scoria from lodging; care should be taken 
 not to give it a "swirl," which throws the 
 lightest metal in around the core, where the 
 heaviest and best should be. When the mold 
 is filled, the tap-holes of the furnaces are 
 closed, and the surface of the metid in the 
 sinking-head is covered with a layer of char 
 coal to prevent its chilling. For two or three 
 hours after the casting, more metal is added 
 at short intervals of time, to feed the shrink- 
 age, by pouring from a ladle at the top of 
 the mold as the surface sinks. See Rodman 
 (! 'I n . 
 
 CASTING-LADLE. — An iron vcs-sel with 
 handles for conveying molten metivl from 
 the cupola and pouring it into the mold. 
 The term is also applied to a ladle u.sed in 
 the manufacture of steel, tnade of wrought- 
 iron lined with fire-clay, liaving a small 
 hole in the botton for running out the melted 
 steel into the ingot-molds placed below. This 
 hole is closed by an iron rod coated with 
 fire-clay, and is raised or lowered by a hand- 
 lever. The ladle is mounted on trunnions 
 on the arm of a hydraulic crane, which allows it to 
 be brought over the molds in the pit. 
 
 CASTING OUT.— The rejection of horses deemed 
 unfit for further cavalry use. Usually written Cn«^ 
 tnff. 
 
 CAST-IRON. — By refining, etc., a portion of the 
 carbon and other impurities may be removed, but so 
 long as the proportion of the carbon is not less than 
 3 per cent the metal will possess the characteristic 
 properties of cast-iron mentioned below. The pres- 
 ence of silicon, sulphur, and phosphonis modifies 
 the strength, brittleness, etc., of cast-iron very much, 
 that of sulpluir in particular increasing its tenacity, 
 which is always, howevi^r, comjiaratively low. 'W e 
 may say that cast-iron contains from 2 per cent to 5 
 per cent by weight of carlion. which exists in two 
 slides, cither chenucidly combined with the iron or 
 mechanically mixed with it. In the trade, cii.st-iron 
 is distinguished by lunnbers from one to eight, the 
 lower numbers Ijcing given to those descriptions in 
 which the surfiue when broken jiresents a gray or 
 mottled apixiuance, and in whi<li the larger part of 
 the carbon is in the state of gniphite— that is, uncom- 
 bined with the iron. The higher numbers represeiil 
 white or bright iron, luid in these the carbon is 
 almost entirely in the combined state. Cast-iron is 
 easily fused, imd can be readily cjist into a homo- 
 geneous mass of luiy size or shsipe we choos(^ but it 
 is brittle and Ciinnot be worked imder the hiunmer 
 either hot or cold. If, indeed, we heat a mass of
 
 CAST IBON OUNS. 
 
 303 
 
 CA8T-IB0N GUNS. 
 
 cast-iron to a red heat and hammer it, it will crumble 
 to pieces— a fact taken advantage of in the breaking 
 up of obsolete smooth-bore cast-iron guns. 
 
 The following table shows the mean mechanical 
 properties of American cast-iion employed in rifle- 
 guns of large caliber, as determined by the tests of a 
 trial cylinder, 60 inches long with an elliptical base 
 24 inches bv 19..5 inches. 
 
 Supposing a standard of quality to have been deter- 
 mined, with the stock all prepared for a given num- 
 IxT of guns, and having detennined l)y comparison 
 with the xtaitdard the quality of iion required, a fur- 
 ther approximation to identity in quality of tlie melal 
 in the guns may be made by casting each run of metal 
 from the smelting-furnace into a nunilier of pigs of 
 equal size, something greater than the number of 
 
 OnioiNAL Dimensions of Speciuens. 
 
 Area, 1,001 square inches. 
 
 Length, 30 inches; diameter, 1.385 inch; 
 area, 1 .5065 inch. 
 
 Length, 10 inches: diameter, 1.385 inch; 
 area, 1.5065 inch. 
 
 Length, 2 inches ; diameter, . 8 inch 
 
 Length, 20 inches; breadth, 1.075 inch 
 depth, 1 .075 inch 
 
 ■Cylinder: length, 5 inches: exterior diam 
 eter, 3 inches; interior diameter, 1 inch. 
 
 Nattbb of Property. 
 
 Densitj' 
 
 Tenacity per square inch 
 
 Hardness 
 
 Hardness of copper 
 
 Pulling stress per square inch: 
 
 Elastic limit pounds 
 
 Ultimate resistance do. 
 
 Katio of elastic limit to ultimate resistance per cent 
 
 Exttiisiou per inch at elastic huiit inch 
 
 Ultimate extension per inch do. 
 
 Ultimate restoration per inch do. 
 
 Ultimate set per inch do. 
 
 Re(luction in area at point of rupture percent 
 
 Ultimate resistance per square inch fractured area pounds 
 
 Appearance of fracture: brif^ht gray medium-sized crystals. 
 
 Tlirusling stress per square inch: 
 
 Elastic limit pounds 
 
 Compression per inch at elastic limit incli 
 
 Compression per inch under 43,000 pounds do. 
 
 Restoration per inch under 43.000 pounds do. 
 
 Set per iucli under 4:!.000 pounds do. 
 
 Increase in area of cross section after 43,000 pounds per cent 
 
 Absolute resistance to crushing force pounds 
 
 Bending stress: 
 
 Transverse resistance ' do. 
 
 Bursting stress: 
 
 Ultimate resistance do. 
 
 T.27T1 
 33,875 
 18.46 
 
 9,750 
 31,000 
 81.45 
 0.00051 
 0.00337 
 0.00199 
 0.00163 
 0.S15 
 31,065 
 
 8,300 
 
 0.00093 
 0.00619 
 0.00344 
 0.00275 
 0.371 
 114,143 
 
 11,556 
 
 63,184 
 
 Sec Oray Cast-iron, Manganese , Mottled Cast-iron, 
 Pfwspfioriis, 8iHmn, and White Cast-iron. 
 
 CAST-IBON GUNS.— It is in the smelting-furnace 
 that the character of the iron is fi.xed. Iron of good 
 character and high susceptibility may be spoiled by 
 treatment at the foundry; but this, with ordmary c.\- 
 ])erience and intelligence, ought but rarelj- to occur. 
 But from iron that leaves the smelting-furnace with 
 bad qualities it is impracticable, with our present 
 knowledge, to make good and reliable guns. The 
 smelting of iron is a purely chemical process, and 
 shoukl be conducted with the same regularity and 
 precision as any other important chemical process. 
 Though, with everj- precaution, perfect uniformity 
 in the quality of the iron produced from day to day 
 cannot be expected , in consequence of the many dis- 
 turbing causes which tend to afifcct its character, yet 
 a near approximation to it is practicable. All the 
 stock for a " bla.st " of gun-iron should be carefully 
 prepared and housed before beginning lo "blow." 
 The ore should all lie roasted and well mixed .so as 
 to be as nearly uniform, as to size of lumps and all 
 other qualities, as possible. The charcoal should all 
 be made as nearly as possible from the same kind of 
 wood, and well mixed together after cliarring. All 
 the stock should be carefully weighed and supplied 
 to the furnace at regular intcr^■als of time. The 
 pressure, temperature, and hygrometrical condition 
 of the " bl;i.st " should be kept as nearly constant ,is 
 possible. The temperature of the blast may be kc])! 
 verj' nearly constant without using what is termed a 
 "hot blast," by warming it just enough to bring it 
 above the highest summer temperature. The quan- 
 tity of moisture may, it is believed, be kept nearly 
 constant by passing the blast some distance over 
 water heated to the proper teraijcrature. And this 
 may be readily done by pa.ssing the blast through a 
 long horizontal tube, like a cylindrical steam-lxjiler, 
 partly filled with water, and kept at a constant tem- 
 perature by the waste heat from the furnace. The 
 temperature of the water should be such as to saturate 
 the blast with moisture, and thus render it hygromet- 
 rically independent of atmospheric changes. 
 
 guns to be made, and piling them in separate piles — 
 each run of metal furnishing one pig to each pile. 
 Each pile should contain iron enough for one gun 
 and one test cylinder, and be kept separate and dis- 
 tinct from all others in trans]X)rtation, and l>e replied 
 in the foundry-yard in the same order as at the smelt- 
 ing-furnace; one gun being matle from each pile, 
 after the treatment which the iron should receive at 
 the foundry shall have been determined by experi- 
 ments made on the iron in the surplus piles. The 
 pigs should be cast in molds prepared from a pattern, 
 so as to Ih" as smooth and free from aiUiering sand as 
 pos-sible. The quality of the iron is much modified, 
 and ordinarily improveil, by remelting and long con- 
 tinuance in fusion. But all kinils of iron are not af- 
 fec-ted in like manner by the process. The difference 
 between the iron as it exists when presented for use, 
 and as it exists in the body of the fini.shed gun, is 
 very great, and has been foiind to be, in certain cases, 
 more "than twenty pounds per cubic foot in density, 
 and in tenacity- as 1 to 2.8. This shows how unrelia- 
 ble the tests of the pig-iron are, as means for deter- 
 mining the quality of iron and its suitableness for 
 making cannon. It is found that, though some kinds 
 of iron tire susceptible of very great imiirovenicnt by 
 different methods of treatment tit the foundries, other 
 kinds are at their maximum strength in the crude 
 l>i,irs. The cause of this difference in the suscepti- 
 hiiity for change and improvement will doubtless be 
 found in the qualities of ores used, and in the process 
 of melting them. 
 
 In examining the effects of the different treatment 
 of iron at the fouiidrv, such s:unj)les should be chosen 
 a-s will best exhibit" the following particiilai-s and 
 characteristics, viz.; 1st. The proiH-rties which dis- 
 tinguish the different grades of iron made from the 
 same ores at the .same furnace. 2d. The changes in 
 the mechanical proix-rties of iron produci'd by re- 
 peateii meltings of one of these grades, separately, 
 showins the changes effected at each melting. 3d. 
 The changes produced by repeated meltings of the 
 different grades of iron"mixeil. 4th. The changes 
 produced in iron of the s;mie melting and quality by
 
 CAST-IBON GUNS. 
 
 304 
 
 CAST-IRON GUNS. 
 
 casting il into masses of different bulk, luid by differ- 
 ent metbods of <-iKiliiig. Tbe softest Iciiids of iron 
 \\ ill endure ii greater uumlicr of meltings w ith advan- 
 tage than the higlier grades. It appears from e.\- 
 IX'rimcnts with Greenwood iron, that when it is in its 
 iK'St condition for casting into proof-bars of small 
 bidk, it is then in a state which requires jm additional 
 fusion to bring it up to its best condition for cj.sting 
 into the massive bulk of cannon. In selecting and 
 ])reparing for cannon, we may proceed by rejieated 
 fusion, or by varying the proportions of the different 
 grades and" different fusions until the ma.ximum 
 tenacity is attained. An increase of density is a con- 
 sequence which invariably follow s the rapid cooling 
 of cast-iron, and, as a general rule, the tenacity is in- 
 creased by the same means. The density and tenacity 
 usually vary in the Siime order. It ai'iiears that the 
 tenacity generally increases quite uniformlj' with the 
 density, until the latter ascends to some given point; 
 after which an increased density is accompanied by a 
 diminished tenacity. The turning-point of density at 
 which the best qualities of gmi-iron attain their maxi- 
 mum tenacity appears to be about T.:!0. At this 
 point of density, or near it, whether in proof-bars or 
 gun-heads, the tenacity is greatest. As the density of 
 iron is increased its liquidity when melted is dimi- 
 nished. This causes it to congeal quickly, and to 
 form cavities in the interior of the castings. If in 
 l)reparing iron for guns it is carried too high, either by 
 long continuance in fusion or by using a large por- 
 tion of a hard grade of iron, the casting will be lost. 
 
 The following table exhibits the various qualities 
 of cannon-metals: 
 
 Metals. 
 
 Cast-iron . . . 
 
 j least... 
 ■ ( greatest 
 
 AVro-ght.,ro„.;^««-^, 
 
 1 teast 
 
 " ) greatest 
 j least. 
 
 Bronze. 
 
 Cast-steel. 
 
 • • \ greatest 
 
 Den- 
 sity. 
 
 ■ 862 
 
 Tena- 
 city. 
 
 6.900 
 
 9,000 
 
 7.40(1 
 
 45.970 
 
 T.T04 
 
 38,027 
 
 ■,• 858 
 
 74,592 
 
 Tiirs 
 
 17.698 
 
 S.OM 
 
 36,786 
 
 128,000 
 
 Trnn« 1 Com- I 
 
 of „-„i.i, sive ness. 
 =*'^|str;gth.l 
 
 5,000' 
 11,500 
 0,500 
 
 84,539' 
 174,120' 
 
 40,000| 
 127,720 
 
 23.000, 
 
 198,944 . 
 391.9851. 
 
 4.. 57 
 .3:j 51 
 10.45 
 13.14 
 4.. 57 
 5.94 
 
 A prominent feature of this table is that which 
 shows the great dilTerence between the lower and 
 higher grades of the siime metal. In cast-iron the 
 density differs as 6.9 to 7.4, a difference equal to 31 
 pounds per cubic foot; in tenacity it differs as 45,970 
 to 9000 pounds per square inch, or as 5 to 1; and 
 in hardness as 7 to 1. The bronze varies in tenacity 
 from .56,786 to 17,698, more than 3 to 1; and in den- 
 sity it is as 8.953 to 7.978, equal to 01 pounds in the 
 cubic foot. 
 
 While the cannon are making, the inspecting offi- 
 cer examines and test-s the metal before it is used, ob- 
 serves its melting and casting, and tests the met;d in 
 the first gun made before thesecond is east. If the first 
 proves urLsatisfactorj-, such changes are made, either 
 in the material or in the treatment, as will tend to 
 produce the desired result. This practice of ascer- 
 taining the quality of the material used, and of the 
 casting made from day to day, as the work proceeds, 
 enables the founder to distinguish (he nialerial, to 
 select those of the best quality, and to treat tliem in 
 the best manner. If these tests are satisfactory, the 
 inspecting oflicer is assured of the good quality of 
 the guns before any jiroof by tiring is made. And 
 thi.s supersedes the necessity of using excessive proof- 
 charges in the final proof, which may do serious and 
 fatal injur}' to guns without bursting them or leaving 
 any visible marks of injury. The testing instrument 
 furnishes to the founder a convenient and accurate 
 methoel of comparing the qualities of iron. It there- 
 fore enables him to select his materials Ijefore casting 
 with greater certainty and safety. lie can also by 
 these means delenninc the comparative utility of dif- 
 ferent metbods of melting and ca.sting the gun. As 
 the quality of the iron is essentially changed by the 
 
 different ways of treating it while in the melted state, 
 and by the different means adopted for cooling it 
 after it is cast into the mold, the testing instrument 
 enables one to ascertain the effect produced by these 
 processes in all their several stages of progress, and 
 to decide upon that which is fomid most suitable for 
 making the gims of the best (juality. 
 
 Of the various circumstances which affect the 
 strength of cannon-metal, the most important appear 
 to be those which connect themselves with crystalli- 
 zation. The si/e of the crystals of a particular metal 
 depends on the rate of cooling of the heated mass; 
 the most "rapid cooling giving the smallest crj-stuls. 
 The size of the crystals or coarseness of grain in cast- 
 ings of iron depends for any given make of iron and 
 given mass of castings \ipon — tirst — the high tem- 
 perature of the tluid iron above that just necessary to 
 its fusion, which intiucnccs — second — the time that 
 the molten mass takes to cool down and assume again 
 the solid state. The lower the temjierature at which 
 the fluid iron is poured into the mold, and the more 
 rapidly ,llie mass can be cooled down to solidification, 
 the closer will be the grain of the metal, the smaller 
 its crystals, the fewer and least injurious the planes 
 of weakness, and the greater the specific gra\ily of 
 the castings. Slow cooling develops a coarse, uneven 
 grain, w ith large but thoroughly irregular and con- 
 fused crystallization; cast-iron with such a grain is 
 never strong or cohesive, though soft and extensible. 
 The more rapidly a casting once consolidated can l>e 
 cooled, without introducing injurious effects, the 
 finer, closer, and more even will be its gi-ain on frac 
 ture, and with any given metal the greater will be its 
 strength. The rale of cooling cannot be accelerated 
 beyond a moderate limit. If this limit be exceeded, 
 as by ca.sting in a cold, thick, highly -conducting me- 
 tallic mold, the iron is "chilled." its constittition 
 changed, and the carbon, not having time to crystallize 
 out, remains combined or diffused through the mass. 
 It should not be so fast as to cause unequal contrac- 
 tion, nor must it lie so fast in large ca.stings, such 
 as guns requiring to be " fell " from ■nfetdiixj or nink- 
 ing hciid with fresh portions of hot fluid tuetal during 
 consolidation to till up the internal cavities or porosity 
 due to contraction and crystallization, that this tilling 
 cannot be accomplished, The larger tlie mass of the 
 casting, with any given quality of iron, generally the 
 loarsiM- is the grain — that is, the larger are the crystals 
 that develop themselves in the mass. The siune 
 metal that shall produce a fracture bright gray, mot- 
 tled, and without a crystal visible, in a small bar, 
 will in a large casting produce a dark, confu.sedly 
 crystalline surface of fracture as coarse as granite 
 rock. A certain amount of contraction, on becoming 
 solid from the liquid state, occurs in all castings. 
 For iron this is variable and depends upon the mass 
 of the castings, being greatest for small and least for 
 large castings, of the same make of iron, and poured 
 at the .same temperature. There are two conditions 
 that principally affect the degree of contraction, 
 namely, tlip extent to which the fluid metal as enter- 
 ing the mold has been expanded by elevation of tem- 
 licrature, and the state of final aggregation of the 
 particles, dcjicnding upon the size of the mass. Sud- 
 den changes of form or of dimensions in the jmrts of 
 cast guns, besides the injury they do to the m'stalline 
 structure of the mass, introduce violent strains, due 
 to the unequal contraction of the adjoining part.s 
 whose final contraction has been diflerent. The 
 enormous lime re(juired by a large casting for cooling 
 is not generally known. A solid casting sufticiently 
 large for a 15-inch gun weighs about 33 tons; it is 
 red hot three days after liaving been cast, and 
 only Incomes cold enough to handle after a fortnight. 
 The cooling of a casting nuist be uniform so far as 
 uniformity is possible. This is impossible strictly in 
 any casting; the approach to it is most difficult in 
 heavy solid castings, and hence the great advantage 
 of the practice of hollow casting upon a suitably 
 made core admitting of internal cooling by artificial
 
 CASTLE. 
 
 305 
 
 CASTLE. 
 
 means. The contraction of cast-iron in becoming 
 solid Introduces strains into tho mass by consolida- 
 tion of one portion of the casting before another. 
 When a large gun is cast solid and the metal cools in 
 the ordinary way, the e.xtemal portions solidify long 
 before the interior has ceased to be liquid, and the 
 process of solidilication is propagated, as it were, in 
 parallel layers from tlic outside to the center of the 
 mass. When the first layer or thickness of solid 
 crust has formed on the exterior it forms a complete 
 arch all round, so that the contraction botween fluid- 
 ity and solidification of each subsequent layer is ac- 
 commodated by portions of matter withdrawn radially 
 from the interior towards the still cooling exterior — 
 that is to say, from a smaller towards a larger circimi- 
 ference. The final effect of this propagated to the 
 center of the mass is twofold: first, to produce a 
 violent state of internal tension in the particles of the 
 metal in radial lines from the axis of the gim inward 
 as a cylinder, tending to tear away the external por- 
 tions of the mass from tlie internal nucleus; second, 
 to produce about the center or along the axis a line 
 of weakness, and one in which the texture of the 
 metal is soft, porous, and of extremely low specific 
 gravity. The effect of this unequal contraction may 
 be so great as to crack the interior metal of ca.st-iron 
 cannon, even before it has been subjected to the force 
 of gunpowder, and large ma.sses of iron which have 
 been cooled very rapidly by casting them in iron 
 molds have been known to split open longitudinally 
 from no other cause than the enormous strains to 
 which they arc subjected. 
 
 Guns have long been cast in a vertical position and 
 with a certain amount of head of metal above the top- 
 most part of the gun itself. From this head the cast- 
 ing is fed with fresh portions of fluid metal during 
 consolidation; it also affords a gatheriug-place for ail 
 scoria or other foreign matter. But tiie great value 
 of increased head of metal is in adding to the density 
 of castings and so also to their strength, fineness of 
 grain, smallness of (Tystal, density, increased cohe- 
 sion, and elasticity are all induced by casting imder 
 largel}' increased statical heads of fluid metal. 
 
 In the practical treatment of iron in fusion while 
 preparing it for casting into cannon, it may be sjifely 
 continued in fusion, with increasing improvement of 
 its quality, so long as sufficient liquidity is retained 
 to insure an exemption from cavities in the interior of 
 the casting. The point at which such ca\ities of a 
 fatal character will form will be reached before ar- 
 riving at the point of density for maximum tenacity. 
 A convenient method for determining the condition 
 of the iron while in fusion, and whether it has arrived 
 at the proper condition before casting or should be 
 longer continued in fusion, is found in dipping from 
 the melted pool of iron and casting into small bars, 
 about 10 inches long, and from 1 to 2 inches square 
 at one end and tapering to a point at the other end. 
 The first one is taken from the furnace, and cast soon 
 after the iron is all melted, and others are cast at such 
 intervals afterwards as may be judged proper. Thej' 
 are cast vertically, point downwards, in sand-molds, 
 and cooled rapidly. Proof-bars are cast at dififerent 
 times while the metal is in fiLsion. They are broken 
 in different places, and the condition of the iron is 
 judged by the appearance of the several fractures. 
 These fractures will exhibit various aspects, from 
 white at the small end to dark gray at the large end: 
 flttid the bars cast at the latter periods of the fusion 
 will exhibit the white at a greater distance from the 
 small end, and the mottle, bright and lighter shades, 
 will be found advancing towards the large end. This 
 method, although much less reliable than that of an 
 actual measure of density and strength, is convenient 
 because of its ready application at short intervals, 
 while the iron is iii fusion, and a practiced eye will 
 soon be able to mark the progress of the changing 
 quality of the iron, and to determine the proper time 
 for casting the gun. In process of time, a gradual 
 adjustment of the internal strains produced in cool- i 
 
 ing cast pieces takes place; like many other sul)stan- 
 ces, iron possesses the property of accommodatinff 
 itself to this. " 
 
 The principal improvement in the fabrication of 
 cast-iron guns is General Hodman's process of cooling 
 them as far as possible from the interior, and for this 
 purpose casting them hollow. The design is to rem- 
 ; edy the various defects of the old process; principally 
 to obriate the tendency of .solid castings to burst bv 
 their own initial strains, by reversing the process of 
 cooling and shrinking dest'ribed above. Since there 
 would then be no force opposed to the contraction of 
 I the inner layers of metal, except the trifling cohesion 
 of the liquid or pasty mass that they shrink away 
 from, they would not he left in tension, and there- 
 fore they could not exert any power to pull the exte- 
 rior layers into compression. The method emploved 
 is to carry off the internal heat by pa.ssing a stream 
 of water through a hollow core, inserted in the center 
 of the mold-cavity before casting, and to surround 
 the flask with a mass of burning coals to prevent too 
 rapid radiation from the exterior. Extensive trials 
 have been made to test the merits of this plan, and 
 the results show that cast-iron cannon made by it are 
 not only stronger but are less liable to enlargement of 
 the bore from continual firing, the surface of the bore 
 being the hardest and densest part of the casting, 
 and iK'st calculated to resist pressure and abrasion. 
 
 Before proceeding to manufacture cannon in quan- 
 tity, a tridl-gun may be made and exposed to extreme 
 proof with icriw-charges. After undergoing this 
 j proof in a satisfactorj- manner, the trial-gun should 
 serve as a standard, and the proportions of the several 
 kinds of metal used, and the methods employed in 
 the manufacture, should be followed in all respects in 
 the fabrication of other guns. 
 I With the trial-gun should be cast a sample-gun, or 
 [ a cylinder of equal diameter, and at least half the 
 length of the gun, from which test specimens should 
 be cut and tested. The sample-gun or cylinder should 
 be of the Siime diameter as the guns to be made, and 
 should Ix- made under the same circumstances which 
 are to attend the preparation of the iron for, and the 
 casting and cooling of, the guns themselves. The 
 object of the sample is to obtain specimens which 
 have not been subjected to pre\ious strain and vibra- 
 tion, as would be the ca.se if taken from the frag- 
 ments of the broken trial-gun. For it is impossible 
 to rea.son back to what would have been eitJier the 
 capacity for work, or work due to elasticilj- of an 
 unstrained specimen, by knowing to what extent 
 the.se properties were i)osse.ssed by that specimen 
 after it had been subjected to both strains and vil)ra- 
 tions of unknown intensity and number. And al- 
 though it is interesting to know to what extent these 
 properties are pos.se.s.sed by the fragments of a worn- 
 out gun, yet it would be of far greater practical utility 
 and importance to know the value of these properties 
 in the new, untried guns. Specimens thus obtained 
 would afford reliable results, and in connection with 
 the powder-proof, with ser\ice charges of guns cast 
 at the same heat, these results would become stand- 
 ards. See CrysUiUization, Fifteeririnch Gun, Ord- 
 nance, and Rudmaii Grin. 
 
 CASTLE.— 1. The insignia of the United States En- 
 gineer Corps, as represented in the drawing. 2. 
 A building constructed for tlie purpose of repel- 
 ling attack. The casUila, left by the Romans in 
 Britain and elsewhere, were constnicted on the gen- 
 eral model of their stationary encampments {attra 
 utafira); and though they may have .suggested the 
 castles of the Middle Ages, they differed from them 
 in being designed for military purposes only, and 
 not also as places of permanent residence. Even 
 Burgh Castle, in Suffolk, the ancient Garamcnium, 
 and Rich borough Castle, in Kent, the ancient Ru- 
 tui>ite, were encimipments or fortres.«es, rather than 
 castles. Be-sides these monuments of the military 
 occupation of the i.sland by the Romans, traces are 
 found in various parts of the country of encampments
 
 CASTLES. 
 
 306 
 
 CABTBAHETATIOir. 
 
 or casllfs, which are oscrilK'd to its aboriginal or 
 early iuhiibilauls. These are generally situated on 
 the tops of hills; as, for exami>le, the ilerefoidsliire 
 Beacon, on the Malvern Hills; Moel Arthur, in Flint- 
 shire; C'hiin Castle, in Cornwall; the Maiden Castle, 
 in Dorsetshire; the Caterthuns, near Brechin, in For- 
 farshire; the Barnikin of Kelil, in Aberdeenshire. 
 If is probable that the ."^axons adapted the Konian 
 castles to a certain extent to their modes of delense, 
 and traces of Sa.xon and even Norman workmanship 
 are found in structures which arc believed to have 
 been originally Koman. One very frequent change 
 consisted in raising a mound of earth on one side of 
 the walls on which the keeji or citadel was erected. 
 The Decuman anil Prfetorian gales were also, as at 
 Portchester, converted into the forlitied entrances 
 peculiar to the castellated structures of the Middle 
 Ages. But of cjistles designed for residence as well 
 as defense there are few or none which are of higher 
 antiquity than the Conquest. They were part of the 
 organization of the feudal system — castle-guard being 
 one of the duties which the tenants were bound to 
 pay in return for their lands; and till that system 
 
 Insignia of U. S. Engineer Corps. 
 
 was developed by the Normans, the residences of 
 persons of importance were probably guarded only 
 by their domestic retainers, or, in extraordinary cir- 
 cumstances, perhaps by the national militia. 
 
 The Norman castle was generally surrounded by a 
 moat or ditch; and in order that the ditch mightbe 
 readily filled with water, the site chosen was usually 
 either on the banks of a river, or on a peninsula run- 
 ning into a lake. In the latter case the ditch was of 
 course merely a deep cut made through the neck of 
 land, by means of which the ca.stle and its surround- 
 ings were converted into an island. On the inner 
 side of the ditch mounds were constructed, which 
 were surmounleil with walls and towers, both of 
 which, but particularly the latter, were supplied with 
 battlements and bastions. The entrance-gates were 
 also protected by towers, which were usually of great 
 strength. The communication was by a bridge, 
 sometimes of stone, but usually of wood, which was 
 made to draw up and down; and the entrance, in 
 addition to thick folding-doors, was protected by a 
 portcullis, which was dropped down through grooves 
 in the masonry at the sides. The gateway, in castles 
 of the larger sort, was further defended by a barbi- 
 can. On passing the external wall, you entered the 
 bailey, which .sometimes consisted of several courts, 
 and contained the barracks, magazines, a well, a 
 chapel, and .sometimes even a monastery. The only 
 
 Sortion of the castle which was ahvays spoken of as 
 istinguished from the bailey was the keep or cita- 
 del, which corresponded to the jira'torium of the 
 Roman fortilication. The keep was a species of in- 
 ternal castle, more strongly defended than any other 
 portion of the fortress, and placed in the most ad van 
 tageous position, so as to alford a last chance to the 
 garrison when driven from the external works. As 
 the keep had the same design as the ca.stlc it.self, it 
 contained most of its appliances, even to a chapel, 
 when large and complete. The keep was also called 
 the dungeon or ilonjon. An excellent example of a 
 keep is seen at Rochester Castle, The best known is 
 probably that at Windsor, which forms .so prominent 
 im object in the surrounding landscape. The protec- 
 tion which the walls of his castle afforded to the re- 
 
 tainers of a baron in a state of society in which life 
 and ]iroperty were extremely in.secure naturally led 
 lo the construction of houses around the moat, and 
 to this custom a very large numl)erof the towns, both 
 in Enghuid and on the Continent of Europe, owe 
 their origin. See Fortification, Keep, and tkifety- 
 ritii'iilit. 
 
 CASTLES. — In Heraldry, ca.stles are often given as 
 (barges in the shields of pei-sons who have retluced 
 them, or who have been the first to mount their walls 
 in an assjiult. 
 
 CASTRAMETATION.— The art of laying out camps 
 and (if placing the troops so that the different arms 
 of the service shall atFord support to each other in 
 the best manner. A locality well sheltered and se- 
 cured, and alTording fuel, grass, and fresh water, 
 .shoiUd be selected for the camp. If it is expected to 
 remain in the camp for any great length of time, its 
 sanitary condition must be carefully observed. All 
 ponds, swamiis, lands recently stripped of their tim- 
 ber, and muddy rivers must be kept at a distance. 
 In a malarious district it is well to habitually sleep 
 between two lires. The flood-level of the nearest 
 water should also be carefully noticed — weeds and 
 stray bits of diiftwood washed into the branches of 
 adjikent trees orbu.shcs will serve as a guide. Many 
 streams are subject to sudden and feiTiiie rises, and fre- 
 quently without imy apparent cause. When camping 
 for the night on a fordable stream, with tile intention 
 of crossing, make it an invariable rule to cross it be- 
 fore going into camp. A sudden rise or appearance 
 of the enem_v might seriously interfere with the ci'oss- 
 ing next morning. Windstorms are a common an- 
 noj'ance in the camp. When there is time to pre- 
 pare for their coming, the tent-pegs should be secured 
 and sufficient guy-ropes attached to the tent. If the 
 soil is loose and sandy, rocks or other hard material 
 should be placed mider the tent-poles to prevent their 
 working into the soil, and leaving the tent slack and 
 unsteady; the pegs should .also be inclmed towards 
 the tent, and driven in the direction of the prolonga- 
 tion of the tent-cords (if they are inclined from the 
 tent they will soon be jerked loose). When the pegs 
 will not hold at all, fa.sten the tent-cords to brush or 
 rocks buried in the soil. A few trees add very 
 much to the comfort of a camp, and when they are 
 so situated as to permit the guj- or ridge ropes to be 
 made fast to them or their branches, the wind-storm 
 need not be dreaded. 
 
 So far as may be prudent, the camp should be pro- 
 tected by blutTs and thickets, and the backs of the 
 tents should be braced from towards the wind. It is 
 not proper to camp beneath certain trees, whose 
 branches are liable to suddenly fall off. In a hostile 
 country the security of the command will depend 
 very much upon the judicious selection of a camp as 
 regards its capability of ilefense. If on the bank of a 
 stream, a concave bend, where the water is very deep, 
 should be .selected. In such a position the defending 
 party can cross his fire in case of an attack from the 
 other bank, or can herd the stock in the concavity of 
 the bend in order to avoid a stampede. When the 
 camp is remote from a stream or river, a i)ortion of it 
 should rest on the highest hill or blutf within range. 
 As a rule the tents should be pitched on that side of 
 the camp most exposed to attjick. When the packs 
 and aparejos are removed in camp, they should be 
 arranged so as to fonn a fortilication in case of need. 
 Immediately upon going into camp, pickets should be 
 posted in strong positions, and sutlicienlly close to the 
 camp to give timely alarm in case of the enemy's 
 approach. The picket should be posted, during day- 
 light, on some eminence near the camp, where he can 
 keep a lookout iit all directions. During the night 
 lie should be posl(^<l several hundred yards farther in 
 advance of the point subject to attack and on low 
 ground, in order that he may be screened from obser- 
 vation, and at the .same lime .see to the best advan- 
 tage, as low objects will then appear high and stand 
 in bold relief against the sky; moreover, in timber
 
 CASTRAUETATION. 
 
 307 
 
 CASTSAMETATIOir, 
 
 it is easy to see a great distance between tlie trunks of 
 the trees, while their tops and brauclies hide all ob- 
 jects bej'ond. If the picket discovei-s the enemy and 
 is not seen himself, he should quickly withdraw and 
 report the facts in order that no time may he lost in 
 preparing for action. But if the picket is discovered 
 by the enemy, he should first discharge his piece and 
 then retreat. To save time and avoid all false 
 alarms, a well-detined system of night and day sig- 
 nals should be devised, before going into the hostile 
 country, and thoroughly imderstood by every picket. 
 In this way they could very readily and promptly 
 communicate their discoveiiesto the camp. 
 
 Xo rules can be laid down for laying out camps 
 that will be universal. The proi>er exercise of the 
 art of cncami>ing is to so place the troops that they 
 can quickly form line of battle on the position they 
 arc to occupy. In the United States, troops on cam- 
 paign are jiroWded with the shelter-tent, the pieces of 
 which are carrictl by the occupants. In the presence 
 of the enemy the troops bivouac in line of battle; if 
 safety permits, the tents may be pitchetl immediately 
 in rear of the line of stacks, the tent.s of the Company 
 Officers in rear of their companies, the tents of the 
 Field and Staff in rear of the center of the line of Com- 
 pany Officers. When not in the pre.sence of the ene- 
 my, each battalion usually camps in column of di- 
 \isions. The tents of each di\ision are arranged in 
 two lines facing each other; those of the right com- 
 pany face to the rear, those of the left company face 
 to the front. The Company Otficers' tents are arranged 
 in line parallel to the llank of the colunm, facing the 
 di\-ision-stTeets; the tent of the Captain of the right 
 company of each division is to the right (or left) of 
 the line passing through the center of the street, ac- 
 cording as the officers are on the right (or left) flank 
 of the column, his Lieutenants are on his right (or left); 
 the Captain of the left company is on the left (or right) 
 of the Captain of the right company, tlie Lieutenants 
 of his company on his left (or right). The First Ser- 
 geant's tent is on the flank of the company towards 
 the officers' tents. The tents of the Field and Staff, 
 when practicable, are in line parallel to tho.se of the 
 Company Officers; the Colonel isopposite the center of 
 tlie column. Lieutenant-colonel and Major are on his 
 light, the Adjutant is on the left of the Colonel; the 
 other Staff Otficers are on the left of the Ad jutjmt. The 
 tents of the Non-commissioned Staff are in rear of the 
 tents of the Staff; they may be assigned to tents in the 
 divisions. 
 
 Camp op a Regiment op Infaktrt in Column 
 OF Divisions. 
 
 Line of Sinks. 
 
 \ The kitchens of the men are in line on the flank 
 ' opposite the Company Officers; the sinks for the men 
 are out.side of the line of kitchens. The kitchens of 
 the officers are in rear of their tents; the sinks for the 
 [ officers are in rear of the line of tents of the Field and 
 Staff. The positions of the color-line, guard-tents, 
 sutlers' store, officers' horses, and baggage- wagons 
 are pre.scrilx;d by the Colonel. The width of the 
 division-streets, and the street in front of the Com- 
 pany Officers, varies with the nature of the ground 
 and the strength of the battalion. When the com- 
 panies are large, the camp may be formed according 
 to the alMjve principles, in column of companies, the 
 tents of each company being in one line, or io two 
 I lines facing each other. 
 
 A battalion of Cavalrj Ix mg in line with the usual 
 intervals, to encamp, the men dismount, and, without 
 forming rank, unsaddle and place their arms and 
 equipments in line ten yards in front of the horses; 
 the IJlanket is placed on the equipment, moist side up. 
 The picket-line is stretched between posts about six 
 feet high, or is stretched on the ground, the ends be- 
 ing finnly secured; the horses are tied to the picket- 
 line by the halter at intervals of a yard; if the picket- 
 line be on the ground, fhey may be fastened to it by 
 i a strap alKJut two and a half feet long, the strap lie- 
 i ing provided with a collar which is buckled around 
 I the pastern of the left fore-foot. The tents of the 
 men are pitched in line atout fifteen yards in front 
 of the picket-line, the intervals between companies 
 being left free; the tent of the First Sergeant is on the 
 right; the arms and equipments are kept in the tents 
 of the men. The kitchens of the men are in line in 
 front of their tents; the sinks in front of the line of 
 kitchens. The tents of the Company Officers are in 
 line about thirty yards in rear of the" picket-line, the 
 Captain on the right ; their kitchens are in rear of their 
 tents. 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 Company Kitchens. 
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 ■ -0 5 
 
 o ? 
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 o 2. 
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 TentH nf Company 0/Prers. 
 
 oooooooooooooooooooo 
 
 Officers' Kitiheiis. 
 
 
 
 A 
 Field ami .<;lnff. 
 
 
 
 Non'Commissioned Staff. 
 
 Kitchen of Field and 
 Staff. 
 Officers* Sinks. 
 
 it 
 
 1 
 
 ^t ^t 
 
 1 1 
 
 n « 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 h 
 
 t't it 
 
 It it 
 
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 s| 
 
 Guard. 
 00 
 
 
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 Ut Sergf.q 
 
 Kitchen. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 Qfflcert. 
 
 
 
 
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 6 
 
 
 
 
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 it 
 
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 Sink. 
 
 
 
 Sink. : 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 Wlien Artillery camp, the itieces and caissons are 
 parked at fourteen vanis' interval. a« shown in Fig. 1. 
 The harness of the 'team of each carriage is on a rack
 
 CASTBIOTTO SYSTEM OF FOKTIFICATION. 
 
 308 
 
 CAST STEEL 0UN8. 
 
 on the right, and close to the carriage, so tliat the 
 paiilin can cover the harness. Horse equipments are 
 kept on the racks or in the tents. The pieket-line is 
 fifteen yards in rear of the caissons; it is stretched 
 between posts alwut si.x feet hish, the ends being 
 firmly secure<i ; the horses arc tied to the picket-Une 
 by tlie halter at intervals of a yard. The men's tenia 
 ai-e pitclutl in line about thirty yards in rear of the 
 picket-line; the First Sergeant's tent covers the car- 
 rirtires of the right section; the left .guaid-teht covers 
 the carriages of the left section: the tents of each 
 section are in the order of their pieces in park, and 
 are close<l on the center, or to the right, so as to have 
 a vacant space between the giiard-tcnts and the tents 
 of the left section. The men's kitchens are in line 
 ten yards in rear of the guard-tents, -nhich may lie 
 faced to the right so that No. 1 can overlook the 
 kitchen. The officers' tents are in line thirty yards in 
 rear of the battery -tents; the Captain's tent is on the 
 right, covering that of the First Sergeant. The offi- 
 cers' kitchens are ten j'ards in rear of their tents. 
 The battery-wagon, baggiigc-wagons, and forge are 
 in line thirty yards in rear of the officers' tents; the 
 batteri'-wagoii covers the Captain's tent; tho forge 
 covers tlie left guard-tent. The sinks are fifty yards 
 in rear of the wagons; the officers' sink on tluo right, 
 the men's sinks on the left. 
 
 Guard. 
 00 
 
 tt « 
 
 1 1 1 1 
 
 « n « « 
 
 1 1 
 
 it it it it 
 
 h 
 
 B. W. 
 
 ^ it it it i^ 
 
 Kitchen. | : 
 
 O o Forge. ^ 
 
 bOOOOOOOOOOO OlstSergt. 
 
 c o 
 
 Sink. 
 
 Sink.': 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 The preceding order may tx modified as shown 
 in Fi,g. 2, if circumstances require it. The battery- 
 ■wagon and baggage wagons may be in line with the 
 pieces, the interval between the battery -wagon and 
 nearest piece being fourteen yards, that between the 
 battery-wagon and left baggage-wagon about thirty 
 yards; the guard-tents half-way between the lialterv-- 
 wagon and baggage-wagons, facing to the rear; tlie 
 fora,ge-pile between the guard-tents and the baggage- 
 wagons; the forge in line with the cais,sons and cov- 
 ering the right l)agga.ge wagon; the men's kitchens in 
 line with the caissons, and covering the left baggage- 
 wagon; the officer's tente on a line perpendicular to 
 the men's tents, facing them, and on the prolongation 
 of one of the baggage-wagons; the olficers' kitchen 
 in rear of the officers' tents, and on the jirolongation 
 of the forge. In a horsc-hattrry, if Ijut one picket- 
 line Ijc used, it may be turned equally to the front 
 around the flanks of the park; the liatterv-wagon, 
 forge, and baggage-wagons may lie divided equally 
 ana placed on the flanks of the men's tents, facing 
 inward, and so as to be on the prolongation of the 
 bent portions of the picket-line. The picket-line may 
 also be in one straight line, in wliich ca.se the bag- 
 gage-wagons should 1m- equally divided upon lines to 
 the rear of its extremities. The horses are sometimes 
 picketed !n two lines, in which case the second line is 
 fourteen yards in rear of the first, and the wagons 
 
 are placed in line thirty yards in rear of the men's 
 
 tents. See Camp. 
 
 CA8TRI0TT0 SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In 
 this system the bastions are replaced by rounii towers, 
 and the enceinte is covered by det^icheil bastions. 
 Vauban borrowed his second and third systems from 
 Castriotlo. He reconimeiKled demi-revetments and 
 also holl<iw revetments. See Fortifeafinn. 
 
 CAST-STEEL. —This term until lately was con- 
 fined lo steel made by luelling blister-steel, obtained 
 by the old cementation process. Through this sim- 
 ple operation of melting it in crucibles, which wsis in- 
 vented by an Englishman nameil Huntsman about 
 the middle of last century, steel was first readily made 
 perfectly homogeneous, and fitted for the i>roduction 
 of the finer kinds of tools and cutting instruments. 
 The crucibles are ma<ie of fire-clay, mi.\ed with a 
 small proportion of tlie material of old ones and coke. 
 They are very carefully prepared and annealed, b\it 
 notwithstanding this the heat of the furnace is so 
 high that they can oidy be three times used. Each 
 crucible contains from 30 to 40 lbs. of steel, which 
 is poured, when melted, into cast-iron ingot-molds 
 previously smoked. The name "cast-steel, "however, 
 can no longer be confined to steel so made, because 
 Bes.semer steel, although produced by a (|uite differ- 
 ent process, is truly a aist-stcel. In Sheffield the 
 finer kinds of cast-steel are now sometimes called 
 "crucible-steel;" but since puddled steel, which, like 
 the Bessemer, cannot be used for fine cutlery, is also 
 cast in crucibles, such a term is not sufficiently dis- 
 tinctive. See Bemnur SUiel, Crucible-gteel, Puddled 
 SUsel, and Stfil. 
 
 CAST-STEEL GUNS.— In the fabrication of these 
 guns, the best quality steel is cast info ingots 4 feet 
 long and 15 inches sfjuare; the ingots are heated and 
 hammered down till they are about 7 inches square, 
 and long enough for two guns. The ends are ham- 
 mered round, and a square block is left jn the middle 
 for the breech-mechanism, and two smaller blocks 
 for the trunnions, presenting the shape shown in the 
 drawing. The ingot is cut in halves at A, thus form- 
 
 _r 
 
 ing the blocks for two guns. The gun-block is bored 
 to a diameter of 2.5 inches, heated to a red heat and 
 immersed in an oil-bath to temper it. After being 
 tempered, it is fumed and bored to a diameter of 2.93 
 inches and finally rifled, the grooves being .04 inch 
 deep. The rimbases are planed to the proper dimen 
 sions, and the trunnions arc .screwed into tlieni. To- 
 ward the Ijottom of the lx)re, and immediately in 
 rear of llie full rifling, is found the ".shot -chamber." 
 When the shot-chamber is reached, however, the ribs 
 are cut away b.v a slope toward the rear, having an 
 inclination of .04 of an inch, the depth of the rib, in 
 2 inches of length. This incline is called the com 
 pression-slope, it receives the belt of the pro.iectile 
 (when loaded), and centens the latter while in the 
 loading position and as it is being driven into the 
 bore. To the rear of this compression-slope the 
 chamber continues on at a somewhat qviicker inclina- 
 tion, connecting the shot-chamber w-ith the powder- 
 chamber. The latter is also a fnmcated cone, and 
 has a diameter at the forward end of 3.2 inches, and 
 at the rear end of 3.25 inches where the ring-recess 
 is placed. The ring-recess is a short cylinder .39 of 
 an inch long. It contains the Broadwell ring, or 
 gas-check. Immediately in rear of the ring-recess is 
 the screw-box. 1 1 lias a female screw chased upon 
 its surface, the thread having the same profile and 
 pitch as tliat upon the breech-plug. Three blanks 
 are planed longitudinally through the thread, each 
 one removing one sixth of the surface. One blank is 
 at the lowest side of the screw-box, and the other two 
 equidistant from the first around the interior surface.
 
 ^^ 
 
 BiLiBTji. Catapltlts, a>-I' othkr modes of Romas Waiib-ahe. 1. LegiL-nary. ^- "^j'" igg drsimi 
 of battle of the oohorta, 11. Boinan encampment for five legious- 12. Tlau oi •■ "'^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 *"ible low""^^"^ li'^ n*^"""^'°"' **• '^"''""« of wnr. 7, Lictors. 8. Consul. 0. Roman cavolry, 10. Plan 
 "■ U. flallBta (stone-thrower). 15. Battering-rara. )C. Battle -chariot. IT, 18. Catapults.
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 309 
 
 CATAPULT. 
 
 The plug, which is a cylindrical piece of steel, 
 has a thread cut upon it. One half of the bearing 
 surface of the plug-tlircad is cut away, in the .same 
 manner a.s ha.s already been described'for the screw 
 bo.\, and the area thus to be removed is distributed 
 into three longituilinal blanks, cut at equal intervals 
 around the engaging suiface. Thus there are on the 
 plug, and also in the screw-box, three sections of 
 screw-threads, .sejiarated by blanks, running jjarallel 
 to an element of the bore, forming a slotted screw. In 
 order to lock or secure the plug into the rear of the 
 bore, it is only necessary to match its threaded sec 
 tions to the blanks of the screw-box, and to push the 
 plug at once home. A turn to the right of one sixth 
 of the circle then engages, at the same time, all the 
 threads of the plug with those of the screw-box ; after 
 •which the plug is ready to oppose the effort of the 
 charge. In rwir of the threaded sections the plug is 
 plain, where it works tireumferentially in the collar, 
 and it is tencinated at the rear end by a tiange, 
 having its forward side furnished with locking-faces, 
 the u.se of which will lie explained elsewhere. The 
 rear end of the plug is deeply recessed, in order to 
 obtain lightness; die forward end is temunated by a 
 flat face, which is reces.sed in the center to receive the 
 boss of the nose-plate. The plug is also pierced with 
 an axial hole one inch in diameter. The nose-plate is 
 made of steel, and is somewhat less in diameter than 
 the body of the plug. It presents the appearance 
 of a low truncated cone, terminated by two short 
 cylinders. On its rear surface it has a " boss," from 
 ■which projects the stem, which pas.ses thnjugh the 
 hole in the a.xis of the plug. A nut runs upon 
 this stem, and, bearing against the forward face of the 
 hollow, brings the nose-plate to a firm bearing against 
 the forward face of the plug. The forward face of 
 the nose-plate bears against the gas-check ring when 
 the breech is locked. The vent passes entirely through 
 the axis of the no.seplate and stem, the rear orifice 
 being found in the center of the after-end of the 
 stem, and the forward one in the center of the nose- 
 plate. 
 
 At the latter point the nose-plate is recessed, and a 
 gas-check is fitted over the oritice of the vent. This 
 vent-check, as it is called, consists of a disk of mild 
 steel, secured over the interior oritice of the vent by 
 four steel screws, which pierce through the disk j)er- 
 pendicular to its flat .surface and near its edge. The 
 screws are equidistant from one another, and their 
 lieads are not set down hard upon the disk, but 
 allow it to ri.se about .03 of an inch. The pressure of 
 primer-gas through the vent pushes the (lisk forward 
 and admits flame to the charge; then the pressure of 
 gas arising from the combustion of the charge forces 
 the disk timily back upon the oritice of the vent, and 
 prevents all leakage in that direction. The shanks 
 of the four securing-screws act as guides to the disk 
 during its motion. The outer oiifice of the vent is 
 found at the rear end of the axis of the stem; but as 
 this is not a convenient place from which to tire the 
 primer, a secondare or offset vent is drilkd nearly 
 through a short cylinder of steel, the lower end of 
 wrhich is made to pass vertically dov^^l through the 
 nose-plate stem near its rear end." The lower end of 
 the vent in this cylinder is turne<I at right angles and 
 -comes out in the a.\is of the main vent. The Broad- 
 well gas-check ring is made of copper or steel and tits 
 into the ring-recess. The front of the ring bears 
 against the forward face of the recess, and the face 
 projects .01 of an inch to the rear of the recess wall. 
 The ring is cylindrical on its exterior, fits the recess 
 neatly, and its face is furnished with two circular 
 
 frooves. The foi-ward side (or curve) of the ring is 
 urnished with an expansion-groove and rib, and the 
 forward face of the nose-plate bears squarely against 
 the face of the ring when the breech-mechanism is 
 locked. See Ordnance. 
 
 CASUALTIES. — In the military service, a word 
 which includes all los,ses in numerieal strength of offi- 
 cers by death, dismissal, or resignation, and of enlisted 
 
 men by death, desertion, or discharge; also all losses 
 in fighting strength caused by wounds. 
 
 CASUS BELLI.— A phrase used with reference to 
 any event, or comjilication between sovereign powers, 
 which gives ri.se to a declaration of war. 
 
 CAT— CAT-CASTLE.— In the military engineering 
 of the Middle Ages, a kind of movable tower to cover 
 the saiijiers as they advanced to a besieged place. 
 The garrison .sometimes jioured down burning pitch 
 and boiling oil from the walls upon the o/l; but 
 occasionally this stratagem was disiistrous, for the 
 besiegers availed themselves of the blazing tower to 
 burn the w<i<iden gates of the town or fortress. 
 
 CATAFALCO.— In ancient military architecture, a 
 scaffold of timber, decorated with "sculpture, paint- 
 ings, etc., for supporting the colfin of a deceased hero 
 during the funeral solemnity. 
 
 CATALAN FUENACE.— A lilast-fumace for reduc- 
 ing iron-ores, extensively used in the North of Spain, 
 parlicularlj-in the province of Catalonia, from whence 
 it derives its came, and whence it was probably in- 
 troduced into Southwestern Europe. It consists of a 
 four-sided cavity or hearth, which is always placed 
 wilhin a building and separated from the mam wall 
 thereof by a thinner interior wall, which in part con- 
 .stitutes one side of the funiace. The blast-pipe comes 
 through the wall, and enters the fire through a tuyere 
 which slants downward. The bottom is f'onned "of a 
 refractoiy stone, which is renewable. The furnace 
 has no chimneys. The blast is produced by means 
 of a fall of water, usually from 23 to 27 feet high, 
 through a rectangular tube, into a rectangular cistern 
 below, to whose upperpart the blast-pipe is connected, 
 the water escaping through a pipe below. This ap- 
 paratus is exterior to the building, and is .said toafford 
 a continuous blast of great regularity; the air, when 
 it passes into the furnace, is, however, .saturated with 
 moisture. This apparatus is called a trompe. 
 
 CATAPHRACT.— The okl Homan term for a horse- 
 man in comjilcte armor. Kow obsolete. 
 
 CATAPHEACTA.— In the ancient militarj- art, a 
 piece of heavy defensive anuor, formed of cloth or 
 leather, fortified with iron scales or links, wherewith 
 sometimes only the breast, sometimes the whole body, 
 and sometimes the horse also, was covered. 
 
 CATAPHEACTI.— The cavalry of the Greeks con- 
 sLsted of two kinds. 1. Th(' Catuphracti, or heavy 
 cavalrj', in which both rider and horse were well cov- 
 ered with defensive armor; the former armed with 
 the lance, and a saber slung from a shoulder-belt. 
 2. A light cavalry of an irregular character, who were 
 without defensive amior, consisting of archers and 
 lancers, who also carried a sword, javelin, and a small 
 buckler. The position of the cavalry, in line of battle, 
 was on the wings. The duties of this arm were main- 
 ly to charge that of the enemy. The Cataphracti, for 
 this puipose, were chawn up on each wing, with a 
 portion of the light cavalry on each of their flanks. 
 The charge was made by the fomier, and the latter 
 followed up any success gained by them. 
 
 Catapult 
 
 CATAPULT— CATAPULTA.— A wariike machine 
 used in ancient times for projecting stones, long darts, 
 or javelins. There were different kinds and sizes of ca-
 
 CATCHPOLE. 
 
 310 
 
 CATOPTRICS. 
 
 tapultie to which various names wore given. The small- 
 er kinds wen- in the form of a crossbow: the laru'er 
 were supiwrliil hvn fniine which sustainol two arms 
 moving horizonlallv, having for a. motive force two 
 skeins of catgiit. Thccatapulta was less jx)werful than 
 the lialista, hut won- uniform in it-s nuige. C'ata- 
 pullip have occivsionally iR'en used in modern warfare. 
 There was one erected" at Gibndlar by General Mel- 
 ville, for the i)uriK>se of throwing stones a short 
 distance over the edge of the rock in a particular 
 place where the Spaniards used to fretpient. and 
 where tlu'V could not 1h' annoyed by shot or shell. 
 
 CATCHPOLE. — A Genuan' implement of war, of 
 the tifteenth and sixteenth centuries. It was shaped 
 like the irarfurk, with sharp points projecting to 
 the rear, wasatxHit 14 inches long, and fixed on to 
 a long sliaft. This terrible weapon was intended to 
 catcirihe adversjirv bv the throat and uidiorse him. 
 
 CATENARY.— The' curve formed by a flexible 
 bomogcneous coril hanging freely between two points 
 of supiMirt, and acted on by no other force than grav- 
 ity. If the coril is not homogeneous, and the density 
 varies in any regular way, the cord hangs in a curve 
 slightly different in shape from that of the ordinary 
 catenarv. The catenary pos.sesscs several remarkable 
 properties, one of which is that its center of gravity 
 is lower than that of any curve of equal perimeter, 
 and with the same fixed points for its extremities. 
 ■\Vhcre the cortl is such that the weight of any part 
 of it is proportioned to it.s horizontal projection, the 
 curve is a paralwla. The latter curve and the ordi- 
 nary catenary are of importance chiefly in the theory 
 of suspension-bridges. 
 
 CATERVA. — In ancient military writings, a term 
 used in speakijig of tlie Gaulish or Celtiberian armies, 
 denoting a body of 6000 armed men. The word is 
 also used to denote a i)arty of soldiers in disarnxy ; in 
 opposition io cohort or turma, which signify in good 
 onler. 
 
 CATGUT.— The material employed in the fabrica- 
 tion of the strings of violins, harps, guitars, and other 
 musical instruments; as also in the cords used by 
 clockmakers, i'l the bows of archers, and in whip- 
 cord. It is generally prepared from the intestines of 
 the sheep, rarely from those of the horse, ass, or mule, 
 and not those of the cat. The first stage in the ope- 
 ration is the thorough cleansing of the intestines from 
 adherent feculent and fatty matters; after which they 
 arc steeped in waler for several days, so as to loosen 
 the external membrane, which can then be removed 
 by scraping w ith a blunt knife. The material which 
 is thus scraped off is employed for the cords of battle- 
 doors and rackets, and also as thread in sewing the 
 ends of intestines together. The scraped intestines 
 are then steeped in water, and scraped again, when 
 the large intestines are cut and placed in tubs with 
 salt, to preserve them for the saasage-maker; an<l the 
 smaller intestines are steei)ed in water, thereafter 
 treated with a dilute solution of alkali (4 oz. potjtsh, 4 
 oz. carl)onate of potash, and 3 to 4 gallons of water, 
 with occasionally a little alum), and arc lastly drawn 
 through a perforaUd bra.s.s thimble, and a.ssorted into 
 their respective sizes. In order to destroy any adher- 
 ent animal matter, which would lead to "putr-efaction 
 and the conscfpieiit di'velopment of offensive odors, it 
 is customary to subject the catgut to the fumes of 
 burning sulphur— sulphurous acid, which acts as an 
 antiseptic and arrests decomposition. The l)est strings 
 are us«'d for musical instruments; and those which 
 come from Italy, and are known as linmtin strings, 
 are the strongest. They are remarkable for their 
 clearness and tnuisparency. Cord for clockmakers is 
 made from the smallest of the intestines, and occa- 
 sionally from larger ones, which have been split 
 longitudinally into several lengths. Whip-cord is 
 fabricale<l from catgut, which has Ix-en twisted in a 
 manner somewliat similar to single-corded ropes. The 
 catgut obtained from the intestines of horses, a.s,ses, 
 and m\des is principally made in France, and is em- 
 I)loycd insteail of leather belts for driving machinery. 
 
 CATHARINE-WHEEL — CATHERINE-WHEEL.- 
 1. A form of firework having a spiral tube which ro- 
 tates as the fire issues from the aperture. Catharine 
 is the name of several saints of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. The simple designation of Saint Cathnrine. 
 however, is givin to a virgin, said to have been of 
 royal descent, in Alexandrisi, who, publicly confess- 
 ing the Gospel at a sacrificial feast appointed liy the 
 Kin|X'ror Maximinus, was put to death in :j07 A.D., 
 after being tortured on a wheel. Hence the name 
 Catharine-wheel. 2. The Catharine-wheel is frequent- 
 ly used as a charge in coats of arms, when it is rep- 
 resented with teeth. 
 
 CAT-O'-NINE-TAILS.— A whip with nine knotted 
 cords. It is occasionally used in the British scr\ice 
 for the punishment of soldiers convicted of heinous 
 crimes. 
 
 CATOPTRICS. — That subdivision of geometrical op- 
 tics which treats of the phenomena of light incident 
 upon the surfaces of bodies, and reflected there- 
 from. All bodies reflect more or less light, even 
 those through which it is most readily tran.smissible; 
 light falling on svich media, for instance, at a certain 
 angle, is totally reflected. Rough surfaces scatter or 
 disperse a large portion of what falls on them, through 
 which it is that their pecidiarities of figure, color, etc., 
 are seen by eyes in a variety of positions; they are not 
 Siud to reflect light, but there is no doubt they do, 
 though in such a way, owing to their inequalities, as 
 never to present the phenomena of reflection. The 
 .surfaces with which catoptrics, accordingly, deals are 
 the smooth and polished. It tracks the course of rays 
 and pencils of light after reflection from such sur- 
 faces, and determines the positions, and traces the 
 forms, of images of objects as seen in mirrors of dif- 
 ferent kinds. 
 
 A ray of light is the smallest conceivable portion of 
 a stream of light, and is represented by the line of its 
 path, which is always a straight line. A pencil of 
 light is an assemblage of rays constituting cither a 
 cylindrical or conical stream. ' A stream of light is 
 (idled a converging pencil w hen the rays converge to 
 the vertex of the cone, called a focus;" and a diverg- 
 ing pencil when they diverge from the vertex. The 
 axis of the cone in each case is called the axis of the 
 pencil. When the stream consists of parallel rays, 
 the pencil is called cylindrical, and the axis of the 
 cylinder Ls the axis of the pencil. In nature, all pen- 
 cils of light are primarily diverging— ^-very point of 
 a luminous body throwing off light in a conical 
 stream; converging rays, however, are continually 
 produced in optical instruments, and when light di- 
 verges from a very distant liody. such as a flxed star, 
 the rays from it falling on any small body, such as a 
 reflector in a telescope, may, w ithout error, lie re- 
 garded as forming a cylindrical pencil. When a ray 
 falls upon any surface, the angle which it makes witb 
 the normal to" the surface at the point of incidence is 
 called t/ie angl-e of incidence ; and that which the re- 
 flected ray makes with the normal is called the angle 
 of rcJii'Hion . 
 
 Two facts of observation form the groundwork of 
 catoptrics. They are expressed in what are called 
 the laws of reflection of light: 1. In the reflection 
 of light, the incident ray, tlie normal to the surface 
 at the point of incidence, and the reflected ray lie all 
 in one plane. 2. The angle of reflection is equal to 
 the angle of incidence. Theses laws are simple facts of 
 observation and experiment, and they are easily veri- 
 fied experimentally. Rays of all colors and qualifies 
 follow these laws, so that wiiitc light, after reflection, 
 remains uiulecomposed. The laws, too, hold, what- 
 ever be the nature, geometrically, of the surface. If 
 the surface be a plane, the normal is the perpendicu- 
 lar to the plane at the point of incidence: if it be curved, 
 then the normal is the perpendicular to the tangent 
 plane at that point. From these laws and geometrical 
 considerations may be deduced all the i)ropositions 
 of catoptrics. In the jiresent work only those can 
 be noticed whose truth can in a manner lie exhibited
 
 CATOPTRICS. 
 
 311 
 
 CATOPTBICS 
 
 to the eye without having rigid mathematical proof. 
 They are arranged under the heads plane surfaces and 
 curred surfaces. 
 
 Plane Surfaces. — 1. When a pencil of parallel 
 rays falls upon a plane mirror, the reflected pencil 
 consists of parallel rays. A glance at Fig. 1, where 
 PA and QB are two of the incident rays and are re- 
 flected in the directions AR and BS respectively, will 
 make the truth of this pretty clear to the eye. The 
 reader miiy sjilisfy himself of its truth practically by 
 taking a number of rods parallel to one another anil 
 inclined to the tioor, and then turning them over till 
 they shall again be equally inclined to the floor, when 
 he will again lind them aJl parallel. 2. If a diverg- 
 ing or converging pencil is incident on a plane mirror, 
 the focus of the reflected pencil is situated on the 
 opposite side of the mirror to that of the incident 
 pencil, and at an equal distance from it. Suppose 
 the pencil to be diverging from the focus Q, Fig. 2, 
 
 turned to one another; Q will produce in the mirror 
 CD the image g'-. This image will act as a new ob- 
 ject to produce with the mirror BA the image g-, 
 which, again, will produce with the mirror CD an- 
 other image, and so on. Another series of ima*es, 
 such as g , q', etc., will similarly be produced at the 
 same time, the tirst of the series being g , the image 
 of Q in the mirror BA. By an eye placed between 
 the mirrors, the succession of images will be seen as 
 described; and if the mirrors were perfectly plane and 
 parallel, and reflected all the light incident on them, 
 the number of the images of both series would be 
 infinite. If, instead of Ijeing parallel, the mirrors are 
 inclined at an angle, the form and position of the 
 image of an object may be found in precisely the 
 same way as in the former ca.se, the image formed 
 with the tirst mirror being regarded as a new (virtual) 
 object, whose image, with regard to the second, has 
 to be determined. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 on the mirror of the surface of which CB is a section. 
 Draw QX? perpendicular to CB and make ?X=QN; 
 then q is the focus of the reflected rays. For let QA, 
 QB, QC be any of the incident rays in the plane of 
 the figure; draw the line A3I perpendicular to CB, 
 and draw AR, making the angle MAR equal to the 
 angle of incidence, 3IAQ. Then AR is the reflected 
 raj'. Join gX. Now it can be proved geometrically, 
 and indeed Is apparent at a glance, that gA. and AR 
 are in the same straight line; in other words, the re- 
 flected ray AR proceeds a.s if from g. In the same 
 way it may be shown that the direction of any other 
 reflected ray, as BS, is as if it proceeded from g ; in 
 other words, g is the focus of reflected rays; it is, 
 however, only their virtual focus. If a pencil of rays 
 converged to g, it is evident that they would be re- 
 flected to Q as their real focus, so that a separate proof 
 for the case of a converging pencil is unnecessary. 
 The reader who has followed the above will have no 
 difficulty in understanding how the position and form 
 of the linage of an object placed tx'fore a plane mir- 
 
 t 2^ 
 
 5 
 
 t 
 
 C 
 
 3. The two propositions already established are of 
 extensive application, as has partly been shown. They 
 include the explanation of all phenomena of light re- 
 lated to plane mirrors. The third proposition Ls one 
 also of considerable utility, though not fundamental. 
 It is: "When a ray of light has been reflected at each 
 of two mirrors inclined at a given angle to each other, 
 in a plane perpendicular to (heir intersection, the re- 
 flected ray will deviate from its original course by an 
 angle double the angle of inclination of the mirrors. 
 Let A and B, Fig. 5, be sections of the mirrors in a 
 plane perpendicular to their intersection, and let their 
 directions be produced till they meet in C. Let SA, 
 in the plane of A and B, be the ray incident on the 
 
 it icra 
 
 ^a 
 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 ror — as in Fig. 3, where the object is the arrow AB, 
 in the plane of the paper, to which the plane of the 
 mirror is perpendicular — should be of the same form 
 and magnitude as the object (as ab in the figure), 
 and at an equal distance from the mirror, on the oppo- 
 site side of it, but with its different parts inverted with 
 regard to a given direction. The highest point, a, for 
 instance, in the image, corresponds with the lowest 
 point. A, in the object. He will also understand hoy, 
 in the ordinary use of a looking-gla.ss, the right hand 
 of the image corresponds to tlie left hand of the 
 object. • 
 
 When two plane mirrors are placed with their re- 
 flecting surfaces towards each other, and parallel, they 
 form the experiment called the endless galler)-. Let 
 the arrow, Q, Fig. 4, be placed vertically between the 
 parallel mirrors, CD, BA, with their silvered faces 
 
 first mirror at A, and let AB be the line in which it 
 is thence reflected to B. After reflection at B it will 
 pass in the line BD, meeting SA, its original path, 
 pnxluced in D. The angle ADB evidently measures 
 its deviation fi-om its original course, and this angle 
 is readily shown to be double of the angle at C, which 
 is that of the inclination of the mirrors. It is on this 
 proposition that the important instruments called the 
 Quadrant and Se.xtant depend. 
 
 Currecl Surfaces. — As when a pencil of light is re- 
 flected by a curved mirror each ray follows the or- 
 dinarj- law of reflection, in everi- case in which we 
 can draw the normals for the different points of the 
 .surface we can determine the direction in which the 
 various rays of the pencil are reflected, as in the ca.se 
 of plane inirrors. It so happens that normals can be 
 easily drawn only in the case of the sphere, and of a
 
 CATOPTBICS. 
 
 312 
 
 CATOPTEICS. 
 
 few "surfaces of revolution," as they are cjilleil. 
 These an' the paraboloid, tlie ellipsoid, ami the hy- 
 perlK>loiJ of revolution. The |)iinilK)l(>iil of revolu- 
 tion Ui of iniportantx- in optics, iis it Is usetl in some 
 specula lor teleseojK-s. The three surfaces last named 
 are. however, all of them interesting lus iK'ing for 
 jieuiils of light incident in certain ways what are 
 calliil surfaces of accurate retliftion — i.e., they reflect 
 all the nivs of the incident [x-ncil to a single jx)iut or 
 focus. AVe shall e.\plain tt> what tliis projierty is 
 owing in the case of the paralK)lic reflector, and stiJte 
 genenilly the facts rcganling the other two. 
 
 1. The concave paralK)lic retle<-tor is a surface of 
 accurate reflection for jx-ncils of nys panUlel to the 
 a.xis or central line of figure of the paral)oloid. This 
 resnits from the properly of the surface, that the nor- 
 mal at any point of it pas.scs through the axis, and 
 bisects the" angle between a line through that jwiut, 
 parallel to the axis, and a line joining the point to 
 the focus of the genemting parabola. Referring to 
 Fig. 6, suppose a ray incident on the surface at P, 
 
 •p, 
 
 .^f-r 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 ^ V 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 fore of the incident pencil, because it is incident 
 diri-ctly on the mirror; a pencil being calleil oblique 
 when iLs axis is at an an^le to the axis of the mirror. 
 As the rav incident in the line OA will be reflected 
 back in tlie same line — (.)A l)eing the normal at A — 
 the focus of reflected rays nuist be in OA. Let SP 
 be one of the nivs; it will be reflected so that / 7PO 
 = I SPO. But Z PO? = / OPS by parallel lines. 
 Therefore Z 7PO = Z ?0P, and Pry and Oj are 
 equal. If, now, the incident pencil be very small — 
 i.e., if P be very near A — then the line Pg will very 
 nearly coincide with the line OA, and P7 and O'j 
 will each of them become verj- nearly the half of OA. 
 Let F l)e the middle point of OA — the point, namely, 
 to which </ tends as the pencil diminishes. The Pis 
 called the iirincipal focus of the mirror, and AT the 
 principal focal length, which is thiLs = i radius of 
 the mirror. It will be observed that when AP is not 
 small, g lies Ixjtween A and F. Fg is called the 
 aberration of the ray. AVhcn AP is large, the re- 
 flected rays will continually intersect, and form a 
 
 
 ?;^ " 
 
 I 
 
 B 
 
 Fio. T. 
 
 Fio. 8. 
 
 in the line SP, parallel to the axis AFG. Then if F 
 lie the focus of the generating parabola, join PF. 
 PF Ls the direction of the reflected ray. For PG, 
 the normal at P, bv the property of "the surface, 
 bisects the angle FPS, and therefore / (angle) FPG 
 = Z GPS. But SPG Ls the angle of incidence, and 
 SP. PG, and FP arc in one pKane, and therefore, 
 by the laws of reflection, FP is the reflected ray. In 
 the same way, all ravs whatever, parallel to the axis, 
 must pass through t' after reflection. If F were a 
 luminous point, the rays from it, after reflection on 
 the mirror, would all proceed in a cylindrical [lencil 
 parallel to the axts. This reflector, with a bright 
 light in its focus, is accordingly of common use in 
 light-houses. 
 
 2. In the concave ellipsoid mirror there arc two 
 points— viz., the foci of the generating ellipse, such 
 that niys diverging from either will be accurately re- 
 flected to the other. This results from the property 
 of the figure, that the normal at any point bisects the 
 angle included between lines drawn to that point 
 from the foci. 
 
 3. Owing to a property of the surface .similar to 
 that if the ellipsoid, a pencil of rays converging to 
 the exterior focus of a hyperbolic 'reflector will be 
 accurately reflected to the focus of the generating 
 hyperbola. 
 
 The converse of the al)ove three propositions holds 
 in the ca.se of the mirrors being convex. 
 
 Thfiugh the sphere is not a surface of accurate 
 reflection, except for rays diverginir from the center, 
 and which on reflection are relumed thereto, the 
 spherical reflector is of great iiractical importance 
 liecau.se it can be made with greater facility and at 
 less expense than the paralxilic reflector. Il"is neces- 
 s!ir>-. then, to investigate the phenomena of light re- 
 flected from it ° 
 
 It is usual to treat of two cases, the one the more 
 fre-quent in practice, the other the more genend and 
 comprehensive in theory. First, then, to find the 
 focvis of reflected mys when a small pencil of par- 
 allel rays is incident directly on a concave spherical 
 mirnir. Let BAB , Fig. 7, Ik- a section of the mirror, 
 O its center of curvature, and A the center of its 
 aiierture. AO is the axis of the mirror, and there- 
 
 luminous curve with a cusp at F. This curve is 
 called the caustic. We shall now proceed to the 
 more general case of a small pencil of diverging 
 rays, incident directly on a concave spherical mirror. 
 Let PAP , Fig. 8, be a section of the mirror, A the 
 center of it.s aperture, O of its curvature, and let P 
 be its principal focus. Then, if Q be the focus of 
 incident rays (as if proceeding from a candle there 
 situated), g, the focus of the reflected rays, lies on 
 QOA, since the i)encil is incident directly, and the 
 ray (^OA, being incident in the line of the normal 
 OA, IS reflected back in the same line. Let PQ be 
 any 01 er raj' of the pencil. It will be reflected in 
 Vg, so that z" ?PO = zOPQ; and on the supposition 
 that PA is very small, so that QP becomes nearly 
 equal to QA, and gP to gA., it can be shown, by 
 
 Euclid, vi. 3, that 
 
 QO_?0 
 
 very nearly. 
 
 QA gA 
 equation is deduced the formula 9A : 
 
 From this 
 QAXAF, 
 
 QA- AF 
 
 which enables us to find gX when QA and AF are 
 known. Thus, let the radius of cur\'ature be 13 
 inches, and the distance of the source of the rays, or 
 
 QA, 30 inches, the focal length g&. = ^^^^ = 7* 
 
 inches. If the rays had 
 diverged upon 7, it is 
 clear they wouUl have 
 been reflected to Q. Tlie 
 points Q and q, accord- 
 ingly, are called conju- 
 gate foci. 
 
 If the mirror be con 
 vex. as in Fig. 9, instead 
 of concave, and a pen- 
 cil of diverging rays l)c 
 incident directlv on it 
 from O, we sho'uld tind, ^'°- ^• 
 
 proceeding in exactly the sapie way as in the former 
 
 OA X AF 
 case, the equation Ag = '? • or, taking the 
 
 t^ A -f- Ar 
 
 same numbers as before, ?A — „ ., . = 5 inches.
 
 CATSPAW. 
 
 313 
 
 CA7ALLI OWN. 
 
 By considering Fig. 8 it is easy to see how the rel- 
 ative positions of the two conjiigjite foci, as they are 
 called, Q and q, vary as the distance, AQ, of the 
 origin of the rays is changed. As Q is advanced 
 towards O, q also approaches O, since the angles 
 QPO and gPO always remain equal; and when the 
 source of the light is in the center, O, of the sphere, 
 the reflected rajs are all returned upon the source. 
 As Q, again, recedes from O, q moves towards F, 
 which it does not quite reach until the distance of Q 
 is intiiiitc, so that the incident rays may be considered 
 as parallel, as in Fig. 7. If Q is placed between O 
 and F, then q will be to the right of O; and when Q 
 coincides with F, the reflected rays will have no 
 focus, but will be parallel. If Q is between F and 
 A, the reflected rays will diverge, and will have 
 their virtual focus to the left of A. The correctness 
 of these deductions maj- easily be verified. The po- 
 sitions of the conjugates are traced in precisely the 
 !-ame way for the convex mirror, and the reader who 
 is interested will find no difficulty in tracing them 
 for himself. 
 
 CAT'S-PAW. — The name given to a particular turn 
 made in the bight of a rope, to which a tackle is fast- 
 ened. See Ci/rilage. 
 
 CAULKING. — The operation of driving oakum or 
 untwisted rope into tlie seams of a structure to render 
 them water tight. The quantity thus driven in de- 
 pends on the thickness of the planking; it varies from 
 1 to 13 double threads of oakum, with 1 or 3 .single 
 threads of spun-yarn. The caulker first mimx or 
 reemn the seam — that is, drives a caulkiug-iron into 
 it, to widen the seam as much as possible anil close 
 any rents or fissures in the wood; he then drives in a 
 little spun-yarn or white oakum with a mallet and a 
 kind of chisel, and afterwards a much larger quan- 
 tity of black or coarse oakum. The fibers are driven 
 in until they form a den.sely hard mass, which not 
 only keeps out water, but strengthens the planking. 
 The seam is finally coated with hot pitch or resin. 
 
 CAUSTIC. — In optics, caustk is the name given to 
 the curved line formed by the ultimate intersections 
 of a system of rays reflected or refracted from a re- 
 flecting or refracting surface, when the reflection or 
 refraction is inaccurate. When the caustic curve is 
 formed by reflection, it is called the catacaustic — 
 sometimes simply the caustic; when formed by re 
 
 fraction, it is called 
 the diacaustic curve. 
 In mathematical Ian 
 guage, a curve formed 
 by the ultimate inter 
 sections of a system of 
 lines drawn according 
 to a given law is called 
 the eitfelojn', and is 
 .such that the lines are 
 all tangents to it. As 
 in a system of rays re- 
 flected or refracted by 
 the same surface all follow the same law, it follows 
 that the caustic is the envelope of reflected or re- 
 fracted rays. An example of the catacaustic is given 
 in the annexed figure for the case of rays falling 
 directly on a concave spherical mirror, BAB , from a 
 point so distant as to be practically parallel. The 
 curve may be said to be made up of an infinite num- 
 ber of points, such as C, where two very mar rays, 
 such as P, Q, intersect after reflection. This cata- 
 caustic is an epicycloid. The cun-e varies, of 
 course, with the nature of the reflecting surface. In 
 the case represented in the figure, the cusp point is at 
 F, the principal focus. Xo such simple cxamjile can 
 be given of the diacaustic cur^•e as that above given 
 of the catacaustic. It is only in the simjjlest cases 
 that the cur\'e takes a recognizable form. In the 
 ca.se of refraction at a plane surface, it is shown that 
 the diacaustic curve is the evolute either of the hyper- 
 bola or ellipse, according as the refractive index of 
 the medium is greater or less than unity. The reader 
 
 may see a catacaustic on the surface of tea in a tea- 
 cup alK)ut half full, by holding the circular rim to 
 the sun's light. The space within the caustic cun-e 
 is all brighter than that without, as it clearly should 
 be, as iiU the light reflected affects that space, while 
 no point without the curve is idfected by more than 
 the light reflected from half of the surface. 
 
 CAUTION. — An explanation given prcN-ious to the 
 word of command, by which soldiers are called to 
 attention, that they may execute any given move- 
 ment with unanimity an(^ correctness. 
 
 CAVALCADE. — In military history this tenn im- 
 plies a pompous procession of horsemen, equipages, 
 etc., by way of parade, to grace a triumph, public 
 entry, and the like 
 
 CAVALIER. — 1. A term originally signifying any 
 horse-soldier; but in English history, Ihi name given 
 to the party which adhered to King Charles I., in 
 opposition to the Roundheads, or friends of the Par 
 liament. 
 
 2. In fortification, a cavalier is a defense-work 
 constructed on the terrc-plein, or level ground of a 
 bastion. It rises to a height varying from 8 to 12 
 feet above the rampart, and has a parapet about 6 
 feet high. Its uses are to command any rising ground 
 held by the enemy, within cannon-shot, and to guard 
 the curtain, or plain wall between two bastions, from 
 being enfiladed. For these purposes it mounts 
 heavy ordnance. It may be either cur\'ed or bound- 
 ed by straight sides. In modem permanent fortifica- 
 tions, cavaliers are placed either upon the curtains or 
 within the bastions. The latter is the more usual posi- 
 tion selected for them. Their plan in this position is 
 usually that of a lunette, the faces and the flanks of 
 which are parallel to those of the enveloping bastion. 
 They receive a considerable command over the para- 
 l>et of the enceinte, and in some cases are ananged 
 with a tier of casemated tire, aliove which is an open 
 battery. This arrangement enables the cavaliers to 
 give a plunging fire upon the enemy's works on the 
 glacis of the bastion covered-way. Cuts are made 
 acro.ss the bastion-faces, isolating the cavalier from 
 the salient portion of the bastion. They are ananged 
 with parapets. These parapets and the faces of the 
 cavalier in front of them form an interior intrench- 
 ment by means of which the breach that might be 
 made in the bastion salient is defended. 
 
 CAVALLI BEEECH-LOADEE.— This apparatus is 
 very simple, anil is adapted to the use of a cup or ring 
 gas-check. The sliding block is similar to that of the 
 irt'f/ge breech loader. The wedge has two handles; the 
 charge is passed through the larger one, the chain 
 preventing too great a movement. The wedge slides 
 on three steel pins, to prevent excessive friction. In 
 case it is stuck by fouling, it may be pried to one side 
 by inserting a handspike in the mortise. 
 
 ■ CAVALLI GUN.— A gun invented in 1846 by Gen- 
 eral Cavalli of the Sardinian service. The chase 
 does not differ essentially from the usual form of 
 cannon ; but at the breech of the piece, instead of 
 being round, the four sides are planed off so as to 
 present from the rear an appearance of a square with 
 the comers rounded off. It is bored throughout its 
 length, and rifled with two flat grooves with roimded 
 edges. The rear of the chamber is enlarged, and 
 these grooves being continued through it, although 
 shallower than in the chase, are deep enough to 
 receive the wings or projections on the shot, and hold 
 it up till it reaches its seat in the gun. Crossing the 
 bore at right angles, with its front face perpendicular 
 to the axis of the piece, r. wedge shaped opening with 
 a reclangidar cro.ss-section is cut. It is for a 32- 
 poimder 9.4 inches deep, 5.4 inches wide at the large 
 end, and 3.7 inches at the small end. This opening 
 receives the quoin or wedge, made of hanlencd iron 
 or steel, destined to close the breech in rear of the 
 charge. See Caralli Breech-loader. This gun was 
 designed more particularlj- for casemate-batteries, or 
 Ix)sitions where it could be protected by blindages 
 and covers of different kinds. In this gun the
 
 CAVALOT. 
 
 314 
 
 CAVALBT 
 
 mechanical contriv-anccs for securing the breech are 
 verv superior U> the niiic processes of earlier limes ; 
 but" it is ven- doubtful wbullier they are sutlicieiuly 
 slmui; to iusun- safely when high charges are useti in 
 loiig eontiiniitl tiring. 
 
 CAVALOT.— A verj- ancient cannon, earning a 
 ball weiiiliiiig one pound. Long since obsolete. 
 
 CAVALEY.— The earliest records of cavalry as a 
 distinit military orgiiiiiziitiou date far l)aek in the 
 history of Kgypt. Diinlorus of Sicily states that 
 < )svnmndiiis, \vlio live<l long before the Trojan War, 
 led" iO.iKH) mounted men" ag-.iiiist the rebels in 
 Bactriaua. Joseph\is slates that the host of Israelites 
 which esciipeil from Egypt included 50,(KX) horsemen 
 and (WO chariots of war! Hero<lotus often alludes to 
 cavalry ; and Xenophon relates that in the first lles- 
 senian'war, 743 b.c, Lycurgus fomutl his cavilry in 
 dix-isions. In the year" 371 li.r. Epaminondas had a 
 cavalry foree of 5(XK) men, and we know that cavalry 
 contributed greatly to the victories of Philip and 
 Alexander of Macedou. It had an important part in 
 the liattle of the Gnuiicus, 334 B.C.; and at the battle 
 of Arlx^la, 331 b.c, Alexander, who led the Mace- 
 donian cavalry of "(XX) men, dashed into a gap of the 
 Persian army! and by this brilliant feat utterly routed 
 the enemy. " After the death of Alexander, the cav- 
 alry of Greece and Macedon greatly degenerated. 
 The Uoman cavalry was very inferior to that of 
 Hamilcar and Uannibai, and niost of the victories of 
 these two Generals were won by cavalrj' over the 
 splendid infantry of the Romans. Publius Scipio's 
 defeiit at the Ticinus, 218 B c, was due to the supe- 
 riority of the Carthaginian horse ; and the bitter 
 exiK-rience at the Trebia and the battle of Cannie, 
 216 B.C., taught the Romans the value of cavalry, by 
 which Soipio finally defeated Hannibal at Zama, 202 
 B.C. Vegetius staics that the Roman cavalry was 
 organizetl ir.to ten troops or siiuadrons, forming a 
 regiment of 726 horses, generally attached to some 
 special legion. It is a singular fact that sadilles were 
 not in use until the time of Constantine, and stirrups 
 were inlroduccil by the Franks in the fiflli century. 
 During the iliildle Ages cavalry m.iy be said to have 
 constituted almost the only efficient arm of battle. 
 This was owing to the unwillingness of the nobility 
 in all countries of western Europe to intrust any mili 
 tary power to the serfs ; the upper classes went into 
 battle mounted, and l)oth riders and horses had heavy 
 defensive armor. The fetidal cavalry consisted of 
 mail-clad knight.s with their men-at-arms. Their 
 weapt)ns were lances, battle-axes, and swords. The 
 infantry was looked down upon during the Middle 
 Ages, iK'uig composed principally of serfs and such 
 iis had not the means to keep a horse ; but with the 
 invention of gunpowder, the introduction of muskels, 
 :ind the use of field-artillery a complete change took 
 place ; the infantry gradually ro.se in reputation, and 
 the number of this class of troops was augmented. 
 It seems that light cavalry did not exist as a distinct 
 liody, with General Officers and a Staff, Ixfore the 
 lime of Louis XII. Montluc, however, mentions a 
 General of 12,000 light horse in the time of that mon- 
 arch; and we hear of Henry II., in 15.52, taking a 
 troop of 3000 cavidry in his expedition to Germany. 
 In 1554 .Marslial De Bris<!ic formed a eori)s of 
 mounted infantry, cjilled Dragoons, trained to fight 
 either on horseback or on foot. Maurice of Nassiui, 
 who saw the imi>ortance of .giving more mobility to 
 this arm, was the first to organize cavalrj- regiments, 
 each regiment iK'ing com|)osed of four sfiuadrons, 
 formed in live ranks, and numlK'ring aliout UMIO 
 horses. Guslavus Adolphus was a great cavalry 
 General, and uwd his Cuirassiers anil Dragoons to 
 g(KxI avanlage. His tactics were much admired, and 
 were adopted by many Eurom-an Nations. The 
 French, esp<-eiidly, distinguished themselves after his 
 ileath in the tniploymint of cavidry. Tiirenne, 
 Condi', Moiileeuculi. and .Marlbnrouch were consid- 
 eri-d excellent cavalrv leaders in the wars of Louis 
 XIII. and Louis XlV. Cmmwill was indebted to 
 
 his abilities as a cavalry officer for the victories of 
 Marslon Moor and Niiseby. Defensive armor for 
 cavalry had been abolished in his time, and the 
 cjivalry troops were taught to use the carbine. 
 Chargi* of cavalry were seldom made in battle except 
 by the French ; though Charles XII. always made 
 ii"se of cavalr>- charges at full speed with great 
 effect. Marshid Saxe made many improvements in 
 this arm. and used guns in connection with cavalry at 
 the battle of Fonteuoy, although regular horse-artil- 
 lerj- was not introduced till 1762. It was not until 
 the wars of Frederick the Great, however, that the 
 full importance of cavalry was developed ; he saw 
 the uecessitv of training these troops to use swords 
 instead of fire-arms, and endeavored to make them 
 jierfect riders. No firing whatever was allowed in 
 ihe battle during the first charge ; he claimed that 
 the only two things required to beat the enemy were 
 to charge him with the greatest possible speed and 
 force, and then to outflank hiin. The brilliant vic- 
 tories hi' obtjtined from the adoption of these tactics 
 under the able leadership of Seydlitz have probably 
 never been excelled. At the battle of Ilohenfriedberg 
 the Pnissian cavalry of 10 squadrons broke 21 bat- 
 talions, routed the entire left wing of the Austrian 
 infantry, and captured 66 standards, 5 guus, and 
 4000 prisoners. At the battle of Zorndorf, after the 
 Russians had compelled the Prussian infantry to 
 retreat, Seydlitz, with 36 squadrons rode down the 
 Russian cavalry, and then completely routed their 
 infantrj'. Frederick had learned to appreciate the 
 true principles of mounted warfare through long 
 experience and the occasional disasters which he had 
 met in the first and second Silesian wars ; and it was 
 due to the efficient reforms which he instituted in the 
 Prussian cavalrv that he was able to win the battles 
 of Rossbach, Striegan, Kesselsdorf, Leutheu, and 
 others. One of the first improvements made in the 
 French army by Napoleon was the reorganization of 
 the cavalry. He increa.sed the Cuirassiers from one 
 regiment to twelve, and reintroduced the use of the 
 lance and defensive armor. Some of his splendid 
 victories were due to this force, especially at Maren- 
 go and Austerlitz ; and it was owing to the loss of 
 the French cavalry in the Russian campaign of 1812 
 that some of his finest achievements in 1813 proved 
 useless : he was well aware of this, and made the 
 statement that had he possessed cavalry at Ihe battles 
 of Ltitzen and Bautzen the war would then have been 
 brought to an end. In modern warfare it may be 
 mentioned that cavalrv was conspicuous at the battle 
 of Solferino ; but in 1866, the first great European 
 war since Waterloo, neither '.he Austrian nor the 
 Prussian cavalry won great distinction, although Ihe 
 manner in which the Austrian cavalry covered the 
 retreat of their army at the battle of KOniggrillz was 
 a noble example of courage and devotion. In the 
 Franco-Gennan war of 1870, however, the excellence 
 of the Prussian cavalrv was the chief means of Von 
 Moltke's ability to carry out his strategic plans. The 
 French cavalry were more remarkable for bravery 
 than efficiency. Great progress was made in the 
 cavalrj- of the United States during the War of the 
 Rebellion ; a large number of men of both armies 
 were gowl riders, and understood Ihe management of 
 horses. They were at first, however, quite ignorant 
 of mililarv tactics, and were used as scouts, as order- 
 lies, and for outpost service. General Sheridan, act- 
 
 ! ing under instructions from General Grant, made the 
 first successful organiziilion of cavalrj', which was 
 called the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Poto- 
 mac, comprising three divisions of 5000 mounted 
 men each. Their weapons were repealing carbines 
 and sabers. It was with this force that General 
 Sheridan defeated the Confederate cavalrj- at Yellow 
 Tavern, near Richmond ; and it contributed largely 
 to the defeat of Early at the battle of the Opequan, 
 near Winchester; and later, at the battles near Peters- 
 burg and at Five Forks, the cavalrj- took an impor- 
 
 I tant part. General Wilson, whom CJcneral Sherman
 
 CAVALHY DEPOT. 
 
 315 
 
 CAVALEY FORGE. 
 
 I 
 
 put in command of a force called the C'avaln' Corps 
 of the Militarj- Divi^^^ion of the Mis.sis.sii)pi, did jrood 
 work in the way of organiziition towards the close of 
 the war ; he had 12,000 mounted cavalry and 3000 
 who fought on foot at the battle of Nashville, not 
 including a detachment of 3000 men in Kentucky. 
 
 Cavalry is usually placed in the rearof theinfantrj', 
 on ground favorable to its maneuvers, and where it 
 will be masked from lire until the moment arrives to 
 bring it into action ; here, if acting on the ilefensivc, 
 the cavalry watches its opportunity to support the 
 other troops, driving back the enemy, by prompt and 
 vigorous charges, when these are hard pressed ; or, 
 if on the offensive, biding its time, to rush upon the 
 assailant, and complete his destruction, when his 
 ranks commence to waver or show signs of disor- 
 ganization from the assaults of the other arms. Its 
 habitual formation for the attack is in a line of two 
 ranks, with a reserve, or svipport, to it-s rear. Tlie 
 supports are indispensably requisite to guard against 
 those chances of danger to wliieh cavalry is particu- 
 larly exposed, if attacked in turn, when in a state of 
 partial disorganization, after a successful charge ; or 
 when threatened by an offensive movement against 
 its Hanks. The supports offer a safeguard against 
 either of these dangers ; for, if the front line is 
 brought up by the enemy, alter a successful charge, 
 it can retire and rally in the rearof the supports ; and 
 if the enemy makes a movement against the tlanks, 
 the supports, placed behind them and in column, can 
 form and anticipate the enemy's charge. For the 
 foregoing reasons, cavalry should not give way to a 
 headlong pursuit after a successful charge, unless its 
 supports aVe at hand ; and in ciises where a charge 
 is made without supports, a portion only should 
 engage in pursuit, the rest being rallied to form a 
 support. Cavalry is seldom called on to use lirearms. 
 When on outpost service, or acting on the defensive 
 on ground unfavorable to charging, a portion of the 
 force may be dispersed as flankers, to hold the enemy 
 in check by their tire. In this case their movements 
 are regulated in the same way as other skiniiishers. 
 The defensive qualities of cavalry lie in the offensive. 
 A body of cavalry which waits to receive a charge ot 
 cavalry, or is exposed to a fire of infantrj- or artillery, 
 must either retire or be destroyed. This es.sential 
 quality of cavalry renders its services invaluable in 
 retreats where the enemy pursues with vigor. In 
 such cases it should be held in constant readiness to 
 take advantage of every spot favorable to its action, 
 and, by short and energetic charges, force the enemy 
 to move with circumspection. So long as infantry 
 maintains its position tirraly. particularly if the 
 ground is at all unfavorable to the movements of 
 cavalrj', the chances are against a successful attack 
 by the latter. Cavalry should therefore either wait 
 patiently imtil a way is prepared for its action, by a 
 fire of artillery on the enemy's infantry ; or until the 
 infantry has become crippled and exhausted by being 
 kept in action for some time ; or else, watching its 
 opportunity, make a charge whilst the infantry is in 
 motion, so as to surprise it before it can form to 
 receive the attack. Cavalry should direct its charge 
 on that point of the enemy's infantry where it will 
 itself be exposed to the letist column of fire. If the 
 infantry is in line, the charge should be made on one 
 of its flanks ; if in square, on one of the angles of the 
 square ; and when several squares are formed, so as 
 to afford mutual support by their fire, selecting the 
 squares on the flanks as most vulnerable, from their 
 position. The formation usually recommended for 
 charging against squares is that of three squadrons 
 in line at double distance : the leading squadron 
 being followed by the others, cither directly in its 
 rear, or else the squadrons may be formed in echelon, 
 sxiccessively overlapping each other by about the front 
 of a platoon. The angle of the square is charged by 
 each squadron in succession, if the charge of the one 
 preceding it fails ; the repulsed squadrons each 
 ■wheeling to the riglit or left on retiring, to leave the | 
 
 way clear for its successor. A fourth squadron in 
 colinnn follows those in line, to surround the square 
 and make prisoners if it slionld be broken by the 
 charge. To draw the fire of the infantry before 
 charging, a few skillful flankers may be thrown for- 
 ward to open a tire on the .square. Stratagem may 
 also be tried, by moving along the front of the infan- 
 try, at some 400 paces, and then charging, if it is 
 tempted to throw away its fire at this distance. In an 
 attack where several squares are in line, if one fires 
 to second another it should be instantly charged. In 
 attacks against artillery, the detachment of cavalry 
 should be divided into three bodies ; one fourth of the 
 detachment being charged with carrying the guns, 
 one half to attack the supports of the battery, and the 
 remaining fourth acting as a reserve, to cover the 
 parties in advance from an offensive movement against 
 their flanks or rear.' The party to .secure the guns 
 make their attack in dispersed order, and endeavor to 
 gain the flanks of the battery. When the battery has 
 a fair sweep over the ground along which they must 
 advance, they should, by maneuvering and false 
 attacks, try to confuse the artillerists, and draw their 
 fire before making their charge. The attack against 
 the support of the battery will be directed in the ■ 
 usual manner, the party maneuvering to gain their 
 flanks. See Dragonn and Horse-guards. 
 
 CAVALEY DEPOT.— A depot formed at Canter- 
 bury, to which all the depot troops of cavalry regi- 
 ments abroad arc attached. 
 
 CAVALEY FORGE.— A recent Board of Officers 
 recommended for the cavalry service, to supply a 
 want long felt, the adoption of a traveling forge-cart, 
 to lie issued to each company of cavalry, for the pur- 
 pose of carrying the blacksmith's bellows, fire-box, 
 anvil, coal, blacksmith's tools, horseshoes, nails, and 
 iron; also for the purpose of carrying the extra am- 
 munition, saddler's tools, and suiiply of leather for 
 repairs of horse-equipments. The cart was to be an 
 open one, without cover or tail-ljoard, and of such 
 size as to give a stowage of 21.9 cubic feet for tools, 
 coal, and materials, packed in boxes, and arranged 
 for draught by two horses or mules, one in shafts and 
 the other by liis side or in front. After the necessary 
 strength to withstand the wear and tear of service, 
 and the desired efficiency to do the required work, 
 the next most important requisite for a forge for 
 the cavalry is light weight, to enable it to move 
 with rapidity. Of late years the smith's bellows 
 for blowing his fire has been gradually giving place, 
 both in portable and stationary forges, to the rotary 
 fan-blower, which has the advantage of giving a 
 much better and steadier blast and occupying less 
 space. These qualities fit it in an eminent degree for 
 use in traveling forges and specially urge its claims 
 for favorable consideration; but it was found on 
 visiting shops where both systems were used that the 
 bellows were preferred by the workmen, and this 
 arose on account of the monotonous and tiresome 
 nuxle of working the fan-blower, which was done by 
 a crank. This motion does not admit of the same 
 change of position as that for blowing the bellows, 
 but calls in play always the same muscles, and ad- 
 mits of little change or relief. It was clear that in 
 order to make the introduction of the fan-blower a 
 success other means of gi^■ing motion to it must be 
 devised. It was observed that sewing-machines and 
 hand-lathes were' successfully worked by Hall's 
 treadle, which communicates "motion always in the 
 sime direction by simply pressing the foot on the 
 treadle, no matter in what position the fly-wheel va&j 
 be: it has no dead-centers. It was believed that if 
 the blower were arranged to Iw driven by a lever 
 worked by the hand, so as to enable the man to 
 change his position and shift the work from one hand 
 to the other, tlie sole olijection to the blower would 
 di.sjippear and a better and more constant blast be ob- 
 tained; the space occupied V)y it being less, the size 
 and weight of the cart could be diminished. A bet- 
 ter disposition of the fire-pan was desirable, so as to
 
 OAVALKY.HORSES. _316 CAVALBY-HOBSES. 
 
 Obviate the necessin- of brrakini; and forming the hold of it; one pulls the handle of the stop-Iwlt and 
 
 Sition of IhTbLt-pilH- with the tiR-pan when- lK,th draw the forfje to the rear and place it le.igthwLse 
 
 ^erTe or«. 1^ to W prepared for the inareh .,r on the trestles. Take out the sm.th s chest and coal- 
 
 for work. This was etlected bv uwking this eon- Ix.x in the same way and place them in conven.e.it 
 
 motion Wmaneut, and causing the ti^-pau and places. The saddler s chest may be taken out or left 
 
 ower to sh.ie in and out of the kxlv of the cart when in the cart after the others have been removed. 
 
 rt'ouiixHl. or not. for use, like a table drawer. It was The followmg are the pnnc.pal dimensions and 
 
 also deemed advisable to provide the Ixxly with a weights: 
 
 liaht w(MMlen cover, the l>elter to protect the contents ^ JDimentiont. 
 
 ui the Idixes from rain and dust. , , I wiHtt, nf trnrk nf wheels 62 inches* 
 
 The drawing repa-s.nt.s a side and end view of the ' W dth "f t™^k of wneels 0- incnes, 
 
 cavalrv forge" as designed by Colonel Laidley. ^^^ ^"'^ '^"g'^^^^ °|* „ 
 
 Unitwl Slati-s Anuy . in position and ready for use. y"" ,,,,'. T"]:. 66 " 
 
 When it is packeil for traveling, the materials, tools, j-t "fe ^ t ou.^ ■•••••••• •••••• ^^ „ 
 
 and implements are all under lock and key an<i not }-™S^^h ''/ « "> /"'^'"'^'"S ^'"'^'^ ^^ .. 
 
 liable to iK- lost or stolen. The time required to pre- j H'^^'S*'' of w heel 0/ 
 
 pare the forge for work or for transportation is not j • Weights. 
 
 more than a minute, and the latter can be performed ] " 
 
 though the tire-pan may be greatly heated. The One wheel 108 pounds. 
 
 bhust is strong enough to raise the tuyere-plate, j Shafts (both) 47 
 
 weishiug four pounds, from its seat, and a baggage- ' An\-il block and base 106 " 
 
 wagon axle mav be brought to a welding heat in its Forge, hood, etc 145 " 
 
 tire. It hius been found to meet all the renuirements Tool-box, empty 55 " 
 
 of the service, and has furnished the conveniences for Coal-lxjx, empty 63 
 
 keeping shod for live months a wagon-train of 750 Coal box, tilled with coal 228 " 
 
 horses and mules. It is believed that the advantages Saddler's box 44 " 
 
 gained by having the boxes removable from the body Whiffletree 4 
 
 is not commensurate with the expense and additional Tuyere 4 
 
 weight that it necessitates, and it would be better to AnWl-base 7^ 
 
 miike them ix-rmancnt fixtures to the cart. I Cart (complete), empty 1075 " 
 
 When using the forge, to prevent the cart from tip- | See Blower and Traveling Forges. 
 
 t^itle View.) 
 
 Cavalry Forge. 
 
 (End View.) 
 
 ping over chock the wheels in front and rear, and | 
 let down both props by pulling the handle-rings in 
 front and rear. Unlock and tsike the key out of the 
 end of the tail-rod; withdraw it. Let down the forge- 
 door and take out the shoeing-box. Grasp the hasp 
 of the forge door with the right hand, insert the mid- 
 dle tineer of the left hand in the handle of the lock- 
 ing-l)oil ; draw out the forge, pulling iwth hands to- 
 ward the I)ody; as soon as the forge has moved, let 
 go with the left hand, continuing the action with the 
 right till the locking-bolt stops it. Raise the fulcrum 
 to a vertical position. Unlock and turn the anvil- 
 ha-sp; s«'i/.e the anvil-block with both hands; draw it 
 out till the anvil rests near the end of the slide; take 
 the anvilplatc from the fire-pan, screw it on the end 
 of the block, and place the anvil four feet in rear of 
 the cjirt and six inches to the left of the left wheel; 
 withdraw the brake-handle from its |)ocket, hook the 
 end in the link, and enter the handle in the slot in 
 the fulcrum on the right, if the smith have a helper; 
 on the left if he have none. Bear down on the 
 Imndle gently at first, raise it a foot and bear down 
 Komewhat harder, increasing the pressure as the fan 
 gains speed, continuing this pumping motion, and 
 varjing the rapidity of the stroke according to the 
 amount of blast recpiireil. To remove the forge from 
 llie cart, place two trestles parallel tfi each other, 
 16 inches apart; raise them to a height of 2 feet 8 
 inches. Two men, one on each side of the forge, take 
 
 CAVALRY HORSES.— Horses for the cavalry ser- 
 vice should as far as practicable be geldings, of hardy 
 colors, sound in all particulars, well broken to the 
 saddle, from fifteen to sixteen hands hish, not les.s 
 than five nor more than nine years old, and suitable in 
 every respect for the severe requirements of this arm 
 of the service. Whenever it becomes necessary to 
 use the smaller half-breed horses, the standard of 
 height may be reduced to not less than fourteen 
 hands. The horses should be carefully trained by 
 the best horsemen, under the super\nsion of an officer 
 or non conmiissioncd officer. Extreme gentleness 
 and patience must be used, and loud talking and 
 shouting avoided. By careful treatment at first, 
 most horses soon becoriie perfectly gentle and tract- 
 able. Mere force, without skill or coolness, only 
 serves to cfinfirm bad habits. Approach the horse oh 
 the near side, speak to him gently, place the right 
 hand on his haunch, and step into the stall beside 
 him. Take hold of the halter-strap; pat the horse 
 and speak to him gently until he permits his legs to 
 be rubbed and his feet to be lifted. As soon as the 
 horse l)eoomes quiet in handling, he is bridled with 
 the watering-bridle, great care being taken not to 
 fntrhten or hurt him. The blanket is then folded 
 and placed on the horse; if the horse show any fear 
 of the blanket, lay the blanket over the left ami, and 
 go into the stall, show the blanket to tlie horse and 
 permit him to smell it, patting him on the ucck until
 
 CAVALEY-PARRIES. 
 
 317 
 
 CAVALRY TACTICS. 
 
 lie is quiet and allows the blanket to be placed on his 
 back; then place the surcingle gently over the blanket 
 and buckle it. The horse is now led out of the stable, 
 and is patted and coaxed until lie becomes perfectly 
 quiet and stands still while the man goes about on 
 both sides, rubs him, takes up his feet, etc., and at 
 length permits the man to get on his back. After 
 mounting, the man pats the horse for a few moments, 
 without attempting to make him move, and then dis- 
 mounts. This i.s repeated several times, until the 
 horse submits without fear. It must be remembered 
 that the efficiency of cavalry depends almost entirely 
 upon the condition of the )iori<ts, which alone makes 
 them able to get over long distances in short spaces 
 of time. The horses must, therefore, be nursed with 
 great care, in order that they may endure the utmost 
 fatigue when emergencies demand ir. Reveille, ordi- 
 narily, should not be sounded on the march before 
 daylight, as horses rest better from midnight until 
 dawn than at other times. The average march for 
 cavalry is from lifteen to twenty miles per day. The 
 walk is the habitual gait, but, when the ground is 
 good, the trot may be used occasionally for short dis- 
 tances. Long marches or expeditions should be be- 
 gun moderately, particularly with horses new to the 
 service. Ten or tifteen miles a day is enough for 
 the first marches, which may be increased to twenty- 
 five miles when necessary, after the horses are inured 
 to their work. The march is usually in column of 
 fours; when practicable, it may be in double column 
 of fours; in small commands it is often in column of 
 twos. In small commands, not in campaign, distances 
 of forty to fifty yards may be taken between the com- 
 panies, so that checks will not extend from one to an- 
 other and cau.se unnecess;iry halts. A halt of from 
 five to ten minutes is made at the end of every hour, 
 for the pm'pose of adjusting equipments, tightening 
 girths, etc. The companies are dismounted in col- 
 umn at the command of their Captains; if there be 
 frass, each Captain first obliques his company a short 
 istance from the road to let the horses feed, as 
 horses must always be encouraged to graze as much 
 as possible on the march. When troops march for 
 the greater part of the day, a halt of from twenty to 
 fortj-five minutes is usually made about noon. On 
 long marches, officers and men, except the sick, 
 should be required to dismount and lead from twenty 
 to forty minutes every second or third hour; to save 
 their backs, horses should be led over sleep ground, 
 and particularly down hill. Sec Ilcyrse and Harne- 
 nuiniiliip. 
 
 CAVALRY-PAHEIES. — Important movements in 
 bayonet-exercise, executed as follows: The Instruc- 
 
 I 2. Parry. Carry the piece to the left of the left 
 shoulder, the barrel to the right and nearly vertical, 
 the right hand at the small of the stock, the left elbow 
 at the height of the shoulder and touching the right 
 wiist, the fingers on the stock. 1. IJigh prime, 2. 
 Parry. Raise the piece with both hands, about 
 eight inches in front and foiir inches above the head, 
 the barrel downward and supported between the 
 thumb and forefinger of the left hand midway be- 
 tween the upper and lower bands. The positions 
 are shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. The thruiitt and 
 lunge* are executed after each cavalrj'-parrj', the bay- 
 onet elevated. In the thrust froni high' tierce and 
 prime the barrel is downward; in high guarle the 
 barrel is upward. The high double parries are exe- 
 cuted as follows: 1. High tierce, 2. Quarte. 1. Iligh 
 qiiarte, 2. Tierce. 1. High prime, 2. Seconde. 1. 
 S)Conde, 2. High Prme. The neeonde is the same 
 for cavalry as for infantry. See Bayonet-exercise and 
 Parry. 
 
 CAVALRY TACTICS.— Authorities differ concern- 
 ing the proportion that ought to be observed between 
 cavalry and infantry in an army. In France and 
 Austria the ratio is about 1 to 5 ; in Prussia and 
 Bavaria, 1 to 4; in Russia, 1 to 6,; in England, 1 
 to 8; and in the United States, 2 to 5. 
 
 So far as concerns actual duties, heavy cavalry 
 charge the enemy's cavalry and infantry, attack the 
 guns, and cover a retreat; while the light cavalry 
 make reconnaissances, carry dispatches and messages, 
 maintain outposts, supply pickets, scour the country 
 
 ' for forage, aid the commissariat, pursue the enemy, 
 and stri\e to screen the movements of the infantry by 
 their rapid maneuvers on the front and flanks of 
 their armj-. At the battle of Balaklava the heavy- 
 cavalry charge was within the reasonable duties of 
 the troops, but that of the light eavalrj' was not; the 
 former succeeded, the latter failed. A cavalry-horse 
 will walk 4 miles in an hour on general service, trot 
 8 miles in maneuvering, and g-allop 11 miles in 
 making a charge. The cavalry usually attack in line 
 against cavalrj', in echelon against artillery, and in 
 column against infantrj-. When an attack is about 
 to be made, the cavalrj' usually group into three 
 bodies — the attacking, the supporting, and the re- 
 serve. Close combat and hand-to hand struggle are 
 the province of cavalry; infantry and artillerj' may 
 fight at a distance, but cavalry cannot. It is rare 
 that two bodies of cavalry stand to fight each other; 
 the weaker of the two, or the less resolute, usually 
 turns and gallops off. The work to be done by the 
 horse is to pursue, to overwhelm, to cut down. They 
 cannot wait to receive an attack like infantry; they 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fis. a. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 tor commands— 1. High tierce, 2. P.vrry. Turn the 
 piece, baiTel to the left; support it with the right el- 
 bow against the hip, the barrel between the thumb 
 and forefinger of the left hand; the left forearm 
 alxive and about eight inches in front of the head; 
 the piece about eight inches to the right of the head, 
 covering the head and right shoulder. " 1. High quarte, 
 
 must cither pursue or retreat; and on this account it 
 has been said, "Rest is incompatible with cavaln,'." 
 The infantr)' and artillery more frequently ivin the 
 inctor}-; but the cavalry prepare the way for doing 
 this, capture prisoners and trophies, pursue the fly- 
 ing enemy, rapidly succor a menaced point, and 
 cover the "retreat of infantrj- and artillery, if retreat
 
 CATIATIMO. 
 
 318 
 
 CEKENT. 
 
 l>e necessurj'. Cavalrj- is ncccssiirv to finish off \vork 
 inuinly iloue by otlicrs ; and williout ils aid siirnal 
 siuxvss is si'ldiiiii iititaiiUMi on Ilic titld. 3Iany of tin- 
 brilliant ai-bii'vcnicnl-' of tlii' British in ISoT uud the 
 following y«ir, in India, wfri- rt'iiiU'ri'd almost nupi- 
 Ion,- by the paucity of ctivalry, whilo, as a foiitrast, 
 Ihi" Gi-muiu victories of ISTi) were enliauccil by the 
 splenilld serviets of their I'hians and other light 
 cavalrv. See 'Wn/^rv and TufticK. 
 
 CAVEATING.--ln "fencinir. a motion whereby a 
 IX'rson in an instant brings his sword, which was pre- 
 sented to one side of his adversary, to the opposite 
 side. See Ftiieing. 
 
 CAVESSON.— A sort of nose-band, of leather or iron, 
 which is put on the nos«> of a horse to iissist in break- 
 ing or tniininjx him. It resi'mblcs the tiritrh or bar- 
 naclts. iK-ing a jrrip by which the nose is wrun;; and 
 twisteil, to subdue the refractory spirit of the animal. 
 Otherwise spelt cinnvmii or ranzoi). 
 
 CAVIN. — in military affairs, airin implies a natural 
 hollow sufliciently large to lodge a body of troops 
 and facilitate their approach to a place. If it be 
 within musket-shot, it is a place of arms ready made, 
 and serves for opening the trenches, free from the 
 enemy's shot. 
 
 CAXON. — A chest of ores, calcined, ground, and 
 wiLshiil. ready for the retining-fumace. From the 
 Spanish cttxon, eujoii, a large chest. 
 
 CELEBES. — A body-guard of 300 young men of 
 the best Roman families, organized, according to 
 tradition, by Romulus. Next to the king, their 
 leader was the highest officer of the State. This 
 position was held by Brutus when he expelled the 
 Tarfjuins. 
 
 CELLS. — Places of solitary confinement in which 
 soldiers are placed, as punishment for certain crimes. 
 In England and elsewhere this confinement is limited 
 to lOH hours. 
 
 CELLULOID. — A remarkable modem invention, 
 apparently (•iii>able of wide usefulness in the arsenal 
 and laboratory, wherever India-rubber and various 
 kinds of cloth are now employed. Celluloid is pro- 
 duced by mixing gum cami)hor with a pulp of gim- 
 colton, and subjecting the combination to a high de- 
 cree of pressiure and heat. The result is a hard pro- 
 duct of extraordinary toughness and elasticity. If 
 can be made plastic again and molded into any re- 
 quired form. Any color ca;. \k given to it by the 
 use of coloring matter during the process of manu- 
 facture. It is extensively used as a substitute for 
 ivorj', which it resembles so elo.sely that it is some- 
 times difficult to detect the difference. 
 
 CELT. — The name by which certain remarkable 
 war-weapons of the early inhabitants of western 
 Europe are known among archjeologists. Celts are 
 cither of «to;i« or of bronze. 
 
 Stont celLs vary in length from about 1 inch to 22 
 inches; but the most common size is from 6 to 8 
 inches in length, and from 2 to 3i inches in brciidth. 
 They are made of almost every kind of stone, and 
 show con.sidend)lc diversity of shape, almost all, 
 however, having more or less resemblance to the 
 mussel-sliell. The ruder celts are genendly of slate, 
 .shale, schist, or grit; the finer, of flint, porphyry, 
 greenstone, syenite, or agate. Manv of the finer 
 celts are Ixautifullv shaped and highly polished. A 
 remarkable example of this class, the property of Sir 
 Coutis Linds:iy. found near St. Andrews, in Scot- 
 land, isdeserilM-d l)y Sir David Brewster in the Philu- 
 tophirnl Journal for 1«23. Recently a class of celts 
 found in the later geological slra"ta have excited 
 mui'li interest as well among aicha'ologists as among 
 gt;ologi«t.s. They are olidously of the .sjune type 
 with the more common celts, but of ruder construc- 
 tion, as if fasliione<l by a more barbarous jieoiile. 
 The stone cell was fastened into a handle of horn, 
 iMine, or wood. A celt of M-rpentine, with a handle 
 of deerhorn, wim found in one of the Swiss lakes in 
 •luly. 1«.%9, and a sioneecll, with a wooden handle, 
 in the County of Tyrone, m Irclimd. 
 
 Bronze celts vary in length from alwut 1 inch to 8 
 or 10 inches, the most common length being about 6 
 inches. They are sometimes ornamented with rudely 
 incised lines or circles, and have occasionally been 
 found wrapped up in linen, or inclosed in bronzo 
 citses or sheaths. They show much greater diversity 
 of .shape than the stone celt. As many as four classes 
 have been distinguished by archa>ol6gists: 1st. The 
 simple wedge-shaped celt, most nearly resi'mbling the 
 common form of the stone celt. 2d. The wedge- 
 shaped celt, with sides more or less overlapping, and 
 a stop-ridge or elevation between the blade and the 
 part whicli received the handle. 8d. The wedge- 
 shaped celt, with sides gi-eallv overlapping, with or 
 without the stop-ridge, but with a loop or ear ujwn, 
 and [larallcl to, it.s lower surface. 4th. The socketed 
 celt, or the celt with a hollow to receive the handle, 
 and generally with a loop or Ciir upon its lower sur- 
 face. 
 
 Both stone and bronze celts were probably ased for 
 several purposes, ser\-ing for chisels, adzcs.and axes, 
 as well as for weapons of war, like the stone hatchets 
 of the South Sea Islanders and other savage or bar- 
 barous tribes. Examiiles of stone and bronze celts of 
 ,ill classes (together with the molds in which bronze 
 cells were cast) mav be seen in the British JIuseum 
 at London, in the lfatit)nal Museum of the Antiquaries 
 of Scotland at Edinburgh, and in the Museum of the 
 Royal Irish Academy at Dublin. The last collection 
 has more than .lOO examples of stone celts, about one 
 half of wliicli were found in deepening the bed of the 
 Shannon or its tributaries, between the years 1843 
 and 1848. A bushel of bronze celts hiis more than 
 once l)een discovered at one spot. 
 
 CELTIBEKI. — A powerful i)eoplc of ancient Spain, 
 suppose<l to have sprang from a blending of the 
 Iberians or Spanish aborigines with Celtic invaders 
 from Gaul. The Celtiberi inhabited a large inland 
 district of the peninsula, corresponding to the .south- 
 west half of Aragon, nearly the whole of Cuenga and 
 Soria. and a great part of Burgos, but the name Ccl- 
 tiberia bad often a wider signification, including the 
 coimtry as far south as the sources of the Guadal- 
 qui\ir. The Celtiberi were divided into four tribes, 
 and were unquestionably one of the bravest and 
 noblest peoples in the peninsula. Their cavalry and 
 infantry were equally excellent. For many "years 
 they withstood the efforts of the Romans to subdue 
 tliem, and it was not till after the campaigns of Ser- 
 torius that they began to adopt the Roman language, 
 dress, and manners. 
 
 CEMENT.— A cement is a substance used to make 
 the siH'faces of solid bodies adhere to one another; it 
 is applied in a liquid or viscous state, and hardens 
 after the surfaces are brought together. Wlien fused 
 metals or alloys are used in this manner, they are 
 called solders. There is a great variety of cements 
 derived from animal, vegt'table. and mineral .sub- 
 sUmces. The animal cements are chiefly composed 
 of gelatine and albumen as their bases, joiners' glue 
 is !in example. The binding materials of vegetable 
 cements are gums, resins, and wax. The mineral 
 cements are chiefly of lime and its comjiounds. In 
 many cements, animal, vegetaljle. and mineral sub- 
 stances are combined. The simplest of th<' mineral 
 cements is i)lasier of Paris, which is used for uniting 
 slabs of marble, alabaster, anil many similar purposes. 
 It is nnxed with water to the consistence of thick 
 cream, and then applied. This hardens rajiidly, but 
 is not very strong. Its hardening deijends upon the 
 true chemical coml)ination of the water with anhy- 
 drous saljihate of lime, of which pliuster of Paris is 
 composed, and the forni.ation thereby of .i solid hy- 
 drate. The plaster of Paris may be "mixed with thin 
 glue, with diluted while of egg", or a solution of size 
 or gum, in.sleadof water, and is strengthened thereby. 
 Keene's marble cement is prei)ared by sleeping pla.ster 
 of Paris in a concentrated solution of alum, "then re- 
 calcining and powdering. This jjowder is mi.\ed 
 with water in the same manner as plaster of Paris.
 
 CEMENTATION. 
 
 319 CENTEB-FIBE METALLIC-CASE CABTBISGE. 
 
 It is used as a stucco for internal decorations, ttikes a 
 higli polish, and wlien colored tonus beautiful imita- 
 tions of mosaic, marbles, scagliola, etc. A mixture 
 of paper-pulp, size, and plaster of Paris in equal pro- 
 portions forms a aseful cement, and is also used as a 
 sort of papier-maclie for casting into architectural 
 ornaments, etc. Common mortar is one of the most 
 important of the lime cements. It is composed of 
 slaked lime, or a mi.xture of this with sand; its hard- 
 ening depends upon the slow formation of carbonate 
 of lime by the al)Sorption of carbonic acid from the 
 atmosphere, and a partial combination with the silica 
 of the sand. Cow-hair is sometimes mixed with it, to 
 bind it when laid in masses. In order to obtain a 
 tine smooth paste, which is required for good mortar, 
 the lime should be slaked rajtidly by adding about 
 three parts of water to one of lime; ifthe quantity of 
 water is too small, a coarser or semi-crystalline hy- 
 drate of lime is produced by the slaking. Ordinary 
 mortar, when exposed to the continuous action of 
 water, .softens and disintegrates, and some of the lime 
 di-ssolvcs away. Lime which contains 20 or 30 per 
 cent of clay, or tinely divided silica, ]iroduces a mor- 
 tar which is not liable to this softening, but possesses 
 the property of hardening under water; such lime is 
 called hjidraitlk, and the mortar made from it, hy- 
 draulic cement or mortar. Puzzolana, a porous lava 
 found at Puzzuoli, near Naples, has been long cele- 
 brateil for its property of forming a hydraulic cement 
 when mixed with ortlinarv lime. It is mainly com- 
 posed of silicates of alumina, lime, and soda. Port- 
 land cement, so named from its resemblance to Port- 
 land stone when dry, is made from clay found in the 
 valley of the Medway, which is intimatel}' mixed 
 with the neighboring chalk, and then burned. 
 Roman cement is similar to the Portland, but of a 
 darker color; it contains a larger proportion of clay, 
 and solidities more rapidly. These cements should 
 be mixed with a sullic-ient quantitv of water to form 
 a moderately thick jiaste; the surfaces to which they 
 are applied shoidd be well wetted, and the cement 
 kept slightly moist until it hardens. The solidifica- 
 tion of hydraulic cements depends upon the combina- 
 tion of the lime with the silica and alumina, fomiing 
 first a hydrated compound, and finally a true silicate. 
 They expand slightly in solidifying. See Cement- 
 Ustir. 
 
 CEMENTATION.— The process of infusing a solid 
 body with the constituents of another body in which 
 it is buried, by the application of heat. The produc- 
 tion of steel by cementation consists essentially in the 
 exposure of bars of malleable iron, in close contact 
 ■with charcoal, to a high and long-continued heat, the 
 air being excluded. A decided peculiarity of the con- 
 verted bars is the blistering of the external surface, 
 whence the term hligh-r-sted is derived. When the 
 blisters arc small and regularly distributed, the steel 
 is of good quality; but when large, and only occurring 
 along particular lines, they may be considered as in- 
 dicative of defective composition or want of homo 
 geneity in the iron emjiloved. See Blhlered Stetl. 
 
 CEMENT-TESTEE.— Ainacbine for ascertaining the 
 strength of cement, mortar, or other similar material 
 by compression. The drawing shows an improvetl 
 machine of this class with the following dimensions: 
 Extreme height, 2 feet 4 inches; extreme length, 3 
 feet 6 inches; extreme width, 1 foot 5 inches; weight, 
 110 pounds. Adaptation — Crushing specimen, 1-inch 
 cube or le.ss; motion of screw, li inch; capacitj', 
 1500 pounds. 
 
 The beam is of brass, with sliding poise and gradu- 
 ated from 1 pound up to the capacity of l.-)(Mt iiuimds 
 The levers being carefully sealed to "the United States 
 standard, the results of "the tests are positively cor- 
 rect. The specimen (1-inch cube) is shown in position 
 at butt end of main lever just below the thumbscrew. 
 The following simple directions will show how to 
 operate the machine: 
 
 After the specimen is" ])roperly adjusted in place, 
 force the «;rcw down with the hand-lever imtil you 
 
 have got enough pres-sure on to make the lever nearly 
 touch the top of the stand; the weight on the beam is 
 then carefully increased and the specimen will, in 
 most cases, break before the beam reaches the bottom 
 
 of the stand or gate. If, however, it should not, the 
 beam is again raised by appljnng pressure with the 
 screw and moving the poise oil beam until the speci- 
 men breaks or the desired test is applied. See Testing- 
 hnn'hlin\ 
 
 CENOTAPH. — A monument which does not contain 
 the remains of the deceased. They were originally 
 erected for those whose bones could not be found; 
 e.g., for those who had perished in battle. Latterly 
 the name was applied to tombs built by a man during 
 his lifetime, for himself or for the inembers of his 
 familv. 
 
 CENTER.— One of the points on the lathe-spindles 
 on which the work is placed. The/;v;H^ or liee center 
 is on the spindle of the Ju ail stock. The back or dead 
 cj'iitcr is on the tiiil-stock. The centers of a planer are 
 on stocks temporaiily attached to the bed of the planer, 
 .so that the object may be turned on its axis in the 
 course of the work thereon. See I/ithe. 
 
 CENTER-FIRE METALLIC CASE CARTRIDGE.— 
 The successful inwntion of the self-primed metallic- 
 case carttidgc has greatly simpliticd the constmction 
 of breech-loading small-arms. Prior to its introduc- 
 tion and use, the prevention of the escape of flame 
 through the joint of the breech was of difficult if not 
 impossible accomplishment, and complicated aiTange- 
 ments of the breech-mechanism had to be resorted to, 
 with, at best, unsatisfactorj- results. The metallic 
 cartridge overcomes this dilliculty, being itself a per- 
 fect gas-check renewed at every round, prevent-s 
 foulne.s,s and wear of the mechanism, and exercises 
 the most vital fimctions in the life of the arm. So 
 important an element is it that it may be said that 
 with a perfect cartridge the most indifferent breech 
 arrangement can be u.sed with sjifety and efficiency. 
 
 Its advantages, other than that already indicated, 
 are many: its completeness and sim]ilicity, being self- 
 primed, and used as a whole in loading; its strength 
 and siifety, withstanding the roughest usage and 
 thoroughly protecting the powder and fulminate; its 
 accuracy, because of the coincidence of the axis of the 
 Iwre and bullet; and, added to these, the absolute im- 
 possibilit}' of using more than one cartridge at a time. 
 
 That adopted by the Ordnance Department is 
 known as tlie center-fire. The superiority of this 
 system over the rim-tire is so marked as will undoubt- 
 eilly lead to its imiversal adoption. By concentrating 
 the iwrcussioncompo.sition in the center of the heatl 
 the quantity used is reduced to a minimum, — to less 
 than one fom-th of what is required to prime the en- 
 tire circumference in the rim-tire, — and this smaller 
 quantity is so much better protected as not to be at 
 all liable to accidental explosions. The central por- 
 tion of the head has more elasticity than the rim.
 
 CENTER-FIRE METALLIC-CASE CARTRIDGE. ^OQ CENTER FIRE METALLIC-CASE CARTRIDGE. 
 
 and Is better able to resist the strain upon it from the 
 Euddcn uclion of the fulminate, besides havinj; the 
 additiouul ud\anla,^e of permitting the reinforcing of 
 the rim, tlius strengthening the weakest portion of 
 tbe eartridge-casc. 
 
 The United Stales regulation ccntcr-flre cartridge, 
 caliber .45, consists of tlic following parts, viz. : the 
 
 than half its length into the case, in order that the 
 lubricjmt in its grooves maj' be entirely covered and 
 protected. To render the earl ridge water-proof, the 
 edge of the case is crimped hard ag-ainst the bullet. 
 
 The sheet-copper for making the ca.ses is No. 23, 
 ■wire gauge, obtained in strips 35^ inches long, 3.J 
 inches wide, and .03 inch thick. The ends of these 
 strips are cut at an angle to avoid waste, and each 
 strip gives material for 40 ca.ses. One pound of cop- 
 per will make 40 cases, i scrap. In the .selection of 
 sheets for making tlie cases, such only should be 
 chosen as appear to have been rolled in a careful 
 manner. They must be free from the slightest seams, 
 blisters, or Haws, and of an even thickness through- 
 out, well annealed, and trinmied to the forcgomg 
 dimensions. The best copper ores are mined on the 
 shores of Lake Superior. The Minnesota mines and 
 the most approved brands of Detroit smelting should 
 be selected in preparing metal for cartridge purposes. 
 It is not pure as received from the mills, being aUoyed 
 with 5 per cent of spelter. 
 
 The tirst operation in drawing the tubes is per- 
 formed by the double-action press, shown in Fig. 1. 
 The strips of copper are prepared for the press by 
 straightening their cuds and edges, if neccssjiry, with 
 a hand-mallet, and oiling both surfaces. The strips 
 are then fed to the press by hand, a small slop on the 
 die-plate regulating the length of feed. The first 
 
 ease, the cup-anvil, i grain of percumfn-compogition, 
 70 grains of mmkel-iMwdcr, and a lubricated leaden 
 bulttt weighing 4.')() grains. The ca.se is 
 the copper tube which forms the receptacle 
 for the powder-charge, the percussion com- 
 position, and the leaden bullet. Its exterior 
 conformation is designed to facilitate its 
 ready extraction from the chamber of the 
 gmi after firing. Besides the rim at the 
 dosed end, which is intended primarily to 
 a.ssist extraction, the case is tapered from 
 the rear to a point where it seizes the bullet, 
 whence it merges into a right cylinder. The 
 cup-anvil is a small metallic cup, of suffi- 
 cient rigidity to resist the l)low of the ham- 
 mer communicated by the firing-pin, and 
 of such form as to insure the passiige of 
 the fianie to the j)owder-eharge upon the 
 explosion of the ptTcussion-composilion. It 
 is provided with a circular recess or canty 
 into which the |U'rciis.sion-composition is 
 deposited. Two little vents, at the extremi- 
 ties of a diameter of this recces, direct the 
 flame to the charge. The cup, when charged 
 with the comiwisilion, is placed within the 
 copper ca.sc, pressed snugly against its 
 closed end, and crimped fimily into position. 
 were formerly made of sheelifon tin-plate, but they 
 are now made of copper. The bullet enters more 
 
 Cup3 
 
 Fio. a. 
 
 shape given to the future cartridge-case is that of a 
 flat circular disk, l.fi:i inch in diameter, cut from the 
 copper strips fed under the double punch of this-
 
 CENTEE-FIEE METALLIC CASE CAETEIDGE. 321 CENTEE-FIEE METALLIC-CASE CAETEIDGE. 
 
 press. This punch is essentially a punch within a 
 jmneh, the exterior one cutting the disk clear from 
 the strip, while the interior one descends and forces 
 it through a tapered die, giving it a shallow, cup 
 shape, about 1 inch in diameter and .5 inch deep. 
 After pas.sing through and beyond the tapered die, 
 the cup e.xpands slightly and is" stripped from the in- 
 terior punch as the latter ascends. Two rows of 
 disks are cut from each strip, one disk at a time. 
 They are cut and cupped at the rate of 6") a minute. 
 E.xperience has proved that a width of strip giving 
 only two rows of disks is better than a width giving 
 three or more rows, the former being rolled to a more 
 uniform thickness and subject to less percentage of 
 waste. 
 
 In order to draw the cups to the dimensions re- 
 quired for the linished cases, they are subjected to 
 the action of four additional punches and dies of de- 
 creasing sizes, so as to gradually elongate the cups 
 while reducing their diameters. These draws are 
 made by single-action presses, having each a single 
 punch and die, as shown in Fig. 2. The tirst press 
 elongates the cup from .92 to .95 of an inch, and re- 
 duces its diameter to (according to the ma.\inium 
 thickness of copper and wear of tools) about .7 of an 
 inch. The second press elongates it from 1.1.'5 to 1.2 
 inch, and reduces the diameter to about .65 of an 
 inch, thus lengthening out the cup into a tube. 
 These tubes at this stage are annealed after a process 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 to be presently described. The third press elongates 
 the tube from 1.75 to 1.8 inch, and reduces its diame- 
 ter to .55 of an inch. The fourth press brings the 
 tubes to the required exterior diameter of .501 mini- 
 mum and .503 maximum of an inch, the extreme per- 
 missible variation of which is .002 of an inch; but 
 they are left of unequal lengths and with ragged 
 edges. These presses are fed at the rate of 65 tubes a 
 minute, by placing them upright on a revolving hori- 
 zontal plate provided with guides and stops. 
 
 The tubes are annealed after the second draw, as 
 stated above, to restore to the metal its ductility, the 
 previous operations having rendered it hard and brit- 
 tle. The number of annealings required dtiring the 
 entire process of manufacture will depend on the 
 (lualit)' of the metal iised; with the best copper, onlj- 
 one is necessarj'. The annealing is done bv placing 
 the tubes in a perforated iron cylinder, heating them 
 red-hot in a charcoal-lire, revohing the cylinder 
 meanwhile to equalize the heat, then plunging them 
 into a solution of one part of sulphuric acid and tif- 
 tecn parts water, and, afterwards, thoroughly wash- 
 ing in several changes of water to remove all trace of 
 acid. The acid solution (pickle) is intended to deun.se 
 the metal from any scale, or oxide, occasioned by the 
 annealing. They should be kept in a slightly acid 
 bath until ready for use, when they are washed and 
 oiled. 
 
 The finishing draw having left the tubes of uneqtial 
 
 lengths and ragged edges, it is necessary, in order to 
 facilitate the subsequent steps of manufacture, and 
 to insure uniformity in the tinished cartridges, to re- 
 move the ragged edges antl reduce the tubes to a 
 uniform length. This is done by means of the trim- 
 ming-machine represented in Fig. 3. The tul)es are 
 placed in the trough of this machine, whence they 
 are taken up by a revohing mandrel, against which, 
 and just inside of a shoulder upon the same, the edge 
 of a circular cutter is pressed. The tube, when 
 brought to iiosition by the mandrel, is cut clean and 
 even by the cutter, a stripper removing the tube and 
 scrap after each operation. To allow for the metal 
 that is used for forming tlie head or rim, the tubes 
 are cut a little longer (about .13 inch) than the headed 
 case. The tulies are trimmed by this machine at the 
 rate of 80 a minute. 
 
 In all the operations pre^^ous to and succeeding the 
 annealing, lard-oil of the best quality is the lubncant 
 used. But as the smallest particle of oil will impair 
 the efliciency of the percussion-composition, it is of 
 the last importance that all vestiges of it be removed 
 from the interior of the tube before the percussion- 
 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 composition is inserteil. The flattening of the closed 
 end of the tube by the next operation would, if the 
 oil were not pre\iously removed, retain a greater or 
 less quanity of it in the interior fold of the rim, from 
 which no subsequent process could entirely remove 
 it, and from which it would be liable to exude in the 
 tinished cartridge, to the destruction of the percussion- 
 composition. The present unheaded condition of the 
 tube, therefore, affords the most favorable opportu- 
 nity for removipg the oil, which is done by washing 
 the tubes in a solution of li pound potiish, li pound 
 soda, and 5 gallons of wafer, temperature 120', for 
 •seven minutes, and afterwards rinsing them thor- 
 oughly in clean warm water, using a revolving wire 
 barrel partially immersed in it. 
 
 The head or rim of the cartridge-ca.se is next formed 
 by the heailing-machine. This machine, shown in 
 Fig. 4, consists of a horizontal die, coimtersunk at 
 one end for sizing (diameter and thickness) the head, 
 a feed-punch to insert the tubes into the die, and a 
 heading-punch to tiatten the closed end of the tubes 
 into the countersink. The bumper may be reversed.
 
 CENTEKFIRE METALLIC CiSE CARTRIDGE. 322 CENTER FIRE METALLIC-CASE CARTRIDGE 
 
 and the die k-fl witliout countersink. This plan bus 
 been n'conimencii'd. The tubes, which are a little 
 longiT than the headed C!i.*e, are fed into the inclined 
 trough of the heading machine, whence they are 
 taken up on the feed punch. A shoulder on this 
 punch, at a distance from its extremity eciual to the 
 inner depth of the heiide<l ca.se, prevents it from ex- 
 tending to the full depth of the tube, and a surplus 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 of metiil is thereby left at the closed end of rhe 
 tube for the fomiation of the head. The feed- 
 punch inserts the lube into the die, and holds it 
 there, while the beading-punch moves forward by a 
 nowerful cam, and presses and folds the unsupporteil 
 projecting p<irtion of the tul)e into the countersink of 
 the d'e or recess of bumiier, as the case may lie, form- 
 ing and accurately sizing and shaping the head or 
 rim. The headed" case being left in tlie die as the 
 feed-punch recedes, is pushed out by the succeeding 
 tube and thrown by a flipper into the receptacle be- 
 low. Xo oil is usi'd in this operation, the moisture 
 of the tubes from the recent washing sufliciug as a 
 lubricant. The machine is fed at the rate of (>') per 
 minute. The ejises are now finished; but to be cer- 
 tain that the oil is entirely removed from tbem, they 
 are again washed in the "alkaline solution and dried 
 thoroughly in a drying-room, at a temperature of 
 about 12.5 Fahrenheit. 
 
 The cup-anvil is made of copper, by a double- 
 action press, similar to the one for cutting and cup- 
 ping the disks for the copiier cases. Copper sheet- 
 metal strips, 2.5 inches long, 2.. 5 inches wide, and .04.5 
 inch thick are used. One pound will make 176 cups, 
 i scrap. The sheet-metal for cups mast be free from 
 all defect.s, with a liright, smooth surface, and uni- 
 form in thickness throughout, and annealed. The 
 cups are cut and formed by this machine at the rate 
 of -lo a minute. The cup-anvils, as they come from 
 the double-action press, are of the right diameter, but 
 too long, and with nigged edges. The cups are re- 
 duced to a uniform height by cutting off the ragged 
 edges in the cup-trimming machine, shown in Fig. 
 
 minute. The circular depression in the Imttom of 
 the cup, which serves sis the receptacle for the percus 
 sion composition, is next made. The cups are fed 
 through a vertical trough at the rate of 90 per min- 
 ute. The trough has a flat pan at the top, into which 
 the cups in quantities are emptied, and where they are 
 arranged so as to present the jiroper end to the punch. 
 The t~ups thus comiileted are well washed in an alka- 
 line solution, to remove all traces of oil, and then 
 thoroughly dried. 
 
 The percus.sion-composition consists of fulminate 
 of mercury, 35 parts; chlorate of pota.sh, 16 parts; 
 gl.iss-dust, 45 parts; gum-arabic, 2 parts; gum-traga- 
 canth, 2 part.s, by weight. These arc mixed without 
 danger by using the fulminate in a moist state, the 
 water having been entirely drained from it. The 
 chlorate of potash being well triturated, and the glass- 
 dust properly prepared, the ingredients are put into a 
 china bowl and thoroughly mixed, using a small 
 steel spatula for the purpose. The dissolved gums 
 will contain suBicient water to reduce the composition 
 to a thick paste, it being used in the machine of this 
 consistency. 
 
 Glass-diist for the percussion-composition is pre- 
 pared for use in the following manner: Broken 
 French ])late-glass only is used. The glass is washed 
 cleim and dried; it is then broken into small pieces. 
 
 Fio. 0. 
 
 5, which consists of a revolving rose cutter, made of 
 a number of small cutters that can Ix- changed and 
 sharpened at plea.sure. The cups are fed to the cut- 
 ters through a vertical trough, and are trimmed at 
 the rate of :50 a minute. The vents are punched in 
 the trimmed cups by the cup-venting machine shown 
 in Fig. 0, which is proWded with a two-pointed punch 
 and corres|K>nding dies. The cups are fed by hand 
 on a revolving circular plate, at the rate of '70 per 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 put into an iron mill or rolling-barrel, ninning from 
 twelve to fifteen revolutions per minute, and ground 
 for a time; after which it is sieved by shaking 
 through hair-sieves of 50 meshes to the inch to re- 
 move the lumps, and what remains is sifted on hair- 
 sieves of 120 meshes to the inch to remove the impal- 
 pable powder. What is left on this sieve is free from 
 dusi and lumps, and is of good grit and ready for use. 
 The i)ercussioii-coniposition, of the consistency of 
 thick paste, is deposited in the recess of the cup by the 
 priiiiing-raacbine, a verj' ingenious piece of mechan- 
 ism (shown in Fig. 7), which performs this important 
 operalioiiwiththegreate.st accuracy and certainty, and 
 with perfect safety. Its principal parts are, first, the 
 central revolving spindle, with four tubular feeders 
 at its head, which deposit the percussion-composition 
 in the cups; second, the magazine on the right; and, 
 third, the circular plate on the left, on which the un- 
 primed cups are fed to the machine. The four tubu- 
 lar composition-feeders at the head of tlie sjiindle 
 consist each of a small depending stem, down which 
 , a closely-fitting tube is made to slide, the lower edge 
 j projecting a little Inflow the end of the stem. By the 
 revohing motion of the spindle these tubular feeders 
 are brought successively over the magazine and over 
 the cups to be primed. At the moment a feeder is
 
 CENTEEFIEE METALLIC-CASE CARTRIDGE. 393 GENTER-FIBE METALLIC CASE CARTRIDGE. 
 
 presented over the magazine, which is a shallow diah 
 
 ■containing the percu.ssiou-coniposition, the magazine 
 rises until its metal bottom is in contact with tlie 
 tube, a slight shaking motion of the magazine during 
 its progress sening to deposit compactly into the 
 open projecting end of the lube a sutjicieiit (juantity 
 of composition for the priming of a single cup. The 
 magazine then recedes, while the revolving spindle 
 
 I Jecting from the dies, and the cases are placed over 
 tliem. By the revolution of the horizontal plate on 
 which the dies are placed, each die is in succession 
 brought under the descending punch, which forces 
 the cases into the dies and presses their heads hard 
 against the primed cups, while the crimpers move 
 forward from the side and bite the cups snugly and 
 firmly into place. The central stem rises out of the 
 die as the latter leaves the punch, and the ca.se is re- 
 moved by a spring e.xtractor. The section of the ca.se 
 which is to envelop the bullet is not tapered bj' the 
 machine, but reduced to the form of a right cylinder 
 whose inner diameter is the same as that of the l)ul- 
 let. This gives the bullet a securer hold in the case 
 and helps to make the cartridge water-proof. 
 
 The United States elongated .service-bullets are 
 made by compression by means of machinerj- adapt- 
 ed to tills purpose. They are uniform in size and 
 weight, smoother and more homogeneous, more accu- 
 rate, and give better results than cast and swaged 
 bullets. The alloy for bullets should be pure soft 
 lead of commerce, of specific gra\'ity about 11.35, 
 which is increa.sed by pressure to about 11.45, and 
 which melts at 600' Fahrenheit and volatilizes at red 
 heat, and in proportion of 16 parts of lead to 1 of tin. 
 The lead is first melted and skimmed of dro.s.s — 
 amounting to per cent in good lead — and cast in 
 iron molds into cylindrical bars, ..50 of an inch in di- 
 ameter and 20 inches long. These bars are passed 
 through rolls which reduce them to .38 of an inch in 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 carries the charged feeder to the circular plate on the 
 left, which presents the cups for priming. The mo- 
 tion of this plate is from left to right, while that of 
 the spindle is from right to left, whereby the feeders 
 and cups are made to meet and leave each other in 
 opposite directions. The plate is pro\ided with eight 
 upright movable stems, on the ends of which Ihe un- 
 primed cups are fed. As the cups and feeders are 
 brought, by the revolutions of the plate and spindle, 
 in a vertical line with each other, the cups are raised 
 by their stems so as to receive the percussion-compo- 
 sition exactly in their circular recesses from the tubes 
 of the feeders. The tube, at the moment of contact 
 with the cup, slides up its depending stem and frees 
 the composition from its end, which is pressed by the 
 upward motion of the cup snugly into the circular re- 
 cess. The feedere and cups in parting leave each 
 other horizontally in opposite directions, so that the 
 percussiou-comjxi.sition is sheared off evenly and 
 smoothly with the bottom surface of the cup. A 
 specific quantity of composition is thus deposited in 
 the recess of each cup at each operation. The prin- 
 cipal difficulty heretofore encountered in perfecting a 
 machine of this kind is entirely overcome by the ase 
 of this peculiar feeder. This machine primes at the 
 rate of 38 per minute. 
 
 The tapering is performed in two operations: first, 
 by forcing the shell through dies made in three cy- 
 lindrical sections of graduated dimensions; second, 
 while the composition is still moist in the circular re- 
 ces.ses of the cups, the latter are put into the headed 
 cases and crimped into position, the cases being ta- 
 pered and reduced at the same time. The first oper 
 ation prevents the case from wrinkling or folding; 
 the .second completes the tapering. The tapering- 
 machine, .shown in Fig. 8, consists of four vertical ta- 
 pered dies, with stems projecting from their centers, 
 on which the ca.ses and cups are fed, the crimpers 
 working from the sides of the dies, and the descending 
 punch which forces the cases into the dies. The 
 primed cups are placed on the ends of the stems pro- 
 
 Fio. 9. 
 
 diameter and increase their length to 36 inches. The 
 surplus lead, if any, is trimmed off in rolliiiir. A 
 man will cast in a day of ten hours 1500 bars of lead. 
 A man and boy will roll and trim in a day of ten 
 hours 3000 bars of lead. 
 
 The bars are fed to the bullet-machine, sho\vn in 
 
 Fig. 9, through a vertical tube above a horizontal 
 
 cutter, which cuts at each stroke a length sufficient to 
 
 j form a single bullet and transfers it to the die, in
 
 CENTER-FIRE METALLIC CASE CARTRIDGE. -{04 CENTER FIRE METALLICCASE CARTRIDGE. 
 
 which, bv means of a vciiical punch, the bullet is 
 fonned with its grooves. The surplus lead is forced 
 out at the jiinctiou of the dies in the direction of the 
 loni.Tr axis of the Imllet. and at the junelion of the 
 puiich and dies at its head. A bullet-niuchine will 
 
 J 
 
 Fio. 10. 
 
 make in a day of ten hours about 25,000 to 27,000 
 bullets. Best lard-oil is used on the lead bars to lu- 
 bricate the dies. 
 
 The operation of trimminff the bullets is performed 
 hv the bullet-trimming machine shown in Fig. 10. 
 The bullets are fed by hand into a revolving perfo- 
 nitetl circular plate, whence they are forced by a 
 punch through trimmers which open from the point 
 to the ba.se of the bullet, and which conform to its 
 shape, a cutter at the same time passing over the ba.sc. 
 After this they are forced by the punch through the 
 
 Fio. 11. 
 
 gauge under the trimmer. The best lard-oil is used 
 with these machines. The bullets mast not vary more 
 thiui twoCTiiins above or below their prescribed weight. 
 A bov will trim and gauge inaday of ten hours 15,000 
 bullets. 
 The lubricant for bullets is made of eight parts of 
 
 l)ayl)erry tallow and one part of graphite, by weight. 
 Tlie latter must be of tlie best quality and free from 
 grit. The bullets should lie lubricated by maeliinery 
 wlienever iM).ssil)le, as the grooves are more surely 
 and conipUtely tilled and more closely packed by 
 mechanical pressure. Experiment has shown that 
 one of the be.^t lubricanls for u.s^' with the gun, and 
 in the lubricating machine, is .Japan wax. It gives 
 a very small per cent of fouling and works freely in 
 the machine. It is generally dieaper than the above 
 lubricant and luus been in use several yeai-s. 
 
 The lubrication of the bullet is done by the lubri- 
 cating-machine shown in Fig. 11. The lubricant is 
 molded into cylinders of al)out 10 inches in length. 
 These cylinders are fed to the machine through a ver- 
 tical tube, pressure being applied to kee]) the supply 
 constant. The bullets are placed by hand in a per- 
 forated revolving vertical plate and forced by a 
 punch through a sizing-die fixed in the bottom of the 
 tube, wliieli is pierced with small holes. The lubri- 
 cant is forced through these holes into the grooves 
 of the bullet, fdling tliem completely. In cold weather 
 an arrangement for slightly warming the lubricant 
 should be provided. A boy" will lubricate in a day of 
 ten hours 15,000 bidlets. 
 
 The cases are now loaded with powder and bullets 
 by means of the loading-machine, shown in Fig. 12, 
 ■which consists of a revolving circular plate with holes 
 or receivers, and a hopper and powder-measure. The; 
 cases and bullets are fed on 
 revolving plates, 35 a min- 
 ute; the former are lifted in- 
 to the receivers, pa.ssed well 
 under the hopper and mea- 
 sure for a charge of powder, 
 and then under the bullet- 
 feeder for a lubricated bul- 
 let. In order to insure a 
 fidl charge in each cartridge, 
 the machine is provicled with 
 a bell, which gives notice to 
 the operative of anv failure 
 in this particular. The edge 
 of the case is then crimped on 
 the bidk't in a verj' simple 
 manner. The receivers are 
 smaller at the top where the 
 bullet enters than at the 
 bottom where the case is 
 received, the tliameterof the 
 former being oidy equal to 
 that of the interior of the 
 open end of the latter. After 
 the bidlel has been presided 
 into the case, the cjirtridge is 
 lifted so that the edge of the 
 case is forced into the coni- 
 cal surface of the receiver 
 between its larger and smaller 
 diameters. The powder is placed in a pasteboard 
 hopper, about two feet alx)ve the machine, and is fed 
 to the cases through a paper tube one inch in diame- 
 ter; the hopper and tube stand inside of a large coni- 
 cal shield of boiler-iron. 
 
 During the process of manufacture, accidents are 
 only pos-sible with the loading-machine; and every 
 precaution is taken to i^rovide against their occur- 
 rence. As the machine is now made and aminged, 
 the explosion of one cartridge may communicate Sre 
 to the few charged eases near "it without danger. 
 The entire charge of jiowder in the hopper may be 
 thus exploded w'ithoul the possibility of injury, either 
 to the operative or to the machine, as the hopper and 
 tube offer but a slight resistance to the action of the 
 gases that expand their forces in every direction with- 
 out affecting tlic stability of the protecting shield. 
 This has been proved by exiurimcntally exploding 
 full charges of two and a half pounds in the hopper 
 itself. But the exi)losion of a cartridge in the opera- 
 tion of loading is of verj- rare occurrence. Out of 
 
 Fig. 12.
 
 ■CENTEBING. 
 
 325 
 
 CENTEBING MACHINE. 
 
 the many millions loaded at Frankf ord Arsenal in the 
 past ten" years, a trifling number only have exploded 
 prematurely, resulting in no damage whatever. After 
 loading, the cartridges are wiped clean and put up in 
 paper packages and packed in wooden boxes for stor- 
 age or is.sue. 
 
 The cartridge!! are put up in paper lx)xes holding 
 20 rounds. Each box is arranged for two rows of 
 10, the rear row being higher than the front, each 
 alternate cartridge bavinj^ its rim below that of the 
 other, for facility in loadmg and close packing. The 
 frames and skeleton divisions of the boxes are made 
 of straw-boards, the shapes of each part being cut 
 with punches and dies, and such as require it being 
 creased for foldLug. The frame of the box is cov- 
 ered with s'cut paper bearing a printed description 
 of the contents, and projecting far enough over to 
 paste down the lid securely. For convenience in 
 opening the box, a piece of strong twine is fastened 
 at one end of the box and pasted along the inside of 
 the seam of the lid, the loose end projecting a few 
 inches. 
 
 The cartridges are packed, for storage or trans- 
 portation, in wooden boxes, containing fiftj' pack- 
 ages each. These ammunition- boxes are painted, 
 and the description of contents is stencil-marked 
 on the ends, the date of fabrication branded on the 
 sides, and the place of fabrication on the interior of 
 the lid. See Cartridge. 
 
 CENTEBING.— 1. In consequence of windage, 
 which is necessarj' for all muzzle-loatling guns, the 
 axis of the projectile does not always coincide with 
 that of the bore; in firing, this leads "to inaccuracy of 
 fire. In order to secure accuracy of fire, it is essen- 
 tial that the axis of the projectile should correspond 
 with that of the bore of the gun, for otherwise the 
 axis of rotation will be variable and the deflection of 
 the projectile uncertain. Should the axis of the pro- 
 jectile on leaving the bore be imstead}', the projectile 
 will have the wabbling motion so frequently observed 
 in experimental practice. A projectile is .said to be 
 centered when the grooves of the rifling are so con- 
 structed as to bring the axis of the projectile in line 
 with that of the bore when the piece is tired. Cen- 
 tering may embody the compres.sing or expanding 
 systems in any reqtiired degree. While the projectile 
 is rotated hy the solid projections formed upon it, and 
 fitting into the grooves of the gun, the exterior of 
 these projections, or of the whole projectile, may be 
 covered with a soft substance which may, in the case 
 of a breech-loader, be larger than the bore, and thus 
 be compressed while passing out of the gun; or which 
 may be expanded, by the pressure of the powder, to 
 fill the gun. When the projectile is well centered, 
 ■windage cannot affect its straight passage through the 
 bore. 
 
 3. The framework upon which an arch or vault of 
 stone, brick, or iron is supported during its construc- 
 tion. The simplest form of centering is that used hy 
 masons and bricklayers for the arches of common 
 ■windows and doors. This is merely a deal board of 
 the required shape, upon the curved edge of which 
 the bricks or stones of the arch are supported until 
 they are keyed in. In building bridges or other 
 structures where arches of great span are to be con- 
 structed, the centering is usually made of framed 
 timlxirs, or timbers and iron combined. The arrange- 
 ment of the timbers should be such that the strain 
 upon each shall be mainly a thrust in the direction of 
 its length, for if the strain were transverse, a com- 
 paratively slight force would snap it, and if a longi- 
 tudinal pull, tie whole structure would Ix; no stronger 
 than the joints holding the pieces of timber together. 
 In arches of great .span, such as that of the Water- 
 loo Bridge, London, a longitudinal pulling strain is 
 almost inevitable in some parts, a.s a beam of great 
 length would bend to some extent under a thrusting 
 strain. In such cases great skill and care are demanfl- 
 ed in the designing and construction of the joints. As 
 an arch is built from the piers towards the keystone, 
 
 the weight upon the haunches during construction 
 tpnds to push the crown upwards, and therefore the 
 problem of designing a framed centering involves the 
 resistance of this tendency, as well as the supporting 
 of the weight of the materials. The centering of the 
 Waterloo Bridge, designed by Rennie, presents a fine 
 example of the fulfillment of these requirements. It 
 will be easily seen that a weight upon two parts equi- 
 distant from the center will be resisted by direct 
 thrust upon the beams pa.ssing obliquely downwards 
 from these parts; one of each pair of these oblique 
 beams thrusts outwards, and is directly supported bv 
 the abutments; the other thrusts inwards towards 
 the center, the yielding of which is prevented by the 
 longitudinal pull of the lower and longer oblique 
 beams. In this and other modem structures cast-iron 
 shoes have been successfully used for the tying- joints 
 subject to the longitudinal pulling strain. The flexi- 
 ble centering, so called from its yielding at the joints, 
 and varj'ing its form with the load put upon it, is now 
 abandoned. It was chiefly used by French engineers. 
 That of Perronet for the bridge of Neuilly is a cele- 
 brated example. Occasionally, when a very great 
 span is required, and the navigation will permit, piers 
 are built, or piles are driven, to support the centering, 
 and the design is much simplified thereby. 
 
 Amongthe bridges of antiquity, that built by Trajan 
 over the Danube is considered to have been 'the most 
 magnificent; it was erected on 30 piers, of l.iO feet in 
 height, and the opening from one pier to another was 
 170 feet wide; the piers of this fine bridge are still to 
 be seen on the Danube, between Servia and Molda\ia, 
 a little above Nicopolis. In the United States there 
 are, as yet, comparatively few stone bridges of great 
 size; the magnitude of our rivers, the hea\-y expense, 
 as well as the amoimt of time required for the erection 
 of such structures, being ill adapted to the pressing 
 wants of the countrj-; but the wrought-iron and su-s- 
 pension bridges built of late years in this cotmtry rank 
 among the most remarkable in existence. In suspen- 
 sion-bridges the flooring or main body of the briage 
 is supported by strong iron chains or rods, hanging in 
 the form of an inverted arch from one point of sup- 
 port to another. The points of support are the tops of 
 strong pillars or small towers erected for the purpose. 
 
 CENTEEING-MACHINE.— A form of machine used 
 in gun construction for centering shafts, bolts, etc. 
 The purposes are various, but especially to make 
 such a depression at the exact center that the object 
 may be placed in a lathe for turning. Fig. 1 shows 
 
 the Hyde centering-machine, which is provided with 
 a chuck (enlarged in Fig. 2), especially designed for 
 centering purijoses. The jaws, which are very wide 
 and heavy, are firmly supported on both sides. A 
 steel stud I 01 au inch in diameter passes through the
 
 CENTER OF AN ABUY. 
 
 326 
 
 CENTEB OF GKAVITT. 
 
 jaw and rach side of the case. Tlic jaws arc facwl ^ 
 ■with best iiualitv tool-stool and tlioroughly hurdoncd. . 
 In holdiDi; stotks of ditlerout sizes, tlie chuck is so 
 i-oiistruitod that Iho line of roulatt of tho jaws moves 
 from a point near their ends towanls the fulcnim- 
 etuiLi, as the work to be held increases in diameter, ! 
 
 Fig a. 
 
 thereby giving greater leverage and holding: power 
 for heavy work and distributing the wear over the 
 whole surface of the jaws. Another imiiorlant point 
 in securing the continued accuracy of this chuck lies 
 in the fact that the wear of tlie screw does not in 
 any way affect the accuracy of the jaws. The drill- 
 spindle slides through the cone and is operated by a 
 lever having a toothed segment connected through a 
 pinion with a rack cut on the box which slides in the 
 heiidstock. This gives a quicker and much more de- 
 sirable feed to the drill than the ordinary screw-feed. 
 Both bearings of the live spindle are large and long 
 
 by rack and pinion to any |X)sition on the tied, and 
 are driven by cone and double gearing giving three 
 changes of speed, any of which may be iiuickened as 
 the cutting tools approach the centeV of the shaft, the 
 number of speeds U-ing thus increa.sed to si.\. Tool- 
 slides mav lie adjusted by rack and pinion to any 
 length of" shaft, and opeiiited separately or together, 
 each having three changes of power-feed; also rapid 
 hand-niovement quickly changed from hand to ]X)wer 
 feed. The centering-heails, with revolving spindles 
 driven by a separate countershaft, slide on the tool- 
 carriaires. 
 
 CENTER OF AN ARMY. — The body of troops oc- 
 cupvini: the place in the line between the wings. 
 
 CENTER OF FIGURE.— The point on which a plane 
 figure or plane surface would balance, supposing 
 their areas to have weight. This point is so situated 
 that all straight lines passing through it, and termi- 
 nated by the superficies of the figure or surface, are 
 bi-sected in it. 
 
 CENTER OF GRAVITY.— That point in a body, or 
 system of bodies rigidly connected, upon which the 
 iJody or system acted upon only by the force of gra\ity 
 willbalaiice itself in all positions. Though the action 
 of gravity enters this definition, many ol the proper- 
 ties of the point are independent of that force, and 
 might be enunciated and proved without conceiving 
 it to exist. By some, accordingly, the point has been 
 called the center of magnitude, and by othen? the cea- 
 ttr of parallel forces. Such a point exists in every 
 body and system, and only one such point. Every 
 Ixidy may be supposed to be made up of a multitude 
 of minute particles connected by cohesion, and, so far 
 as its balance under gravity is concerned, each of 
 these may be supposed to be removed, and its place 
 occupied by a force proportioned to its weight. In- 
 stead of tlie body, on the.se suppositions, we should 
 then have a system of parallel forces, the lines from 
 the various particles to the earth's center being re- 
 garded as parallel. But a system of parallel forces 
 has a single resultant acting through a nxed point, 
 whose position is independeut of the position in space 
 of the points of application of the component forces, 
 
 ilG. 3. 
 
 and made of the best hard bronze metal. The ma- ' 
 chine will center all sizes of rounfl stock from J of 
 an inch to 4J inches, and is provided with an adjust 
 able stand for supporting long bars. 1 
 
 Fig. 3 shows the Pratt and Whitney 8 inch Double ' 
 Cullmgoff and Ccnterinir Machine.' u.s«'d for axles ' 
 and shafts of any length and diameter to H inches. 
 The shafts revolve in self-centering jaws, adjustable i 
 
 provided their relative positions in the system con- 
 tinue uncliaiignl. Tliis point is the center of gravity; 
 and if it be su|)portcd. it is clear that the body will 
 balance itself upon it in all positions. The same 
 rea.soning obviously applies to any system of bodies 
 rigidly connected. It is usual to demonstrate this 
 and the general rule for finding the center of gravity 
 by proving it first in the case of two heavy particles
 
 CENTEE OP GYEATIOIT. 
 
 327 
 
 CEKTES OF GTBATIOK. 
 
 forming a body or system, and then extending the 
 proof to tlie case of any number of particles. Let P 
 and Q, Fig. 1, be two" heavy particles. Join P and 
 
 A M 
 
 Fic. 1. 
 
 Fio. 
 
 Q, and divide the line PQ in C, so that -neisht of P : 
 weight of Q : : CQ : CP. Then C will be the center 
 of gravity of P and Q. Draw ACB horizontal, and 
 P.M, QN vertical, meeting AB in M an<l N. Then if 
 P and Q represent the weisrhts of P and Q, we have 
 P : Q : : CQ : CP. But CQ : CP : : CN : CM by 
 similar triangles. Therefore P : Q : : CN : CM, and 
 P . CM = Q". CN. P and Q, therefore, are balanced 
 about C. This is true in all positions of P and Q, for 
 no assumption was made as to their positions, t', 
 therefore, is their center of gra\'ity. Also, we may 
 conceive P ;uid Q to be removed, and in their stead a 
 particle at C equal to them taken together in weight. 
 If, now, the system contained three, it is clear how we 
 should proceed to IJnd its center of gravity ; having 
 fountl the center of gra\ity of two, we should con- 
 sider the system as formed of two— viz. , the eqtnva- 
 lent of the lirst two at their center of gravity, and the 
 third, when the case would fall imder that already 
 treated: and so on, exteniling the rule to a system 
 containing any number of particles. Apart from this 
 rule, however, it is possible, in the case of most regu- 
 lar homogeneous bodies, to fix upon their centers of 
 gravity from general considerations. The center of 
 gravity of a straight line, for instance, must clearly 
 be in its middle point. So the center of gravity of a 
 uniform homogeneous cylinder must be in t!ic middle 
 point of its axis. It must be in tlie axis, for the cv- 
 linder clearly Is equally balanced about its axis. It 
 must also be somewhere in its middle circular section, 
 for it will balance itself on a knife-edge under that 
 section. It must, therefore, be in the point where 
 that section cuts the axis, or in the middle of the axis. 
 The center of gravity of a uniform material plane 
 triangle may be found from similar considerations. 
 The triangle ABC, Fig. 2. may be supposed to be 
 made up of uniform material lines parallel to its ba.se, 
 AB; each of these will balance upon its middle point. 
 The whole triangle, therefore, will balance upon the 
 line CD, which bisects the base AB and all lines par- 
 « allel to it. In the same waj- the triangle will balance 
 upon the line AE, bisecting BC. But if a figure bal- 
 ances itself upon a line, its center of gravity must lie 
 in that line. The center of gravity of the triangle is 
 therefore in CD, and also in AE. It must therefore 
 be at ff where these lines intersect, ff being the only 
 point they have in commoft. Now, by geometry, we 
 know that .9 divides CD, so that Cg = |CD. Hence 
 the rule for finding the center of gravity of a triangle: 
 Draw a line from the vertex, bisecting the base, and 
 measure off Cri, two thirds of the line, g is the center 
 of gravity. By a similar method the center of grav- 
 ity of a great number of figures may be determined. 
 The above method applies only where the figure of 
 the body is regular and its mass homogeneous. But 
 many bodies, besides being irregidar, are formed by 
 the agglomeration of particles of different specific 
 gravities. Of these, the center of granty can be found 
 only by experiment, though not always s;itisfactorily. 
 Let the body be suspended by a string, and allowed 
 to find its position of equilibrium. The equilibrium 
 being due to the tension of the string eounterbalancing 
 gravity, it follows that the tension is in the same line 
 ■with that on which gravity acts on the bo<ly. But 
 the tension acts on the line of the string, which there- 
 fore passes through the center of gravitj-. Mark its 
 direction through the body. Suspending it then by 
 
 another point, we should a.scertain a second line in 
 which lies the center of gravity. The center of grav- 
 ity, then, must be where these lines intersect. 
 
 The determination of the center of gravity 
 Is a matter of great importance in caimon, 
 both for mechanical maneuvers and for or- 
 dinarj' handling. In all the large guns in 
 the United States, and in many in Europe, 
 the axis of the trunnions pa.s.ses through 
 the center of gravity of the gim. Such 
 B guns have no preponderance, and need no 
 support when tiring except the trunnions. 
 This iimovation was introduced by the 
 genius of Rodman, and brought many advantages 
 in the handling of heavy guns. In projectiles the 
 center of gravity is also a thing of moment. Spher- 
 ical projectiles, in which this point does not coincide 
 with the center of figure, are said to be eccentric and 
 are subject to certain deviations. Regarding the gun 
 as a solid of revolution whose axis coincides vrith 
 that of the bore, the position of the center of gravity 
 is determined from the principle that the sum of the 
 moments of the weights of the several parts is equal 
 to the moment of the weight of the entire piece. For 
 convenience, the plane of reference is usually taken 
 either at the knob of the cascabel and perpendicular 
 to the axis of the bore, or as coincident with the front 
 face of the piece. The general formula expressing 
 the above relation is 
 
 W X = ic' X' + w" x" +w'" x>" + ?«''■ xf" + etc.. 
 
 X = w' x* -|" u''' ^^ -l~ '"'" '^" -4" '"'' 
 W 
 
 -, . . .(A) 
 
 in which W = the weight of the entire piece; 
 X = the distance of its center of gra\nty from the 
 plane of reference; ic', w'', w'", etc. = the elementary 
 weights; those corresponding to cavities (as the bore, 
 chamber, etc.) Ijeing regarded as negative; x', x", x'", 
 etc. = the distances of their respective centers of 
 gravity from the plane of reference. Should the gun 
 be hoiiiogeneous throughout, the unit of weight may 
 be canceled from the second member of equation (A), 
 in which case it will be ncccssiiry to ojjcrate with the 
 volumes simply, instead of the weights. In guns of 
 a curved exterior, like those of the Rodman model, 
 it is customary to di\-ide the gun up by a system of 
 parallel planes, at right angles to the axis, and in 
 numbers such that the elementary volumes thus 
 formed shall closely approximate some regular geo- 
 metrical figure, usually the conic frustum, of which 
 the volume and the position of the center of gravity 
 admit of ready calculation. When the gun is to be 
 without preponderance, i.e., when the axis of the 
 trunnions is to pass through the center of gravity, 
 the weights of the trunnions and rimbases ma}- be 
 omittedr since they will be symmetrically disposed 
 about that axis. Where it is desired that the gun 
 shall have a certain preponderance, the position of 
 the axis of the ti-unnions in front of the center of 
 gravity of the gun is determined as follows: The 
 weight of the piece is suppoitcd by the elevating de- 
 viw and the trunnions. The pressure on the elevating 
 device and its distance from the center of gravity are 
 known: therefore the distance which the trunnions 
 should be placed in front of the center of gravity to 
 support the remainder of the weight will become 
 known from the proportion p : (W — ;*) : : Y I, 
 in which p represents the preponderance; I, the dis- 
 tance of the point of attachment of the elevating de- 
 vice from the center of gravity; (W— /*), the weight 
 to be sustained by the trunnions; and Y, the distance 
 of their axis from the center (jf gravity. See Veiitro- 
 bnrie .Vit/iud and Di«t»rti<l Scrli/m. 
 
 CENTER OF GYRATION.— The point at which, if 
 the whole ma.^s of a body rotating round an axis or 
 point of suspension were collected, a given force ap- 
 plied wotdd produce the same angular velocity as it 
 would if applied at the same point to the body itself. 
 The center of gjTation bears a strong analogy to the
 
 CEHTZB or nCTACT. 
 
 328 
 
 CENTKAL FOBCEB. 
 
 center of oscillation. The cases differ only in this, 
 that in the latter the operating forces are suppose<i to 
 act al every point of the moving bo<iy, while in the 
 former there is only one force acting upon one point. 
 The center of gyration is found by the following rule: 
 Divide the moiiuiit of inertia of the rotating mass by 
 the mass of the l>i>dy, and extract the square root of 
 the <niotient. The ivsult is the distance of the iwint 
 from the a.\i3 of rotation. The moment of inertia, it 
 may be stated, is the sum of the products of the 
 weight of each point of the mass by the .square of the 
 [>cr|Kndioular <lisian<-e of that point from the a.xis. 
 
 CENTER OF lUPACT. — The ;H<an point of imjMCt, 
 or the mean of all the hits, when a projectile strikes 
 a target a iiumbiT of times. It is a point of the mean 
 trajector\'. Sw Puiitt of Impact. 
 
 CENTER OF OSCILLATION.— Referring to the arti- 
 cle Pendllix. it will he seen that the lime of a pen- 
 dulum's vibration increases with its length, being 
 always projxirtioned to the square root of its length. 
 This"is strictly true only of the simple pendulum, in 
 •which the pendulous body is supposed to have no 
 determinate magnitude, and to be connected with the 
 point of susix-nsion by an inflexible wire without 
 weight. If, however, the vibrating body have a 
 determinate magnitude, then the time of \nbratioa 
 will vary, not with the square root of its length, 
 but with' the stjuarc root of the distimcc from the axis 
 of suspension of a point in the body called its center 
 of oscillation. 
 
 If each part of the vibrating body were separately 
 connected with the axis of suspension by a fine thread, 
 and entirely disconnected from the rest of the body, 
 it would form an independent simple pendulum, and 
 oscillate as such — the time of each vibration being 
 as the square root of the length of its thread. It fol- 
 lows that those particles of the body which are nearest 
 to the axisof suspension would, as simple pendulums, 
 vibrate more rapidly than those more remote. Being 
 connected, however, as parts of the solid bod)', they 
 vibrate all in the same time. But this connection 
 does not affect their tendencies to vibrate as simple 
 pendulums, and the motion of the body which they 
 compose is a compromise of these tendencies of its 
 particles. Those nearest the axis are retarded by the 
 more remote, while the more remote are urged on by 
 the nearer. Among the.se particles there is ahvaj-s 
 one to l>e found in which the accelerating arid 
 retjirding effects of the rest are mutually neutral- 
 ized, and which vibrates in the s;une time as 
 it would if it were unconnected with the other 
 parts of the Ixxly, and simply connected by a fine 
 thread to the axis of suspension. The point in 
 the body occupied by this particle is its center of 
 emulation. By this center of oscillation the calctda- 
 tions respecting the vibration of a solid body are ren- 
 dered as sim])le as those of a molecule of inconsider- 
 able magnitiide. All the properties which belong to 
 a .simple pendulum may be transferred to a vibrating 
 body of any magnitude and figure, by consiilering it 
 as equivalent to a single particle of matter vibrating 
 at its center of oscillation. 
 
 The detennination of the position of the center of 
 oscillation of a body usually requires the aid of the 
 calculus. It is always further i^rom the axis of sus- 
 pension than the center of gravitv is, and always in 
 the line joining the center of gra\nlv and the point of 
 suspension, when the boily is suspended from a point. 
 The rule for finding it in such a case is: If S be 
 the point of suspension, and O the center of oscil- 
 
 Jation. SO = jj— gj; o"" "'"s the quotient obtained by 
 
 dividing the moment of inertia of the Inxly bv the 
 product of its miuss into the distance of its (enter of 
 gravity from the point of susix/nsion. See Pnidulum 
 CENTER OF PERCUSSION.— The center of percus- 
 sion c,f H IkxIv or a systcni of lK>dies revolving about 
 n pf)int or axis is that ]>oinl in it which striking an 
 immovable object, the whole miuss shall not incliueto 
 
 either side, but rest, as it were, in equilibrio, without 
 acting on the center or axis of su.spcnsion. If the 
 iKMly be moving freely, then the center of percussion 
 is tliat point in it at which its whole impetus is sup- 
 posed to be concentrateil. In this case, if the txxiy 
 struck with its center of percussion an immovable 
 obstacle, and if it were perfectly rigid and inelastic, 
 it would come to perfect repose; whereas, if it struck 
 the obstacle with any other point a rotjitory motion 
 would be produced in it. When the body is raonng ; 
 freely, and there is no rotatorj' motion, the center of 
 percu-ssion coincides with the center of gravity. If 
 the body he moving round a point or axis of suspen- 
 sion, the center of ixjrcussion coincides with the center 
 of oscillation. The more complicated case of a body 
 rotating round an axis within it would require, for its 
 explanation, analytical formula; which cannot con- 
 veniently be translated into ordinary language. There 
 are many positions which the axis may have in which 
 there will be no center of percussion — i e., there will 
 be no direction in which an impulse could be applied 
 without producing a shock ujion the axis. One case 
 of this sort is that of the axis being a principal axis 
 through the center of gra^-itv. 
 
 CENTER OF PRESSURE.-^The center of pressure 
 of any siu'face immersed in a fluid is the point in 
 which the resultant of the pressures of the tiuid on 
 the several points meets the surface. When the bot- 
 tom of a vessel containing fluid, or when a plane im- 
 mersed in fluid, is horizontal, a pressure on every 
 point of it is the same, being that due to the weight 
 of the column of fluid standing above the bottom or 
 plane. In either ca.se the pressures at the different 
 points obviously form a system of equal parallel 
 forces, whose center will be the center of gravity of 
 the bottom or plane, their resultjint pa-ssing through 
 this point Ijeing the sum of all their forces. But 
 when the plane is inclined at any angle to the surface 
 of the fluid, the pressure is not the same at all points, 
 but is ob\'iously greater at the lower than at the upper 
 points, for the lower have to support taller columns 
 of the fluid. The resultant of these forces, then, will 
 not pass through the center of gravity of the surface, 
 but through a point below it. This point is the center 
 of pres-sure, and e\idently will lie below the center of 
 granty for all fluids in which the pressure increases 
 with the depth. If the surface pressed upon form 
 part of the containing vessel, and be supposed mova- 
 ble, it will be kept at rest by a pressure equal to the 
 sum of the fluid pressures applied at the center of 
 pressure, and acting in the opposite direction. In the 
 c.Tse of a vessel with a parallelogram for one side, the 
 center of pressure is at the distance of one third of 
 the height from the bottom. In the case of a trian- 
 gular vessel whose base is at the bottom, it is one 
 fourth of the height onlv. 
 
 CENTER OF THE BASTION.— In fortiflcarion, the 
 intersection made by two demi-gorgcs. 
 
 CENTER.PINTLE CARRIAGE.— One in which the 
 chassis is attached to the pintle at its middle, and 
 revolves around it through the entire circumference 
 of the circle. The traverse-circles are consequently 
 continuous. By this arrangement a much greater 
 horizontjil field of fire is secured. 
 
 CENTESIMATION.— In ancient military history, 
 a mild kiiul of military punishment in cases of deser- 
 tion, mutiny, and the like, when only every one hun- 
 dretltli man was executed. 
 
 CENTRAL FORCES.— Those forces which cause a 
 moving body to tend towards some point or center, 
 called the center of force or motion. The doctrine 
 of central forces has for its starting-point the first law 
 of motion— viz., that a body not acle<l on bv any ex- 
 ternal force will remain at rest, or move uniformlv in 
 a straight line. It follows from this law that "if a 
 body in motion either changes its velocitv or direction, 
 some external force is acting upon it. "The doctrine 
 of central forces considers tiie paths which bodies will 
 describe round centers of force, and the varying 
 velocity with which they will pass along in these
 
 CEKTSALIZATIOir. 
 
 329 
 
 CENTEICAL JUFLING. 
 
 paths. It investigates the law of the force round 
 which a body describes a known ciure, and solves the 
 inverse problem, and many others, the general state- 
 ment of which could convey no clear idea to the 
 unniathematical reader. As gravity is a force which 
 acts on all bodies from the eaith's center, it affords 
 the simplest general illustration of tlie action of a 
 central force. If a stone be slung from a string, 
 gravity deflects it from the linear path which it would 
 otherwise pursue, and makes it describe a cun-ed line 
 ■which we know would, in vacuo, be a paraliola. 
 Again, the moon is held in her orbit roimd the earth 
 by the action of gra\ity, which is constantly prevent- 
 ing her from going otJ in the line of the tangent to 
 her path at any instant, which she would do, accord- 
 ing to the first law of motion, if not deflected there- 
 from by any external force. To that property of 
 matter by which it maintains its state of rest or mo- 
 tion, unless acted upon by other matter, has been 
 given the name inertia. 
 
 We will now e.xi^lain how, through the action of a 
 central force, a body is made to describe a curved 
 path. Suppose it to have moved for a finite time, 
 and conceive the time divided into verj' small eipial 
 parts; and instead of the central force acting con- 
 stantly, conceive a series of sudden impulses to be 
 given to the body in the direction of the center, at the 
 end of each of the equal intervals, and then observe 
 what, on these suppositions, will happen. Let S, 
 Jig. 1, be the center, and let the original motion be 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 from A, on the line AB, which does not pass through 
 8. In the first interval the body will move with a 
 uniform velocity, say from A to B. In the second, 
 if acted on by no force, it would move on in AB pro- 
 duced to p. Be being = AB. But when it arrives at 
 B it receives the first sudden impulse towards S. By 
 the composition of velocities, it will move now with a 
 new but still uniform velocity in BC instead of B'". 
 BC being the diagonal of the parallelogram of which 
 the sides represent its impressed and original velocity. 
 Having reached C at the end of the second interval, 
 it receives the second impulse towards S. It will 
 now move in CD instead of in B(! produced. If, 
 then, we suppose the periods of time to be indefinitely 
 diminished in length, and increased in number, the 
 broken line ABCD ■nill become ultimately a con- 
 tinuous curve and the scries of impulses a continuous 
 force. This completes the explanation. 
 
 Going back, however, on our suppositions, we may 
 here establish Newton's leading law of central forces. 
 That the liody must always move in the same plane 
 results from the alisenctf of any force to remove it 
 from the plane in which at any time it may be mov- 
 ing. The triangles ASB and BSC are clearly in the 
 same plane, as the latter is on that in which lie the 
 lines Be and BS. Also, since the triangles ASB, BSr 
 are equal, being on equal bases, AB, Be, anil triangle 
 BSC = triangle BSc, as they are between the same 
 parallels, rC and BS, it follows that ASB = BSC. So 
 BSC = CSD; and so on. In other words, the areas, 
 (lescrilx'd in equal times by the line (called the radius 
 vector) joining the center of force and the body, are 
 equal. As this is true in the limit, we anive, by the 
 composition of the small equal areas, at the law that 
 the areas described by the lines drawn from the mov- 
 ing body to the fixed center of force are all in one 
 plane, and proportional to the times of describing 
 
 them. Very few of the laws of central forces are 
 capable of being proved like the preceding, without 
 drawing largely on Newton's lemmas, with which we 
 shall not suppose the reader to be acquainted. 
 
 We have shown that a body continually drawn to 
 a center, if it has an original motion in "a line that 
 does not pa.ss through the center, will descrilje a 
 curve. At each point in the curve it tends, through 
 its inertia, to recede from the curve, and proceed in 
 the tangent to it at that jioint. It always U'ikU to 
 move in a straight line in the direction in which it 
 may at any time be moving, and that line, by the 
 definitions of a tangent and of curvature, is the tan- 
 gent to the curve at the point. At the point A, Fig. 2, 
 It will endeavor to proceed 
 in AD: if nothing hindered it, 
 it would actually proceetl in 
 that luie, so as, in the time in 
 which it describes the arc of 
 the curve AE, to reach the 
 point D, and thus recede the 
 length DE from the curve; but 
 being continually drawn out of its direction into a 
 cun'e by a force to a center, it falls below the point 
 D by the distance DE. The force which draws it 
 through this distance is called the centripetal force, 
 and that which would make it recede in the same time 
 through the distance DE from the curve is called the 
 centrifugal force. It may be remarked that the cen- 
 trifugal force is not, like the centripetal, an impressed 
 or external force acting on the bodj-. It is simply the 
 assertion of the body's inertia under the circumstances 
 produced b_v the centri|ietal force. 
 
 jMau}- familiar illu.strations will occur to the reader 
 of the action of what is called the centrifugal force. 
 A ball fastened to the end of a string, and whirled 
 round, will, if the motion is made sufticiently rapid, 
 at last break the string and fly off. A glass of water 
 may be whirleil .so rapidly that, even when the mouth 
 is pressed downwards, the water will still be retained 
 in it, by the centrifugal force pressing it up against 
 the bottom of the glass. The centrifugal action will 
 be found to increase with the velocity. In all cases 
 of a bod}' mo\ing in a circle, the force, it can be 
 proved, varies as the square of the velocitj- of the 
 body at the moment, and in the inverse ratio of the 
 radius. As in this case the velocity varies a.s the 
 radius inversely, it follows that the force is as the 
 inverse cube of the radius. As in the case of circular 
 motion the body always is at the Siime distance 
 from the center, it follows that the centrifugal and 
 centripetal forces are equal at all points of a circular 
 orbit. The general law for all orbits is, that the cen- 
 trifugal force varies as the inverse cube of the dis- 
 tance from the center. As the attractive force of 
 gravitation varies as the inverse square of the distance, 
 it may hence be shown that the centiifugal force 
 gives perfect security, notwithstanding the constant 
 attraction of the sun, that the planets, so far as that 
 attraction is concerned, will never fall into the sun. 
 Sec Fulling Bodies, Force, and Orurity. 
 
 CENTRALIZATION.— In military affairs, a system 
 of organization or of administration by means of 
 which all matters ajipertaining to tlie army are di- 
 rected by one center. The legitimate application of 
 the term is to a state of change from local to central 
 management, and therefore the opposite of localiza- 
 tion. The system, when adopted in the administra- 
 tion of an army, is very dangerous, as it takes away 
 the independence of action of the different oflicere 
 imder the Commander-in-Chief, and leads to favorit- 
 ism; and should the mainspring of the machine break 
 down, all the works come Ui a standstill. In England, 
 the administrative militarj- authority, although cen- 
 tralized in the Crown, has been placed under the 
 control of Parliament, and there is nothing done 
 imder the orders of the War Office for which the 
 Secretary of State for that Department may not at any 
 time be called to account bv Parliament. 
 
 CENTEICAL EIFLING.-^The solid projectile, fitted
 
 CENTBiFUOAL QVH. 
 
 530 
 
 CEBTiyiCATE OF DISABIUTT. 
 
 to the riflini; of ilio guu so as to ceiiltT itst'lf. has 
 litrii inipn>veti by Hit' rrnlrirtil system, so calk-tl be- 
 auiso of tlic jMfuliar modi- of ci'utiTiui,' its simple iron 
 projittile, wliieli, instead of inclining.' towards Ibo 
 boltom of ibe Iwre in its iiassaiie out, is centeretl on 
 its n>iuuUil bi-arings, without jar by the first pressure 
 of the elastic tluid. This is elfected by the )HTuliar 
 curves of the shoulders of the tbrw jrn>oves, which in- 
 cline towanls the center of the bore, and thus form 
 three rails for the projectiles to slide out upon with- 
 out Ix'injr compressed or strained. In case of large 
 calibers with heavy projectiles, a shallow shoulder is 
 taken out for the shot to turn against in loading. It 
 is readily si'cn bow rounding the groove prevents the 
 violent shock of the projectile when its Ix'aring-etlges 
 strike the ritling. The projection, </, bears and remains 
 ujion the side. (I, of the 
 
 groove going in, and so 
 leaves the windage, r, 
 on the other side. In go- 
 ing out, the projectile 
 ^ will have acquired con- 
 siderable velocity before it strikes the side, c , so that 
 the blow will be violent, and the conunencement of 
 the rotation instantaneous. The projection not oidy 
 slides up the rounded groove without a blow, but lifts 
 the projectile into the center of the bore, thus center- 
 ing it. See Scolt Rifling. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL GUN.— A fonn of machine-gun, in 
 which balls are driven taiigentially from a chambered 
 disk rotating at great speed. 
 
 CENTROBARIC METHOD.— The method ordina- 
 rily us<(l to detcniiine by ciilculation the center of 
 gravity of a projected gun. The principle t;sed is 
 that the volume generated by any surface in revolv- 
 ing about a ti.xed axis is measured by the product of 
 the surface into the path described by its center of 
 gravity. The moments of the weights of the several 
 parts arc referred to an axis usually taken tangent to 
 the knob of the cascabel. The sum of these moments, 
 divided by the weight of the piece, gives the distance 
 of the center of gravity from the assumed axis. In 
 homogeneous guns the volumes of the several parts 
 can Ik' used instead of the weights. 
 
 CENTURION.— A Roman infantry officer who orig- 
 inally commanded a hundred meii, but afterwarcTs 
 an indefinite number. They were of two grades, and 
 were chosen by the Tribunes. Their duties were to 
 drill the soldiers and appoint them tasks; and they 
 had power to pimisb for minor offenses. 
 
 CENTURY. — In an ancient military sense, the hun- 
 dred soldiers, who were employed in working the bat- 
 teriiig-nim. 
 
 CERCELEE.— In Heraldry, a cross circling or curl- 
 ing at the ends, like a ram's horn. Also written 
 Jit'-t rdt'f. See I/eniMn/. 
 
 CERCLE. — A form observed under the old govem- 
 menl of France, by which il was directed that every 
 evening at a specific hour the Sergeants and Corporals 
 of brigade should as,semble to receive orders, the 
 former standing in front of the latter. Sub.s<'quent 
 to the gnmd cerde, a smaller one was made in eacli 
 regiment, when general or regimental orders were 
 again re])ealed to the Sergeants of each regiment, aud 
 from llicm communicated to the officers of the several 
 companies. 
 
 CEREMONIES. — Stated military performances, such 
 as Parades. Ucviews, Inspections, Kscorts of Color, 
 Escorts of Honor, Funeral Ihiuors. Guard-mountinss, 
 etc. In the United Slates armv, at all l>ara(l<s and 
 Inspections of a battalion, the' Field and Stall are 
 dismounted; they are also dismounted at Review, 
 unless the Ue\iewing-offlcer be mounted. 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF DEPOSIT.- Every person who 
 has nii.ni ys of the liiilcd Slalis in his "hands or pos- 
 session pays the sjune to llic Treasurer, an Assistant 
 Treasurer, or aomv public d(i>ositary of the United 
 Stales, and tsikcs his receipt for the" same, in dupli- 
 cate, and forwards one of them fortbwitli to ibe Sec- 
 rcUiry of the Treasury. The face of each Certiticate 
 
 should show, in writing, to what appropriation the 
 de|)osit belongs, provided the depositor ha-s such in- 
 formation as uniy be neces.sjjry to enable the deposita- 
 ry to state the same in preparing the Certiticate for 
 issue. The place, date, and amount of deposit, and 
 the immber of the Certiticate, together with the ap- 
 propriation, if specitietl, are noted on the accoimt-cur- 
 rent or other proper return upon which the depositor 
 desires to be credited for the money. 
 
 As the Ccrliticates of Deposit constitute an impor- 
 tant check ujion the transactions of the dilTcrent Gov- 
 ernment depositaries, and are required at the Treasury 
 l)eparlnient at the earliest possil)le moment for verl- 
 tication with the accounts of .sad depositaries, the 
 following regulations concerning their future disposi- 
 tion are prescribed, which, as they are ba.sed upon 
 express provisions of law, are expected to be strictly 
 complied with: 
 
 1. The originals of all Certificates of Deposit for 
 the deposit of any and all public moneys of every 
 character and description, exeept as sUiUd in the iieit 
 siii-at'di/if/ p(ir(igraj>/i,»hou\d}iC forwardetl to the Sec- 
 retary of the Treasury immediately ui)on their issue 
 by tlie depositors (not the depositaries), who, before 
 tiiinsmitting them, should see that their amoimts 
 correspond with the amounts actually deposited by 
 them. 
 
 2. Those issued to disbursing-officers for disburs- 
 ing funds deposited to their own official credit, sul> 
 ject to the payment of their checks, and more prop- 
 erly called disbursing-officers' receipts, shoidd be re- 
 tained in their own possession; those issued for the 
 transfer of funds from one Government depository to 
 another should be forwarded to the Treasurer of the 
 United Stjites. 
 
 3. Certificates of Deposit issued to military officers, 
 either on account of repayments, sales of public prop- 
 erty, or otherwi.se, should be in duplicate ; the dupli- 
 cates to be retained by the depositors. 
 
 4. In no case arc Certificates of Deposit required 
 to Ijc tiled with accounts rendered by Government 
 officers to the accounting officers of the Treasury 
 Department, nor does such a disposition of any Cer- 
 tificates of Deposit secure to the officers transmitting' 
 them ]iroper credits in their accounts. Credits are 
 only given officers in the settlement of their accoimts 
 ui)on warrants, which warrants are is.sued Ijy the Sec- 
 retary of the Treasury, and ba.sed upon the original 
 Certificates of Deposit. In taking credit in their ac- 
 counts-current, however, for deposits made, officers 
 should state specifically the date of the deposit, mid 
 the designation and location of the dejiosilory in which 
 the deposit was made, as well as the source, etc. All 
 original Certificates of Depo.sit in favor of military 
 officers, the amounts of which are re(|uired to be listed 
 and recorded in the offices of any of the Heads of the 
 Bureaus of the War Department, will immediately 
 upon their receipt — a record ha\ing first been made 
 of them for verification with the projjer depositary 
 accounts — be forwarded to the Head of the respective 
 Department to which the deposits pertain for desig- 
 nation of the piiiiHT a])propriations. 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF DISABILITY. — Whenever a 
 non-connnissicjiied officer or soldier becomes unfit 
 for the military service in Vonsccpience of wounds, 
 disease, or iiitirmitv, his Captain forwards to the 
 Commander of the I^epartment or of the anny in the 
 field, through the Commander of the regiment or 
 post, a st.-ilenicnt of liisca.se, with a certificate of his 
 dis;il]ility. in ihiplicate, signed by the Senior Surgeon 
 of the hospital, regiment, or post, according to the 
 form iirescrilicd. If the recommendation for tin- dis- 
 charge of the invalid be approved, llic aulboritv there- 
 for is indorsed on the Certificate of Disability, which 
 is sent back to be completed and signed by the Com- 
 maialing Officer, who then semis the same direct to the 
 A<ljutant General's Office. I5ut under no circum- 
 stances is flic ((rtificate given into the hands of Ibe sol- 
 dier. In (licidiiig iq-on applications lor pension, refer- 
 ence is made to the Certificiitc of Disability for proper
 
 CESTIFICATE OF UFBIT. 
 
 331 
 
 CHAFFXE-EEECE MAGAZIITE-GTTK. 
 
 proof that the soldier is entitled under the law. 
 Therefore, when it is a prubable case for penmrni, 
 special care must be taken to state the degree of dis- 
 ability — as i, i, etc.; to describe particularly the 
 disability, wound, or disca.se; the extent to which it 
 deprives the soldier of the use of any limb or faculty, 
 or affects his health, strength, activity, constitution, 
 or capacity to labor or earn his subsistence. The Sur- 
 geon adds from his knowledge of the facts and cir- 
 cumstances, and from the evidence in the case, his 
 j)rofessional opinion of the cause or origin of the 
 disjibililv. and whether /;; the line of duty or not. 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF MERIT.— A certiticate given by 
 ' the President to enlisted men in the I'nited States 
 army, upon the recommendation of Commjinding 
 Officers. The certificates are awarded only for acts 
 of extraordinary gallantry in presence of the enemy, 
 which acts nuist be specilic and certified to by an 
 eye-wilness, preferably the immediate Commanding 
 Officer of the soldier. Good standing and undoubted 
 courage in a soldier will also be required to entitle 
 him to a Certiticate of Merit. Kecommeudations for 
 the Certificate of Merit must each be in behalf of 
 only one person, and must contain a full description 
 of the merits of the case. They mast be forwarded 
 through the regular channel, and indorsed with ap- 
 jirovnl and recommendation by each Commander, 
 especially the Regimental Commander. The extra 
 pay granted on Certificate of Merit commences at the 
 tlate of the act of gallantly for which the certificate 
 is granted. This e.xtra pay is two dollars per month 
 while the soldier remains continuously in ser\ice. 
 Certificates of Merit are not granted to persons not 
 in the military service of the United States at the 
 date of application for them. Should a soldier die 
 before receiving a certificate conferred upon him. it 
 will be deposited in the office of the Second Auditor 
 of the Treasury for the benefit of his heirs. In case 
 the soldier is discharged before the certificate Ls is.sued, 
 it will be retained in the office of the Adjutant Gen- 
 eral until called for, when proof of the identity of 
 the applicant will be required. 
 
 CERUSE. — The basis of white oil-paint and a <•«;■- 
 boiuiie of lead. It has several other names — krems, 
 Nottingham white, flake-white, etc. Like all other 
 prcpanitions of lead, ceruse is liable to be acted upon 
 by exhalations from sewers, or by anything which 
 contains sulphuretted hydrogen, in wliich ca.se it is 
 changed to a dull and leaden hue. Neither will it 
 bear to be mixed with any pigment containing sul- 
 phur, such as vermilion. It i.s supposed that the 
 white oxide of zinc might be substituted for ceruse its 
 a white pigment with advantage. 
 
 CERVELIERE.— A small bascinet anciently worn 
 under the hinurnr. Now obsolete. 
 
 CESSATION OF ARMS. — An armistice or truce 
 agreed to by the Conunanders of Annies, to give them 
 time for a c;ii>itulation, or for other purjioses. 
 CESTUS. — The covering for the hands worn by 
 Roman pugilists. It was origi- 
 nally nothing more than a lea- 
 thern thong or bandage used to 
 strengthen the fist; but in after 
 years it was well covered with 
 knots and nails, and loaded 
 with lead and iron, etc., to in- 
 crea.se the force of the blow. 
 It was not uncommon for a 
 pugilist armed with the ccstus 
 to dash out the brains or break 
 the limlis of his antagonist. 
 The Roman pugilist (cagtna- 
 riii*) was often represented in 
 sculpture. This word is often 
 and more correctly written Ceentas, from the Latin 
 ctederi', to slav. 
 
 CHAFF-CUTTER.— An implement now much used 
 at cavalry posts and in the field for cutting hay and 
 straw into half-inch lengths. The advantage of this 
 consists not so much in facilitating mastication or di- 
 
 gestion as in preventing animals from wasting their 
 food. No .small amount of mechanical ingenuity has 
 been applied to the construction of chaff-cutters, the 
 simplest and oldest kinds of which are mere hand- 
 machines with a single large knife, the hay or straw 
 being pushed forward in a trough or box, whilst 
 others are driven by horse, steam, or water power, 
 and are not a little com])lieatcd. See Forage. 
 
 CHAFFEE MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun belongs to 
 that system in which a fixed chamber is closed by a 
 movable breech-block, sliding and rotating, and oi)e- 
 rated by a levcF from below. On the inner surface 
 of the receiver are two circular guides which enter 
 grooves in the breech-block and over wliich the 
 breech-block slides. The block is a single i)iece hol- 
 lowed out to receive the hammer and the mainspring. 
 At the front of the block is the firing-pin, limited in 
 its motion by a screw. The breech-block is operated 
 by a lever. "The front of the lever is hinged to the 
 front of the breech-block; its middle is hinged to two 
 arms which are in turn hinged to the sides of the re- 
 ceiver. The hammer is cocked when the breech- 
 block lever is thrown open Ijy the pressure of the 
 lever-hook on the face of the hammer, which forces 
 the latter back until the nose of the sear — which is a 
 part of the trigger — enters a notch. Reverse motion 
 of the lever clo.ses the block which is locked I)y a 
 projection on the lever, entering a recess in the block 
 and in the sides of the receiver. The extractor is not 
 rigidly connected with the brecch-lilock, but has a 
 longitudinal motion along its sitle. It does not begin 
 to (JUaw the shell until the breech-block has moved to 
 the rear nearly an inch, when a shoulder on the ex- 
 tractor strikes a corresponding one on the block, after 
 which both move together. The oljject of the ex- 
 tractor projecting so far in front of the block is to 
 support the cartridges as they leave the magazine on 
 their way to the chamljcr. A shoulder on the bot- 
 tom of the carrier serves as an ejector. Its etfect is to 
 rotate the empty shells through the opening in the 
 bottom of the receiver to the ground. The magazine 
 is in the butt-stock. The shape of the inner surface 
 of the carrier at its front is such that the point of the 
 cartridge as it leaves it is opposite the center of the 
 chamber. An inclined rear surface of the carrier 
 prevents the rear of the cartridge from rising while 
 on its way to the chamber. When the lever is thrown 
 open a spring at the front of the carrier causes ita 
 rear to descend opposite the mouth of the magazine. 
 In this position it serves as a cartridge-stop, prevent- 
 ing the escape of other cartridges. There is no cut- 
 off t« the magazine, nor can there be, each motion of 
 the lever being accompanied with a corresponding 
 motion of the ratchet. As a single-loader, the piece 
 is loaded through the carrier, the rear of which is 
 opened by depressing the front; this should be done 
 before the lever is opened. The trigger is locked by 
 a set-screw when the piece is carried at full-cock. As 
 a magazine-gun, three motions are necessary to ope- 
 rate, viz., opened, closed, fired. As a single-loader, 
 four motions are necessar}', viz., loaded, opened, 
 closed, fired. The gun carries six cartridges in the 
 magazine, one in the carrier, and one in the chamber. 
 See Mnifdzine-qun . 
 
 CHAFFEE-REECE MAGAZINE-GUN. — This arm. 
 an improvement on the ChalTee magazine-gun, be- 
 longs to that system of bolt-gims in which a fixed 
 chamlxT is close<l by a movable breech-bolt sliding 
 and rotating. The magazine is in the butt-stock. 
 The cartridges are hel(l in the magazine by two 
 ratchet-bars, one fixed and the other sliding, and 
 operated when the bolt is drawn back and closed. 
 The magazine having been loaded, the bolt is thrown 
 open and each tooth of the slidingbar pjisses behind 
 the head of the cartridge next in its rear. The clos- 
 ing of the liolt moves the ratchet forward, bringing 
 each cartridge its own IcJigth further to the front. 
 The cartridges are firmly held in position, .so that they 
 are not and cannot be in contact with each other, which 
 I is positive prevention from accidental explosions.
 
 CHAIK. 
 
 332 
 
 CHAIH. 
 
 The frequi-nt ncciilcnts and loss of life from prt'- 
 mature explosions by magazine-iinns imlucitl many 
 gunnifclianifs, luid aniouj; the number Mr. t'liallcf, 
 to undtTtaki- to invent a magiizine-arm that shoultl 
 be fnr fn>m that objection, anil after several years in 
 Btuiiy anil liaril work, anil a large outlay of money, 
 he p'riKlueeil this arm, which, U|>on a tesl-lrial. In-fore 
 a Uojinl of Anny t)IIicers, has ilemonsiniteil the fact 
 that he has sueeeeiUtl in ilointr it. This ann can Ik- 
 useil Its a sin;:leshooter until occaj<ion requires the 
 deliverj- of shots nion- frequently than would be 
 possible if the arm had to 1h' loaiie<l after each dis- 
 charge, when, by the turn of a button, seven extra 
 chargi-s will be available which can Ik? delivered in 
 four r*conds or less. This makes a body of men 
 ■with this anu a verj- formidable foe. 
 
 The employment" of the t'haffee-Rccce arm in the 
 ser\-iiT will reduce to a considerable extent the neces- 
 sitv for macliine-guns, which are considered most 
 valuable in destroying a body of men closely packed; 
 ibut men these days avoid bunching on the field, cs- 
 
 which he takes scr%ice with confidence that he will 
 Ik- armed with a gun with which to kill the enemy, 
 and not himself or his comrades. See Chaffee Maga- 
 :iiii-(jiin. 
 
 CHAIN. — A device consisting of several associated 
 links, joined endways, so as to string out in line. 
 The varieties of chains are numerous, and their names 
 are derived from their material, structure, or pur- 
 l)ose. In mechanical maneuvers, and in the general 
 work of the foundry and construction-shops, chains 
 are indispensable. Chain-cables are made of links 
 the length of each of which is generally about six 
 diameters of the iron of which it is made, and the 
 breadth about three and a half diameters. In gov- 
 ernmenl contracts, chain-cables are reqtiircd to be 
 made in 12,5-fathoin lengths, with one swivel in the 
 middle of every alternate length, and one joining- 
 shackle in each length. The stay-pins, to strengthen 
 the links, are of cast-iron. The bar or rod from 
 which each link is made has the two ends cut diag- 
 onally ; it is bent into the form of a nearly complete 
 
 pecially when machine-guns are liable to be trained 
 to cover them. Troops armed with this gun have 
 «jich a machine-gun, and are more capable of repel- 
 ling a Ixjarding party from a ship, or an a.ssaulting 
 column upon a military work, as they can be so dis- 
 posed as to defend the entire space, instead of one or 
 two points. 
 
 Much time and expense are devoted to the education 
 of officers of a well-orgiuiized army, and they have 
 lived in vain if they know no belter" than to put dan- 
 gerous anns in the hands of troo))*, who, having con- 
 fidence in the knowledge of, and trusting all such 
 questions to, the olHccrs, as they, the soldiers, are 
 obliL'etl to do, move forward "at their conunand 
 with the risk of disaster from the tire of the enemy, 
 but with no expectation that they are really in mo"re 
 danger from the arms with which they are fighting 
 than from thf>se in the hands of the opposing armv." 
 
 The art of war is now reduce<l to a science by" all 
 ■well-regidatcd governments, and perhaps there Is no 
 l)ninch of the service by which troops are asked to 
 take so much risk a.s to use an arm which is liable to 
 explode prematurely and either kill or maim for life 
 the soldier whosi; .services are iiecessjirj- for the suc- 
 cess of the cause, and in upholding the tlag under 
 
 oval ring; and then the two ends are joined and 
 welded, the stay pin being at the siime time intro- 
 duced at the proper place. Besides the ordinary 
 links, there are end-links, joining-shackles, spliciug- 
 tails, mooring-swivels, and beiiding-swivels. The 
 sizes of chain-cables are denoted by the thickness of 
 the rod-iron selected for the links. The following 
 table gives certain ascertained quantities concerning 
 the cables in ordinary use : 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Weiglit 
 
 Breakin g 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Weight 
 
 Breaking 
 
 of Link. 
 
 per foot. 
 
 Strain. 
 
 of Link. 
 
 per foot. 
 
 Strain. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 ^ 
 
 .35 
 
 1,731 
 
 1 
 
 9.3 
 
 49,280 
 
 .63 
 
 3,009 
 
 m 
 
 11.8 
 
 59.226 
 
 k 
 
 .9t 
 
 4,794 
 
 IW 
 
 14.5 
 
 73.114 
 
 1.33 
 
 6.9-JJ 
 
 
 17.7 
 
 88.301 
 
 k 
 
 1.80 
 
 9.408 
 
 1^ 
 
 20.8 
 
 105.280 
 
 a. 33 
 
 la.sao 
 
 \hf. 
 
 24.2 
 
 12.3.514 
 
 k 
 
 300 
 
 15.590 
 
 li 
 
 28.3 
 
 143.293 
 
 3.07 
 
 19.ai9 
 
 32.5 
 
 164.505 
 
 u 
 
 4.50 
 
 M,274 
 
 8 
 
 883 
 
 187.152 
 
 k 
 
 5.30 
 
 27,687 
 
 i 
 
 47.0 
 
 224.448 
 
 ^l 
 
 6.16 
 
 38,301 
 
 58.0 
 
 277.088 
 
 7.18 
 
 37,632 
 
 70.0 
 
 3.3.'..32S 
 
 H 
 
 8 16 
 
 43,977 
 
 3* 
 
 84.0 
 
 398.944
 
 CHAIN. 
 
 333 
 
 CHAnr, 
 
 Chains with flat links are made in the fly-press. 
 The links are cut out, and the holes are afterward 
 punched as in washers, one at a time, every blank 
 being .so held that its circular extremity touches the 
 stops on the bed or die, which insure the centrality 
 of the blank and punch. The two holes are thus 
 made equidistant in all the links, and are afterwards 
 
 The rolUr detacftable chain-belling, made by the 
 Lechner Manufacturing Company, is now generally 
 used throughout the United States for dri\ing eleva- 
 tors, drags, hea\'y and light shafting, conveyors, 
 hoists, loghaul-ups, traction-engines, racking-car 
 riages on liftipg-cranes, roller-trains in rolling-mills, 
 live rolls, etc. Fig. 2 shows a roller detachable 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 stning together by inserting keys or rivets through 
 the holes. Sometimes the succession of the links of 
 the chain is one and two links alternately; or three 
 and two; or four and three, up to eight and nine 
 links, which is sometimes used. Chains intended to 
 catch on pins or projections on the periphery of a 
 wheel are made two and two, leaving an opening 
 which slips over the cog. A full assortment of 
 punched chain-links and keys is shown in Fig. 1. 
 These links are made with special machinery by 
 Messrs. Hoopes &. Townsend, Philadelphia, and have 
 been tested for ordnance purposes with the following 
 results: 
 
 STRAIGHT CHAIN-LINKS. 
 
 No. 
 
 in 
 
 Fig.l 
 
 Break- 
 ing 
 
 Strain 
 as 
 
 tested. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 34. 
 85. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 36 
 
 6. 
 37. 
 
 10., 
 11.. 
 12., 
 39.. 
 40.. 
 13., 
 41., 
 42., 
 )5. 
 14. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 30. 
 21. 
 
 lbs. 
 615 
 750 
 900 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 1,450 
 1,100 
 1,500 
 1,600 
 1,575 
 1,225 
 2,300 
 4.400 
 4,450 
 8,500 
 4,200 
 4,200 
 7,200 
 7,800 
 7,900 
 3,900 
 5,900 
 5,000 
 11,800 
 9,200 
 9.000 
 11,500 
 12,500 
 12.000 
 11,000 
 
 Length 
 Entire ' from 
 Length center to 
 
 center. 
 
 %inch 
 
 2« " 
 2g " 
 
 i" 
 
 Winch 
 
 ?^ ;: 
 
 Thiclj- 
 ness. 
 
 No. 16 
 " 14 
 
 " 12 
 
 ^ 
 
 " 11 
 " 11 
 " 10 
 
 % 
 
 " 10 
 
 A 
 
 8 
 
 A 
 
 " 10 
 
 A 
 
 " 10 
 
 ■f. 
 
 11 
 
 Vi 
 
 " 10 
 
 
 A inch 
 No. 7 
 
 ?B 
 
 Diameter! Weight 
 
 of per 100 
 
 Holes. Links. 
 
 jb inch 
 ft " 
 
 A inch 
 
 Vi •' 
 
 A 
 A " 
 
 I:: 
 
 IB 
 6 " 
 
 .32 
 .50 
 1.40 
 1.87 
 2.00 
 2.15 
 2.80 
 4.75 
 8.75 
 2.75 
 2.66 
 4.37 
 15.62 
 8.00 
 12.25 
 11.43 
 12.75 
 18.50 
 26.00 
 41.00 
 12.00 
 21.00 
 16.00 
 36.00 
 36 62 
 56.00 
 45.00 
 80.00 
 74.62 
 70.60 
 
 COG-LINES. 
 
 43... 
 
 350 
 
 5^ inch 
 
 H inch 
 
 No. 14 
 
 A nch 
 
 .25 
 
 
 650 
 
 1 •' 
 
 % " 
 
 " 12 
 
 jC ** 
 
 .94 
 
 23... 
 
 775 
 
 1^ " 
 
 a " 
 
 " 12 
 
 A " 
 
 1.75 
 
 24... 
 
 925 
 
 ^A *' 
 
 ^^" 
 
 •' 11 
 
 
 3 20 
 
 25... 
 
 1.275 
 
 1^ •• 
 
 " 10 
 
 
 6.43 
 
 26. . . . 
 
 1,275 
 
 It^:: 
 
 " 10 
 
 JL *' 
 
 5.20 
 
 27.... 
 
 1,975 
 
 
 A inch 
 
 9h '* 
 
 11.43 
 
 28.... 
 
 2.200 
 
 2 " 
 
 A " 
 
 £2 *' 
 
 1H.75 
 
 29.. . 
 
 S.IM 
 
 2 
 
 A •' 
 
 H " 
 
 20.37 
 
 Nos. SO. 31. 32. 33, 44, and 45 are keys for H, %, H, IM. '%■ 
 and 1 inch bolts respectively. 
 
 chain-link one half actual size, with a working strain 
 of 3500 poimds. The method of detaching the links, 
 shown in Fig. 3, is very simple, and is as follows: 
 Bring the links to right angles with each other, by a 
 slight tap on the roller; change the position of the pin 
 from the narrow to the larger portion of the slot, 
 when it (the pin) can be driven through and out, and 
 the chain detached. This belting has many superiftr 
 qualities. 1st. The action of the roller upon the 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 sprocket-wheels and links greatly reduces fiiction 
 and the usual wear upon both, by rolling when com- 
 ing in contact with the sprockets" tmtil scatetl, when 
 it rests quietly till released bj- leaving the wheel, 
 cau.sing no scrape whatever. Again, when the chain 
 is used for convej'ors, in its movement on a plane or 
 incline, it rolls upon the rollers, and thus requires 
 much less power to drive the conveyor, than is the 
 case where chains are dragged upon their tlat surface. 
 It also admits of a lighter chain to do the same
 
 CHAIN BALL. 
 
 334 
 
 CHALLENOE. 
 
 ■work, iU strcngtli not lx>ins cxbausted in dragging j 
 iU own weinlit. 2d. Tlic forniulion of tlic links is ■ 
 such that the gR'atcst strength to weight of meliil is 
 obtuiutil, ihiTi' being iibst)lnti'ly no wcalv ixiint. 3(1. 
 By iiu examination of the link.'* and ]>in after detach- 
 ing, it will In- ilisfovertil that the wearing surface, or 
 bearing, covers the entire |)<)rtion of the jiin U'twi-en 
 the end gnwvcs or notehe.s, there being no wear upon 
 the ends of pin or outside links, for the rea.son that 
 the pin is held rigidly, not moving in the scjuare slot. 
 The pins and links art also greatly strengthened by 
 the tubular bearing, or that [lorlion of the link upon 
 ■which the roller is mounted, and which, taken to- 
 gttlier. makes the strain ujK)n the l)in a shearing 
 strain >i]Kin the en<ls, thus ginng it greater strength 
 than it would otherwise have. 4th. Fully ten per 
 Cent of power is lost by the slipi)ing of katlier 
 and rublier belts, and the friction resulting therefrom 
 rapidly generates heat, which hardens the face of the 
 one luid rots the fabric of the other, and is one of the ' 
 most prevalent causes of tire in mills, warehouses, ; 
 etc. 5th. When space is of importance, roller-chain , 
 of from 2 to 4 inches in width will be the equivalent 
 of a 12 to 30 inch leather or rul)l)er bell, and the 
 sprocket-wheels for the chain will cost from one 
 fourth to one half less than pidleys for leather or 
 rubber iH-lting. 
 
 CHAIN BALL.— To arrest the motion of rotation of 
 an oblong projectile thrown under high angles and 
 ■with a mixlcrate velocity, it hius been proposed to at- 
 t^h a light body to its "posterior portion by means of 
 a cord or chain, which will offer a resistance to ths 
 flight of the projectile and cause it to move with its 
 point foremost. See C/niiii-n/wt. 
 
 CHAIN-HAIL. — A kind of armor much used in the 
 twelflh and thirteenth centuries. It was formed of 
 hammered iron links connected one to another into a 
 dress or form of a garment. Its advantage was in its 
 lightness and tie.xibility, compared with the sheets of 
 steel or brass of other met;d armor, but it was not so 
 good a protection from tlie spear or lance. Frequently 
 sjxiken of as c/niin-urmor. 
 
 CHAIN-SHOT.— A nearly obsolete kind of ammu- 
 nition, chietly used in naval warfare, consisting of 
 two balls connected by a short chain. The object of 
 the chain is to destroy the rigging, etc., which other- 
 wise might escape. As grape-shot has been found to 
 scr%-e the same end, the making of chain-shot has 
 been di.scoutinued. See Bar-shot, Prtnectika, and 
 mill Shot. 
 
 CHALK. — A ■white calcareous substance, prejiared 
 by precipitating a solution of chloride of calcium 
 with carlK)nate of soda and washing; the precipitated 
 chalk of the pharmacop<jeia is thus formed. Chalk 
 is well known in Europe as an extensive secondary 
 formation. In the arts it is commonly known as 
 ■whiting, after .separating the grosser impurities of the 
 chalk. It is used verj- generally for artillery pur- 
 poses in arsenal workshops, for inarking the "center 
 and line of metal on ordnance, to mark the position 
 of gun-carriaires and mortar-beds on their platforms, 
 and in a variety of uses. 
 
 CHALLENGE.— 1. The act of a sentinel in ques- 
 tioning or demanding the countersign from those 
 ■B-ho apix-ar at or near his post, at c<Ttain times 
 In the British service, the .sentinel challenges in tliese 
 words: " Who coimh thtre?" At the same time he 
 comc» to the charge hniioiut to ))revent any sudden 
 rush upon his post. If the reply of the apiJroaching 
 person is satisfactory, the sentry allows him to pass 
 m thes<- words: " J'iiMt.Jriind; all'H ,nll\ " A similar 
 challenge is made to any patrol \-isiting the guards of 
 a garrison or camp during the night, such as the 
 Grand or Visiting Hounds. 
 
 In the United States army, after retreat (or the 
 hour app<iinled by the Commanding Officer), until 
 briKid (layliphl, a sentinel challenires every person 
 who approaches him, taking, at the same time, the 
 position of rhiir;ie hni/niut. He sulfers no person to 
 come nciirer than within rcacli of his bayonet, until 
 
 the person has given the countersign, or is pa.ssed by 
 an Officer or Xon-commis.sioned Officer of the Guard. 
 A sentinel, in challenging, calls out, •' M'ho tome* 
 there?" If answered, ■" Frieiui, itith the countersign," 
 and he be instructed to pass jjersons with the counter- 
 sign, he replies, " Adrance, friend, with the counter- 
 sign f" If answered, " Friends," he replies, ''Halt, 
 friends ! Adrance one with the countersign !" If an- 
 swered, " lielief," " Patrol," or " Orand Pounds," he 
 replies, "Unit! Ad ranee. Sergeant (or ('iir])or<il), 
 irith the e/>unttrsign!" and satistie-s himself that the 
 Iiarty is what it represent.s itself to be. If he have 
 no authority to pass persons with the countersign, if 
 the wrong countersign be given, or if the persons 
 have not the countersign, he causes them to stand, 
 and calls, " Corjioral of the Guard!" When any 
 jierson approaches a post of the guard at night, the 
 -sentinel before the post, after challenging, causes him 
 to halt until examined by a Non-commissioned Officer 
 of the Guard. If it be the Otlicer of the Dav, or any 
 other Officer entitled to inspect the iruard and to niiike 
 the Rounds, the Non-commissioneil Officer will call, 
 " Turn out the guard!" when the guard is jiaraded, 
 arms at a cjirry, and the Officer of the Guard, if he-thiuk 
 necessary, may demand the coimtersign and parole. 
 
 2. The custom of nulling another to answer for an 
 offense by combat. In 18-44 several new Articles of 
 War were issued by the Commander of the Forces in 
 England, with a view to the abatement of dueling in 
 the army. They were as follows: 1. Every officer 
 who shall .send a challenge, or who shall accept a 
 challenge, to fight a duel ■Nvith another officer, or who, 
 being privy to an intention to fight a duel, shall not 
 take active measures to prevent such duel, or who 
 shall ui)l)raid another for refusing or cot giving a 
 challenge, or who shall reject or advise the rejection 
 of a rea.sonable proposition made for the honorable 
 adjustment of a difference, shall l)e liable, if con- 
 victed before a General Court-Martial, to be cashiered, 
 or suffer such other punishment as the Court may 
 award. 2. In the event of an officer being brought 
 to a Court - Martial for having acted as a second 
 in a duel, if it appear that such officer cxertetl 
 himself strenuously to bring about an honorable 
 adjustment of the difference, but failed through 
 the unwillingness of the adverse parties, then such 
 officer is to suffer such punishment as the C^ourt ..shall 
 award. 3. Approbation is expressed of the conduct 
 of those who, having had the misfortune to give 
 offense to or injure or insult others, shall frankly 
 explain, apologize, or offer redress for the same, or 
 who, having received offen.se, shall cordially accept 
 frank e.xplanations or apologies for the same; or, if 
 such a|)ologies are refused to be made or accepted, 
 shall submit the matter to the Commanding Officer; 
 and, la.stly, all officers and soldiers are acquitted of 
 disgrace or disadvantage who, being willing to make 
 or accept such redress, refuse to accept challenges, as 
 they will only have acted as is suitable to the character 
 of honond)le men, and have done their duty as good 
 .soldiers who subject themselves to discipline. Partly, 
 in consequence of these regulations, but still more as 
 a result of the increasing reason and humanity of 
 English society, the practice of dueling has become 
 almost as entirely obsolete in the British army as it 
 has in the country generally. The 2Gth, 2Tth, and 
 28th Ariicles of War prescribe the pmiishment for 
 dueling in the United States army. See Duel and 
 Ordeal. 
 
 3. In a legal sense, and as applied to military mat- 
 ters, the right the accused has of objecting "to the 
 President or any other Member of a Court-Martial. 
 If be objects to the President, his objection, mdess 
 disidlowed by two thirds al least of llu' other in<'mbers, 
 must be referred for decision to the authority by 
 whom the President was appointed. When anv 
 Member is challenged, the accused must state hi's 
 cau.se of challenge, of which the Court, after due 
 deliberation, delennines tlic relevancy or validity, 
 and decides accordingly. See Courl^Jiartial.
 
 CHAMADE. 
 
 335 
 
 CHAHBEBS HOOPED QVK. 
 
 CHAMADE.— A signal made for a parley by beat 
 of drum. See Parky. 
 
 CHAMBES. — 1. A gun is said to be chambered 
 ■when the seat of the charge i.s not of the same diam- 
 eter as the bore. The object of chambering is to ob- 
 tain increased projectile force. Formerly the cham- 
 ber was in all cases smaller than the bore, the shape 
 commonly cj'lindrical or conical. Chambers were 
 placed in light pieces firing comparatively small 
 charges of quick-burning powder. It was considered 
 that the length of space occupied by the charge 
 should be nearly equal to its diameter, in order that 
 the inflammation of the charge should be nearly com- 
 plete before the gas commenced to escape through 
 the windage, or the projectile had sensiljly moved 
 from its place; in the second place, this form of car- 
 tridge gave less surface for the absorption of heat by 
 the surrounding metal. It al.so gave to the cartridge 
 in some cases a more manageable form in loading. 
 In pieces tiring heavy charges the seat of the charge 
 wa.s simply the bore prolonged. The termination 
 was in some cases a plane bottom connect eil with the 
 sides by a curved surface, and in others the tottom 
 of the bore wa.s hemispherical or semiellipsoidid. 
 The latter was thought to be more favorable to the 
 strength of the piece. It was necessiiry that there 
 should be no angles formed by the junction of the 
 bottotn and sides of the bore, as these would become 
 receptacles for the residue and burning fragments of 
 the cartridge-bag. There is also a well-known ten- 
 dency for rupture to commence at an angle, and for 
 this reason, too, the curved termination was necessary. 
 
 Chambers are now of larger diameter than the 
 bore proper, and are so made to enable the u.se of 
 larger charges, and also to give a certain amount of 
 air-.space about the cartridge. They were originally 
 adopted as a necessity in breech-loading guns tiring 
 lead-coated projectiles. The tendency at present is 
 to use very large charges of slow-burning powder. 
 If, however, too great a length of cartridge is em- 
 ploj'cd, experience shows that at times abnormal 
 pressures are e.xerted upon the bore and projectile; 
 the gas rushes from the point of ignition to the end 
 of the powder-chamber and there, Ijeing suddenly 
 arrested, produces a zone of high pressure within 
 which the powder burns abnormally fast; then a 
 back-rush takes place and a violent wave-action is set 
 up, resulting in local strains of great severity without 
 materially affecting the velocity of the .shot. This 
 difficult}' is obviated by an increa,se in the diameter 
 of the cartridge. The air-space about the cartridge 
 also prevents the dynamic action of the ga.ses de- 
 scribed above. It diminishes the mean density of 
 the inflamed products during the first instants of 
 combustion and relieves the piece of the great strain 
 usually brought upon it before the projectile has 
 commenced to move. The maintenance of a due 
 |)roportion between the Ijulk of the powder-charge 
 and the space allowed for its combustion is of the 
 highest importance both in the development of en- 
 ergy and the diminution of strain upon the gun. 
 Tile velocity and energy are increa.sed in le-ss propor- 
 tion than the iucrea.se of charge, but the gas-pressure 
 is not increa.sed in amount, although prolonged in 
 duration, by the hea\'ier charge, if the proportion of 
 space to weight of powder remains the same. The 
 proper dimensions of the chamber in relation to the 
 caliber and length depend veiy much upon the 
 nature of the powder employed. With some large- 
 grained powders, especially the prismatic variety, it 
 is thought that the charge can completely fill the 
 chamber, the air-space in the interstices ant\ perfora- 
 tions Ix'ing sufficient to produce the desired etTeet. ; 
 Beyond a certain limit the further boring out of tiie 
 chamber would begin to weaken the lireeeh. In 
 many heavy gims the chamber has a diameter, for a 
 considerable length, of one or two inches greater 
 than the bore. The length shoukl not be more than 
 3i or 4 times its diameter if it can possibly be avoided. 
 
 The construction with reference to length of bore, i 
 
 etc., will be governed by the purposes for which the 
 piece is inteiided. I. For armor-piercing the pro- 
 jectile requiretl is a long pointed bolt, nearly solid. 
 It must strike n-ith great velocity, and therefore must 
 be propelled by very large charges. Hence a gun 
 for this purpose should have a large chamber and a 
 comparatively small bore of great length. II. For 
 breaching fortifications curved tire is necessary; the 
 escarps of modern fortre.s.ses are usually covered from 
 view by screens of earth or masonry, so that the pro- 
 jectiles must pass over the crest of the screen and 
 drop sufficiently to strike the wall about half-way 
 down — that is to say, at an angle of 15 or 20°. For 
 a shell to drop at this angle at the end of a moderate 
 range the velocity at starting must be low. Hence in 
 pieces used for breaching no enlarged powder-cham- 
 i)er is wanted; the shell must be of a shape to hold 
 the most powder for a given weight, and therefore 
 rather short and thick. This gives a large and com- 
 paratively short bore. III. For producing destructive 
 effect among troops Shrapnel is principally employed. 
 For this high remaining velocities are required at the 
 point of rupture. The gun must therefore take a 
 large powder-charge. The interior capacity of the 
 envelope should be as great as ])racticable. For a 
 given weight a comparatively short projectile of large 
 diameter will best fultill this condition. Thus the 
 proportions of the field-gun will be intermediate be- 
 tsvecn those of the armor-piercing and the shell gun. 
 
 2. The chamber of a mine is a ca\ity formed to 
 receive the charge of powder. When the chamber is 
 made at the end of a galleiy, the center of the cham- 
 ber is placed on a level with the floor of the gallery. 
 It is usually better to place the chamber at the end of 
 a small branch return on one side. When the charge 
 is not to be exploded immediately, or the groimd is 
 much saturated with moisture, it should be placed 
 in a well-pitched wooden case, a good cask, or in a 
 wooden case covered with tarpaulin, or any like ex- 
 pedient adopted that may be at hand; the best recep- 
 tacle is a water-tight tin case. In dry groimd, and 
 when the charge is to be soon exploded, canvas bags 
 will answer. If the case to contain the powder is 
 cubical and not more than 3 feet on the edge, it may 
 be introduced into the chamber ready made; if of 
 greater dimensions, it must be put together in the 
 chamber, the pieces to form the sides being arranged 
 like the ca.ses of branches. An opening is made in 
 the cover near the side, about 4 inches square, for the 
 introduction of the charge, and a similar one in the 
 side near the center to receive the hose through. 
 
 CHAMBEE-GAUGE. — An instrument used in the 
 inspection of cannon. The head of this gauge should 
 be made of close-grained, well-seasoned wood, and 
 of the exact dimensions of the chamber. Two planes 
 crossing each other at a right angle, coinciding with 
 the vertical and horizontal central sections, have 
 been found better than a solid block. The edge 
 should be beveled. A socket in its center connects 
 it with the measuring-staff. Being pushed to the 
 I)ottom of the bore, if the length coincides with that 
 obtained by the point it is obrious that the chamber 
 is large enough, pro\ided the cylindrical jiart has 
 not been bored too deep, in which case a shoulder 
 would be formed at the junction. The edges of the 
 gauge should be chalked before insertion. When 
 withdrawn, if the chalk-marks are visible all around 
 the chamber it is e^^dent the chamber is not too 
 large. An examination of the eluimber-nnmer will 
 be very satisfactory, and if found coiTect in size and 
 shape the impossibility of making the chamlicr too 
 large will be apparent. See Inspictlon of Ordnance. 
 
 CHAMBERS HOOPED GUN.— To obviate the dan- 
 ger of crystallizing the iron by welding it in large 
 nia.s.s<>s, this cannon is formed of pieces of a moder- 
 ate thickness only, commencing with a tulie the in- 
 terior of which is the bore of the gun. The outside 
 of this tube is turned to receive a series of rings, 
 which have an interior diameter, such that they will 
 not when cold pass on or over the tube, but when
 
 CHAMFEE. 
 
 336 
 
 CHAF£LI)£-F£B. 
 
 heated will reiiilily slip on and come to the required 
 position. Whi-n "ihi-sc rings nre shrunk uix)n the 
 barrel, the pii-cc is phutxl iu a liiihe and the exteriors 
 of the rings are turniil so as to receive another tier 
 of rings, whieh are pliict^l l)y heating and shrinking 
 on. so as to break joints with the first tier. When a 
 greater numbi'r of courses of rings is necessarj', they 
 are placid on the preceiling series in the same man- 
 ner as the second series is placed upon the first; that 
 is, so a-s to break joints with each other. The liust 
 series of rings is turned off to the regular form of the 
 tinishtnl cannon. The trunnions "are forged with 
 one of the outside rings, which, for the puqwse of 
 strenglheuing the connection, may Ix; made thicker 
 than the oilier exterior rings. See Onlnaiice. 
 
 CHAHFEB.— A small channel or furrow cut in 
 woi)d, st<.)ne. etc. It may be also explained iu< an 
 edge, or arris, taken off equally on the two sides 
 which form it, leaving what is called a chamfer or a 
 chamfered edge. If the arris be Uikcn off more on 
 one side than the other, it is said to be splayed or 
 beveled. 
 
 CHAMFRON. — The frontlet of an armed horse, 
 usually having a spike between the eyes. Also writ- 
 ten Chiiiiifriiin and Chaiiifroiil. 
 
 CHAMPION.— In the judicial combats of the Middle 
 Agvs it was allowed to women, children, and aged 
 persons, except in cases of high treason or of parri- 
 cide, to apiJCiir in the lists by a representative. Such 
 n hired combatant was called Champion. Those who 
 followed this profession were generally of the lowest 
 cla.ss, and were held disreputable: for besides the 
 perils of the combat, the.v were liable to be executed 
 as well as their clients. They were obliged to wear a 
 peculiar dress of leather, and peculiar armor, which 
 was also held disreputable. They were not allowed 
 to tight on horseback, and appeared in the lists with 
 their hair and nails cut short. Champions are men- 
 tioned as early a.s in the time of Charlemagne; and 
 Otto I. employed them in deciding the succession to 
 the Empire. At a later period, in the Age of Chiv- 
 alrs", the word Cham|)ion came to have a more digni- 
 fied acceptation, and signified a knight who entered 
 the lists on behalf of an injured lady, of a child, or of 
 any one incapable of self-defense In England, the 
 Crown even had its Champion, who, mounted on 
 horseback and armed to the teeth, challenged, at 
 everv Coronation at Westminster, all who should deny 
 the feing to be the lawful Sovereign of the three 
 realms. This practice is understood to have Xk'CU 
 first introduced under Richard II., and it continues 
 to make a part of the Ceremonial of an English Coro 
 nation to this day. The name of Champion was also 
 given to the knight who during a tournament had 
 charge to see that no in jury or insult should be offered 
 to the assembled ladies. 
 
 CHANDELIEB. — In militarj' engineering, a wooden 
 frame filled with fascines, to form a traverse in sap- 
 ping. 
 
 CHANDLEK ANCHOB-SHOT.— This shot was origi- 
 nally iiiK iided fur the use of ships on shore 
 (agroimd), wliere the surf is too heavy for 
 boats to land willuiui tlie assistance of a 
 line. It can also be ased at Life-saving Sta- 
 tions to throw lines over l>eached vessels, 
 or vessels in distress. As an implement of 
 war, it will be useful in waters where tor- 
 pedoi'S are sup|X)si(l (o be located. A ship 
 can anchor near the supposed torpediK'S. 
 throw the shot two or three hundred 
 yards towards Iheni, and haul it home, 
 breaking such wires lus it mav encoun- 
 ter. It is very simple, and Its simpli- 
 city insures it.s successful working, while its cost is 
 very little more than that of an ordinary shot. It is 
 merely a shot wiih hinged anchor-flukes projecting 
 from Its sides and foliliiiLT back into slots, so as nol 
 to interfere with Hie enlninee of the shot into the 
 gun. To the riiir of the shot a chain or wire rope is 
 attached, and canied to the front through luiother slot, 
 
 in a vcrj- simple and substantial manner. In using it 
 the shot is to Ik' insertei.1 into the muzzle of the gun 
 far enough to bring the ends of the arms inside the 
 muzzJe, the chain or wire rope attached to the rear of 
 the shot brought out through the slot, the strap taken 
 off, luid the shot pushed gently home. The springs 
 under the arms, always bearing or pushing them 
 outwards, will extend "the arms as soon as the shot 
 leaves the muzzle of the gun or mortar, and a perfect 
 anchor will be projected. If in its flight the arms arc 
 brought in contact with anything, they will close un- 
 til the obstacle is pas.sed, and where the shot lands 
 its holding power will be equal to any kedge-anchor 
 of the .simie weight. It appears to he a most useful 
 invention. One of these shots made for an eleven- 
 inch gun would have power enough to carry a two- 
 inch rope ashore; and after the shot was once ashore 
 and well hooked, all the boats of the ship could be 
 hauled ashore without any other line. The flukes of 
 this anchor-shot are three" in numl)er, placed equidis- 
 tiUitly around the circumference of the shot 
 
 In the U. S. Life-.sjiving Service, no claims of very 
 great originality are made, as the apparatus is a direct 
 evolution from the system of Captain Slanby, which 
 dates back to the beginning of the present century. 
 The advances which have been made during the past 
 few years are the result of careful study and conscien- 
 tious" exixjriment. The data recorded are of value for 
 future reference. Several hundred guns have been 
 made, and evert- station supplied, at a great economy 
 in the cost of manufacture; the guns being made at 
 the West Point foundry, by contract. During the 
 many heavy storms on our coast they have been used 
 with great "success, saving many lives. The men in 
 charge are thorough!}' satisfied in their management, 
 and the guns are easily kept clean, there being no 
 corrosion by sea-water. The longest distance to 
 which a small line has been thrown is 694| yards. 
 The caliber of the gun depends upon the size of line 
 used and the range required. For ranges of 300 yards 
 and less, a 3-inch gun is used, while for ranges of 400 
 yards and less, a 2.5-inch bronze gun should be used. 
 "See Anchor-rocket, Life-Facing Rockets, and Lyle-Emery 
 QrappU-fluit. 
 
 CHANTIEB. — A square piece of wood which is 
 used for the purpose of raising anything. It serves 
 to place barrels of gunpowder in a proper manner, and 
 fre(|uently to try pieces of ordnance instead of frames. 
 
 CHAFE. — 1. The catch or piece by which an ob- 
 ject is attached — to a belt, for instance; as the piece of 
 leather known siJecitically as the//w^, to which a 
 bayonet scabbard is attached; or a piece used to 
 fasten a buckle to a strap or other piece of leather. 
 2. The hook of a scabbard. 3. The metallic part 
 put on the end of a scabbard to prevent the point of 
 the sword or bayonet from piercing through it. 
 
 CHAPEAU BBAS.— A militarv' hat which can be 
 flattened and put under the arm. In the United 
 States army the chapeau is worn by General Ofticers, 
 Officers of" the General Staff, and Staff Corps, except 
 
 the Signal Corps. It is worn with the front peak 
 turned slightly to the left, showing the gilt ornaments 
 upon the light side. See Helmet. 
 
 CHAPEL-DE-FEE.— An iron cap, furnished with a 
 broad and .slightly curved rim. It was the head- 
 piece of soldiery in the reign of William Kufus and 
 in subsequent reigns.
 
 CHAPEEON. 
 
 337 
 
 CHABCOAL. 
 
 CHAPEKON.— A hood or cap worn by Knights of the 
 Garter. Such a hood was at one time in general use, , 
 liut was lately appropriated to doctors anil licentiates < 
 in colleges. A person who acts as a guide and pro- ! 
 lector to a lady at public places Is called a chaperon, 
 probably from this particular piece of dress having 
 been used on such occasions. The name was also ap- 
 plied to devices which were placed on the heads of 
 horses at pompous funerals. 
 
 CHAPLAIN. — A clergj-man with a military com- 
 mis.<ion. givinir him the spiritual charge of soldiers. 
 The title was originally applied to the ecclesiastic 
 who accompanied an army and carried the relics of 
 the patron Siiiut. It has now come to signify a clergy- 
 man not having charge of a parish, but employed to 
 officiate at Court, in the household of a noblemjm, or 
 in an army, garrison, sliip, etc. Such officials began 
 carlj' to be appointcfl in the palace of the Byzantine 
 emperors. The practice afterwards extended to tlie 
 Western Empire, and to the Courts of petty princes, 
 and even of knights, and contiimed to suljsist after 
 the Reformation. Forty-eight clergymen of tlie Church 
 of England hold office iis Chaplains of the Queen in 
 England, four of whom are in attendance each month. 
 Six clergymen of the Church of Scotland have a simi- 
 lar title in Scotland: but their only duty is to conduct 
 prayer at tlie elections of Scottish representative 
 peers. A statute of Henry VIII. limits the right of 
 nominating private chaplains in England: thus, an 
 archbishop may have eight, a duke six, a baron three; 
 and chaplains so appointed have certain privileges, 
 and may hold two benefices with cure of soul. 
 
 In England, an Army Chaplain is a clergjman whose 
 services are retained especially by the government for 
 the soldiery of the army. There have been such Chap- 
 lains for many generations, and the office was at one 
 time regarded as a salable perquisite; but the system 
 w;is reorganized and improved in 1796. In recent 
 years, Roman Catholic and Presbyterian Chaplains 
 have also been appointed, a practice which indicates 
 the progre-ss of toleration. The Chaplains belong, 
 not to regiutiiiU, but to the Staff of the arm}-, so as to 
 be generally available. At home they are attached to 
 the military stations; but in the field they are located 
 at headquarters, at the hospitals, and with the divi- 
 sions. The officers at the stations usually arrange for 
 the men to attend divine service at the nearest parish 
 church; but this still leaves the Chaplains many 
 duties to fulfill. Where, iis sometimes hai^pens, there 
 Is no regular church or chapel nearat hand, the Chap- 
 lain reads and preaches to as many men as can con- 
 venientlj' group themselves arouiid him at one time, 
 and thus serves many different congregations at dif- 
 ferent times of the Sunday. He visits the sick at the 
 hospitals, and examines and encourages the regimen- 
 tal schools. Among the wooden huts at Aldershott 
 Camp a church has been built, which is rendered 
 available for Chaplains of different religious denomi- 
 nations in succession. When the system of Army 
 Chaplains was remoticled in 1796, a Chaplain Gentr 
 ral was appointed; tliis office was aboli.shed by the 
 Duke of Wellington soon after the termination of the 
 great war, but revived by Mr. Sidney Herbert in 
 1846. The Chaplain General, who receives £1000 per 
 annum, has duties partaking somewhat of tho.se of an 
 ' archdeacon. He a.ssist.s the War (Jffice in selecting 
 Chaplains, and in regulating the religious matters of 
 the army, so far as Church of England matters are 
 concerned. His office forms one of the eight depart- 
 ments under the new organization of the War Office. 
 There are 78 Chaplains dn the Staff, besides officiat- 
 ing clergjTnen (not belonging to the army) and 
 chapel-clerks. The commissioned Chaplains receive 
 from 10». to 22*. 6(/. per da}', besides allowances; and 
 there are always some on half pay; while the officiat- 
 ing clergymen receive head-money for the troops at- 
 tending their ministrations. The" whole ex])enditure 
 for Chaplains, and other charges connected with di- 
 vine service, figures in the army estimates at near 
 f.TO,000 aunuailv. 
 
 In the United Slates army there are thirty 
 Post and four licgimental Chaplains; and there 
 is usually a Chaplain in every regiment of militia, 
 though they are not always ordained clergymen. 
 The authorized Post Chaplains are assigned to the 
 several Jlilitary Gcographiciil Departments by the 
 Lieutenant General of the Army, in conformity with 
 the spirit of the law governing their appointment. 
 Division and Department Commanders from time to 
 time a.ssign or transfer to posts within their com- 
 mands, for the best interests of the service, the sever- 
 al Chaplains ordered to report to them. On their ac- 
 tion being made known to the Adjutant General of 
 the Anny, the Secretary of War designates the posts 
 as Chaplain posts, in conformity with law. Chap- 
 lains enter in an ap))ropriate book an accurate record 
 of all marriages, liaptismal, and funeral servicer per- 
 formed by them, both for i)ersous in the militarj' ser- 
 vice and for civilians, at or near the posts where they 
 are stationed, with such particulars relative to each 
 ca.se as may become of importjmce. This book is one 
 of the post records, and is subject to examination b}' 
 inspecting officers. .rVn appropriate set of quarters, 
 equal to the allowance of a Captain, is set apart per- 
 manently for the Chaplain at posts where Chaplains 
 are employed. He is not disturbed in them further 
 than by a reduction of his allowance, and only then 
 when the quarters of the garrison are insufficient. He 
 is not entirely displaced from them, nor is he allowed 
 to choose quarters elsewhere. 
 
 CHAPLAIN GENEEAL.— As the name implies, the 
 chief of the Military Chaplains in the British army. 
 The appointment of such an officer was first made by 
 the lake Duke of York when Commander-in-Chief. 
 The recommendation of Chaplains to the several 
 g-arrisons is made by him to the Minister of War. 
 
 CHAPLET. — A garland or head-band of leaves and 
 flowers. In Heraldry, a chaplet is always composed 
 of four roses, the other parts being leaves. 
 
 CHAPPE. — A barrel containing another barrel 
 which holds gunpowder. It likewise means a com- 
 position of earth, horse-dvmg, and wad that covers 
 the mouth of a cannon or mortiu-. 
 
 CHAECOAL.— Charcoal is the fiber that remains 
 after wood has been charred, and, as an ingredient 
 in gimpowder, is next in importance to .sidipeter. 
 When anything like uniformity in the quality of the 
 gunpowder is required, great Citre has to be exercised 
 in its preparation, for the chemical composition of 
 charcoal — i.e., the percentage of carbon contained 
 therein — will affect the quality of the gimpowder to 
 a considerable degree; therefore extreme care has to 
 be exercised in charring the wood, seeing that gun- 
 powder contjiins no less than fifteen per cent of char- 
 coal. Much depends upon the quality and condition 
 of the wood employed, and it is found that it the sap 
 be thoroughly dried up in the wood previous to use 
 it greatly assists in securing a first-class charcoal; this 
 end can be attained by desiccating newiy-cut timber 
 in a hot chamber for ten or twelve days, although it 
 is questionable whether the charcoal thus obtained is 
 as good as that produced from wood that has been 
 kept for a number of years to season by natural 
 means. Small wood, perfectly clean, free from all 
 bark, and quite drj', are the essential requisites for 
 making goo<l charcoal. The kind of wood com- 
 monly used is that of the willow species— the com- 
 mon white Dutch willow, the poplar, and the alder 
 are generally preferred; other woods arc, however, 
 frequently used, and for a first-class strong powder 
 the blacU dogwood is said to be the best, but its 
 great costliness prevents its being largely adopted. 
 Burning the wood in retorts is the method usually 
 emplojed for procuring a light and equal quality of 
 charcoal for gunpowder; pit-burned charcoal is, how- 
 ever, preferred for fuse aiid pyrotechnic compositions, 
 etc., on account of certain qualities it possesses ren- 
 dering it peculiarly adapted for such puq^se''. The 
 method of burning in retorts is as follows: Small 
 w(X)d of about ten years' growth is preferred lor
 
 CHABCOAl. 
 
 338 
 
 CHARCOAL. 
 
 powder-inakin!:. Aider and willow of this age will 
 be prohiibly four or Ave inilies in dinnuler, doir- 
 wool ii1k)U|" (MU'. Tlie wihkI niusl be slraiirlit. ])i.t- 
 fectlv sound, und entirely free from bark, and must 
 be felled in the spring. " Great stress is laid on the 
 cleanliness of tbe w(xxi. Any truces of bark ad- 
 hering to it are not to be tolei^ited. If the wood is 
 cut in the spring when the sap is rising, the bark is 
 
 Fig. 1. — Chiircoal CouverttT. 
 
 easily removed and the wood is left perfectly clean. 
 Wood cut at any other season of the year is jusl as 
 good, only in this case the removal of the bark is a 
 much more ditlicull matter. 
 
 The wood i.s converted into charcoal in iron re- 
 torts or cylinders set into brick-work. Fig. 1 repre- 
 sents a longitudinal section of a cylinder, showing 
 how the .second cylinder, or slij). A, containing the 
 wood, is placed in its interior, and the arrangement 
 of pipes by which the gaseous matter evolvctl from 
 the wood is conducted into the tire. Each cylinder 
 is made of cast-iron, having two pipes passing out at 
 tiie inner end of it. When set, the lower one of 
 these is closed with brick-work, tlie upper one only 
 being used, and the lower one l)eing only intended 
 for use .should the cylinder be turned round and re- 
 set. To the uppermost pipe is attached a branch- 
 pipe leading to a horizontal pipe extending behind 
 the whole st't of cylinders, from one end of which 
 another pipe descends perpendicularly, joining an- 
 other leading directly into the former. Karh cylinder 
 has a false bottom of brick-work, in front of which 
 is bolted on a piece of wrought-iron plate having a 
 cylinder-hole corresponding to the upi)ermost pijjc of 
 the cylinder. The cylinders are closed with tight fit- 
 ting iron doors secured by a powerful screw, much in 
 the siune way as the ends of gas-retorts are fastened. 
 
 For convenience of handling the wood is jilaccd in 
 small cylinders of sheet-iron, A. termed kHjis, which 
 are placed on small iron traveling-carriages, on which 
 they am be nm up directly to the liiouth of the 
 cylinders and shot in. The back end of each slip is 
 provided with a handle to facilitate withdrawal. As 
 already stated, a good and unifonnly pure charcoal 
 is very es.si'nlial in mamifacturing gunpowder, and 
 if properly made will have a jet-iihick appearance, 
 the fnictures show a velvet-like surface, and appear 
 the sjinie in both large and small pieces. It .should 
 not .s<nitcb soft polished metal, and if treated with 
 distilled water there should be no ajipearanee of 
 alkali. From 20 to 2o per cent of charcoal is ob- 
 tained fnnn the willow and alder, and from 25 to :i() 
 per cent is yielded by the black dogwood; the latter 
 18 verj- dense, tough, and of slow growth, its us\ial 
 sbx- tx'ing alnrnt 1 inch in thieknes.s. When charred 
 it has a yellowish-looking surface, and is slivditly 
 metallic in appearance in certain shades of liirht. 
 The kind of wood from which the charcoal has bui'ii 
 ma<le is known by the pith; that of dogw<M)d is 
 circular and large for the size of the wood; that of 
 
 the willow is also circular, but somewhat smaller; 
 whilst in the case of alder it forms a figure of three 
 equidistant radial lines. They can all be easily dis- 
 tiiii;-uished from each other. Charcoal is very porous, 
 ami iiuicldy absorbs moisture on being exposed to 
 the atmosphere; therefore a great store isnever kept, 
 but is used a.s .sofin as ix)s.sible after l>eing made. 
 Previous to this, however, it is very carefully ex- 
 amined and picked, as thick pieces which have 
 not been properly cliarred are sometimes found. 
 To test charcoal and ascertain if any alkali be 
 present, finely powder a .small (|uaiitity and 
 boil it in distilled water; tiller the .solution, 
 and test with litmus-paper reddened by weak 
 acid. Should the charcoal contain alkali, the 
 paix'r will be partially or wholly restored to il.s 
 original color. 
 
 Charcoal after standing a fortnight is ground 
 in an a])i)aratus somewhat similar to a coffee- 
 mill oil a large scale. The mill consists of a 
 cone secured on a vertical spindle provided with 
 teeth ninning spirally over its entire outer sur- 
 face; the cone revolves in a cylinder provided 
 with teeth on its inner surface; these teeth are 
 spiral also, but incline in th(' opposite direc- 
 tion to those on the cjine. The revolving cone 
 is adjustable in a vertical direction to increase 
 or diminish the space between its teeth and 
 those of the fixed cylinder; thus a coarse or 
 fine charcoal is produced at will. The adjust- 
 ment is effected by means of two hand-w heels work- 
 ing on a fine screw-thread cut ui)on the small vertical 
 conespindle, which spindle can be moved upward or 
 downward by means of the hand-wheels through the 
 larsce hollow" shaft ui>on which the bevel driving- 
 wheel is keyed. Motion is communicated from this 
 .shaft to the" small one by means of a feather upon the 
 surface of the latter, which 
 fits and works in a groove 
 cut in the inside of the hollow 
 shaft. The small hand-wheel 
 is used for locking and secur-" 
 ing the larger one in any re- 
 quired position. The hopper 
 above receives the charcoal. 
 On the underside of the cone, 
 and revolving with it, are a 
 couple of arms, that carry 
 the ground charcoal to the 
 discbarge-spout on one side of 
 the fixed cylinder and con- 
 duct it to a sifting-reel. This 
 reel is simply a skeleton- 
 cylinder of wood, covered 
 with copper-wire cloth, hav- 
 ing tine meshes thirty-two to 
 the inch. The sifting-reel is 
 driven by a pair of bevel- 
 wheels set at a slight angle 
 to allow the charcoal to run 
 readily along the interior: 
 as it revolves it causes the 
 particles of charcoal to be 
 
 contimially rolling over each other and covering new 
 surfaces oi' the reel; the fine particles psisa through 
 the meshes of the wire cloth and fall into a receiving- 
 bin, whilst the larger ones are thrown out at the lower 
 end of the reel to another bin, whence they arc taken 
 and returned to the hoi>per. The reel and bins are 
 inclosed entirely in a wooden framework and cover- 
 ing, so as to prevent the dust, which is very light, 
 from spreading o\ er the house. Doors are provided 
 in this wooden covering, by means of which the 
 ground charcoal can be removed. After being 
 ground the charcoal stands for about eight or ten 
 days before using it; owing to the readiness with 
 which it absorbs oxygen when in the i)iilverized 
 state it is apt to become heated, and spontaneous 
 combu.slion to ensue. The danger fr<mi this cause is 
 much lessened when it is stored in small quimtities 
 
 Fig. 2,— Grinder.
 
 CHARGE. 
 
 339 
 
 CHAEGE-BAYONET. 
 
 and in separate iron cylinders or bins. See G-unpme- \ 
 da; I^tJiuriictl Cluircmd, SaitpeUr, and Sulphur. 
 
 CHAKGE.— 1. Tlie [Msition of a weapon fitted for 
 attack; as, to l)iin;r a weapon to tlic charge. 
 
 2. In Heraldry, the ligurcs represented on a shield 
 are called charges, and a shield with tigvncs upon it 
 is ssiid to be charged. The charges in a shield ought ' 
 to be few in number, and strongly marked, both as 
 regards their character and the mode of their repre- 
 sentation. The family shield, Ix-longing to the head 
 of the house, almost always is simpler, i.e., has fewer 
 charges, than the shields of collaterals, or even of 
 junior members. See //naldri/. 
 
 3. Ill military pyrotechuy, a sufficient coml)Usti- 
 ble material for one tiring or one discharge. It is 
 applicable to all kinds of firings, fire-works, antl 
 explosions; but the name is genendly given to the 
 quantity of gunpowder requisite for firing off a gun, 
 etc. In cannon this varies greatly, from 1 to ,'j of 
 the weight of the shot; some of the rified ordnance 
 now ct)ming into use are remarkable for the small- 
 ness of the charge with which they are fired. The 
 quota of charges will be mentioned in connection 
 with the various kinds of fire-arms described in the 
 Encyclopedia. In breaching a wall, a greater charge 
 is neeessiiry thiin in attacking a ship or a column of 
 troops, even with the siune kind of gim and projec- 
 tile. The charge has to be duly proportioned to the 
 strength of the piece and the cajiacity of the liore to 
 burn it with profit. The strength of a heavy gun, as 
 reckoned on the principle of all the metal being 
 sound and so placed as to call its resistance well into 
 play, should not lie less than about four times the 
 strain expected. If the projectile start as in a muzzle- 
 loader, without otfering much resistance beyond that 
 due to inertia, it is necessary ti) emi^loy a powder 
 which shall burn (|uickly enough to give off a large 
 proportion of its gas before the shot has proceeded 
 far down the boie; otherwise the velocity at the nuiz- 
 zle will be low. In this ca.se a large :imount of air- 
 space is requireil. In the case of compression-pro- 
 jectiles, however, there is a high resistance to initial 
 motion, and a much slower powder can be used, 
 since the combustion proceeds as in a closed vessel 
 until sufficient pressure is developed to overcome the 
 resistance of the band. This enables the use of a 
 larger quantity of slower-burning powder in the 
 chamber, and we have instead of a space fille<l with 
 air a space filled with powder giving off gas, which 
 conies into play as the projectile travels down the 
 bore. 
 
 4. The statement of the crime for which an officer 
 or .soldier is brought before a Court-Martial. As to 
 the perspicuity and iireeision of charges: If the de- 
 scription of the offense is sufficiently clear to inform 
 the accused of the military offense for which he is to 
 be tried, and to enable hiiii to prepare his defence, it 
 is sufficient. A copy of charges, as Avell as a list of 
 ■witnesses for the prosecution, should be given to the 
 prisoner in all cases as soon as possible. Antecedent 
 to arraignment, charges may be framed and altered 
 by the party who brings forward the jirosecution, or 
 by the officer ordering the Court, both in regard to 
 substance .and in other respects; but the Court, where 
 the deviation w:is material, would probably deem it 
 sufficient cause for delaying proceedings upon appli 
 cation of the prisoner. As the witnesses niaj- be at a 
 distance, the sooner a copy is given the better. 
 
 ^. In military warfare, a charge is a sudden and 
 impetuous attack on the enemy, by horse or foot, or 
 both. Its object usually is to drive the enemy from 
 a particular position; but if made with a much 
 stronger force, it may result in his actual destruc- 
 tion. Charges arc generally made silently. Those of 
 Frederick the Great always began the " hurrah" at 
 fifty paces from the enemy. If at the moment of the 
 shock the infantry is not disturbed, but their bayonets 
 and fire have on the contrary saved them from the 
 impulsive force of the charge, the fall of the front 
 ranks of the cavalry will have interposed a rampart 
 
 behind which infantry cannot fail to be victorious. 
 But if the cavalry has practiced the stratagem of lie- 
 ginning operations by drawing the fire of iufantrj- 
 upon skirmishers, and the Commander of the cavaliy 
 ready for the charge has pushed forward curtains of 
 light cavalry in a single rank, who succeed, by means 
 of clouds of dust, in making an luiskillful 'nfaniry 
 believe that to lie an attack which in reality is only a 
 feint, the infantry may fire its balls at random; the 
 thinness of the curtain of light cavalry will render 
 the infantry's fire of little effect; the infantry will lie 
 ea.irer to reloail, and this may be done in agitation and 
 disorder. The projier moment is then at hand, and 
 the heavy cavalry in mass, concealed by the dust of 
 their .skirmishers, may charge, break, and sjiber the 
 infantry. The light cavalry- finish the fugitives. 
 The pa.s.sage of defiles in retreat ought to be secured 
 by a charge of cavalry. Coolness, silence, immobil- 
 ity, contempt of hurrahs, and a reserved fire until 
 within suitable range, are the principal means of 
 resisting a charge of cavalry. The file-closers must 
 prevent firing, not ordered;" watch the execution of 
 the fire by ranks; see that it does not commence at 
 too great a distance, then enjoin upon the soldiers to 
 aim at the breast; to act only upon signals of the 
 drum, or at the command of officers on horseliack, 
 who occupy the center of the square, and who from 
 that height alone can judge whether the charge of 
 cavalry is a mere feint or a real attack. This neces- 
 sarv' impassibility of infantry is obtained by disci- 
 pline and experience, and is only perfected upon bat- 
 tle-fields. Without mug froid, and also promptness 
 in maneuvering upon any ground, infantry will not 
 be able to exhibit the whole strength of its arm 
 against the best cavalry. Charges by infantrj- are 
 made in order of battle, in column of attack, and in 
 close columns in mass. Charges in order of battle 
 arc executed as follows: If the combat is between in- 
 fantiy and infantry, the troops receiving the charge 
 fire at the moment at w hich it is almost joined with 
 the enemy. The tmops making the charge fire at 
 one hundred or one hundred t\m\ twenty paces from 
 the enemy; without waiting to reload, they march 
 fonvard at the quick sleii; at two thirds the distance 
 take charging step, and if the ground peniiits they 
 subsequently take a lunning step, keeiiing up the 
 touch of the elbow, and throw themsi'lves upon the 
 enemy with hun-ahs. Frederick the Great says that 
 it is "better for a Hi-.e to falter in a charge than to 
 lose the touch of the elbow," so ncccssarj" is it that 
 the charge shtadd be en muraille. In modern wars 
 the charge in column has been used, but not exclu- 
 sively, and sometimes with fatal results. But what- 
 ever may be the form of the charge, succes-s must not 
 make the victor at once pursue his enemy. He must, 
 on tie contrary, halt, rally his men, form line if the 
 charge was made in column, reload, fire upon the 
 fugitives, and continue thus to gain giouud, by a 
 regulated fire, until at last the cavalry which seconds 
 him comes to his aid. It must be considered that 
 there may be a second line of the enemy, fresh 
 troops, masked batteries, flank fires, or squaclrons of 
 cavalry ready to oppose an unforeseen resistance. It 
 may be that the attacking party has experienced 
 some disadvantage, \w\ far from the point where the 
 infantry h;is just tritimphcd in the charge. Such cir- 
 cumstances may cause the infantry to pay dearly for 
 its temporary success, a temixiniry .success sometimes 
 owing to stnilagem on the part of the eneniv. 
 
 CHAEGE BAYONET.— A command in tlie Manual 
 of Arms, executed as follows: The Instructor com- 
 mands — 1. Charge. 2. Bayonet. Execute the first 
 motion of about fwe, the left knee slightly bent, drop 
 the piece into the left hand, at the lower band, the 
 elbow against the body, the point of the bayonet at 
 the height of the chin, the right band gra.sping the 
 small ot the stock and supjiorling it firmly agjiinst 
 the right hip, the Ixidv inclining slightly forward. 
 1. Carry, 2. Ak.ms. liesume the carry" with the 
 right hajid, at the same time facing to the front.
 
 CUASG£B. 
 
 340 
 
 CHARLIER SYSTEM OF HORSESHOEING. 
 
 (Two.) Drop tbe left hand bv the side. See Manual 
 
 if Aniit, Fiv'. 7. 
 
 CHARGER.— 1. A name sometimes given to a war- 
 liorsc accustonud to the diu of Imtlles, and relialilc 
 undiT liri'uinstaiuis of confu.<ii>ii and danircr. In 
 the Middli' Ajrc's, wlii'u armor was usod and irunpow- 
 der unknown, the inililarv horses were btirbtd or 
 txirtltil wlien ridden liy nien-atarms — that is, thev 
 wen- nearly covered wiili armor. The face, the head, 
 and llie ears wen- eoven-d willi a mask caUed a <•/«(«■ 
 friiii, to prevent friirht when eliar-riu^ llie enemy; 
 and an iron spike projected fmm the middle of the 
 forehead. The neck was defended by small plates 
 called i*r(«/V AVI/ the liieasl by a jmitriiinl ; and the 
 buttwks and haunches by croupiirts. The.se various 
 Iiii-ces of annor were mostly made of metal, hut 
 sometimes of touirh leather. The horse was occa- 
 sionally covered with chain-mail; and in other instan- 
 ces with a gaiiiUmi) of stuffed and quilted cloth. 
 The man-at-arms generally rode another horse when 
 not chargiui,', to relieve tbe cliarjrer from his great 
 burden. The barbed or ^7;-(/< horse received its name 
 from im old French word implying covered, clothed, 
 or armed. A war-horse is still called a charger, 
 though not armed as in ancient times. 
 
 2. A device for dropping into the bore of a fowling- 
 piece from a shot-belt or pouch a gauged quantity of 
 shot. By forcing down the ]Munger, the communica- 
 tion with the pouch is closed, and the charge is al- 
 lowed to pass to the tube, which conduct.s it to the 
 gun. The piston-head is adjustable, to vary the ca 
 ])aclly of the charge-chamber. 
 
 CHARGER - PITS.— Shelter-pits to cover the charges 
 of mounted ollicers when exposed to the enemy's fire. 
 They may Xv excavated parallel to and 20 paces in 
 rear of lines of shelter-trenches. 
 
 OH ARGING-HOLE.— Formerly the French made 
 their shells for sea-coast service with an additional 
 eve, at an angle of 45 with the other, called a 
 rharffinghole. the oI)ject being to have the fuse 
 already fitted in, ready for tise, and allow the charge 
 to Ix" ixmred in just l)e-fore the shell is wanted. This 
 ari^mgement, however, has the di.s;idvantage of rc- 
 (piiring the fuses to be cut beforehand and without 
 knowing at what distance they are to be used. 
 
 CHARGING MACHINE.— A machine employed in 
 the fabrication of carlriilge-primers. The one used 
 at Frankford Arsenal, and represented in the draw- 
 ing, consists of a rectangular iron bed-i)late 18 X 20 
 inches. At one edge is a groove to receive the plate 
 of caps from the cooler. Near the inner edge of 
 
 this groove a plate perforated with holes correspond- 
 ing to the caps is hinged to the bed plate, to measure 
 and convey the charges to the caps. A licap of the 
 fulminate is placed upon the l)ed-plate, convenii lU to 
 the charge plate. A piece of stout i)aper is laid upon 
 the beil-plate, imder the charge-plate. A portion of 
 the fulminate is taken from the heap, pressed into 
 
 the holes in the charge-phite, and the surplus scraped 
 off with a wooden tool and returned to the heap. 
 The paper is drawn a little from under the charge- 
 ]ilate, while pressing upon the latter, to " s<-l" the 
 charges in the holes. The charge-plate is rotated on 
 its hinge until it rests over the caps. A block of iron 
 containing pins corresponding to the holes in the 
 charge-plate is hinged to the bed-plate at the outer 
 side of the groove containing the )ilale of caps. 
 When not in use it rests against inclined supports. 
 This block is next rotated on its hinge until it presses 
 the charges through the holes in t'.ie cliarge-plaleinto 
 the cap. The bK)ck and charge-plate are swung back 
 and the plate of caps withdrawn and carried to the 
 foiling-ma<hine. The charge, of cylindrical form, 
 occupies about one third the diameter in the center of 
 the bottom of the cap, and it is desirable to avoid 
 spreading or disturbing it, in order that the tinfoil 
 disk may touch and adhere to the cap all around it. 
 See Carlridin-prinur and Center-primal Mitallk-C4ii!C 
 Ctirtr'uhje. 
 
 CHARIOT. — In ancient times, a kind of carnage 
 used either for plejisure or in war. According to the 
 Greeks, it was invented by Jlinerva; while Virgil 
 ascribes the honor to Erichthonius, a mythical king of 
 Athens, who is said to have appeared at the Panathc- 
 naic festival founded by him, in a car drawn by iour 
 horses. The ancient chariot had only two wheels,, 
 which revolved upon the axle, as in modern car- 
 riages. The pole was fixed at its lower extremity to 
 the axle, and at the other end was attached to the 
 yoke, eitlier by a pin or by ropes. The Greeks and 
 Romans seem n(-ver to have used more than one pole, 
 but the Lydians bad carriages with two or three. In 
 general, tiie (-harlot was drawn by two horses. Such 
 was the Koman higa, but we also read of a triga, or 
 three-horse chariot, and a quiuiriga, or four-horse 
 one. The last was that in which the Roman Gener- 
 als rode during their triumphal entrance into the city, 
 and was often adorned with splendid art. The war- 
 chariot held two persons — the soldier himself and the 
 driver, the latter of whom usually occupied the front; 
 but the cli:iriots used by the Romans in their public 
 games held only the charioteer. The oldest war- 
 cliariots of which we read are those of Pharaoh (Ex- 
 odus xiv. 7). All the Eastern Nations used them, while 
 we learn from I'tesar that the Britons also were famil- 
 iar with their use. 
 
 CHARLIER SYSTEM OF HORSESHOEING.— The 
 reform in farriery caused by the revolution which 
 followed the introduction of the OoodenoUL'h system 
 has been fertile in new plans and expedients to avoid 
 the clumsy old methods, and to evade the patents 
 with whieli Mr. Goodcnough protected his machine- 
 made slK)e in all the patent-granting world. In this 
 country the Goodenougli shoe is furnished at a lower 
 price than the liand-made shoe, and it is infinitely 
 su]icrior to tbe common machine shoe, which is at 
 best but a rough clump of bent iron, requiring as 
 much labor ujxin lh(- an\il to adapt it to tbe hoof us 
 woidd be exiiended in making a well shaped shoe 
 from the iron bar. Bui in England and France, where 
 labor is cheaper than it is in the United Stjites, the 
 evasion of the Goodenougli patents has been eagerly 
 sought. In France, Mr. C.'harlier, wishing to patent 
 his own plans, which were very ingenious, and to 
 adapt the (Joodenough teaching to the smooth asphal- 
 tum pavemeiit.s of Paris, invented the shoe bearing 
 his name. Mr. Charlier recognizes the fact that the 
 old .system of hcavv shoeing is irrational and destruc- 
 tive; that all the (iiscases of the hoof, and many of 
 the other dillicullies to which the horse is subject, 
 come directly from it. He desins to abrogate entirely 
 the use of the Ihree-ealked shoes and widc-webl)cd 
 shoes, and to secure the full bearing of the frog of 
 the hoof upon the ground. Mr. Cbarlier's method of 
 shoeing is U) dress the horse's fool, so that standing 
 upon it he rests equally upon the shell and frog; then 
 a groove is cut around the outer circle of the hoof, 
 about as deep as the thickness of a light horseshoe.
 
 CHASE. 
 
 341 
 
 CHASSEPOT EIFLE. 
 
 and an iron band is let into this proove and secured 
 by nails. In etfecl, a lijilit and very narrow shoe is 
 sunk into the crust of the hoof. All shock of con- 
 cussion comes upon the frog and the outer wall of 
 the hoof, though with a full frog bearing such con- 
 cussion would be light and immaterial. Tliis, then, 
 appears to be a natural and simjile method of saving 
 the hoof from breaking at the edge and from wearing 
 too low at the toe, which is the only object of horse- 
 shoeing. But in practice we come upon difficulties 
 that often destroy the best spun theories. The idea 
 of Mr. Charlier is to provide an iron rim, or fernde, 
 to the hoof such as saves the point of a walking-stick 
 from wear. But the shoe cannot have the strength 
 of a ferrule because it is not put on to encircle the 
 hoof, but only reaches to the heels. It is not applied 
 to a dead or inert substance, but to a living, growing 
 process, and, however well fitted to it.s groove, in a 
 few days it has of necessity changed its place. So 
 soon as the least displacement exists it is liable to 
 twist and spread. Another serious difficullj' is found 
 in the lack of skill among horseshoers to apply it 
 properly. In France two men are required, one to 
 hold the foot, another to gauge, and then, with .special 
 tools, to cut the groove for the shoe. When a shoe is 
 lost, or displaced on the roatl, a serious embarra.ss- 
 ment is felt, because the groove-cut hoof is unsuitable 
 to travel on, and only the instructed smith is compe- 
 tent to do the work of fitting, The ex]>en.se, in this 
 countrj- of dear labor, is no insignificant argument 
 against the Charlier .shoe. See Horseshoeing. 
 
 CHASE. — In gunnery, the conical part of the gun 
 in front of the reinforce. In a smooth-bore gun it is 
 comprised between the front of the second reinforce- 
 ring and the muzzle astragal and fillets; or, perhaps, 
 to put it in more comprehensive terms, the greater 
 portion of the gun between the muzzle and the trun- 
 nion. The term is applicable to rifled guns as well. 
 
 CHASE RING.— In gunnery, a band at the front end 
 of the chase. See ('niintm. 
 
 CHASING. — The art of working raised or half-raised 
 figures in gold, silver, bronze, or other metal. It was 
 
 front, and takes a perpendicular of i. The faces of 
 the bastions are bent lines; the salient part, 70 yards 
 long, is traced on the front line, and the long branch 
 is IBO yards in extent. The flanks are per])endicular 
 to the line of defense, and defend (he long branches, 
 whilst the short ones, already secure against ricochet 
 by their direction, are flanked by a caponiere, which 
 occupies the place of the early ravelin. The flanks 
 are parallel to the perpendicular. The main ditch is 
 20 yards wide at the salient, and its counter-scarp is 
 directed on the shoulder-angle of the cajjoniere. The 
 tenaille is similar to that of Bousmard, and the case- 
 niiites are constructed for three guns. The reduils 
 are ea-semated polygonal redoubts. Although tlu; 
 revetments are quite high, both the ravelin and the 
 reduit are liable to be taken by the gorge. 
 
 CHASSEPOT EIFLE.— The Cha.ssepo"t rifle was in- 
 troduced into the French service shortly after the 
 Austro-Prussian War of 1866. In its principal features 
 it resembled the Prussian needle-gun, inji-smuch as the 
 breech was closed with a sliding bolt, and it fired a 
 sclf-prinied paper-case cartridge which was ignited by 
 a needle impelled by a spiral spring. Unlike the 
 needle-gun, however, it was provided with a gas- 
 check, which was of the form of a thick India-rubber 
 disk or packing, attached to the end of the breech, 
 bolt, and it posses,sed the modem improvements of 
 reduced caliber and rapid twist of the rifle-grooves 
 for obtjiining great range and accuracy of fire. The 
 range of the Chas.sepot rifle was, and is now, com- 
 paratively greater than the accuracy of the flight of 
 its projectile, a fact thiit undoubtedly arises from the 
 great weight of the powder-charge in proportion to 
 that of the projectile and a want of proper adjastmenl 
 of the twist, etc. , of the rifling to the velocity of flight. 
 In the French service a low trajectory has ever been 
 considered of greater importance than accuracy of 
 flight, especially in line firing. The Chassepot was 
 the principal arm used by the French army during 
 the German War. Since that time efforts have been 
 made to adapt it to fire the modern metallic-case car- 
 tridge. The plan of alteration to this end adopted by 
 
 Chassepot Rifle. 
 
 called ro'l-atiirn by the Roman..;; and the term is ex- 
 pressly limited by Quintilian to working in metal. 
 The same art when exerci.«ed on wood, ivorj", marble, 
 precious stones, or glass was called srnlptiirn. Iron 
 was sometimes though rarely used, silver having been 
 always the favorite metal for this imrpose. Closely 
 connected with, but still distinguished from, chasing 
 is the art of stamping with the p\nich. which the 
 Romans designated by e.rnideri'. The Greek torentike 
 is usually sup|)0sed to correspond to cliasing, hut the 
 point is by no means free from dispute. The art was 
 known at a very early period, as may be inferred from 
 the shield of Achilles, the ark of Cypsclus. and other 
 productions of the kind. 
 
 CHASSELOUP BASTION SYSTEM.— This method of 
 fortification is a combination of Bousniard's and 
 Montalembert's systems. It gives .580 yards to the 
 
 the French authorities is that submitted by Captain 
 Gras of the French Artillery Committee. In conse- 
 quence of the great opposition offered to the altered 
 arms by officers of the army who have had them in 
 their commands, it is understood but little progress 
 was at first made in the manufacture of new rifles or 
 altering the old Chassepot rifles to the Gras system. 
 The Gras system of alteration consist.s, 1st, in reaming 
 out the old paper-cartridge chamber and inserting 
 in its place a bushing of steel in which a chamber is 
 formed of suitable shape for the metallic cartridge; 
 2d, re])laeing the India-rubber ga.s-cheek and its at- 
 tachments by a nose-piece, to which a cartridge shell 
 extractor-hook is attached; 3d, replacing the firing- 
 needle with a stout firing-pin or bolt; 4th, removing 
 the friction-roller in the base of the thumb piece and 
 replacinsr it with the firing-pin nut; .5th, changing
 
 CHASSEUBS. 
 
 342 
 
 CHASSEURS D'AFRIftUE. 
 
 the form of the lotking-nolchcs and the side groove 
 iif the iKxly of the bivefh-l)olt. 
 
 The bretfhfniine t)r receiver, H. is secured at its 
 fmiil end by serewiiii" on to the biirri'l, and at tlie 
 rrur end by the tang-serew kf, which penetrates 
 ihron^rh tlie f^uanl plate on the under side of tlic stocli. 
 Tlie luvechboll, Iv, is coniposiHl of a IkkIv in tlie 
 form of a stout tulx", with a handle attached to one 
 side, for the pur|)ose of workiriLC it. The hollow of 
 the Unly contains the lirinji-pin and its spind sprini:, 
 and has a nosepiei-c to which the cartridjreshell ex- 
 tnicloris attached. A slot is cut in the up|K>r surface 
 of the receiver through its entire leiisrth. The handle 
 works in ihe rear portion of this slot, while the for- 
 ward iKirtion is eidar^ed by cullini; down the riiilit 
 wall of the ri-ceiver to furnish a shoulder for the biusi' 
 of the handle to rest air.iinst when the bolt is locked 
 and the piece is ready for tirinir. On the siile and 
 bottom of the body of the breech-bolt are two lonjr 
 trroovcs of rcctanirJlar cross-section. The object of 
 the sijii-al direction of the side groove at its rear end 
 is to force the handle into the cut of the receiver be- ' 
 fore the face of the nose-piece presses ajrainst the cjtr- 
 tridp;c head, and thereby prevent the bolt from Hying 
 backward in case of a premature explosion of the 
 cartridge. The groove on the under side of the body 
 is for the nose of the scar to play in without pressing 
 on and impeding the motion of the I)olt. The tiring- 
 pin, p, is made of steel. The body of the pin, whicli 
 is enveloped by the spiral mainspring .shown by the j 
 rows of smiUl circles above and Ih-Iow it, is circular 
 in cross-section. The collar, c, olTcrs a shoulder for 
 the mainspring to press against. The portion of the 
 ]>in immediately in front of the collar is oval in cro.ss- 
 seclion, corresponding to tlic hole in the no.se-piece, 
 tBrougb which this portion of the pin [masses. This 
 form of the pin prevents it from turning in the nose- 
 piece when Ihe bolt is locked and uidoeked, and 
 regidatfts the motion of the thumb-piece relatively to 
 the breech-bolt. The nose-piece is attached to the 
 front end of the breech-bolt by means of a projection. 
 A cylindrical projection on the no.se-piecc also tils 
 into a corrcsixmding recess in the forward end of the 
 bolt. A conlinuation of the groove on the side of the 
 lx)lt receives the point of a screw which serves as a 
 stop to the bolt when pulled backward, and also to 
 prevent the nose-piece from turning in the receiver 
 when the bolt is locked. The under side of the nose- 
 piece has a continuation of the groove in the bolt for 
 the nose of the .sear. A cut extends through the 
 upper portion of the nose-piece to receive and hold 
 the e.xtractor-hook, which is comi)osed of two 
 bnuiehes, the lower one of which has a hook which 
 lakes hold of the rim of the cartridge. Its body has 
 a certain elaslieitv which allows it to i)a.ss over the 
 rim of Ihe cartridge, while its hold on the rim is se- 
 cured by the inclined surface of the cut e made in the 
 receiver, into which the extractor fits. It also serves 
 to keep the extractor in place in the nose-piece. The 
 nut which secures the thumb-piece to the tiring-pin 
 has a milled head and a T-shaped groove in it, which 
 tits on to the head of Ihe tiring-pin" The pressure of 
 the mainspring on the pin prevents the nut from com- 
 ing o(T by keeping il in its recess in the thumb-piece. 
 The nose of Ihe thumb-piece tils into a correspoudin" 
 notch of the rear end of the body of the breecir- 
 lH)lt when the tiring-i)in is pushid fonvard against the 
 uirl ridge-head and the boll is Icjcked. There is also 
 a slight notch in which Ihe nose rests to give the handle 
 sleadiiiess when in Ihe vertical imsition. When the 
 tlring-|)in is drawn back to the full-cock position the 
 lr)\ver comer of Ihe tliunib-piccc ri-.sts against the nose 
 of the sear. At half-cock the nose of Ihe sear rest.s 
 in a notch, lioMing Ihe point of the tiring-pin at a sjife 
 distance from Ihe priming of the cartridge. Another 
 notch receives the nose of the sear when the point of 
 the tiring-pin impinges on the liejid of the cartridge. 
 The upper portion of the thumb-piece is cutaway and 
 its surface checked to give a good hold to the thumb 
 and lingers in manipulation. The sc-ar, itf, is attached 
 
 to the under side of the receiver by two small screws. 
 The smaller .screw acts as a kecixjr to the larger. The 
 boily of the sear is a fiat spring, so set as to cause the 
 sear to protrude through a cut in the receiver and en- 
 gage the notches of the thumb-piece. The trigger, 
 ad, is a lever of the first order, and is attached to the 
 sear by a joint-pin, ('. Pressure on the finger-piece of 
 the trigger depresses the no.se of the sear, the roiuuled 
 pari of the trigger acting as a fulcrum against the 
 under sitle of the leceiver. The cartridge-case adopted 
 for the altered Cha-ssepot ritle is (irawn out of 
 shect-bni-ss in the usual way; the head is strengthened 
 after the Ilotchkiss plan, and it has the outsidc'primcr 
 of Berdan. The bullet is solid and without cannel- 
 ures, and weighs 386 grains; Ihe powder-charge is 
 81 grains, and there is a lul)rieating-wad of the usual 
 form between the powder and the projectile. The 
 length of the bore, including the chamber, is 32.28 
 inches; the length of the complete ann, without .salx-r- 
 l)ayonel, is .50.8 inches, anil with the bayonet it is 
 about 72.0 inches. The weight with the bayonet is 
 10.3 pounds; without the l)ayonet, 8.9 pounds. The 
 grooves are fovn- in n\nnl)er, and of a width equal to 
 that of the lands; the depth of the grooves is 0.0118 
 inch; the twist is one turn in 21.6 inches, and is from 
 right to left instead of from left to right, according to 
 the usual practice. The pull on the trigger is thought 
 to disturb the aim by carrying the muzzle of the arm 
 slightly to the right; the object of groo\ing the barrel 
 to the left is to correct this distiubancc bv the drift 
 wiiich follows the direction of the twist. The initial 
 velocity is slated to be -420 meters (about 1377 feet), 
 and the eiteetive range extends to 1700 yards, about 
 one mile. The rapidity of fire is 15 times per minute. 
 See Maimer liiflt and Snxill-anns. 
 
 CHASSEURS. — A name used for two important 
 forces in the French army. The mounted Chas.scurs 
 {0/ia.iseiirs-(i-cli<jaf) are a body of light cavalry, de- 
 signed for serWee in advance or on the flanks of the 
 army, and con-espond most nearly to the Light Horse 
 of the British service. The name is fii-st used in this 
 .sense in 1741, and has been retained while the force 
 it denotes has undergone many alterations in organi- 
 zation and equipment. In 1831 a body of cavalry 
 was raised for service in Africa, mounted on Arab 
 horses, and with a distinc't uniform. These have 
 since become famous as the 0/iati«eiirs d'Afrif/iie. 
 After the reorganization of the French arm}- in 1873 
 the effective army contained 14 regiments (subse- 
 quently increased to 20) of Chasseurs-ii-cheval, besides 
 4 regiments of Chasseurs d'Afrique. — The infantry 
 Chasseurs (C/i(ij<«ciirii-i}-pu'd) are a light-infantry force 
 in many respects corrcsponciing with the cavalry Chas- 
 seui-s, and like them intended lor detached service 
 (like the Rifle Corps in the English army). The 
 French are believed to have adopted the idea of such 
 a force of Sharp-shooters from the .f'if/cr (Ihe German 
 word corresponding to Chasseurs, or //'n*^<v.«) in Ihe 
 German armies. First used in the Thirty Years' 
 War, the .Jilger derived their name from the fact that 
 they were chiefly drafted from amongst moun- 
 taineers and inhabitants of forest regions. Tliey 
 have always been regarded as a valuable contingent 
 in the Prussian and Austrian armies, or even consti- 
 tute the entire force of liglit infantry. In the Ger- 
 man army there are 26 battalions (near 15, OCX) men) 
 of this force; in Ihe Austrian service, upwards of 
 20,000 ollicei-s and men. In France the equipment 
 of the Chas-seurs dilTcred little from that of the other 
 infantry; it was nol until the formation, in 1838, of 
 the ChaHsenrs de Vinreniifs that the experiment of a 
 sjiecially armed force of Sliari)-shootei's was fairly 
 tried. The faine of the Chasseurs de Vincennes for 
 rapidity and |)recision of movement, as well es for the 
 accuracy of their fire, soon vindicated Ihe inqiortanee 
 of this branch of the infanlry; and at present there 
 are 30 battalions of Cbasseurs-ii-pied in the French 
 armv. 
 
 CHASSEURS D'AFRIQUE.— The four regiments of 
 cavalry, mounted on Arab liorses, and ndsed for tlic>
 
 CHASSIS. 
 
 343 
 
 CH£MIN S£S BONDES. 
 
 purpose of warfare in Algeria. Tlicy took part, liow- ' 
 ever, in the Franco-Prus.sian War of 1870-71 , and also 
 in the Crimea, where one of tlie regiments, the 
 "Fourth," distinguished itself by supporting the I 
 chiirge of the light cavalrj- at Balalilava. 
 
 CHASSIS. — The cha-ssis is the movable railway on 
 which the lop-carriage moves to and from battery. 
 It is composed of two wTought-iron rails inclined 
 three degrees to the horizon, and united by transoms, 
 as iu the top-carriage. In addition to the transoms, 
 there are several diagonal braces, to give stiffness to 
 the chassis. For the 10-iuch gun and all smaller car- 
 riages the chassis-rails are single beams of rolled 
 iron, 1.') inches deep; for all calibers above, the mils 
 are l/uilt tip of long rect;xngular pieces of boiler-plate 
 and T-iron, in a manner similar to that of the checks 
 of the top-ciirriage. The chas.sis is supported by 
 travene-wheeh, which allow of its having a horizontal 
 motion, for the purpose of giving the piece a proper 
 direction when aiming. The traverse-wheels roll on 
 circular bars of iron resting on a bed of masonry 
 or wood. The pintle is an upright journal, arf>und 
 which the chiis-sis traverses. It is a stout cylinder of 
 wroiight-iron, inserted in and firmly fastened to a 
 block of stone called the pintk-bloek. The auler-pin- 
 tie eiirriage. is one in which the chassis is attached to 
 the pintle at its middle, and revolves around it 
 through the entire circumference of the circle. The 
 traverse-circles are consequently continuous. By 
 this arrangement a much greater horizontal field of 
 tire is secured. The front-pintle carriuye is one in 
 which the chassis is attached to the pintle by its 
 front transom ; the traverse-circles are segments of 
 circles. The pintle-key is a stout key of iron passing 
 through the pintle, to prevent the chassis from jump- 
 ing oil' when the piece is discharged. The pintle is 
 suiTounded by a plate firmly bolted to the block ; 
 this plate is called the pintle-plnte, or frieti'm-plnte. 
 The hurters and mi/nter-/iuiicrs arc flat pieces of iron 
 l>olted, the first to the front and the latter to the rear 
 part of the cha.ssis rails, to check the motion of the 
 top-carriage when the piece is run in bittt^'ri/, and 
 when it recoils upon being fired. In cariiages of 
 improved model tJie hurters and counter-hurters are 
 stout buffers of gutta-percha, which, absorbing the 
 shock, prevent racking of the carriage. The guides 
 are stout claws of iron bolted to the cheeks of the 
 top-carriage, and, catching under the flanges of the 
 cha.ssis-rails, prevent the carriage from slipping or 
 jumping off. Through the chas.sis, immediately 
 over the pintle, runs an eccentric axle, carrj'ing upon 
 each end a truck-wheel. This axle and wliecls are 
 for the purpose of thro\\"ing the cha.ssis in near, thus 
 raising the pintle-transom from the friction-plate and 
 allowing the carriage to Ix; traversed with freedom. 
 It is prescribed that the chassis shall be out of giar 
 when the piece is fired. This, however, is not neces- 
 sary, and the omission of it when firing saves much 
 tinie and labor. The lighter cla.ss of Ciirriages are 
 without the arrangement just described. In the im- 
 proved pattern of carnages the axle and truck-wheels 
 above mentioned are replaced by two stout rollers at- 
 tached to bolsters on the front end of the chiussis. 
 These rollers move upon the friction-plate, and give 
 finn support and easy motion to the chassis. Case- 
 mate- carriages differ from barbette-carriages in being \ 
 much lower, but their mode of construction is es.sen- ' 
 tially the same. The pintle is placed immediately 
 under the throat of the embrasure, and the cha.ssis is 
 connected to it by a bar of iron called the tungiie. 
 For the 10-inch smooth-bore and all Ix'low that cali- 
 ber, recoil is checked simply by the inclination of the 
 cha.s.sis-rails and the sliding friction thereon of the 
 top-carriage. To increa.se this friction, the cha.ssis- 
 rails should be sjinded with sand free from pebbles. 
 See Giin-rarriagen. I 
 
 CHATJCI. — An important tribe of ancient Germany. ! 
 who dwelt between the Elbe and the Ems. Tacitus 
 records tliat they were conspicuous for their love of j 
 peace and justice, being powerful but not ambitious, I 
 
 ready to resist aggression, but never provoking war 
 They finally merged into the wider designation of 
 
 Saxons. 
 
 CHAUFRON. — Ma.sked armor which covered the 
 face, the head, and the ears of milit;iry horses during 
 the Middle Ages, to prevent the horses taking fright 
 when chanring the encmv. 
 
 CHAUSSES.— In the aimor of the Middle Ages, 
 defense-pieces for the legs. Some were made 
 of padded and quilted cloth, with metal studs; .some 
 of chain-mail; some of riveted plates; and .some of 
 banded mail. It was not unusual to fasten them by 
 lacing behind the leg. See Armor. 
 
 CHAUVINISME.— "Chauvin" was the name of the 
 principal character in a French comedy which was 
 played with immense success at the time of the Res- 
 toration. He represented a bragging veteran of the 
 Empire, who was continually talking of his achieve- 
 ments at Austerlitz and .lena, and his determination 
 to lake a brilliant revenge for Waterloo. Since then 
 a 6'//«««'H(i<< has come to mean a man who has ex- 
 travagant and narrow-minded notions of patriotism, 
 and corresponding enmity towards foreign peoples. 
 
 CHECK-HOOK. — A device in hoisting and lowering 
 apparatus, designed to stop the motion of the wheel 
 over which the rope rims if the machinery becomes 
 unmanageable. On the pidley are hooks which fly 
 out by the centrifugal force when the speed l>ecomes 
 e.xce&sive, and engage stop-pins which arrest the rota- 
 tion of the pulley and the descent of the cage. 2. 
 A hook on a saddle for the attachment of the bearing- 
 rein. 
 
 CHECK-NUT. — A nut of frequent occurrence in the 
 construction of artillery-carriages, the elevating-gears, 
 etc. See Lock- nut. 
 
 CHECK-EEIN.— The branch-rein which connects the 
 driving-rein of one horse to the bit of the other. In 
 double lines the left rein passes to the near-side bit- 
 ring of the near horse, and a <7Hr/-line proc'eeds from 
 the said left rein to the near bit-ring of the off horse. 
 The right dri\ing-rein passes directly to the off bit- 
 ring of the off horse, and has a check-rein which con 
 nects with the off bit-ring of the near horse. The 
 horses of the Egyptian chariots had check-reins. 
 
 CHECK-ROPES.— Strong ropes employed to dimin- 
 ish recoil by increasing the frictional resistances. 
 They are usually made fast to the lunette and felloes 
 of the wheels just in rear of the working spokes. 
 They prevent the wheels from turning iu recoil, and 
 thus increase the friction. 
 
 CHECKY.— In Heraldry, when the field or any 
 charge is composed of small squares of different 
 tinctures, generally metal and color, it is said to be 
 cheeky. See IleraJdry. 
 
 CHEEKS.— The sides of a gun-carriage in which the 
 trunnions of the gun sit. The term " cheeks" is also 
 applied in fortification to the interior facing of an 
 embrasure. Sec Embrasure and Giin-cnrriaffh. 
 
 CHELONE. — In militarj' antiquity, the form of bat- 
 tle ado|)ted by the Greeks in besieging fortified towns. 
 It served to protect the besiegers in their approach to 
 the walls. This invention was formed by the soldiers 
 placing their shields over their heads, in a sloping 
 position, similar to the tiles of a house. The first 
 rank stood erect, the second stooped !i little, the third 
 still more, and the last rank knelt. They were thus 
 protected from the missile weapons of the foe, as they 
 advanced or stood under the walls of an enemy. The 
 chelone was similar to the tivtiido of the Romans. 
 
 CHEISEA HOSPITAL.— An edifice built on the 
 banks of the Thames, which was originally lx;gun by 
 .lames I., and intended as a college for a certain 
 number of learned di%-ines. The luifinished build- 
 ings were afterwards completed, and finally convert- 
 ed by Charles II. into a hospital for non-commis- 
 sioned officers and privates who were wounded or 
 maimed in the service, and has remained to the pres 
 ent day a refuge for worn-out or wovmded soldiers, 
 who are termed " In-pensioners." 
 
 CHEMIN DES RONDES.— In fortification, a benn
 
 CH£MIS£. 
 
 344 
 
 CHEVRON. 
 
 usually 4 to 12 ftft broiul iit the foot of the exterior 
 slope of the HiinifK't. It is sometimes ]>roteiteii by ii 
 i|iiickset hiil.ire (in India actietus hedge). Iml in more 
 modern works by » low wall, built ou the top of the 
 revetment, through whieh (the wall lieius; loop- 
 holed) and over whieh the defenders ean lire and 
 throw hand gnnades into the diteh. 
 
 CH£MIS£!— In metliieval fortitiaition, an additional 
 escarp or ix>unler guard wall, covering the lower part 
 of the cstarp. 
 
 CHXNAPPAN.— An old musket, invented in the lat- 
 ter part of the sixteiiilh (x'ntury. The name c/itiiaj>- 
 paii w:us also given in Fnmee to robbers who used 
 this new weajKin. as also to the Spanish bandit.s of 
 the Pyrenits who were enrolled under Louis XIII. 
 The name was also applied to the Barlx'ts of the Alps, 
 the last niunanis of the unhai>i)y Vaudois, who were 
 toreed !>)• religious intolenince to l)ecome marauders. 
 
 CHESSES.— -The planking or flooring-boards of a 
 |X)nton-bridge. In cylindrical pontons the boards 
 are fastened to the liaulks l)y means of cleat.s, but in 
 the present - pattern pontons without cleats. Each 
 che-ss consists of Ihrei' planks. Ilalf-che.sse.s, con.sist- 
 ing of a single plank, are used for that part of the 
 floor which is imniediatelv over the saddle of the 
 ponton. 
 
 CHEST. — A technical name for the monej' and ne- 
 gotiable securitic.1 carried with an army, and intended 
 to defray the current expenses. In the Knglish mili- 
 tary system this Department is managed by the Com- 
 missariat. 
 
 CHEVALET. — A sort of bell-tent fonnerly used in 
 the French service when an army encamped. It re- 
 sembled in st)me degree-s the Indian wigwam. 
 
 CHEVALIER. — A horseman or knight. A member 
 of certain orders of knighthood. In Heraldry, a horse- 
 m,<ui armed at all points. 
 
 CHEVADX-DE-FRISE.— In fortification, a hastily- 
 constructed substit\ite for a regular abatis, to stay 
 the progress of an advancing enemy. It may be con- 
 structed in any way of wood or iron, provided it 
 presents an array of sharj) or ragged points towards 
 the enemy. Sometimes it is made of barrels or cen- 
 ters of timber, with spears springing out from all 
 side-s, in such a way as to constitute both a support 
 and a defense. Among the matt rid of an army under 
 the care of the Engineei-s are sometimes comprised 
 chevau.N-dc-frise formed of cylindrical iron barrels, 
 about (5 feet long, each having 12 holes to receive 
 !is many spears; the spears can be packed away in the 
 barrel when not in use. Each such piece constitutes 
 a cheml ; and many such, ranged end to end, form 
 clietauj, to be used in ditches around a fortification 
 
 111111111'™"" 
 
 ^iTtf' 
 
 Ctie»aux-(Ii?-frlse. 
 
 on the bcrm Ixnealh the paraix't, l)ehind the glacis, 
 across a breach in the rampart, or in any spot where 
 a check to the storming parly is nec<led. "At Badajoz, 
 during the Peninsular War, great service was ren- 
 dered by a clievaux-d<--frisc formed of sword-blades 
 tlxed into Ix-ams of wood. The name is s;iiil (o have 
 been derived from •' Fiicvhind horse." and to have 
 Ix-en tirst applied by the Kniicli during the wars of 
 the scvent<-enth century. The dniwin^' shows the 
 common form of cheval-ilefrist', consisting of a hor- 
 izontal piece of scantling of a ,s(|uare or hexagonal 
 form, termed the body, almul 9 feet hmg, which is 
 perforated by holes 2 inches in diameter and 5 inches 
 
 apart ; round staffs, 10 feet long and 2 inches in di- 
 ameler, termed Itmcai, sho<l witli iron points, and in- 
 .serted into the body, so as to project eciually from it. 
 At one end of the btxly a ring ami chain are attached, 
 at the other a hook and cliain, for the purj)osi of at- 
 taching se'vend together, forming a chevaux-dc-frisc. 
 The stjuarc is the best form for the Ijody; it requires 
 only Ti-inch scantling, w hereas the hexagon will re- 
 quire 12 inch timber. See Acassory Means of Defence. 
 
 CHEVET. — A small wedge which is used in raising 
 a mortar. It is placed Ix'tweeu the frame and swell 
 of the mortar. 
 
 CHEVRETTE. — An engine for raising guns or mor- 
 tars into their carriages ; also used in mechanical 
 manemers. 
 
 CHEVRON. — 1. In Heraldry, an ordinarj- repre- 
 .senting the rafters of a house, and sup]x)sed to be- 
 token the accomplishment of some memorable work, 
 or the completion of some business of importance, 
 generally the foundation of his own family by the 
 lieaier. The che\Ton is formed of two lines plac'ed 
 pyramidically, i.e., joinetl together at the top, and 
 descending to the extremities of the shield in the form 
 
 Clievron. 
 
 Chevronei. Per Chevron. 
 
 of a pair of compas.ses. Chetronel, a diminutive — 
 half the size — of the che\Ton. Per eherron, or party 
 per rherron, is where the .shield is diviiled by a line 
 in the form of the che^Ton. 
 
 2. The rank of non-commis,sioncd officers is marked 
 by chevrons upon both sleeves of the unifonn coat 
 and overcoat, above the elbow. The chevrons are of 
 cloth of the sjime color as the facings of the uniform 
 coat, and divided into bars a half-inch wide by black 
 silk stitching, except for Engineers, which is white 
 stitching and piped with while, points down; and 
 Infantry, which is dark blue, according to patterns in 
 the Quartermaster General's Office, as follows: 
 
 For a Sergeant Major, three bars and an arc; for a 
 Quartennaster Sergeant, three bars and a tie of three 
 bars; for a Principal Musician, three bars and a 
 bugle; for an Ordnance Sergeant, three bars and a 
 star; for a C'ommissijry Sergeant, three bare and a 
 crescent (jioints front) of Siime color as clievron and 
 above it; for a Hospital Steward, a half chevron of 
 emerald-green cloth If inch wide, piped with yel- 
 low cloth, running obliquel}' downward from the 
 outer to the inner seam of the sleeve, and at an 
 angle of about thirty degi'ees with a horizontal, and 
 in the center a "caduceus " two inches long, the head 
 toward the outer .seam of the sleeve; for a First 
 Sergeant, three bars and a lozenge; for a Hattalion 
 or Com|)any Quartermaster Sergeant, three bars ami 
 a tie of one bar; for a Sergeant, three bars; for a 
 Corporal, two bars; for a Pioneer, two crossed 
 hatchets, of cloth, same color and materials as the 
 facings of the uniform coat, sewed on each sleeve, 
 above the elbow, in the place indicated for a chevron 
 (those of a Corjioral being just above and resting on 
 the chevron), the head of the hatchet ujiward, its 
 edge outward, of the following dimensions, viz.: han- 
 dle, 4J inches long, ^ to i of an inch wide: hatchet 2 
 inches long, 1 inch wide at the edge. For Enlisted 
 Men of the Signal Corps, cros.sed signal-flags, red 
 and white, on dark blue cloth: size of flags, j of an 
 inch square; length of staff. 34 inches. This device is 
 worn by the Non-commissioned Oflicers above the 
 chevrons; l>y Privates of the First Class on both 
 arms, and by Privates of the Second Class on the left 
 arm only, in the same position as the chevron of 
 Non-commissioned ( )fficers. 
 
 All Non-commissioned Officers, Musicians, and Pri-
 
 CHICANE. 
 
 345 
 
 CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER. 
 
 vates who serve faithf uUt for one term of enlistment 
 wear, a.f a mark of distinction, upon botli sleeves of the 
 uniform coat, below the elbow, a diagonal half-chev- 
 ron, 1 inch wide, extending from seam to -sc^am, the 
 front end nearest the cuff and i inch above the point 
 of the cuff, of the same color as the edging on the 
 coat. In like manner an additional half chevron, 
 above and parallel to the lirst, is worn for ever}' 
 subsequent term of enlistment and faithful service. 
 The distance between each chevron is i of an inch. 
 
 The stripe indicative of War Service is white for 
 all arms of the ser\'ice or Corps. This stripe is known 
 and designated as the " War Stripe," and is worn by 
 enlisted men on the uniform coal as .soon as the riglit 
 to wear it has Ijcen earned. All soldiers who, r'uring 
 the War of the Rebellion, were in the Volunteer ser 
 vice are entitled to wear the War Stripe, provided 
 they served in one or more campaigns in the tield. 
 
 a .sei)arate portion. Oii a chief is when the object is 
 represented on the chief divided off as above de- 
 scribed. See Heraldry. 
 
 CHIEF OF DETACHMENT.— The senior non-com- 
 mis.sioned othcer of a gun detachment. When in 
 line, he is on the right of the front rank of his de- 
 tachment. When, by facing about, the front becomes 
 the rear rank, he does not change to the other flank, 
 but steps forward into the rear (now become the front) 
 rank. When in column of tiles, he is as if he had 
 faced with his detachment from line. 
 
 CHIEF OF ENGINEERS.— An officer of the army 
 with the rank of Brigadier General, who has his 
 headquarters at the .seat of Government, and is 
 charged, imder the direction of the Secretjiry of War, 
 with the command of the Engineer Department, in- 
 cluding its Bureau, and with the regulation of the 
 duties of the officers and troops of the Corps of JBngi- 
 
 Sergeant Major. 
 
 Quartermaster Sergeant. 
 
 Sergeant. 
 
 Corporal. 
 
 Ordnance Sergeant. 
 
 When, in addition to a War Stripe, an enlisted man 
 is entitled to a Service Chevron, each edge of the 
 latter is l)ound or faced by the former; and when, in 
 addition to a War Stripe, an enlisted man is entitled 
 to two or more Service Che\Tons, they are separated 
 by the ^^'ar Stripe and the outer edge of each outside 
 chevron is also tound or faced by the War Stripe. 
 W^hen worn in conjunction with the Service Chevron 
 the War Stripe will be 4r of an inch wide; when worn 
 by itself its ^\idth will be the same as that of a Service 
 C'hovron. vi/., i of an inch. War and Service Chev- 
 rons are issued without charge. 
 
 In the British service, the Corponds and the va- 
 rious grades of Sergeant have che\Tous \ arying from 
 one to four in number, either of white or of gold lace. 
 In most Corps they are worn on the right arm onl\-; 
 Viut in the Guards, the Fusiliers, the Light Infantry, 
 and Ihe Grenadiei- and Light Infantry compiuiies of 
 the ordinary regiments, on both arms. 
 
 CHICANE. — To dispute every foot of ground by 
 taking advantage of natund inequalities, etc. 
 
 CHIEF. — 1. The head or leader of anj- band or 
 community; a commander. 2. In IleraldiT, an ordi- 
 narj' formed by a horizontal line, and occupying the 
 upjier part of the escutcheon. Like the 
 [H^ other honorable ordinaries, the chief 
 ought properly to take up a third part 
 of the shield: but when the other 
 charges are numerous, the chief is fre- , 
 quently diminished in size. Any object 
 iHirne in the upper or chief paii of the ' 
 Chief. shield is sjiid to be in chief, though the 
 chief be not divided off from the rest of the field, lus I 
 
 neers, as well as of all agents and others who may be 
 employed under his direction within the limits of his 
 Department. See ('<ir]isi of EiKjiiirerH. 
 
 CHIEF OF ORDNANCE.— An officer with the rank 
 of Brigadier General who. imder the Secretary of 
 War, is, by law, charged with the administration and 
 government of the Ordnance Department. By virtue 
 of this authority he gives such orders and directions 
 to its officers, .soldiei-s, and emploj'es as the necessities 
 of the Ordnance service demand. He is also charged 
 with Ihe examination and settlement of the property 
 accountability of all officers or other persons in the 
 military establishment to whom Ordnance and Ord- 
 nance Stores are intrusted. The purchases and con- 
 tracts for cannon, projectiles, powder, small-arms, 
 and accouterments are made or specially onlered by 
 the Chief of Ordnance, under the direction of the 
 Sccretarv of War. See Ordnance Carp». 
 
 CHIEF OF THE STAFF.— An officer who ranks 
 next to the (Jeneral tuider whose orders he is .serving, 
 anil is appointed to relieve the Commander-in-Chief 
 of an army of an immense amoimt of detail work, 
 and to harmonize the action of Ihe several Depart- 
 ments. Such an officer is appointed in foreign armies. 
 The question was rai.sed, .so far back as 1812, in Eng 
 land, whether a Chief of the Staff should be added to 
 the Stiiff of the Commander-in-Chief. During the 
 C'rimean War, and subsetiuenlly in India during the 
 Mutiny, an officer of this nuik was ap|M)inted. In 
 the United Stales, the Senior Staff Officer of a Gen- 
 eral is usuallv desiirnated as the Chief of Staff. 
 
 CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER.— An officer of the army, 
 with the rank of Brigadier General, who is charged.
 
 CHIEFTAIN. 
 
 346 
 
 CHINOOK. 
 
 under the direction of the Sccretarj- of War, with the 
 general Signal Service of the army; with the custody 
 of all records aii<l apparatus connected tbcrcwitb; 
 with the oiuipiiii'iit and nianairement of tield-tele- 
 jiniphs usi^il with active forces in the ticld; with con- 
 slrucliug and openitinjr lines of military telegraph; 
 with maintaining siiruiU stations at light-houses and 
 at life-siiving stations, and with the observations and 
 reiMats nnuireti by law. 
 
 CHIEFTAIN.— A Captiun, Leailer, or Commander; 
 a Chief; the head of a triKip, army, or elan. 
 
 CHILIAKCHIi:.— The fourth of a Phalanx. The 
 (Jemeiitarv tactical combinations of the Greeks were 
 metluHlical. hut \ery simple. An Anny Corps was 
 c<im|M)sedof a Tttniji/niltiiigareliiu, or Grand Phalanx, 
 an Epitiitima of !S192 psih>i. and an Epitagraa of cav- 
 alrj- of 4096 men. The Tetraphalangiirchia=4 Pha- 
 l!inxes=16 C/(iVi<ir<7i(''» =t)4 Syntagmata = a56 Tetrar- 
 chi«=1024 Lochoi or files=409() Enomitiw of four 
 men each. 
 
 CHILL. — A piece of iron introduced into a mold so 
 as to rapidly cool the surface of molten metal which 
 comes in contact therewith. Cast-iron, like steel, is 
 hardened by rapid cooling, and softened by the pro- 
 longiition of the cooling i>rocess. The (yctreme in the 
 former direction gives ehilkd iron the hardness of 
 hardcnetl steel; tlie extreme in the diri-ction o£ sofl- 
 nt-ss is obtained l\v prolonging the heat, abstracting 
 the airtwn from the cast-iron, reducing it to a nearly 
 pure crvslallini- iron. See Drmize Gnns. 
 
 CHILLED PROJECTILES.— Chilled-iron projectiles 
 have been profitably employed to pierce armor-plates, 
 on account of their intense hardness. The English 
 projectiles reconinicndetl by Major Palliser may be 
 described as an example of a chilled projectile. The 
 form of these is cylindro<onoidal, the head being 
 ogival, struck with a radius of \\ diameters. The 
 total length varies between 2 and 2J calibers. The 
 Ixjttom is flat, and in the center of the bottom is a 
 tilling-hole for shells, closed with a composition 
 screw-plug. All Palliser shells are lackered inter- 
 nally to give them a smooth, clean lining, which pre- 
 vents the iron from either oxiilizing at the expense of 
 the powder, or tiring it from friction by rapid rotation 
 during flight. As the lacker does not always hold 
 well to the metal, serge bags are introduced to contain 
 the bursting-charge as an additional prevention 
 against premature explosion. These bags are made 
 bottle-shaped, and are introduced through the tilling- 
 hole. Palliser shot are cored. The hollow up the 
 center enables them to cool more uniformly, and ren- 
 ders them less liable to split. It also slightly improves 
 • its proportions and its regularity of flight. The bot- 
 tom is closi-d with a plug. These i)rojectiles are made 
 of carefully selected iron, which, if run in s,and-mold^, 
 would solidify as mottled iron. The projectiles are 
 cast jKjint down, for thesjike of density and soundness 
 in the head. The mold is formed of a metal chill at 
 the bottom extending u|) past the junction of lieail and 
 body; the remainder of the mold is formed of sand, 
 as also is the case for the formation of the interior. 
 The chilling action therefore extends a little past the 
 head of the projectile, which thus has a mottled body 
 and a while head. The Griison projectiles are ca.st 
 with a dead-head on the ba.se, which is afterwards cut 
 off, the object being to obtain a solid bottom to stand 
 well under the shock of the discharge. The chilling 
 is effected by the metal molds, in virtue of their great 
 conducting-power, their thickne-ss greatly affecting 
 the extent of their action. The head thus chUled 
 white pos.sesses generally the quality of white iron, 
 intense har<lncss, crushiiig-sirenglh, consi(lcnil)le brit- 
 tleness, and incrcitscil density. The tip or ])oint of a 
 (hilled projectile is o<(asioii:dlv broken off by the im- 
 pact of a shell or shot rolled or struck obliquely 
 against it; for the point which may penetrate directly 
 through many Inches of annor without injury may 
 tx; fractured by a verj- slight transverse blow'. See 
 PrnjirliliH and SUti ProjeHUo. 
 
 CHILL HARDENINO.—A mode of tempering steel 
 
 cutting-instruments, by exposing the re<l-hot metal to 
 
 a blast of cold air. 
 
 CHILLINOWORTH BAYONET.— The peculiarity of 
 the essenlial feature of this invention, viz., the handle, 
 consists in its affording a more convenient grasp for 
 the hand in digging, or in using it as a side-arm, than 
 does the ordinary bayonet-socket, without materially 
 increa-sing its weight or losing the advantages of a 
 secure fastening when it is lixed as a pike upon the 
 gun. To secure this, besides the general sha|K' of its 
 profile, a shoulder is formed on tlie rearmost portion 
 of the handle. To it is fitted a short sleeve, along the 
 liorc of which is cut a deep groove, intended to admit 
 the bayonet-stud. When in fixing the bayonet on the 
 musket the bayonet-stud strikes the shoulder, its lon- 
 gitudinal motion is arrested until the handle is turned 
 
 so that the square notch comes opposite to and receives 
 the bayonet-stud; bj- then turning back the sleeve to 
 its original position the bayonet is locked in place. 
 By pushing back the pin through the bayonet-stud 
 groove, the sleeve may be rotated until the stud which 
 confines it comes opposite to the outlet of the internal 
 circumferential groove in which ft travels, when the 
 sleeve may be slipped off. A catch-pin is kept in place 
 bj' a transverse wire, and is pressed outward by a 
 spiral spring. The blade and handle of the bayonet 
 arc forged in one piece. The curved neck of the 
 handle is intended to be used its a muzzle-rest in firing, 
 the point of the bayonet being then forced into the 
 ground. See Bayonet. 
 
 CHIME. — The end of a tub or barrel. All powder- 
 barrels are ordered to be rolled on the chime as being 
 the safest mode of mo\ing powder either in maga- 
 zines or mill-houses. 
 
 CHINESE CAPSTAN.— A differential hoisting or 
 hauling de\-ice, having a vertical axis, and therein 
 only ditferiug from the differenikd windlass. 
 
 CHINESE CROSS-BOW. — An ancient form of cross- 
 bow, fitted with a case which turned on the stock by 
 means of a lever moved hy the wrist, and which fur- 
 nished twenty arrows in succession, like our modem 
 revolvers. 
 
 CHINESE FIRE.— A pyrotechnic composition con- 
 sisting of gunpowder, 16 parts; niter, 8 parts; char- 
 coal, 'i parts; sulphur, 3 parts; and cast-iron borings 
 (small), 10 parts. See P>iro(echny. 
 
 CHINESE WHITE.— The white oxide of zinc has 
 recently been introduced into the arts, under this 
 name, as a pigment in place of the preparations of 
 white-lead. It changes very little either by atmos 
 pheric action or by mixing with other pigments; but 
 it has not the bodv of white-lead. 
 
 CHINESE WINDLASS.— A differential windla.ss in 
 which the cord winds off one part of the barrel and 
 on to the other, the amount of absolute lift being 
 governed by the difference in the diameters of the 
 respective portions. It is a good contrivance in the 
 respect that great power may be attained without 
 making the axle so small as to be too weak for its 
 work. See Chinese Capsliin. 
 
 CHINOOK.— The number of words constituting the 
 Janjitii ))ropcr does not exceed six hundred, and 
 many of these are already obsolete or confined to cer- 
 tain limited localities. Not more than two hundred 
 words of the G/iinook Litiigiiage proper are used in 
 theJar(/on, the balance coming from the Cree. Che- 
 halis, Yakima, Klickitat, and various other Indian 
 languages. In the Chinook Jargon the same word
 
 CHINOOK. 
 
 347 
 
 CHINOOK. 
 
 is frequently used as a noun, verb, etc., and generally 
 has ditferent meanings, according to the context; as, 
 lo-U> (meaning whole, to earn, earnings, to cany and 
 to conquer). Besides the words purely Indian, there 
 are many derived from the Canadian French, and the 
 following English words of easy pronunciation: 
 comb, Juiul, hook, house, lazy, man, musket, nose, mil, 
 salt, ship, shoes, shot, sick, skin, smoke, soap, spoon, 
 stick, stone, Sunday, tea, and iriml. The following 
 are veiy common expressions: Ab-ha, well then; 
 Al-ah, expressing suqirise; Au-ah, expressing pain; 
 Kiceesh, an obstinate refusal. The Chinook Jargon is 
 thoroughly understood by all Indians of the North- 
 west, and it is l)elieved that a studv of the following 
 vocabulary, taken from Farrow's Mottntain Scout- 
 ing, will enable any one to converse with any of the 
 tribes. A great deal will depend upon the expression 
 and gestures of the speaker, and experience only can 
 •teach him to intelligently say the most while using 
 the fewest words. 
 
 Jargon Vocabulary. Englisk^Chinook, 
 
 Above, silh-a-le. 
 
 Absolve, mam-ook stoh. 
 
 Acorns, kih-na-way. 
 
 Across, in-a-tl. 
 
 Afraid, kwash. 
 
 After, kim-tah. 
 
 Agaiu (a. so, more), weght. 
 
 Ague, col^-sick. 
 
 Anl (admiraciou) wih. 
 
 Ah (in pain I. &-nab. 
 
 Alike, cock qua. 
 
 All, kon-away. 
 
 Almost, wake-si&h. 
 
 Alms (to give), mam-ook kla- 
 
 how-i-am. 
 Alone, copet-ict. 
 Although, kegh-ti-chie. 
 Alwsjrs, kw4-ne-sum. 
 American, Boston man. 
 Amusement, he6-hee. 
 
 And (then, besides, or) pee. 
 
 Angel, tA-mAn-^-wis. 
 
 Angrv, soUux. 
 
 Another, hul-o-ima. 
 
 Apple, le pome. 
 
 Apron, ki-see. 
 
 Arbutus, lahb. 
 
 Arm. le mah. 
 
 Arrive at. ko. 
 
 Arrow. kali-Il-tan. 
 
 As, kock-wi. 
 
 As if, kilh-kw a, spose. 
 
 Ascend, cI4t-Aw4 s&h-a-Ie. 
 
 Ash-tree, is ick-stick. 
 
 Ask (to). wi-wi. 
 
 At, k6-pa. 
 
 Aunt, kwalli. 
 
 Autumn, ten-as cole ilU-he. 
 
 Aw], shoes keep-wot. 
 
 Axe, la hash. 
 
 B 
 
 Back, kimp-t&. 
 
 Bab. me-sa-chie. 
 
 Bad odor. humm. 
 
 Bad Spirit, m&-s&-cbi tam&n- 
 
 &-wis. 
 Bag, le silk. 
 Ball, col-li-ton. 
 Bargain, ma-kook. 
 Bark, stick-skin. 
 Barrel, ta-mo-Htsh. 
 Basket. <!i-pekwan. 
 Be still, cul-tas mit-Iite. 
 Beads, kA-ino-suck. 
 Bear (to), chet-woot. 
 Bear, its-hoot. 
 Beard, cha-pootch-us. 
 Beat (to), kok-shet. 
 Beaver, ce-naa. 
 Because, keh-wa. 
 Become (to), cha-ko. 
 Before, e-lip. 
 Behind, kim-ta. 
 Bell, tin-tin. 
 Belly, ya-kwah-tin. 
 Below, ke^kwil-lie. 
 Belt, lasan-jel. 
 Berries, o-lil-lie. 
 Best, e-lip klosh. 
 Beyond, ten-As si-ah. 
 Big. hy-as. 
 Bird. kal-lak-a-Ia. 
 Biscuit. )a bis-ke. 
 Bitter, klihl. 
 Black, klale. 
 
 Blackberries, kllk-a-muks. 
 Blanket, pa-see-sie. 
 Blind. ba-Io see-&-host. 
 Blood, pil pil. 
 Blow, puk-puk. 
 Blow out. niam-ook-poh. 
 Blue Uijrht shade), spd-oh. 
 Blue (dark shadei, klale. 
 Blunder (to), tsee-pie. 
 Bob-tailed, sis-ki-you. 
 
 Boil (to), lip-lip. 
 
 Bone, stone. 
 
 Boots, stick shoes. 
 
 Bore a hole (to), mam-ook thl4 
 
 whop. 
 Borrow (tot. a-yah-whul. 
 Both, kon-a-moxt. 
 Bottle, la-boo-ti. 
 Bow (of a boat), nose. 
 Bow (to shoot with), stick 
 
 musket. 
 Bow. o-pitl-kegh. 
 Bowl, oos-kan. 
 Box, la ca-sett. 
 Boy. ten-as man. 
 Bracelet, klik-wal-lie. 
 Brass, pel chick-a-min. 
 Brave, sko6-kum tum-tum. 
 Bread, piasa-pa-lil(san-de-liA). 
 Break. Kok-shet. 
 Breast, to-toosh'. 
 Bridle, la bleed. 
 Bright, te-wagh. 
 Bring (to), in^m-ook chdrco. 
 Broad, kluk ulh'. 
 Broken, cha-cluck. 
 Brother, kAp-ho. if older than 
 
 the .'Speaker; ow. if younger. 
 Brother-in-law, ek-keh. 
 Brook, ten-As chuck. 
 Broom, bloom. 
 Bucket. ta-m(*i-litsh. 
 Buffalo, moos-moos. 
 Bullet, le bal, or ke-li-li-tao. 
 Bundle, kow. 
 Bum I to), mam-ook pia. 
 Biscuit. la-Hisque. 
 But. pee. 
 
 Butter, to-toosh-la-klees'. 
 Button, chil chll. 
 Buttons, tsil-tsil. 
 Buy (to), mah-kook. 
 By, co-pa. 
 By-and-by, win-a-pie. 
 
 Cabbage, cabbage. 
 Call (to). wA-wa. 
 Calf, ten-aa moos-moos. 
 Calm (a), ha-Io wind. 
 
 Candle, la shan-<lel. 
 Canoe, ca-nim. 
 Cap. se-ah pult. 
 Capsize, kiI-&-pie. 
 
 Carrot. la-ca-lat. 
 Carry (to), lolo. 
 Cart, tsik-a tsik. 
 Cascade, tuniwa-ter. 
 Cask, ta-mo litch. 
 Cat. puss-puss. 
 Cataract, tuin wa-ter. 
 Cattle, moos rnoos. 
 Cedar, lt\ med-clne stick. 
 Cellar, ket-wil-ia. 
 Certainly, na-wit k^. 
 Chain, cnick-il-raia lope. 
 Chair, la shase. 
 Change (to), huy-huy. 
 Cheat (to). Itl-lah. 
 Chicken, la pool. 
 Chief, ty-e^. 
 Child, ten-a.s man. 
 Chilly, ten-as cole. 
 Chimney, la-shum-ma-na. 
 Circle, que-u-que-u. 
 Clams, o-na (emet-oks). 
 Clear, klah. 
 Clock, hy-as watch. 
 Cloth (dark I, its-hoot. 
 Clouds, smoek. 
 Coat, ca-po. 
 Coffee, kau-py. 
 Cold, cole. 
 Color, 'tsum. 
 Come on. by-ak. 
 
 Come (to). chtVco. 
 
 Come here, ch&-co yockwa 
 
 (ne-whAh). 
 Command (to), w4-wa. 
 Conceal, ipsoot. 
 Conjuring, ta-jna-na-wis. 
 Conquer itoi.lolo. 
 Cook, mam-ook muck-amuck. 
 Cool (to) mam-ook cole. 
 Copper, pil chick-Amin. 
 Cord, ten-as lo-pe. 
 Com, ye-salth. 
 Corral, kul lagh. 
 Cotton goods, sail. 
 Cough, hoh-hoh. 
 Count (to), mam'Ook kwtin- 
 
 nun. L 
 
 Cow, clooch-man moos-moo* 
 Country, il-la-ht*. 
 Coyote, tal-a-pus. 
 Crab apple, pow-itsh. 
 Cranberry, so-le-mie. 
 Crazy, pelton. 
 Cream-colored, la clem. 
 Crooked. ky-wA. 
 Cross. \k cloa. 
 Crow. cAw-ciw. 
 Cry (to), cly. 
 Cup, oos-kan. 
 Curly, hunl kih. 
 Cut (to), tl-ko-pe. 
 
 f D 
 
 Dance, tanse. Dirty, pot-tie il-la-he. 
 Dark, poiaklie. Dish, os-cuu (plural la pli). 
 Daughter, ni-ka ten-as clooch- Dive (in water), clAt-a-wA keg- 
 willy chuck. 
 
 man 
 Day (this), o-kook sun. 
 Daybreak, ten-as sun. 
 Dead, mem-A-loos. 
 Deaf, ikpooie kwil-lan. 
 Dear, hy-as mA kook. 
 Deep, klip. 
 Deer, mow-itsh. 
 Demon, skoo-kum 
 
 Do (to), mam-ook. 
 Doctor, doc-tin. 
 Dogs, kam-ooks. 
 Dollar, dol-la. 
 Door, la pd-te. 
 Down stream, mi-mie. 
 Drink, mam ook chuck. 
 Drive (to), kishkish. 
 
 Desert (to sneak off), swal-lA Drunk, pot-tie lum. 
 
 clat A-wA c&p. Drj', sun (dly). 
 
 Devil, (leaub. Duck, kul-lak-a-la. 
 
 Different, kull. Duck (Mallard), hahthuht. 
 
 Dig (to), mam-ook ll-l. Dust, poMaMie. 
 
 Eagle, chak-chak. 
 Ear, kwolann. 
 Early, teu-as sim. 
 Earn, lo-Io. 
 Earth, il-la-he. 
 Eat Uo), muck-a-muck. 
 Egg. la sap. 
 Elk. moo-luck. 
 Embrace, ba-ba. 
 Empty, ha-lo mit-lite. 
 Enclosure, kul-ldgh. 
 End, o-boot. 
 
 Face, see-a-host. 
 
 Fa<le (to), chaco spo-ak. 
 
 Faded, spo-oh. 
 
 Falsehood, klim in-a-whit. 
 
 Falsify (tot, cla-mana-whit. 
 
 Far. si ah. 
 
 Far off. sy-Ah. 
 
 Fast (quick), hy-ak. 
 
 Fast (tight), kwutl. 
 
 Fasten (tot, kow. 
 
 Fat. glease. 
 
 Fat (to), hy-As gleece. 
 
 Father, pa-pa. 
 
 Fathom, it-lan (eth-Iow). 
 
 Fear, kwass. 
 
 Feet. lA pe-A. 
 
 Fell (to), mam-ook-whim., 
 
 Fence, kul-lagh. 
 
 Fetch, mam-ook cha-ko. 
 
 Fever, waum sick. 
 
 Few. ten-as. 
 
 Field, klosh il lahe. 
 
 Fight (to), mam-ook sol-lux. 
 
 Fight (with fists), mani-ookFox, tA-Ia-pos 
 
 Enemy, me-sa-chie til-Ia-cums. 
 Englishman (woman). King 
 
 (^awge man (clootch-man). 
 Enlartre, hy-as mam-ook. 
 Enough, hy-u, or co-pet. 
 Entrails, ki-yah. 
 Evening, ten-as polak-lie. 
 Every. kon-a-wA. 
 Exchange, huy-huy. 
 Extinguish, mam-ook mem-a- 
 
 loos (poh). 
 Eyes, see-a host. 
 
 Fingers, le doo. 
 
 Fire, pi-a. 
 
 First, e-lip. 
 
 Fish, pish (sa-mon). 
 
 Fish-hook, ik-kik. 
 
 Flag, Sun-day. 
 
 Flea, en-e-poo. 
 
 Flesh, il-wil-lie. 
 
 Flies, le moose. 
 
 Flint, kil-it sut. 
 
 Flour, sap-o-lil. 
 
 Flowers, klosh tip-so. 
 
 Fly (to), ka-wak. 
 
 Fog. smoke. 
 
 Food, muck-a-muck. 
 
 Foot, le-pee. 
 
 For what, pe-co-tu. 
 
 Forever, kwah-ne-sum. 
 
 Forenoon, dlipsit-cum sun. 
 
 Forget, copet eumtux (mah- 
 
 lie.) 
 Fork, la poo-shet. 
 Formerly, an-kot-tie. 
 
 puk-puk. 
 Figure<I. tzum. 
 File, la-leem. 
 Fill (to), mam-ook pahtl. 
 Find (to) klap. 
 Finished, co-pet. 
 
 Gallop (to), kwa lal kwa-lal. 
 Gamble (to\ itli-el-coom. 
 Gather (to), ko-ko-mulh. 
 Get (to), is-kum. 
 
 Frenchman, pa si-ooks. 
 Friend, six. 
 
 Frog. swAh-kuk. — 
 
 Fry (to), mam-ook la po-el. 
 Frying-pan, lA po-el. 
 Full, pahtl. 
 
 Get out. mash. 
 Get up. ket-op. 
 Gltost. skoo-kum. 
 Gift, cultus poC-lotch.
 
 CHINOOK. 
 
 348 
 
 CHINOOK. 
 
 Oirl. t«Mia8 oloochmau. 
 
 Give (tot. i>ot-laloh. 
 
 QliuJ. kwi\i'iii. 
 
 Glass, she-lookum. 
 
 Go, clal-a wli. 
 
 Go to iM-d.olftt-a-wA moo-sum. 
 
 God. Sii lui-lii* lyf**. 
 
 <;oM, pti c))ick-a-inin. 
 
 Q004I, klosh. 
 
 Goo<l bv(', kIa-ho\v-i am. 
 
 GooiIh, ic-tas. 
 
 Goose. k&l-tUc (^-Itili. 
 
 Grandfather, ehope. 
 Grandmother, chitz. 
 Gra»M. ti|>-8o. 
 GreH.sf. jfleese. 
 Grnat. hy-ft.<*. 
 Great iiirtiiy, hy u. 
 Oreeii. pe-fhugh. 
 Grry. If-K'ey. 
 (.irizzly hear. se-iXm. 
 Ground, il-la-he. 
 Giiin-wood. It\ goora-stick. 
 GuD. suk-wal-lal. 
 
 Hail, cole-snass. 
 
 ^air, yak-so. 
 
 TI«lf. siicum. 
 
 Hallo, iiah. 
 
 Hammer, leniah-to. 
 
 Hand. l4*-inah. 
 
 Hiuid -»faine oft. it'lo-cum. 
 
 Han.lkerohief, kak-at-c-hum. 
 
 Han<l!^>nie, hy-as klosh. 
 
 Hard. kull. 
 
 Hure, kwit-shad ie. 
 
 Harrow ito), 
 
 il-Ia-he. 
 Hat. se-ah-po. 
 Haz»*l nuts, tuk-wit-la. 
 Hetshe. it. his, etc.i. yak ka 
 Head, la tet. 
 Heart, lum-tnin. 
 Heaven. stVhA-Iie il lA-he. 
 Help <t0', mam-ook e-lao. 
 
 1 (me, my. or mine), nl-kit. 
 Ice, cole chuck. 
 If (Suppose), spose. 
 In, ko-pi\. 
 Indian, 8i-wash. 
 
 Jqalous, sick tum-tum. 
 Joke (to), mam-ook ItUi l&h. 
 
 Kamass root. lil k&-mas. 
 
 Keep off ito». maht-lin-nie. 
 
 Kettle, ket-ling. 
 
 Key. In kley. 
 
 Kick itoi. chuck-kin. 
 
 H 
 Hell, ket wlt-l& pl&-hyaa. 
 Hen, la pool. 
 Here, yock-wa. 
 Hide. skin. 
 Hide Ito). ip-800t. 
 High, sil-ha-lie. 
 Hit ito>. kwulh. 
 Hoe, lA-pe osh. 
 Hog, CO sho. 
 Hole, kla-wop. 
 Holiday, Sunday. 
 
 mam-ook comb Horn, stone. 
 
 Hoi-se, cii-i-tan. 
 
 How. kil»-Uh. 
 How larger koD-si-ah. 
 How manyy kon-se-A. 
 Hundred, tuk-a-mo-nuk. 
 Hungry, o-lo, 
 Hnrry, hy-i\k. 
 Husband, man. 
 
 I 
 
 Indian corn, e-salth. 
 In shore, maht-wil-lie. 
 Iron, chick-a-min. 
 Island, ten-iis il-la-he. 
 It (this, that), o-cook. 
 
 Joy, u-atle. 
 Jump (to), sd-pe-na. 
 
 K 
 
 Kiss, be-be. 
 Knife, <)-pic-sah. 
 Knock (to). k6k0. 
 Knotty, huulkih. 
 Know (to), cum-tux. 
 
 Kill (to). mam-ook mim-a-loos. Know (uot to), wake cum-tux. 
 
 Lad. ten-as man. 
 
 Lame, klook te-h& wit. 
 
 Lamprfv eel. skw&k-wul. 
 
 Land. il-la-Jit'-. 
 
 Land oiter. in-a mock*:. 
 
 Language. It\ ItVig. 
 
 I^rge. hyas. 
 
 La^t 'hindermost), kimpta. 
 
 I^itelv. ten-^ an-cot-ti\. 
 
 I^tugnter. hee-hee, 
 
 I.^an (tot. siVpe-na. 
 
 Lear, tip so. 
 
 I.<ean (to), lagh. 
 
 I^ave 't4>). mahsh. 
 
 Leave off aoi. ko-pet. 
 
 Leg, te-ah-wit. 
 
 Leggings, mi-tos (sa-kol-eks). 
 
 Lend 'to». a-yah-wuhl. 
 
 Length, yontlkut. 
 
 Lick >toi, kla-wun. 
 
 Lie (to), kla-man-a-wit. 
 
 Lift (to), mamook sa-ha-Ie. 
 Light (not heavy), wake-till. 
 Light (daylight), sun or twA, 
 
 (not dark), na wA. 
 Lightning, sa-ha-le pi-k. 
 Like, ka-kwa. 
 Like (to), tik-egh. 
 Listen (to), ne-whi. 
 Little, ten-as. 
 Live (to), mit-lite. 
 Lic(uor. Uim. 
 Lung while ago, 14-lee. 
 Long, youtl-kiit. 
 I^ong ago, an-cot-tie. 
 Look, nan-itch. 
 Looking glass, she lockum. 
 Loose, stoh. 
 
 Lose the way (to), tso-lo. 
 Lost. mash. 
 Love (to), tick-egli. 
 Lower, uiam-ook-keg-wil-le. 
 
 Mad. sol-lux. 
 
 3Iagic. t& m&ntk-wjks. 
 
 Malceitoi. mamook. 
 
 Many. hy-u. 
 
 Mark, tHum. 
 
 Mark 'to), mam-ook tsum. 
 
 Marry (Ui), ma-li-egh. 
 
 MaaH I ceremony of 1, la mess. 
 
 Majit, ship stick. 
 
 Mat. klis kwiM. 
 
 Maltwk, la peosh 
 
 Measure (to), ta nim. 
 
 Meat, iil-wil-lie. 
 
 Me'iicine. Ii\ med-sln. 
 
 Men. ttllicums. 
 
 Mend (to I. mam-ook tip-shin. 
 
 Met^il. chick-A-min. 
 
 MIdille (the), kat-sik. 
 
 Midday. Himum sun. 
 
 Midnight, sit cum po-Uklie. 
 
 Milk, toioosh. 
 
 M 
 
 Miivl (the), tum-tum. 
 Mire, weglit. 
 Miss (to). seA-pie. 
 Mixed, tzum. 
 Moccfusins, nkin-shoes. 
 M<>las!<es. me-las. 
 Money, ohiek-a-min. 
 Month, moon. 
 Mowjnito. mel-a-kwa. 
 Mother, ma mii. 
 Monnt^iin. In monti. 
 Moimtatn. hyas il-la-he. 
 Mouse, hnol-hool. 
 Month. In boss. 
 Much. hyii. 
 Itlud, cle-min il-la-he. 
 Mule, In mel. 
 Musir. tin-tin. 
 Mussels, to-luks. 
 Muskrats, cul-tns enah. 
 My (mine), n! ka. 
 
 Nails. Ie clou. 
 Name, yah-hul (nem). 
 Near, wake si-ah. 
 Neck. Ie cou. 
 Needle, ca-pu-ut. 
 Never, wake con-sd-tth. 
 Night, po-lak-lie. 
 No (not), wake. 
 Nobody, wake clax-to. 
 
 Oak, kull stick. 
 
 Oar, la lahm. 
 
 Oats. In wen. 
 
 Obtuin, is-kuin. 
 
 Ocean, salt-chuck. 
 
 OtT. kiak. 
 
 Off shore, mahtl-iu-nle. 
 
 Oil, gleece (la-kles.) 
 
 Old Minn, ole-man. 
 
 Old woman, lam-mi-eh. 
 
 On, CO- pa. 
 
 One eyed, ict seo-a-host. 
 
 Only, copet, ok-kook. 
 
 Open, hao-lakl. 
 
 N 
 
 Noise, la tlah. 
 None. halo. 
 
 Nonsense, cul-tus wa-wa. 
 Noon, sit-cum sun. 
 Not yet, wake al-ta. 
 Nothing, wake ic-la. 
 Notwitlistanding, kegh-tchie. 
 Now. al-ta. 
 Nuts, til-wil la. 
 
 Open (to), he-luck. 
 
 Opposite, iu-a-ti. 
 
 Or, pe. 
 
 Order (to), mash tum-tum. 
 
 Other, hul-o-i-ma. 
 
 Oiler, e-mam-ooks. 
 
 Our (we, us), ne-si-ka. 
 
 Out doors (outside), klagh«- 
 
 nie. 
 Over (above). sahduVle. 
 Over (Other side), en-a-ti. 
 Overcoat, ka po. 
 Ox, moos-moos. 
 Oysters, chet-lo. 
 
 Paddle, is-ick. 
 
 Paddle (to), mam-ook is-ick. 
 
 Paint, pent. 
 
 Paint (to), mam-ook pent. 
 
 Pants, se-ca-luck. 
 
 Path, o-e-hut. 
 
 Paper, p^-pah. 
 
 Pens. Ie pwan. 
 
 People, til-li cams. 
 
 Perhaps, klo-nas. 
 
 Petticoat, kal-a-kwah-tie. 
 
 Piebald, Ie kye. 
 
 Pin, kwek-wi-eus (keep-wot). 
 
 Pipe, la peep. 
 
 Pitch, la goom. 
 
 Plate, la se-et. 
 
 Plough (to I, klugh il-la-he. 
 
 Quarter, ten-as sit-cum 
 Quarter (of a dollar), kwahta, 
 
 Pole. Ie pebsh. 
 
 Poor, halo ic-ta (klahow- 
 
 yam.) 
 Pork, co-sho. 
 Porpoise, qui-see-o. 
 Potato, wap-pa-to. 
 Pour (to), wagh 
 Powder. po-laUlie. 
 Prairie wolf, tid-a-pus. 
 Present (a), cul-tus pot-latch. 
 Presently, al-kie (wm-apie.) 
 Pretty, to-ke-ti. 
 Priest, Ie plet. 
 Proud, youtl (kweltb). 
 Provided that, spose. 
 Pull. haul. 
 Push, kwult. 
 
 Q 
 
 Quick, hy-ak. 
 . Quills, tepeh. 
 
 Rabbit, kwit-shad-ie. 
 
 Kain. snass. 
 
 Kat. hole hole. 
 
 Kuttle, shugh. 
 
 Rjittlesiiake. shugh-ii-poots. 
 
 Razor fish, t'>-na. 
 
 Rench. ko. 
 
 Red. pil. 
 
 Relate (to), yi-em. 
 
 Report (of a gun), poo. 
 
 Return, clia-co kil a-pie. 
 
 Ribbon, Ie lo-ba. 
 
 Rice, niit-whit. 
 
 Rifle, ca-li-peen. 
 
 Ring (a), kw^o-kw^o. 
 
 Ripe, pi-ah. 
 
 R 
 
 River, hj'-as chuck. 
 Road, way-hut lo-chut). 
 Roan-colored, .'ian-dedie. 
 Roast, mam-ook la pellah. 
 Rock, stone. 
 Rooster, la cock. 
 Root, ka-niass. 
 Rope, lope. 
 Rotten, poo-lie. 
 Round. lo-lo. 
 
 Row (to), mam-ook ledam. 
 Rudder, boat-o-poots. 
 Rum, lum. 
 Run. eoo-ry. 
 
 Run away, cap-swal-la clat^- 
 wa. 
 
 S 
 Sack. Ie sak. Short, yutes-kut. 
 
 baririle. la sell. Shot-pouch, ki li-tan le-sac. 
 
 Saddle-housing, le-pish-e-mo. Shout (to), hv-as wa-wa. 
 
 Sailor, ship-man. 
 Salmou. sjl-mon. 
 Sand, po-lnl-lie. 
 Sandwich Islander, Oyee. 
 Sash, la saw-jel. 
 Saw. la see (la gwin). 
 Say (to), wa-wa. 
 Scnr<'e, quass 
 Scissors, Ie see-zo. 
 Sea. salt chuck 
 
 Shovel, la-pell. 
 
 Shut (to), ik-poo-ie. 
 
 Sift (to), to-to. 
 
 Silk, la-swaj' 
 
 Silver, t-kope chik-a-min. 
 
 Similar, kali-kwa. 
 
 Since, kim ta. 
 
 Sing (to), shanti. 
 
 Sink, cli-a. 
 
 Sister (elder). lik-po. 
 
 Seal, ol-hi-yu si-wash co-sho Sister (yonnger). ats, 
 
 lol hy-in)' 
 See (to), lum-itch. 
 Sell Ito). mah-cook. 
 Send (to), clat-n-wA. 
 Sew (to), mnm-ook tip-shin. 
 Shake, hul-hul. 
 Shake (to), to-to. 
 Shame, shem. 
 Sharp, pah kis-ilth. 
 Sharpen to), mam-ook tsisli. 
 She, ya-ka. 
 Sheep, Ie moo-to. 
 
 Shell money (small), coop- Soft, cla-mln 
 
 Sit (to), mit-lite. 
 
 Skunk, huni-o-poots (saub- 
 
 hoo). 
 Sky, koo sah. 
 
 Slave, elite (mistchi-mas). 
 Sleep, moo-sum. 
 Slowly, kla-wa. 
 Small, ten-as. 
 Smell, hum. 
 Snake, o-luk. 
 Snnre. In pe-age. 
 Snow, colesnass. 
 
 lop. 
 
 Shell money (large) ai-qua. 
 Shingle, Ie bah-do. 
 Shining, to-wagh. 
 Shirt, shut. 
 Shoat (to), mam-ook poo. 
 
 Sometimes, ict-ict. 
 Soon, wake le-Iy. 
 Sorrell (color), ie-blau. 
 Sorry, sick tum-tum. 
 Sour, kwates. 
 Spade, la pell.
 
 CHIN-STBAF. 
 
 349 
 
 CHIVALRY. 
 
 Speak ( to), w4-wi. 
 Spill (to), wafc'h. 
 Spirit (guaniiau), to man-no- 
 us. 
 Spirits, luni. 
 Split, t,suirh. 
 
 Split (to), luain-ook tsugli. 
 Spectacles, dal-la see-a-host. 
 Spit (to), niaiii-ook toh. 
 Spotted, le-kye. 
 Spurs, la see-blo. 
 Squirrel, kwis-kwis. 
 Stab ito), klema-bum. 
 Stag, mau-mow a-itch. 
 Stand, mit-whit. 
 Stai-s (buttons), tsil-tsil. 
 Stay (to), mit-lite. 
 Steal, cap-swalla. 
 Steam, smoke. 
 Steamer, sliip (pia-ship). 
 
 Table, la talib. 
 
 Tail, o-poots. 
 
 Take (to), iskiim. 
 
 Take care, klosh nan-itch. 
 
 Take off. maiu-ook klak. 
 
 Tale, yi-em. 
 
 Talk, w4-wa. 
 
 Tame, kwass. 
 
 Tattle (toi. ya-yim. 
 
 Teach (to), mam-ook-cum tux. 
 
 Tear (to), klugh. 
 
 Teeth, le tab. 
 
 Tell (to), wa-wi1. 
 
 Thank you, mah-sie. 
 
 That, o-eook. 
 
 That way (there, beyond i, 
 
 yah-wa. 
 Thev, klas-ka. 
 Thicb, pit-lilh. 
 Thin, pe-what-tie. 
 Thing, ic-ta. 
 Thirsty, o-lo chuck. 
 This, ocook. 
 Tins way. yiik-wtl. 
 Thou (thy. thine), mi-kik. 
 Thread, kla-pite. 
 Throw (to), niasb. 
 Throw away, mahsh. 
 
 Stirrup, sit lay. 
 
 Stockings, kush-is. 
 
 Stop, ko-pet. 
 
 store, ma-cook house. 
 
 Story, eh-kah-nam. 
 
 Straight, si-pah (de-lftte). 
 
 Strawberries, a-mo te. 
 
 Strike (to), cock-shet. 
 
 Strong, skoo-kum. 
 
 Sturgeon, stutch-un. 
 
 Subdue, quan. 
 
 Sugar, le sook. 
 
 Summer, waum il-la-he. 
 
 Sun, OtiV-lagh. 
 
 Sunset, elip-sun. 
 
 Suppose, spose. 
 
 Swan, kali-loke. 
 
 Sweep (to), mam-ook bloom. 
 
 Sweet, tsee. 
 
 Swim, sit-sbum. 
 
 Tide, cliuck. 
 
 Tie (to), kow. 
 
 Tight, kwutl. 
 
 Tinware, ma-lah. 
 
 Tip (to). lagh. 
 
 Tired, till. 
 
 To (towards), ko-pa. 
 
 Tobacco, ki-noos. 
 
 To-day, o-cook sun. 
 
 To-morrow, to m&-l&. 
 
 Tongue, la lang. « 
 
 Trade (to). ho^-ho6. 
 
 Trail, way-hut. 
 
 Trap, la piege. 
 
 Tree, stick. 
 
 Tree (fallen), whim stick. 
 
 Tremble, liul hul. 
 
 Trot (to), teh-teh. 
 
 Trouble, mam-ook tiU. 
 
 Trowsers. so-kol-eks. 
 
 True, delate. 
 
 Truth, delate wa-w4. 
 
 Tub, ta-mO»-litsh. 
 
 T(M'n (to), howh. 
 
 Turn over (to), kil-^-pie. 
 
 Twice, nioxt. 
 
 Twilight, twah. 
 
 Twine, teii-as lope. 
 
 Uncle, tot. 
 
 Under, kee-kwil-Iie. 
 
 Understand iio). cum-tux. 
 
 Unhappy, sick tum-tum. 
 
 United States. Boston il-la-he. Us, ne-si-ka. 
 
 U 
 
 Untie (to), mam-ook stoh. 
 
 Up (above, heavenward) sa- 
 
 na-lie. 
 Upset (to), kil-a-pi. 
 
 Untamed, le mo-lo. 
 
 Vancouver, kits-oat-qua. 
 Venison, mow-itch. 
 Very small, hy-as tcn-as. 
 
 Wagon, chik-chik. 
 
 Wander (to), ts-o-lo. 
 
 Warm, waum. 
 
 Wash I to), mam-ook wash. 
 
 Watch, tik-tik. 
 
 Watch (to), nan itch. 
 
 Water, chuck. 
 
 Waterfall, tum-water. 
 
 We. ne si-ka. 
 
 Week (one), ict Sunday. 
 
 Weigh (to), mam-ook til. 
 
 Wet. pahtl-cbuck. 
 
 Whale, eh-ko-lie. 
 
 What. icta. 
 
 What color? ki\-ta tsiun. 
 
 Wheat, sapolil. 
 
 Wheel, chik-chik. 
 
 When, kan-sih. 
 
 Where, kah. 
 
 Whip, la whet. 
 
 White, t-kope. 
 
 Who. klax-ta. 
 
 Whole, lo-lo, kwa-nice. 
 
 Year (a), ict cole. 
 Yellow, kaw-ka-wak. 
 Yes, ah-ha. 
 Yes indeed, na-wit-ka. 
 
 Useless, cul-tus. 
 
 Vessel, ship. 
 Vest, la west. 
 Vomit (to), wagh. 
 
 W 
 
 Wicked, me sa-cbie. 
 Wi.le. kluk-ulh. 
 Wild, le mo-lo. 
 Will (the), tum-tum. 
 Willow, ee-na stick. 
 Win (to), to-lo. 
 Winter, cole il-la-he. 
 Wipe (to), klak-wun. 
 Wire, chik-a-min lope. 
 Wire ( brass), klik-nal-la 
 Wish (to), tick-ey. 
 With, co-pa. 
 Without, ha-lo. 
 Wolf, le-loo. 
 Woman, clootch-raan. 
 Woman (old), lam-mi-eh. 
 Wood, stick. 
 Work (to), mam-ook. 
 Worn out. ol-t^-man. 
 Worthless, cul-tus. 
 Wound (to I. klem-a-hum. 
 Write (to), mam-ook tsum. 
 Writing, tsum. 
 
 Yesterday, tahl-kie sun. 
 Y'oung. ten-a-s. 
 You. mi-ka. 
 Yours, me-sika. 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 One, ict. 
 Two, moxt. 
 Three, klone. 
 Four, lak-it. 
 
 Five, kuin-num. 
 Six. tagh-hum. 
 Seven. sin-t\-nioxt. 
 Eight, sto-te-kin. 
 
 Nine, kweest. 
 Ten. tah tel-lum. 
 Twenty, moxt tab-tel-lum. 
 Thirty, klone tah-tel-lum. 
 
 One hundred, ict ta-ka-mo- 
 
 nuk. 
 One thousand, tah-tel-lum ta- 
 
 ka-mo-uuk. 
 
 Greater numbers are expressed by a conjunction of the 
 words expressing the numbers to be added, thus : Sin-a-moxt 
 tah-tel-lum (seven times ten) express seventy. 
 
 THE LORDS PRAYER IN JARGON. 
 
 Our Father who stayelh in the above, good in our hearts 
 (be) thy name; good thou chief among all people; good thy 
 will on eai'th as in the above; give every da.v our food; If 
 we do ill, (be) not thou very angry, and if any one evil 
 towards us, not we angry towards them ; send away far from 
 us all evil. 
 
 Xe-si'ka Papa klax-ta mit-lite ko-pa sa-ha-lie. kluah ko-pa 
 ne-si-ka iuiit-tum mi-ka nem; klosh mi-ka ty-ee ko-pa kon-a- 
 way tit-li-cttm ; klosh mi-ka tum-tum ko-pa it-la-he kah -kica ko- 
 pa sa-ha-lie; pot-latch koyi-a-tcay sun ne-si-ka muck-a-muck ; 
 Upose ne-si-ka mam-ook me-sd-chie irake mi-ka hy-as sollux, 
 pee spose klax-ta me-sd-chie ko-jm ne-si-ka, wake jte-si-ka. 
 sollux ko-p<t klaxta; ntahsh si-ah ko-pa ne-si-ka kon-a-iray 
 me-sd-chie. 
 
 CHIN-STRAP.— 1. The strap connecting the throat- 
 strap and the no.se-baiid of a halter. 2. A strap- 
 pa.s.sing iiudcr the chin, employed to hold the helmet 
 or dress-liat in place in windy weather. 
 
 CHIVALRY.— The system "of knighthood, together- 
 with the privileges, duties, and manners of knights. 
 The social arrangement to which this tenn is applietl 
 seems first to have assumed the character of a positive 
 institution during the eleventh century; hut so far 
 from being an invention of that period, it had its 
 roots in the manners of the Germanic races, amongst 
 whom it ultimately aro.se, at the earliest period at 
 which they are historically traceable. In the de- 
 scription which TacitiLS has given u.s of the manners 
 of the Germans we find the most unequivocal indi- 
 cations of the existence, not only of the general spirit, 
 but, in a partially developed form, of many of the 
 special arrangements of chivalry. But it wa.s in con- 
 nection with feudality that chivalry attained to its full 
 proportions, and in many respects it must be regarded 
 as the complement of that in.stitution. Whilst feu- 
 dality exhibits the political, in chivalry we see the 
 moral and social side of the arrangements of mcditr- 
 val life. It was in the feudal mansions of the barons 
 that the system was developed; and to the lay portion 
 of the youth of the higher classes the instruction 
 which they there received in the usiigcs of chivalry 
 formed by far the most important part of education. 
 In addition to the martial accomplishments, which 
 corresponded to those of a modern cavalrj'-ofticer, 
 they were instructed in the i>olitical relations which 
 subsisted between the vassal and his lord, by which 
 the whole body of society was then bound together; 
 and in what might almost be called a system of ethics, 
 strangely enough exhibiting unmistakable traces of 
 the Stoic philosophy. The analogy between the 
 severer virtues recommended to the special cultiva- 
 tion of their disciples by the followers of Zeno, and 
 those inctdcated on the novice in chivalry, and 
 practiced by the knights of the Middle Ages, might 
 be ascribetl to other than historical ciauses, were it 
 not that we are able to trace the connection between 
 them with something approaching to certainty. If 
 any one wishes to convince himself of the truth of 
 our as.«ertion, let him compare the la.st production of 
 the intellectual life of antiquity with one of the 
 earliest and most important of our own literature 
 — the ConiaiUitions of Philomphy of Boelhius with 
 Chaucer's Tegtamfnt of Lore. The resembhincc is so 
 close that the latter work has, not witlioiit reason, 
 been regarded as an imitation of tlie former; but the 
 main features which distinguish them, and mark 
 Chaucer's work as belonging to the modern world, 
 are more instructive than even their similarity. What 
 Chaucer has exhibitcil in the work to wliirh we have 
 referred may be regarded rather as the philosophical 
 than the poetical side of the institution. Bui to poets 
 of a lighter and more imaginative ca«l of mind 
 chivalry has furnished, from the days of the trouba- 
 dours down to the present Poet laureate, no insignifi--
 
 CHLOBATE OF P0TAS8A. 
 
 350 
 
 CHOUANS. 
 
 cant portion of tlicir subK'cl-iiiattor. King Arthur 
 and his Kuiirhl.^ of thi- Houmi Table, Ihi- traililioiis 
 tx'ipirtlin.L' whom hiul \>vm taken from a iK-riod allo- 
 gi^thcr niythical anil loni; anterior to the existence of 
 chivalry as an institution, heeanie to the jioelry of tlie 
 Midille"A!,'es very much what tlie heroes of tlie Trojan 
 War were to that of the whole ancient world. .Much 
 astonishment has often lieen expressed at the contrast 
 Ix'twivu the loflv and ideal purity of the code of 
 morals inculniteil by chivalry, and the jTrossncss of 
 llic lives of the men who were trained under its in- 
 tlucnci's. The case is one which in a remarkable 
 degree proves the pnictieal importance of the incul- 
 cation of soimd doctrine, for the iiractiee gradually, 
 though slowlv, conformetl itself to the ]>riucii)les; 
 and it is proliably in no insignitieant degree to the 
 elevated tone of 'the latter tlmt we owe the moral 
 su|HTiority of llie nu)dern over the ancient world. 
 See <'oiii-l "f C/iiriiln/. 
 
 CHLOBATE OF POTASSA.— Many oxydizing sub- 
 stances, such as the chlorate of ix)la.s.sa and nitrate 
 of sotla, may be used in the manufacture of gun- 
 powder; but for this purpose they are inferior to the 
 nitrate of poIas,s;i. The dilorate of ]iolas.sji is a suli- 
 stance which parts with its oxygen easily, and makes 
 a powder which has been found by experience to 
 give at least double the range, with the mortar 
 eprouvette, of that made with nitrate of jiotassa, but 
 from its gn-at quickness resembles the fulminates in 
 its destnielive eirect.s on the gun. Besides, it is more 
 costly than nitrate of jiotassji, renders the powder 
 liable to exi>loile by slight causes, and gives a residue 
 ■which rapidly corrodes iron. Its use in the labora- 
 tory is chiefly confined to the preparation of colored 
 fires and cannon-jirimers. 
 
 Chlorate mixtiues are very sensitive to friction and 
 percussion, and they explode with great sharpness. 
 The potassium .salt is tlie only one of the chlorates 
 which is employed in these mixtures. Very many 
 chlorate mixtures have l)een made, but few of them 
 are of much value. Of many of them it may be said 
 that they are so liable to ac- 
 cidental explosion that they 
 are unfit for use. The follow- 
 ing are examples of chlorate 
 mixtures: potassium chlorate 
 with rosin; pota.ssium chlorate 
 with galls (Horsel.v's powder); 
 potas-sium chlorate with gam 
 bier (Oriental powder); potas 
 sium chlorate with sugar (used 
 in chemical fuses); pota.ssium 
 chlorate with potas.siuni ferro- 
 cvanide (White or German gunpowder); potassium 
 chlorate with tannin (Erhardt's powder); potassium 
 chlorate with sulphur (Pertuiset powder, used in ex- 
 plosive bullets). In the laboratory, however, potas- 
 sium chlorate is the basis of many fuse-mixtures, 
 some of which are used to a certain extent. See Oun- 
 poirder. 
 
 CHOCK.— A piece of wood by which the wheel of 
 a carriage is prevented from moving forward or back- 
 ward. In the United Stales Ordnance Dcparliiient 
 two kinds are eini>loyed, the simplest form being 
 triangular in section, while another description of 
 chock is wedge-shaped and provided with a handle. 
 A common form of chock is attached to cast-iron 
 garrison-carriages, on which the breech of the gun 
 rests and is elevalrd. 
 
 CHOCKING HANDSPIKE.— A handspike employed 
 when slewing ,i gun that rests on skids, and in other 
 mechanical maneuvers. 
 
 CHOKE. 1. A slightly narrowed part just in front 
 of the (hamber in certain guns, to insure that all 
 projectiles are rammed to tlie same .spot. 2. The 
 tied end of a cartridge; also, the constriction of a rock- 
 et-case, etc. 
 
 CHOKEB.— Aninslniinentuscd forbringing the ends 
 of u fas<'ine to the girth, neariv where it is intended 
 the fascine should Ije, when it is bound. 
 
 CHOKE-STBAP — A strap passing from the lower 
 IX)rliim of the collar to the belly-band, to keep the 
 collar in place when descending a hill or backing. 
 
 CHOKEY.— A common expression for an East In- 
 dian guard-house and prison. 
 
 CHOBD. — The chord of an arc of a curve is a right 
 line joining its two extremities. A scale of chonls 
 is usi'd in laying off angles. It is thus constructed; 
 Let AB be the radius of the circle to which the scale 
 is lo be adapte<l. A\'ith the center 
 A and radius ^VB deseiibe a 
 quadrant BEC". Divide the 
 quadrantal arc BEG into nine 
 ecjual parts BD, 1)E, etc. This 
 may be dcine by taking a radius 
 equal to AB, and from the cen- 
 ters B and C cuttiii": the arc in G 
 and F. As the radius is always 
 equal lo Ihe chord of 60 , or j of 
 a quadrant, Ihe arc CB is thus 
 divided into three equal parts, BP, FG, GC, and 
 each of these iiarts may then be trisected by trial, as 
 no direct method is known. Draw the chord of the 
 (luailrant B(_'; from B as a center, and the chord of 
 Bl) as a radius, describe an arc cutting BC at 10; 
 w ith (Jie chord of BE as a radius, describe an arc cut- 
 ting BC in 20; with the chord of BF, describe an arc 
 cutting BC in 30; and in a similar manner find the 
 divisions 40, 50, 60, 70, 80. Then the arcs BD, BE. 
 BF, lieing arcs of 1Q\ 20', 30', etc., respectively, the 
 disiances from B to 10, 20, 30, etc., are the chords o{ 
 arcs of 10 , 20% 30', etc.; so that BC is a scale of 
 chords for every 10 , from 0' to 90 . To lay down 
 or measure angles with such a scale, the arc of 
 measurement must be described with Ihe chord of 60 . 
 
 CHORD BOBING-MACHINE.— A tool consisting of 
 two horizontal boring-machines and an extra table lo 
 facilitate setting the work, so arranged that thev can 
 be adjusleil and clamped on the bed-plale to suit the 
 centers of the holes in the chords; it is of suflicient 
 capacity to admit chords 3 feet by 3 feet; the bed- 
 
 Chord Boring-machine. 
 
 ',;& :it':. ?"^^^iilll!jii!it^J P 
 
 i \ r'x \ "^ 
 
 plate is made of 12-inch wTought-iron lieams. so that 
 its expansion and contraction shall, under all circum- 
 stances, be the same as the chords being bored; the 
 cone-imlleys have four changes for a 4-inch belt; the 
 si)indles are driven with worms and worm-wheels, 
 are of steel, and have 12 inches traverse, with a rapid 
 I hand-movement, and are self-feeding by cut-cog cone- 
 1 gearing, giving three changes. Steady rests for the 
 outer ends of boring-bars are readily applied. The 
 weight of Ihe macliine commonlv used in arsenals. with 
 r>~) feel of bed. is 32.200 pounds. Sev. Boriiig-tniti'/iiiie. 
 CHOROGRAPH.— An instrument contrived by Pro- 
 fes,sor Wallace, of Edinburgh, "lo determine the 
 position of a station. ha\nng given the three angles 
 made by it to three other stations in the same plane, 
 I whose positions are known." The problem may be 
 staled thus: To construct two similar triangles on 
 two irivcn straight lines. 
 
 CHOUANS. — Bands of insurgent royalists who, 
 during the Fiench Bevolution. orpinized a reaction- 
 ary movement in Brittany. They obtained their 
 name from their leader, .Jean C^ottcreau. This per- 
 ' .son, who had been a smuggler, went by the name of 
 j Chouan — a corru])tion, it is said, of rliat-hiiaiit 
 I (" screech-owl ") — because, while he anil his accom- 
 plices were engaged in their nf)flurnal work, they 
 I were wont to be warned of their danger by some one
 
 CHOUMAEA SYSTEM OF FOETIFICATION. 
 
 351 
 
 CHOUMARA SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 
 on the watch imitating the cry of this bird. At the 
 period of the revolt, however, he followed the humble 
 occupation of a clog-maker. The first indications of j 
 an anti-revolutionary spirit in Brittany manifested 
 themselves in the beginning of 1791, when several 
 trees of liberty were destroyed at night, and other 
 more serious outrages coiimiitted. These disturb- | 
 ances were fomented by seditious priests. In 1793 
 an insurrection wa-s planned bj- the Marquis de la 
 Kouarie, with the sanction and approval of the two 
 brothers of Louis XVI. The agents of the Marquis 
 entered into communications with Jean Cottereau — 
 well known for the reckless audacity of his character 
 — and other smugglers; but ha\ing the misfortune to 
 be arrested, the caiTying out of the insurrertion de- 
 volved upon the latter. The Choiiantrie, as the In- 
 surrection was called, at first disgraced itself, both bj- 
 the drunken license and the cruelty which marked it. 
 After several succe.ssful exploits of the guerrilla sort, 
 Jean Cottereau perished in an engagement which 
 took place on the 28th of July, 1794, near the wood 
 of Misdon, the theater of his first efforts. Before 
 this, however, other and more illustrious Icadci's had 
 appeared in Brittany to direct the movement, the 
 chief of whom were Georges Cadoudal and Charette. 
 Through their endeavors it was more widely extended, 
 and for a time seemed likely to imperil the security of 
 France, but was suppressed towards the close of 
 1799. Petty sjmrU of insuiTection, however, broke 
 out till about 1803, when the C7i<nii//ierif eeasi'd for 
 a while. In 1814-1.5 it again made its appearance on 
 both sides of the Loire; and after the July Revolu- 
 tion, was once more excited by the Duehe.ss of Berrj- 
 on Iwhalf of the Duke of Bordeaux, but crushed by 
 the energetic measures taken b\- .M. Thiers. 
 
 CHOUMARA SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— Chou- 
 mani, a French oflicer of engineers of distinguished 
 abilities, is the author of several remarkable memoirs 
 on the defects of the bastion system, and the means 
 by which they may be removed and additional 
 strength be thereby given to the defenses. His prop- 
 osition for this purpose maj" be briefly stated as fol- 
 lows: 1. That part of a permanent work which can 
 undergo no modification during the progress of a 
 siege is the masonry, and it may therefore be regarded 
 as the really permanent feature; all the parts of earth, 
 as the parapet.s, etc., being susceptible of such modifi- 
 cations as circumstances may ilemand. In all cases 
 of the application of the independence of the para- 
 pets, Choumara proposes to convert the space left be- 
 tween the foot of the parapet and the scarp- wall into 
 a chemin de rorule, or corridor, which is covered in 
 front by a slight parapet, and from enfilading tire by 
 gi\ing an increased height to the portion of the para- 
 pet adjacent to the salients, forming a boiimt. This 
 corridor is occupied by shai"p-shooters to annoy the 
 besieger's trenches. Furthermore, Choumara regards 
 the corridor as an additional security against surprise 
 and escalade. 2. He proposes to place high traverses 
 in the bastion-Siilients, to cover the faces from enfilade 
 and the fianks from reverse views, and similar tra- 
 verses at the shoulder-angles with the same object. 
 These he also proposes to ca.semate, or else construct 
 with blindages for artillerj' to obtain a fire in the di- 
 rections of the capitids, "and reverse views on the 
 demi-luue glacis and the breach in the bastion-face. 
 As these traverses, from their height, might give the 
 besiegeiy in possession of them a plunging fire on the 
 bastion-retrenchments, he proposes so to arrange them 
 that they can be readily destroyed at any moment by 
 mines, or, if of timber, be burned. 3. To mask the 
 ma-sonrj- of the enceinte and demi-kme from breach- 
 ing-batferies, erected in their iLsual positions along 
 the crests of the glacis, Choumara proposes to form 
 what he terms an interior glacis, or covering mass of 
 earth, in the ditches, the crests of which shall mask 
 the masonrj- of the scarps from the positions in ques- 
 tion; and the upper surface of which, forming a 
 ' glacis, shall be swept by the fire of the works in its 
 rear. In this manner he expects to force the besieg- 
 
 ers to the difficult operation of making lodgments in 
 this glacis to obtain suitable positions for their breach- 
 ing-balteries. 4. By selecting for some of his out- 
 works those points on the exterior which are most 
 favorable to the action of the as,s;iilant's sharp-shoot- 
 ers, he proposes in this way to cripjile this important 
 means of attack, o. By giving greater extent to the 
 exterior side, and a more retired position to the cur- 
 tain, which is also to be made as short as possible, 
 Choumara obtains bastions of ami)le size, not onlj- to 
 admit of the modifications he proiioses for the para- 
 pets, traverses, and rheiiiiun de ronde, but for strong 
 interior retrenchments, so orgaiuzed with I)omb-proof 
 shelters, and arranged defensively towards the inte 
 rior, that each bastion will admit of a defense to the 
 rear at its gorge, after the besiegers may ha\e effected 
 a breach at other points and i)enetiiited within the 
 enceinte. The essential modifications proposi-d by 
 him may be summed as follows: detaching the scarp 
 from the parapet; regulating the line of defense by 
 the range of field-artillery, not musketry; introducing 
 an interior glacis: and employing defensive barracks 
 to .si'rve as interior retrenchments. The memoirs in 
 which Choumara lirought liLs i)roiX)sitions before the 
 public naturally attracted attention, as much, per- 
 haps, from their polemical character and i)iquancy of 
 style as their professional interest. They contain but 
 few things the germs of which are not to be foimd in 
 writers who preceded him. His modifications re- 
 s|)ecting the parapets, throwing them back from the 
 scarps and breaking them into directions l)est suited 
 for defense, are to be met with in Clias-seloup's prop- 
 ositions. His proposals for lengthening the baslion- 
 rtanks and occupying the .salient plaees-of-amis by 
 redoubts with considerable command are to be found 
 in the methods of De La Chichc. To Virgin he 
 seems to be indebted for his organization of interior 
 retrenchments, which are to convert each bastion into 
 an independent work, equally provided for defense 
 I ag:nnst approaches both from the interior and exte- 
 rior of the enceinte. Like disputants, \isually, of an 
 ardent temperament, he overestimates the value of 
 many of his propositions and loses sight of their 
 countervailing defect. By laying down as a princi- 
 jile what ma\' be exceptionally good in practice, he 
 has rather weakened his own positions. This is the 
 ca.se, particularly, with his rule of independence of 
 the parapets on the scarps, which, if adopted in all 
 cases, might demand a greatly increased and hurtful 
 command, and cut up to great disadvantage the inte- 
 rior spaces of the bastions. His introduction of the 
 rliemins de ronde on the faces of the bistion and (he 
 demi-lime adds really verj- little, if at all, to the ex- 
 terior defense; whilst they contract the interior space 
 of these works, break in upon the unity of the de- 
 fense, and place the troops in them in a very exposed 
 |X)sitiou to the means of annoyance possessed by the 
 l)esieger. HLs expectations with respect to the effect 
 of hisfireiuthedireelionof the capitals, in delating the 
 besieger's approach to the third parallel, were hardly 
 warranted by the experience gained in artillerj- and 
 small-arms, even at the time the last edition of his 
 memoirs a|)peared. It is hardly to be questioned, 
 now that these weapons have been so greatly im- 
 proved, I)Oth in range and accuracy of fire, that, con- 
 sidering the increased development of the besieger's 
 parallels, which gives him a choice of positions for 
 his batteries on.. so extended a line, the concentrated 
 fire he could bring to bear on the batteries in question 
 would not only s<K>n ruin their casemates, but would 
 greatly damage the adjacent faces and also the flanks 
 of the bastions, although covered from enlilatling 
 views, either by the direction of the parapets of the 
 faces or the high traverses raised with the same ob- 
 ject. The.se advantages in the position of the be- 
 sieger, it is thought, would prevent any delay in push- 
 ing forward his approaches up to the third parallel. 
 After this the approaches would probidily be retarded 
 beyond the usual time in the attack on Cormon 
 tafgne's front, owing chiefly to the redoubts in the
 
 CHBIST. 
 
 352 
 
 CHSONOOBAPH. 
 
 biu«(iuii anil tloinilunc sjilifiit placcs-ofiinns, anil the 
 iirrmjreim-iil of the faoccoviT in Ihi- enifiole-ilitrli. 
 Supitosinji an i-ntriiilt organizitl ac('t)n.liii!; to liis 
 nu'tboil, ami containiii!.' inlericr rt'lrentliincnts loop- 
 ixx' till' iK'sii'fciT's ai>pRHU'hes lx)tb from without and 
 within the eneeinti-. Clionniara estimates at least six 
 ceimnite epoelis of breachinLT-batteries, ivs follows: 
 1st. against the redoubt of the demilune sidient 
 plaeenl^f-amis; id. agiiinst the demilune and the 
 nxloubt of the Imstion sidient plaee-of arms; 3d, 
 upiin^t the bastions; 4th, against the Imstion-retreneh- 
 raent; 5th, agiunst the retired rctrenehment; 0th, and 
 tinully, agjiinst the bastions converted into eitadels by 
 the fronts with whieh their gorges art closed. Ac- 
 i-ordiug to the estimates of the time made by C'hou- 
 mara, it would require 112 days from the opening of 
 the trenches to the final a.ssault and reduction of last 
 defenses. See Fortificnthii and Syxtcm of Fuitifica- 
 
 tioll. 
 
 CHBIST. — The Portuguese Order of Christ has an 
 interesting history. AVhcn the Teniiilars were ex- 
 pelled from France, and their imijicrly coiiliscated by 
 Philippe le Bel, with the siuictiou of" Pope Clement 
 v., they were received into Portugal, and their Order 
 revived in 131" under the title of " The Order of our 
 Lord Jesus Christ." With some difficulty Pope John 
 XXII. was induced to siuiction the new order. The 
 Knights of the Order of Christ joined the Portuguese 
 in all their crusiides agiunst the inlidel, and also in 
 their African and In<lian expeditions, receiving in 
 compensiition continual additions to their own po.sses- 
 sions. The Grand Prior of the Order was invested by 
 Pope Calixtus III. with power equal to that of "a 
 bishop; and !is an encouragement to adventure, the 
 Knights were promised all the countries which they 
 might discover, to be held under the protection of 
 Portugal. At length their 
 wealth and power excited 
 the jealousy of the kings of 
 Portugal; their future ac- 
 quisitions, and, subsequent- 
 ly, even their actual jios- 
 scssious, were declared to i 
 be Crown posses,sions, and 
 the offices of Admini.stnitor 
 and Grand-master were 
 tnuisferred to the Crown. 
 A tine cloister belonging to 
 the Order is still to be seen 
 at Tomar, to which place 
 Star of the Portii(ruese Oril.-r the seat of the order Wiis 
 of Christ. transferred from Ca.stro- 
 
 Marino in 1366. Noble desceii', and three years' 
 niiliUiry service against the inlidel, were required 
 for admission. The members took the three monk- 
 ish vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, till 
 the Pope released them from'the first two, on con- 
 dition of their applying the third part of their rev- 
 enues to the suiiiiort of Tomar cloister, the iiriests of 
 which were bound by the three vows. This cloister 
 Is now a theological institution for the instruction of 
 the priests of the Order. It is said that the Order 
 still posscs.si-s 26 villages and farms, and 4:M jirebends. 
 It is very numerous— consisting of six Knights of the 
 Grand Cross, 450 Commanders, and iin utdimited 
 n\iml>er of Knights. Clatholics of noble descent alone 
 arc| admitted, and foreigners arc excluded from par- 
 ticipation in the revenius, beini; cxemiiled in return 
 from Its rules. The Papal (Jrder of Chri.st is a branch 
 of the Portuguese Order, created by Pope John XXII., 
 and lia.s only one clas.s. 
 
 CHRISTIAN CHARITY.— Knioiits of the Oiidkii 
 OK CiiiiisTiAN CiiAitiTYwas the name of an Order 
 instituted liy King Henry III. of France for the sup- 
 iw)rt of maimed officers and soldiers who ha(i done 
 giKKl service in the wars. He assigned revenues to [ 
 the Onler, drawn from all the hospitals in the king- ' 
 dom. The Knifrhls wore on the left breast an anchor 
 cd cross embroidered on white tafTety or satin, with a 
 bf>rderof blue silk, and in the middle of the crois a 
 
 lozenge of sky-blue charged with a jUiir-de-Us or. 
 The completion of the Institution was reserved for 
 Henry IV., ^vho placed it under the charge of the 
 Marshals and Colonels of France; and by means of it, 
 many of those who had .served their country faithfully 
 were enabled to s|x>nd the latter [wrtiou of their lives 
 iu peace and above want. The Order formed the 
 germ of that noble hospital, the Intalidex, which was 
 fouiulcd by Louis XIV., and which served as a model 
 for the English hospitals of Chelsea and Greenwich. 
 When the Invalides was founded, the Order of Chris- 
 tian Cliarily was superseded. 
 
 CHROMATICS. — That jtart of the science of optics 
 which explains the properties of the colors of light 
 and of natural bodies. Before 1666, when Sir Isaac 
 Kewlon began to investigate this subject, the notions 
 which iirevailed respecting the nature of colors were 
 purely fanciful. Till Descartes' time, indeed, it seems 
 not to have been conceived tliat color had anything to 
 do with light. As examples of the notions prevalent 
 at very early times, we may cite those propounded by 
 Pythagoras and Zeuo. 
 
 CHBOMATYPE. — A photographic process, thus de- 
 scribed by its discoverer, Mr. R. Hunt : One dram of 
 sulphate of copper is dissolved in one otmce of dis- 
 tilled water, to which is added half an ounce of a satu- 
 rated solution of bichromate of potash; this solution 
 is applied to the surface of the paper, and when dry 
 it is fit for use, and may be kept for any length of 
 time without spoiling. When exposed to sunshine, 
 the first change is to a dull brown, and if checked in 
 this stage of the process we get a negative picture; 
 but if the action of light is continued the browning 
 gives way, and a positive yellow picture on a white 
 ground is obtained. In either case, if the paper, when 
 removed from sunshine, is washed over with a solu- 
 tion of nitrate of silver, a ''ery beautiful positive pic- 
 ture results. In practice it will be found ad\anta- 
 geous to allow the bleaching action to go on to some 
 extent; the picture resulting from this will be deiirer 
 and more defined than that obtained when the action 
 is checked at the brown stage. To fix these pictures 
 it is necessary to remove the nitrate of silver, which 
 is doni^ by washing them in pure water. If the water 
 contains any chloride, the picture suffers, and long 
 .soaking in such water obliterates it — or, if a few 
 grains of common salt be added, the apparent destruc- 
 tion is rapid. The picture is, however, capable of 
 restoration, all that is necessary being to expo.se it to 
 sunshine for a quarter of an hour, when it revives; 
 but instead of being of a red color, it assumes a lilac 
 tint, the shades of color depending upon the quantity 
 of salt used to decomjiosc the chromate of silver which 
 forms the shadow parts of the picture. Mr. Bing- 
 ham suggested the substitution of sulphate of nickel 
 for sulphate of copper, as yielding a higher degree of 
 sensitiveness and greater definition. Neither process 
 has been much used. 
 
 CHRONOGRAPH. — Different forms of time-meas- 
 urers, or lime-recorders, under this designation, have 
 been inveiiled williin a recent period. Benson's cliro- 
 nograiih is intended to mea.sure intervals of time down 
 to tenths of a second, for use at horse races and other 
 occasions where a seconds- watch is not exactly suited. 
 It has an ordinary quick train-lever movement, carry- 
 ing hands which move over a dial. One of these is a 
 seconds-hand, very peculiarly made. The seconds- 
 hand is double, consisting of two distinct hands, one 
 8uperiios<>d on the other. The outer end of the low- 
 ermost hand has a small cup with a minute hole at the 
 liottom; while the corresponding end of the uppermost 
 hand is bent over so as exactly to reach this punc- 
 ture. The little cup is filled with ink having a con- 
 sistency between that of writing-fluid and printers' 
 ink. Suppose that a horse-race is about to take place. 
 The observer keeps a steady lookout for the fall of 
 the starter's flag, or whatever the signal may be: he 
 gives a i)ull to a cord or string connected with the 
 mechanism peculiar to the instrument; by this move- 
 ment the outer and bent end of the upper seconds-
 
 CHRONOMETEB. 
 
 353 
 
 CHUCK. 
 
 hand dips down through the ink-cup in the lower ! 
 hand, and through the puncture to the dial. A 
 small black spot or mark is thus made upon the dial- 
 plate; and this is repeated a." each horse passes the 
 winning-post. If the eye and hand of the operator 
 are quick and accurate, there is a reliable record thas 
 presented by the instrument of the duration of the nice, 
 sometimes as close as one tenth of a .second. The in- 
 strument is now adopted at the principal races lus a 
 .suitable one for the purpose; thus it is used for races 
 such as the Derby, the Oaks, the Goodwood, the 8t. 
 Leger, etc. It U also availal)le for many other pur- 
 poses. Strange 's chronogmph is designed for a more 
 scientific purpose, and constructed with more careful 
 details. The object is to measure extremely short in- 
 tervals of time, for the determination of longitudes in 
 great trigonometrical surveys. The observer, when a 
 particular star traverses the tield of his telescope, 
 touches a small ivorj' key; and on the instant a dot 
 or mark appe;irs on a sheet of paper coiled round a 
 barrel. The in.striunent being connected with an a.s- 
 tronomical clock, there is a dot made for every lx!at 
 of the pendulum; and as these dot-s are a considerable 
 space apart (considerable, that is, for the retined in- 
 strument.s of the present dav), it is possible to deter- 
 mine so wonderfully minute an interval as the one 
 
 ceased. The phenomenon is observed by reflection in 
 a mirror, in such rapid motion that the image of the 
 luminous object would appear to dcscrilx; a circle, 
 sui>ix)sing the luminosity to endure long enouph. 
 Should the phenomenon be instantaneous, the image 
 will appear as a mere ix)int; should it la.sl for an ap- 
 preciable time, the image will form an arc, greater or 
 less, of the circle. The electric spark is found by this 
 test to have no duration. See lias/iforth Chronuyrnpli, 
 BeiiUiit Threiul-cdocimeter, Electric CUjtsydra, Le Boii- 
 lenye Cliri>no'jraph, yaret-Leurs Clironosa/pe, Iioble 
 Chrono.Hci>pe, and IScJtultz Chrorwuope. 
 
 CHEYSOTYPE.— A photographic process invented 
 by Sir John Herschel, and (lepending for its success 
 on the reduction of a persidt of iron to the state of 
 protosalt by the action of light, and the subsequent 
 precipitation of metallic golfl upon this protosalt of 
 iron. The process is conducted as follows: Good paper 
 is immersed in a solution of anmionio-citrate of iron 
 of such a strength as to dry into a good yellow color, 
 without any tinge of lirown in it. It is then exposed 
 to light under a negative until a faint impression is 
 obtained. A neutral solution of chloride of gold is 
 then brushed over the paper, when the picture imme- 
 diately appears, and is rapidly developed to a purple 
 tint. It should then be very freely washed in several 
 
 Chucks. 
 
 hundredth of a second. Other forms of chronographs 
 have been adopted by astronomer. One was sug 
 gested by Professor C. A. Young in 186() to assume 
 the functions of a recording chronograph, by marking 
 the instant of observation in hours, minutes, seconds, 
 and hundredths of a second, in printed characters, 
 and in a form suitable for preservation and reduction. 
 Chronographs connected with electric and magnetic 
 apparatus arc ased for determining the velocity of 
 projectiles. Many forms have been demised by Xoble, 
 Basbforth, Navez, Le Boulenge, and other inventors. 
 The most general arrangement consists in caasing the 
 bullet to pass through a series of screens; the rupture 
 of ejich screen breaks for a moment the continuity of 
 an electric current, sets in action an electro-magnetic 
 apparatus, and makes a permanent mark or record. 
 See Vhronmrope. 
 
 CHRONOMETEE.— The name given to a common 
 form of time-measurer. The mechanism is essentially 
 the same as that of a common watch; only the size is 
 generally greater, and additional precautions are 
 taken to secure regularity under changes of tempera- 
 ture and other deranging influences. See Jlorolayy. 
 
 CHEONOSCOPE.— An instniment contrived by Sir 
 Charles Wheatstone to measure the duration of cer- 
 tain short-lived luminous phenomena, such as the 
 electric spark, of which the eye itself can be no 
 judge, owing to the persistence of impras.sions of 
 light on the eye after the cause of sensalioa has 
 
 changes of water, fixed with a weak solution of io- 
 dide of potassium, and again ihoroughlj' washed and 
 dried. The action of the iodide of potas.sium is to 
 convert any unaltered chloride of gold into a sf)luble 
 double iodide of gold and potassium, thus rendering 
 the pi<ture permanent. 
 
 CHUCK. — An appendage to a lathe. Being screwed 
 on to the no.se of tlie mandrel, it is made to grasp the 
 work to be turned. There are many varieties; the 
 eccintric, elliptic or oral, and geometric chucks, with 
 their combinations, are principally used in the arsenal. 
 
 The eccentric chuck is designed for changing the 
 center of the work, and consists of two principal 
 pieces; one attachable to the mandrel of the lathe, and 
 the other adjustable, in a plane at right angles to the 
 axis of motion, in a dovetail groove of the former 
 piece. The sliding piece is moved by a sc>t-screw. 
 
 The elliptic or oval chuck consists of three parts 
 — the ehuck, the slider, and the eccentric circle. The 
 chuck is secured to and partakes of the circular motion 
 of the mandrel. In front of the chuck is a dovetail 
 groove for the reception of a slider, from the center 
 of which projects a screw to which the work is at- 
 tached. As the work turns round, it has a sliding mo- 
 tion across the center which generates an ellipse. The 
 sliding motion is produced bv im eccentric circle or 
 ring of brass firmly fastened to the puppet of the 
 lathe close to the collar in which the neck of the 
 mandrel runs.
 
 OHUCKING-HACHIHE. 
 
 354 
 
 CIMBBI. 
 
 The geometric chuck has a radial slider to which 
 the work is ullachctl, and this is so govcmwl as to 
 pive a (•oniliincd circular motion and radial oscilla- 
 tion to tlic work relatively to the tool. 
 
 Fi^'. 1 n>pres«'uls the Pond independent four-jaw 
 lathe-chuck. Each jaw is worked indeix-ndcntly by 
 its own screw, thus adapting it to hold any irregular- 
 
 
 regular shaped pieces, and can be quickly adjusted 
 from their least to their greatest capacity. The 
 round swivel-ba.se chucks are accurately graduated, 
 and the swivel is held in place by a single screw. 
 Sec Ctishmaii Vombiiuit ion -chuck, Ilorlim Lathe-chuck, 
 Latiie, Siceetland Chuck, and ^Yelltcott Combinalion- 
 ckuck. 
 
 I'Uuier-chucks. 
 
 Flu. 4. 
 
 shaped piece, as well as round, stiuare, or eccentric 
 forms. The jaws are wTOUght-iron ca.se-hardened; 
 steel screws operating jaws are secured in the hub of 
 the chuck to prevent irregular wear of same. This 
 chuck has a solid hub so that it can be placed dirtct- 
 ly on the lathe spindle, thus bringing it nearer to 
 the spindle-bearing and making less strain on llic 
 spinille; or the face-plates can Ix- tilted to it, making 
 the same chuck fit different lathes. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents the Skinner combination-chuck, 
 which may be readily changed from ind*pemknt to 
 vnicerml, and rice term. To make the former change, 
 it is only nece.ssiiry to set all the jaws true on the line 
 on face "of the chiick, then slide the stud on the back 
 of the chuck to the extreme end of slot and fasten it 
 
 CHUCKING-MACHINE.— A machine used in the ar- 
 mory for work on lock-parts and in chambering the 
 barrels. The drawing shows the machine as made 
 by the Pratt and 'Whitney Company, with horizon- 
 tjil revolving bead. It is designeil for a variety of 
 work, such as drilling, facing, and tapping lioles 
 before removing the piece to be finished from the 
 chuck or face-plate. The revolving head carries 
 .several spindles for the reception of tools. Each one 
 is brought to the work successively by a single move- 
 ment of a lever or handle, and is fed forward by a 
 rack and pinion, operated b_v a convenient hand-wheel. 
 The machine is rapid in its operation and very accu- 
 rate in its results. The number of spindles in the 
 head may be varied to suit the work to be done, and 
 
 Chucklng-machlne. 
 
 there by .screwing down the nut. If the jaws do not 
 come to center true, it is because they were not all 
 set alike before throwing llie nick into gear. To 
 make the latter change, unscrew the nut and slide the 
 stud to the extreme end of the slot and fasten it there 
 by means of the nut. 
 
 Figs. 3 and 4 reiiresent the Prouty planer chucks. 
 Fig. H shows the s(|uare base, and Fig, 4 shows a round 
 swivel base. These chucks will hold regular or ir- 
 
 the length of the bed may be increased or diminished 
 as desired. The machine is made in three .sizes, 13, 
 18, and 24 inches swing. See Drillinp-nmchinf. 
 
 CHUCKLEE.— An Indian temi, signifj-ing a cobbler, 
 or worker in leather. This cla.ss of men is employed 
 in all the government establishments in India where 
 leather-work is made up. 
 
 CIMBRI—KIMBRI.— A people who issued from the 
 Korth of Germany in conjunction with the Teutons,
 
 CIHETEB. 
 
 355 
 
 CIRCLE. 
 
 and first came into hostile contact with the Romans 
 in the Eastern Alps in 113 B.C. They were victorious 
 in several great engagements, and were only prevented 
 from devastating Italy hy sustaining a terrible defeat 
 from Marius, on the Riiudii Campi, near Verona, or, 
 according to others, near Vercclli, 101 B.C. Their 
 infantry fought with their .shields fastened together 
 bj' long chains ; their horsemen, of whom they had 
 1.5,0()0, were well armed with helmet, coat of mail, 
 shield, and spear. Marius had so chosen his position 
 that the sun and dust were in their faces, and yet 
 they contested the victory most bravely with the 
 Romans, who were 0.5,001) strong. When the battle 
 was lost, the women, who remained in the camp 
 formed of the wagons, killed themselves and their 
 children. It is said that 140,000 Cimbri fell in the 
 battle; the number of prisoners being given at 60,000. 
 It is not till long afterwards, when the Romans them- 
 selves penetrated into Gennany, that the name of the 
 Cimbri again appears. Cicsiir represents the Aduatici 
 of Belgium as the descendants of the Cimbri and the 
 Teutons. Tacitus speaks of a people bearing the 
 name of Cimbri, few in number, but of great reputa- 
 tion, that .sent ambassadors to Augustus. This people 
 lived in the extreme North of Germany, on the borders 
 of the ocean; according to Pliny and Ptolemy, at the 
 extremity of the peninsula called from them the Cira- 
 bric Chersonese, now Jiitland. The ethnology of the 
 Cimbri is doubtful. Greek writers a.ssociated them 
 groundlessly with the Cimmerians; Sallust calls them 
 Gauls; CiTJsar, Tacitus, and Plutarch looked upon 
 them as Germans, and the opinion of their German 
 origin has been adopted by most moderns. Yet H. 
 Midler, in his Marken ile« Vaterlands (1837), has en- 
 deavored to show that they belonged to tlie Celtic 
 race, and lived originally on the Northeast of the 
 Belga?, of kindred origin; and that their name is the 
 same as that Ijy whicli the Celts of Wales designate 
 themselves to this day — Ci/mii. 
 
 CIMETES. — An Oriental cavalry-sword with a blade 
 of great curvature. It is mu<h used by the Persians 
 and Turks, and is often written •Scimeier. 
 
 CIMIER. — A heavy ornament which the ancient 
 knights or chevaliers in France and in other countries 
 were accustomed to wear upon their helmets; small 
 figures were afterwards substituted in their stead. 
 
 CINCH — CINCHA. — A strong canvas girth used in 
 packing. It is about 1 yard long by 11 inches wide. 
 Two rectangular pieces of leather, 8 inches long by 
 5| inches wide, are stitched on one end, one on either 
 .side; in one of these pieces of leather there is a slit 
 through which a hard-wood hook is passed and firmly 
 fastened with a leather thong. A ring, 3 inches in 
 diameter, is securely stitched in the other end of the 
 cineha. See Hammer-ehth, Lash-rope, and Packing. 
 
 CINCINNATI. — A Society or Order in the United 
 States of North America established by the officers 
 of the Revolutionary Army in 1783, "to perpetuate 
 their friendship, and to raise a fimd for relieving the 
 widows and orphans of those who had fallen during 
 the war." It wa,s so named because it included pa- 
 triots, headed by Washington, who in many instances 
 had left rural affairs to serve their country. The 
 badge of the society is a bal<I eagle suspended by a 
 dark blue ribbon with white borders, sjTnbolizing the 
 union of France and America. On the breast of the 
 eagle there isa figure of Cincinni-tus receiving the 5Iili- 
 tary Ensigns from the Senators, with the plow in the 
 background; round the whole are the words. Omnia 
 reliquit aerrnre rempublicam. On the reverse, the Siime 
 hero is represented crowned by fame with a wreath 
 on which is inscribed Virtutin praniium, etc. As this 
 distinction was made hereditary, it was attjickcd as 
 opposed to republican equality. Franklin saw in it 
 the germ of a future aristocracy, and at a meeting 
 held in Philadelphia in 1784 several changes were 
 made in the (Constitution of the Society, and in several 
 of the States it was quietly abolished. " There are still, 
 however, several State Societies, which hold a general 
 meeting by delegates triennially. 
 
 CINQUAIN. — In ancient militaiy history, an order 
 of battle 1(1 draw tip five battalions so that they might 
 make three lines, that is, a van, main body, and reserve. 
 
 CINQUEFOIL.— A conunon bearmg in Heraldry. It 
 is usually depicted with the leaves issuing from a ball 
 as a center point. Cinquefoil, in architecture, is an 
 ornamental foliation in five compartments, used in the 
 tracery of windows, panelings, and the like. The 
 cinquefoil is often represented in a circular form, the 
 spaces between the ])oinls or cusps representing the 
 fivi! leaves. The cinquefoil of Heraldrj' and of ar- 
 chitecture is not derived from any leaf of five leaf- 
 lets, but, as its perfect regularity of form indicates, 
 from the fiower of the plant called cinquefoil, 
 {I'oleiitill/i), or other similar fiow'cr of five petals or 
 leaeex. The cinciuefoil thus closely reseml)les the 
 rose, with which it would, indeed, l)e identified, but 
 that a double and not a single rose is chosen for the 
 purposes ot Heraldry and decorative art. 
 
 CIPHER. — A preconcerted enigmatical system of 
 communication. Much uscfl in war when dispatch- 
 es arc liable to interception by the enemy, — both 
 for written commimication and for signaling. See 
 C'ri//)t<>(/ntpfii/. 
 
 CIRCITORES.— A name generally applied, in the 
 Roman armies, to the men who inspected the .senti- 
 nels. 
 
 CIRCLE. — A plane figure bounded by a curved 
 line, which returns into itself, called its circumference, 
 and which is everywhere equally distant from a jwint 
 within it called the center of the circle. The circum- 
 ference is sometimes itself called the circle, but this 
 is improper; circle is truly the name given to the 
 space contained within the circvunference. Any line 
 drawn through the center and terminated by the cir- 
 cumference is a diameter. It is obvious that every 
 diameter is bisected in the center. In co-ordinate 
 geometry the circle ranks as a curve of the second 
 order, and belongs to the cla.ss of the conic sections. 
 It is got from the right cone by cutting the cone by a 
 plane perpendicular to its axis. As an clement in 
 plane geometry, its properties are well known and 
 investigated in all the text-books. Only a few of the 
 leading properties %vill here be stated. 1. Of all 
 plane figures, the circle has the greatest area within 
 the same perimeter. 2. The circumference of a cir- 
 cle bears a certain constant ratio to its diameter. This 
 constant ratio, which mathematicians usually denote 
 by the Greek letter n, has been determined to be 
 3"l41.'59 nearly, so that if the diameter of a circle is 
 1 foot, its circumference is 3. 141.19 feet. Archimedes, 
 in his book De Dimennione Circnli, first gave a near 
 value to the ratio between the circimiference and the 
 diameter, being that of 7 to 22. Various closer 
 approximations in large numbers were afterwards 
 made, as, for instance, the ratio of 1815 to 5702. 
 Vieta, in 1579, showed that if the diameterof a circle 
 be 1000, etc , then the circumference will be greater 
 than 3141. .5926535 and less than 3141.5926.J37. This 
 approximation he made through ascertaining the 
 perimeters of the inseiibed and circum.scribed poly- 
 gons of 393,216 sides. By increasing the number of 
 the sides of the polygons, their peiimeters are brought 
 more and more nearly into coincidence with the cir- 
 cumference of the circle. The approximation to the 
 value of n has since been carried to 128 places of fig- 
 ures. It is now settled that tt belongs to the class of 
 quantities called incommensurable, i.e., it cannot be 
 ex])re.ssed by the ratio of any two whole numbers, 
 however great. Though the value of tt was at first 
 approached by actually calc\dating the perimeter of 
 a polygon of a great number of sides, this operose 
 method was long ago superseded by modes of calcu- 
 lation of a more refined chanicter, which, however, 
 cannot here be explained. Suffice it to s;iy, that 
 various scries were formed expressing its value; by 
 taking more and more of the terms of which into 
 account, a closer and closer approach to the value 
 might be obtained. We subjoin one or two of the 
 more curious.
 
 CIRCDIT-CLOSER. 
 
 356 
 
 CIRCUMFERENTOR. 
 
 «r ' ' ' J. 
 
 J j_ 
 
 W.S ' S.S 3.5. 
 
 The iireii of a circle 
 
 1 
 
 S.7.9' 
 
 «.ll^» 11.13 
 
 ^^. The iireii of a circle is ctiiial to tt multiplied by 
 the sjjuiux' of the radius (=Tr'): or to the square of 
 
 thedianietermultipliedby J: i.e., by .7854. Euclid 
 
 4 
 hits pmvml this. 4. The circular iiuasiirc of auglcs 
 is in fntiucul use in gunnery, and dcixMids directly 
 on the pr<i|x>silion that ani^Uwat the center of a circle 
 arc pro|M.>rtional to the arcs on which they stimd. Let 
 I'OA lie ail angle at the center O of a circle, the 
 melius of which is ;•, and let the length of the arc 
 \V = a. Then '»>lI-^^.l't)A_ ^ a . ^^^ ^ p^^ ^ 
 2 right angles zr 
 
 2 right angles a „ . j . , 
 
 — 5- 5 — . — . Now, supposing a and r to be 
 
 given, although the angle POA will be dptcrinine<l, yet 
 its numerical value will not be settled unless we make 
 some convention as to what angle we shall call unity. 
 \Ve are free to make any convenlion we plea.se, and 
 therefore choose such a one as will render the pre- 
 ceiling equation the most simple. It is made most 
 
 simple if we take ~ "g''^ ""^' Igg ^ i We shall then 
 have (denoting the numerical value of the angle POA 
 
 by )fj= . The result of our convention is that the 
 r 
 
 numerical value of two right angles is tt, instead 
 of IW)' as in the method of angular mea.surcment 
 first alluded to; and the unit of angle, instead of being 
 
 the ninetieth part of a right angle, is ?-"^^ """''^^ 
 ■or .57' 17' 44 48 ' nearly. Making = 1 in the equa- 
 tion — -_ wo have a (or AP) = r (or AO), which 
 
 shows that in the circular measure the unit of angle 
 is that angli' which is subtended by an arc of length 
 equal to radius. It is frc(|ueutly a matter of imliffer 
 encc which mode of measuring angles is adopted ; the 
 circular measure, however, is generally the most ad- 
 vantageous, as Ix'ing the briefest. It is ea.sy to pass 
 from this mode of measurement to the sexagt'simal. 
 If be the circular measure of an angle, the angle 
 
 contains _ . 180'; conversely, if an angle contain n", 
 
 T 
 
 it-s circular measure is -^ . n- 
 180 
 CIRCUIT-CLOSER.— An arrangement bv which sub- 
 marine mines are tired electrically bv the vessel her- 
 s«'lf closing the circuit. Circuit-clo.sers'are of two cla.ss- 
 es, one iM-ing that in which the charge and the circuit- 
 closer are in the same case, an<l the other is where 
 till- circuit-closer is in a separate ca.se, liut connected 
 with the charge of the mine by an eleclrical cable. 
 Ill l«illi ways the conducting cable is electrically 
 charged from the battery on shore up to the circuit- 
 closer; when this latter" is closed by contact with a 
 iiostile ve.'isel, the current pas.ses tlirougli the fuse in 
 the charge and the mine is exploded. A great num- 
 iK-r of dilTiTcnl forms of l)otli classes have been in- 
 venled. all of which are more or less complicated and 
 rcijiiirc special descriplion and study lo iiiidersland. 
 
 To ri-nihr mines thus |)n]viile(l wiih circuilclosers 
 harmles.s lo friendly ve.s.sels passintr. it would be 
 iieccswary only lo detach the tiring battery— an opera- 
 lion usually performed by the operator simply re- 
 moving a small plug. In "this case Ihc circuit-clo.ser 
 if strongly made, may Ix' stnick lime and again with- 
 out injury. This power to nsisi heaw blows is 
 es.s<niial lo ihe clllciency of any form of circuit-closer 
 as, when in position in a channel llirouirh which lliere 
 is much Iralllc, they are alw.ivs liable lo be struck 
 with considenible force liy blades of screws, Uoat.s of 
 
 paddles, and other hard and sharp bodies. Another 
 [•special considenition is that the apparatus for closing 
 the circuit shall not be set in action by agitation of 
 the water, but only by imi>acl with a Boatuig Ixxly. 
 The circuit-closer must fuithcrinorc have sullicient 
 si/e to give the required amount of inertia. AVhen 
 the circuit-closer and charge are combined in the 
 same case, this is assureti; but when they are .sepa- 
 rate, it is effected by inclosing the mechanism in 
 buoys made of wood or metal. The greater the si/e 
 and weight of the circuit-closer. It"' "reciter will be 
 the chances of the effective worl...^ oi the apparatus. 
 The destructive power of a mine decreases rapidly jjs 
 the distance from it iiicreiLses. The circuit-clo.ser 
 I should not, therefore, l)e beyondthe effective range of 
 I the mine. Forty lo tifty feet should be Ihe ma.\iinum 
 { distance for the heaviest charges. See Mines. 
 \ CIRCULAR CUTTER.— With the usual pyramidal 
 fonn of the Kodraan cutter it has been found dillicult 
 so to tile the faces of the pyramid as to have two cut- 
 ters identical in form and dimensions. The idea was 
 therefore conceived of turning a beveled edge with a 
 circular protile upon the iierimeter of a steel disk, 
 thus securing the perfect agreement of all cutters 
 taken from that disk. The special advantage of the 
 circular cutting or indenting edge is that it can lie 
 readily pressed into the indentation pre\iously made 
 in the copper disk while in the bore, upon its removal 
 to tlie (lyiKUiMineter, or testing-machine. 
 
 In the pyramidal cutter it is difficult to make the 
 apex of the pyramid coincide with its former position 
 in ad.iiistiiig it to get the reading of the e»timiiU>r. 
 Witli the circular cutler no difficulty is experienced 
 in adjusting its edge lo the bottom of the indentaticm 
 in the copi)er, when the operator wishes to make 
 similar secondary cuts for determining the pressures. 
 ■ See ^(iliimal Arimrry Vireular VuUer, Rodman Cut- 
 ter, and Rodman Tisflng-mnchine. 
 
 CIRCULAR SAW.— This s;iw was introduced into 
 England about 1790. General Bentham contrived 
 the bench, slit, jiarallel .guide, and .sliding-bevel .ijuide. 
 He also invented circular saws made of .segmental 
 plates. In the modern and improved machine, the 
 sjiw-arbor is carried in a swinging frame provided 
 with an adjusting-screw for regulating its height, 
 and a clamp-screw for holding it rigidly in any'de- 
 sired position. For simiilicily of construction, ease 
 of operation, and for rigidity in use this arran.irement 
 is superior to all others. "To render the machines 
 free from vibration, and lo avoid the difficulties and 
 I disadvantages incidental to the u.se of short belts, ex- 
 j cessive strain upon the bearings, difficulty of keeping 
 I bells at proper tension, etc., the countershafts are 
 i separate from the machines. In setting them the 
 following rule should be observed: Set the saw mid- 
 way between its highest and its lowest working i>osi- 
 tions, and then place the counter-shaft in a straight 
 line with the arbor and the shaft on which the arbor- 
 frame swings. See Biiiid-mir Machiiw. 
 
 CIRCUMFERENTOR.— 1. A surveying instmment 
 used in England only in mines, coal-pits, etc., but of 
 
 common occurrence in land-surveying in the United 
 States. Many of the olil-lashioned surveyors yet use 
 it, though it is disappe.'iring as Ihe theodolite liecomes 
 more and more commonly known.— 2. An instrii 
 ment employed to measure the tires of wheels. It
 
 CIECUMVALLATION. 
 
 357 
 
 CIVIL EMPLOYES. 
 
 consists of a wheel graduated on its periphery and 
 axled in a holder. It has a circumference of known 
 length, and i.s pas.sed arounil the outside of the rim of 
 a wheel to ascertain the length of the tire. The in- 
 strument having a perimeter, sjiy, 2 feet in circum- 
 ference, the zero is lirought to a inarked spot on the 
 periphery of the wheel to be measured. The small 
 wheel is then caused to tra\el around the larger, and 
 indicates the length by making so many revolutions 
 and such a fraction as the casi- may Ix-. " The instru- 
 ment represented in the drawing and known as the 
 Green River circumferentor Is pro\-ided with an in 
 dex-hand, which saves the trouble of marking the 
 peripher\'. 
 
 CIBCUMVALLATION.— In fortification, a scries of { 
 works surrounding a place when under siege,— not to 
 ser^'e offensively against the place, but to defend the 
 siege-anny froiii an attack from without. It usually 
 consists of a chain of redoubts, either isolated or con- 
 nected by a line of parapet. Such lines were much 
 ased in the sieges of the Ancient and Jliddle Ages; 
 but in modern times they are not so necessary, because 
 the use of artillery lessons die duration of a .siege, 
 and also because the besiegers have generally a corps 
 of observation in the open (ield, ready to repel any 
 force of the enemy about to succor the besieged. A 
 remarkable examjde of circumvallation was that at 
 Sebastopol, where, while a circuit cf batteriifs tiied 
 upon the town, an outer circuit of redoubts and lines 
 kept off the Russians who were in the open field; 
 but the necessity for this arose out of the smallness 
 of the besieging "force compared with that of the be- 
 sieged. The narrow escape of the allies from utter 
 overthrow at Inkermann showed the necessity for 
 this external defense. See Cointerralkitwn. 
 
 CIS. — A Latin preposition, meaning " on this side," 
 which is often prefixed to the names of rivers and 
 mountains to form adjectives: Cisalpine, C'ispadane. 
 "on this side of the Alps," " of the Po." As most 
 of these words are of Roman origin, Rome is con- 
 sidered the point of departure. 
 
 CITADEL. — A fort of four or five bastions, in or 
 near a town. A citadel .serves two purposes : it 
 enables the garrison of a town to keep the inhabitants 
 in subjection; and, in case of a siege, it forms a jilace 
 of retreat for the tlefenders, and enables them to hold 
 out after the re.st of the town has been captured. A 
 citadel must fully command the fortifications of the 
 city, and have a large s]iace round it clear of build- 
 ings. See <'ii.ylt, and Fm-tijicalion. 
 
 CIVIC CEOWN.— A crown considered aniona; the 
 Romans more honorable than any other reward. It 
 was given for saving the life of .i citizen in battle or 
 assa\ill. It was given to Cicero for his discovery of 
 Catiline's Conspiracy, and to the Kmperor Augustus. 
 The Civic Crown was inereiy a wreath, at first of 
 twigs of elm, then of Ix'ech, and lastly of oak. The 
 one to whom it was given had the right to wear it 
 always. When he appeared in jiublic, if Senators 
 were present, they rose to do him honor, and he was 
 excused from all troublesome duties and services, 
 with the same immunities for his father and his 
 father's father. 
 
 CIVIEEE. — A small hand-barrow which is carried 
 bv two men. and is much used by the artillery. 
 
 CIVIL AUTHOEITY.— The relation between the 
 military and civil authorities is set forth in the 59th 
 Article of War. Resix-ct for the ci\il authorities is 
 the duty of all citizens, and especially of those in the 
 military service. As the objects of the military ser- 
 vice are of national interest, it is very dc siralilc that 
 kindly relations exist between soldiers and other citi- 
 zens. A ci\-il officer charged with the execution of 
 process should receive proper facilities for its service 
 on making known his character to the nearest Com- 
 manding Olliccr. See Civil Serrkt and Posse Coiii- 
 
 iUtlnn, 
 
 CIVIL DEPARTMENTS.— Branches of the British 
 army under the War Office. They include the 
 Control Department, Medical Department, Veterinary 
 
 Department, Chaplain's Department, Education De- 
 partment, and the Administration of .Justice. 
 
 CIVIL EMPLOYES.— The Chief of each ^U'itan- 
 Bureau of the War Department, under the direction 
 of the Secretary of War, regulates as far as practi- 
 cable the employment of hired citizens required for 
 the a<lministrative service of his Department. He 
 distributes the aggi-egate number which can be al- 
 lowed, whether rated as clerks, teamsters, mechanics, 
 or laborers, to the several .Military Departments ac 
 cording to the innnberof trtxjps therein, or according 
 to the work to be done. Except for the Corps of 
 Engineers, the grades of pay of clerks and other em- 
 ployes under the Staff Departments of the army 
 whose siilaries are not fixed by law are authorized as 
 follows: There are six clns.ses of clerkships, and 
 each clerk or employe within the scope of this regu- 
 lation is graded for pay in accordance therewith, viz. : 
 
 Class. 
 
 First class. .. 
 Second class 
 Third class. . 
 Foiirlli class 
 Fifth class.. 
 Sixth class.. 
 
 Pay per Pay per 
 
 niomh. 
 
 anuum. 
 
 $83.1-1 
 
 $1,000 
 
 100 00 
 
 1,300 
 
 116 86 
 
 1.400 
 
 133 33 
 
 1,600 
 
 150 00 
 
 1,800 
 
 166 66 
 
 3,000 
 
 Any compensation greater than the above must 
 receive the special approval and sanction of the Sec- 
 retarj- of War; but nothing in this regulation is con- 
 strued as prohibiting the payment of smaller .salaries 
 than the above for such lower grades of clerkships as 
 the wants of the service may require. The selection 
 of employes as clerks, etc. , is left to the officer em- 
 plojing them, provided such selection has the ap 
 proval of the Commander of the Di^^sion or Depart- 
 ment in which the officer may be serving, and the 
 approval of the Head of the Militarj' Bureau, when 
 serving at depots, arsenals, posts, and stations not 
 under the immediate control of a Division or Depart- 
 ment Commander. When practicable, persons hired 
 in the military' service are paid at the end of the cal- 
 endar month, and when discharged. When r, hired 
 person is discharged and not paid, a certified state- 
 ment of his personal .services and of wages due is 
 given. In computing the wages of laborers employed 
 at a per-diem allowance, the actual niunber of days 
 is to be a.scertained and allowed. The day on which 
 serWcc begins and the day on which service ends 
 should be counted in the computation of the wages 
 earned. Laborers emiiloyed by the month and ac- 
 tually perfomiing their first day's labor on the 31st 
 day of any month are paid for that day. Citizens in 
 the emploj' of any branch of the military service, ex- 
 cept laliorers, teamsters, and like classes of em])loyes, 
 when traveling under competent orders, or upon sum- 
 mons as w ilnesses before Jlilitary Courts, are entitled 
 to trans|ioi1ation in kind; or, if no transportation be 
 provided, they may charge the cost, actually jjaid by 
 them, of travel fare by the usual conveyances, inclu- 
 sive of transfer to and from depots, not exceeding 
 fifty cents each, and of one berth in sleeping-cars, or 
 on ste.'imers where an extra charge is made Ibercfor. 
 Pa\ment of parlor-car fare is prohibited. In addition 
 to ilie above, the sum of four dollars per day west of 
 the 3Iis.si.ssippi River, and three dollai-s and a quarter 
 east thereof, is allowed for each and every day un- 
 avoidably consumed in travel, or on duty under the 
 order or .summons; provided that where meals are 
 included in the transportation, or fare, by steamers, 
 no per diem shall be charged. Laborers, teamsters, 
 and like classes of employes, traveling as above stated, 
 are entitled to stich actual and necessary exi)enses on 
 account of tninsporlation and subsistence as may be 
 authorized by the Chief of the Bureau which make.s 
 payment of the account — except when the employe 
 is in receipt of a ration from the L'nited States, in 
 which ease, if it be impracticable to carry his rations 
 \vith him, instead of expenses of subsistence, as above
 
 CIVILIAN. 
 
 358 
 
 CLEARANCE ANGLE. 
 
 confemplated. he is paid commutation of rations at 
 thf usual rail's. Actual ox|H'n.si'.>:, as conteniplalcii 
 alKjve, arc payable as follows : To Paymaslors' 
 cliTks ami cilizin \vitMos.<es bifurc Military Courts, by 
 the Pay Departnieiit ; to citizens employed at ar- 
 senals ilnil armories (cost of Iransixirlalion included), 
 from appropriations for the sorviec of tlie Ordnance 
 Deimrtnuni ; to citizens employed on public works 
 ami fori ilieal ions (cost of lransi>orlalion included), 
 from the appropriation made spccitically for the 
 work ; to Coinniis-sjiries' clerks. Quartermasters' 
 clerks and agents, and other citizens employed with 
 the armv, when Iniveling on public .service, under 
 onlers of competent military authority, by the Quar- 
 termaster's Department. 
 
 CIVILIAN. — This term h:us three meanings, which 
 are distinct, thougli intimately related. (1) In a 
 jxipular sense it siirnities a person whose pursuits arc 
 civil, i.e.. neither military nor clerical. (2) Asa law- 
 tcnn, it means either a person who is versed in the 
 principles and rules in accordance with which civil 
 rights may Ix- freely, l)lamelcssly, and succcs.«fully 
 vindicatetl in society generally, or in the particular 
 state in which he belongs. (3) One who has made a 
 siXK'ial study of these rules and principles as exhib- 
 ited in the laws and covernmcnt of Rome (the Roman 
 civil law). The civil law of Rome exercised such 
 influence upon llic formation of the municipal sys- 
 tems of almost all the States of modern Europe that 
 those who devoted themselves to its study were re- 
 garded as "civil" or municipal lawyers par ejcel- 
 Jencf. 
 
 CIVIL SEKVICE.— A general name for all the 
 duties rendered to and paid for by the State, other 
 than those relating to naval and military matters. 
 Civil serrice in the United States was partiaUv intro- 
 duced in the Customs and some other offices in 1877 
 and the years following, but up to tliis lime it has 
 made no grcjit progress. The general jirinciples of 
 the system are the s;inie as in England, involving the 
 separation of officials from all absorbing political par- 
 tisimship, and. in general, the retention of capable 
 and deser\'ing Civil Officers through the succes.sive 
 changes of Administration. It involves also the pro- 
 motion of worthy public servants as vacancies may 
 occur. It lays the foundation for all this in confer- 
 ring offices, not as reward for j)artis;ui services, but 
 on strict comiH'titive examination as to character, 
 CJipaeity, and education. By many it is pronounced 
 Itoth impracticable and undesirable; by others, a tine 
 ideal not likely to Ix? realize<l; imil by others, an in- 
 dispenstible practical reform. 
 
 CIVIL 'WAR. — A war Ijctween two or more por- 
 tions of a Country or State, each contending for the 
 mastery of the whole, and each claiming to be the 
 legitimate government. The term is also" sometimes 
 applied to war of rebellion, when the rebellious Pro- 
 vinces or ix)rlions of the Slate are contiguous to those 
 containing the seal of government. Sec Insurrection 
 and liih l/iiiii . 
 
 CLAH. — In Heraldr\-, a term for an escalop or 
 cockle shell, and suppo.sed to indicate that the bearer 
 has Ijcen a crusiidcr. or has made long voyages by sea. 
 
 CLARI6ATI0N. — In Roman anti(|uily,"a"ceremony 
 which .ilways i;re((deda formal declaration of war. 
 The Chief of the Heralds went to the territory of the 
 enemy, where, after some .solemn prefatorv" indica- 
 tion, he, with a loud voice, intimated that lie'dedared 
 war against them for certain rca.sons specified, such 
 as injury done lo the Roman allies, or the like 
 
 CLAT BREECH-LOADER. — An apparatus with 
 which one -idc (jf ilic breech is enlarged to receive a 
 s<rew-plug, a little more than twice Ihc'diameter of the 
 liore. A hole in the plug forms, when the hitler is 
 uns<Tewed half a turn, a continuation of the bore, 
 lliroiigh which the charge is lo;iiled. IJy screwin'' 
 up the plug half a turn, the S(jlid pari of il" covers the 
 end of the bore and .sets closely agiunst il. The 
 breech is thus opened b^v one niovejnent, and the 
 parts, though large, are simple; but the obmus de- 
 
 fect is the great difficulty of applying a suitable gas- 
 check. 
 
 CLAYES.— In sapping, hurdles to form blinds for 
 working-parties. Reinforced with earth, they are 
 substanlially (/((Ai///!*, and ;ia such arc of a more per- 
 manent character. Frequently written CUiyinutges, 
 and iis<'d to cover the timber-work of galleries. 
 
 CLAYMORE. — The Gaelic name for a kind of sword 
 at one lime much used, but not so well known at 
 present. It had a double-edged blade, about -l;) inch- 
 es long by 2 inches broad; its handle wa-s often 13 
 inches long, and its weight U or 7 pounds. This 
 sword is now principally used by Ihe officers and 
 non-commissioned officers of Highland regiments. 
 
 CLEANING MATERIALS. - Cleaning-materials for 
 small-arms and accouterments are issued by the Ord- 
 nance Departmetit to Company Commanders, at the 
 rate of one box per company. On the mider side of 
 the cover of each box is pasted Ihe following printed 
 notice, \nz. : "This box contains two quart cans of 
 anti-corrosive and lubricating 'cosmoline' oil; one 
 box holiling 40 ounces scouring-material, marked 1, 
 composed of 12 ounces parattine, 18 ounces flour co- 
 rundum, 6 ounces cosmoline oil, 4 ounces lamp-black, 
 melted together; one box hoUling 1(5 ounces leiilhcr- 
 polish, marked 2, composed of 13 ounces baybeiTy 
 tallow, 3 ounces lamp-black, melted together; one 
 box holding 40 oimces compres.sed whiting, marked 8; 
 one chamois-skin; one wire scratch-brush. For re- 
 moving rust and cleaning brass-work: Rub off a tery 
 littk from box 1 on a cloth or on the end of the finger. 
 For rust, use a soft stick. Finish with whiting for 
 bright work, anil oil for browned work. For polish- 
 ing accouterments: 1. Rub off a little on the soft 
 cloth from box; 2. Rub it well on the leather, and 
 I finish lightly T\-ith a soft cloth. Lubricating-oil: Ap- 
 j ply the oil lightly with a rag. 
 
 I "If Ihe browning is rubbed off the barrel, dismount 
 Ihe barrel and remove the breech-block and parts of 
 the extractor. Oil the bore of Ihe barrel and stop up 
 each end with a plug. Wash Ihe outside of the barrel 
 with hot soap-suds or lye of wood-iishes, to remove 
 ' grease, ^\'ash off with clean hot water. AVhen dry, 
 applj- the browning-mixture, which is composed of 
 13 parts' of water and 1 part of nuiriatic acid by meas- 
 ure, with a sponge or rag. Put the barrel a.side to 
 rust, in a dam]> and warm place, from three to four 
 hours. Rub off Ihe coat of rust so ft)rmed with the 
 stecl-nire scratch-brush; and repeat this three or four 
 times. After each rusting pour on boiling water for 
 several minutes to destroy the acid; use the scratch- 
 brush as before, and finish with an oiled rag. In 
 case the other parts get worn, a similar treatment 
 should be employed. When convenient, the action 
 of the brf)wning-mixture can Ix- promoted by laying 
 the barrel in a closed box with a few cloths wet with 
 hot water and spread so as not to touch the barrel; 
 the box should be set in a warm place. The scratch- 
 brush should be used lengthwise of Ihe barrel. When 
 the brush gets worn down, untwist the wire around 
 it sufficiently to forma new head." The weight of 
 the box tilled, is 18 pounds. See Gire of Snmll-iirnis. 
 
 CLEARANCE.— In ordnance, the linear di.sfance be- 
 tween the body of the ijrojectile and the twre of the 
 giui. The amount of Ihe elearaiuc Ixfore Ihe pro- 
 jectile moves is the difference between the depth of 
 the groove in the gun and the iirojection of the stud 
 on the iirojeclilc; but when the jirojecfilc is in motion 
 and cenlered in the l>ore, the clearaticc all round the 
 projectile will be half the windage over the l)odv. 
 
 CLEARANCE-ANGLE.— All gims fitted with a'front 
 sight on the toj) of the piece between the tninnions 
 have what is called a cUartince-<iii{]te. This nuiy be 
 defined as the angle of elevation obtained when the 
 bottom of Ihe notch of the rear sight and the top of 
 the front sight and the notch on the muzzle are in 
 line. If the rear sight is raised above this angle, the 
 front sight falls Inflow flu- line, joining the notcli of 
 the rear sight and the muzzle. The muzzle-notch 
 must then be taken as the second point of sight.
 
 CLEARING-SCREW. 
 
 359 
 
 CLEPSYDRA. 
 
 CLEARING-SCREW.— In some fire-arms, a screw at ' 
 risrht angks to the nipple, and affording a comnmui- 
 cation with the chamljer. 
 
 CLEARY LITTER. — In 1875 Assistant Surgeon 
 P. J. A. Cleary, U. S. Army, reported to the Surgeon i 
 General's Ottice his observations in the Indiim Terri- 
 tory on the faeility with wliieh the Indians trans- 
 ported their sick and aged or infirm on lilUrs dragged 
 Iiy ponies, and suggested that analogous conveyances 
 might be utilized for the tninsporf of wounded, in 
 cavalry-scouts au<l in marches in ditlitmlt country 
 where the use of wheeled vehicles was impracticable. 
 
 The drawing shows the moiliticalion of the Indian 
 litter proposed. Each side-ix>le is jointed; by with- 
 drawing a pin it comes apart, leaving the shafts in 
 the harness, and the stretcher-frame disconnected. 
 The length of the connected side-poles shoidd be 17 
 feet, viz. : 5 feet occupied by the horse, 3 feet from 
 rear of horse to first traverse or cross-piece of litter, 
 7 feet for bed of lilter, a feci from bed of litter to the 
 end. The advantages which Ihe litter appears to 
 possess are: 1. Simplicity of construction. •.>. Facil- 
 it}' of transportation, as it can be easily rolled up iuid 
 
 CLEATS.— Small blocks of wood used commonly 
 for securing movable articles Avhich are likely, as at 
 sea, to roll over or be displaced. In the artillery ser- 
 vice they are used in tlifferent parts of gim-carriages 
 for fixing l(]()ls, etc, 
 
 CLEMMONS MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun is an a- 
 daptation of a magazine to the United States Spring- 
 field rifle. The alterations are as follows: The left 
 side of the receiver is cut away nearly to the bottom 
 of the well. The portion removed is replaced by a 
 piece the interior of which is somewhat the shape" of 
 the half cartridge. This piece is open at the rear in 
 order to receive cartridges from the magazine. A 
 groove is cut in the left side of the butt-stock for the 
 magazme-tube, and is covered by a brass plate. The 
 magazine-spring and cartridge-foUiiwer are of the 
 usual form. To the rear of the follower one end of 
 a iJiece of tape is attached; the other end is connected 
 wilh an ordinary clockwork by which the tape may 
 be wound up, drawing back the follower and com- 
 pressing the magazine-spring. On the inner surface 
 of the piece alTached to the receiver is a spring, 
 pivoted at its front. This spring has a thumb-piece, 
 which may be locked back by a spring-catch. The 
 split spring serves as a magazine cartridge-stop. The 
 magazine-spring ha\ing been compres.sed by winding 
 up the clockwork, the magazine is filled with car- 
 tridges by backing them down from the receiver. A 
 pawl is then released from a ratchet, by means of a 
 slide, and the magazine-s])ring bears on the column 
 of cartridges. When the breech-block is closed it 
 
 Cleary Litter. 
 
 carried either in a wagon or strapped to a horse. 
 3. It is drawn by one animal. 4. It reipiires but om' 
 man to work it. .'). The facility with which a patient 
 can be brought into a hospital: by detaching it at the 
 joint it is converted into a hand-litter on which the 
 patient is readily conveyed to the ward of the hos- 
 pital. 6. Its general adaptability for any kind of 
 ground: in cros.sing canons and deep gullies the litter 
 proper could be easily detached, and a man at either 
 end carry it as a hand-litter over any obstruction and 
 again attach it; and finally, for any slight obstruc 
 tion, the driver, without detaching it. could lift the 
 rear end (the forward part being held in the harness) 
 until the obstruction was pa.s.sed. 7. Were it to be 
 scut out with a cavalry comman<l (wilh other supplie-s) 
 and not required for actual use, it would occupy 
 but a small space, and need not have even a horse 
 sent with it — when, if required, the trooper's horse 
 could be used to haul it. Btit one point in the har- 
 ness needs special notice, viz., the straps across the 
 liorse's liips, which su|iport the .shafts; the object 
 being to prevent the horse, in ctise he rears up, from 
 jumping out of the shafts or kicking the patient. 
 By these strajis the horsf lift.<< the litter every time he 
 attempts to kick, and so cannot reach the patient. 
 Straps attached to the side-poles, and passing under 
 the arms and buttocks of the patient, counteract the 
 tendency to slip due to the incline of the litter. 
 
 strikes the thumb-piece, presses it back, and lets in a 
 cartridge from the magazine. By pressing on this 
 thumb-piece, the breech-block liaving been opened 
 sulticiently to overcome the spring-catch, the cartridge 
 is thrown into the receiver; it nmst then be pushed 
 into the chamber in the usual maimer. 
 
 As a magazine-gun, si,\ motions arc necessary to 
 operate it. viz., cocked, oiU'iied, loaded (two motions), 
 closed, fired. As a single-loader, the usual five mo- 
 tions are neces.sary to operate it. The gun carries 
 five cartridges in the magazine, one opposite the re- 
 ceiver, and one in the chamber. See Magazine-giiii. 
 and Spn'iififiild Rifle. 
 
 CLEPSYDRA. — An instniment for measuring time 
 by the efflux of water through a small orifice. Two 
 kinds have been in use — one wherein the fluid is sim- 
 ply allowed to escape through the orifice, the other 
 in which the imiformity of the flow is secured by 
 maintaining the fluid at a constant level in the in.stni- 
 ment. The first would, like a sand-glass, give only 
 an accurate measure of the time occupied in the 
 escape of the whole fluid ; of a shorter timp it would 
 be an inaccurate mea.sure. as the pressure under which 
 the escape takes ])lace at the commencement is greater 
 than at any instant thereafter, and constantly dimin- 
 ishes with the height of the fluid column. In the 
 second, the flow must be nearly uniform; and if the 
 water be received into a uniform graduated tube as it
 
 CLICK. 
 
 360 
 
 CLOSED WORKS. 
 
 eiscapcx, wc have a tolerably pood clock. The rate 
 of the flow, howfver, is iilTeflod l>y teiiil>cmturc niul 
 biiMiiu-lric pressure. The clcpsydni is supposeil to 
 huvi' licfii us«>(l iimonir tin- ( liiiUliaiis. The Homiins 
 einployiil it extciisivtiy. Tlic iiivnitior. of tlie peiulu- 
 luui hiVs supcrsedi'd it in iikhIctii ludlisliciil investiga- 
 tions. The ihrtrifitl rlork is a doeliwork inuchine, in 
 which an electro inasnet, by means of an electric I'ur- 
 rent regularly interrupted . is bol h the motor ami there- 
 gtdalor. It "is so constructed that at each oscillation of 
 the pendulum the current is (>penc<l and dosed, and 
 thus an armalwie In^ats the seconds exactly. Toillus- 
 tnilc the use of this contrivance, or the depsydni, 
 suppose that on the railroad from New York to San 
 Francisco each station has an electric clock, and that 
 from the New York station a conilucting wire pas,ses 
 to all the cUn'ks on the line as far as San Francisco. 
 When the cuirent passis in this wire, all the clocks 
 will .simultaneously indicate the same hour, the sjuue 
 minute, and the same second; for electricity travels 
 with such proiligious velocity that it takes an inaijpre- 
 ciable time to go from New York to San Francisco. 
 See EUrtric C'epKydra. 
 
 CLICE. — An ancient Turkish saber, very long and 
 ciirveil. Now obsolete. 
 
 GLIDE. — .V machine of war, u.'cd during the Mid- 
 <lle Ages to throw rocks on besieging-parties. 
 
 CLIMAX GUNCLEANEE. — A gun-cleaning ar- 
 rangement palenl(<l by the United States Cartridge 
 Company, and sivid to lie very effective in its work. 
 It has a lower joint made of brass tubing, and form- 
 ing a reservoir to contain the cleaning fluid. The 
 elmner is made of a .solid \i\vve of brass, and has a 
 small hole drilled through it, which opens at one end 
 into the reser\-oir, and terminates at a point between 
 the rubbers. The cktiiiir is shouldered and has a 
 brass washer on each side of each rubber, by which 
 the rubbers can be expanded to produce anj- desired 
 friction by turning the rod to the right after the 
 cleaner is inserted in the barrel. 
 
 The operation is as follows: After putting the rod 
 together, adjust the rubbers to lit the gun. then till 
 the reservoir with the liquid to be used, screw the 
 cleaner in the reservoir, insert in the barrel, and the 
 liquid will flow down into the chamber formed by 
 the rubbers, and loosen the dirt. The rubbers will 
 remove it. After cleaning, remove the dernier, screw 
 in a wiper, and wipe out the barrels. If it is wished 
 to oil the gun, remove the rubbers, saturate the 
 ■Wiishers with oil, and put them on the cleaner in 
 place of the rubbers. 
 
 CLINCHER-WORK.— A mode of uniting armor- 
 plates in which the edges are lapped and secured by 
 one row of rivets. It is distinguished from earcel- 
 build in the res])ect that in the latter the edges of the 
 plates are brought together and the joint covered by 
 an interior /(//* or irelt, to which the pjates arc secured 
 by two rows of rivets, one to each plate. 
 
 CLINOMETER.— An instrument used in 
 determining the slo|)e of cuttings and em- 
 bankments, the inclination of the trun- 
 nions, etc. It has a {(uadrant graduated 
 to degrees and fixed at the end (if a long 
 bar which is laiil adown the slope; an 
 inde.x turns upon the center ol the ipiad- 
 nuit, to which a sjiiril level is ;ittached. 
 The level iK-ingset horizontally, the angle 
 of the same will be indicated liii the quad- 
 rant as the latter partakes of the motion 
 of the rod. 
 
 The dniwing shows the Abney level, 
 an English modification of the "hand- 
 level," combining with it an excellent 
 clinometer. When the level is centered bv 
 wttingtlie vernier-arm to zero on the divid- 
 ed arc, the bubble is .seen Ibrough tlw eye 
 end and the level ii.sceriainecl iirecisi'ly as with the 
 Locke's level. And the main tube being scpiare it 
 can Ix; applied to anv surface, the inclination of 
 which may be a-seertaiued by bringing the level-bub- 
 
 ble into its center, and reading off the angle to five 
 minutes by the vernier and arc. The inner and 
 shorter arc indicates the lines of dilTi rent degrees of 
 slope, the left-hand edge of the vernier being applied 
 to the lines and the bubble brought into the center as 
 usual. See Iland-lt'rel. 
 
 CLIP. — An instrument for lifting heavy shells. It 
 is used in England with muzzle-loading guns from 
 the 74neb to the 12-incli. 
 
 CLIPEADUS. — The soldiers in ancient times who 
 were armed with the Grecian buckler, which was 
 large and round. By cHjhikIiik chht hi yiie was imder- 
 stood combatants who, in place of the shield, wound 
 their coats (rhUimyde) around their left arms. 
 
 CLIPEUS. — A large shield worn by the ancient 
 Greeks and Romans, which was originally of a circu- 
 lar form, made of wicker-work or wood covered with 
 ox-hides several folds deci), and bound round the 
 edge with metal. 
 
 CLITZ INTRENCHING-TOOL.— This projiosed iii- 
 treurhiiig-tool consists of a sheet-.steel blade, turned 
 up on one edge and .slightly curved cylindrically 
 near the point. It is set in a light wooden handle 
 split for its reception, and securely riveted together 
 through the tang of the blade. This tool is intended 
 for exclusive use as a mechanical implement, and 
 frequently the straight edge is cut into .saw-teeth. 
 The soldier should never be separated from an in- 
 trenching-too! of some description. Many are the in- 
 stances recorded where it was impossible to forward 
 the intreuchihg-toiilH to the front until after the ex- 
 igency for their use had passed, and the men were 
 compelled to use tin plates, tin cans, fragments of 
 canteens, kiuves, sticks, etc., in order to get tempo- 
 rary shelter from the encm)''s most galling fire. See 
 Farriiir Kaife-trnitel iiml Triit-pef/ anil Trmrel bayonet. 
 CLOSE. — A term in Heraldry. AV'hen the wings of 
 a bird are down and close to the body it is described 
 as done. The term is used only with reference to 
 birds addicted to flight, such as the eagle, falcon, 
 etc. Of dunghill cocks, and other domestic fowls, 
 it is understood that their wings are in this position. 
 Harnacles, and bits for horses, are said to be clone 
 when they are not to be imderstood as extended. 
 
 CLOSE "column.— A column of troops in which 
 the subdivisions are at less than full distance; that is, 
 less than the length of one of the subdivisions. 
 
 CLOSED WORKS.— A field-work may have to tire 
 on all sides of the imsition, over a limited portion of 
 a circle, or in special directions only, according to 
 th" positions which may be occupied by the enemy's 
 artillery. These different circumstances give rise to 
 three kinds of field-works, viz.: 1. Field-works ex- 
 posed to the artillery -fire of the enemy in one direc- 
 tion only, or in front; 2. Field-works exposed to ar- 
 tillery-fire of the enemy on the flanks as well as in 
 front; 3. Field-works exposed to this flre upon all 
 sides of the po.sition. It is evident that in t lie trace 
 of a work of the first kind, the 
 position which the enemy may 
 have in its front need only be 
 considered. The trace of a 
 work of the second kind must 
 be considered \aider the sup- 
 position that the enemy may 
 appear in front and on the 
 
 Abii'_-\ l,'_\ i.l aud Cliuometer. 
 I 
 
 flanks; that is, in a portion bounded by a part of a 
 circle. The trace of a work of the third kind must 
 be considered under the supposition that the enemy 
 may appear on all sides of the work. Parapets are
 
 CLOSE OBDEK. 
 
 361 
 
 CLOTH.TESTEB. 
 
 needed on all sides, in the works of the third kind, 
 lo shelter the men from the enemy's fire; and that 
 they arc only needed on the exjxjsed sides, in works 
 of the first and s<eond kinds. Tlie works of the 
 first and second kinds may then he left open on the 
 sides not exposed lo artillery-fire, or they ma}' he 
 closed hy some ohstruction. The trace of a closed 
 work may be of any form, either circular, square, 
 quadrilateral, polygonal -reirular or irrejridar — all 
 salient angles, or some salient and some reentering 
 angles. i 
 
 CLOSE OKDEK.— In tactics, the space of about one- 
 half pace between ranks. In the United States .ser- 
 vice, the distance between ranks, from Ijack to breast, 
 is faring diMfinct'; \m\ on rougli ground, and when 
 marching in double time, it is increased to 'i'i inches; 
 ujjon halting, the rear rank closes to facing distance. 
 When the knapsack is worn, the distance between the 
 ranks is increased by the depth of the knapsack. In 
 alignment.s in doul)le rank, the rear-rank men cast 
 their eyes to the side of the guide with the front-rank 
 men, and maintain the proper distance between the 
 ranks. 
 
 CLOTH. —A material formed by weaving or inter- 
 texture. In arsenals this material is much used, and 
 is of various kinds — viz., book-muslin, buntin, can- 
 vas, doosootie (an Indian name), serge, viliy, waxed 
 cloth, and silk. The cloths enumerated are made use 
 of for the following purposes; Book-muslin, for the 
 bottom of sieves, etc.; buntin, for colors; canvas, as 
 shown under that head; doosootie, for capjiing car 
 i'asses, and it is also occasionallj* used for package and 
 in making blowing-bags; serge, for serWee cartridge- 
 bags; vitry, which is a finekindof canvas, for making 
 paulins aiid powder-cloths, occasionallj- for Kiinch 
 blowing-bags, sponge-caps, and gun-aprons, also for 
 saddle-wrajjpers; waxed cloth, for i)Owder-bairels 
 (H yard being required to pack a powder-barrel in), 
 and for ■VM'apping round elevating screws, fuses, etc. ; 
 silk, for exercising and .saluting cartridges, though 
 .he use of this material is likery to be extended to 
 service cartridges. 
 
 CLOTHING.— The President of the United States is 
 authorized to prescribe the kind and quality of cloth- 
 ing ft) be issued annually to the troops of the United 
 States. The manner of issuing and accounting for 
 clothing is establi^ihcd by general regidations of the 
 War department. But whenever more than the 
 authorized quantity is required, the value of the extra 
 articles is deducted from the soldiers' pay; and, in 
 like manner, the soldiers receive pay according to the 
 annual estimated value for such authorized articles of I 
 uniform as shall not have Ijcen issued to them in each , 
 year. When a .soldier is discharged, it is the duty of 
 the PajTuaster GeniTal to pay him for clothing not 
 drawn. The Quartermaster's Department distributes 
 to the army the clothing, camji and garrison e(|ui|)age 
 required for the use of the troops. Eveiy Commander 
 of a Company, Detachment, or Recruiting Station, or 
 other oflieer receiving clothing, etc., renders (luarterly 
 returns of clothing according to prescribed forms to 
 the Q\iarterniast<iGenend. All otlicers charged with 
 the issue of clothing are required to make good ar.y 
 loss or ilamage, uides they can show to the .satisfaction 
 of the Secretary of \\'ar, by one or more depositions, 
 that the deficiency was occasioned by unavoidable 
 accident, or was lost in actual service, without any 
 fault on their part; or, in case of damage, that it did 
 not result from neglect. Purchasing clothing from a 
 soldier is prohibited. 
 
 In England many changes and imiirovcments have 
 been recentlv made in the Clothing Department of 
 the army, in the time of Henry VIII. the soldiers' 
 dress was principally while, witli green or russet for 
 special corps. In t^ueen Elizabeth's reign a sum of 
 Is. 8(7. was allowed weekly for each soldier's clothing. 
 The uniform then con.sisted of a cassock of Kentish 
 broadcloth, a canvas doublet, kersey stockings, trou- 
 sers of kersey broadcloth, neat's-leather shoes, and 
 Holland shirt. In 1678 an infantrj- soldier's dress 
 
 was valued at £2 13»., and a dragoon's as high as 
 t'6 \fix. At one time Lords-lieutenant attended to 
 the clothing of the troops, each in his own County; 
 but the duty was afterwards transferred to the State. 
 Captains of companies clothed the men, stopped the 
 money out of the jiay, and made a profit on the trans- 
 action. The i)rivilege afterwards pa.s.sed to the Colonels 
 of regiments. The sum provided by the State everj' 
 jear was for the " clTective" strength of the regiment; 
 and any vacancies put an additional sum into the 
 pockets of the Colonel. From 1746 to 1855 .soldiers' 
 pay was debited with " off -reckonings," as a means of 
 paying for the clothes suiiplied to the men. Under 
 this system the Colonel received from the State so 
 much mouej' annually for clothing his regiment, and 
 then contracted with wholcsjile tailors for a supply 
 on the lowest terms. In 1854, just before a change 
 was made in the system, the Colonel's profit, on the 
 clothing for a private in the Line, was 15s. 'id. per 
 man. 
 
 The disasters during the early months of the Cri- 
 mean AVar having created a national demand for re 
 forms in militarj- matters, a change in the mode of 
 army clothing was one of the results. By a Royal 
 Warrant, dated June '^1, 1855, the Colonels of regi- 
 ments were awarded certain annual smns of money in 
 lieu of off-reckonings. The.se sums varied from 
 £1"200 to .€500, and were to be given in addition to 
 the pay. From that date all the troops have been 
 clothed by the Government, the off -reckonings being 
 calculated nearly as before, but paid by the country 
 to the Colonels. AVhen the War Office was remodeled 
 about the same time, a Clothing Department was 
 added to it; and it was now found that the clothing 
 for a full regiment of 1091 non-commissioned officers 
 and rank and file, in the Line, cost about £2500 per 
 annum. The clothing is now contracted for more 
 openly than under the former system; and better 
 materials arc hence obtained without any increa.se in 
 cost. The Government has a factory on its own ac- 
 count, but a large part of the supply is obtained by 
 contract. Formerly soldiers' coats were too often 
 made of veiy loose, spongy materials; but now the 
 inspection is rendered much more severe; and the 
 cloth provided for jirivates is as good as that worn bj- 
 sergeants a few years ago, while the cloth worn b.v 
 sergeants now is correspondingly improved. 
 
 CLOTH-TESTER.— A machine for ascertflining the 
 tensile strength of materials by an even direct ])idl, 
 also by a side or tearing strain; it is designed for test- 
 
 ing materials for tentage. blankets, clothing, etc. The 
 drawing shows such a contrivance with the following 
 dimensions: Extreme height, 2 feet 5 inches; extreme
 
 CLOUT. 
 
 363 
 
 COAL. 
 
 leiurtl), 2 feet 3 inches; extreme \*'idth, 12 inches; 
 wpurht, a.', |>ouiuls. AiliipUition: Tinsile specinicns 
 12 iiK-ht-s loiijr by ;5 iiiclit-s wiile or k-ss, capacity 500 
 pounds. Tbis nmchinc is ii recent iuvuiilion, and is 
 u prc)it assi-slauce to t^uarttTinasters and others who 
 purchase cotlou and wixjieii materials and are respon- 
 sible for their quality. The niachiue reatiily coni- 
 pun-s articU-s of clothing with that of any standard 
 grade. Siv Tenlinyiiiiic/iiiu: 
 
 CLOUT. — -Vn iron shielil or plate placed on a piece 
 of tiinlKr in a c-arriajri' — jis on an a.vletree — to take 
 the rubliinu' and ke*']' the wood from beiiij: worn. 
 
 CLOVE-HITCH.— Two lialf-hilche.s. To make this 
 hitch irivc the rope a turn around the object, pass the 
 end of the rope round its .standing part, and then 
 through the bight. To make a eUm-liilcli, relieat the 
 motion around the standing part and through the 
 bight, and stop the end to the standing part. Sec 
 Cvrtiage. 
 
 CLUB. — In mililan,' evolutions, to throw troops into 
 confusion; to defonii through ignorance or inadver- 
 tency. To chih a battaliun miplies a temporary ina- 
 bility in the Commanding Officer to restore any given 
 body of men to their natural front in line or column. 
 
 CLUNACULUM. — A poniard carried by certain Ro- 
 man troops in ancient times. It was ,so called because 
 it WHS carried on tlie back of the soldier. 
 
 CNEMIDAS.— A kind of leggings, made of bronze, 
 which were worn by Grecian soldiers. 
 
 COAL. — The use of coal does not seem to have been 
 known to the ancients; nor is it well known at what 
 time it began to be used for fuel. Some -say that it 
 W!is used by the ancient Britons; and at all events it 
 was to some e.xtent an article of hou.schold consump- 
 tion duringthe Anglo-Sa.von period ascarly asy52 A.D. 
 There seems to be reason for thinking tliat England 
 was the tirst European country in which coal was | 
 used to any considerable extent. Atout the end of 
 the thirteenth century it began to be emiiloycd in ! 
 London, but at first only in the arts and manufactures; 
 and the innovation was com]ilained of as injurious to 
 human health. In lilHi the Parliament petitioned 
 the king, Edward II., to prohibit the use of coal, and 
 
 l.t<.liii'r Coal-cutting Machine, 
 a proclamation was accordingly issued against it; but I 
 owing to the high jjricc of wood its use soon l)ecame 
 gi'neral in London. It was for a long time known 
 there a.s stu-mul, because imported by sea. Several 
 theories us to the mode of the (origin of coal have been 
 put forth from linw to time. The one now generally 
 iiclicvcd in is that the rank and lu.xuriant vegetation ! 
 which prevailed during the carl)oniferous age grew ' 
 and decayed upon land but sligbtly raised above the 
 M-a; thill by slow subsidence this thick hiyer of vege- 
 t.ible matter sunk below the water, and became gnid 
 iially covered with sjmd, nnid, and other mineral sed 
 iinent; that then, by some slight upheaval of the sca- 
 l)ottom or other process, a land-surface was once more 
 fonned. and covered with a dense ma-is of plants, 
 which in course of time decayed, sank, and became 
 overlai<l with silt an<I sand as before. At length 
 thick masses of stnilitie<l matter would accumulate, 
 pnxlucing gre.at pressure, and this, iicling along witli 
 chemical changes, would gradually mineralize the 
 vegetable layers into coal. Some e.xperiinenls made 
 by Dr. Lindley, u few years ago, showed that of [ 
 
 a large munber of plants kept immersed in water 
 for two years, the ferns, lycopodiums. and pines were 
 those wliich had the greatest powers of resisting deejay, 
 and coal appears to be mainly composed of the sub- 
 stance of the ancient representatives of these thrt-e 
 orders of plants. The interesting fact has also Ix-en 
 lately proveti, by Uuxley, Morns, Carruthers, and 
 others, that in many instances the bituminous matter 
 in coal is almost wholly formed of the spore-cases and 
 spores uf plants allied to ovir club-inos,ses and ferns. 
 
 As will be seen from the following table, wood, 
 peat, lignite or brown coal, juid true coal indicate by 
 their composition the changes which vegetable mat- 
 ter undergoes by decay and pressure; and a table in 
 which a considerable number of examjjles of each 
 substance could be given woidd show how gradually 
 these substiiuces pass into each other: 
 
 Wood. I'eat. Lignittf. Coal. 
 
 Carbon 50.0 60.0 65.7 82.6 
 
 Hydrogen.... 6.2 6.5 5.3 5.6 
 
 Oxygen 4:18 33.5 29.0 11.8 
 
 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 
 In each of these bodi<s there is usually a small per- 
 centage of nitrogen, which in the above table has not 
 Ix;en separated. In passing from wood or peat to 
 coal, the proportion of oxygen imd hydrogen de- 
 creases, these subsUmces being given off in the fomi 
 of marsh-g!is and carbonic acid in the process of de- 
 ca\'. Since the prosperity of our great national iu- 
 dustries, as well as much of our domestic comfort, 
 depends on the continuance of an abundant supply of 
 che;ip fuel, much anxiety has arisen of late years re- 
 garding the future supply and price of coal. Since 
 the fall of 1873 a great lise has taken place in its 
 price. This is partly owing to the imusmdly high 
 rate of miners' wages which has prevailed, and partly 
 to the fact that some of the richest and most ea.silv 
 worked English coal-seams are becoming exhau.steif. 
 Taking into account the coal which probably exisl> 
 under the iiermian, new red s;mdstone, and other 
 superincumbent strata in the L'uiled Kingdom, the 
 Coal Commissioners increase their estimate of the 
 quantity still available for use to 146, -480 millions of 
 tons. At the present rate of annual pio(luclii>n — 
 namely, 123,500,000 tons— this would last llStt years. 
 But, as may be supposed, the estimates which" have 
 been put forth regarding the probable duration of our 
 coal-fields are very various, some authorities asserting 
 that, owing to increase in population and 
 the increasing consumption of coal in fac- 
 tories, about 100 years will suffice to ex- 
 haust them. Between this and the oth- 
 er extreme of about 1000 years, formed oil 
 the assumplion that the population of the 
 country will but slightly increase, there 
 are innimierable conjectures and estimates. 
 The annual production of coal through- 
 out the world has been roughlv estimated at 260,000,- 
 000 tons, including about 17,000,000 tons of lignite- 
 and coal from the formations newer than the coal- 
 mea.sures of Europe. Nearly one half of this totjil 
 was raised in Great Britain. Excluding lignite the 
 figures are as follows: 
 
 Tons 
 
 Great Britain 125,000,000 
 
 United States 48,000,000 
 
 Germany 3.">.000,000 
 
 France 17,500,IK)0 
 
 Belgium 17,000,000 
 
 Austria 4.700,000 
 
 New South Wales 1 .300,000 
 
 ■ Ru.«.sia 1,000,000 
 
 Spain 750,000 
 
 India 700,000 
 
 Other Europe 125,000 
 
 British North America 7.50,000 
 
 Chili 200,000 
 
 Australia 50,000 
 
 In America the first coal discovered was by Father
 
 COAST-BATTERIES. 
 
 363 
 
 COATED PROJECTILES. 
 
 Hennepin, near what is now Ottawa, 111. The first 
 milling of coal was in 1813, when live hoat-loads of 
 flinty coal were floated down the Lehigh River and 
 sold in Philadelphia for $21 per Ion. The fuel of the 
 period was almost entirely of wood, Liverpool coal 
 being a rare luxury-. As late as 1821 only 22,122 tons 
 of eoal (Liverpool) were imported into the United 
 States. The lirst regular shipments of coal from the 
 Peim.sylvauia mines begin in 1820. Thecoal industry 
 of Pennsylvania has reached enormous proportions, 
 the annual product being valued at over |50, 000,000. 
 Besides more than 20,000,000 tons of anthracite coal 
 there are mined in Pennsylvania near 10,000,000 Ions 
 of bituminous coal annually. Of bituminous coal the 
 States of Ohio and Illinois produce the next most ex 
 tensive yield, each about 3,000,000 tons annually. In 
 1870 there were 1566 collieries in the United States, 
 employing 92,454 hands, and invested capital to the 
 amount of $110,000,000. In 1820 the total coal pro- 
 duct of Pennsylvania was less than 2000 tons. It is 
 now more than 30,000,000 tons per annum. 
 
 One of the most successful applications of com 
 presscd-air engines has been in the working of coal- 
 cutting machines. Of these machines. Firth's in Eng- 
 land, Gladhill's in Scotland, and Brown's in America 
 have been in practical operation for several years; 
 but they can as yet only be economically worked 
 under exceptionally favorable circumstances. A very 
 satisfactory form f)f the coal-cutting machine has an 
 engine with a reciprocating pistfin tlri\ing a massive 
 steel pick, in any desired direction, and at a very ma- 
 terial sa\ing in hewing, or kirriKg. The motive 
 power of the engine is highlj' compr&ssed air, con- 
 densed by the steam engine at the mouth of the pit, 
 and this elastic air is conveyed b_v slender pipes down 
 the shaft and along the mine to the breast where the 
 coal is being worked. The compressed air is pumped 
 by the steam-engine into a receiver at the pit-head 
 during its otherwise idle hours, or by its suqilus 
 power when ilrawing up the eoal, or pumping out 
 the water from the mine, and is condensed to a ten- 
 sion of forty or flfty pounds to the stjuare inch. It is 
 conducted in metallic pipes 4.^ inches in diameter, 
 down to the bottom of the shaft, and thence in pipes 
 of a smaller diameter to the workings, tubes of 1 or 
 1} inch caliber bringing it lo the cylinder of the ma- 
 chine. This compressed air, when set free at each 
 alternating stroke of the piston, imparts to the adja- 
 cent portions of the mine a pure dry, cool atmosphere, 
 from a well-known law of all air and gases, that 
 when compressed they develop heat, and when ex- 
 panded under a relaxation of pressure they are rela- 
 tively cool. 
 
 The dramng repre.sents the Lechner coal-cutting 
 machine, much u.sed in America. The under cut- 
 ting by this machine is done by a revolving hori- 
 zonal cutter- bar of from three to four feet in 
 length, driven into the coal by two small engines at- 
 tached to a stationary frame. The cutter-bar is re- 
 volved by two endless steel chains, and when the 
 desired depth of cut is reached, is withdrawn almost 
 instantly by the smaller reversed screw. The cuttings 
 are removed hy means of .scraper-chains, as seen in 
 the drawing. The machine is placed in front of the 
 coal at one side of the room, on the floor of the mine; 
 the cutter-bar is driven into the coal Ave feet, and by 
 the reversed screw mentioned above is withdrawn, ' 
 when the machine is moved over the length of the 
 cutter-bar used, and another cut is made, withdrawn 
 again, and set over as before, and .so on continually, 
 until the entire room is under-cut, when the machine 
 is placed on a car for the purpose, and run into an- 
 other room. The time required to make the cut, 3 lo 
 4 feet wide, 4 inches high, and 5 feet deep, is from 6 
 to 8 minutes; withdrawing and setting over, 3 min- I 
 utes. Time consumed by each cut, 10 minutes. See i 
 Avthrnfilf and Coke. \ 
 
 COAST-BATTERIES. — Batteries erected along a 
 coast to protect the entrances of harbors and ports. 
 They are armed with artillery of the largest caliber to ! 
 
 oppose the landing of an enemy. The nature of ord 
 nance for coast-defenses in England was in 1860 rec- 
 ommended to lie as follows: the 10-inch gun of 86 
 cwt. ; the 68-pdr. of 95 cwt. ; the 8-inch gun of 65 
 cwt.; the 32-pdr. of 56 cwt.; the 13 inch sea-service 
 mortar. Since the introduction of rifled arlillerj- and 
 armor-plated ships, the old smoothbore guns, which 
 formerlj' were used for coast-defense, have l)een su- 
 perseded by the heavier rifled onlnancc of the pres- 
 ent dav. See Ordnaiue. 
 
 COAST-GUARD LIGHT.— A light used for signals, 
 and which burns about five minutes. It has super- 
 seded the coast-guard port-tire, and its composition 
 consists of saltpeter, 7 pounds; sulphur, 1 pound 12 
 oimces; red orpiment, 8 ounces. The top of Ihe com- 
 position is primed with mealed powder, and the flash 
 blows off the cap. It is ignited by placing a G.S. 
 primer in the hole in the head of the apparatus, and 
 a sharp blow with a pin jnojecting from it .sets the 
 light on tire. The primer is made on a similar plan 
 to the friction-tube; Ihe pin is roughed and coated 
 with friction-tube comjiosition. 
 
 COATED PROJECTILES.— The surfaces of projec- 
 tiles to wliieli llie lead covering is attached is smooth,, 
 and the cannelures formerly in ase to secure strength 
 in the attachment of the lead are now omitted. The 
 lead coating is held on by tinning, and at first cast on 
 quite thick, but afterwards lurneil off in a lathe, leav- 
 ing the usual projecting bands. The iron surface of 
 the projectile Is cast smooth, and then dipped in a so- 
 lution of sal-ammoniac; after this it is immersed in a 
 bath of melted zinc, and at the same time revolved 
 on its long axis by means of an iron rod inserted in 
 the fuse-hole. During this revolution, which is done 
 by one workman, another presses a mass of sal-am- 
 moniac, fastened to the end of an iron rod, on the sur- 
 face of the projectile. After a sufficient amoimt of 
 zinc is made in this way to adhere to the surface, the 
 projectile is placed in an iron mold and the lead coat- 
 ing cast on it. The lead coat occasionally becomes 
 detached in spots, where the lead has lisen up into 
 blisters from the formation of gas underneath it, oc- 
 casioned by voltaic action Ix'tween the different met- 
 als. Such blisters are generally very small, and may 
 l)c pricked and then hammered down, without affect- 
 ing the fitness of the projectile for service. If left to 
 develop themselves, they have been known to attain 
 a large size. 
 
 The surface of the coating usually has raised bands 
 or welts to take the rifling of the piece. In the (Jer- 
 mim service the front band, a, as shown in Fig. 1, is 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 smaller in diameter tlian the others. Next larger is 
 the band b, then comes the band r, and largest in di- 
 ameter of all is the rear band, d. The lead coating 
 is preserved from injury by two grommets, which are 
 nearly severed to facilitate removal, and the projec- 
 tiles are stored in racks fitted in the shell room. 
 Sometimes the body of the projectile is not strictly 
 cylindrical, but ratiier smaller at the base, the lead 
 coating bringing the finished body into a cylinder. 
 This form Is considered ^ood for penetration, but 
 any lead coating must considerably retard the projec- 
 tile in endeavoring to force its way through armor.
 
 COAT OF ARMS. 
 
 364 
 
 CODS. 
 
 This leiul coviring c-auscs a great wiistc of power, us 
 it is Ihc ironpiirt alone, of the shell, that can do work 
 a^.iinst the itim philes. and couseiiuenlly a eonsitleru- 
 ble force is exiH-ntled in projectins; a part of the pro- 
 jwtile whieli is useless for the work which has to be 
 iKTfonned. A heariu!: of lead uixjii iron is, mechan- 
 icallv s|M-aking, one of the worst conceivable, and 
 purticularlv uniler high pressures and veloi'ities. The 
 iwrticient of friction for a be;irin,i; of lead u|K)n c:isl- 
 in)n, wruufihl iron, or steel is gn'ulerllmii for that of 
 almost any other two metals; and it increases very 
 decidedly "in some contacts with an increase of tem- 
 perature. 
 
 The projectiles of the 3inch steel boat-u'un arc fitted 
 with a copper rotation-belt over the center of gnivily, 
 as shown in Fi.:. 2. The belt has a length of Iwariiur 
 of i inches and a taper towards the front; it is 
 •rrooved aroimd the rear part. Al)Out .3 of an inch 
 from the base is titled a steadyingring, .25 of an inch 
 broad, and semicircular in section. On the e.Mcrior 
 of the cylinder of the project lie, and about over its 
 center o"f gravity, a broad groove or recess is cut .03 
 of an inch in depth, and as long as the rotation-belt 
 (which it is to receive). At .4 of an inch from the 
 base of the projeclile another groove is cut, of similar 
 depth and f inch wide; this is to receive the guide- 
 ring. A cold-chisel is then used to nick the l)otloms 
 of ihese grooves all around at intervals of about i an 
 inch; the direction of the chisel-marks lieing length- 
 wise of the projtKtile, and their depth about two or 
 three hundredths of an inch. 
 
 Cylindrical rings of copper are ca.st in sand-molds, 
 and of length suitable for making rotation-bells and 
 gviide-rings. The interior diameter of these rings is 
 very slightly greater than that of the cylindrical part 
 of the projectile. The thickness of tlie metal is .l.T 
 of an inch. The rings are then slipped over the pro- 
 jectiles, and S(]Uee/.ed(or i)erMianently compressed) l)y 
 a screw press into the grooves prepared for tlieni. 
 This operation not only tills the grooves complclely 
 and makes the rhiL's hug the body of the projeclile. 
 but also forces the copper slightly into llie marks left 
 by the cold-chisel at tiie bottom of the gn>f)ves; thus 
 IKjwerfully assisting to prevent any possihilily of the 
 belt slipping circumferenlially upon llie projectile. 
 The ]iri>jeetiles, with their rough l)elts and rings on 
 them, are then centered in the lathe, and the biarings 
 are carefully turned down to the diameters and pro 
 files given on the drawings. See Coiiij>re»>iii>n-]}rojic- 
 til'n. Liiiil-oiatint] PriiirxK. and PriyccHlis. 
 
 COAT OF ABM8.— In the military irajipings of the 
 Middle Ages, the coat of arms held the place of the 
 IMiliidaiii) iitniii of the luieient Roman Captains. It 
 was a coat worn by Princes and Great Barons o\er 
 their armor, and descended to the knee. It was 
 made of cloth of gold or silver, of fur or of velvet, 
 and bore armorial insignia. The " coat of anns," 
 as understood by Ilenddry in the present day, is 
 nothing more than a relic of the ancient armorial in- 
 aiirniu, divested of the coal on which it used to be 
 embroidered. 
 
 COAT OF MAIL.— In the armor of the Middle 
 Ag.'s. a siiil made of metal scales or rings, linked one 
 within iiMolher. See Armor. 
 
 COCKADE.— According to Wedg\vood, this word 
 signified originally a cocked hat, or a hat with the 
 broad Hap looped up on one side, and was then ap- 
 plied to the knot of ribbon with which the loop was 
 ornamented. Another view is that it is derived from 
 riMjiinrI, a Ixau, or one fond of gjjy trappings. The 
 word is now, li<)wev<M-, restricted to signify an ap- 
 Ijcndage to the hiad-dress woni as.-i military "or naval 
 ilistinetion. Badges of disiinction were early had 
 recourse to in party and civil warfare. A sprig of 
 br<X)m {/ilaiitti ijrni><la) was the badge of the House of 
 Hlantagi'nel. In Kngland, during the w:n-s between 
 the Houses of York and Lancaster, tin adherents of 
 the f<>rm<r party wt're dislingnlshcd by a while and 
 the latter by a red rose worn In the (up. The jvirly 
 <irL'ani/.ed at the Court of Ch;irle^ IX. of France to 
 
 perpetrate the massacre of St. Bartholomew recog- 
 nized one another by a paper cross. The faction of 
 the hVoiide, opposed to Cardinal Mazarin, wore stalks 
 of corn for the .siune purpose; and certain military 
 bands were called Uinrtu r<rU«, from decorating their 
 lances with green twigs. The use of cockades, as 
 marks of distinction in campaigns and battles, t)ccanie 
 very general about the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century. Eugene and Marlborough gave the Ger- 
 mans, "English, and Dutch, composing their armv, a 
 tuft of corn or gra.ss as their signal or cockade. 'The 
 use of the cockade began to be more fixed in the War 
 of Succession. White being the color of France, and 
 red of Spain, the two colors were unitwl in the cock- 
 ade of the combined army. At last, in 1767, an 
 authoritative regulation determined that every French 
 stildier should wear a coekiide of while slutf ; and in 
 17S2 cockades were prohibited to all but soldiers. 
 From this time till the Revolution the cockade 
 was an exclusively military badge; and, both in 
 France and England, "to mount the cockade" was 
 .synonymous with becoming a soldier. But in the 
 enthusiasm of 1789, the citizens of France generally 
 assumed the tricoloreil ribbon as the badge of natioii- 
 ality and patriotism, which was .soon also given to 
 the" army. The three colors were blue, white, and 
 red: white had long been the color of France and its 
 kings; the blue is understood to have come from the 
 baimer of St. Martin, and the red from the oriflamme. 
 Long before the Revolution, the three colors were 
 used in combination: they were given by Ilcniy IV. 
 to the Dutch, when they desired him to confer on 
 them the national colors of his Country, and haveever 
 since been borne by the Dutch Republic and King- 
 dom of the Netherlands. At the Restoration, the 
 white cockade of the Monarchy ag-ain took its place, 
 but bad to give way once more to the tricolor, which 
 continues to be the cockade of the French army. 
 Black, with .some distinction, enters into the cockades 
 of the German nations. The Austrian is black and 
 yellow; and the Prussian was black and white, aban- 
 ilonetl for tlie black, yellow, and while of the Gk-r- 
 man Empire. After the German War of Liberation 
 in 18i;j, a national cockade of black, red, and gold 
 came into general use, and was afterwards assumed 
 by the military and by officials The wearing of 
 these German cockades was proliibiled in 1832 by n 
 Res<ilution of the German Diet; but in 1848 they 
 were again introduced, not only liy patriots as a badge 
 of Gennan union, but into the armies. The national 
 colors of Belgium are black, yellow, and red. Cock- 
 ades of these colors were worn by almost the whole 
 population of Brussels on occasion of the Constilii- 
 lional Festival, July 21, 18(50. Cockades of green, 
 white, and red are worn in Italy. The Continental 
 cockade is generally in the shaiie of a tiat disk, some- 
 times of metal, sometimes of silk or other stuff, with 
 the colors (lis|iosi<l concentrically. 
 
 COCK-FEATHER.— In archery, the feather which 
 stood up in the aiTow, when it was correctly placed 
 upon the string, perpendicularly upon the cock or 
 notch. 
 
 CODE.— 1. A body of laws established by the 
 Legislative Authority of the State, and designed to 
 regulate completely, so far as a statute may, the sub- 
 jects to which it relates. The earliest and most com- 
 plete Code of the American States is thai of Louis- 
 iana, finished in 1824, the work of Edward Living- 
 ston, a member of the celebrated family of that name 
 in New York, and wjis based on the Code Na]X)leon- 
 enne. It has 3.522 Articles in one series, but com- 
 prises threebooks— (l)of Pcnsons; (2) of TInngs, and 
 the Modification of Property; (3) of the Dillerent 
 Modes of Acquiring Properly. A Code was com- 
 jileted in Massjichu.setts in 183.'), and it was revised 
 t.venty years later. New York's first Code formed 
 the Re\nsed Statutes of 1830. There have lu-en van 
 ous more or less eomplele revisions, and there is the 
 whole or a part of a further revision now before the 
 Legislature. All except the latest new Stales have
 
 COEHOBN MORTAR. 
 
 365 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 compilations of the coditicd editions of tlieir laws. 
 David Dudley Field of New York has been active 
 and eminent in the work of coditication. — 2. A list 
 of signal-svmbols. 
 
 COEHORN MORTAR.— The Coehorn mortar, wlilch 
 takes its name from its inventor, General Coeliorn, is a 
 very small bronze mortar, designed to throw a 34- 
 lX)under shell to distances not e.xcecding 12(K) yards. 
 Its weight is 104 lbs., its ma.\imum charge i lb. of 
 powder, and it is mounted on a wooden block fur- 
 nished with handles, so that two men can easily carrj- 
 it from one part of a work to another. In the late 
 war this piece was much used in the field agaiasl 
 troops covered by ritle-jiits. At Fort Wagner, Gen- 
 eral Gillinore sjiys that it followed close on the heels 
 of the s;ippei-s and did good service against the enemy 
 who were not sheltered against vertical tire. If tired 
 with frictionprimei's, this mortar should be provided 
 with a shield of sheet-iron so placed as to prevent the 
 fragments of the primers from Hying among the gim- 
 ners. 
 
 To serve the piece, four men are necessary: one 
 chief of detachment, one gmmer, and two cannoneers. 
 The implements and equipments are carried In a 
 ba.sket, which is put near and in rear of the mortar. 
 They are as follows: primer-pouch, containing prim- 
 ing-wire, primers, and lanyard; gunner's pouc-h, con- 
 taining gunner's level and a pair of small pincers; 
 one quadrant, one sponge, one plummet, and one 
 mallet. A small wedge is used as a quoin. The 
 mortar should have a permanent line of metal mark- 
 ed on it; otherwise this must be marked as for the 10- 
 inch siege-mortar. The shells should be strapped 
 with tin, and be provided with cord handle. They, 
 together with the powder and fuses, are kept in the 
 service-magazine. The service of the piece is analo- 
 gous to that for the 10-inch siege-mortar. 
 
 When Coehorn mortjirs accompany troops in cam- 
 paign, they may be carried onordiiirirv tield-cais,sons; 
 each caisson carrying one mortar, together with sixty 
 
 its equipments (weighing 311 pounds), and sj.xtecn 
 boxes, each containing eight shells and weighing 168 
 pounds, or 2688 pomuls, making a total of 2999 
 pounds: a fair load, on good roads, for four horses 
 or six mules. See .\fiiit(ii\ 
 
 COEHORN SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— Coe- 
 horn 's method of alt;ick was the very opposite of that 
 of his contemporary and rivjU; whilst Vauban ad 
 vanced surely and slowly, sparing life and intrenching 
 every step, Coehorn sacrificed everything to time, and 
 trusted to an overwhelming fire of ariillery and auda- 
 cious assaults. At Bonn, in 1703, besides a large 
 park of heavy ordnance, he employed oOO snudl mor- 
 tiirs to throw grenades. Coehorn has been placed at 
 the head of the modern Dutch school. 
 
 COFFEE.— This most important article of the sol- 
 diors ration owes its exhilarating and refreshing 
 properties to the presence of three substances: 1. 
 Caffeine, which occurs in the roasteil bean to the ex- 
 tent cf I to 1 per cent; 2. A wUitile oil, which is not 
 present m the raw bean, b\it is developed during the 
 process of roasting to the extent of only one part in 
 about 50,01)0 of the roasted coffee; 3. Astringent acids, 
 resembling t;umic acid, but called caffeo-tannic an(l 
 caffeic acids. The average composition of unroasted 
 coffee is as follows: 
 
 Caffeine 0.8 
 
 Legumin (vegetable caseine) 13.0 
 
 Gum and sugar 1.5.5 
 
 Caffeo-tannic and caffeic acids 5.0 
 
 Fat and volatile oil 13.0 
 
 Woody fiber 34.0 
 
 Ash 6.7 
 
 Water 12.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 When the beans are roasted till they assume a red- 
 dish-brown color, they lose 15 per cent by weight 
 and gain 30 per cent in bulk; when further roasted 
 
 Abele Coffee-roastinK Machine. 
 
 rounds of ammunition. The mortar is carried on 
 the cais.son-botly, the front chest being removed for 
 this purpose. The piece is securely lashed with ropes 
 through the handles. The remaining amn\unilion- 
 chests are arranged to carry thirty slu'Us each. The 
 l)owder is in cans, and a set of measures (from one to 
 six oimces) should be provided. The shells should 
 l)e charged and the fuse-plugs driven, ria<ly for the 
 insertion of the fuses. A caisson with chest similarly 
 arranged .should accomp:iny each piece. The mortars 
 may also be carried in ordinary army transportation- 
 wagons. Each wagon will carrj' one Coehorn and 
 
 till they Income cheslntit-brown, they have lost 20 
 per cent by weight and increased 50 per cent in bulk; 
 whilst if the roasting is continued till the iK^ans be- 
 come dark brown, they lose 25 per cent in weight 
 and acquire 50 jier cent in bulk. The l)eans should 
 never be darker than a light brown color, which Ls 
 qiiite suHicient to bring out the excellent aroma and 
 other c(ualitiis of the coffee; and when the roasting is 
 carried further, more or less charring is the result, 
 and a ilisagreeable burned smell is produced, which 
 tends to overcome the natural pleasant aroma. 
 Frequently on the march and in camp there are no-
 
 COFFER-DAM. 
 
 366 
 
 COFFER MAGAZINE. 
 
 facilities for proiK-rly roasting oolTec, iiml exiHTiencc 
 liiui shown thill It is' well for troops in the tiuM to he 
 supplied with eoffiK- previously n)aste<l at the (le]M)ts. 
 The ilniwinfT shows the Ahele roasting machine, em- 
 iiloveil at most military posis ami supplyHlepols. 
 This machine ha.s every lulvanlajie of the old-style 
 sliding evliiuler, together with iiuincrons important 
 improviments. ChargiHl and diseharjred, both at the 
 same end in front, it saves W per cent of space, with 
 lime and lalnir to the tender, and maintains jxjrfect 
 ventilation Ihroiijjhout, to oxiilize the coffee by in- 
 haling <'urrents ot air; with outlets for the exhalation 
 of ga-s and steam from within. When desired it may 
 have forced circulation, as by a fan (and water a(l- 
 mitled from the hydrant or from a tank al)ove); while 
 the coffee is easily examined at every stage in oxida- 
 lion. without interfering with the work or stopping 
 the action of the machine. The important points ac- 
 comi>lished in the machine are: 
 
 1. To keep the material in uniform motion, to and 
 fro, by means of ingeniously constructed shovels and 
 .stirrers that will expo.se every particle to exactly the 
 same degree of heat. 
 
 2. To draw in through openings in front a cuiTcnt 
 of oxidizing air to .surround the coffee during that 
 chemical change; m:iking up in part, by the oxygen 
 absorbed, for any subsequent loss and neutralizing the 
 gases, to be blown off hy the same currents of air to- 
 wards the rear of the furnace into the smoke-stack 
 above. 
 
 3. To pro\nde for the immediate escape of steam 
 from within, by means of an exhaling ventilator, lo- 
 cated over the cylinder in front. 
 
 The usual methods of preparing coffee are, first, by 
 Jiliration; second, by infusion; third, by boiling. 
 Filtration gives often, but not alwaj's, a gcjod cup of 
 coffee. When the pouring the boiling water over the 
 ground coffee is done slowly, the drops in passing 
 come in contact with too much air, whose oxygen 
 works a change in the aromatic particles, and often 
 destroys them entirely. The extniction, moreover, is 
 incomplete. Infusion is accomplished by making the 
 water boil, and then putting in the grouiid coffee; the 
 vessel being immediately taken off the fire and allowed 
 to stand quietly for about ten minutes. The coffee is 
 ready for use when the jxiwder swimming on tbe sur- 
 face falls to the bottom on slightly stirring it. This 
 method gives a very aromatic coffee, but one contain- 
 ing little extract. ' Boiling, lus is the custom in the 
 East, yields excellent coffee. The powder is put on 
 the lire in cold water, which is allowed merely to lx)il 
 up a few seconds. The fine particles of coffee are 
 drunk with the beverage. If boiled long, the aromatic 
 parts arc volatilized, and the coffee is then rich in ex- 
 tract but poor in aroma. 
 
 Coffee does not retjird the action of the bowels, a.s 
 strong infusions of tea generally do, ])artly Iwcause 
 there is less of the astringent principle, and also owing 
 to the presence of the aromatic oil which tends to 
 move the l)owels. The important offices which coffee 
 fulfills are, to allay the .sensation of hunger; to pro- 
 duce an exhilarating and refreshing effect; and, most 
 im|X)rlant of all, to diminish the amount of wear and 
 tear, or waste of the animal frame, which proceeds 
 more or less at every moment. The grounds of coffee 
 are very mitritious, from containing s<j much legumln; 
 and some of the Ea.stern nations take advantage of 
 thi.s and use the grounds as well as the infusion. In 
 many other respects, coffee pos.sesscs similar proper- 
 tie* to lea. I 
 
 An endles.s variety of apparatus have Iwen contrived 
 (and some of them of great eomplexitv) for preparing 
 coffee for the table. The chief olijcct aimed at is to 
 obtain the liquor free from all sediment. One of the ! 
 Kimplest of these contrivances is the percolating coffee- 
 ix)t. The ea.siest w.iy of making coffee, requiring no 
 special apparatus, and as satisfactory in the result, 
 perhaps, as any, is to put two ounces of coffee into 
 a small saucepan or coffee|)ot; pour over it a pint of 
 iH.iling water, and allow it to stand, clo.sely covered 
 
 up. by the side of the fire (1"it ""' 'o ''*''') for five 
 minutes. The liquor may then be simply poured off 
 the grounds, or it may be straiyed through a cloth, 
 and then returned to the sjiuccpan or coffee-pot (jire- 
 viously rin.si'd out), and warmeil again. 8oyer recom- 
 mends that before the boiling water is poured in the 
 s;iucepan should be set dry on the fire, and the powder 
 stirred till it Is quite hot, but not in the lea.st burned. 
 In France, a pint of boiling milk is added to a pint of 
 coffee. The chief effect of adding chicory to coflfee is 
 to deepen the color. 
 For s|X!cial cases, such as journeys and marches, 
 j where it is impossible to be burdened with the neces- 
 ) sary machines for roasting and grinding, coffee may 
 be carried in ;i iiowdered form, and its aromatic 
 properties ]ueserved by the following process: One 
 jKiund of the roasted berries is reduced to powder 
 I and immediately welted with a .synip of sugar, ob- 
 tained by pouring on three ounces of sugar two ounces 
 of water, and allowing it to stand a few minutes. 
 When the ]iowder is thoroughly wetted with the 
 syrup, two ounces of fiiuly-powdered sugar are to be 
 added, mixed well with it, and the whole is then to Ix; 
 spread out in the air to dry. The sugar locks up the 
 volatile parts of the i offee, so that when it is dry they 
 cannot esaipe. If coffee is now to be made, cold 
 water is to be poured over a certain quantity of the 
 powder and made to boil. Ground coffee prepared 
 in this way, and which lay exposed to the air for one; 
 month, yielded, on being boiled, as good a beverage 
 as one made of freshly-roasted berries. 
 
 COFFER-DAM.— A " water-tight structure used in 
 engineering for excluding the water from the founda- 
 tions of Ijiidges, quii} -walls, etc., so as to allow of 
 their being built dry. Coffer-dams are generally 
 formed of timber piles driven close together (called 
 sheeting) in two or more rows, according to the depth 
 of water and the nature of the bottom; the space be- 
 tween the rows, which may vary from four to ten 
 feet, being spooned out down to the solid and imper- 
 vious bottom, and filled up with clay puddle. Some- 
 times they are made of only one row of piles of the 
 full height, calked above low water, with a low or 
 dwarf row outside to confine the puddle up to that 
 le^'cl, or, where there is no wave or current, with a 
 mere bank of clay thrown against the otil.side; and 
 occasionally the ujiper work is formed of horizontal 
 planking, fixed on open main piles, and calked in the 
 joints. When the bottom is rock, so as to prevent 
 piles being driven, and is not much below low water, 
 coffer-dams are occasionally formed of two stone walls, 
 with a spiice between filled with clay. 
 
 The coffer-dams spoken of are all what are called 
 liigh-water dams, and exclude the water at all slates 
 of the tide. They require to be provided with sluices, 
 to allow of the water, when first to be excluded, get- 
 ting out during the ebb, and to shut against it during 
 the flood. Tlie remainder of the water, and all leak- 
 ages, must be got rid of by pumps, generally worked 
 by a stcaiiK'ngim-. For moderately shallow founda- 
 tions, and more especially where there is a great rise 
 and fall of tide, tidal dams are often used. These are 
 sometimes made of sheeting-piles, but are of ten boxes 
 formed of pliuiking or of irt)n, weighted and sunk 
 into the ground by digging inside in the same way 
 that wells are sunk. These dams can only be tiscd 
 for a couple of hours or thereabouts at low water, 
 and of course require to be i)umi)ed out every tide. 
 All coffer-darns require to be strongly shored within, 
 to prevent their being forced inwards by the pressure 
 of the external water; and the rows of piles re(iuire to 
 be strongly lx)lted together, to overcome the pressure 
 of the clay imdflle, which otherwise would burst 
 them. 
 
 COFFER-MAGAZINE.— A magazine of coffer-work 
 foniied by making the frames of six-inch scantling; 
 each frame is composed of two uprights, termed 
 HtiinrhioiiK, and a cap and ground-sill, well nailed to- 
 gether; it is six feel wide, and six feet high in the 
 cli'ar. These frames are placed upright, imd parallel
 
 COHESION. 
 
 367 
 
 COILED TUBES. 
 
 10 each other, aljout two and a half fec-t apart; tlicy 
 are covered on the top and sides by IJ-inch plank, 
 which is termed a xhctting. The magazine otherwise 
 is constructed in the usual manner. See Magazine. 
 
 COHESION.— Tlie name given to tliat siJecies of 
 :iitracti(iii Ijy wbicli the particles of matter are held 
 together so as to form boilies, and its measure is the 
 resistance wliicli Ixjilies offer to any mechanical force 
 tending to separate their parts. In ga.seous bodies 
 cohesion is altogether wanting ; their atoms even 
 repel one another. In liquids, notwithstanding the 
 ejise with which the particles slide on one another, 
 the operation of cohesion is distinctly seen in the 
 formation of drops. Cohesion is strongest in solids ; 
 and degrees of cohesion, in this case, are much the 
 same thing as degrees of solidity. It is the force of 
 cohesion that constitutes the strength of materials. 
 After the particles of a body have been completely 
 separated, it is found that through cohesion thej- wiil 
 reunite, if jiressi-d sutiicieutly close together. "Two 
 clean, smooth, freshly cut pieces of lead placed to- 
 gether will cohere so as to require a very consider 
 able force to separate them; and it has not unfre- 
 quently happened in plite-glass manufactories that 
 polished plates of glass have cohered so completely 
 that they have been cut and worked as a single piece. 
 
 If the particles of matter had no property in rela 
 tion to one another, except their mutual irnpenetra- 
 bility, the universe, it has been said, would be like a 
 mass of sjind, without variety of state or form. As 
 it exists, however, it demonstrates the cross-action of 
 several universjd jjroperties of matter. Among those 
 which most affect its state and form are heat and 
 cohesion. It may bp said that bodies assume the 
 solid, liquid, or aPriform states, just according to the 
 proportion that the cohesion of their particles liears to 
 those forces which, like heat, tend to separate them. 
 Upon modifications of the colic^ve force, and its re- 
 lations to other molecular forces, would seem to de- 
 pend such properties as ela.sticity, brittleness, duc- 
 tility, etc. 
 
 COHOBT. — In the ancient Roman armies, a cohort 
 was a portion of a legion, consisting nsuallj- of 600 
 men. Grenerally there were ten cohorts to a legion. 
 Marius introtluccd the cohort instead of the maniple 
 as the unit of force; forming it of three maniples, 
 and abolishing the ancient modes of classification. 
 The cohort preserved both the number and designa- 
 tion of the officers attaclieil to the maniples. It was 
 commanded by the First Centurion, until, under the 
 emperors, it received a Superior Officer, termed the 
 Prefect of the Cohort. The use was also introduced 
 of making of the lirst cohort a rorpa d'ilite, to which 
 was intrusted the eagle, under the orders of its prim- 
 iple. The order of battle by cohorts depended upon 
 circumstances; usually five were placed in the first 
 and five in the second line. The number of ranks of 
 the cohort was also variable; depending on the front 
 necessarj- to be presented to the enemy. 
 
 COIE. — Among the armor of the >fiddle Ages, the 
 coif was a sort of defensive hood, surmounted by a 
 helmet, sometimes continuous with the hauberk, and 
 sometimes separate. See Armir. 
 
 COILED TUBES.— The pig from which is made the 
 bar-iron employed at the West Point foundry in the 
 fabrication of tubes for gun-conversion is derived 
 chiefly from the Lake Champlain magnetic ores, and 
 from some of the hematite ores of Pennsylvania, the 
 suitable proportions of kind and grade to yield a 
 satisfactory metal being the result of much careful 
 experiment. The various operations of puddling, 
 rolling, etc., differ in no particular respect from the 
 ordinarj- methods employed, except in the greater 
 care exercised to secure a high standard for the qual- 
 ity of the product. A brief notice here will therefore 
 suffice. The charge of pig-iron is first heated to 
 redness by the waste heat from the reverberatory fur- 
 nace, and is then thrown into the hearth along with 
 a quantity of cinder. The charge consists of 4-18 
 pounds, the jneld of blooms amoumting to about 95 
 
 per cent of the metal charged; the amount of coal 
 con.sumert is 2375 pounds per ton of puddle-bars, and 
 the time occupied from the charging of the furnace 
 to the withdrawal of the puddle-balls is alxjut 1} 
 liours. The process in the furnace is what is termed 
 the "boiling process," and the regulation of the 
 draught during this period is an operation requiring 
 great care and good judgment, as upon it the quality 
 of the bar-iron will in great mesLsure depend. It is 
 important that the iron designed for gun-tubes shall 
 not be too "drj-," i.e., deficient in cinder, as such an 
 iron crumbles under a high heat, and, at best, welds 
 but imperfectly. On the other hand, the presence of 
 anj' considerable quantitj- of cinder indicates an in- 
 sufficient " working," besides furni.shing for the bore 
 of the gun a material that is not sufficiently homo- 
 geneous and compact to resist well the eroding action 
 of the powder gases. The puddle-ball, under the ac- 
 tion of the hammer, is formed into a bl<x)m about 18 
 inches long, by 4 or 5 inches square, smil weighing 
 about 100 pounds. The blooms, before cooling, are 
 pa.'sed between the rollers — both "roughing" and 
 "finishing" — and result in what are termed "muck- 
 bars," long flat bars from 4 to 2 inches wide, and \ 
 inch thick. The "muck-bars ' are cut up and piled. 
 The piles are then placed in the furnace and raised 
 to a white heat, when thej- are subjected to a suc- 
 cession of rollings, by which they are converted into 
 bars about 23 feet long and i inch thick. Each 
 time, before being passed between the rollers, the 
 piles are turned one fourth round, so that the com- 
 pres,sion of the metal takes place in directions that 
 are alternately parallel and ])erpen<licular to the lay- 
 ers. The operations of cutting, piling, and rolling 
 are then repeated, and the resulting bar or plate 
 cut into lengths of 53 inches, and piles made about 
 9i inches high by 7 wide, for the final rolling. The 
 top and bottom plates of these last piles are about 
 f inch thick, while the intermediate plates are 1- 
 inch thick. At this stage the i)iles are passed be- 
 tween the rollers, at first with the layers harizontal, 
 but are afterward so manipulated that the comers of 
 the piles shall take the groove in the rollers. The 
 precaution is taken in heating the piles to separate 
 .slightly the successive layers, m order that the heat 
 may more readily penetrate the mass, and Iwth in 
 piling and rolling the iron it is important that the 
 direction of the fiber should be preserved always the 
 same. In the finished bar the elementary plates 
 stand parallel with the depth, the ]X)sition most 
 favorable to their final consolidation in the subse- 
 quent process of coil-welding. The length of the 
 bar is about 28 feet, and the cross-section hexagonal 
 in form, to compensate for the changes in form inci- 
 dent to the process of coiling. 
 
 By making the bar simply trapezoidal in cross-sec- 
 tion, it was found that in coiling the sides become 
 concave, thereby forming a pocket which, in the sub- 
 sequent process of uniting the folds of the coil, served 
 as a receptacle for cinder, and proved an obstjjcle to 
 perfect welding. In order to avoid a feature so ob- 
 jectionable the shoulders were added, whence a sup- 
 ply of metal can be drawn to fill up the canity of the 
 sides. The ends of the finished bar are cut off to 
 where the material is thoroughly welded and per- 
 fectly sound, the greater length being taken from the 
 end nearer the furnace-door, as being the colder end. 
 The bar is now ready for shipment to the foundry. 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Phosplionis 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Silicon 
 
 Slag and oxide of iron . 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Iron 
 
 Sample 
 marked 
 English. 
 
 0.047 
 
 Sample 
 
 marked 
 
 ^Vjnerican. 
 
 0.374 
 0.018 
 1.308 
 O.OfM 
 96.1.^9 
 
 0.037 
 Trace. 
 1.248 
 0.089 
 2.144 
 00»i 
 96.4«8 
 
 100 000 
 
 100.000
 
 COILXO TUBES. 
 
 368 
 
 COILED TUBES. 
 
 The table herewith exhibits a resemblniuo Ik'- 
 twocn Ihi- two varifties of iron which is remiirli 
 alilf. siiicc thf Aiiurii-jin niaiiufui-turfis possfs.s«'<l 
 no aixunile knowktigi' of llic nioiic of falirication 
 of the EuLtlish iron, but wore guidod almost en- 
 tirely in tlii'ir efforts by sueh imperfect datji as 
 could be •;Uiine<l|from n'porl.s of Parliamentary C'om- 
 mitlcos on the failure of a larjre number of coiled 
 wrouglit-iron tulvs in Enjfhuul; reports of whieli the 
 chief value lay in their |x)inl!ng out the nature of ex- 
 isting ilefect-s' in material aiuf manufacture, rather 
 than the coursi' of practice by which those defects 
 nii^ht be renioviti or avoided. 
 
 The bar-iron, as received at the foundry, is in 
 Icnffths of 1(5*, and 18 feet for the A tube," and of 
 2t5 ifwt for the B tube, the cross-section of the latter 
 iK'inj: a square of 2 a inches on a side. The weights 
 are about as follows: 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Long bar for A Uthc 749 
 
 Short bar for A tube 678 
 
 Bar for B tube 608 
 
 The A tube is composed of four sections or short 
 tubes weldetl together, each section, as well as the 
 B tul)c, consisting of two bars, which are united end 
 to end before coiling. The long bars for the A IuIh.' 
 arc employed in the breech-section, in order to give 
 that section such length that tlie joint between it and 
 the next section shall be well in advance of the B 
 tube. 
 
 To prepare the bars for welding they are sorted in 
 ixiirs, and the ends to be united shaped for scarfing. 
 At the .same time the other ends are tapered bv heat- 
 ing and hammering, and an eye and shoulder formed 
 for purposes in coiling. The V scarf, by alTording 
 a firm grasp to the ends, and bye.vposing a large sur- 
 face for welding, is thought to insure a strong joint; 
 yet so great is the strain thro\vn upon the bar in the 
 operation of coiling that separation does sometimes 
 take place at that point. The welding is readily per- 
 formed by means of a "hollow fire" and an adjacent 
 steam-hammer. The joint is subjected to three lieats. 
 At the first heat the bars are butt-welded by means of 
 sledges; a; the second and third lieats tlie joint is 
 lap-wcHod by the steam-hanuner, the hexagonal 
 cross-section being afterward restored by interix)sing 
 a we<lge-shaped tool between the l)arand the hammer. 
 While in the fire, one end of the bar abuts against a 
 heavy limlxT, and the other end Ls repesitedly struck 
 uiK)n with a sledge to close and upset the joiiit. The 
 coiling process is a familiar one, the method pursueil 
 at Wi'st Point dilTering in no importiint respect from 
 the English method. The grates and ash-pits, seven 
 in uumU'r, are ranged along one side, and the draught 
 enters under the grates. The blower is worked 
 bv the engine that revolves the coiling apparatus. 
 The numlH-r of fires employed at any one tiinc' ^le- 
 l>ends upon the length of" the bai-s to be heated. 
 About ninety bushels of anthracite coal a day are 
 consumed in each grate. At the rear of the oven is a 
 roUcr-wav U|>on which the bars are moved into tlie 
 oven. The slope of the oven and trestle-work facili- 
 tates the insertion of the bars; but, as a featureof the 
 construction, it resulted rather from the inclination 
 of the ground on which the oven is built than from 
 design. The bjirs are pushed into the oven as far as 
 it is possible to |)usli them, and then a long iron hook 
 is pas.sed in from the front and hooked into the eye 
 in the end of the bar. A chain leading from tiie 
 windla-ss of a steani-cnme is connected with the hook, 
 anil the bar isdriiwn forward by the revolution of the 
 windlas.-). It requires about three hours to heat the 
 oven, and after that about one hour to heal the iron 
 to a bright redness, the tem|M'ratuie riMpiired. The 
 oven has a capacity for eight bars; but, to .secure 
 greater facility in handling, more than four are sel- 
 dom healed at once. The coiling apparatus is .shown 
 in the drawing: n is a mandrel, slightly eonieal in 
 form, on which the bar is wound; li is a" rollei-miide 
 
 over which the bar passes, and by means of which 
 the exterior diameter of the coil is regulated; c is a 
 sliding guide which regulates the spiral of the coil. 
 At rf" is the steam-piston which communicates the 
 motion. On the mandrel is an iron disk, e, through 
 which is inserted a pin or key, /, and the end of the 
 bar is attached to the mandrel by passing Ix'tween it 
 and the key, and hooking over the latter by means of 
 
 STEAM Q CRANE 
 
 the shoulder. In this position the narrow side of the 
 bar is down or against the mandrel. The apparatus 
 ha\-ing been put into gear, the mandrel revolves, 
 winding the bar around it. To remove the coil the 
 apparatus is thrown out of gear, the cap-squares of 
 the mandrel are removed, and, by means of the 
 steam-crane standing immediately in rear, the man 
 drel is unshipped and swung round. The coil is then 
 started b^- driving in wedges between the end of the 
 coil and "the disk^^; , after which it is readily re-moved. 
 After coiling, the cross-section of the bar is slightly 
 concave on the exterior and convex on the interior of 
 the coil, while the distances between the folds are less 
 on the interior than on the exterior. It requires one 
 hour to coil four bars. 
 
 When removed from the mandrel, the ends of the 
 bar project out from the coil, and the folds are very 
 open, varying from 1 to H ini^b on the exterior. The 
 ends are therefore heated and hammered round to 
 conform to the curvature of the coil. The next step is 
 one of closing the folds aiui welding them. For these 
 operations there are provid«l two cast-iron tubes, 
 banded with wrought-iron hoops, termed " welding- 
 pots." These iwtsare cylindrical witliout, but .slightly 
 conical within, and are of two sizes, the dianieterof the 
 smaller Vieing 141 inches, and of the larger 14J inches, 
 at bottom. In connection with the pots is used a short 
 iron cylinder about 9 inches in lieight and 14 inches in 
 diameter, termed the "cheese," which receives dire'Ctly 
 the impact of the hammer. The coil is at first heated 
 to redness in an ordinary reverberatory heating-fur- 
 nace, and then transferred, by means of a jxirter-bar 
 suspended from a crane, to the smaller welding-pot, 
 where it is simply luesscd under the hammer. The 
 effect of this operation is to close the folds along the 
 surface of the bore. The ]iorter-bar is provided with a 
 heavy' sliding counterpoise to facilitate liandling it. In 
 order to avoid weak or imperfect welding of the folds, 
 it is desirable that the process should commence at 
 the interior surface of the coil and progress gradually 
 outward, thus lea\ing to the last an oix;n joint at the 
 exterior for the escape of the cinder squeezed out in 
 the operation. This end, it is thought, is secured by 
 the particular form of cross-section given to the bar, 
 and by the precaution taken of first closing the folds 
 along the interior surface before proceeding to the 
 welding. The coil is now replace<l in the furnace 
 and subjected lo a welding-heat, which occupies from 
 2} to 3 hours. It is then removed to the smaller 
 welding-pot, and the "cheese" dropped up<m it, and 
 hammere<l till the latter sinks to a certain mark 
 chalked upon it. The pot is then turned over, and 
 the coil withdrawn by means of blocks and tackle. 
 The coil is then heated for the third time, and the 
 same operation as above repeated, exce|>t that the
 
 COILED TTTBES. 
 
 369 
 
 COILED TTTBES. 
 
 larger pot Ls employed. The length of tlie coil after 
 closing folds is about -i} feet, and the exterior diame- 
 ter 13 or 13i inches. After being withdrawn from the 
 large pot, the length is about 3 feet; the exterior diam- 
 eter about that of the pot, and the interior diameter 
 from 5 to 7 inches. The width of fold in the coils for 
 the A tube is now about 2.75 inches, while in those for 
 B tubes it is about 2 inches. The hammer employed in 
 welding the coils is an 8-ton steam-lianmicr." The 
 drawing shows the coil at the following stages of its 
 
 •fabrication, viz.: after being removed from the 
 mandrel of the coiling apparatus, and after weld- 
 ing of the folds. In Engliind, the process of coil- 
 welding differs as follows from the above: The coil 
 liaving been subjected to a welding-heat, " it is placed 
 vertically under the steam-hammer, and receives a 
 few smait blows to weld the folds. It is then thrown 
 on its side, and being gradually turned is hammered 
 (or patted) all round to straighten it. It is then raised 
 vertically again, and a punch or mandrel — rather 
 oyer half the length and a little larger than the inte- 
 rior diameter of the coil — is hammered down its own 
 length. The coil is next placed on its side and ham- 
 mered round that half of its length, thus being made 
 very compact, and large enough to let the mandrel 
 fall out. After this the coil is again raised vertical, 
 and the mandrel is forced in the opposite end, and 
 the process repeated. The reason a long mandrel is 
 not forced through the whole length of the coil is 
 that it would tend to separate the folds. The coil is 
 replaced (upright) in the furnace for the second heat- 
 ing, and much the same process is followed to render 
 the ring more consolidated as well as more shapel}'." 
 By the American process, there seems to be no ten- 
 dency whatever to separate the folds duiing any part 
 of Uie operation. The coil is withdrawn from the 
 welding-pot by connecting the tackle with an iron 
 rod, which pa.sses down the interior of the coil, and 
 is held by a key at the bottom, so that the strain is 
 transmitted to that point. 
 
 After welding the folds.the coil is extremely rough 
 and tmeven on the interior; it Is therefore removed to 
 the shops, wlierc it is rough-bored to within .7o inch 
 of the true diameter of the tube, which furnishes a 
 straight and uniform bore for the formation of the 
 tube. The exterior is comparatively smooth and 
 cylindrical. To unite two or store coils to form 
 a tube, the ends are faced and reciprocally re- 
 ces.sed; that is, a projection is formed at one end of 
 a coil, while a recess is bovetl in the corresponding 
 end of another coil. Tue height of the projection is 
 a little greater than the depth of the recess, in order 
 that a close joint may be obtained on the interior. 
 The recess is then exjxindcd by heat and shrunk over 
 the projection, so that the two coils are sulticienlly 
 stuck together to admit of being put into the furnace 
 for welding. An iron rod, with a key at one end and 
 a nut on the other, is jiassed through tlie sections, and 
 the nut screwed up to prevent separation in shrink- 
 ing. The furnace for welding the sections is so con- 
 structed that an intense heat shall act only upon the 
 
 joint. The butt-welding is performed by means of a 
 ])owerful screw-press. The furnace and welding ap- 
 paratus are sliown in the following drawing. The tube 
 is placed in the furnace by means of a crane and a por- 
 ter-bar; the bars a ii are then raised on the support- 
 ing-props b, the cross-head c and the screw d ad- 
 justed to the ends of the tube, and the wedges e 
 inserted. The furnace is then entirely closed around 
 the tube, and the draught turned on. It requires 
 about three hours to raise the temperature of the metal 
 on the interior of the tulx' to a welding-heat, a point 
 which is ascertained by means of a hole pierced through 
 the cross-head c and covered with a plate of mica, 
 which permits of the interior of the tube being seen. 
 A welding-heat being obtained, the screw, which 
 works in the cross-head / as a nut, is tightened by 
 means of the handle h, till the tube is compressed 
 lengthwise i inch. The tube is then turned half arotmd, 
 the heat renewed for about ten miiuites, and another 
 turn given to the screw, by which a further compres- 
 sion of ^ inch is obtained. The proi)s are then 
 knocked out, the ' ais fall down, and the tube, which 
 is considerably bulged at the joint by the compression 
 it has undergone, is removed to the steam-hammer 
 and "patted" into shape, as well as lap-welded. 
 Sand is thrown on the joint during this operation, to 
 protect the iron and prevent the formation of scale. 
 The face of the hammer, as well as the top of the an- 
 vil, is semi-cylindrical, to conform to the exterior of 
 the tube. Two sections being thus welded together, 
 another is added in a similar manner, and then an- 
 other section which completes the tube. The Eng- 
 li.sh method of welding the sections is as follows: 
 After shrinking two sections together, as above, the 
 tube is put crossways through a furnace so constructed 
 that the heat acts only on the joint. When the joint 
 arrives at a welding-heat, a stout iron bar is pa.ssed 
 through the tube; this bar is keyed up at one end, and 
 
 by means of a screw-nut worked by a long lever at 
 the other end, the two coils are welded or pressed 
 together. The joint is afterwards tapped under the 
 hammer. The furnace and apparatus as described 
 for welding sections were devised by Jlr, Colin Tol- 
 mie. Superintendent of the *Forge-shops at the West 
 Point foundry, and the experience so far had with 
 them has been very ssitisfactory. The furnace has a 
 capacitj- for about 1.500 pounds coal (anthracite coal 
 l)eing employed) and is so arranged as to consiune 
 its own gases. The amount of coal consumed in 
 welding thirteen sections is about 6900 pountls. It 
 requires ten hours to heat up the fiu'nace when cold.
 
 conr. 
 
 370 
 
 COLIC^ 
 
 and about four hours when working daily. The lire 
 is alwnvs replenisheil during nn interval when the 
 tulx' is" withdrawn, so lis not to interfere with the 
 heating. While in the furnace, should the joint be- 
 come une«iually heate<l. saud is thrt>wn in upon the 
 hotter jiart to liiualize the temperature. 
 
 The tulR- is now transferred from the forge to the 
 shops, and placed in the lathe, where it is rough- 
 turnitl and nuiL'h and tine bored. TIic breech-cui) is 
 then screwed in, the brt^cch end of the tutx- turned 
 down o\'er a length of 32 inches for the reception of I 
 the B tube, and the spiral gas-channel cut upon it. 
 The bneclicup is a solid forging stamix.'d into shape 
 under the steam-hammer, turned inside and out. and 
 screwed on the exterior with a thread of live to the 
 inch. The B tube consists of two bars unilcil, coiled, 
 etc., in the siune manner as a section of the A tube, j 
 It is rough-turned to 13.75 inches, the exterior diame- 
 ter of the main jwrtiou of the A tube, and linishcd 
 bored to 10 inches. It is shrunk on the A tube with 
 .0t)3 inch shrinkage in the diameter. The shrink- 
 ing operation is a simple one. The B tube stands 
 vertically, breech down, over a wood-tire, while a 
 large 0]X'n cylinder of sheet-iron surrouiuis it. When 
 sufficiently heated the A tulje is lowered b^- a crane 
 into place, the weight of the A tube forcm^ the B 
 tulie well " home" to the shoulder upon the tormer. 
 Water is then thrown upon the exterior near the 
 shoulder, to cool the B tube in that vicinity first, and 
 thus prevent nn open joint, which is apt to occur 
 from the longitudinal contraction of the B tube in 
 cof)ling. 
 
 The tube at this stage is subjected to a water-test of 
 140 ix)iuids to the square inch, and is turned to fit 
 the casing, allowing a " play" of .007 inch in the 
 diameter between it and the casing for a distance of 
 32 inches from the bottom, and of .015 inch for 
 the remainder of its length To determine this play, 
 it is necessary to accurately measure the diameters of 
 the Iwre of the casing and of the exterior of the tube; 
 the former are measured with the star-gauge, the lat- 
 ter either by meaas of horse.shoe-gauges or a diame- 
 ter-calipers specially designed for the purpose, and 
 measuring to .001 inch. The tube is tilled either 
 before or after its insertion into the casing, as 
 may happen to be most convenient. The weight of 
 bar-iron employed is about 6770 pounds. The weight 
 of the finished tube is about 3100 pounds. The 
 operations of inserting the tube into the casing and 
 securing it, of venting, final proof, etc., are fully de- 
 scribed in the fabrication of converted gims. The 
 collar for securing tlie tube at the muzzle is mafle of 
 tul)e-iron, fagoted and hammered out to a proper 
 size. It is then bent to a circle over a mandrel, and 
 the ends welded together. See Converted Gum, Fab- 
 rication of Tuixg, and Water-tent. 
 
 COIN. — In gunnery, a kind of wedge to lay under 
 the breech of a gun in order to raise or depress the 
 metal. Written also Q>mn. 
 
 COIK. — The fiber of the cocoanut. Very excellent 
 rope for naval purposes is made from it, and is valtfed 
 on account of its lightness, elasticity, and strength. 
 Coir-cable is (irepared in Ceylon, on the Malabar 
 Coast, in the Maldive and Laccadive Islands, and in 
 most places along the eastern an(l western coasts of 
 the Bay of Bengal, where cocoanut-trecs grow. 
 Sponges for guns have Ixen made from the fiber, 
 but they arc not equal to sponges made of wool for 
 this purpose, and arc. moreover, liable to take fire. 
 
 COKE.— A fuel much used for melting inm in the 
 founilry cuijola, and obtained by the heating of coal 
 in ovens, or other arrangemeiits where little air is 
 admitted. Caking coal is most suitable for the man- 
 ufacture of coke. The process is conducted either 
 (I) in hcaivs or ridges, or (2) in ovens. The coking in 
 heaps is called the Jleiler method, and consists in 
 l)lacing the coal in round stacks, or in long ridges, 
 occasionally to the length of 200 feet. During the 
 building of the coal, wooden stakes arc drivt'ii in, 
 which are uftenvards taken out, and lighted coal in- 
 
 tro<luced at numerous places at the same time. As 
 the coal becomes heated, iiuich smoke and va|X)r are 
 evolved, which mainly consist of tar, water, and coal- 
 ga-s. Whenever the smoke ceases to be evolved, the 
 process of coking is regarded as concluded, and the 
 mound or ridge of red-not cinder, or coke, is covered 
 over with fine coal-dust, which, excluding the air, 
 extinguishes the combustion. At places where the 
 0]X'ration of coking is conducted regularly on the 
 large scale, it is customary to erect brick chimneys 
 or coltmms, about the height of the proposed mound, 
 and to build the coal round these, placing the larger 
 ma.s.ses in the center, the smaller pieces outside, and 
 ultimately covering the whole with tine coal or dross. 
 
 A more economical plan of i>reparing coke is to 
 introduce the coal into fire-brick ovens. The coal is 
 introduced by the top, and being lighted, a little air 
 is admitted by openings in front. Whenever the 
 coal ceases to evolve smoky vapor, every opening is 
 closed, and the oven is allowetl to cool down for 13 
 to 24 hours. A dooriu front is then opened, and the 
 coke being raked out whilst still hot, water is thrown 
 upon it, to stop the combustion. Small coal may he 
 use<l if it belongs to the caking kind; and a little 
 water sprinkled over it causes the caking operation 
 to proceed more completelj-. The proportion of coke 
 obtained from coal in Great Britain ranges from 54 to 
 73 per cent, so that in rouml numbers the better class 
 of coal for this purpose loses a fourth of its weight. 
 At the same time the coal increases in volume to the 
 extent of about one fourth. Coke is a hard, brittle, 
 porous .solid, with a color varjing from iron-gray to 
 blackish gray, and more or less of a metallic luster, 
 and does not soil the fingers. It absorbs moisture 
 from the air, sometimes to the extent of 30 per cent, 
 and contains an amount of ash ranging from i up to 
 15 per cent. It gives off no smoke in burning, is of 
 gre;it value as a fuel, evolnng a very large amount 
 of heat. 
 
 The advantages of coke of the best quality (Con- 
 nells\illc coke) may be enumerated as follows: 1st. 
 Coke will melt iron much more quickl}' than coal. 
 3d. Coke melts iron so much softer than any other 
 fuel as to save very considerably on that alone, by 
 making solid and perfect castings. 3d. One pound 
 of coke will melt two to four pounds more iron than 
 a pound of coal. 4th. Coke makes minimum quan- 
 tity of slag. Furnace does not have to be "picked 
 out " when coke is used. 5th. Coke requires much 
 less blast. 6th. Coke contains the smallest percent- 
 age of sulphur and other impurities, and the highest 
 percentage of fixed carbon. 7th. By melting the 
 iron very soft and hot, it admits the use of much 
 more scrap than with any other fuel. 8th. On ac- 
 count of saving in time, rctluction of strain on blow- 
 ers and power for blast, there is a con.sequent great 
 saving in labor and other general exi)enses. 9th. A. 
 good, clean "drop" at end of heat, and fiu-nace is left 
 in good shape. See Anthrarite and Ciial. 
 
 COLD-BLAST. — Air forced into a smelting-furnace 
 at a natural temperatine, in contradistinction to a 
 heated blast, which is more economical, but produces 
 an inferior qualitv of iron. 
 
 COLDSHORT.— A void or seam in a casting occa- 
 sioned by the loo-rapid congelation of the metal, which 
 failed to till the mold perfectly. 
 
 COLD-SHOET IRON. — Iron containing phosphorus, 
 which may lie forged and welded while hot, but is 
 brittle when cold, 
 
 COLDSTREAM GUARDS.— A regiment in the Foot- 
 piarils or Household Brigade; it is the oldest corps 
 m the British army except the First Foot. General 
 Monk, in 1660, raised a corps at Coldstream, which 
 was at first called "Monk's Regiment;" but when 
 Parliament consented to give a brigade of guards to 
 Charles II., this corps, under the name of Coldstream 
 Guards, was included in it. 
 
 COLIC. — .V complaint with which horses are not 
 unfrequenlly attacked, caused by indigestion, consti- 
 pation, spasm, strangury. The "remedy for this com-
 
 COLICHEMASOE. 
 
 371 
 
 COLONEL. 
 
 plaint is thus explaiued: The attack will generally 
 yield to the lirst or second dose of the usual colic- 
 mixture, with injections of warm soap-and-water, and 
 with a little spirits of turpentine in it; friction being 
 used to the surface of the l)elly. If there is constipa- 
 tion, give a dose of the prescribed mixture, with a 
 teaspoonful of ginger in it ; if the pain continues and 
 becomes more constant, bleed, tiiking from six to ten 
 quarts of blood, continue the injections, and give a 
 dram of opium every hoar, blister the belly, clipping 
 the hair off tirst. The cure for colic is powdered 
 opium, 1 dram; ginger, powdered, 2 drams; allspice, 
 powdered, 3 drams; caraway-secnis, powdered, 4 
 drams — made into a bolus. 
 
 COLICHEMARDE.— A variety of sword in great 
 favor for dueling in the reign of Louis XTV. Its 
 peculiarity is, that from the hilt the blade for some 
 length is tolerably broad, then suddenly by a rec- 
 tangular step, on each side, it becomes narrow, and 
 terminates in a very shaiii point. This conformation 
 of the blade has the advantage of placing the center 
 of gravity in the hilt, and con-sequently the weapon 
 is remarkable for its lightness and convenience in the 
 hand. This is sometimes called Koidc/gtnark sword, 
 and the word CoUchemarde is only a corruption of 
 the word Kiinigsmark. 
 
 COLISMAKDE. — A long slender sword used in an- 
 cient limes; a combat sword. See Colichtmaide. 
 COLLAR. — A device placed upon the chase of a gun 
 to make its diameter equal to that of 
 the body of tbe piece. This enables 
 the gun to be rolled with facilily. It 
 is made of pieces of scantling joint- 
 ed together after the manner of the 
 staves of a cask, and hooped with 
 stout bands of iron. It is shoved 
 over the muzzle on to the chase, and is secured with 
 wedges of wood. 
 
 COLLAB-MAKEBS.— Artiliccrs appointed for the 
 repair of draught-harness. In the English artillery, 
 on tirst appointment, they have the rank and cloth- 
 ing of Bombardiers, and reckon service, as such, 
 without increase of pay. After live years' service, if 
 Bombardiers, they have the rank and clothing of 
 Corporals, and reckon service for pension, as such, 
 without increase of pay. The four senior Collar- 
 makers of each brigade are allowed the rank and 
 clothing of a Serseant, but without increase of pav. 
 
 COLLEGE OF ABMS.— A collegiate body, founded 
 by Richard III. in 1483, consisting of tlie heraldic 
 officers of England, who were a.ssigned a habitation 
 in the parish of Allhallows-tlieLess, in London. 
 Various charters confirmed the privileges of the Col- 
 lege of Arms, and it was reincorporated by Philip 
 and Mary, who bestowed on it Derby Hou.se, on 
 whose site in Doctors' Commons the present College 
 was built by Sir Christopher Wren. The presidency 
 of the College is vested in the Earl Marshal, an office 
 now hereiUtarj' in the family of Howard Duke of 
 Norfolk; he nominates the three kings of arms, six 
 heralds, and four pursuivants, who are the members 
 of the collegiate chapter. Persons having a heredi- 
 tarj' claim to arms, which has been disused for one or 
 more generations, are empowered by the Heralds' 
 College to resume them, on proof and registration of 
 pedigree. A person who h;us no hereditari- claim, 
 and wishes a grant of amis, must memorialize the 
 Earl Marshal, and show that he is in a condition to 
 " sustain the rank of gentry." An important depart- 
 ment of the College is the recording of peiligrees. 
 Any pedigree showing the existing state or descent 
 of a family may, if accompanied with sufficient evi- 
 dence, lie entered on the books of the College. The 
 members of the College have salaries, but derive their 
 principal income from fees charged for assistance in 
 tracing pedigrees and titles, and for the granting and 
 registration of arms. In Scotland the corresiwnding 
 functions belong to the Lyon Court. See IleniMry. 
 
 COLLET.— In gunnery, that part of a cannon which 
 is between the astragal and the muzzle. 
 
 COLLETIN.— The ancient name for that part of the 
 armor which protected the neck and upper part of 
 the breast. See Armor. 
 
 COLLIMATOR. — An instrument for laying guns 
 and mortars, and especially adapted for laying them 
 for night-firinir. But the same appliance as is used 
 by night could be made available by day, with the 
 embrasures closed, thus protecting the giinners from 
 the fire of the encmv. 
 
 COLLODIONIZED-PAPER PROCESS.— Paper lieing 
 substituted for glass in this process, as a basis upon 
 which to support the film, a great increase in porta- 
 bility is arrived at, as the sensitive sheets may be car- 
 ried in a portfolio, and employed in the same manner 
 as drj- collodion plates. "There are difficulties, how- 
 ever, in the way of its successful practice, which have 
 prevented it from becoming as pojjular as it deserves 
 to be. The following is a brief summarv of the 
 manipulations. Mr. Corbin, the inventor of the pro- 
 cess, ascertained that a peculiar collodion was requi- 
 site, the formula of which is as follows: ether, 650 
 parts; alcohol, 350 parts; pjToxyline, 15 parts; iodine, 
 li parts. The collodion so prepared is poured on 
 the glass in the usual way, and sensitized in a bath 
 containing only 1 per cent of nitrate silver and * per 
 cent of nitric acid. The plate having remained in 
 this bath about "2 minutes, is withdrawn, and freely 
 washed with water; it is then immersed in a .sohition 
 of 1 per cent of iodide of potassium, to insure the 
 complete decomposition of the whole of the free 
 nitrate of silver not removed by the washing. A 
 piece of negative paper is now coated with a solution 
 of gelatine, containing 6 parts gelatine to 100 parts 
 water; the dimensions of the paper should be rather 
 less than the glass, and the gelatinized side is brought 
 into contact with the collodion film in a dish of water, 
 any intervening water being expelled by passing a 
 glass rod lightly over it. The edges of the collwiion 
 film which project beyond the paper are folded back 
 on it. and the film and paper removed together. The 
 now crillodionized palmer is laid, film uppermost, on a 
 glass plate, coated with a preservative solution, com- 
 posed of equal parts of albumen and honey, diluted 
 sufficiently to enable it to flow freely over the paper. 
 The film is lastly sensitized in a soliltion of nitrate of 
 silver, 5 parts; glacial acetic acid, 5 parts; water, 100 
 parts; it is then freely washed as before in water, and 
 himg up to dry. As it is apt to wrinkle in drjing, it 
 should be attached by all four corners to two lines, 
 nmning one under the other. See Phoiography. 
 
 COLONEL. — The highest officer of a regiment; any 
 grade above this converts him into a General Officer 
 belonging to the army collectively, rather than to any 
 one regiment. Before the reign of Elizabeth the 
 chief officer of an English regiment was Captain, but 
 in 1588 the title of Colonel had become familiar. In 
 the British army at the present day, except in the 
 Artillery and Engineers, the office of Regimental 
 Colonel is a sinecure, the real active Commander of 
 the Battalion being the Lieutenant Colonel. The 
 Colonel receives higher pay and dignity. The 
 Colonels are Generals who have had what is called a 
 regiment " given to them" as a reward for long ser- 
 vice, and virtually as a retirement. The pay, except 
 in the Guards (where it is higher), is £1000 a year. 
 The army estimates provide for about 150 regimental 
 (otherwise called "honorarj-") Colonels of Cavalry 
 and Infantrj-, and for about a sixth of that number 
 Colonels Commandant in connection with the Artil- 
 lery and Engineers. There is a frequent outcry 
 against these appointments when viewed as sinecures, 
 but looked upon as retirements for deserving old offi- 
 cers there is little that is objectionable in them. The 
 rank of Colonel was above those which were purchas- 
 able. Apart from regimental rank there is the army 
 or brevet rank of Colonel, through which all officers 
 must pa.ss on the way to General Officer. It is at- 
 : tained by specified service in certain positions as 
 Lieutenant Colonel. In the Austrian, Prussian, and 
 i Russian armies, where the regiments are very large.
 
 i;OLON£L COMMANDANT. 
 
 372 
 
 COLORED FIRES. 
 
 the Colonelcies arc mostly lionoran- posts, hold by 
 Einp<'rors, Kings. Princes, anil other liistinmushcil 
 IXTsons. There is no niiilerial (iiffcn-nre in Ibc |^osi- 
 lion of Colonel in the American a.s conii)areil with the 
 British arniv. The nmk is between Lieutenant 
 Colonel anil Briipulier C.eiieral, and the extent of 
 command is usually a siiiL'le R'srimcnt. 
 
 COLONEL COMMANDANT.— The Chief of n Bri- 
 ipidc of Artillerv, En-cincei-s. or Marines, in the Eng- 
 lish service. T'his position is analogous to that of a 
 Colonel of a Re^ment. who receives what is termed 
 the • • Colonel's Allowance. " In the early days of this 
 rank in the Artiller\-. the connection of the Colonels 
 Connnanilant with "their battalions remained of the 
 closest (lescription. Xo otVucr was alloweil to be pro- 
 moted, undiT the rank of Field Ollicer, without a 
 recommendation from the Colonel Commandant of 
 the battalion in which he iinght be serving. Nor was 
 anv exchange allowed without the consent of l)oth the 
 Colonels Commandant concerned. Even nowadays, 
 liefore an Adjutant is ai)i)oinled to a Brigade of Ar- 
 tillerv. the Colonel Commandant hiis to be consulted, 
 and nominates the officer subject to the approval of 
 the Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 COLONEL GENERAL.— An honorary title, or mili- 
 tary rank, which is bestowed in foreign services. 
 Thus, the Prince of the Peace in Spain was Colonel 
 General of the Swiss Guards. 
 
 COLONIAL ALLOWANCE.— An allowance granted 
 to British regiments in cerlain Colonies to meet the 
 extra expenses of foreign ser\ice. The amount varies 
 with the Colony; in some it is half as much more as 
 the ordinarj- piiy; in others it is more. The names 
 of the Colonies at which a colonial allowance is 
 ammted are the Mauritius, Ceylon, Straits, China, 
 West Indies, Africa, Cape of Good Hope. No such 
 allowance is granted to regiments in Canada. Austra- 
 lia and New Zealand have no British troops. 
 
 The only advantage enjoyed by troops in the Medi- 
 terranean is tlie issue of " extra rations." Regiments 
 in India receive Indian pay. 
 
 COLONIAL CORPS.— Cerlain re^ments forming 
 part of the regidar army of Die British Empire, and 
 l)aid for out of the Imperial Revenue^. They were 
 never very tixed in number, varying with the circum- 
 stances of the Colonies in which they were located. 
 The following were the names of the Corps, the num- 
 bers provided for in the army estimates for 1860-61, 
 when these regiments were at their largest recent 
 cstabli.shmcnt, and the composition of each Corps, 
 whether British or native: 
 
 Three West India regiments 
 
 (afterwards raised to five) 3,420 Negro. 
 
 Newfoundland Veterans. . . 229 British. 
 
 Ceylon Rities L.^B.") Native. 
 
 " Invalids 163 Native. 
 
 Cape Mounted RiHes 1,084 Boers and natives. 
 
 JIalta Fencibles 638 Native. 
 
 Canadian Rities 1.100 British. 
 
 St. Helena Regiment 433 " 
 
 Gold Coast Artillery a.'Jl Native. 
 
 Falkland Islands Company. 37 British. 
 
 African! Artillerymen 64 Native. 
 
 Hong Kong Gun La.scars. . 88 " 
 
 These Corps, comprising about 9.5 companies, had 
 .somewhat over 1000 ollicers, commissioned and non- 
 commissioned, and about the .same number of horses. 
 All the Corps were officered bv British, excei)t the 
 Malta Fencibles. The Cape iilounled Rities was a 
 Jlountcd Infantry Corps. 
 
 As llie Colonies obtained self-government, and the 
 military theory of employing troops only in larL'c Ix)- 
 dies gained ground, it was considered as against Impe- 
 rial Polity to maintain, out of the Imperial Revenue, 
 Corps which were tieil to one Colony, and not availa- 
 ble for the generid defense of the Empire. Accord- 
 ingly the Colonial Corps have been gradually dis- 
 banded, and there survive only two West India regi- 
 ments and the Malta Fencibles. 
 
 COLOR BEARER.— The besircr of the colors. The 
 Color scrgeanis are the Regimental Color-bearcrs. 
 
 See ('ol'irntiyiiiiil. 
 
 COLORED FIRES. — Tlie materials for colored fires 
 should lie as ])ure as can be obtained; those which 
 crystallize should be procured in the ciystalline .stale. 
 Tiiey should be genendly first dried, ground fine, 
 weighed out and mixed. The composition is then 
 moistened and pre.s,sed into shape. Some of the 
 materials, such as the flowers of sulphur and lamp- 
 black, ought to be first well washetl in warm water. 
 Antimony, glitss, copper filings ought, iis well as other 
 materials", to be pa.ssed through sieve No. 1. All the 
 materials should lie i>erfeetly dry. Those which 
 contain water of crystallization, as the barium nitrate, 
 strontium nitrate, and copper sulphate, should have 
 it driven olT. For this i)urpose, place the s;dt in a 
 broad, sliallow vessel in a water-bath, or on a moderate 
 fire, and stir it till it be perfectly dry, taking it off 
 the fire some minutes before. As the copper sulphate 
 is easily decomjiosed in this operation, and as the sul- 
 phuric acid set free might occasion a spontaneous cx- 
 Jjlosion when the copper sulphate was brought in con- 
 tact with tlie chlorates, two parts of liquid ammonia 
 are iwured by degrees on the copjier sulphate pow- 
 dered and yet hot. (The ammonia neutralizes the 
 acid, and, instead of injuring the color, it heightens 
 it. The .Siime jiroccss should be adopted with other 
 decomposable salts.) A thick liquid of an indigo- 
 blue color is obtained; place it on the fire, and warm 
 It gentl}' until it liecomes a thick jiaste; then, lea\ing 
 only a few coals under it, stir it with a spatula and 
 crush it into a powder. 
 
 The materials are ground in a mortar with a pestle, 
 or on a sieve %vith copper balls .4 inch in diameter, 
 of equal weight with the composition to lie ground. 
 All tlic utensils should be kept perfectly clean. To 
 pulverize antimony melt it and [lour it into a cast-iron 
 mortar previously ^varmed; when the metal is on the 
 point of congealing stir it briskly with the pestle; it 
 is thus reduced to tine grains, w Uich are then pulver- 
 ized with a pestle. Zinc and other similar metals are 
 treated in the same way. To obtain shellac in the 
 state of a fine powder, it is first broken into pieces 
 and melted with its weight of niter. The mass is 
 then ground as usual, and the powder thus obtained 
 is washed in pure water till all the niter is removed. 
 The resins and other substances insoluble in water and, 
 difficult to pulverize in their pure state are treated in 
 the same manner. All materials when pulverized 
 should be passetl through hair-sieve No. 1. They 
 ought, if possible, to be sifted when warm, and 
 placed away immecliately in well-stoiipered bottles to 
 preserve them from inoisUire. The chlorates should 
 be pulverized in a marble mortar with a hard-wood 
 pestle. The mortar, pestle, and sieve should be used 
 only for a single clilorate, and the whole operation be 
 lierformed in ii place apart to avoid accidents. The 
 chlorate can be ground and maniiiulated by itself 
 without danger; but when it is mixed with sulphur, 
 charcoal, etc., it exiilodes very readily. 
 
 Each material should lie weighed accurately by it- 
 self, according to the proportions laid down by au- 
 Ihority. The materials, after being ^veighed out, are 
 poured on a sheet of iiasleboard, and mixed as well 
 as possible with the hand; they are then jiassed three 
 times through sieve No. 2, keeping the sieve station- 
 ary, and stirring the materials with the hand. If a 
 chlorate enters into the coni])osilion, begin liy mi.xing 
 all the nialerials on a pasteboard, except the sulphur, 
 charcoal, lamp-black, sugar, tallow, and sliellac. 
 AVhen they are well mixed, add the combustible ma- 
 terials separately, mix them thoroughly, and then 
 add the chlorate. Pass the comiiosition three times 
 through sieve No. 2. using a feather for the inirpose. 
 All these maiiipulaliniis with compositions into which 
 a chlorate enters sliuuld lie performed in a place 
 aside, and with a small ((uantity at a time. Compo- 
 sitions thus inepared should lie in'eserved in well- 
 stoppered bottles, carefully labeled. Those contain-
 
 COLOE-GUAED. 
 
 373 
 
 COLOE SALUTE. 
 
 ing chlorates sliould be placed away from the rest, 
 and apart from each other. 
 
 Compositions are (lami)eued by pouring the pure or 
 gummed liquid on them, a little at a time, and mi.v 
 in;; it well with the hand or a wooden knife. Com- 
 positions should not be dampened until just before 
 they are to be molded. All compositions may be 
 tirmly compressed, provided care be taken to avoid 
 friction and blows with those containing chlorates. 
 However gi'eat the care taken in the choice of mate- 
 riids, their proportions and manipulations, it is difli- 
 cidl always to gel uniform results. It is nccessjuy, 
 therefore, to try tlie mi.xtures and moilify the proi)or- 
 tions as may be required. In every composition there 
 are certain "substances which are used to furnish oxy- 
 gen for the consumption of the rest; the nitrates and 
 chlorates are such. There are other substances, as 
 sulphur, charcoal, and vegetable matters, which are 
 burned ; and others which are only used to give color 
 to the tlame, as antimony, lead, copper, strontia, etc. 
 The same sul)stances may furnish o.\ygen and color 
 the flame at the same time. Certain materials arc 
 used only to heighten the color, as the mercuric chlo- 
 ride and the ammonium chloride; the action of the 
 latter is weaker than that of the former. 
 
 When a composition burns too slowly, there is an 
 excess of coloring matter, or of that which is to be 
 burned, or some other substance (as water, for exam- 
 ple), very rarely of that which furnishes o.xygcn. 
 When the com|>osilion burns too fast, it is necessary 
 to add coloring matter, or such substances as sugar, 
 rosin, or tallow, which operate by .separating the sub- 
 stances, supplying the oxygen from those which are 
 burned, and at the .same time keeping up the com- 
 bustion. Generally, the quicker the combustion the 
 jnore will the flame approach to whiteness, whatever 
 may be the coloring principle; and the slower the 
 combustion the more certaiutj' there will be of obtain- 
 ing the desired color. See Compositiona and Fiiv-iror/.s. 
 
 C0L0B-6UAED.— In each Infantry Battalion of the 
 United States Army there is a Color-guard, composed 
 of a Color-sergeant and seven Coiporals, which is 
 posted as the left four of the right center company. 
 The front rank is composed of the Color-sergeant and 
 three senior Corporals, one posted on his right and 
 two on his left; tlic rear rank is composed of the four 
 remaining Corporals. The Corporals are placed in 
 the order of rank from right to left. The Color- 
 sergeant and Color-corporals are selected from those 
 most distinguished for bravery, and for precision 
 under arms and in marching. The Color-sergeant 
 carries the national color. The regimental color 
 (when present) is carried by a Sergeant, who tiikes 
 the place of the Corporal on the left of the Color- 
 sergeant. 
 
 The colors, delivered by the Colonel into the hands 
 of the Color-bearer, are escorted by the Color-guard 
 to the Color-conipany, on its parade-ground: and in 
 like maimer are escorted back to the CoU)ncrs (juar- 
 tcrs. The Color-guard, by command of the Color- 
 sergeant, presents nriiiK on receiving and on parting 
 with the colors; in the latter case the Color guard re- 
 turns to the ciurry by command of the senior Color- 
 corporal. 
 
 The Color-guard executes the order arms, carry 
 arms, the l<jii(/in;/i> ■.mdjtringn. In rendering honors 
 it executes the prfxciif, rerem', and rent oit iirms. On 
 drill, in addition to the above, it executes .«'(///;</;■/ and 
 n'g/it Khonliler iirinx. It executes the other move- 
 ments in the manual only when specially directctl. 
 The bayonets of the Color-guard are habitually carried 
 in the scabbard. 
 
 COLOE PAETY.— The two Oflicei-s, in the English 
 service, w ho carry the colors of a regiment : as a rule, 
 the two jiniior Lieutenants. Four Sergeants arc also 
 told off to assist, of whom one stands between the 
 two OtTicers and three form a rear rank. 
 
 COLOES. — I. In Heraldry, the colors used are gen- 
 erally red, blue, black, green, and purple; which are 
 cjilletl gules, azm-e, sable, vert or sinople, and pur- 
 
 pure. •Tennc or tawny, and sanguine or blotxl-color, 
 sometimes occur, but they are not common. Yellow 
 and white, again, are not colors in the heraldic 
 sense, but metals; they are called or and argent, and 
 are always rejiresented by gold and silver. It is a 
 fundamental and invariable rule iu blazon not to put 
 color upon color, or metal upon metal ; thus, if the 
 field be of a metal, the bearing must be of a color, 
 and tke versa. The only exception is sidd to be the 
 arms of Jerusalem, which were given to Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, which are argent, a cross poteiice or, be- 
 tiri'i'ii four crosslets of the same. Apparent exceptions 
 to this rule in common blazon are (1) abatements or 
 marks of cadency or dilTerence, labels, crescents, 
 batons, and the like; and i'i) extremities or adjuncts 
 to animals, or other objects, such as tongues, claws, 
 horns, etc. ; but neither of these are regarded as in- 
 dependent bearings. Colors and metals, when en- 
 gi-aved. are generally indicated by dots and lines: or, 
 gold, by dots; argent, silver, is left plain; gules, red, 
 is indicated by perpendicular lines from lop to bot- 
 tom; azure, blue, bj' horizontal lines from side to 
 side; sable, black, by horizontal and perpendicular 
 lines crossing each other; nrt, by diagonal lines from 
 right to ]eft;jnirpure, by diagonal lines from left to 
 right; lenne, by diagonal lilies from left to right, 
 crossed by horizontal lines; and sanguine, bj' lines 
 crossing diagonally from left to right, and from right 
 to left. See IleraMri/. 
 
 2. Certain kinds of flags carried with the army. 
 Standards, banners, pennons, guidons, ensigns, aiid 
 colors are militarj' flags, each originally having a dis- 
 tinct meaning, now to some extent departed from. 
 The ensigns were the original of those which are now 
 called colors, and which especially belong to infantry 
 regiments, in England. The colors are square flags, 
 larger than the standards carried by the cavalrj-. In 
 former times there was one for each comjiany; but 
 now there are generally two for a battalion, consti- 
 tuting " a pair of colors;" one of which is called the 
 Royal or First, and the other the Regimental or Sec- 
 ond. Both are about 6i feet by 6, made of silk, with 
 cords and tassels of crimson and gold, and fixed to a 
 stafT about 10 feet long. The Royal Color or Flag is 
 nearly alike for all the regiments; with abluegrouiid, 
 an imperial crown, the numl)er of the legiment, and 
 the union cross of St. George, St. Andrew, and St. 
 Patrick. The Regimental Color depcnils for its tint 
 on the facings of the uuifonn of the regiment ; in its 
 center is in.scribed the number or designation of the 
 regiment, with its crest and motto, if any; and aroimd 
 are the names of the victories and camjiaigns in which 
 the corps has sensed. A sulialtern ollicer carries the 
 colors, and certain nonconunissioncd officers are set 
 apart as a g-uard. The colors sjnnbolize the good 
 name and fame of the regiment, and are on that 
 accoimt protected in action with .sedulous care; a 
 victor always counts among his achievements the 
 number of colors captured from the enemy. When 
 a regiment obtains new colors, they are usually sol- 
 emnly presented by some hidy of distinction. The 
 presentation is made with much military pomp, and 
 the Chaplain of the Regiment reads a prayer prepared 
 for the occa.sion. A member of the Heralds' College 
 is " Inspector of Regimental Colors," the iiost being 
 at present held by Garter-Kingal-Arms. Besides the 
 above, there are small camji-colors of the same tint 
 as the facings of the regiment, to designate the part 
 of the camp the corps occupies. Rifle regiments do 
 not carry colors. 
 
 In the United States, eacli regiment of infantry and 
 artillery has two colors, one national and one regi- 
 mental. See Artillery Colors, Camp Colors, Engineer 
 Cohii's, Escort of the Color, Flags, Infantry Colors, and 
 Stanihirih 
 
 COLOE SALUTE.— The Color-bcarer carries the heel 
 of the color-lance supported at the right hip; the right 
 hand gra.sps the slatf at the height of the shoulder, to 
 hold it steady. The C'olor-bearer sjdules with the 
 colors as follows: 1. Slip the right hand along the
 
 C0L0B-8EBOZA1TT. 
 
 374 
 
 COLT EEVOLTEB. 
 
 staff to the height of the eye; lower the stjiff by 
 stmighteuiiig the anil to its full extent, the heel of the 
 lanee ri'iiiaiiiing at the hip. 2. Bring back the lance 
 to the habilual |i<i>ition. 
 
 COLOR SEBGEANT. — The Sergeant detailed to 
 carry the Keirimental Colors. He is usually selected 
 for military deportment and st)ldierly bearing, and 
 ■when carrying the colors is esc^orted by a guard of 
 seven CoriJorals. In the British army the Color-ser- 
 geant is n non-conimissioni'd officer of higher rank 
 and better pay than the oRliiiary Sergeants. There is 
 one to each company of infantry; and the office is 
 specially given to meritorious soldiers. The Color- 
 sergeant wears an honorary badge over the che\Tons, 
 and receives 2*. orf. per day. He fulfills the ordinary 
 regimental and company duties of Sergeant; but in 
 addition to these, he attends the colors in the licld, 
 or in the front of a camp, or near headquarters in a 
 garrison. A Color-sergeant may be degraded to the 
 rank of Sergeant for misbehavior, but only by the de- 
 cision of a Court-Martial. 
 
 COLT MAGAZIKERIFLE. — A new rifle recently 
 develojuHi and [lerfeeted by the Colt Arms Company. 
 The drawing shows the arm and it.s parts in the posi- 
 tion that they will have immediately after the piece 
 
 into the fonvard notch of the carrier and hold it in 
 position; then if a cjirtridge be drojiped on the car- 
 rier from the top, a slight jtrcssure on it will droj) the 
 carrier to the rear notch, leaving the cartridge in the 
 proper position for entering the chamber by the action 
 of the guard-lever. This arrangement enables the rifle 
 to be used as a single breech-loader when the maga- 
 zine is emjity. The firing-pin lever, h, throws the 
 firing-pin back by the first motion of the guard-lever, 
 and holds it back until the completion of the loading. 
 The ejector, (", throws out the emi)ty shell as soon as 
 it has been extracted from the chand)er. The ejector 
 works by the action of the V-spring contained m the 
 lug of tlie bolt. There is a cleaning-rod In the stock 
 of the rifle, which can be taken out by opening the 
 cover in the butt-plate. See Magazine-gun. 
 
 COLT REVOLVER.— This widely known revolver 
 differs from others iu the following points, \\i. : The 
 hand, or finger, or pawl which revolves the cylinder 
 has two points, one above the other. The upper en- 
 gages the ratchet of the cylinder when the revolution 
 begins. But before the nccessstry sixth of a revolu- 
 tion could be made, as the pawl moves in a plane, 
 and the ratchet-tooth in the arc of a circle whose 
 plane is quite perpendicular to the pawl's plane of 
 
 C!olt Magazine-rifle. 
 
 is fired. The action of the movable parts is as fol- 
 lows: The gUard-lever, a, is set free and thrown for- 
 wanl bv the right hand. The first part of this move- 
 ment draws the firing-pin, b, from the head of the 
 cartridge, and releases the magjizine-gate, c, causing 
 it to hold back and stop the cartridge which follows 
 that which has already entered the carrier. As the 
 movement of the guard progres-ses, the bolt, d, is 
 drawn to the rear, ejecting the empty shell, cocking 
 the hammer, e, and raising tlie carrier, /, .so that 
 when the movement forward is finished, the cartridge 
 in the carrier is m line with the chamber of the rifle, I 
 and just in its rear. Reversing the movement of 
 the jruard-lever pushes the toll forward, drives the 
 cartridge into the chamlx:r, and throws the carrier 
 down into position, so that it receives another cart- 
 ridge just a.s the reverse motion is completed. The i 
 lx)lt is brought clear forward, and the extractor ' 
 hooked over the cartridge-head before the magazine- 
 gate, c, is released, thus preventing (he bloelTing of 
 the breech action. This feature is jieculiar to Ibis 
 rifle. The firing-pin is held back positively until the 
 cartridge hius enlered the chainlier and the bolt is 
 locked, preventing the possjbililv of premature ex- 
 plosion. The carrier has at its rear two notches, q 
 with a spring arranged to hold it in one of two posi- 
 tions. If the lever lie brought forward, and the car 
 rier be raised without a cartridge, the .spring will drop 
 
 [ motion, the pawl would lose its hold on the tooth, 
 I and the revolution of the cylinder would stop. To 
 j prevent this the second iioint is addetl, and just as 
 I the first point will disengage from the ratchet, the 
 second or lower point engages another tooth of the 
 ratchet and completes the revolution. By this ar- 
 rangement the pawl actuates a larger ratchet than it 
 could otherwise, and therefore exerts more force ujxm 
 the cylinder, by acting u|ion a longer lever-arm. 
 This ijcmiits a .smaller-sized cylinder for the .sjime 
 i diameter of ratchet. The cylinder has a bushing 
 which projects in front of it, and gives three surfaces 
 uixm which the cylinder revolves, thus diminishing 
 the chance of sticking from dirt or rust, and also 
 giving a very small axisu|)on which to revolve, de- 
 ' creasing the moment of friction. AVhen the ejector 
 is used it springs l)ack to its place and is ready for 
 ! use again, avoiding the necessity of putting it back. 
 To take the arm apart, half-cock the pistol, loosen 
 the catch-screw which holds the ceiiter-iiin, draw out 
 the center-jMii, open the gate, and the cylinder can 
 then be withdrawn. To remove the ejector, turn out 
 the ejector tulie-screw, then push the front end away 
 from the barrel and pull it towards the muzzle. The 
 barrel cm\ then be unscrewed. The stock can be re- 
 moved l)y turning out the two screws just tiebind the 
 hammer, and that at the l)ottom of the strap. All 
 the parts of the lock are then displayed, and can be
 
 <!OLT EEVOLVEE. 
 
 375 
 
 COLT EEVOIVEB. 
 
 readily separated. The cylinder bushing should be 
 pushed out for cleaning. To remove the gate, turn 
 out a screw in the lower side of the frame ( hidden by 
 the trigger-guard), then the gate-spring and catch can 
 
 gate, cock and fire it ( taking it in the right hand), or 
 biing the hammer to the safety-notch as may be de- 
 sired. To Eject the Cartrklt/i;-s/ieiln. — 1st motion: Hold- 
 ing the pistol in the ief t hand, half-cock with the right 
 
 Fio.l. 
 
 Fia.2, 
 
 NOHENCLATCRE. 
 
 A. 
 B. 
 
 B'. 
 ■C. 
 D. 
 
 E. 
 T. 
 
 Barrel. 
 
 G. 
 
 Hammer. 
 
 N. 
 
 Trigger and screw. 
 
 T. 
 
 Frame. 
 
 H. 
 
 Wain-spring. 
 
 o. 
 
 Haninier-noU'hes. 
 
 U 
 
 Recoil-plate. 
 
 I. 
 
 Hamnier-roll and rivet. 
 
 R 
 
 Filing-pin and rivet. 
 
 
 Cylinder. 
 
 J. 
 
 Hammer-srrew. 
 
 ^■'. 
 
 Ejector-rod and spring. 
 
 V 
 
 Base-pin. 
 (iuara. 
 
 K. 
 
 Hamnier-cani. 
 
 Fjector-tnbe. 
 
 w 
 
 L. 
 
 Hand and spring. 
 
 H. 
 
 Ejector-head. 
 
 X 
 
 Back-strap. 
 
 M. 
 
 Bolt and screw. 
 
 a. 
 
 Ejector-tube screw. 
 
 V 
 
 Short-guard screw. 
 
 Sear and Iwlt i combinedl 
 
 spring and screw. 
 Back-strap screw. 
 Maiu-spri ng-screw. 
 Front sight. 
 Y.» Base-pin catch-screw. 
 
 l)e withdrawn, and the gate can be pushed out. The 
 best sperm-oil shoulil be used for oiling the pails. 
 To Load t/ie I'/ntnl . — 1st motion: Holding tlie pistol in 
 the left hand, muzzle downwards, half-cock it with 
 the right hand and open the gate. 2d motion : Insert tlie 
 •cartridges in succession with the right hand, close the 
 
 hand and open the gate. 2d motion : Eject the .shells in 
 succession witli tlie ejector pushed by the right hand, 
 moving the cylinder with the thumb and forefinger 
 of the left hand. Wlien the shells have been ejected, 
 the pistol is ready for the 2d motion of loading. 
 There are three notches in the hammer of this pistol.
 
 COLUHBIADS. 
 
 376 
 
 COLUMN OF MABCH. 
 
 The first is the snfety- notch, the second is the hnlf- 
 cock-notch, luni the third is the cock-notch. The pistol 
 cannot lie lirc<l when llie hnninier rests in the sjifety- 
 nolcli or hiilfcock-uotch, luul can he tired by pulling 
 the trip.irer wlieu the hammer rests in the coeknoteh. 
 The pistol should Ih' carried habituallj' with the ham- 
 mer n-slinjr in the safely -notch. 
 
 The dr.iwin^ are verliad projections of this arm 
 (one-half size). Fiji. 2 shows the arrangement of the 
 ■working parts, and is referred to in the nomenclature. 
 The two back-strap screws jiLst In'hind the hammer, 
 the st(X-k, the long-jruartl screw, gale, gate-catch 
 screw, pile-spring, and gate-calch are not shown in 
 Fig. 2. The pile is shown in Fig. 1. The operation 
 of tile parts is very simi>le. As the hammer is cock- 
 ed, the hand, which is jjivoled to its lower portion, 
 rises and engages Ihe ratchet on the ba.se of the cylin- 
 der, and C'luses it to revolve. The lower point or 
 linger of the hand engjiges with oneof the teeth of tlie 
 rntchct just as the revolution of Ihe cylinder lias 
 carried away the i)reccding toolh from the upjicr 
 fingi'r of the liand. Tliis eomiileles and insures tlie 
 re\-(ilution by increasing the ellective leverage of Ihe 
 hand. Tlie bolt MVngages the sloivnotehes in the sur- 
 face of Ihe cylinder, to prevent Ihe momentum of the 
 cylinder from cjirrjini^ it past the tiring-point. It is 
 caused to disengage from them by the action of the 
 hammer-cam K, which, rising during the cocking of 
 the hammer, pressi's up the rear end of tlic liolt and 
 lilxMiiles its front, end from the notch. Wlien the 
 revolution is about complete Ihe bevih.d lower sur- 
 face of Ihe hammer-cam comes opposite the point of 
 contact on the bolt. At this moment the tail of the 
 liolt (being slit so as to have a iatcial spring, and Ihe 
 head being pres-sed upward by the Hat spring I') slides 
 down over Ihe inclined surface of Ihe cam, and the 
 head engages with Ihe stop-notch in the cylinder. 
 The spring U is slit and lient so as to act upon both 
 the boll and the trigger. Tlie liushing arounil Ihe base- 
 pin is useful liy affording another surface for the re- 
 volulion of the cylinder, and thereby diminishes the 
 chances of sticking from dirt or rust. 15i)lli the 
 cylinder and bushing may revolve on the base-pin, 
 which in liirn may revolve in its own liearings. 
 
 COLUHBIADS. — A species of sea-coast cannon whicli 
 combine certain (jualilies of Ihe gun, howitzer, and 
 mortar; in other words, they are long, chambered 
 pieces, capable of projecting solid shot and shells, 
 with heavy charges of powder, at high angles of ele- 
 vation, and are, therefore, etpially suited to tlie 
 defense of narrow chimnels and distant roadsteads. 
 The coliunbiad was invented by the late Colonel 
 
 Hodman Columhiad. 
 
 Bumford, and used in the War of 1S13 for tiring solid 
 shot. In 1N44 Ihe model was changed, by lenglhcn- 
 iiig Ihe Iiore and increasing Ihe weight of nielal, to 
 cnalile it to endure an increased charge of i)ow(ier, 
 or J of the weight of the solid sbol. Si.\ years after 
 this it was discovered rfiat Ihe pieces thus idtered did 
 not always possess the rerpiisite .strength. In 18.")8 
 they were degra<led to ihe rank of shell-iruHs. to be 
 tired with diminisheil charges of powder, and their 
 places supplied with pieces of improved model. Tlie 
 changes made in forming the new model consisted in 
 giving greater thickness of metal in the prolongation 
 
 of the axis of the liore, which was done by diminish- 
 ing the length of the bore it.self; in substituting a 
 hemispherical bottom to the bore, and removing the 
 cylindrical chamlier; in removing the swell of the 
 muzzle and bitse-ring; and in rounding off Ihe comer 
 of the lireeeh. From the fact that all the trial-pieces 
 have successfully endured very severe tests, it is to be 
 inferrtnl that Ihe defects of the previous model arose 
 from the presence of a cylindrical clmml>er, and a 
 deficiency of metal in the prolongation of the bore. 
 In 1860 the model proposed by Captain Hodman was 
 adopted for all sea-coast cannon. This model is 
 .shown in the drawing; it does not differ, however, in 
 its essential i>articulars from the model of 1858. See 
 t<efi-<'<Mtat Attilli ry. 
 
 COLUMN. — In military evolutions, a mass of sol- 
 diei-s several ranks in depth, pre.st'iiting a formation 
 different from that which arises from spreading them 
 out (■;( Um'. There may be columns of brigailes, of 
 regiments, of battalions, or of companies; presenting 
 a front of limited width, but a depth depending on 
 the number of elements in the column. If a battalion 
 consists of len companies, then a "battalion in col- 
 umn" has all the companies posted one behind an- 
 other. According to the density of Ihe column it is 
 called open or chge. In a battalion, when the distance 
 between any one company and the one iniinedialely 
 before it is .such as to admit of their wheeling into- 
 line, Ihe formation is called open column; when the 
 distance lietwecn the front rank of one company and 
 the rear rank of Ihe one before it is only a few yards, 
 it is done column; when intermediate between these 
 two, it is /lalf-diskiiice column. The relative advan- 
 tages of column and line, in drawing up troops for 
 action, are among Ihe matters closely studied by the 
 commanders of armies: the French, as a general rule, 
 have rather favored the formation in column; Ihe 
 English, that in line. Sometimes the name coliemn is 
 given to thai which, in effect, is a small army. 
 
 COLUMN-CRANE.— Essentially a jib-crane arranged 
 to revolve around a li.xed center-column williin the 
 mast, the column being utilized for suiiporting the 
 tloor alxive. This type of crane is built of any desired 
 capacity from 1 Ion to 10 Ions, although for capaci- 
 ties above "> tons it is liest if possible lo arrange the 
 cranes independently of the supporting columns. As 
 seen in the engra\'ing on the opposite page, Ihe 
 mast consists of two ivrought-iron channel-beams 
 securely titled to heavy castings at top and bottom, 
 each of which latter contains horizontal rollers, trav- 
 eling upon turned paths on the center column, the 
 lower or foot casting being (irovidedalso with vertical 
 rollers, traveling upon a circu- 
 lar path around the foot of the 
 column. The vertical rollers 
 carry Ihe weight of the crane 
 and load, while the horizontal 
 thrust at top and bottom is re- 
 ceived upon the horizontal rol- 
 lers. Thus arranged, the ro- 
 tation of the crane isas.smooth 
 and easy as that of a crane 
 turning upon pintles in the 
 usual way. All of the other 
 details of this crane are similar 
 to those of the jib-crane. 
 
 This type of crane is de- 
 signed especially for use in 
 foundries where an upper tloor is supported ujion col- 
 umns which cannot be removed, and around which 
 it is therefore desirable that the cranes should rotate. 
 Thus arranged they have all the convenience and 
 ajjplicnbility of ordinary jib-cranes. See Cranea and 
 Jih-rrinie. 
 
 COLUMN OF MARCH.— A formation assumed by 
 1roo])s on the line of march, which is governed partly 
 by tactical considerations, |)arlly by arrangements for 
 supply, etc. This formalioii consists lirst of an ad- 
 vanced-guard, which is purely tacticol. At Ihe head 
 of the column, or with the advanced-guard, come the
 
 COLiniN SHAPES. 
 
 377 
 
 COMBINED MARCHES. 
 
 Siip|)ere to clear the roads, to repair bridges, and gen- 
 erally to facilitate the march of the column. Next 
 conies Ihe tirsl brii^adc of infantry, with iiilrench- 
 ing tools, for throwing up covering works, if needed. 
 Its anihulance-wagons are kept in the rear, or should 
 be so, and are not allowed to be under tire. All trans 
 port of sick from the field of battle shoidd be carried 
 out by stretchers. The position of artillery with such 
 a force should be regulated by tactical considerations. 
 If not required it should be in rear of the infiintry, 
 but if wanted should be in rear of the first battidion, 
 or first brigade, sometimes between brigsides. Artil- 
 lery, if between infantry, must conform t'JMtli/ to Ihe 
 pace of infantry, which is very fatiguing anil trying 
 to the horses; if in rear, they can make longer halts 
 and vary pace. Mounted corps, when praelicable, 
 should march at later hours than dismounled men; 
 if the column comes unexpectedly on the enemy, it is 
 easier to trot artillery past infantry than to hurry up 
 infantry past artillerj-. The s;iiue principles which 
 
 The 10-inch machine stands on a hollow column, 
 the base of which measures 36 by 27 inches. The 
 stroke nuiy be graduated to any ixiinl within its ex- 
 treme limit. The cutler slide has a quick return, and 
 the cross-feed is automatic and adjustable. Extreme 
 length of stroke, 10 inches; traverse of table, 16 in- 
 ches; distance between tableto]) and bottom of .slide, 
 Hi inches. Weight, including countershaft and \ise, 
 1750 pounds. Speed of countershaft, having 12 b}' 
 3 inches tight and loose pulleys, 120 revolutions per 
 minute. 
 
 The 24-inch machine designed for verv heavj' work, 
 by the Pond ilachiue ToorCompany, L'nited States, 
 ha.s a stroke of 24 inches, automatic cross-feed of 21 
 inches. The table am be lowered to admit of a ])iece 
 being planed 16 inches high. This table is provided 
 with an angle-plate on one side, with a V-shaped slot 
 to admit of a rouud piece being planed upon il.s end. 
 Has a quick return on the back stroke, and a cone- pul- 
 ley w ith two changes for cast iron or steel. Weight, 
 
 Column crane. 
 
 are applied to artillery may be also to cavalrj', and 
 such of it as is not with the advaneed-.guard is gener- 
 ally in rear of all the force. It is desirable, if not 
 imperative, that artillery and cavalry .should not have 
 to conform to infantrv pace. See Marches. 
 
 COLUMN-SHAPER.— A machine much used in ar- 
 mories for die- work, and in a large proportion of cases 
 a substitute for the more ex|iensive shaping 'c.achine. 
 It is emjiloyed in various sizes for different work. 
 The 6-ineli machine has a stroke 6 inches, adjustable 
 to any less distance; traverse of table 8 inches, ("utter- 
 slide has a quick return, and the cross-feed is auto- 
 matic and adjustable. The vertical adjustment of 
 the table is 3 inches, and the extreme distance between 
 the lop of the table and the under side of Ihe cutler 
 slide is 6 inches. A hand-wheel attached to the cone- 
 shaft permits the machine to be run by hand in an 
 emergency. Weight, including vise and covmlershaft, 
 600 pounds. Speed of countershaft, having 8 by 2i^ 
 inches tight and loose pizlleys, 180 revolutions" per 
 minute. 
 
 2000 pounds. Speed of countershaft, 150 revolutions 
 a minule. See Shaping-machine. 
 
 COMBAT. — An engagement of no great importance 
 or magnitude, or one in which the parties engaged 
 are n<il armies. See Sinr/le Coinhat. 
 
 COMBINED MARCHES.— When the movements of 
 divisions and corps are made independent of each 
 other, but having the same object in common, they 
 are known as combined niarche.'i. They, are arranged 
 with the intention of having the several columns 
 arrive at a given position, but coming from ilifTerent 
 directions. It would be a great risk to .select the 
 t point of concentration within an area controlled b}' 
 the enemy, and a plan made wilh this intention woidd 
 be faiUly. Each column, until it came within sup- 
 j porting distance of the others, woidd lie a detached 
 ! force and exposed to the dangers of being over- 
 whelmed before support could reach it. jSlilitary 
 1 writers, as a rule, condemn Ihe independent action of 
 j detachmets, cither to effect a diversion or make a com- 
 I bined march. Sec Concentration-marches and Marches.
 
 COMBINED KETALS. 
 
 378 
 
 COKBUSTION. 
 
 COMBINED METALS.— The term " Imilt-up" is ap- 
 plir.l lo Iliosc cauiuiii in wliich llie |iriiuipiil parts 
 iiri' forinnl si-piirati'lv and tlun united ti\!;i>Ili<.r in a 
 pt-culiiir nianiur. Tlie objeit of tins mode of manu- 
 fatturf is lo tx>m'*l the defitts of one iiuitenal by 
 intnxluiing another of oppasiie qualities. As for in- 
 stance- trials have been made to increase the hard- 
 ness and therefore endumuce, of bronze cannon, bv 
 castj'ns; them around a core of steel, which formed 
 the surface of the liore. Built-up cannon are not 
 neces.sarily comiwsotl (if more than one kind of metal : 
 some ol the most noted are made of steel, orwrought- 
 iron alone. In this CJise, the defects wliich we have 
 seen lo accompany the working of large masses of 
 wroughtiron, viz.i crystalline structure, false welds, 
 cracks, etc., are obviatetl, by first forinmg them in 
 small miusses, as rings, tubes, etc.. of good quality, 
 and then uniting them separately. . The mode of 
 uniting a built gun may be by welding the parts, by 
 shrinking ov forcing one over the other, or by screwing 
 tliem toirether. It'has lieen shown by Barlow's law 
 that all parts of the sides of a cannon are not strained 
 equally and are therefore not brought to the breaking 
 point "at the same time. Any arrangement of the 
 parts by which the explosive strain is distributed 
 e<iually "over the entire thickness of the piece neces- 
 sarily "brings a greater amount of resistance into play 
 to prevent rupture. 
 
 There are two general plans for acqpmplishing this, 
 -viz. : First, bv producing a strain of compression on 
 the metal nearest the surface of the bore. This is 
 termed an "initial strain," and is brought about by 
 shriukimr heated bands or tuljcs around the part to be 
 compressed, or by slipping a tulx- into the bore, which 
 has lK«n slightly enlarged by heat. In either case it 
 Is apparent that the extent of the strain depends on 
 the relative size of the titling surfaces and tlie amount 
 of heat used to produce expansion. Owing to the 
 difficulty of regulating the heal, it is preferred by 
 some to "force the parts together by hydraulic pressure 
 after they have been carefully bored and turned to 
 the proper size. The second plan is based on " vary- 
 ing elasticity," imd is accomplished by placing that 
 metal which stretches most within its elastic limit 
 around the surface of the Iwre, so that by its enlarge- 
 ment the explosive strain is tninsmitted to the outer 
 parts. By the selection of suitable materials and 
 their proper management, both of these plans may Ix- 
 combined in the same gun, and thereby give it in- 
 creasc<l strength, i^ee C'aniioii-meUil». 
 
 COMBLAIN RIFLE. — A breech-loading arm re- 
 sembling the Sharp ritie. The mountings, receiver, 
 and breech-block of this arm are made of phosphorus- 
 bron-/.e; the barrel is made of steel. The militia of 
 Belgium are anned with the Comblain ritle, while the 
 regular troops have the Albini-Brilndlin gun. wliich 
 has a breech-block operating like that of the Spring- 
 field ritle. See Aliini-Jirdiidlin Gun and SmuU- 
 armn. 
 
 COMBUSTION.— The term applied to the process of 
 burning, which usually consists in the oxygen of the 
 air uniting with the constituents of the combustible 
 substance. Thus, the c<inibuslion of coal is due to 
 the oxygen of the air passing into a state of chemical 
 union with the carbon and the hydrogen of the coal, 
 fonning carbonic acid (CO,) and water-vapor (HO). 
 Such chemical combinations are always accompanied 
 by the production of more or less lieai, as in the case 
 of decaying wood and other vegi-tablc matter; but it 
 is only when the action is so ra]iid as to evolve intense 
 heat aecompanicil by light thai the process is called 
 burning or combustion. Though the gaseous oxygen 
 ha.s as much to do with the process as the more solid 
 material, coal, woo<l, paper, or cloth, vet the latter is 
 alone styled the coinliuMUik or hiirniiir/ hodi/, whilst 
 the oxygen is invarialily named the mimortir of com- 
 bustion. A few substances burn at ordinary temper- 
 atures, such as phosphorus, which glows when ex- 
 ix)ac<l to the air; but the generality of substances, 
 such as wood, coal, etc., require to be raised in tem- 
 
 perature or be set Are to before they possess the power 
 of combining -nith the o.xygen of the air. The 
 amount of heat given out by tlie various combustibles 
 when bunietl is capable of being measured, and is 
 definite. The same weight of the same combustible 
 invariably evolves the sjime amount of heat during 
 its complete combustion; liut ditTerent combustible 
 substances irivc off different amounts of heat. The 
 mode in wliich the heat evolved may be measured is 
 either; (1) to observe the quantity of ice w-hich a 
 given weight of the combustible will melt when biim- 
 fng: (2) to notice the weight of water which the 
 combustible will convert into steam; or (8) to esti- 
 mate the number of pounds of wat( r which the burn- 
 ing bo<lv will raise from 32 to 212 F. The last phin 
 is" the "more ea.sily managed and accurate. The 
 amount of heat e"volved apiwars, however, to \ye 
 proportional to the quaiility of oxygen retpiired to 
 burn the various combustibles. Thus, when a simi- 
 lar volume of oxygen gas, or even ordinan- air, is 
 allowed to flow against the various combustible sub- 
 stances, the following results are obtained: 
 
 One pound of Oxygen combined with 
 
 Baisesfrom 
 3'2 to S12 degrees F. 
 
 Hydrogen 29^ lbs. of water. 
 
 Charcoal 29 
 
 Ether / 28 
 
 Alcohol 28i 
 
 While the absolute amount of heat evolved during 
 the combustion of any burning body is the s!\me, yet 
 the sensible heat may" vary according to the rapidity 
 of the process. Thus, w-hen phosjihorus is exposed 
 to the air at ordinary temperatures, it very slowly 
 combines with oxygen, and gives out little heat at 
 any one moment, i)ut it is diffused over a great length 
 of "time; whilst if the phosphorus is set fire to in the 
 air, it burns yi\-idly, and gives out much heat and 
 light for a short lime; and still further, if the burn- 
 ing phosphorus be placed in pure oxygen, it enters 
 info most yi\id combustion, and evolves a most in- 
 tense heat and brilliant light for a still shorter time. 
 In the latter instances, the heat evolved at any one 
 moment is greater, because more rapid, than that 
 given off at the same time during the slower inocess 
 of combustion: |but when allowed to proceed to a 
 termination, there is as much heat produced during 
 the whole time occupied in its development. The 
 same remark applies to the coal placed in a furnacj?. 
 So long as the door of a furnace is open, and there is 
 little draught of air through the fuel, a modciiite 
 amount of "heat is evolved, which may last for several 
 hours: but when the door is shut, and much air is 
 drawn throuch the coal, the Utter is more quickly 
 burned, and more heat is evolved during a shorter 
 period of time than lieforc, but in the long-run there 
 is the same amount of heat evolved. 
 
 Temperature and atmospheric pressure considerably 
 influence the products obtained from burning gun- 
 powder. When exposed in the open air to a teni]x;r- 
 ature irraduallv increasing to .572 degrees Fahrenheit, 
 the sulphur siiblimes. taking with it a portion of the 
 carixm. This was show ii by Saluces, who pa.sscd the 
 volatilized products through a screen of very fine 
 cloth, and found carbon deposited on it. Pow-der 
 may be. therefore, completely decomposed by a grad- 
 ual" heat, \vithout ex))losioii ; but when suddenly 
 brought in contact with an ignitcil body, the temper- 
 ature of which is at least .j72 degrees Fahrenheit, the 
 sulphur has not time to sublime before explosion 
 takes jilaee. The proportions for war-powder for the 
 United Slates service are seventy-six i)arts of niter, 
 ten of suljihur, and foiirleen of carbon. By the 
 atomic theory the proiiortions should Ix' 74.64 niter, 
 11.85 .Hulplnlr, i:i..'Jl earlxm. If we adopt these last 
 proportions, the formula for gunpowder becomes 
 
 (N0» + K0)-|-S + 3C. 
 
 If we suppose the ingredients to be pure, and to ar-
 
 couzs. 
 
 379 
 
 COMMAND. 
 
 range themselves under the influence of heat accord- 
 ing to tlieir strongest affinities, there will result one 
 equivalent of nitrogen, three of carbonic acid, and 
 one of sulphide of potassium, for 
 
 (NO5 + KO) + S + 3C = N 4- SCO, + SK. 
 The products are, therefore, either solid or gaseous. 
 Usually, powder contains a slight quantity of mois- 
 ture; the ingredients are not absolutely pure, nor are 
 they proportioned strictly according to their combJB- 
 ing equivalents; it might be expected, therefore, that 
 the actual would differ from the theoretical results. 
 The actual gaseous products obtained by combustion 
 are principally nitrogen and carbonic acid, sometimes 
 carbonic oxide, a little sulphuretted hydrogen, car- 
 biiretted hydrogen, and nitrous oride. The solid pro- 
 ducts are sulphide of potassium, sulphate of poiassa, 
 carbonate of pidassa (mingled with a little carbon), anA 
 traces of sulphur. TVhen the sulphide of potassium 
 <"omes in contact with the air. it is converted into sul- 
 phate of potassa, and gives rise to the white smoke 
 which follows the explosion of gunpowder. A por- 
 tion of the sulphide is sometimes condensed on the 
 surface of the projectile, which accounts for the red 
 appearance of shells sometimes observed in mortar- 
 firing. The solid products are probably volatilized 
 at the moment of explosion by the high temperature 
 which accompanies the combustion; i5ut, coming in 
 contact with bodies of much lower temperature, they 
 are immediately condensed. In chambered arms. 
 
 Density of 
 products of 
 combustion 
 
 Xo. of volumes 
 of expansion. 
 
 .95 
 
 l.OoSU 
 
 .90 
 
 i.ini 
 
 .85 
 
 l.lTOS 
 
 .80 
 
 l.iVX) 
 
 .T5 
 
 l.:«:i3 
 
 .70 
 
 1.4286 
 
 .65 
 
 1.5:»5 
 
 .60 
 
 1.6667 
 
 .55 
 
 1.8182 
 
 .50 
 
 2.a»oo 
 
 .45 
 
 2.2222 
 
 .40 
 
 2.5000 
 
 .35 
 
 2.8.571 
 
 .30 
 
 s.xm 
 
 .23 
 
 4,0000 
 
 .20 
 
 5.0000 
 
 .17 
 
 5.88*1 
 
 .16 
 
 6.2500 
 
 .15 
 
 6.6667 
 
 .14 
 
 7.1429 
 
 .13 
 
 7.692.3 
 
 .12 
 
 8 33:» 
 
 .11 
 
 9.0909 
 
 .10 
 
 10.0000 
 
 .9 
 
 11.1111 
 
 .8 
 
 12.5000 
 
 .7 
 
 14.2857 
 
 .6 
 
 16.6667 
 
 .5 
 
 20.0000 
 
 Total Work that the Gcn- 
 powder is capable of 
 Realizing. 
 
 Per kilogramme 
 
 burned, in kilo- 
 
 grammeters. 
 
 3210.8 
 63.39.6 
 9412.8 
 12443.3 
 li>460.8 
 18488.1 
 21544.9 
 24630.8 
 27841 9 
 31153.7 
 34614 
 3829<1 
 422.34 7 
 46565 9 
 51414.8 
 57031.7 
 60952.1 
 62:J68.1 
 63884.4 
 6.M70.1 
 67138 4 
 68940.1 
 70855.4 
 72903.7 
 75214.5 
 77679 9 
 80162.1 
 a3582.1 
 8?244.4 
 
 Per poimd 
 burned, in 
 foot-tons. 
 
 4.70 
 
 9.29 
 
 13.79 
 
 IS.Zi 
 
 22.65 
 
 27.08 
 
 31.56 
 
 36.11 
 
 40.78 
 
 45.62 
 
 50.70 
 
 56.08 
 
 61.86 
 
 68-21 
 
 73.31 
 
 8:i.53 
 
 89.35 
 
 91.45 
 
 93.64 
 
 93.94 
 
 98.39 
 
 101.00 
 
 103 82 
 
 106.87 
 
 110.18 
 
 113 81 
 
 117.83 
 
 122.42 
 
 187.79 
 
 small drops of sulphur may be observed condensed 
 on the sides of the bore, which show that the sulphur 
 lias been volatilized; and we know that good powder | 
 turns on paper and leaves no trace. This fact, how- 
 ever, was most completely shown by the exjierimcnts 
 of Count Rumford. This celebrated observer used a 
 small ci^rouvette of great strcngtli, which he partially 
 filled with powder, and hermetically closed ^vith a 
 heavy weight. The powder was fired by heating a 
 jKjrlion of the eprouvette to redness. "Whenever the 
 f»rce was sufficient to raise the weight, the entire 
 products cscajX'd; when it was not, a solid substance 
 was found condensed on the surface of the bore fur- : 
 thest from the source of heat. | 
 
 The late researches of Captain Noble and Mr. Abel 
 on fired gunpowder have resulted in certain import- 
 ant conclusions. From them it appears that the per- 
 manent products of fired gunpowder are onlv 43 per 
 cent of gas and 57 per cent of matter, which ulri- 
 
 mately a.ssumes a solid form. The temperature of 
 the explosion Ls about 4000 degrees Fahrenheit, and 
 though much of the heat is spent in performing the 
 work of moving the shot or conducted away by the 
 metal, so that the expanded gases would contract and 
 lose a great deal of their i>ower, the matter which 
 will ultimately be solid but is at the moment of ex- 
 plosion tluid.'by reason of the great heat, gives up 
 much of its heat when coming to the solid form, and 
 thus keeps up the tempei-,itvu-e of the g-a.ses, causing 
 them to retain their high expansion. These gases, i^ 
 allowed to cool down to a freezing temperature, 
 would occupy about 2<S0 times the bulk of the jmw- 
 der they sprang from. The tension of the products 
 of combustion, when the powder entirely tills the 
 space in which it is tired, is about 64(X) atmospheres, 
 or about 42 tons per square inch. Therefore, if no 
 air-space be left and the shot be delayed until the 
 powder is entirely con.suraed, there willbe a pressure 
 everj'where within the powder<'hamlx;r of 42 tons in 
 each square inch of the interior. From the results of 
 their experiments they formed the foregoing table, 
 which shows the greatest amount of work in project- 
 ing a shot that can be obtained per pound of powder 
 from a charge in any gun. When the charge is fired, 
 it begins to push the shot fomard. If the gun is very 
 short, so that the shot can esea|ie from the pressure 
 at once, the velocity given to it will be small. Thus, 
 within practical limits, the longer a projectile is kept 
 tmder the influence of the tired charge, the greater 
 will be the velocity. This subject will be further 
 considered under other headings. See Explosion, 
 6un}>oirder, and Velocity of Combustion. 
 
 COMES. — An officer among the Romans, with terri- 
 torial jurisdiction in the produces, and especially on 
 the frontiers. 
 
 COMIGNE. — A shell of extreme magnitude, which 
 takes its name from the person who originally in- 
 vented it. 
 
 COMMAND. — 1. A body of troops, or any military 
 force or post, under the command of an officer. 
 
 2. The height of the interior crest above the site is 
 the command of the work. The term is also used to 
 exjjress the height of the interior crest of one work 
 above that of another, or above any particular point 
 within range. 
 
 3. An officer m.ay be said to command at a separate 
 post when he is out of the reach of the orders of the 
 Commander-in-Chief, or of a Superior Officer, in com- 
 mand of the neighborhood. He must then issue the 
 necessaiy ordei's to the troops under his command, it 
 being impossible to receive them from a Superior (Jffi- 
 cer. If. upon marches, guards, or in quarters, differ- 
 ent corps of the army happen to join or do duty to- 
 gether, the officer highest in rank of the Line of the 
 army, Marine Corps, or ililitia, by commission, 
 there on duty or in quarters, commands the whole, 
 and gives orders for what is needful to the service, 
 unless otherwise specially directed l\v the President, 
 according to the nature of the case. In all matters re- 
 lating to the rank, duties, and rights of officei-s, thestime 
 rules and regulations ai)ply to otlieers of the regular 
 army and to volunteers "commissioned in or mus- 
 tered into said service, under the laws of the United 
 States, for a limited period. Officers of the militia of 
 the several States, when called into the sernce of the 
 United States, shall on all <letachments, Courts-Mar- 
 tial, and other duty wherein they may be employed 
 in conjunction with the reirular or volunteer forces 
 of the United States, take rank ne.xt after all officers 
 of the like grade in Siiid regular or volunteer forces, 
 notwithstanding the commis.sions of such militia offi- 
 cers may be older than the commissions of the said 
 officers of the regiUar or volunteer forces of the 
 United States. The Acts of Congress giving rank to 
 officers of the Medical and Pay Departments of the 
 army provide that they shall not. in virtue of such 
 rank, be entitled to command in the Line or other Staff 
 Departments of the army; and so, if any other legal 
 restrictioos on rank exist", they must be fbtind in some
 
 OOHHANOANT. 
 
 380 
 
 COMMAND OF PABAFET> 
 
 positive sUtuU". This necessity is made pliiiu by the 
 consideniliou that miliUiry rank mtans a range of 
 miliUtrti sHbtirdiiMtuni. Higher ranlc. therefore, crc- 
 ati-d by law caunot lx> made subordinate to lower 
 rank, except by jxxsitive law; or, in other words, a 
 junior cannot command a si'uior, unless the law shall 
 otherwise decree. The ViitX Article of War is ara- 
 biinious, from the use of the words " Line of the 
 Army;" our hjjislalion ha\ini; applied those words to 
 conlradisliniruish lieirular TnH)ps from Militia, and 
 also, in many casi's, the sjime words are correlative 
 and conlnulislinctive of St;»fT of the Army. " But," 
 says President Fillmore, after a caiffid examination 
 on his part, to deterniiue the ((ueslion, "I tiud but 
 one Act of Congress in which the words ' Line of the 
 Army ' ha^e Iwen cmplovcil to designate the Heguhir 
 Army in contradistinction to the Jlilitia, and none in 
 which they have manifestly been used as contradis- 
 tinctive of brevet." AVhatever ambiguity, therefore, 
 may exist imder the 122d Article, in respect to the 
 right of command on the part of ollicers of Staff Corps 
 and Departments, the article does \w\ decree any re- 
 striction on brevet rank; and heiu-e the great princiiile 
 that rank on duty confers military command has its 
 full force in respect to commissions by brevet, and all 
 other commissions not restricted by law. The Presi- 
 dent, as Commander-in-Chief under the 122d Article 
 of War, may relieve any officer from duty with a 
 particular command, or he may assign some officer of 
 superior rank to duly with a command; but the laws 
 have not authorizeil him to place :i junior in command 
 of a senior, and that power which creates rank, viz., 
 Congress, is alone authorized to place restrictions on 
 its meaning. See linnA: 
 
 COMMANDANT. — In military matters, a temporary 
 Commander, in place of the real Chief; such as a Cap- 
 tain Commandant, Lieutenant Commandant, etc. In 
 foreign armies the designation is more frequently ap- 
 plied than in the Biitish, especially to the Command- 
 ers of Garrisons. 
 
 COMMANDANT OF CADETS.— Tlie Commandant 
 of Cadets. ap[i(iiiitid by the President, has the imme- 
 diate command of the battalion of Cadets at tlie U. S. 
 Military Academy. He is also the Instructor in the 
 Tactics of the three arms of tlie ser\ice, and in the 
 rules of Militarj- Police, Disci|)line, and Adniinisiia 
 tion. For instruction in infantry tactics and military 
 police and discipline the Cadets are organized into a 
 battalion of four companies, under thc'Conuuandant 
 of Cadets, and assigned to quarters accordiuglv; each 
 company Ix-ing under the command of an officer of 
 the army, designated as Assistant Instructor of Tac- 
 tics. The otiicers and non-comnussioned officers are 
 appointed by the Superintendent, from a list submit- 
 ted by the Conmiandant of Cadets. This selection is 
 made from those Cadets who have been most studi- 
 ous, soldier-like in the performance of their duties, 
 and most exenqilary in their general deportment Iii 
 general, the Officers are taken from the first class, the 
 Sergeants from the tirsl and second classes, and the 
 Corporals from the second and third clas,ses. The 
 Conunandanl of Cadets is charged with the com- 
 mand of the battalion, and with the instruction of 
 Ca<lcls in all the rules of militarv police, discipline, 
 and administration. He is assisted in these duties bv 
 the four A.ssistant lustruelors of Tactics, who arc 
 (pKirlered in the Cadet Barracks during the academic 
 year. During ihe encampment the Commandant and 
 these four .\vsistaiits :ire quartered in cami) 
 
 COMMANDEK-IN-CHIEF.— The President, by the 
 Constitution, is " Commaiuler-in-Chief of the "army 
 and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the 
 several States, when called into the actual ser\ice of 
 the I'liited Slates." Under Ihe s:ime authority he 
 nominates, luid by and with llieadvice ,ind consent of 
 the Senate appoints, and commissions all commis- 
 sioned officers of the regular army. In the Biiiish 
 army the Commaniler-in-Chicf is" the hiirhesi Staff 
 appointment. It is held by the General connnandiii" 
 all the forces in India, ami wouKl pnjbably be iriveu 
 
 to the leader of any large army in the field, whether 
 abroad or at home. Formerly the army at home 
 was administered by an oflicer of this rank; but since 
 the death of the Tiuke of Wellington, in 1852, the 
 military administration has vested in an officer hold- 
 ing no higher commission than that of " General on 
 the Staff;" who is called the General (or Field-Mar- 
 shal, according to the holder's army rank) Command- 
 ing-in-Chief. Since 185.5 this officer has been strictly 
 sjibordinate to the Secretary of State for War. The 
 office of the Commander-in-Chief, technically known 
 as the " Horse-guards," is a Department of the War 
 Office, and comprises the sub-departments of the 
 Military Secretary, the Adjutant General, and the 
 Quarlerm:ister General, with a staff of clerks. Un- 
 der the "War-Office Act" of 1870, and by Orders 
 in Council of that year, the officer Commanding-in- 
 Chief is one of the tliree great officers who admiiustcr 
 the military jiffairs of the country imder the Sec- 
 retary of State for War; his department being that 
 of military command, discipline, and promotion. In 
 practiie be makes all promotions and military 
 aiipoiiitments, though in theory these are all made 
 on the responsibility of the Secretary of State. Ap- 
 pointments to very important positions on the Staff 
 would not be made without the suijervision of the 
 Minister and probable concurrence of the Cabinet. 
 The officer Commanding-iu-Chief is responsible for 
 all recruiting operations, and for the appropriation 
 of troops to particular localities ; but he exercises 
 rather a general inspectional control than any imme- 
 diate command over the men. The actual command 
 vests in the General Officers commanding the districts 
 into wliieb the Kingdom is jiarceled. 
 
 COMMANDER - IN - CHIEF'S DEPARTMENT.— A 
 department of the British army which consists of the 
 Adjutant General and Quartermaster General, nomi- 
 nally amalgamated, but working apart. The follow- 
 ing branches, at the Horse-guards, are called divi- 
 sions, and are thus told off : ililitary Secretary; Intel- 
 ligence; Auxiliary Forces; Military Education. Adju- 
 tant General and Quartermaster tJeneral are ordinary 
 combatants, to whom are intrusted respcctivelj' the 
 departments of — Adjutant-General : Recruiting, Dis- 
 charges, Discipline, Inspections. Quartermaster Gen- 
 eral : Keturns, Movement of Troops, Intelligence. To 
 the Jlilitary Secretary's Department are intrusted 
 First Apjiointments, Promotion, Rewards, Staff Ap- 
 pointments, and Exchanges. The above is the distri- 
 bution of the Staff at the Hoi-se-guards, and these 
 divisions are adhered to in the smaller fractions as 
 closely as possible. 
 
 COMMANDERY.— The title of the meeting or meet- 
 ing-place of Freemasons who have reached Ihe degree 
 of Knights Templar. Its origin was with the Knights 
 of Malta of the Jliddle Ages, and was tirsl applied to 
 sums saved from the revenues of the Oriier for the 
 support of war against the Moslems. It soon came 
 to mean pei'sons and places rather than things, and 
 the " Grand Commander" became Ihe next office to 
 the Grand JIa.ster. Among the religious establish- 
 ments suppressed in England by lleiny VIII. were 
 more than fifty Commanderies of Knights Templai'S. 
 
 COMMAND OF FIRE.— An ex-press'ion for the dif- 
 ference of cominand of two works situated on the 
 Simir horizontal i^round. 
 
 COMMAND OF OBSERVATION.— When the com- 
 mand of the parapet is only sullicient to permit the 
 defenders of a work to look over the parapet of 
 another work it is named coiiiiiunnl of ohserrniion. 
 
 COMMAND OF PARAPET.— In horizontal sites the 
 parade may be taken either on the natural surface 
 or below if. In inclosed works it should always be 
 on the natural surface to kecj) the parade dry. In 
 lines, iiarlicularly if of great extent and thrown up 
 mertly to receive battle or for a short occupancy, the 
 parade may consist of a .shallow Irencb behind the 
 par;i|)et which is formed of Ihe earth taken from the 
 trench. The general form of the iiarapet is the same 
 in Iwth ca.ses. Its dimensions will vary with the
 
 €0MUAin)8. 
 
 381 
 
 COUHISSABIAT D£FABTH£5T. 
 
 kind of soil used in its construction; with the time 
 and means that can be employed ; with the time that 
 the work is to remain occupied; and, finally, with 
 the time and means that the enemy can dispose of in 
 the attack, and the degree of resistance that the work 
 should offer. The command of the interior crest 
 should be so regulated as to intercept the enemy's 
 missiles and to "shelter the assiiiled. Men of the 
 greatest ordinary stature, in bringing their muskets to 
 an aim, do not fire at a higher "level than about five 
 feet ; therefore any mass of this height in front of 
 them will just intercept their fire ; but this mass 
 would not shelter a man standing behind it ; to effect 
 this, in the case of the tallest men usually foimd in 
 the ranks, the interior crest should be at least six feet 
 six inches above the terre-plein. The command must 
 then be regulated by these two facts, and this princi- 
 ple may be laid <Io\vn : The comnmnd of a fidd-icork 
 over the ground occupied by the assailant should be at 
 least fite feet ; and six feet six inches ocer that occupied 
 by the assailed. In following this rule for the com- 
 mand, we deprive the assailant of a plunging fire upon 
 the parade ; but as a breast-height of five feet is too 
 high for men of ordinary stature to fire over it and 
 give their pieces any sensible depression, it would be 
 necessary to throw up a banquette for this purpose 
 behind the parapet, which would add to the time and 
 lalx)r of constructing the work. On this account it is 
 best to give the parapet only the height to admit 
 effective firing over it, which is about four and a 
 quarter feet. In the drawing, which represents a 
 profile of this height, the plunge of a man standing 
 
 A, Paraput; H, Trench; C, Banquette-tread 
 
 at sixty feet in advance of the parapet would be only 
 three inches below the level of the point a, at the 
 point b, or his bullet would strike seven feet above the 
 point at the rear of the parade, which is the most 
 exposed position for a man to be standing. See Field- 
 fortification. 
 
 COMMAND^. — There are two kinds of commands 
 in the military service: the preparatory command, 
 such as /</rica »■(/,. which indicates the movement that 
 is to be executed, and the command of execution, .such 
 as march or halt, or, in the Manual of Arms, the part 
 of the command which causes the execution. The 
 tone of command is animated, distinct, and of a loud- 
 ness proportioned to the number of men under instruc- 
 tion. Each preparatory command is pronounced in 
 an ascending tone of voice, but always in such a 
 manner that the command of execution may be more 
 energetic and elevated. On foot the command of 
 execution is pronounced in a tone firm and brief. In 
 mounted movements the preparatory' commands are 
 more or less prolonged to insure their being heard ; 
 tlie command of execution is always prolonged. The 
 trumpet is used for giving commands whenever it can 
 be done to advantage. 
 
 COMMILITONES.— A word having the same signifi- 
 cance with the Romans as the English term comrade- 
 noldii rs. 
 
 COMMISSARIAT. — A name given to the organized 
 system whereby armies are provided with foo<l and 
 daily necessaries other than those connected with ac- 
 tual warfare. Among the ancients the Romans de- 
 voted the most attention to the Commissariat: the 
 Queestors were the Commissaries. In feudal times 
 the soldiers were mainly dependent for food on their 
 lords; but they lived verj- much by pliuider. Dur- 
 ing the wars of the Crusaded the Commissariat was so 
 utterly neglected that thousands died of star\-ation. 
 In England the first germ of the modem Commis- 
 
 .sariat apjx-ared in the office of Proriant-master, in the 
 time of Queen Elizabeth. Under Charles I., Com- 
 missaries were stationed in the different Counties. 
 Under Marlborough's command the troops were sup- 
 plied by contract ; he received a percentage, and jiec- 
 ulation was verj- common. After many changes dur- 
 ing the eighteenth century a Commis.sary General 
 was appointed in 1793, to "siipcrinlend all" contracts 
 for food and forage. The dire experience of the Cri- 
 mean War showed how greatlj' reform was required 
 in this important Department. In 1858 and 1859, ac- 
 cordingly, it was newly organized; and remained un- 
 til 1870 a War-Office DcpartTuent, under a Commis- 
 sary General-in-Chief. In 1870 the Commissju-iat was 
 merged with other supply departments in the great 
 "Control Department," which, under the Surveyor 
 General of the Ordnance, performed all the civil ad- 
 ministrative duties of the army. In Dcceml)er, 1875, 
 the Control Department fell from its high estate, and 
 the " Commissariat and Transport Department" arose 
 from its ashes. Its duties are the provision of food, 
 fuel, lodging, and transport: a function on which it 
 is needless to say the very existence of the army de- 
 pends. The Department is administered by the Di- 
 rector of Supplies at the War Office, who is an officer 
 on the Staff of the Surveyor General. In the United 
 States service this Department is under charge of the 
 Commissary General of Subsistence, who has'the rank 
 of Brigadier Gefieral. See Subsistence Department. 
 
 COMMISSARIAT DEPAETMENT.— A warrant has 
 been lately issued by which the Control Department 
 of the English army has been atolished; and all its 
 branches except the Pay 
 Sub-dtpartment have been 
 recla.ssified and divided in- 
 to (a) the Commissariat and 
 Transport Department, (A) 
 the Ordnance Store Depart- 
 ment, placed under the 
 direction of the Surveyor 
 General of Ordnance. Its 
 organization is laid down 
 as follows: 1. All officers of the Commis-sariat and 
 Transport Department and of the Ordnance Store De- 
 partment shall hold commissions. 2. Officers of 
 these Departments shall be the officers of and shall 
 command the Army Service Corps. 3. The ranks of 
 the officers of the respective Departments shall be as 
 follows: Commissarj- General, Deputy Commissary 
 General, Assistant Commissary Genenil, Commissary, 
 Deputy Commissary, Assistjmt Commissarj', Sub- 
 assistant Commissarj'. 4. The relative rank of these 
 officers shall be as follows: Commis,sarj- General — 
 with an army in the field, special; otherwise as 
 Major General; Deputj* Commissary General, as 
 Colonel; Assistant Commissary General, as Lieu- 
 tenant Colonel; Commissarj', as ilajor; Deputy 
 Commissary, as Captain; Aksistant Commissjiry, 
 as Lieutenant; Sub-assistant Commissarj', as Sub- 
 lieutenant; and such relative rank shall regulate 
 their quarters and militarj' allowances, including pen- 
 sions for wounds, and pensions and allowances to 
 their wives and families, except in the case of a Sub- 
 assistant Commissarj", who for these purposes shall 
 rank as Lieutenant. 5. Appointments to the Commis- 
 sariat and Transport Department and to the Ordnance 
 Store Department shall be conferred upon such offi- 
 cers, non-commissioned officers, and civilians as may 
 be recommended by the Secretarj' of State. 6. Can- 
 didates shall be subject to such educational examina- 
 tion as the Secretary of State maj' from time to time 
 determine. 7. Siii>assistant Commissaries shall be 
 liable to Ik? removed from the service for moral or 
 physical unfitness, or if thej' fail to make satisfactory 
 progress in qualifying themselves for permanent ser- 
 vice in the Department. 8. Sub-assistant Commis- 
 saries, after two years' satisfactorv service as such, 
 maj' receive commissions as Assistant Commissiiries. 
 Those officers who mav have lx?en appointed from 
 the armj' shall resign tlieir commissions as combatant
 
 COMMISSABT. 
 
 382 
 
 COHHISSABT SESOEANTB. 
 
 otlicers upon receivin;; commissions as Assistant 
 t'ommissarieis. 9. Scrvu-o as Siil>assistant Commis- 
 sary sliall count towards rcliri'mcnt from tlii' hijrUcT 
 ranks of the rispt-itivc Dtparlments. 10. Tbu iK-ri- 
 mls of siTvice towards ri'lircmi'm six-citied in Article 
 IT sliall 1k' api>licalilc to officers of the t'ommiss;iriat 
 ami Tninsi^orl Dcimrtmcnt or of tlic Ordnance Store 
 Deixnrtnient, and in tlie case of otlicers jiromotod 
 from tlie ranks sliall include scr\ieo in all srades, liut 
 not less than one half of such perio<ls shall consist of 
 s»Tvice as a conmiissioned officer. 11. C)llicei'si)[ the 
 rank of Deputy or Assistant t'onunissjiry shall be se- 
 lected for the iii>ix)intments of Adjutant and Quarter- 
 master in the Army Service Corps. Vi. Combatant 
 otlicers while under jirobalion may at any time be 
 ordered to return to their reirfments. l:i. An officer 
 sliall be elisrilile for ])romotion to the under-mentioned 
 ranks if he shall haye seryed on full pay for the fol- 
 lowintr periods, datini; fix>m his tirst entrance into 
 the seryice: To the rank of Commissarj- General, 
 thirteen years, of ^vhiell at least three shall haye been 
 as Depiitv Commissar}- General; to the rank of 
 Dei)uly cbmmiss'try General, ten years, of which at 
 least tiine (including probationary service) shall have 
 been as Assistant Commissjiry Genera!. 14. If. dur- 
 ins active service, a temporary ausrmentation of the 
 Commissjjriat and Transport "Department or of the 
 Ordnance Store Deiiartmenl shall become necessary, 
 the General Officer Commanding may irrant to OtVi- 
 cers of those Departments permi.'vsion to hold tempo- 
 rarily the hiirber rank in ^^■hich they may in such an 
 emersency be called upon to act, or may temporarily 
 appofnt Combatant Officers, reporting his proceedings 
 for the approval of the Secretary of State. 15. A 
 Combatant Officer so apjwintcd shall receive the pay 
 and allowances of the departmental rank in which he 
 shall lie employed, in lieu of all other emoluments. 
 16. Officers shall be allowed to count their jireWous 
 departmental or combatant service as service in the 
 Commissariat and Transport Department or in the 
 Ordnance Store Department. IT. Officers who sliall 
 have completed a total full-pay service of thirty 
 yeai-s, including previous departmental or combatant 
 service, shall, on giving six months' notice, have an 
 imqualificd right to retire on retired pay. It shall, 
 however, be competent to the Secretary of State to 
 place officers on the retired list after a meritorious 
 service of twenty years, including departmental or 
 combatant service, if by rea.son of mental or botlily in- 
 firmity of a permanent nature (to be certitied by a 
 Medical Board), contracted in the service, they shall 
 be untit for further dut}-; or in ca.se of reduction of 
 establishment, or retirement imder the provisions of 
 Articles 18 and 19. 18. The retirement of officers 
 who have attained the rank of Assistant Commissary 
 General, or who are above that rank, shall be com- 
 piUsory at the age of si.xty years. 19. The retirement 
 of officers below the rank of Assistant Commissary 
 General shall be compulsorj- at the age of tifty-tive 
 years. 
 
 COMMISSARY.— A name applied to an olBeer who 
 has charge of the subsistence of troops, miLsfers, etc. 
 The tenn is applied in general to any one to whom 
 the power and authority of another is committed. In 
 this sense it is nearly e(|uivalent to Commissioner. 
 In ecclesiastical law a Commissary is an officer ap- 
 pointed by a bishop to exercise jurisdictifin in parts 
 of the diocese which are so distant from the episcopal 
 city that the people cannot be conveniently summoned 
 to attend the principal Court. When the papal author- 
 ity, and all iurisiliciion which fiowed from it, was 
 aliolislied in Scotland. Iiy the Acts of l.-)ti(l and 156T, 
 a supreme Commissary Court was estalilishe<l in Edin- 
 burgh, bv a grant of Queen Mary, dated February 8, 
 I'lCa. This Court had jurisdiction in actions of di- 
 vorce, declarators of marriage, nullity of marriage, 
 and all actions which originally lielonged to the 
 bishop's Ecclesiastical Courts. Its piiwcrs were 
 gradually conjoimd willi Ihciscof the Court of Ses- 
 sion, and it vva.s finally abolished in 1830, the small 
 
 remains of its once important jurisiliction lieiug united 
 in the Sheriff of Edinburgh. The inferior Commis- 
 Siiriats, which hail usually lieeii commensurate with 
 the dioceses, were dealt with by a previous statute, each 
 County being erected into a separate Commissariat, 
 of wliich the Sherill was Commissjiry. The jurisdic- 
 tion of these Courts so conjoined with that of Sheriffs 
 was, in 18T6, finally tpuisferred to the SherilTs abso- 
 lutely, and the separation between the two sets of 
 officers ended, except in the case of the CommLssary 
 Clerk of Eilinburgh. 
 
 The term was used in the old French service to ex- 
 press a variety of military occupations, as it is in the 
 Control Department of "the British service at the 
 presei.t day. 
 
 COMMISSARY GENERAL OF PRISONERS.— An of- 
 ficer aiuiiiunecd in time of war to su]iei'iiiteud the 
 treatment of prisoners, and charged with the enforc- 
 ing of such regulations as may lie necessary for their 
 welfare. He has authority to call for such reports 
 from officers in conuuand of guards over prisoners a» 
 may be necessiiry for tlie proper discharge of his own 
 duties, and he should be prepared to furnish all infor- 
 mation in relation to prisoners called for by the Adju- 
 tant General. A full record of all prisoners is kept 
 in the office of the Commissary General of Prisoners, 
 in suitable Ijooks, giving the name, rank, regiment, 
 and company of each military prisoner, the residence 
 of each civil prisoner, with the charges against him, 
 and the time and place of capture or arrest. Any 
 special information of importance is added from time 
 to time in the column of remarks. When disposed 
 of by exchange or otherwise, the fact and authority 
 for it, with the time, should be noted on the record. 
 The Commis.sary General of Prisoners is empowered 
 to visit places at which prisoners may be held, and to 
 recommend to the General w hose guards are resixm- 
 sible for them whatever modification in their treat- 
 ment may seem to him proper or neces.sary, and re- 
 port the same to the War Department. Sec Pn«o tiers 
 of Win: 
 
 COMMISSARY OF MUSTER.— An officer charged 
 with mustering in ami mustering out of troops. Dur- 
 ing the CivirWar in the United States this duty 
 was extensively performed liy Staff -officers, who were 
 known officially as Commis.saries of Musters. 
 
 COMMISSARY OF ORDNANCE.— The departmental 
 title given to an officer of English artillery who has 
 charge of an arsenal in India. Each officer, on being 
 appointed to the Ordnance Department' remains on 
 probation until he has passed an examination in the 
 various subjects appertaining to the cliarge of an ar- 
 .senal, such as accounts, the nomenclature and use of 
 stores, the working of metals, etc., when, if found 
 qualified, he is posted to the Department. The duties 
 attached to the office of a Commissjiry of Ordnance 
 will be found in the Ordnance Codes of each Presi- 
 dency. 
 
 COMMISSARY SERGEANTS. — Non-commissioned 
 Staff-officers appointed liy the Secrelarii' of War from 
 Sergeants who have faithfully served five j'cars in the 
 Line, three of which shall have been in'tlie grade of 
 non-commissioned officers. Sergcjints receiving these 
 appointments are droiiiicd from the rolls of the regi- 
 ment or ciiiiiiniMy in vvhieli they hiivc lieen serving. 
 Captains report to their Colonels such Sergeants as, 
 by their conduct and service, merit ii))pointnients as 
 Commissary Sergeants, setting forth the description 
 and length of service of the Sergeant; the portion of 
 his service he was a non-commissioned officer; his 
 general character as to fidelity and wlirlcty; his 
 qualifications as a clerk, jmd his fitness for the duties 
 of the position for which he is recommended. From 
 the nature of the duties assigned to these Sergeants 
 it is evident that their judicious selection is of no 
 small importance to the int<rests of the service. 
 While the law contem))lates in the appointment of 
 Com.missary Sergeant the better preservation of pub- 
 lic propeity at the several iiosts, there is also a furlher 
 consideratio:: — that of offering a rewjird to faithful
 
 COMMISSION. 
 
 383 
 
 COMMUTATION OF QUABTEBS. 
 
 and well-tried Sergeants, ami thus giving encourage- 
 ment to deserving soldiers to hope for substantial 
 promotion. Colonels and Captains cannot be too 
 l)articular in investigating the charactei-s of the can- 
 didates, and in giving their testimony as to their 
 merits. The duty of the Commissary Sergeant is to 
 assist the Commissarj- in the discharge Of all the 
 duties of his office, viz., such as receiving, storing, 
 preserving, transferring, issuing, sellmg, and accoum- 
 mg for the subsistence supplies at the ix)st, accord- 
 ing to the regulations of the Subsistence Department; 
 but the presence of a Commissary Sergeant at a post 
 in no manner relieves the Commissary frojn the re- 
 sponsibility for, and projier care of, subsistence sup- 
 plies. At jiosts where there is no commissioned 
 otticer the Commissary Sergeant is responsible for 
 subsistence supplies, and is governeil by the Kegida- 
 tions of the Subsistence Department iii issuing and 
 accounting for the same. 
 
 COMMISSION.— A writing, in the form of a war- 
 rant or letter-patent, authorizing one or more persons 
 to perform duties or e.\erci.se powers belonging to 
 another, or to others. Instruments of delegation, 
 bearing this title, are issued to Officers in the^Army 
 and Na\y, Judges, Justices of the Peace, and others. 
 In the British service, commissions, commencing 
 with the Sub-lieuteuauts of the army, are given to 
 candidates after passing the prescribed examination 
 before the Ci%-il-Service Examiners, when they are sent 
 to Sandhurst College for further instructior_, chiefly 
 of a military nature. They are not posted to regi- 
 ments until they have passed the final examination, 
 except those who are gazetted to regiments in India, 
 which they proceed at once to join. After serving 
 one year with their regiments, they are attached to 
 garrison cla.s.ses in India, and undergo a couree of 
 military instruction required to qualify them for pro- 
 motion to the rank of Lieutenant. Militia Lieuten- 
 ants are eligible for commissions in the regular army 
 after serving for two trainings in a militia regiment; 
 on pa.ssing the usual examination they are further 
 subjected to such regulations as to age or otherwise 
 as may be issued from time to time by the Secretary 
 of State for War. 
 
 COMMISSIONAIRES.— A body of old or di.sabled 
 soldiers who, on being pensioned, are formed into a 
 Coi-ps, and stationed in London and Edinburgh. 
 They are employed, for the most part, as porters and 
 in positicjns of tnist, sucli as door-keepers over jewel- 
 lers' shops. They run also as messengers. They 
 must be men of uncxccjitionablc character to whom 
 these |Mists and duties are intrusted. 
 
 COMMISSIONERS OF ARRAY.- The predcces.sors 
 of the modern Lords-lieutenant, whose duties con- 
 sisted, amongst others, of .seeing enforced in feudal 
 times the observance of regulations which had for 
 their object the maintenance of able-bodied men in 
 the realm for the protection of the land. 
 
 COMMON MINE. — Tha lertn cmn moii ;««'«<' is applied 
 to a crater w hen its radius is equal to the line of least 
 resistance. "When the crater radius is greater than 
 the line of least resistance, the terms orercharyed miiie 
 and globe of compresaion are used. When the crater 
 radius is less than the line of least resistance, the mine 
 is termed undirc/iarf/td. A small mine with a line of 
 least resistance not greater than nine feet, formed by 
 sinking a shaft from the surface of the ground and 
 placuig the charge at the l)Ott(mi of it, is termed a 
 foiiydnse. The temi caiiioufli t is applied to small mines 
 used to suffocate the enemy's miners without pro- 
 ducing an external explosion. 
 
 COMMON TIME.— In marching, the length of the 
 direct step in common time in the United States 
 service is -.is inches, and the cadence is at the rate of 
 90 steps i)er minute. The length of step and cadence 
 varies in different services. See Cndt'iiri' and Shp. 
 
 COMMUNICATIONS.— 1. In speaking of the com- 
 munications of an army, common roads, railroads, 
 navigable rivers, canals, and telegraph lines are usu- 
 ally meant, as it is by means of these that the differ- 
 
 ent parts of an army, in its military operations upon 
 land, are connected with each other. The establish- 
 ment of these communications, and their maintenance, 
 give the General in commanil of an army great .so- 
 licitude. So important are they in niiliiary opera- 
 tions that they largely influence the General in his 
 selection of the theater of operations, if the choice is 
 left to him. The establishment and maintenance of 
 these communications form a part of the duties ordi- 
 narily a-ssigned to the Engineers, and the construction 
 of bridges plays a most important part of this par- 
 ticular duty. 
 
 2. The communications form a very important cle- 
 ment in the defen.se of permanent works. The size 
 and disposition of the communications should vary 
 with the character of the work in which they are 
 placed. In small works, which from the size of their 
 ganlsous are calculated to make only a strictly ])as- 
 sive defense, communications of just s'uflicient dimen- 
 sions for the passage of the troops from point to point 
 will serve cverj' purpose, and can be more easily bar- 
 ricaded and otherwise defended. Rut for large 
 works having full garrisons the communications 
 should be such that sorties of all arms and in large 
 bodies can be quickly made. With communications 
 of this character a besieging force would be con- 
 strained to adopt extraordinary measures of sjifety, 
 keeping large guards in the trt'nches to secure them 
 from such sorties, to which they would be continually 
 exposed. 
 
 All communications, to serve properly their ends, 
 should fulfill the following conditions; 1. They 
 should never, from their |)osition, compromise the 
 safety of the enceinte. Freiiuent instances could be 
 cited of works which have been surprised by an ene- 
 my obtaining possession of the gates. Therefore too 
 many precautions cannot be taken to secure the prin- 
 cipal outlet from the body of the jjlacc from similar 
 attempts. 2. They should admit of a convenient 
 circulation of the besieged. To subserve this i)ur- 
 pose, the dimensions, slopes, etc., of the posterns, 
 ramps, and other similar works should be convenient 
 for the service to which they are applied ; and they 
 should be jilaced in .such positions as lead directly to 
 the point to be reached. 3. The position chosen" for 
 anj' comnumication should be such that when an 
 enemy gets possession of it he may obtain no advan- 
 tage by it. To be useless to an enemy, the commu- 
 nication, when in his possession, should not ofl"er a 
 shelter for his works, nor enable him to carry them 
 on with more ease. This end will be obtained by 
 placing the communications in a position to be swept 
 by the fire of the works in their rear, and so arrang- 
 ing them as to preserve the counterscarp wall un- 
 broken. 4. The communications should be covered 
 from everj- point where an enemy might establish 
 himself, during the whole period that they can be of 
 service to the besie|;ed; and they should be swejit by 
 the fire of the enceinte. Without these precautions, 
 an enemy might cut off all communication from the 
 enceinte with the outworks; and in case of retreat, 
 the troo])s could not derive any a.ssislance from the 
 enceinte, if he attempted to press upon them. 5. 
 They should be so placed as not to compromise the 
 retreat of the troops This is effected by jjlacing the 
 communications in the re-enterings, which are the 
 most secure points, as an enemy to reach tliem will 
 have to brave a powerful column of flank fire. Bar- 
 riers, gates, and movalile bridges of timber should be 
 placed at suitable points, to cut off one communica- 
 tion from another, and thus arrest the progress of a 
 pursuing enemy. 6. Finally, each work should he 
 independent of every communication except that one 
 destined for its particular use. This is an important 
 object, as it prevents an enemy, should he succeed 
 ii. gaining ijosse.ssion of a communication leading 
 through it, from seizing upon the work itself. See 
 Bridi/(s. Conred Coiiiiiiiiukntion, Gakieay, Postern, 
 li'inij), and Sfii/rs. 
 
 COMMUTATION OF QUARTERS.- Officers on duty
 
 COMMUTATION OF SATI0N8. 
 
 384 
 
 COMPANY. 
 
 witliout troops at places wbcro thi-rc arc no public 
 quarters are entitletl to conimuljition, which is paid 
 liy the Pay Departmenl at the nile authorized by law. 
 Commutation of quarlers is paid only at the station 
 for which it is clainutl, and by the st"nior (lisbursinir 
 Paymaster tbereal, or, if there be no Payma.ster at 
 the station, by tlie C"bief Paymaster of the IVjiart- 
 menl, or .such Of bis sulKirdinates as he may desijrnate 
 ujion the oflicer'.s ai>plicalion. The follownijr olticers 
 are entitled to the allowance of quarleiN, ami to pur- 
 chase fuel at the legal rates, viz.: (_)lflcei-s who. tor 
 the convcnieni'c of the Goverumcnl, are directed to 
 await onlers for a limited iK-riod at a designated sta- 
 tion where there are no public quarters until the 
 pro|H'r lime arrives for giving lliem spccitic orders. 
 The following are the present rales of conunulation 
 in the I'nited States army: Lieutenant General, $100 
 per month: for all other grades the rate is $12 per 
 month i>er room. 
 
 COMMUTATION OF RATIONS.— Commut.ll ion of 
 rations at thirty cents may be paid to soldiers sta- 
 tioned wlierc the Governnicnt does not otherwise pro- 
 \ide for their subsistence, on satisfactory evidence 
 that they have not received rations or an equivalent 
 therefor "during the period, for which comnuilation is 
 claimed. Conunulation may also be paid a soldier 
 traveling under orders on dctacbe<l command, wlicn it 
 is impraclicable to carry his rations, at the rate of one 
 doUara day, or less, as the Secretary of War may direct. 
 The amount is paid by the Commis.sary when due, or 
 in advance upon the order of the Commanding Otli- 
 cer, for the necc.s.s;irj' number of days' travel. The 
 voucher should show the nature and extent of the 
 duty, and the certiticate of a Conunissioned Officer or 
 the atlida\it of the soldier must be added that it was 
 impracticable for him to carry his rations. It should 
 also be accompanied 1 ly the order directing the journey 
 to be made, or a duly aulhcnticaled copy thereof. 
 AVhen it is proper that the original order should be 
 retained by tlie soldier, the amount paid him for com 
 mutation should be noted thereon, with time and 
 place of payment, duly signed by- the Commissary. 
 Commutation of rations, at the Vale of twcnty-tive 
 cents, is allowed to soldiers on furlough by competent 
 authority. Payment is not made until the expiration 
 of the furlough, or after discharge, if furlouglied till 
 then. The furlough must state the date up lo which 
 the soldier has been subsisted, and must be presented 
 with the claim for commutation with the certiticate of 
 a Commissioned Officer that the soldier had returned 
 to duly at its expiration. The officer who pays the 
 commutation indorses the fact upon the furlough, 
 and ccrtilies upon his account of the payment that he 
 has so done. 
 
 COMPAGNIES DE DISCIPLINE.— Companies cre- 
 ated by Naiiokdii I. in 1S02; thel)iisisof their original 
 organi/jUion was laid liy a royal order in 1818. This 
 order fixes the number of companies at ten— six of 
 fusileers and four of juoneers, the former to be com- 
 posed of soldiers of the annv who were guilty of in- 
 discipline, and the latter to be fonned of nun of the 
 former who were deemed incorrigible. The number 
 of companies is now reduced to seven, and these are 
 stationed in Algeria. There are also four companies 
 similarly organized which are stationed in the French 
 Colonies. 
 
 COMPAGNIES DORDONNANCE.— The name of a 
 corjis of cavalry which was organized in Prance by 
 Charles VII. in 14:30; it numbered sixteen companies, 
 and the entire sirenglh was 9H00 men. This was the 
 first regular cavalry organized in France. 
 
 COMPANY. — In military organiz:ition, a company 
 is iui aliquot part of a regiment or battalion. In the 
 British service, the companies in an infantry rciri- 
 mcnt are generally ten or twelve, or, if there are two 
 battalions, each lia.s Ibis number of companies. The 
 arrangement is made to facililati^ command and 
 evolutions. The Captains and Lieutenants are all 
 Compiniii OffinrH. The Captain is ihe chief of the 
 comi)any, and the Lieutenants are his subalterns or 
 
 assistant.s. The company is further separated into 
 two Kubdirixidiin, of two sections each. In roimd 
 numbers, and without reference lo special instances, a 
 full company may be considered to comi)rise about 
 100 men, a subdivision 50, and a section 25. Under 
 the Cajitain's superintendence the Lieutenant com- 
 mands tlie first and second .sections, the Sublieutenant 
 Ihe third and fourth, with a Sergeant to each section. 
 Each company has its own arm and aecoutennent 
 chests, anil keei)s its own books. A cavalry regi- 
 ment is subdivided into tronps instead of companies; 
 Ihe Knginccrs and Marines, into companies; but Ihe 
 artillery corres|)onding tenn is halttri/- In the Ger- 
 man army, a con.pany comprises about 250 men, 
 under a Captain, who is a moiuited officer, and three 
 Subalterns. 
 
 In the United States army, all branches of the ser- 
 vice are divided into companies. Infantry com- 
 panies in time of war are expected to numbxr about 
 100 men. A battalion of infantry has 10 companies, 
 and each company has a Cajitain and two Lieutenants. 
 In Ihe cavalry a company is sometimes called a troop, 
 and in the artillery a battery 
 
 The company, dismounted, is fonned in double 
 rank, the men being arranged according to height, 
 ; \\ith the Corporals in the front rank, and on the right 
 and left of platoons. In the right wing of the bat- 
 talion, the tallest Corporal and tallest man form the 
 right file, the shortest Corporal and shortest man the 
 left lile. In the left wing, the tallest Corporal and 
 tallest man form the left file, the shortest Corporal 
 and shortest man the right file. The company is 
 divided as nearlj'as possible into two equal parts, 
 called platoons; the division falling between two 
 fours. For the pur]>ose of making the platoons 
 equal, the number of fours may bo increased by 
 leaving vacant the places of numbers t\vo and three 
 in some of the fours of the rear rank. When the 
 company is small, the division into platcxms maybe 
 omitted, in which case the Corporals are posted 
 according to height on Ihe right and left of the 
 front rank. The company, when small, may also be 
 formed in .single rank. The right iilatoon, when in 
 line, isdvsignnted the first platfxm; the left, the second 
 })latf>on. In column, the leading platoon is the .;?;•«<, 
 the rear the second. The designations change when- 
 ever, by facing to the rear, the left becomes the right 
 of the line, or the rear becomes the head of the 
 column. 
 
 Posts of Officers, Sergeants, and Trumpeters or Field- 
 music. — The Captain is two 3'ards in front of the 
 center of the company. As instructor, he goes 
 wherever his presence is necessary. The Urst 
 Lieutfnant is two yards in rear of the center of the 
 first platoon; the Second Lieutenant is two yards in 
 rear of the center of the second platoon. Each 
 Lieutenant is the chiif of the platoon behind which 
 he is posted. The Fir.it Sergeant is on the right of 
 the front rank; the ol/ur Sergeants arc in the line of 
 file-closer.s, the second opposite the left file of the 
 companj', tlie tieird opposite the second file from the 
 right, the fourth on the left of the First Lieutenant, 
 the^yyAonlhc right of the Second Lieutenant; the 
 file-closers arc as equally distributed along the line as 
 possible. The battalion being in line, the Second 
 Sergeant of cither the left or right conqiany places 
 himself in the front rank, whenever his tlank of the 
 company is the Hank of the battalion. The Trump- 
 eters, when not united as the Trumpeters of the bat- 
 talion, are in Ihe line of file-closers, between the First 
 Lieutenant and the Third Sergeant, and conform to 
 all the movements of Ihe file-closers. On tlie march, 
 when the Trumpeters are reciuired to Jilay, they 
 march at the head of the column. Whin there is a 
 Third Lieutenant, be is po.sled between the First 
 Lieutenant and the Fourth Sergeant. File-closers are 
 officers or non-commissioned ofiicers posted two 
 yards in rear of the line; it is their duty to rectify 
 mistakes and to insure steadiness and promptness iu 
 the ranks.
 
 COMPANY FUND. 
 
 385 
 
 COMPENSATING-GUNPOWDEE. 
 
 COMPANY FUND. —The savings arising from an 
 economical use of tbe rations of a company (except- 
 ing the saving of flour) constitutes the ruiapauy J'aud, 
 which is kept in tbe hands of the Captain or other 
 Commander of the company, and disbursed by bim 
 exclusicdy for the benefit of the fidi^ted men of the coia- 
 /Mtny, as follows: 1. For improvement of the soldiers' 
 table-fare, and for their comfort in quarters. 2. For 
 garden-seeds and utensils. ;J. For such exercise and 
 amusement as may be, in the judgment of the Com- 
 pany Commander, for the benefit or comfort of the 
 majority of tbe enlisted men of the company. Xn 
 account of the company fund is kept by the officer in 
 whose bands it Ls deposited, which is subject to the 
 inspection of the Commanding Officer of the post or 
 regiment, and returns of it are rendered (juarlerly (or 
 oftener if required) to the Commander of the regi- 
 ment. After examination at regimental head<iuarters 
 of the.se returns, an abstract, showing in detail the 
 receipts and expenditures, is forwarded to the Adju- 
 tant Grcneral of the army through the Department 
 Commander See Pout Fund and Regimental Fund. 
 
 COMPASS. — The directive power of the magnet 
 seems to have been unknown in Europe till late in 
 the twelfth century. It appears, however, on very 
 good authority, that it was known in China, and 
 throughout the East generally, at a very remote peri- 
 od. The Chinese annals indeed assign its discovery 
 to the year 2634 B.C., when, they ssiy, an instrument 
 for indicating the south was constructed by the Em- 
 peror Hou-ang-ri. At first they would appear to 
 have used it exclusively for guidance wWle traveling 
 by land. The earliest date at which we hear of 
 their using it at sea is somewhere about 300 a.d. 
 According to one accoimt, a knowledge of the com- 
 pass was brought to Europe by Marco Polo, on his 
 return from his travels in Cathay. It was long con- 
 tendetl that the compass as a nautical instrument 
 was first invented by Flavio Gioja, a native of Amalfi, 
 about the year 1362; and that that part of the king- 
 dom of Naples where he was bom has a compa.ss for 
 its arms. For this there is no authority whatever, as 
 the compass was well known as a nautical instrument 
 before his time. It is probable, however, that Gioja 
 may have made .some improvement in the instrument 
 or in the mode of suspending it. 
 
 The compass is variou.sly mounted. The drawing 
 shows the plain pocket-compass, having a 3-inch 
 needle and sights folding down close to the gla-ss. A 
 variety of the compass known as the "dip" consists 
 
 Plain Ct'iiiiiass. 
 
 essentially of a magnetic needle so suspended as to 
 move readily in a vertical direction, the angle of in- 
 clination or " dip" being measured upon the divided 
 rim of a small compass-box. VVTien in use, the ring 
 or bail is held in the hand — the compass box by its 
 own weight takes a vertical position— and must also 
 be in the plane of the magnetic meridian. In this 
 position the needle, when tmaffectcd by the attrac- 
 tion of iron, as,sumcs a horizont.nl line, as shown by 
 the zeros of the circle. AVhen brought over any mass 
 of iron it dips, iind thus detects the presence of iron 
 ores with cert;unty. If the conipa.ss is held horizon- 
 tally it serves as an ordinary pocket-compa.ss, and in 
 dicates tbe magnetic meridian, in the plane of which 
 
 it should be held when used to ascertain the dip of 
 the place where the observation is made. The Nor- 
 wegian compa.ss is a modification of the one used in 
 northern Europe. It has a needle of either 3 or 4 
 inches resting upon a single vertical pivot so as to 
 n;ove freely in a horizontal direction, and thus place 
 itself with certjdnty in the magnetic meridian; while 
 at the same time, being attached to the needle-cap by 
 two delicate pivots, one on each side, it is free to dip, 
 like that of the ordinary compass. 
 
 The following method of finding the points of the 
 coinptLss by means of a watch is novel and quite use- 
 ful when traveling without the compass, or when the 
 compass used has its needle deflected by local ciiuscs. 
 halve the number ofhuurs ninee the last midnight and 
 point the corresponding dial-number ioirard the irun — 
 the line from, VI to XII will be then due north. As 
 an example, suppose tbe time to be 4 p.m. = 16 
 hours since the last midnight. Hold the watch in 
 front of the body with the VIII pointed toward the 
 sun : the line from VI to XII will then run due 
 north. See Solar Comjinss. 
 
 COMPASSIONATE ALLOWANCE. — An allowance 
 made to Ihe children of deeea.sed BritLsli military and 
 naval officers left in neces.sitous circumstances. The 
 annuities vary from £8 to £20 a year, according to 
 the rank of the deceased officer, and are tenable up 
 to tbe age of 18 in the case of boys, and to that of 
 21 as regards females, or imtil mamage if that.hap- 
 pen earlier. This measure is more general than a 
 compassionate allowance which arose out of the 
 sympathy of the British nation with tbe army during 
 tbe Crimean War. Royal warrants were issued in 
 18.54 and 18.56 defining and explaining allowances 
 made to the widows and children, or other specified 
 relations, of military officers who, after the date of 
 the declaration of war with Russia, bad been killed 
 in action, or had dietl of woimds received in that war. 
 The claims on Uiis fimd die out as years advance, of 
 course. 
 
 COMPENSATING GTJNPOWDEE.— A new mechan- 
 ico-chemioil explosive for hea\'}' artillery purposes, 
 projiosed by Lieutenants A. E. Miltimore and C. A. 
 L. Tolten, Vnited States Army. The latest Ameri- 
 can powder, hexagonal, and tbe English, cubical, the 
 latter used in tbe 81-ton gun, are steps in retro- 
 grade. They are not accelerators: this principle 
 has been siicrificed to the attainment of density and 
 uniformity. These forms of powder beautifully il- 
 lustrate the relation between a large surface of com- 
 bustion and a diminished strain upon tbe gun, and 
 thus fulfill their inissioti; still they are but tempo- 
 rary expedients. It is different, however, in the 
 case of the perforated ciike. Powder thus treated 
 conserves its force well and strains the gun toward 
 tbe minimum, and for this rea.son it has very naturally 
 been adojrted by one of tbe greatest military powers 
 in Europe, for use in the strongest gun. In the mean 
 time, with the detonating cla.ss of explosives we have 
 been mainly eng;iged in reducing the intensity of 
 their action, nor have any of them yet come within 
 the limits of artillery requirements. Explosion in 
 tlie ca.se of gun-cotton is not combustion; it is more 
 of a disintegration, a loss of equilibrium, taking place 
 as it were instantly throughout the entire mass. 
 
 Both of these explosives pos,se.ss valuable resources 
 for the artillerist, yet neither of them fulfills in itself 
 all the requirements of a projectile agent. While 
 powder has considerable, gun-cotton has almost un- 
 limited power; the explosion of tbe former can be 
 governed, that of the latter has hitherto been unruly. 
 But the very means we take to curb the first force of 
 powder reduces to a minimum its already relatively 
 small power-capacity. If we couKI obtain an explo- 
 sive whose action would be similar to that of hex- 
 agonal powder until the projectile bad taken up a 
 rapid velocity, and which .should then burn up witli 
 all tbe energy of gun-cotton, we would have a most 
 valuable accelerator. 
 
 The endeavor to use these two substances In com-
 
 COMPENSATIHG-OnNFOWDER. 
 
 3SG 
 
 COMPENSATINOGUNFOWDEB. 
 
 binuiion \ei\ to the invcnlioii of compcnsatingpow- 
 iler. Till- iileii is to" build up" grains, cakfs, or 
 masses out of two or iiiori' explosives, or out of tlio 
 sjime fxplosivf in vary- 
 iuj; conditions, in suc-h 
 a manni-r that these ex- 
 plosives shall be igniled 
 »'/(•<•< A*if</,v by the actual 
 eonilmstion of the several 
 layers down lo them. For 
 instance, suppose we have 
 n large grain of such |X)W- 
 (ler. Its form, for dis- 
 cussion, is inimalerial; let 
 it be a sphere of gunpow- 
 der an inch in (liameler, 
 and imagine it to possess 
 ;\n interior and concentric core of gun-cotton half an 
 inch in diameter. Such a grain would be constructed 
 with a scientitic reg-ard lo the peculiar clianicterislics 
 of each substance," and would evidently burn upon 
 the accelerative j^rinciple. Let us examine the theo- 
 retical conjbuslion and effect of a charge of such pow- 
 der tired in a gun. The relative amounts of the two 
 explosives would s;>tisl'v the (Uinandsof the compen- 
 sating principle, and at" the siune time the reasonable 
 precaution of reducing the mori' explosive substance 
 to its minimum effecliVe ijuanlity. Immediately after 
 inflammation the •runiiowder would commence to be 
 rapidly consumed in towards the cotton. The exterior 
 layer "burning tirst would prejiare the way for the 
 more violent explosion of the interior one. and being 
 it.self in larire grains, would offer a minimum surface 
 to combustion during its tirst and most decisive in- 
 stant.s. The powder part of the grain would thus be 
 suited to large charges and guns. 
 
 It takes but a few one-hundredths of a second for 
 all the powder to be consumed. In the mean time 
 the projectile will have acquired its motion as in the 
 CiLse of the ordinary charge of powder alone, for thus 
 far there has been "no difference in the explosion, and 
 will have reached a point in the bore Ix'yond wliich, 
 with powder alone, i:o material gain is to be realizeil 
 from the gun's length. The sniall amoimt of pow- I 
 der which wotild now remain unconsumed, were the , 
 grain homogeneous, would Ijarely evolve gas rapidly 
 enough and in sufficient quantities to till up, or <v««- 
 penmlf for, the increasing sjiace Ix'hiud the projectile, 
 and would, of course, be useless for acceleration. For j 
 all practical purposes a powtler-grain might as well 1 
 t)e holliDr from this point inwards. But just here the 
 valuable part to be played by the interior core of the 
 compensiiting grain is to be noticed. Exploding at 
 this moment with great rapidity and force, it checks 1 
 any tendency of the gas to lose its tension, comiH'n- \ 
 sates for the increasing space in rear of the projectile, 
 and indeed actually gives it a tinal and valuable ac- 
 celerating impetus. The great force thus developed 
 by the gun-cotton in this last stage will not be exerted 
 against the walls of the ,gun, as would be the case in ' 
 the explosion of a charge of gun-cotton alone, but 
 will e\idenlly be directed towards the line of least 
 resistance thus artiticially prei)ared for it. The cotton, 
 in fact, will lind a condition of affairs in the bore of 
 the gim that is especially favorable for its action. It 
 is no longer confined to a space just sufficient to con- 
 tain it l)efore combustion, but finds a continually in- 
 creasing one iiitf) which to expand, a cushion of gas 
 against which lo impinge, and an already rapidly 
 moving projectile to accelerate. " | 
 
 In ll)e employment of mammoth jxiwder, even in 
 its most approved form, we have to contend against 
 a very serious element — irmiliii/,. These large grains 
 are found lo lx;only jiarlially consumed; still burning 
 they are thrown out of the gun along with the projec- I 
 tile. That is, when the combustion has reached a 
 cerLain point the projectile leaves the gun, and all the 
 powder remaining unconsumed is wasle<l. This waste 
 reaches the enormous amount of 60 per cent. The 
 introduction of on interior core of higher explosive { 
 
 I)roperlies can be made to do away with this expcndive 
 loss. Forty pounils of [wwder do all the work in a 
 service-charge of one hundred pounds. Reckoning 
 gun-cotton as only four times the strength of gun- 
 powder, fifteen pounds of it would be equivalent to 
 the sixty pounds of powder thai are wasted. If, then, 
 we imagine this amount of cotton intioducetl as a 
 core into the forty irorking pounds of |)owder (the 
 size and number of the grains remaining the same), 
 we shall ha\ e a charge stronger, by the equivalent of 
 sixty efficient pounds, than the present service-charge 
 of the 15-inch Hodman gun. Il must be remembered, 
 moreover, that such a charge will expend its first 
 forty pounds in impressing the projectile with its 
 present normal velocity (loUO or IfiOd feeti, and that 
 the remaining 15 pounds ("/«•<• mid <i hit'f the iri/ue vf 
 till first fiirtji) oi force-generator will work under the 
 most favorable circumstances as a |>ure accelerator. 
 We sliall thus eliminate the great waste of the one, 
 curb the straining action of Ixith, and obtain a true 
 artilliry jiowder, — lighter and four and one half times 
 more effective, charge for charge, than our best gun- 
 liowder. 
 
 It will, perhaps, repay us to examine this proposed 
 combination, and its constituent jiarts, under their 
 chemical symbols. The theoretical burning of gun- 
 powder is expressed by the following equation: 
 
 3XO3K + 3C + S=3C0, + 2X+ SK, (A) 
 
 The explosion of the gim-cotton is given by the for- 
 mula 
 
 2C.H,(NOj)305 = 3CO5 + 9C0 -t- 6N + 70H,. . .(B) 
 
 In the explosion of compens;iting-powder, the ele- 
 ment succaixion is most noticeable. This is favorable 
 to the stability of the several gases of its constituents 
 when broui/hi ttiyether under such peculiar conditions. 
 The similar nature of the products of combustion of 
 gimpowder and gim-cotton seems to preclude any 
 tendency (which very dissimilar gases might have) 
 to result differently in combination than they do when 
 separated. Hence we may simply combine these 
 two reactions by addition, and obtain a legitimate ex- 
 pression for the explosion of compensiiting-powder, 
 namely: 
 
 [2XO3K -f 3C + S] -f r2C6HT(NO.),OJ = (SCO, 
 + 3CO,) -f 9C0 -f (2N -f 6N1 -j- 70H, -1- SK, 
 
 = 6C0, -f 9CO + 8N -f 70H. + SK, (C) 
 
 It Is barely po.ssible that the water In this reaction 
 may be turned to account for Uie oxidation of the 
 sulphide. But in this case hydrogen, a still more 
 elastic gjis, would be freed, anil take the place of the 
 steam. Such a variation would result in greater 
 chemical action and therefore in the production of a 
 higher temperature, all of which would finally be ap- 
 preciated in ballistics as an accelerator. Comparing 
 these reactions critically, we may obtain a very clear 
 idea of the gas-capacity and character of the powder 
 that will result from the combination propo.sed. It 
 must be recalled, in this comparison, that while the 
 powder-gases rcsidt from a progressive cumhiiuttioii 
 of its elements, those of the detonator come from its 
 almost instantaneous dimntegrntion. It is also to be 
 noticed that the volume of the latter gases is many 
 times greater than that of the former, and, from the 
 large amoimt of water it contains, that it has all the 
 elasticity of steam. 
 
 It is claimed that gunpowder itself acts as an ac- 
 celerator, from the fact that the great heat of it-s con- 
 fined explo.sion must expedite the change into gas of 
 its interior layers, — just as a coal-tire burns better and 
 belter until it reaches its maximum. This is obvi- 
 ously the case, though it is not an appreciable argu- 
 ment when offered against a combination that is a 
 n()ticcablc accelerator. This very feature, however, 
 will work in favor of the compeiisiiling construction, 
 for the acccUrateil liurniiig of the powder-jacket will 
 oidy be of importiuice during a very brief period, im- 
 til the grain has become relatively small,— beyond
 
 COMPLEMENT OF THE CUETAIN. 
 
 387 
 
 COMFKESSED BRONZE. 
 
 this point it is valueless; but the interior core explod- 
 ing at this same moment*will take up and carry to 
 its climax this action, .so well begun. See Gun- 
 jxjinler. 
 
 COMPLEMENT OF THE CUKTAIN.— That part in 
 the interior sidu of a forliticatioii which makes the 
 ilciniirorirc. 
 
 COMPLEMENT OF THE LINE OF DEFENSE.— 
 The remainder of the line of defense after the angle 
 of the tlank is taken away. 
 
 COMPLIMENT.— The iisual military marks of re- 
 spect shown by a 1)odyof troops toofflcial personages, 
 to an olHcer, or to another botly of troops. 
 
 COMFONE. — A term in Heraldry .synonymous with 
 Gobony. When a bordeur, pale, bend, or other ordi- 
 nary, is made up of two rows of small squares, con- 
 sisting of alternate metals and colors, it is called com- 
 pont. See Heraldry. 
 
 COMPOSITIONS.— The term composition is applied 
 to all mechanical mixtures which by combustion pro- 
 duce the effects .sought to Ix; attained in pyrotechny. 
 If these compositions be examined, it will be fouiid 
 that many of thcni are derived from gunpowder, by 
 an admixture of sulphur and niter, in proportions to 
 suit the required end. Compositions are prepared in 
 a dry or liquid form; in either ca.se it is necessary 
 that the ingredients shotdd be pure and thoroughly 
 mixed. 
 
 For dry compositioiLs the ingredients are pidverized 
 separately, on a mealing-table, with a wooden muUer; 
 they are then weighed and mixed with the hands, and 
 afterwards passed three limes through a wire sieve of 
 a certain fineness. When a highly oxidizing sub- 
 stance, as the chlorate of potassa, is present, great 
 care must be observed in mixing to avoid friction or 
 blows which might lead to an explosion. When coarse 
 cbarcoal or metals in grains are used, they should be 
 added after the other ingredients have been mixed and 
 sifted. 
 
 When it becomes neces.sarj' to use fire to melt the 
 ingredients, the greatest precaution is necessary to 
 prevent accident, especially when gunpowder enters. 
 The dry parts of the composition may be generally 
 mixed together tirst, and put by degrees into the 
 kettle, when the other ingredients are fluid, stirring 
 well all the time. When the drj' ingiedients are very 
 inflammable, the kettle must not only be taken from 
 the fire, but the bottom must Ije dipped in water to 
 prevent the possibility of accidents. 
 
 The following table shows the rate of burning of 
 the more important compositions: 
 
 _ Cross of the Ord«r 
 1" Compostella. 
 In 
 
 the protection of the pilgrims, and, in conjunction 
 with the canons, resolved to found an Order of the 
 same kind as that of the Hospitallers or Templars. 
 The Pope granted his as.sent in a bull, ilated oth July, 
 1175, accomi>aiiied with the statutes 
 of the Order. Whatever conquests 
 were made from the infidel were 
 declared the property of the Order, 
 and a council of 13 knights was 
 vested with authoiitv to elect and 
 depose a Grand Master. The 
 knights made vows of poverty, 
 obedience, and celibacy, and pro- 
 fessed their belief in the Immacu- 
 late Conception. To protect Chris- 
 tians and convert infidels they 
 vowed to be the only object 
 their wars w ith the Saracens, 
 most of the great battles between Christian and Moor 
 the red cress of the Order was conspicuous. The 
 conquests of the Order itself, combined with the grate- 
 ful munificence of the nation, spcedil)' increased its 
 wealth and jjower beyond those ot any of the other 
 orders of knighthood. In addition to the three large 
 commanderics of Leon, Castile, and Montalvan, it 
 po.s.'e.ssed nearly 200 minor commanderies, compris- 
 ing, it is said, more than 200 priories, with many 
 fiefs, cloisters, hospitals, castles, boroughs, two towns, 
 and 178 villages, exclusive of its ix)sse.ssions in Por- 
 tugal. This enormous wealth and power of the Order 
 excited the jealousj- of the Crown, in which, in 1522, 
 the Grand-mastership was pennanently vested bj' the 
 Pope. Ha\"ing thus become merely honorarj- and 
 dependent on the Cro^vn, the order rapidly decreased 
 in importance. 
 
 COMPRESSED BRONZE.— The density and hard- 
 ness of bronze have been increa-scd by tempering, by 
 compression when in a fluid stale, and, with still 
 greater success, by the process of Jlr. Dean, tirst tried 
 in the United States in isflis, and a method e.xactlj' 
 similar introduced by General Uchatius in Austria 
 in 187.3. The latter e.vperimented with bronze can- 
 non compressed whilst fluid, with others cast about 
 a copper core, and finally with the plan jjroposed by 
 Mr. Dean, which consisted in casting the piece solid 
 in an iron mold or "chill," and, after boring it to 
 near the required size, compressing and hardening 
 the layers of metal by forcing into the bore a series 
 of mandrels or plugs of hard steel. Gtms so made 
 compare most favorablj' with those of banded steel; 
 they have internally the same strength, homogeneity. 
 
 Dimensions. 
 
 Length of case inches 
 
 Interior diameter do. 
 
 Weight of composition ounces 
 
 Time of burning, per inch seconds 
 
 Wheel-fires. 
 
 Standino-pikes. 
 
 Common White. Chinese. 
 
 8.75 
 0.75 
 3.5 
 17 
 
 8.75 
 0.75 
 3.5 
 17 
 
 8.75 
 0.75 
 4 
 SI 
 
 Sun. 
 
 11 
 
 0.75 
 
 5 
 SS 
 
 Star. 
 
 8 
 0.75 
 
 4 
 SO 
 
 Boman 
 candles. 
 
 19 
 
 0.75 
 
 5 
 45 
 
 
 
 Lances. 
 
 Port-pires. 
 
 Change. 
 
 able 
 wheels. 
 
 Dihensions. 
 
 Red. 
 
 White. Blue. 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 Green. 
 
 Red. 
 
 White. 
 
 Blue. 
 
 YeUow. 
 
 Green. 
 
 Ulac. 
 
 Length of case inches 
 
 4 
 
 0.32 
 141 
 90 
 
 4 5 
 0.32 0.32 
 140 150 
 90 90 
 
 4 
 
 0.32 
 150 
 90 
 
 4 
 
 0.82 
 160 
 90 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 547 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 560 
 65 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 546 
 45 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 545 
 
 65 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 660 
 
 65 
 
 3l 3 
 
 Interior diameter do. 
 
 Weight of composition grains 
 
 Time of burning seconds 
 
 1 
 550 
 45 
 
 0.73 
 250 
 60 
 
 See r<7*« and Fire-W'>rks. 
 
 COMPOSTELLA.— St. James, the elder, was adopted 
 as the patron saint of Spain, after the victorj' of 
 Clavijo, and his relics were presen-ed at Compostella, 
 the capital of the province of Galicia. The marvels 
 supposed to be performed by these relics drew vast 
 numbers of pilgrims, for whose support hospitals 
 were established bj- the pious canons of St. Eloy. 
 The vicinity of the Moors ha\-ing subsequently ren- 
 dered the highroads unsafe, 13 noblemen united for 
 
 and hardness, and the elasticity increases from the 
 exterior toward the interior. They show no spots of 
 tin, and the alloy, not being brittle, is much less sub- 
 ject to erosion than ordinary bronze. General Ucha- 
 tius considered erosion to be the result of a purely 
 mechanical action, and that brittle metal, or in bronze 
 gims the hardest parts, was most liable to be so af- 
 fected. Jlr. Dean increa-sed the density of his bronze 
 from 8.321 to 8.875, and the tenacity from 27,238 lbs. 
 to 41,471 lbs. per square inch, whilst (Jeneral IJcha-
 
 COMPRESSIONPKOJECTILES. 
 
 388 
 
 CONCENTHATION-MARCHES. 
 
 tius obtained a tenacity of over 72,000 lbs. This 
 nioilc of i-oustruction lias lK-<'n adopted by the Aus- 
 trian Oovcmnu'iit. and is now boiii^ tried iu the 
 United Sl;il<s. See Ih-mizt'. 
 
 COMPRESSION-PRO JECTILES— The systems under 
 this elii.-^-^ ililler iu the luituie and amiiiijenient of the 
 metid to Ix.' etnupres-sed. Solid shot, shells, and 
 shrapnel can be luse'd in each. A projectile of tliis 
 system is conipose<l of a cast-iron or steel Iwdy, and 
 of a lead cojiling caj>t over and between rinj,'s project- 
 in:: fronj the Ixxly of the projectile. Bands of lead, 
 exteiulin.? beyond the j^pemnd surface, are compressed 
 by the lands" as the projectile is forced through the 
 bore of the piece. A construction more generally 
 u.sed is to have the b<xly smooth, ami to attach Uie 
 coating chemically; to accomplish this, the body is 
 thoroughly clcimed, and immersed in a solution of 
 sal-auunoniac; next it is covered with jxiwdered s;d- 
 ammouiac, and dijiped tii-st into melted 
 zinc and afterwards into melted tin; it 
 is then placed in a nielal mohUtnd the 
 lead cast ujion il. The lK>le in the 
 base is closed by a s<'rcw-iilug, which 
 has a ring for handling the projectile 
 and for e.xtnicting il from the piece 
 •3 when necessary. 
 
 In the French system these projec- 
 tiles have two IikihIh, B and B , of eop- 
 , per. attached by being forced into an- 
 
 ^ ;;?'.,"^H nular undercuts as shown in the draw- 
 ing. To favor the compression, trian- 
 gular grooves are cut around the surface of the 
 bands. The forward band is placed near the center 
 of gravity of the projectile: its diameter is only about 
 .02 inch "greater than the calilier of the piece, and 
 therefore does not assist in giving rotation, but only 
 in centering the projectile; the accuracy of tire is 
 thereby increased, but the velocity at the muzzle of 
 the piece is slightly reduced. See Coated Projectiles, 
 Frenrh PrnjerlHtji, and Pr&jertiles. 
 
 COMPRESSIVE SYSTEM OF RIFLING.— This sys- 
 tem eiiitiraccs all projectiles whicli are loaded in a 
 chamber and then forced by the acticai of the pow- 
 der through the bore of the gun, the diameter of 
 which across the lands is less than the superior diam- 
 eter of the projectile. Projectiles of this class are 
 necessarily contined to breech-loading guns, and, as 
 the name of their class implies, lake the grooves by 
 compression. The general character of the ritling in 
 breech-loaders consists in a great number of shallow 
 grooves usually narrowing toward the muzzle to 
 make up for the slip and abrasion of the leaden 
 jacket of the projectile. The Armstrong system of 
 rifling for breech-loaders, formerly used in the 
 English service, does not dilfcr in principle from 
 this. The rifling consists of a great number of shal- 
 low, narrow grooves (the T-inch has 76), the object 
 being to give the soft-metal covering a very large 
 iK'aring on the dri\-ing-side of the grooves, and tlius 
 prevent stripping, and make up for want of depth. 
 See Si/Hkiii "f liiflinij. 
 
 COMPULSION.— A constraint upon an oflicer's will 
 wherein he is compelled to do that which his judg- 
 ment disapproves, and which, it is to be presumed, 
 his will (if left to itself) would reject. As punish- 
 ments are, therefore, only inflicted for the abuse of 
 that free w ill which Gt<xl has given to man, it is highly 
 just and e(|uitidile that an otticer should be excused 
 for those acts which are done through unavoidable 
 force and compulsion. 
 
 COMPULSORY SERVICE.— The power a govern- 
 ment has of conipclling the people of a country to 
 take up arms in defense of the nation. This nature 
 of enlistment is unknown in the British army, except 
 in the militia, and then only in case of a deliciency 
 of recruits; but in Continental armies the system is 
 universal. 
 
 COMRADE. — A fellow-soldier in the same regiment 
 or coiiipanv, and who acts lus the friend of another 
 soldier. The term cjmrade is aUso extended so as to 
 
 include all the members of a particular corps, branch 
 
 of the service, or the arniv*genendlv. 
 
 CONCAVE ORDER OF "BATTLE.'- If an attack is 
 made siiiiullaueiiusly on both wings, and the center 
 is refused, the attacking army will assume a line of 
 battle which will be concave towards the enemy's 
 line. If the attacking army possesses a decided su- 
 periority in numbers, thU order obtained by a simul- 
 taneous attack on both wings and refusing the center 
 might be employed. It is evident that even iu this 
 ca.se mutual assistance could not b<' given by the 
 troops making the attacks, and il would possess all 
 the defects of a division of forces upon the tield of 
 battle. This order of battle wa-s used by Hannibal 
 when he won his great victory over the iiomans at 
 Canine. Circumstances will geneniUy decide when 
 this order of battle should be used; all other things 
 being equal, it .should not be used in preference to 
 the oblique onler. Sec Cunrer Ord r of Buttle. 
 
 CONCENTRATION.— Collection iiito'a narixiw space 
 round a <enler. In strategy, the collecting on a cer- 
 tain point of the ditfercnt bodies forming an army, 
 to meet the enemy with the greatest uumljer of men 
 ]X)ssible. For a General to divide his forces, unless 
 for special purposes, is to court defeat in detail. An 
 instjince of this is afforded by the War of 1870-71, 
 when the French, divided into six separate Corpg 
 d'Armi'i', incapable of supporting each other, were 
 defeated piecemeal by the Germans, who had concen- 
 trated all their forces into three powerful armies. 
 
 CONCENTRATION-MARCHES.— Marches made by 
 sevend bodies of troops starting from points separated 
 from each other for the purpose of bringing these 
 troops together at some stated place. Forced marches 
 arc much used in concentrating troops, especially be- 
 fore a battle. Many examples are given in military 
 history. As strategical operations, marches may be 
 divitled into two principal cla.s,ses: those of concen- 
 tration beyond the sphere of action of the enemy, and 
 those of maiicuivr executed within this sphere. In 
 the former the forces arc only brought to that point 
 where the latter commences. In the campai.gn of 
 180') it is noted that the two corps in Hanover and 
 Hollaiul, under Bernadotte and Marmont, were di- 
 rected upon Wurtzburg, whilst those on the English 
 Channel were directed on the lihiue between ^laun- 
 heim and .Strasburg. Having reached these points 
 without any apiirehension of an enemy's presence, 
 the grand maneuver for throwing them on the en- 
 emy's right tlankand rear commenced; those columns 
 on the right, being nearer the enemy, moving more 
 slowly, and having their flank nearest the enemy 
 carefully guarded by a corps assigned to this service; 
 those on the left moving more rapidly and pivoting 
 on the right; whilst the whole was so combined that 
 in a few hovirs a large force could be concentrated on 
 any fraction, if unexpectedly attacked whilst carry- 
 ing out this grand movement. 
 
 In the second splendid campaign of Napoleon in 
 Germany against the Austrians, that of IHOi), the stune 
 admirable series of jirovisions is to be seen. Seeing 
 the evidently hostile attitude of Austria, the first step 
 of Napoleon was to mass his forces at those points 
 from which they could be rajiidly thrown upon the 
 Austrian' dominions. For this purpose he chose 
 Wurtzburg, Augsburg, and Strasburg as the points 
 for concentration. On and towards the lirst point he 
 directed tlie major part of his forces from Saxony 
 and from the north of Germany; on the second, the 
 forces in the neighborhood of Hanau; on the third, 
 those from the interior of France. Whilst in Italy 
 he directed Prince Eugene with .50,001) men to ap- 
 proach the Frioul. These, with other minor move- 
 ments, drew aroimU Austria another of those- Napo- 
 leonic meshworks which had already proved so dis- 
 astrous to her. The Austrian army of 20(1,0110 men 
 were to concentrate in the neighborhood of Halis- 
 bonnc, on the Danube; part on one side and a part 
 on the other side of this stream, but .so as to render 
 mutual assisloQcc. Not knowing where he with cer-
 
 COKCENTBIC. 
 
 389 
 
 CONBOTTIEEI. 
 
 ttiinty sliould find the main liody of the Austrians, 
 Napoleon decided upon trusting nothing to mere haz- 
 ard, hut to he governed in his movements liy recog- 
 nized military principles. To this end he withdrew 
 Davoust from Katisbonne, on the Danube, awl threw 
 forward Massena so as to concentrate his entire force 
 at Ahensburg, a small place on the river Abens, and 
 about midway between Ingoldstadt and Katisbonne. 
 Here he deciiled to break through the Austrian cen- 
 ter, thus separating the two Archdukes, Charles and 
 Louis. In these plans he was aided by the tardine.ss 
 of movement of the Austrians upon which he counted, 
 and also by the state of the weather, by which the 
 roads were nuich injured. The result of these skill- 
 fully combined marches was that the Archduke 
 Charles was forced upon Ratisbonne, and obliged to 
 retreat across the Danube into Bohemia; the other 
 main fraction of the Austrian army retiring succes- 
 sively behind the Inn and the Traunn, leaving the 
 road to Vienna open to Napoleon. 
 
 In this conjuncture of operations, Napoleon, after 
 considering the military aspect of affairs, decided to 
 march direct upon Vienna. In taking this step he 
 had not only to follow up the Archduke Louis, but 
 to provide against the junction of the Archduke 
 Charles with him, by recrossing the Danube. The 
 jirincipiil points where this passage might have been 
 effected are Straubing, Pas,sau, Lintz," and Krems, 
 These it was of the first importance to secure by 
 anticipating the Austrian movements on them. To 
 carry out these measures, Massena received orders to 
 descend along the Danube, to be followed by Da- 
 voust, and by General Dupas; and each in succession 
 to occupy tlie places just mentioned, thus securing 
 the army from an attack either in flank or in rear by 
 the Austrians on the left bank of the Danube. At 
 the same time Bes.sieres was ordered to push forward 
 beyond Landshut, on the Iser, and keep closely on 
 the heels of the enemy's retreating column; whilst 
 Lannes, under the immediate command of Napoleon, 
 moved between the columns of 3Ias.scna and Bes- 
 .sii^res, so as to throw this force upon either of these 
 two, as circumstances might demand. Further to 
 secure his right on their tlank, the Bavarians, his 
 allies, were directed to occupy ilunich, and, ]iusliing 
 from there through Salzburg into the Tyrol, observe 
 the Archduke John, and give timely warning of his 
 movements. These profound combinations met with 
 all the succeas they merited. Anticipated by the 
 rapid movements and daring of the French at every 
 iwint, the Archduke Charles was unable to join the 
 forces on the right bank of the Danube, which last, 
 despairing of being able to cover Vienna, effected a 
 crossing to the left bank at Krems. See Marches. 
 
 CONCENTRIC— Having a common center. This 
 term in warfare is applietl to a covering army operat- 
 ing from a common center against widely separated 
 bodies of the enemy advancing towards that center; 
 hence it becomes a concentric army. The invasion 
 by the enemy may take pluce either on one or two 
 lines. To operate methodically, and to the best ad- 
 vant;ige, the covering armj', if a.ssailed on two lines, 
 should place on each of these a retarding force at 
 first, considering these as wings, while the mass in 
 reserve is held ready to give a preponderance to cither 
 wing, or to both in succession. In all Napoleon's 
 operations against a divided enemy this princijile is 
 api^arent. See Vonfentration-marches. 
 
 CONCRETE.— A mi.vture of hydraulic or other 
 mortar with gravel or shingle, which, on hardening, 
 forms an artificial conglomerate. The best concrete 
 is made by well mixing liydraulic mortar (see Cement) 
 with snnrl and sufficient water for complete hydra 
 tion, and then adding the shingle or screened ballast, 
 and mixing them well together. An inferior concrete 
 may be made by laying the shingle into the founda- 
 tion or other place where the concrete is required, and 
 then pouring mortar upon it, to fill the interstices be- 
 tween the pebbles. The principal use of concrete is 
 to form a basis of artificial stone for buildings that 
 
 rest upon loose or damp subsoils. Such a basis, if 
 
 well made, forms a solid foundation-slab tipon which 
 
 the weight of the whole structure is equally distri- 
 
 I butcd. It also resists the capillarj' ascent of moisture 
 
 ! from the soil, which would otherwise take place 
 
 [ through brick-work or porous stone. 
 
 CONCUSSION-FUSE.- A fuse put in action by the 
 I discharge, but the effect of that action is restrained 
 I until it strikes the object. Such a fuse, in order to 
 be serviceable, must not only produce explosion on 
 striking, but it must not produce it on the shock of 
 the explosion of the charge, nor of that produced by 
 the ricochets of the projectile in or out of the gun. 
 These fvises have usually consisted of some combina- 
 tion of the highly explosive fulminates, but the ex- 
 treme danger of using them has been a great obstjj- 
 ele to their adoption. See Fune, PtTcunsuin-fune, and 
 t'</>lii>//<i rd Fii-v\ 
 
 CONDEMNED ANIMALS.— Animals in the public 
 ser\iee condcmncil as unfit for work. In the United 
 States army, all horses and mules inspected and con- 
 demned as unfit for military service are athertised 
 for sale, and disposed of within ten days from date 
 of advertisement, and if not sold within the ten days 
 aic shot on the eleventh day. The advertisement is 
 made in accordance with advertising regulations in 
 force, but at posts remote from places where news- 
 papers are published the advertisement is made by 
 posted notice. When horses and mules condemned 
 are sold, or, in default of sale, shot, report is made at 
 once to the Quartermaster General, through the regu- 
 lar military channel, of the execution of the order. 
 Great care is exercised in the branding of condenmed 
 horses and mules with the letters I. C. (Inspected — 
 Condemned). 
 
 CONDEMNED PROPERTY.— In the military ser- 
 vice, property unfit for further service and worthless. 
 Property unfit for the puqwse for which it was de- 
 signed may often be applied to other uses. Inspect- 
 ing officers, in recommending the disposition to be 
 made of condemned property, especially of the Quar- 
 termaster's Department, should bear in mind that 
 there is hardly any species of material, however worn, 
 which cannot be put to some use. Old linen, cotton, 
 wool, iron, etc., can all be worked up in some new 
 form, and wood can be used as fuel. No condemned 
 articles that have anj' salable value should be recom- 
 mended "to be dropped," unless there be special 
 reasons therefor, which reasons should lie stated in 
 the report. The Inspector should mark the letters 
 I. C'. (Inspected — Condemned) upon all property con- 
 denmed and ordered to be dropped from the returns, 
 with a brand, stencil, cold-chisel, steel cutter, or 
 punch, deiiending on the material to be marked. 
 Should it happen, when final action is had, that the 
 Inspector's recommendation is disapproved, the marks 
 should be canceled, and a certificiite of the fact given 
 to the officer account<ible. See Inspcclum of Con- 
 demwd Pro pert//. 
 
 CONDOTTIERI. — The name given in the fourteenth 
 century to the leaders of certain bauds of military ad- 
 venturess who, for booty, otTercd their services to any 
 party in any contest, and often practiced warfare on 
 their own account purely for the s)\ke of plun<ler. 
 These mercenaries were called into action liy the end- 
 less feuds of the Italian States during the Middle 
 Ages. Among the most celebrated of their leaders 
 were Guarnieri, Lando, Francis of Carniagnola (about 
 1412), and Francis Sforza (about U'tO). The last- 
 mentioned made himself Duke of Milan. The Ccmt- 
 jmgnii'n Gmmlfn in France, during the fourteenth 
 century, resembled the bands led by the Italian Con- 
 dottieiT. They oricinated in the long bloody wars 
 between France and England. The mischief done 
 by them became so intolerable that in several parts 
 of the country the peasantry armed themselves and, 
 under the name of Pacifirei. formed a.ssociations 
 against the phmdcrers. Nevertheless, these French 
 Condottieri were so powerful that, in 1361, they 
 routed the king's forces which had been sent against
 
 CONOUCTOBS. 
 
 390 
 
 CONDnCTORS. 
 
 them, at Brininis, near Lvon. and slew the Constable 
 of Fnincc, Jnoiucs ilc liovirlxm; liut Ihr Consliilile 
 (hi Gues<lin iitrsimdfd llum to !><.-ek llii-ir fortune in 
 tlio S|iani-li stTviiv. 
 
 CONDtlCTOKS.— 1. In the Koyal Artillen,-, Con- 
 ductors are \\>(f<f artilKrymcn \vlio have charge of 
 the aininiiiiilidti-waLroiis in the ticld; they are, to some 
 extt-nl. under the conlivl of the Commissariat t)rticei-s, 
 who have lo provide means of tnmsporl: but since 
 the recent chanires in tlie Comniis&irial Uepartment 
 thev have l>een more exclusively under the control of 
 iheir own pmiKT artillery otBccrs. 
 
 2. Conductor, in olectiicity. is a term applied to a 
 body aipable of transmitliug an electric current. If 
 
 stances are found to possess the power of conducting- 
 electricity in very dUIerent degrees. The following 
 .series classitics the more common substances accord- 
 ing to their conducting powers, beginning with the 
 iH-st and ending with the worst conductors: Con- 
 ductors—The ni'etals. graphite, sea-water, sjjring-wa- 
 ter, rain-water. Semi-conductors — Alcohol and ether, 
 dry W(M)d, marble, paper, straw, ice at 'i'i ' F. Non- 
 conductors — Dry metallic oxides, fatty oils, ice at 
 13 P., phosphorus, lime, chalk, caoutchouc, camph- 
 or, porcelain, leather, drj' paper, feathers, hair, wool, 
 silk, gems, glass, agate, wax, sulphur, resin, amber, 
 and shellac. 
 The arrangement into conductors, semi-conductors, 
 
 No. 1— One conductor of 16 No. 33 copper wires. 
 
 No. 11— One conductor, tinsel cord, with lateral cotton and 
 double wrap of cotton cover. Much used for Kidder and 
 other battery electrodes. 
 
 No. 13— Two conductors of 14 No. 3.3 copper wires in strands 
 insulated with silk, and laid up in form of three-strand 
 cord. 
 
 No. 13— One conductor, tinsel cord, covered with worsted 
 braid. 
 
 No. 14— Two conductors, tinsel cord. Both conductors cov- 
 ered with worsted braid, the whole covered with fine 
 worsted braid. 
 
 No. 7— One conductor of copper wires wound spirally on a 
 
 strong cord. No. 15-One conductor, tinsel cord, covered with silk braid 
 
 No. 8— One conductor of small copppr wires wound spirally 
 on a strong coi'd. 
 
 (UrttUliU 
 
 No. 16— One conductor, tinsel cord. One wrap of worsted 
 and two cotton braids outside. For telephone-switches. 
 
 No. 9-Two conductors, heavy switch-cord. Western Union 
 style, each conductor composed <.f w tlat copper wires 
 wound spirally on i-.i.-il. .a.li . ..Ti.lu.ior heavily wrapped 
 
 No. 17— Two conductors of 25 No. 36 copper wires, each con- 
 ductor insulated with a wTap of cottoti. a layer of gutta- 
 percha, and an outside braid of silk. This is an entirely 
 water-proof cord, much used in electric lighting. 
 
 No. 10-One conductor of ni No. 33 popper wires, with green 
 and gold olored silk braid cover. For Rheostats and 
 other purposes where large and flexible condnctoi-s are 
 required. 
 
 g>mAAK^jKa t»j .ft aggaQggn« 
 
 No. 18— Gold tinsel cord, not covered, small size. 
 
 No. 19— Gold tinsel cord, not covered, large size. 
 
 a rod of metal \w made to touch the prime conductor 
 of an eleelrical machine iniiiuiliulelv after llic iilnle 
 has cea-sed to rotate, every tnicc of eli'ctricily imme- 
 diately disappears. But if llie rod were of'sliellac 
 little or no diminution would he perceptible in the 
 electrical excitement of the Cdiiductor. The inel.il in 
 this ca.se leads away tlie electrit ity into the IkmIv of 
 the experimenter, and thence intothe groiiml, wiiere 
 it becomes lost, and it receives in conse()uenee the 
 name of a conductor. The shellac, for the opposite 
 reason, is called a non-conductor. Different sub- 
 
 and non-conductors is made with reference to fac- 
 tional electricity, or clcctn'city of a high tension. 
 The subsl.incis which arc semi-conductors for fric- 
 tionid electricity are found to be almost, if not alto- 
 gether, iion-ooiiducting for the electricity of the gal- 
 vanic battery, which is too feeble to force a passage 
 tliroutrh tbein. The metals, which appear to be all 
 nearly alike condueting for frictional electricity, offer 
 widely differing resistances to the transmission of the 
 galvanic current. By ex])eriments made -with gal- 
 vanic electricity, it is" found that the more ortlinary
 
 CONDUCT PREJUDICIAL. 
 
 391 
 
 CONFEDERATION. 
 
 metals stand thus as regards their powers of conduc- 
 tion, beginning as before \vitii tlie best conductor: 
 Silver, gold, copper, brass, zinc, iron, platinum, tin, 
 nickel, lead, German silver, mercury. An increase 
 of temperature lias in the metals the elTect of lessen- 
 ing the conducting power, whilst in almost all other 
 substances it has an opposite effect. Gla.ss becomes 
 conducting at a red heat, and so do was, sulphur, 
 amber, and shellac, when fused. 
 
 When a conductor is placed on non-conducting 
 supports, so as to prevent the electricity communi- 
 cated lo it from passing into the ground, it is said lo 
 be insulated. The usual insulating material employed 
 in the constnietion of electrical apparatus is gluss, 
 which, though not so perfect a non-conductor as the 
 others lower in the scale, far exceeds them in hard- 
 ness and dui'abilily. In a damp atmosphere glass 
 becomes coated with a thin layer of moisture, which 
 very considerably diminishes its insulating power. 
 Hence arises the necessity in certain states of weather 
 of heating so as to drj- all electrical apiiaratus jirc- 
 vious to use. This imperfection is very much less- 
 ened by covering the glass with shellac varnish. The 
 very fact that a conductor may be insulated indicates 
 that the air is a non-conductor. Dry air posse.s.>*s 
 this properly in a high degree, while moist air ren- 
 ders insulation for any length of time impossible. 
 
 The drawing shows a variety of conducting cords, 
 manufactured by Messrs. L. G. Tillotson & Company, 
 New York, and used for various military purposes, 
 principally in ballistic experiments and sub-marine 
 mining. See ^fi)u•>l. 
 
 CONDUCT PREJUDICIAL TO MILITARY DISCI- 
 PLINE. — All crimes not capital, and al! disorders and 
 neglects, which olhcers and soldiers may be guilty of, 
 to the prejudice of good orderandmilitar}- discipline, 
 though not mentioned in the Articles of War, arc 
 taken cognizance of by a General, or a Regimental, 
 Garrison, or Field-officers' Court-Martial, according 
 to the nature and degree of the offense, and punished 
 at the discretion of such Court. See Articles of War. 
 
 tent. The general form of the cone of dispersion will 
 present a curved surface, which is concave outwards; 
 for experiment goes to prove that when a variable 
 cause acts an infinite number of times, the variations 
 of this cause tend to neutralize each other, and we 
 may then assimilate its effecls to those of a constant 
 accelerating force, acting in the same manner as 
 gravity. The separation of the projectiles is not in 
 proportion to the ranges, but increa.ses more rapidly. 
 The ame of dispersion becomes longer, with equal 
 deviations, as the velocity of the projectiles increa.ses; 
 or in other words, the tire is more accurate as the 
 velocity is increased. Ancient artillerists were aware 
 of this principle, and in consequence employed for 
 small-arms charges much larger than those now in 
 general use. 
 
 CONE OF SPREAD.— The imaginary cone contain- 
 ing the diverging bullets or fragments upon the ex- 
 plosion of a shell. With shrapnel shells this con/' is 
 verj- long; while with segment shells it is very short 
 and wide, and these s\uA\% are consequently most ef- 
 fective when burst close up to the object. See Cone 
 of DiKjii rsiim . 
 
 CONE SEAT. — A projcctmg piece of iron welded 
 to the barrel, near the breech, for the purjwse of sus- 
 taining the cone. See fiiirrel. 
 
 CONFEDERATE PROJECTILES.— The ritle-projec- 
 tiles used by the Confederates in the late war Ije- 
 longed, with a few except ions, to the expanding class. 
 Fig. 1 represents a shell with a copper ring (A) lilting 
 into a rabbet formed around its base in casting. This 
 projectile would seem to resemble the Parrolt projec- 
 tile in its construction. The lower edge of the band, 
 however, projects below the bottom of the base, which 
 in Parrott's it does not. Recesses are fonned in the 
 sides of the rabbet to prevent the ring from turning. 
 
 The projectile represented in Fig. 2 has a thick 
 circular plate of copper attached to its base by means 
 of a screw-bolt at its center. To prevent it from 
 turning around this bolt there are three pins, or dow- 
 els, fastened into the base of the projectile, and pro- 
 
 ff\\ 
 
 ;r--^u 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 Fia.Z. 
 
 Fro. 3. 
 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 CONDUCT UNBECOMING AN OFFICER AND A 
 
 GENTLEMAN.— This offense is punished with dismis- 
 sion by si-ntcnce of a General Court -.Martial. What 
 constitutes the offense is not defined, but it is left lo 
 the moral sense of the Court-JIartial to determine. 
 
 CONE. — The vent-plug which is .screwed into the 
 barrel of a tire-arm. The outer end is the nipple for 
 receiving the percussion-cap. The fmictions of the 
 cone are to support the percussion-cai> when exploded 
 by the hammer, and to conduct the Idame to the vent 
 of the piece. To increase the effect of the hanmier, 
 the upper surface of the cone is diminished by cham- 
 fering the corners. See Barrel. 
 
 CONE OF DISPERSION.— The cones of dispersion 
 of projectiles comprise all the causes of error in tir- 
 ing, whether resulting from the arm itself, from the 
 projectile antl the resistance of the air, or from the 
 want of practice or skill in the mark,sman. The 
 causes of irregularity in firing, although greater in 
 the horizontal than in the vertical direction, are con- 
 siderable in the latter. They raise or depress the pro- 
 jectiles, and change the ranges to an appreciable ex- 
 
 jeeting into corresponding holes in the circular plate. 
 This ]ilate is slightl,v cupped, and the angle between 
 it and the bottom of the projectile is tilled with a 
 grea.'^ed cord for lubricating the Iwre of the gun. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents a projectile of the Blakelv class, 
 with its expanding cuj) ot copper («). Instead of the 
 soft-metal studs which are placed on the forward 
 part of the Blakelv projectile, this projectile has a 
 raised band carefully Uniied to tit the bore. 
 
 Fig. 4 represents a Reed projectile, in which the 
 exjianding cup is made of copper, as shown at n. 
 This cup is placed in the mold, and the body of the 
 projectile is cast upon it. See Erpeihding Projectiles 
 afid Projictiles. 
 
 CONFEDERATION.— An alliance of Xations. States, 
 or Princes; sonu-times used for a single Nation, as 
 thai of the Mexican Republic, the ofticial title of 
 which is "The Mexican Confederation." The Ger- 
 man Confederation was formed immediately after the 
 Vienna Congress of 181.5. In .luly, 1778, the Uniied 
 Colonies (afterwards the United Slates of America) 
 agreed to the " Articles of Confederation and Perpet-
 
 COHnS£HCE. 
 
 392 
 
 CONSTABLE. 
 
 ual Union 1)otwoen the States of New Hampshire, Mass- 
 arliusi'tts U:i\. l{li(Klf I-^laiiil and Pioviili'iuc Planta- 
 tions, Ciaimrtii'ul, New York, New Jersey, IVnnsyl- 
 viinia. Delaware, Maryland. Virginia, North Carolina, 
 South Carolina, and f}et)ri;ia." In tht-si' Artieles are 
 set forth the principles of jrovennnent which were a 
 few years later einlKxlied in the Constitution of the 
 United Stales, with such additions as were nece.ssjiry 
 ■• in order to fonn a more i>irfi-<i union. " In Soutli 
 America is the Arjjentine Confedenition, and Switzer- 
 land iss<imetimesealKHl the Swi.s.s Confederation. The 
 Confeilenition of the lUiine wjis formed in 1800 by a 
 number of German States, under the protection of 
 NaiKiK-on. 
 
 CONFIDENCE.— This term, in a militarj- sense, has 
 reference to the facility with which .some otlicers jrain 
 the contidcnceof theirinen. This most essential qual- 
 ity m a Commander Ls of the hicchest importance, and 
 cannot be ovcrnited: without It, a disji-ster may at 
 any moment occur in the day of battle; but with it, 
 and the knowledge of military science combined, suc- 
 cess in the operjilions of an army may be a.ssiired. 
 HLstory atTords examples of buttles h;ivins been Io.st 
 by the inost celebrati'd Generals because tlievdid not 
 pf>.s.sess this contidence. At the battle of Thymbra, 
 when Cyrus's horse fell under him, Xenophon takes 
 notice of what imixirtance it is to a Commander to be 
 loved by his soldiers. The danger of the king's per- 
 son became the danger of the army: and bis troops 
 on that occiision pive incredible proofs of their cour- 
 age and bravery. 
 
 CONFIDENTIAL REPORTS. — Rciwrts on Regi- 
 ments, as to their elliciency, conduct, etc., forwarded 
 yearly, in England, by Genend Officers Commanding 
 to the Adjutant General for the information of the 
 Commander-in Chief. Reports on the qualifications 
 of officers for promotion are sent to the Military Sec- 
 retary at the liorse-guiirds for submission. 
 
 CONFINEMENT. — Non-commissioned officers and 
 soldiers charged with crimes are iLsually confined un- 
 til tried by Court-Martial or released by jiroper author- 
 ity. No officer or soldier who is put in arrest should 
 continue in confinement more than eight days, or im- 
 til such time an a Court-Marfial can be assembled. 
 
 CONFISCATION.— The appropriation to the public 
 use of ]>rivale i)roperty. A rigid which is conferred 
 under certain circinnstances by the laws of war. See 
 Oiiilrnlitiiid iif Tl'i/r. 
 
 CONGREVE GUN. — A 24-pounder gun of conical 
 form, proposed in 1813 by Sir W. Congrevc. It had 
 a much greater thickness of metal at the breech than 
 those of the old construction: the extra thickness was 
 supposed to give a reacting power to the gun, which, 
 however, is an erroneous idea, not supported by facts. 
 The gun is now obsolete, 
 
 CONGREVE ROCKET.— A rocket guided by a long 
 ■woo<len stick attached to its base, and a terrible wei'.pon 
 of war, with ranges which no ordnance of its time ( ould 
 attain. Discarding the small. sizes, Congrevc made 12- 
 pound, 18-pound, and 82-pound rockets, which he 
 charged with canister-shot, bullets, and other mis.siles. 
 The stick for a l)2-p(>und rocket was 18 feet in length, 
 and the maxinuun range ;J.")()0 yards. The range 
 could be incn.'a.sed by discharging the rocket from a 
 cannon, with a time-"fu.se to ignite it at the cannon's 
 utmoflt range, when the rocket commences its own 
 course. As mis.siles, these rockets were found to an- 
 noy most seriously the defenders in any fortified 
 work, anil, in a bombardment, they speedily set 
 houses and buililiiigs on tire. In tbe"tiel(l. also, the 
 plunging, ricoelietting motion of the rocket greatly 
 disturbed Ixith cavalry and infantry. The Coniireve 
 rockets were first tried on actual" service, and with 
 fatal effect, at the attack en Copenhagen in 1807 
 See Ri-h I. 
 
 CONROY RIFLE.— A breech-loading small-arm hav- 
 ing a fi.xed chamber closeil by a movable breech-block, 
 which rotates alnaU a horizontal axis al ilO to the 
 a.xis of the barrel, and lying al>ove the axis of the bar- 
 rel and in rear — 1x.'iug moved from Ixrlow. This arm 
 
 is provided with a falling breech-block, moved by a 
 sliding trigger-guard, the with<lniwal of which re- 
 tracts the tiling-pin, brings the hammer to the half- 
 cock, and drops the block, which strikes in its de 
 scent and operates the usual bent-lever extractor. By 
 pushing the trigger-guard forward again, the block 
 is raisi'd, when by bringing the hammer to the full- 
 cock the piece is closed and ready to hi' fired. The 
 blow of the hammer is not delivered directly upon 
 the firing-pin, but on an intermediate lever pivoted 
 Ixiow its point of impact on the firing pin, and strik- 
 ing it so as to impel it forward in the line of the axis 
 of the bore. This gun lias been nuxlified by substi- 
 tuting for the sliding guard the more powerful motor 
 found in the usual swinging guard-lever, the angle 
 formed by which with the stock when the piece is 
 opened being about 30°. 
 
 CONSCRIPTION. — The system whereby the French, 
 since the year 179.5, and some other foreign armies are 
 recruited. It differs essentially from the English sys- 
 tem in l)eing compulsory, and, taken for all m all, a.s 
 a <lislurbance of the system of employment in all 
 grades of society, is probably the most expensive 
 means of recruitment yet (le\ ised. Every Frenchman 
 may be called to enter the army at the age of 20; but 
 those who choose to enlist, as early as 18. He cannot 
 again be called upon to serve. The term is for 5 
 years in the Reirular Army, 4 in the Army Reserve, 5 
 years in the Territorial Army (Militia), and 6 in the 
 Territorial Reserve. This brings the conscript to 40 
 years of age, when his liability to service cejises. The 
 law of 1872 reorganizing the French army forbids the 
 providing of substitutes by coiLscripts. An account 
 is kept of the number of youtlis in France who iieach 
 the age of 20 in each year (about 280,000). All those 
 are exempt from conscription who are under 5 feet 2 
 inches in height; or have any natural infirmities un- 
 fitting them for active service: or are the eldest of a 
 family of orphans; or are the oiUy sons of widows, or 
 of disabled fathers, or of fathers above 70 years of 
 age; or are intended for the Church; or are pupils at 
 certain Colleges. Moreover, if two brothers are drawn 
 ius conscripts, and the younger is efficient, the elder 
 is declared exempt; and if of two only brothers one is 
 already in the army, or has retired through wounds 
 or infirmity . the other is exempt. Culprits and felons 
 are not allowed to enlist. The law of 1872 nuiking 
 military -service obligatory on all Fienchnien (save in 
 the above ca.ses) has a.ssiniilated the French anuy sys- 
 tem to that enforced in Piussia since 1813. 
 
 CONSTABLE.— Whether this officer was called ori- 
 ginally Comes SUihiili—lhv Covmt of the Stable, or 
 blaster of the Horse (as alleged by Ducange) — or the 
 Koning Slapel— Stuff and Stay of "the King (as Coke, 
 Selden, and others, with less reason, have main- 
 tained) — the Constable, both in France and England, 
 was a military personage of the very highest rank. 
 The Constable of France rose gradually in impor- 
 tance from the comparatively modest po.sition of an 
 Officer of the Household, till at li;st he became, ej- offi- 
 cio, the Commander-in-Chief of the army in the ab- 
 .senee of the Monarch, the highest .ludgein inilitary 
 offen.ses and in all questions of chivalry and honor, 
 and the supreme regidator and nrbilrulor in all mat- 
 ters connected witli tilts, tournaments, and all mar- 
 tial displays. The office of Constable is traced back 
 by Anseline to Alberic, who held it in lOtiO; but the 
 first Constable of France who appeared at the. head 
 of an army was Matthew, the Second Seigneur de 
 Montmorency. The office was suppres.si'd tiy Louis 
 XIII. in ltiC>t!. Among tlie offices of the "Ancient 
 Monarchy which were restored by Napoleon for mere 
 purposes of state, that of Constable was one. His 
 brother. Prince Louis Napoleon, afterwards King of 
 Holland, was created Grand Constable, the Vice-Con- 
 stable being Marshal Berthier. The office was again 
 alx)Iished on the restoration of the Bourbons, and hits 
 not since been re-established. But besides the Con- 
 stable of France, almost all the great vivs.sals of the 
 Crown had Constables who filled analogous offices at
 
 CONSTABLE OF THE TOWER. 
 
 393 
 
 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 their minor Courts. There were Constables of Bur- 
 gundy, of Chanip;i!!;ne, and of Nonnandy; the latter 
 of whom niav l)e regarded a.s the ]irogenitor of the 
 Constable of "England. 
 
 Shortly after the Conquest, a Lord High Constable 
 of England appears, ha\-ing powers and privileges 
 closely corresponding to those of the Constable of 
 France. His position as Judge of the (.jourt of Chiv- 
 alry, in conjunction with the Earl-Mareschal, and the 
 limitation ot his power, which followed, are explained 
 under Coi'iiT of CiinALiiY. The ottice was abolished 
 1)V Henry VHI. on the attainder of Edward StatTord, 
 liukeof Buckingham; and a Lord High Constable is 
 now appointed only on the occurrence of great State 
 Ceremonies, e.g., a Coronation. The High Constable 
 of Scotland was an t)Bicer verj' similar to the Consta- 
 ble of France and England. After the Rebellion the 
 offices of the Inferior Constables dependent on the 
 High Constable, such as the Constable of the Castle, 
 were abolished, but that of the High ttonslable him- 
 self was expressly exempted, and still exists in the 
 uoble family of Errol. The privileges attaching to 
 this office are now entirely honorary; but in \'irtue of 
 it, the Earl of Errol is said to be the tirst subject in 
 Scotland after the Blood-Royal; and on the occasion 
 of the \isit of King George IV. to Edinburgh, the 
 then Earl was allowed to take precedence of the pos- 
 sessors of all other hereditary honors. The present 
 Earl of Errol is the twenty -seconil High Constable of 
 Scotland. 
 
 CONSTABLE OF THE TOWEB.— In England, a 
 General Officer who has the chief superintendence of 
 the Tower, and is Lord-lieutenant of the Tower 
 Hamlet-s. He holds his appointment by letters-patent 
 from the Sovereign, and is not removable at pleasure. 
 
 CONSTITUTION.— The following provisions of the 
 Constitution relate to the land and naval forces: Pre- 
 amble — We. the people of the United States, in order 
 to * * provide for the common ilefense * * do ordain 
 and estiiblish this Constitution for the United Stjites of 
 America. Art. I. Sec. 1. All legislative powers here- 
 in granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United 
 States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of 
 Representatives. Art. I. Sec. 8. The Congress shall 
 have power — C/in/sel. * * To pay the debts and pro- 
 vide for the common defense and general welfare of 
 the United States. * * Clause 9. * * To define and 
 pvmish offenses against the law of nations. * * Clause 
 10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and re- 
 prisal, and make rules concerning captures on land 
 and water. Clut'ne "iX. To raise and support armies; 
 but no appropriation of money to that use shall be 
 for a longer term than two years. Clniise 12. To pro- 
 vide and maintain a navy. ClaimelS. To make ndes 
 for the government and regulation of the land and 
 naval forces. (V/nw 14. To provide for calling forth 
 the militia to execute the l;iws of the Union, suppress 
 insurrectioiLS, and repel inva-sions. Vlauxe 1.5. To 
 proride for organizing, arming, and disciplining the 
 militia, and for governing such \k\v\ of them as may 
 Ije employed in the service of the Unitid Stales, re- 
 serving to the Suites, respectively, the ;ippoiutment of 
 the officers, and the authoritj' of training the militia 
 according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. 
 Clause 16. To exercise exclusive legislation * * over 
 all places purcha.seil, by consent of the legislature of 
 the State in which the same shall be, for the erection 
 of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock yards, and other 
 needful buildings. CluuseVi. Tomakeall lawswhich 
 shall be necessary and proper for carrying into exe- 
 cution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
 vested by this Constitution in the Government of the 
 United Stsvtes, or in any department or officer thereof. 
 Sec. 9. Clause 2. * * The privilege of the writ of 
 habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, 
 in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety 
 may require it. * * Sec. 10. Clause 2. * * No State 
 shall, without the consent of Congress ** keep troops 
 or ships of war in time of peace ^ * or engage in war, 
 unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger 
 
 as will not admit of delay. Art. II. Sec. 1. Clause!. 
 The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
 the United States of Anieriai. * * Sec. 2. Clause 1 . 
 The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the 
 army and navj'of the United States, and of the militia 
 of the several States, when called into the actual ser- 
 vice of the United States. * * Sec. 3. Clause 1. * * 
 He shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed; 
 and shall commission all officers of the United States. 
 Art, III. Sec. 3. Clause I. Trea.son against the United 
 States shall consist only in levying war against them, 
 or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and 
 comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, 
 imless on the testimony of two witne.s,ses to the same 
 overt act, or on confession in open Court. Clause 2. 
 The Congress shall have power to declare the punish- 
 ment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall 
 work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during 
 the life of the person attainted. Art. IV. Sec. 4. 
 Clause 1. The United States shall guarantee to everj- 
 State in this Union a republican fonn of government; 
 and shall protect each of them agiiinsi invasion, and 
 on the apiilicatiou of the legislature, or of the e.xecu 
 tive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against 
 domestic violence. — Amendments t» the Constitution: 
 Art. I. — Congress shall make no law res|)ecting an 
 establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free ex- 
 ercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech 
 or of the press; or the right of the people peace- 
 ably to a.ssemble, and to petition the Government for 
 redress of grievances. Art. II. — A well-regulated 
 militia being necessary to the security of a free State, 
 the right of the people to keep and" bear arms shall 
 not be infringed. Art. III.— No soldier shall, in time 
 of peace, be quartered in ;uiy house without the 
 consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a 
 manner to lie prescribed by law. Art. V. — No person 
 shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
 infamous crime, unless 'on a i)resentment or indict- 
 ment by a grand jury, except in cases arising in the 
 land Of naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual 
 serWce. in time of war or public danger; nor shall 
 any person be subject for the .s;une offense to be twice 
 put in jeojiardy of life or limb; nor shall be com- 
 pelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against 
 himself, nor to l)e deprived of life, liberty, or prop- 
 erty, without due process of law; nor shall private 
 property be taken for public use without just com- 
 pensation. 
 
 The power of making rules for the government and 
 regulation of armies, as well as the power of raising 
 armies, having in ex-press terms been conferred on Con- 
 (irexs, it is manifest that the President as Commander- 
 in-Chief is limited by the Constitution to the simple 
 command of such armies as Congress may niise, under 
 such rules for their government and regulation a-s 
 Congress maj- appoint. "The authorities [says Alex- 
 ander Hamilton] essential to the care of the common 
 defense are these: To raise armies; to build and eq\iip 
 fleets; to ]irescribe rules for the government of both; 
 to direct their operations; to provide for their support. 
 These powers ought to exist without limitation; he- 
 causc it is impossible to foresee or to define the extent 
 and variety of national exigencies, and the correspon- 
 dent extent and variety of the means which may be 
 necessary to satisfy them." Defective as the present 
 (okl) Confederation has been proved to be, this prin- 
 ciple appears to have been fully recognized by the 
 framers of it; although they have not made proi^er 
 or adequate provision for its exercise Congress has 
 an unlimited discretion to make requisitions of men 
 and money; to govern the army and navy; to direct 
 their operations. The government of the military is 
 that branch of the code which embraces the militarv 
 Hierairhy, or the gradual distribution of inferior 
 authority. From this jirinciple proceeds the localiza- 
 tion of troops, their discipline, remuneration for im- 
 portant services, the repression of all infractions of 
 the laws, and everything, in fine, which the legislature 
 may judge necessarj- either by ndes of appointment
 
 CONSULATE. 
 
 394 
 
 CONSULATE. 
 
 or promotion, penalties or rewanls, to raninlain an 
 ttliiieul and wilUlisciplined army. But. as if to 
 avoid all niisconsinutinn on this point, the Constitu- 
 tion not oiilv declaivs tliat C'onj^ress shall make rules 
 for the gort'nimtnl, but also for the rtgnlatioii of the 
 anny; and reguliiti"" sljrnilies precise determination 
 of fuuetions, method, forms, and restrictions not lo l)e 
 deimrlt'd from. Il is evident, therefore, lliat the de- 
 siu'n of the franier; of the Constitution was not to in- 
 vest tlie Pivsident with jHiwers ovit the army in any 
 deu'ive parallel with powers i)os.ses.sed liy the King of 
 Great Britain over the British army, whose prcroij^a- 
 tive emhnices the o'liiiii-iiiil and f/itr<riiii><'i>l of all 
 forces niisi'd and niainl;iined liy him with the consent 
 of Parliament: but their purpose, on the contrary, 
 was to iriiard in all possible way.s aiif.u'nst executive 
 usurpation bv leaving with Voiigrens the control of 
 the Federjil "forces which it iios.sc.s.scd under the 
 Articles of the Confederation, and at the same lime to 
 strengthen the lowers of Congress by giving thai 
 boilv an imrestricled right lo raisf arniies, provided 
 appropriations for Ihiir support should not extend 
 Ix'Voiid two years. Thi' eoniniaiid of tlie army and 
 navy and militia called into service, subject to such 
 rules for tlieir government and regidal ion as Congress 
 may make, was given by the Constitution to the 
 President; but the power of making rules of govern- 
 ment and regulation is in reality that of Supreme 
 Command, and hence the President, lo use the lan- 
 guage of the Ftdt raliKt, in his relation to the army 
 anil navy, is nothing more than the " First General ami 
 Athiiiia'l of On' C'liifeeleran/; " or the first officer of the 
 military hierarchy with functions a.s.signed by Con- 
 gress, "a curious example of this eontemporuneous 
 constniction of the Constitution is found in a letter 
 from Sedgwick to Hamilton. Congress, in raising a 
 provisional array in IT'.tS. created the office of Com- 
 mander of the Army with the title of LieiiUuant 
 Oemral. A year subseiiuintly a provision was made 
 by law for changing this title to tliat of General. This 
 last provision gave great offense to Mr. Adamij, then 
 President, who considered it as an evidence of the de- 
 sire of Congress lo make " A General orer the Preai- 
 ilenl." So strangely was he po.s,sessed with this idea 
 that he never commissioned Wasliington as General, 
 but the latter died in his office of l.ieiittnant Gi neral; 
 the President evidently thinking that the title of Gen- 
 eral conveyed a signiticancy which liclonged to the 
 President alone, although the Commander of the Army 
 might in his opinion very properly take the title of 
 LUiitenant General, and thus have his subordination 
 to the Comniander-in-t'hicf of the army and navy 
 and militia clearly indicated. It is plain, therefore, no 
 less from the appointment by the Constitution of the 
 Prrsiilent as Commander-in-Chief, than from all con- 
 tcmnoraneoiis construction, that his fimclions in re- 
 spect lo the army are those of First General of the 
 United States, and in no degree derived from his 
 |X)wers as First Civil Magistrate of the I'nion. The 
 advocates of Executive Discretion over the army must 
 therefore seek for lhi> Pre.sident's autliorily in his 
 nnlitarv capacity, restrained as lliat is l)y the ]iowers 
 gmnleil to Congress, which embrace the laising, sui)- 
 jMirt, government, and regulation of armies; for there 
 can be no limitation of that authority which is to 
 provide for the defense and protection of the com- 
 munity, in any matter e.s.sential to its efficacy; that is, 
 in any matter essential to the farnailnm, ' dirertiim , 
 or r.-jniHirt of tin: National Forces. After the fore- 
 going investigation of the luucstricted power of Con- 
 gress in res|(ecl lo the army, mre onli/ in the appoint- 
 meni of the head of all the national foreeii, naral and 
 militart/, il will be plain that the 2(1 Section of the 
 Constitution, in giving lo the President the nomina- 
 tion and appointment, by and with the advice and 
 const'nt of the Senate, of all other oftiefm of the United 
 States irhow aojutintinentH are not herein otherwise 
 prorided far, ej-eli/di's officers of the arm v and navy. 
 riic power of raising arnnes an<l making rules for 
 their govcrnraent and regulation necessarily involves 
 
 the power of making rules of appointment, promotion, 
 reward, and punishment, and is therefore a pro\ision 
 in the Constitution otherwise providing for the ap- 
 pointment of officers of the land and naval forces. So 
 true is this that the principle has been acted on from 
 the foundation of the Government. Laws have bi-cn 
 pa.ssi'd giving to general and other officers the appoint- 
 ment of certain inferior officers. In other citses the 
 President has been confined by Congress, in his selec- 
 tion for certain offices in tlie army, to particular 
 classes. Again, rules have been made by Congress 
 for the promotion of officers, another form of appoint- 
 ment; and in 18-4() an army of volunteers was raised 
 by Congress, the officers of wliich the Acts of Congress 
 directed should be appointed according to the laws of 
 the States in which the Iroojis were raised, excepting 
 the Genertil Officers for thosi- troops, who were to be 
 appointed by the President and Senate — a clear recog- 
 nition that the troops thus raised by Congress were 
 United Stales troops and not militia. It is certainly 
 true that the military legislation of the country hsis 
 for long years vested a large discretion in the Presi- 
 dent in respect to appointments and other matters 
 concerning the army; Imt it may well be asked whether 
 tixed rules of apiiointments and promotion which 
 woidd prevent the exercise of favoritism by the Ex- 
 ecutive might not, with the greatest advantage to the 
 army and the countiy, be adopted by Congress? 
 Military prejudices are not only inseparable from, 
 but they are essential to, the military profession. The 
 govermnent which desires to have a satisfied and use- 
 ful army must consult them. They cannot be molded 
 at its pleasure; it is vain to aim at it. These are 
 maxims which sliould lead Congress to the adoption 
 of rules of appointment and promotion in the armj' 
 which would )nevent all outrages to the just pride of 
 officers of llie army. The organization of every new 
 regiment, where the aiijiointment of the officers has 
 been left to Executive {)iscretion, shows that, if the 
 desue has been felt in Ihat (juarter to cherish or cul- 
 tivate pride of profession among the officers of the 
 army, the feeling has been repressed by other con- 
 siderations. -Ml pride of rank has been so far crushed 
 by this system of Executive Discretion that il is ap- 
 parent, it' Congress cannot provide a better rule for 
 the government and regulation of the army, a gene- 
 rous rivalry in distinguished services mu.st be super- 
 seded by political activity. Hulesof appointment and 
 promotion limiting the discretion of the President, 
 and at the same time giWiig effect to opinions in the 
 army, might easily l>e devised; or borrowed from 
 existing ndes in the French army, which, without 
 ignoring the important principle of seniority, would 
 at tlie same time afford scopi' and verge for rewards 
 for distinguished services. No army can be kept in 
 war in tlie highest vigor and etficienej' without re- 
 wards for distinguished activity, and the appointment 
 of Todleben at the siege of Sebastopol shows how far 
 almost superhuman efforts may be prompted by in- 
 vesting a C'ommaiiiler in the tielcl with the power of 
 selccling his immediate assistants. Colonels of regi- 
 ments with us now erercise this authority in-selecting 
 Regimental Adjutants and Quartermasters. Why 
 should not the same trust be repo.sed in Commanding 
 Generals of Departments, Brigades, Divisions, and 
 Armies'/ And why should not all necessary restric- 
 tions (such as those in operation in the French armies) 
 be put upon the President in making promotions for 
 distinguished services, and also in original appoint- 
 ments, in oilier to secure justice to the army, and 
 thsreby promot<' the best interest-s of the coimtry? 
 See Artirhs of War. 
 
 CONSULATE.— This supreme magistracy of the 
 French Republic was established after the Revolu- 
 tion of the ISth Brumaire, and lasted to the Coro- 
 nation of Napoleon. On the sudden overthrow of 
 the Directory with the Coiislittiiion of the year III., 
 the members of the Council of the Ancients and the 
 Five liundred, or rather tho.se of them who approved 
 of, or submitted to, that act of violence on the part
 
 CONTACT-LEVEL. 
 
 395 
 
 CONTEMPT OF COUKT, 
 
 of Bonaparte's grenadiers, appointed three Consuls — 
 Sieyes, Bonaparte, and Roger Ducos. This approach 
 to a monarchical govcrnniint was confirmed, Decem- 
 Ixr 13, 1799, by the Constitution of the year VIII., by 
 which Bonaparte was made First Consul, with Cam- 
 baceres and Lebrun as second and third; each was 
 elected for ten years, and was re-eligible. The pow- 
 ers of the First Consul were made almost absolute. 
 He promulgated the laws, appointed or dismissed 
 Jlinisters, A.mba.s.sjidors, Members of the Council of 
 State, -Mililarj' and Naval Officers, and all Civil and 
 Criminal .Judges, except Justices of Peace and mem- 
 liere of the Court of Cas.s;ition. Ilis income was 
 li.xed at .500,000 fnuRS, and that of his inferior col- 
 leagues at l.iO,000 francs each. Bonaparte took up 
 his residence at the Tuileries, and held a splendid 
 Court. By Kesolutions of the Senate, in May, 1802, 
 Bonaparte was re-elected for ten additional years, and 
 in August of the same year was made First Consul 
 for life. In the appeal made to the nation, out of 
 3,577,3.i9 votes, 3,.')68,885 were in favor of Bonaparte. 
 The adulation of the Senate and people now knew no 
 limit. Nothing but the imperial name and insignia 
 were wanting to complete the picture of absolutism, 
 and these were suiiplied May 18, 1804, when Napo- 
 leon was made Emperor. 
 
 CONTACT-LEVEL.— A valuable adaptation of the 
 spirit-level for the production of exact di\isions of 
 scales, and generally for the determination of very 
 minute ditferences of length. The device consists of 
 a very delicate level pivoted at its middle and across 
 its length, with a small tilt-weight at one end, which 
 tips always in one direction. From the center of 
 the level downward, a short rigid arm extends with 
 a plain polished surface perpehdioilar to the chord 
 of the level, and against which the contact is made. 
 The carrier of this an-angement is either fixed, or 
 mounted on a slide governed by a micrometer-screw. 
 If now the end of a rod terminating in a hardened 
 steel point be moved along horizontally till it bears 
 against the contact-ann, the level will gradually as- 
 sume the horizontal position, and the movement of 
 the bubble as indicated by the scale upon the gla.ss 
 will depend upon the relalion between the radius to 
 which the level-tube is ground and the length of the 
 contact-lever. If the latter is A an inch long, and the 
 radius of the glass tube is 400 feet (levels for astro- 
 nomiciil puqioses are ground to a sweep of 800 and 
 1000 feet radiu.s), we have the relation between the 
 lever and radius as 1 is to 9600; and as -.J^ of an inch 
 can readily be read from the level-scale, ^ptuVini "f '>" 
 inch will be the difference in length which eacli divi- 
 sion on such a .scale indicates. When it is remem- 
 bered that such a determination of length can be re- 
 ]>cated indefinitely, and that the readings are made 
 without the aid of a magiiifyingglass or artificial 
 illumination, the perfection and beauty of the method 
 will be ap|)reciateil. 
 
 CONTACT-SLIDE BASE APPAEATUS.— This per- 
 fected apjiaratus, designed by Piofc.ssor.J. E. Hilgard, 
 Superinlenelent of the United Slates Coast Survey, and 
 represented on jjage 396, consists of two measuring- 
 bars 4 meters long, exactly alike, and supported on 
 trestles. The measurement is made by bringing these 
 bars successively in contact, which is ettcctcd by 
 means of a screw motion and defined by the coinci- 
 dence of lines on the rod and contact-slide. Each 
 bar consists of two jiieces of wood about 8 by 14 cm. 
 square and a little less than 4 meters long, firmly 
 screwed together. Between the pieces of wood is a 
 brass frame carrying three rollers, on the central one 
 of which rests a steel rod about 8 mm. in diameter. 
 On each side there is a zinc lube 9 mm. in diameter. 
 The rod and tulK-s are supported throughout their 
 length on similar systems of rollers. The zinc tubes 
 form with the steel rod a metallic differential ther- 
 mometer, and are so arranged that one tube is secured 
 to one end of the rod, being free to expand in the 
 other direction, the other tube' being in a like manner 
 fastened to the other end of the rod. The zinc tubes, 
 
 therefore, with any change of temperature, expand 
 or contract in opjiosing directions, and the amount 
 by which the expansion of the zinc exceeds that of 
 the steel is measured by a fine scide attached to the 
 rod, while the zinc tulK' carries a correspondin'' ver- 
 nier. The cut shows this arrangement, which is 
 identical on l)oth ends of the bars; a perforation in 
 the wood of the bar allows this scale to be read. In 
 addition to these metallic thermometers a mercurial 
 thermometer is attached to the bar aliout midway of 
 its length. The rods and tubes thus forming a united 
 whole are lengthwise movable on the rollers by means 
 of a milled nut working in threads cut on the steel 
 rod, which passes through a circular opening in the 
 brass plate screwed to the wooden bar, and against 
 which the nut presses. Two strong spiral spri ugs pull 
 the rods back, and the nut is always pressed against 
 the plate. One end of the rod is defined by a plain 
 agate securely fastened to it; the other end carries the 
 contact-slide, having an agate with a horizontal knife- 
 edge. This slide is a short tube, fitting over the end 
 of the rod, and inished outward bj- a spiral spring. 
 A slot in the tube shows an index-plate, with a ruled 
 line fjistened to the rod. To align the bars properly 
 a small telescope is placed on each bar, and can be 
 adjusted to bring the line of collimation over the axis 
 of the rod. The trestle, shown in the upper left-hand 
 corner of the illustration, consists of a strong tripod- 
 stand, carrying a frame with two upright guides for 
 two cross-.slides, which are separated by a movable 
 wedge. These cross-slides can be clamped in any 
 position. By moving the wedge, the bar resting be- 
 tween the uprights is either elevated or depressed. 
 To obtain smooth movements, friction-rollers are pro- 
 vided. To move the bars sideways, a coarse screw 
 takes hold of a projectitm on the lower side of the bar, 
 by turning which the bar can be moved laterally. 
 There are three pairs of trestles, alike in constniction 
 with the exception lh;il the upi^cr slide of the trestle 
 intended for the forward end of the bar carries a roll- 
 er on which the bar rests, while the other has a fixed 
 semi-cylindrical surface for the support of the bar. In 
 making the measurement, the bars being four meters 
 in length, the stands are .set up at distances of two 
 meters, each bar being supported at one fourth its 
 length from the ends, as indicated by the painted 
 black bands. Each bar has a sector with level alidade 
 attached to one side, by which its inclination can be 
 read off to single minutes. 
 
 CONTEMPT.— Any oflicer or soldier who shall use 
 contemptuous or disrespectful words against the 
 President of the United States, the Vice-President, 
 against the Congress of the United States, or against 
 the Chief Magistrate or Legislature of any of the 
 United Sttiles in which he may be quartered, shall 
 be ptmished as a Court-JIartial shall direct. Any 
 officer or soldier who shall behave himself with con- 
 tempt or disrespect towards his Comm:mding Officer 
 shall be punished by the judgment of a Court-JIartial. 
 No person whatsoever shall use anj- menacing words, 
 signs, or gestures in presence of a Court Martial, or 
 shall cause any riot or disorder, or disturb their pro- 
 ceedings, on the penalty of being punished at the 
 discretion of the sjiid Court-M&rlial. Contempts thus 
 rendered summarily punishable by Court.s-Martial are 
 of public and self-evident kind, not depending on any 
 interpretation of law adinitthig explanation or re- 
 quiring further investigation. Courts-Mai tial some- 
 times act on this power. At other times individuals 
 so offending are placed in arrest, and charts are 
 preferred for trial. A Regimental Court-SIartial may 
 punish summarily, but are not competent to award 
 punishment to Commissioned Officers. A Regimented 
 Court-Martial in such ca.ses would impose- arrest. 
 Citizens. nc)t soldiers, would Ix; removed from Court. 
 
 CONTEMPT OF COOKT. — There is probably no 
 country in which Courts of Law are not furnished with 
 the means of vindicating their authority and preserv- 
 ing their dignity by calling in the aid of the executive, 
 in certain circumstances, without tlie formalities usu-
 
 COKTEHPT OF COUET. 
 
 396 
 
 CONTEMPT OF COURT. 
 
 ally attending a trial and sentence.. Of this, the 
 simplesl iiislauie is wlieif a Jmlge orders tlio police 
 to I'uforcc silcmc. or to dear the Court. Contempts 
 J>y resisting the process of a Court arc in Eiiglaiul 
 
 like, has been an offense at common law in England 
 of the hisrhest kind since the times of the Anglo- 
 iSaxons ; iind in Scotland it is a statutory offense, 
 punislial)lc either capitally or by very severe arbitrary 
 
 puni.shed by altaclimcnt; conlenipt.s done in tlie face 
 of the Court, by directly obatruclinL' its procoedinjrs, 
 mav be visited 'wiib commitment and tine. Striking 
 a Supreme Judge in the discharge of his duty, or 
 even threatening him by drawing a weapon, or the 
 
 pains. Tn the latler country minor contempts are 
 pimishable arbitrarily, either ex proprio motti of the 
 Court, where the offense has come under its imme- 
 diate observation, or by a summary complaint at the 
 instance of the public prosecutor, where, though not
 
 CONTEST. 
 
 397 
 
 CONTKACTION. 
 
 committed in the immediate presence of the Court, it 
 has relation to a matter whicli is, or lias been recently, 
 in ilependence before it. See dniti nipt. 
 
 CONTEST.— An earnest struggle for superiority, de- 
 fense, ortlielike; strife in arms. In a strictly military 
 .sense, to struggle to defend; as, the troops contested 
 every inch of ground. 
 
 CONTINENTAL.— A term intended as the opposite 
 of Provincial, assumed by the revolted Ameiican Col- 
 onies early in the War of the Revolution, an effort 
 being made to induce Canada to join the Thirteen 
 Colonies. Had the Canadians agreed, the whole of 
 the Continent under English rule would have been 
 in revolt. The first general representative body of 
 the Thirteen Colonies was called the Contiiwntal Con- 
 gress. See Cimgress. 
 
 CONTINGENT.— 1. The quota of troops furnished 
 to the conmion army by each member of an Alliance 
 or Confederation of States. The word was especially 
 applied to the proportions contributed by the .several 
 German States to the Army of the Confederation, 
 which has given place to the Empire. — 2. In the 
 British ser\ice, the sum paid monthly to each Captain 
 of a troop, company, or battery to defray the expense 
 of stationery, the care of amis, and other minor de- 
 mands. 
 
 CONTINUED LINES.— There are two classes of 
 lines — condiiiu'd lines and lines irit/t internals. Con- 
 tinued lines present no openings through which the 
 enemy can penetrate except the ordinary outlets. 
 Lines with intervals consist of detached works, which 
 are inclosed partly, or entirely, throughout their 
 ])erimeters, arrangeil in defensive relations with each 
 other, and presenting wide intervals between them 
 defended only by their tire. The same general prin- 
 ciples apply to lines as to other field-works; but from 
 their great e.vtent they usuallj" receive a slight relief, 
 and the shuplest angidar figrucs are adopted for their 
 plan. In laying them out, the Engineer should avail 
 jiimself of all the natural features presented by the 
 I)o.sition, so as to diminish the labor of erecting artifi- 
 cial ones. See Lines. 
 
 CONTLINE.— The space between the strands on the 
 outside of a rope. In worming, this space is filled up 
 with .spun yarn or small rope, which brings the rope 
 thus treated to a nearly C3iindrical shape, either to 
 strengthen it or to render the surface smooth and 
 fair for serving or pa reeling. See Corehige. 
 
 CONTOISE.— A llowing scarf worn with the earliest 
 crests attached to the helm. It gave way to the 
 muniling. 
 
 CONTOURING.— A tcmi applied to the oiitline of 
 any figure, and consequently to that of any .section of 
 a solid body; but when used professionally in connec- 
 tion with the forms of ground or of works of defense, 
 the outline of a horizontal section of the ground or 
 works is alone to be imderstood by it. 
 
 CONTRABAND OF WAR.— A name applied to cer- 
 tain commodities, or the rules relating to them, during 
 hostilities between States which acknowledge what 
 are called the Laws of Nations. One such law is thai 
 neutral Nations must not caiTy on, for the ailvaiilage 
 of either of the belligerent powers, any branches of 
 commerce from which they are excluded in time of 
 peace. Another is that the name of Contraband of 
 War shall be given to such articles as jiertain to mili- 
 tary or naval warfare — guns, amnumition, and stores 
 of all kinds. Uidess there are special treaties, dclin- 
 ing exactly what articles are contraband of war, the 
 interpretation of this law often leads to much embar- 
 rassment. Another law insisted on by England dur- 
 ing the last great war was that each belligerent shall 
 have a right to visit and examine neutral ships, to see 
 whether they carry any articles which are contraband 
 of war, and which seem likely to be intended for the 
 enemy. A neutral State may carry on ordinary trade 
 with either belligerent, except when pievcnted by 
 blockade; but the .ships, according to the above i-ules, 
 must not contain articles contraband of war; nor must 
 a conterminous land-frontier be crosseil by such com- 
 
 modities. If afmerchant evades these rules, he does 
 so at his own risk; his merchandi.se may Ix- seized, 
 and his own Government will not protect him. By 
 the law and practice of Nations it is for the xVdmi- 
 ralty Court of the capturing power to decide what is 
 or what is not contraband (if war. Upon such ques- 
 tions it is the province of this Tribunal to adjudicate;, 
 and from its tiuixl judgment there is no appeal. At 
 various times discus-sions have arisen whether corn, 
 hay, or coal can ever be included in the list of articles 
 contraband of war ; they are manifestly articles of 
 peaceful commerce, but they are also essential to the 
 maintenance of an army, and sometimes a supply 
 woidd give one belligerent a great advantage over the 
 other. Especially is this the case in reference to coal, 
 in the present age of war-steamers. — Contraband in 
 commerce depends, however, upon the special laws 
 of each country. 
 
 CONTRACTION.— 1. The state of being drawn into a 
 narrow compass, or cf becoming smaller. In horses' 
 feet it is brought on from bad shoeing, hot stables, 
 or confinement. The foot becomes oblong instead of 
 round. The remedy to be applied should be thin sole 
 and quarters, and the feet kept moist; also tips or 
 spring .shoes, tar or hoof ointment. 
 
 2. All solid bodies contract their size in the operation 
 of cooling. It follows, therefore, that if the different 
 parts of a body cool unequally they will contract un- 
 equally, and the body will change form, provided it be 
 not restrained by the presence of a suiJerior force; if 
 it be so restrained, the contractile force will diminish 
 the adhesion of parts by an amount which depends 
 on the rate of cooling of the different parts, and the con- 
 tractibilitj'of the metal. This is an important consider 
 ation in estimating the strength and endurance of 
 cannon, particularly those made of cast-iron, as will 
 be seen by examining the form of the casting ami the 
 method of cooling it. The general form of the casting 
 is that of a solid frustum of a cone; it is therefore 
 cooled from the exterior, which causes the thin outer 
 lajer to contract first, and force the hotter and more 
 yielding metal within toward the opening of the mold. 
 Following this, the adjacent layer cools and tends to 
 contract ; but the exterior layer, to which it coheres, 
 has become partially rigid, and does not fully yield 
 to the contraction of the inner layer. The result is, 
 the cohesion of the particles of the inner layer is 
 diminished by a force of extension, and that of the 
 outer layer increased by a force of compression. As 
 the cooling continues. Ibis operation is repeated until 
 the whole mass is brought to a imifonn temperature; 
 and the straining force is increased to an extent which 
 depends on the .size and form of the mass, the rapid- 
 ity with which it is cooled, and the contractibility of 
 llie particular metal used. All cannon, therefore, 
 that are ci.oled from the exterior are affected by two 
 straining forces — the outer portion of the metal being 
 conipre.s.sed, and the interior extended, in proportion 
 to their distances from the neutral arts, or line com- 
 [losed of particles which are neither extended nor 
 compressed by the cooling process. 
 
 The cfTect of this unequal contraction may be so 
 great as to crack the interior metal of cast-iron cannon, 
 even before it has been subjected to the force of gun- 
 powder; and chilled rollers, which are cooled very 
 rapidly by easting them in iron molds, have been 
 known to split open longitudinally, from no other 
 cause than the enormous strains to which they are 
 thus subjected. The strain produced by the action of 
 a centnd force, as gunpowder acting in a cannon, is 
 not distributed equally over the thickness of metjd. 
 Barlow shows that it (iiminis/ies as the square of the 
 distance from the center increases. It follows from 
 this thatthe sides of a cannon arc not rent asunder as 
 by a simple tensile force, but they are torn apart like 
 a" piece of cloth, commencing at the surface of ihe 
 bore. This is contiimed by ex-perience; for Ihe inner 
 jioiliou of the fractured suVface of a ruptured gun is 
 found to be stained with the smoke of the powder, 
 while the outer portion is untouched by it. It will
 
 CONTRACTS. 
 
 398 
 
 CONTRACTS. 
 
 Ihu-i Ik- stTn that the effect of (mliiiary.eooling is todi- 
 iiiiui><h the stn^nsitli :mil lianlius.; of lUc metal of can- 
 iioii at or near a iK>im where llie greatest streiiirth ami 
 lianlius.1 an> re<iuireU. i.e., at the surface of the tore. 
 The strains priKlueeil bv un«|Ual cooling increase 
 with the diameter of the ciustiiig ami the irregularity 
 of it.s fonii. Tliis explains tlie great dilticulty which 
 is iiict)untere<l in inuUiug large castin)!! camion pro- 
 portionallv as stroni: as small ones; and also how it 
 is that projections like Imnds. moldings, etc., injure 
 the strength of cannon. It also explains why cannon 
 made of" higir cast-iron, or ca-st-iron made more 
 tenacious bv partial decarboni/ation, are not so strong 
 as cannon inaile of weaker iron; for it is well known 
 that such iron contracts more than the latter in cool- 
 iii" and therefore produces a greater strain of exten 
 sion on the surface of the bore. The foregoing con- 
 sidenilioMS led Captain Hodman to propose a plan for i 
 cooling cannon from the interior, hoping thereby to 
 reverse the stnuiis produced by external cooling, and 
 make them contribute to the endurance rather than 
 to U)c injury of the piece. The method employed is 
 to carrj- off" the internal heat by passing a stream of 
 water through a hollow core, inserted in the center of 
 the moUlcaVitv before casting, and to surround the 
 flask with a inass of burning coals to prevent too 
 rapid radiation from the exterior. Extensive trials 
 have been made to test the merits of this plan; and 
 the results show that cast-iron cannon made by it are 
 not only stronger but are less liable to enlargement of 
 the bore from continued tiring. Indications were 
 shown, however, in the.se and in other trials, that the 
 strains produced bv unequal cooling are modified by 
 time, which probably allows the particles to accom- 
 modate themselves, to a certain extent, to their con- 
 strained position, as in the case of a bent spring or 
 hoop. Sec Cooling. 
 
 CONTRACTS.— All purcba.scs and contracts for sup- 
 plies or scrN-ices fur the military and naval service 
 are made by or under the direction of the chief offi- 
 cers of the'Departments of War and of the Navy, re- 
 spectively. And all agents or contractors for supplies 
 or services as aforesiiid render their accounts for set- 
 tlement to the accountant of the proper department 
 for -which such supplies or services are required, sub- 
 ject, nevertheless, to the ins])cction and revision of 
 the officers of the Trejusury. Contracts for subsist- 
 ence supplies for the army, made by the Commis- 
 sary General, on public notice, proWde for a complete 
 delivery of .such articles, on inspection, at such places 
 as shall l)e stipulated. The Quartermaster's Depart- 
 ment of the Army, in obtaining supplies for the mili- 
 tary service, states in all advertisements for bids for 
 contracts that a preference shall be given to articles 
 of domestic production and manufacture, conditions 
 of price and quality being equal, and that such pref- 
 erence shall be given to articles of American produc- 
 tion and maiuifacture pro<hued on the Pacific coast, 
 to the extent of the consumption required by the 
 public service there. In advertising for army sup- 
 plies the Quartermaster's Department requires all 
 articles which are to be u.si'd in the States and Terri- 
 tories of the Pacific coast to be delivered and inspect- 
 ed at points designated in those States and Territories; 
 and the ailvertisements for such sujiplies are pub- 
 lished in newspapers of the cities of San Francisco, 
 in California, and Portland, in Oregon. Contract.s 
 are not made at posts unloKs specially ordered, and 
 are not so ordered unless the stores rei|uired can be 
 prcKaircd at such posts as economically as if sent from 
 other markets or from depots; and all such contracts 
 are made out in the name of and signed by the chief 
 officer of that branch of the Staff of the command to 
 which they pertain. Whenever practicable, con- 
 tract.s for supplyinu military posts with fuel, foRige, 
 straw, etc.. provide fordclivery. monllily, of tlie quan- 
 tities required each month, in order to avoid unneces- 
 sary accumulation of propcily at posts, and to dis- 
 triljute expenditure therefor throughout the year, and 
 to prevent risk of great loss by tire or other cause. 
 
 Except in the rare ca.scs where the United States 
 may elect to exercise its reserved right to reject pro- 
 posals, contracts are awarded to the lowest respon- 
 sible bonn-fidt' bidder, who, when reciuired, produces 
 a proper article, and whose proposd therefor is not 
 unreasonable in amount. The following is the Fonii 
 of a General Contract: 
 
 Articles of apri-ement enteral Into this day of , 
 
 eigliteiMi liuudred ami , between , Unlt*d 
 
 States Arniv, nf tlie first port, and , of tlie county 
 
 of , State of , lit the second part: This aereemeut wit- 
 
 nessetli. Tliat the said , for and in behalf of the 
 
 L'nited States of .\nieriea. and the said , for 
 
 ^ lieirs, executors, and adiuiuistrators, have mutu- 
 ally agreed, and by these presents ili> mutuiilly covenant and 
 afti-ee, to and with" each oilier, as follows, viz.: [Uere give the 
 name of the contractor, and state wliat he agrees to do by 
 introducing in succ-ession those aiticles of the agreemenl 
 which detlue his duties; such, for instance, as fix the place 
 and date of dehverv ot ilie supjilies or ijerformanee of the 
 services; as give the (|iiaiitily. iiuulity. and ilescription of the 
 supplies to l)e furnished, character of Ilieir packages, etc.. or 
 nature of the service to be rendered; all in such detad as may 
 \ie requisite. Also here insert those articles wtiich relate to 
 terms of payment; the action to be taken tiy the United 
 States in case of failure or detlciency on the part of the con- 
 tractor- and anv other conditions which should l)e embodied 
 in a contract stipulating for the delivery of supplie-s or for 
 the |)erforinaiice ot a service. | No member ot or delegate to 
 Congress, nor any person l)elonging to. or employed in. the 
 militarv service o't the United States, is or shall be adimtted 
 to any share or part of this contract, or to any benefit which 
 may arise herefrom. [Hen' add. to nny contract mode irith 
 (III 'incorv'irated cohi/hdi v for it.i general benefit, the fnlloir- 
 iiio irorih, viz.: " But this xtipnlation. so far as it relates to 
 viemhersofor delegate.i to Coiiaress, is not to lie con.itrued 
 to e rtend to th is con tract."] This contract shall be subject to 
 approval of (a.ii"c the proper officer]. In witne-ss whereof, 
 the undersigned have hereunto placed their hands and seals 
 the date first herein before written. 
 Witnesses: 
 
 Approved: 
 
 Approved; 
 
 (Executed in quintupUcate.) 
 ,18-. 
 
 - Commanding . 
 
 ,18. 
 
 ■ Commanding ■ 
 
 I do solemnly swear that the foregoing is an exact copy of 
 
 a contract made bv me personally with ; that I 
 
 made the same fairly -nnthout any l>eneflt or advantage to 
 myself, or allowing any such benefit or advantage corruptly 
 
 to' the said '—, or any other person; and that the 
 
 papers accompanying include all those relating to the said 
 contract, as required by the statute in such case made and 
 provide<l. 
 
 » 
 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this day of , 
 
 eighteen hundred and . 
 
 Xo contract is entered into on the part of the 
 United States unless the contractor, upon the execu- 
 tion of the contract or as soon thereafter as practi- 
 cable, furnishes a bond iiccording to the form pre- 
 scribed. Execution ot bonds may be waived when 
 the contract involves no greater sum than five hun- 
 dred dollars in value. The amount of the penalty of 
 the contractor's bond is not less than one tenth of, nor 
 more than the full sum of, the total consideration of 
 1 the contract ; the amount to be fixed, in each ca.se, by 
 , the officer representing the United States. The Form 
 of the Contractor's Bond is as follows: 
 
 I Know aU men by these presents. That we rname of obligor], 
 of li-c^ideiice of oliligor. giving town, county. State, etc ]. as 
 
 1 principal, and I iinine of sureti/], ot \reside7ice of stiretu], and 
 f.miiir ../• sureliA. of {residence of suret)/]. as sureties, are 
 held anil lioiind unto the United States of America m the 
 
 penal sum of dollars, to the payment of which smn. well 
 
 and truly to be made, we do bind our.selvcs. our heirs execu- 
 
 I tors, anil administrators, jointly and severaUy, firmly by these 
 presents. . « iq 
 
 < Oiven under our hands and seals this day or - — , ii*— . 
 
 1 The condition of this obligation is such that, vv hereas tne 
 above- bounden | nam, „f ,,l,lii,<trl has, on the-—- day of ■, 
 
 : 18—. entered into a contract with InaiiK- and description or 
 offlcci-l, for [hereset forth in brief the subject of the contract]: 
 
 I Now, therefore, if the above-bounden [name of obligor],
 
 CONTRACT-SURGEONS. 
 
 399 
 
 CONTROL DEPARTMENT. 
 
 heirs, executors, and administrators, shall and will, in all re- 
 spects, dulv and fully ohserve and perform all and singular 
 the covenants, conditions, and agreements in and by the said 
 contract atcreeti and covenanted by to be ob- 
 served and performed, and according to the true intent and 
 meaniiiir <'t th*' said contract, and as well during any period 
 of extension of said contract that may be granted on the part 
 of the United .States as during the original term of the same, 
 then the above obligation shall be void and of do effect; other- 
 wLse to remain in fiUl force and virtue. 
 Witnesses; 
 
 . . IL. B. 
 
 L. B. 
 L. S. 
 
 (Executed in duplicate.) 
 
 Tbe sureties are to make and subscribe affidavits of 
 justification on the back of the bond; tbe sum in 
 which the}' jointly justify to be double the amount of 
 the penalty; the affidavit to be taken before any offi- 
 cial or person authorized or permitted by the laws of 
 the United States, State, Territory, or District, to ad- 
 minister oaths. 
 
 The justification is, if practicable, followed by the 
 certificate of a Judge of a United Stales Court or 
 United States District Attorney, or, in their absence, 
 by some other civil official of the United States, wlio 
 certifies that the sureties are known to him, and tliat, 
 to the best of his knowledge and belief, each is pecu- 
 niarily worlli, over and above all his debts and liabili- 
 ties, the sum stated in his affida\'it of justification. 
 But, if ncces.sary or more convenient, .separate certifi- 
 cates may be furnished as to each surety. See Pro- 
 posah. 
 
 CONTRACT SURGEONS.— In the United States ar- 
 my, these are physicians employed from civil life, at 
 a "specified compensation, to perform the duties re- 
 quired of Commissioned >Iedical Officers, when for 
 uny reason the numljer of the latter is insufficient. 
 AVhile they have no rank, they still have the allow- 
 ances of an Assistant Siu'geon, and are entitled to the 
 same protection in their positions, also to the same 
 respectful subordinate ctjinluct and to the same niili- 
 taiT courtesy from enlisted men, as if they were Com- 
 missioned Officers. They are placed in the position 
 of Commissioned Officers, so far as relates to their 
 duties as Surgeons, by the Grovemment. Surgeons 
 from ci\il life who tender their serrices for the liene- 
 fit of the sick and wounded in the field, luider the 
 inv-itatiou of the Secretary of War, are each allowed 
 transportation to and from the place where their ser- 
 vices may be needed, and, while so employed, the use 
 of a public horse, a tent, and the privilege of i)urcha.s- 
 ing subsistence stores from the Subsistence Depart- 
 ment. See Acting AsainUinf Sitrgeoiix. 
 
 CONTRAMURE'. — In fortification, a wall erected be- 
 fore another partition-wall to strengthen it, so that it 
 may receive no damage from the adjacent buildings. 
 CONTRAVALLATION.— A name .sometimes given 
 to a bell of field-works thrown up around and facing 
 the place invested, to render the besiegers secure 
 against surprise. See Cotintenallatioii. 
 
 CONTREFORTS.— Brick - work which is added to 
 the revetment of a rampart on the side of iLc terre- 
 plein, and which is equal to its height. CoiUreforts 
 are used to support the body of earth with which the 
 rampart is formed. They are likewi.sc used in the 
 revetments of counterscarps, in gorges, and demi- 
 gorges, and frequently form a part of the construc- 
 tion of the powder-magazines, which arc bomb-proof. 
 See Ctninltrfort. 
 
 CONTRIBUTION.— In a military scn.se, an imposi- 
 tion or tax levied on the people of a conqueied town 
 or country-. 
 
 CONTROL DEPARTMENT.— One of the Ci\il De- 
 partments of the British anny, having for its object 
 an efficient and economical control over the Depart- 
 ments it supervises. It may be .siiid without exag- 
 geration to be one of the most important Departments, 
 for on it depends the custody and supply of all stores, 
 whether of food or ammunition, the provision of 
 transport, etc. It takes the place of what was for- 
 merly the Commissiiriat Department, in addition to 
 other duties, such as were formerly in the hands of 
 
 the Quartermaster General. Without the thorough 
 efficiency of this Department no army can exist in 
 the field; failure would probably entail defeat and 
 all the disiisters attending such a calamitj-. We have 
 an instiince in the Franco-Prussian War of the disas- 
 ters likely to occur to an army who.se Commissariat 
 is unequal to the demands upon it. Take the ca-seof 
 the French army at Sedan, which, it is saiil, from 
 want of proper Commissariat arrangements, was one 
 of the causes that prevented it from effecting the re- 
 lief of Metz, and was consequejitly overwhelmed by 
 the Prussian army. The Control, as at present or- 
 ganized, is comparativelj- a new Department. The 
 historj- of its fomialion is to be foimd in the various 
 Blue Books on the subject, dating back to 1859; but 
 it was in the year 1870 that the Department was 
 consolidated, and divided into three administrative 
 ranks, namely : Controller's, ranking with a Major 
 General ; Deputy Controller's, ranking with a Col- 
 onel; Aiisistant Controller's, ranking with a Lieuten- 
 ant Colonel; and two Executive Sub-Departments — 
 (1) Supply and yrrtn-vpo/Y, which include the issue and 
 accoimt of stores and provisions, superintend and di- 
 rect all transport, officer and command the Army 
 Service Corps; and (2) Pny. For the mitnagement of 
 the Supply and Transport, three Commissaries arc 
 attached who command the Army Service Corps, and 
 who rank as follows : Commissjiry, with Major; 
 Deputy Commis.sarj', with Captain; A.ssistant Com- 
 niis,sary, with Lieutenant. For the duties of the Pay 
 Department there are three grades of officers, viz. , Pay- 
 master, Deputy Paymaster, and .tV-ssistant Paymaster, 
 ranking in the same position as stated for Commis- 
 Siiries. Firet appointments in the executive branches 
 of the Control Department are conferred on Ci\ilians 
 selected by competitive examination, or on Subalterns 
 of the army and well-deserving Non-commissioned 
 Officers. The limit of age is 17 to 'id for Ci\ilians, 22 
 for Subalterns of the army and militia. In the regula- 
 tions of 1870 for the Control, it will be found that the 
 first ten paragraphs relate to general duties of the De- 
 partment, and 11 to 18 lay down the duties of Control 
 Officers towards the General Officer Commanding. 
 These instructions show that the Control Officer is 
 independent of the General in Command, in being 
 able to communicate direct with the Secretary of 
 War — which means that the Control Department is 
 under the War Office, instead of the Commander-in- 
 Chief, which appears to be a mistake. On this point 
 most military men are in accord, and there is in 
 BUtrkirijod'K Magazine for October, 1874, a verj' good 
 article en the subject of the Control Department, 
 showing its unsuitiibleness, as at present constituted, 
 either for war or peace. The article is written by a 
 General Officer of gi-eat experience. General Lysons; 
 it is full of good sen.sc and militarj' knowledge, and 
 may In; taken as the view entertained by most mili- 
 tary men who have passed their lives in the field. A 
 return to the old organization of the Commi.ssariat 
 Department seems to be demanded, and will doubt- 
 less be reverted to ln'fore long: it was soimd and 
 good; it stood the test of years of practicsU experi- 
 ence; it giew under the hard hand of necessitv; it 
 carried the army through all the difficulties of the 
 Peninsular War, and led the troops to victories the 
 most brilliant in the annals of history. Many officers 
 think it unadvisable to mix up, in one Depart- 
 ment, supply, store, passage transport, and half a 
 dozen other things, each of which shovdd be a De- 
 partment of it.self. To crowd Department upon 
 Department under one head, and to expect efficiency, 
 is simply courting failure. On the formation of the 
 Control, the following separate branches of the army 
 were amalg-amated with it, viz.: Commi.ss;iri:it ; Bar- 
 racks; Military Stores; Purvevor's; Army Tr.insport 
 — then known as the Jlilitary Train, to which a large 
 number of civil and military employes were also at- 
 tached, dispersed in a varietj' of Sub-Departments, 
 ha\ing no connection with each other. The Control 
 Department is presided over by a Surveyor General
 
 CONTBOLLEB. 
 
 400 
 
 CONVERTED GURS. 
 
 of Onlnanco at the War Dfllct, who has uiuIct him a 
 Dirii-tor of Transport ami Siipjilics. iiiul a Director 
 (if >Iililarv Stores. The admiuistnilive branch con- 
 sists as is shown alwvc. 
 
 CONTBOLLEB.— Anoflicer whose duty it is to keep 
 tinancial aci-ounls, or to sec tliat they are properly 
 kept ami audited. In Ihe Lniled States Treasury De- 
 partment there an- the First and Second Controllers to 
 e.xamine accounts and sign drafts; and also a Con- 
 troller of the Currency, who furnishes circulating 
 notes to bjinks. In aiuie of the States, a.s New York, 
 a Controller is elecled by the pi'ople who has general 
 charge of the tinancial affairs of the State. There is 
 also a Controller in the city of New York, elected by 
 IHipular vote. In the Brili-sh service, the Controller 
 is the highest grade in the Control Department. He 
 ranks with a >Iajor General. 
 
 CONVALESCENT. — A.soldierdischarged from hos- 
 pital, but who is not strong enough to dohisdutv. 
 
 CONVALESCENT-HOSPITAL DEPOTS. — Encamp- 
 ments of huts or tents for Ihe reception of men dis- 
 charged from the genend hospital, and who retpiire 
 no longer medical allendanee, but at the .sjime lime 
 are not lit to join the ranks, from a want of strength. 
 Such depots relieve the general hospital, and are bet- 
 ter places for the convalescent thim a crowded sick- 
 room, as they are removed from a bad atmosphere, 
 and have consequently a favorable chance of gaining 
 strength. As regards hospitals, the Medical Depart- 
 ments is resjxinsible for the u.se of all stores, and for 
 timely requisitions, but the Control Department is 
 responsible for such stores being supplied. ^ i 
 
 CONVENTION.— An agreement entered mto by 
 troops which are opposi'd to one another, either for 
 the suspension of hostilities or the exchange of pri- 
 soners. See Truce'. 
 
 CONVEESION. — 1. A term used in ordnance no- 
 menclature when condemned stores are converted 
 or turned into use for other pur|ioscs. The term is 
 made use of when smoothbore guns are converted 
 into rifled gims. — 2. A change of front, as of a body 
 of troops attacked in the Hank. 
 
 CONVEETED GUNS.— A tenn applied to Cflst-iron 
 guns lined with w rouuht-iron or steel tubes. The 
 coils for the tubes are made entirely of wrought- 
 iron bars, specially prepare<I by iK-iiig put three times 
 through roughing-rolls ; puddled iron is hard and 
 brittle and is not by it.«elf suitable for guns. A suffi- 
 cient number of bars are piled or faggoted together to 
 form a bar of the size it is intended to roll. The pile, 
 comiwsed partly of puddled iron and ]iartly of scrap, | 
 the former being placed always on the outside, on 
 account of the more even surfaces, is raised to white 
 heat and rolled into a long bar alx)ut 24 feet long, 
 and varjing in section from 2i to 7 inches, according 
 to the purpose for which it is intended. It is then 
 cut into lengths, ag-ain faggoted, raised to a welding 
 heat and pa.s.sed between the rollei-s; one rolling may ' 
 be sufficient. The siction of the bar is slightly tra- 
 ]>ezoidal, m order that when the hot bar fs wound 
 round the mandrel, narrow side inward, the spread- 
 ii!g of the inside and the narrowing of the outside 
 may l)c neutralized, and no space left between the 
 folds of the coils. To weld the bars together, the 
 ends must be scarfed down and placed from opposite 
 sides in a furimce, from which, when they arrive at 
 a white heat, they are withdrawn and welded under ' 
 an adjacent steam-hammer, s;ind having been thrown ! 
 on the hot bars (as is indeed customary in the case of 
 all forgings) in order to clean the surface and prevent 
 scale forming, by converting the superticial oxide into 
 a li(iuid sillaite which will flow off of its own accord 
 or Ix' S(|ueezed out by the hammer. Another bar is 
 welded on in a similar maimer, and so on until a 
 sufficient length is obtained for the required coil. 
 
 The bar to be coiled, having Ihe ends flattened i 
 down, is placed on trestle rollers in front of a long ' 
 reverberatory furnace with a ctiiinney at the far en(l 
 and grates along its sides. A chain l>eing hooked 
 into an eye or hole in the end, the bar is drawn by 
 
 machinery into the furnace. When the bar arrives 
 at a brigh't-red heat, the end near the door is drawn 
 out by means of Ihe .sjime e^'c, iuid is attached to a 
 pin, this end being cooled with water to prevent it 
 tearing away with the weight of the bar; this pin is 
 connected with a slightly tapering iron roller or man- 
 drel flxeil aero.ss and in front of the door of the fur- 
 nance; Ihe mandrel tapers in order to facilitate the 
 removal of the tinished coil. The apparatus is then 
 put into gear, and the mandrel revolves, winding the 
 bar around it. During the process scales form l)e- 
 twcen the folds, but their effect is almost nullified by 
 subseqiunl healing and forging, sand being used to 
 assist in liqiiifying Ihe o.xide as stated above. When 
 the coil is fonneil, the lixed extremity is hammered 
 off the pin and water is poured on that end to cool it, 
 in order that the folds there may not be opened out 
 in taking off the coil. If the coil is large, a short 
 iron bar is placed with one end resting on the ground 
 and the other end agjunst the extremity which has 
 been removed from the ])in. The mandrel is then 
 turned in Ihe sjime direclion as that in which it re- 
 volved when the coil was being formed, and the coil, 
 being prevented from revolving by the iron prop, is 
 loosened and slips down toward the narrow end of 
 the mandrel. The mandrel is then lifted up by a 
 crane and the coil drops off. 
 
 For the welding, which, especially in tubes for lin- 
 ing guns, must be done wiUi great care, the coil is 
 placed \ipright in a reverberatory furnace, for were 
 it placed on its side it should be turned over in or- 
 der to be equally heated all through, and moreover 
 drippings from the lire-brick which line the furnaec 
 would probably drop from the roof in Iwtwcen the 
 folds. The tuiie being intended for an inner one, two 
 furnaces have to be used; one is at a low temperature, 
 (termed a blue light), and when the coil arrives at a 
 red heat it is brought out and transferred to the other, 
 where it is brought to a welding heat. This is foimd 
 to be more economical than by placing the cold coil 
 at once into a verj- hot furnace, and also prevents any 
 injury to the iron which would result from so doing. 
 In all cases of welding it is necessary not only to 
 strike while the iron is hot, but that the surfaces to 
 Ix' joined should be perfectly clean; the while hot 
 coil is therefore transferred from the furnace to the 
 steamhanuner as quickly as possible, not neglecting 
 to throw sand upon it. The coil is first placed verti- 
 cally under the hammer, and receives a few smart 
 blows to weld Ihe folds; it is then thrown on its side, 
 and being gradually tm-ned, is hammered (or jiatted) 
 all round to straighten it. It is then raised vertically 
 again and a punch or maiulrel rather over half the 
 length and a little larger than the interior diameter of 
 the coil is hammered down its own length; the coil 
 is next placed on its side and hammered round, that 
 half of its length thus being made very compact and 
 large enough to let the mandrel fall out; after this the 
 coil is again raised vertically, and the mandrel is 
 forced in the opposite end, and the process repeated. 
 The mandrels are of coiled iron and very hard. The 
 rea.son why a long nianilrel is not forced through the 
 whole length of" the coil is that it would tend to 
 separate the folds. 
 
 The coil is replaced in the furnace for a second 
 heating, and much Ihe sjune process is followed to 
 render the ring more consolidated as well as more 
 shapely; a tine mandrel is also used to make the in- 
 terior more ixrfecl; and in order lo prevent the tube 
 from being l)ell-moullied, a flexible .steel bar is used 
 under the hanuner lo flatten the ends. Before the 
 coil is removed from the hammer, water is thrown 
 over it, which, forminginto steam, blowsoffthe black 
 scales and shreds where the work is good, but a black 
 spot is left l)y the water if there is a bad part. In 
 order to form lining-lubes, several of these coils have 
 to be united. To weld them together, Ihe coils have 
 to be faced (turned smooth at the ends) and recipro- 
 cally reces.sed; that is, a projection (spigot) is formed 
 at one end of a coil, while a recess (faucet) is bored in
 
 C0N7EBTED GUNS. 
 
 401 
 
 CONVESTED GUNS. 
 
 the corresponding end of another coil. The height of 
 tlie shoulder is a little greater than the depth of the 
 recess, in order that a close joint inav be obtained on 
 the interior. The recess is then expanded by heat 
 and .shrunk over the projection, so that the two coils 
 are attached securely enough together to admit of 
 their being put into the furnace for welding. For 
 the inner barrel, which is intended fo lie the entire 
 length of the bore, the tube is put crossways through 
 a furniinee so constructed that intense heal acts on 
 the joint while the remote ends project out.side. 
 When the joint arrives at a welding lieat, a stout 
 iron bar is pa.ssed right through the tube; this bar is 
 keyed at one end, and by means of a screw-nut, 
 worked by a long lever at the other end, the two coils 
 are pressed and thus welded together. This pre.ss\ne 
 slightly bulges the metal at the junction, so it must 
 be straightened under a steam-hammer. Another 
 coil is then added on in a similar manner, and .so on 
 until tie tube is of the required length. 
 
 The tube, if for an 8-inch ritle, after having it.s 
 neces.sary length, is then rough and tine bored to 
 about 7.92 inches diameter, and the recess in the 
 breech cut and tapped for the wrought-iron cup. 
 The cup for closing the breech-end of the barrel is 
 forged and stamjjed into shape under the steam-ham- 
 mer. It is turned inside and outside, and furnished 
 on the outside with a thread of four or live to the 
 inch. It is then screwed tightly home. The tube in 
 this stiite is proved with water-pressure of 130 pounds 
 to the square inch, to ascertain that the cup tits tightly 
 and that there is no leakage. The Ijreech-end of the 
 A tube is then turned over a length of 40 inches for 
 
 t^m^^m^ 
 
 amount of extension, in fact, as that due to its elastic 
 limit or pressure of 12 tons to the square inch of 
 section). Therefore it is not neces.sarv to have more 
 than 500 F., which will allow a good working mar- 
 gin. With respect to the mode of cooling during the 
 process of shrinking, care must be taken to prevent a 
 long coil or tube cooling .simultaneously at both ends, 
 for this would cause the middle portion to be drawii 
 out to an undue .state of longitudinal tension. There- 
 fore, in some cases, water is projected on one end of 
 a coil so as to cool it tirst. In order to prevent the 
 expansion of the inner tube, thus obstructing or re- 
 tarding the operation of cooling, water is circulated 
 through the interior by means of the usual supply- 
 pipe and siphon. In the manufacture of these tubes, 
 samples of each week's work are tested for tensile 
 strength and elasticity, and usually with most favor- 
 able results; the stretching weight being about 13 
 tons, and the breaking-weight 23 tons, per square 
 inch. 
 
 Before inserting the coiled wrought-iron barrels, 
 the cast iron gun should be bored out to the required 
 size and the bore afterwards carefully ad lusted by 
 lapping with leaden block and sjind and water. The 
 taper, if any, from the breech toward the muzzle, 
 should be uniform, antl in no place .should the eccen- 
 tricity exceed .003 inch. The muzzle-end .should be 
 .screwed with an allowance of .01.5 between the diame- 
 ters of the ring and the gun; the .screwed part should 
 be longer than required for the ring, so as to insure 
 the rear end of barrel being in contact with the cast- 
 iron at the end of the bore. A " gas-indicator hole" 
 is drilled through the breech-end, so that it will come 
 
 Eight-iDoh Cou verted Rifle. 
 
 the B tube previously bored, and a spiral gas channel, 
 .03 inch deep and .1 inch wide, is cut round its 
 exterior, communicating with the star grooves cut in 
 the end of the barrel and the gas-escape through the 
 cast-iron breech. 
 
 The li tube consl.sts of two coils united, and being 
 rough-turned to a diameter of about 13.75 inches, anil 
 finished-bored to 10.75 inches, it is shrunk on with 
 .003 inch shrinkage in the diameter. The B tube 
 in order to be shrunk on the A tube has to be bored 
 to that degree of smoothness which is necessarj' for 
 close contact and mutual support, and is gauged to 
 I |,'j^ of an inch every few inches of it.s length as well 
 as at every shoulder it may have. To these measure- 
 ments the shrinkage is added, and a jilan made out 
 according to which the exterior of the inner coil or A 
 lube must be tine-turned in order that it may exceed 
 in diameter the bore of the outside coil by the re- 
 quired amount of shrinkage at the respective points. 
 This plan, together with a series of corresponding 
 " horseshoe" giiuges(verj' accurately adjusted), is then 
 furnished to the turner, who turns down the inside 
 coil to the proper size. The operation of shrinkage 
 is very simple. The outer coil is exTianded bj' heat 
 until it is sufficiently large (if a large mass, by means 
 of a wood tire, for which the tube itself forms the 
 flue; if a small mass, in a reverberatory furnace at a 
 low temperature). It is then raised up by a travel- 
 ing crane overhead, and dropped over the part on Xd 
 which it is to be shrunk, which is placed verticallj' in 
 a pit ready to receive it, and where the tube and 
 jacket cool off. The heat required in shrinking is not 
 very great. Wrought-iron, on being heated from 02° 
 F. (the ordinary temperature, say) to 213', expands 
 linearly about ,n'n,i part of its length (the same 
 
 nearly opposite the junction-line of the plug in the 
 barrel. All sharp edges in the interior of the gun 
 should be taken off, and the bore carefully cleaned 
 and oiled. The barrel is turned to the measurements 
 taken from the gun when finally prepared to receive 
 the barrel. These measui-ements should be taken at 
 least every 6 inches from the muzzle to within 13 in- 
 ches from the breech, when they sliould be taken at 
 every inch. From the muzzle "to a point 34 inches 
 from the breech, the difference between the bore and 
 the size of the barrel should not exceed .015 of an 
 inch, and from thence to the bottom of the bore .007 
 of an inch. 
 
 The Imrrcl can be turned by means of an expand- 
 ing mandrel placed in the muzzle, the center being 
 left in tlie plug at the bottom of the barrel. The re"- 
 duced part for the muzzle-ring should be .01 of an 
 inch less in diameter than the bore of the ring; the 
 breech of the ring should be square to the face against 
 which it is screwed. The radius at the breech-end of 
 barrel should not be in contact with the casing, but 
 should have .05 of an inch clearance; thus if the gun 
 has been bored out ^\ith a 1.7 railius tool, the barrel 
 .should be turned to 1.75 inch radius. When fitting 
 the barrel into the gun, all bearing-surfaces should be 
 well oiled. It is most convenient to place the gun on 
 trestles about 3 feet 6 inches high. The barrel is 
 lifted by a crane and entered as far as the slings will 
 permit. The slings are then placed round theVnd of 
 the expanding mandrel, and at the outer end of the 
 mandrel are bolted two strong cross-bars bv which 
 the barrel is worked round while it is being drawn in 
 by the cnine The indicator-hole allows'"the air to 
 escape. The plug-center should not be taken off un- 
 til it comes in contact with the bottom of the bore.
 
 CONT£BT£B. 
 
 40i 
 
 COHVOT. 
 
 when it may be turned off and the hrccch-cnd well 
 iiiiirknl nitii thin rt'ilKjul paiiil. The harril .sliould 
 then bt' ainiin tikti in ami well worked ajrainsl the 
 cn-iing, i;reiit nire beiujr taken that the end of the bar- 
 rel abuts truly ajniiiist the bottom of tlie l)ore. A 
 small scri'W is inserlt'd at about the middle of the 
 length of the barn'l, to pn-veut the jiossibility of^ the 
 barrel lurniiig round in thcjrun duriii!; tiriiiir. When 
 the tul>e i< properly adjiisteil, the collar is securely 
 screwed into the iiiiizzle. The muzzle of the gun is 
 then faceil, and the bore lapix'il and rilled. The old 
 vent is elos*>d with a wrought-iron scre\v-i)lug, a new- 
 vent (copper-bushed) iH'ing placed nearer the muzzle. 
 
 The drawing represents an H-iiich converted rille, 
 testeil with the following results: Six i)reliminary 
 roimds were tired, using charges ranging from 20 to 
 30 |)ounds. Four hunilred and fifty rounds were 
 tired with battering-charges of 3o jiounds of hexagonal 
 ])owder and an average weight of projectile (Butler) of 
 171 |K)unds. All examinations up to the one hundred 
 ami seventieth tire failed to discover any evidence of 
 injury to the system; but impressions taken of the 
 bore at this round showed a line line extending from 
 the commencement of the land immediately in front 
 of the vent to the cojiiht bushing. This proved to 
 be an initial rupture, as at 175 rounds a crack had de- 
 veloped from the vent to the nuizzle in and througli 
 the tulw. The firings were continued from this point 
 up to the four hundred and tifty sixth (the breaking 
 round), making a total of 286 rounds which the system 
 endured after the rupture of tlic lul)e. The gun was 
 tired after the complete rupture of llie inner lube — at 
 the one hundred and seventy tifth round — to test how 
 long the jacket and the cjist-iron ca.sing would stand 
 battering-charges. Evidence of rupture of the jacket ; 
 was noted at the liust few rounds, and the gun, when 
 burst, e\ndcntly was being held together by a weak- 
 ened cast-iron ca-sing, probably cracked on its in- ' 
 tcrior surface. The steel in lx)th jacket anil tube, 
 although of g(XKl quality, was evidently too high and 
 inextensible to secure the verj' best residts. I 
 
 An analysis of the record shows as follows: A ' 
 mean initial velocity of 1379 feet, using 35 pounds i 
 powder and projectile of about 185 pounds; the mean ' 
 maximum pressure being 30,453 pounds per square : 
 inch, and, for a shot of 170 pounds, a velocity of 1425 ' 
 feet, and a corresponding mean maximiun ])re.ssure of 
 29,622 pounds. Forty-six shots of about the weight ^ 
 of the former, and 283 shots of about the weight i 
 of the latter, were fired. The mean weight of all 
 projectiles— using 35-pound charges— is 171 pounds; 
 the mean velocities and pressures ol)tained are re- 
 spectively 1419 feet and 29,668 pounds. No anoma- 
 lies are apparent in these resixcts, awl the record | 
 shows a general accordance with the results attained 
 in other trials. The star-gauging at the one hundred 
 and seventieth round indicated a maximum enlarge- 
 ment of .010 inch; at the one hundred and seventy- 
 fifth round, of .0115 inch, the result of the cnick; 
 from this point to the four hundred and fifty -.second 
 round the maximum eidargeinent was .0235 inch. 
 The gutta-i)ercha inipns,sions taken at various times 
 during the progress of the trial indicated no sjx'cial 
 erosion from the gases; but, as the tilings progressed, 
 spawls were gradually developed along the line of 
 the crack in the tutK^ See Jireech-iniii-rthn, Coiled 
 Tiihffi, Fiihririition of Tube», Orduniice, PaUiser Gun, 
 and I'unmK (liiii. 
 
 CONVEKTER.— In melallurgj', a receptacle holding 
 iron which is to be oonverteii into steel; a spherical 
 vca-sel lined with fire-clay, the bottom having mi- 
 meroiLS holes through which a powerful blast is 
 driven during the proce».s. From this vessel the 
 liquid steel is iHjured into molds. Sec Ji/Mired Steel. 
 
 CONVERTING. — 1. DecarlKaiizing, or changing ca.st- 
 iron into steel. 2. A name applieci to changing muz- 
 zle-loading arms tobreeih-loaders, and which in some 
 form has taken place with the sm.dl jirms of most 
 national armaments. From among the various com- 
 peting plans for converting the £nfield rifle of the 
 
 English service into a breech-loader, that of Snider 
 was adopteil. The cost of conversion is about 15«. 
 English for each rifle. The method is a.s follows; 
 AI)ont two inches of the barrel are cut away at the 
 breech, and a solid breech-slopper working side- 
 ways on a hinge is placed in the opening thus nuide. 
 Through this" stopper passes a piston, one end of 
 which, when tJle breech is closed, n-ceives the blow 
 from the hammer, wliile the other connnuuicatesit to 
 the center of the cartridge, thus firing the latter. The 
 empty cartridge-case is retracted after each dise^harge 
 by means of sliding back the stopper t)n its pintle, 
 when the tilling of the piece tips out the shell anil 
 another can be inserted. The Springfield rifle is also 
 coMNcrlcd inio a breech-loader. See ('oiirerU'd Ouim. 
 
 CONVEX ORDER OF BATTLE.— If an attack is 
 made in the ei nter of the enemy's line, refusing both 
 wings, the general direction of the line of battle of 
 the attacking army will be convex towards the en- 
 emy's line. This order of battle Inis been frequently 
 used, and possesses the advanUige of jjroduciug great 
 results when the attack is successful. It po.sse.s.scs the 
 disadvantage of selecting ns a point of attack the 
 strongest i)art of the enemy's line, anil in case of re- 
 l)ulse the failure is apt to be followed by great dis- 
 aster if the enemy makes a vigorous cotmter-attack. 
 See ('oitaice Order of liattle. 
 
 CONVOY. — To conduct a convoy in safety through 
 an enemy's territory, where it is exposed to attat'ks 
 either of regular or of partisjm troops, is one of the 
 most hazardous operations of war; owing to the ea.se 
 with which a very inferior force may take the escort 
 at di.sadvantjige in defiles, or other positions favorable 
 to an ambuscade or surj^rise, and to the difficulty of 
 seeming a long column, like that presented by a con- 
 voy, from a sudden attjick. 
 
 The escort should be of sufficient strength to beat 
 off any presumed force that the enemy can bring 
 against it. A weak escort will ordy hold out a temp- 
 tation to the enemy to attack the convoy. When the 
 convoy is of very great importance, it may be neces- 
 sary, besides giving it a strong escort, to throw out 
 detachments between its line of march and the enemy; 
 and when there are posts occupied by our troops along 
 this line, they should keep up a vigilant svstem of 
 patrols, piLshing them as far out as practicable, so 
 that the escort may receive aid and timely notice of 
 auj' hostile movement. The escort, when it is deemed 
 neces.sjiiy, should be composed of all arms; but always 
 of both infantry and cavalry, as, from the necessity 
 of gaining limely infonnation of the enemy's ap- 
 proach, patrols of cavalry must be pu-shed out to some 
 distance, lioth in from and on the flanks. 
 
 As the convoy must be perfectly hemmed in and 
 guanled on all points by its escort, the latter is u.su- 
 ally divided into five iirincipal portions with this ob- 
 ject; an adv;inced-guanl, which is preceded by a 
 small delachment to scour and search the ground in 
 front of the line of inarch; a rear-guard; flankers; 
 and the main body. For the purpose of jiresenting a 
 surticieni force upon those points of the convoy that 
 will iirobably be assailed, the main Ixxly issubdivided 
 into four unequal portions; one half of it will consti- 
 tute a reserve; one fourth will form a guard for the 
 center of the convoy; and the remaining fourth will 
 be divided into two equal portions, one of which will 
 march directly at the head of the convoy, and the 
 other close in its rear. This subdi\i.sion of the main 
 body is made on the supposition that the enemy will 
 attack the convoy cillier at the center, or in the fnmt 
 or rear. If the attack is made upon either of the two 
 last points, the divisions for their protection can be 
 readily reinforced l)y the advanced- or the rear-guard. 
 As the reserve must be in reailiness to reinforce any 
 point menaced, and to offer a vigorous resistance, its 
 strength should be greater than" either of the other 
 divisions. 
 
 The order of marcli of the escort will be regulated 
 mainly Iiy the natural features of the ground pas.sed 
 over. Tbe advanceti-guard will precede the convoy
 
 CONVOY OF PEISONEES. 
 
 403 
 
 COOKING. 
 
 about a thousiind paces. The detachment hy which 
 it is preceded, and which should consist of cavalry, 
 will push forward as far a.s it can with safety, taking 
 care to scour thoroughly all the ground jjassed over. 
 The flankers, which will also usually be composed of 
 cavalry, will l)c dinilcd into platoons, and be thrown 
 out as far a.s circumstances will permit. Each pla- 
 toon will throw out a small detachment, on its outer 
 tlank, which last will furnish vedettes to move along 
 the outward tlank of the detachment. The reserve 
 will usually occupy some point near the center of the 
 convoy. The rear-guard will leave about 1000 paces 
 between it and the tail of the column. The di\'isions 
 immediately at the head and tail ot the train will keep 
 close to the convoy. The center division will usually 
 be divided into two portions, one being on each flank 
 of the convoy; a space of eight or ten paces l)eiug left 
 in the center of the train, for these portions to pass to 
 either tlank, as circumstances may require. 
 
 The convoy is placed under the orders of an officer, 
 subordinah' to the Commandant of the escort, who is 
 charged with everything appertaining to its police, 
 etc. A detachment of Pioneers, or .Sappers, shoiUd 
 precede the convoy, to repair the roads and bridges, 
 etc. A few wagons, with all the ueces-sary impk'- 
 ments for the Sappers, should accompany the" convoy; 
 and it is also recommended to earn,- with it a few 
 eheraut-de-frige, the lances of which "are of iron, and 
 connected with the bodies by hinges, to pack conve- 
 niently, in order to form a temporarj' obstacle against 
 the enemy's cavalry, when the convoy parks for the 
 night, or when threatened with an attack. When a 
 part of the convoy consists of bat-horse.s or mules, 
 they should be placed at the head of the column of 
 wagons, as they are found to travel better in this 
 position than when in the rear. 
 
 All the usual precautions to guard a column on 
 the march against a surprise should 1* redoubled in 
 cases of convoys. The patrols on the flanks and in 
 front should push as far out as practicable, so that 
 the convoy mny have timely warning of an enemy's 
 api^roach, in order to )iark, according to circum- 
 stances, before an attack can be made. 'With drivers 
 accustomed to their business, half an hour at lea.st 
 will be recpiired for this operation. The advanced- 
 guard should be particularly careful to occupy by 
 detachments smy lateral roads which might offer the 
 enemy a favorable point of attack on the convoy. 
 These detachments will keep their posts until the 
 convoy has pa.s-sed; and they will join the rear-guard 
 as it comes up. The officer in command of the head 
 di\ision, marching with the convoy, will see that his 
 detachment moves on regularly, as the pace of the 
 convoy will be regulated by it; and from lime to 
 time he will bring it to a halt, to allow the carriages 
 to close up: this precaution must be carefully attended 
 to when near an enemy. 
 
 If menaced with an attack, the divisions at the head 
 and rear of the convoy will keep their positions and 
 repel the enemy by their fire should he attack; the 
 center di\ision will move to the tlank menaced, and 
 take position to cover the two center sections of the 
 convoy; the reserve will move towards the point 
 threatened; the advanced- and rear-guards and flank- 
 ers will close upon the convoy to be in readiness t<i 
 act as circumstances may reqiiire. Before entering a 
 defile, a detachment from the reserve should be sent 
 forward to secure its flanks and outlet, and then send 
 out patrols in all directions to examine the ground in 
 front and see that all is safe. As the convoy comes 
 up to a point designated in rear of the defile, it is 
 parketl in lines of sections. The center division of 
 the escort will join the advanced-guard to cover the 
 front; the rear-guard will take position to cover the 
 rear, the flankers on the flanks, and the reserve in a 
 central position to advance upon the point which may 
 be attacked. When the patrols report all safe, the 
 advanced-guard and center division pass the defile, 
 and proceed far enough beyond it to cover the ground 
 where the convoy will park as it reaches the other 
 
 side; the reserve and flankers will cover the flanks of 
 the c-onvoy as it moves to its new position, and will 
 then take" post as before; the rear-giiard, joined bv 
 any detachments left to secure particular points oh 
 the flanks of the defile, will follow .so soon as the 
 convoy and the rest of the troops are in [Kjsition. 
 When all the troops have passed, strong detachments 
 are si'ut forward, in all directions, at least one hour 
 before the convoj- is again put in motion. 
 
 When the escort takes position at night within the 
 park for defease, the reserve will be posted in the 
 center, and the divisions that march with the convoy 
 in rear of their respective sections. The advanced- 
 and rear-guards and the flankers will take post with- 
 out, and establish their outposts and .sentinels in the 
 usual way for sjifety. The cannon, placed at the 
 angles of the park, will be sui)ported by detachments 
 of infantry and cavalry in their rear. The different 
 divisions will throw forward skirmishers to meet the 
 enemy if he attacks; whilst others will occupy the 
 wagons from which they can tire. Should the enemy 
 not be' beaten off by the fire of these troops, the re- 
 serve will sally out and attack with the bayonet. 
 
 An attack upon a convoy is a comparatively easy 
 and siife operation, and may be made with a force 
 quite inferior to the escort, "as the latter is obliged, 
 for the security of the convoy, to keep on the defen- 
 sive. It will asually be best to attempt a surprise, 
 choosing points which are favorable to ambuscades. 
 The manner of conducting the attack will depend 
 upon its object, whether it" be to caiJture the entire 
 convoy, to cut off a part of it, or simply to delay its 
 march". In the first case, the escort must be beaten 
 and dispersed, whilst a detachment is sent to secure 
 the convoy. In the second, an attack may I>e made 
 on one point with the ^iew of drawing the main body 
 of the escort to the defense of that point, whilst a de- 
 tachment attempts to cut off the part of the convoy 
 from which the escort has lieen with('.rawn. In the 
 last case the convoy will be fnijuently menaced with 
 an attack, to force it to hall and park for defense; 
 the roads will be obstructed, bridges broken down, 
 etc. 
 
 If the attack is successful, the main body of the 
 troops should be kept together in position, to cover 
 the captured convoy, whilst the detachment sent to 
 .secure or destroy it is performing its duty. The 
 cavalrj- will endeavor to disperse the escort, and 
 bring in all the horses that may have been cut loose 
 from (he convoy. The precaution should be taken 
 of having spare horses in harness, in readiness to take 
 the places of those which the escort may have cut 
 loose, or maimed, to prevent the wagons from being 
 carried off. For the attack of a convoy parked for 
 defense some pieces of artillery will be necessjiry, 
 and howitzers will be found particularly useful. 
 Without the aid of this arm it will be verj' difficult 
 to force a defensive park with infantry, unless the es- 
 cort is very feeble, or the position chosen for the park 
 presents covers within the effective range of mus- 
 ketry, from which, after keeping up a well-directed 
 fire, a rush mav be made on the park. See Train. 
 
 CONVOY OF PEISONEES.— The rules laid down 
 for convoys in general apply equally to this particu- 
 lar cla.ss; but this is an ojieration presenting many 
 difficulties, owing to the fact that they are always 
 really and on the alert to aid any efforts made to re- 
 capture them. Under such circumstances, when the 
 convoj- is attacked, the prisoners should be made to 
 lie down, and warned not to arise tmder penalty of 
 being shot. See Convoy. 
 
 COOKING. — Army cookery has become an impor- 
 tant feature in all military systems. The suffering 
 in the Crimea in the winter of 1854-55 drew public 
 attention to the subject; it was then found that cook- 
 j ing was little imderstoo<l by the British troops, and 
 i that the soldiers seldom had meat otherwise than 
 boiled. M. Soyer was sent out by the Government, 
 j principally to advise in reference to hospital cooking, 
 I but also to improve the system of camp-cooking, so
 
 COOLING. 
 
 404 
 
 COOLING OF CASTINGS. 
 
 far as military routine would allow. He devised new 
 forms of stoves, iiud coiislrucle<i recipes for using to 
 the iH'st iiilviinl'ii.'e nil the avaihilile provisions for a 
 camp. The oHicers at Seluusioixil made a highly 
 favorable report of Soyer's fiel Ikitflu n, a kind of 
 cimi|vstove. «ilh a caldron holding \'i\ gallons: two 
 such stoves would easily c(X)k for a company of KX) 
 men; both could l>e carric<l by one mule, with sutti- 
 <ieiit drv wihkI for three days' fuel. Though mainly 
 intended for Ixjiling, the apparatus afforded facilities 
 for many varieties of cooking. When "SI. Soyer re- 
 tunuil to England he made a few improvements; 
 and finally the apparatus presented itself as a sort of 
 upright ciui, suitable for boiling, steaming, baking, 
 rofi-sling, stewing, and making tea or coffee: with 
 fourteen jiounds of fuel one of tliese would cook for 
 fifty men; and if twentv such were placed near to- 
 gether, four cooks coviUf serve for 1000 men. 
 
 A Comniiltce which inquired into the subject of 
 barrack economy some years ago, recommended that 
 every large barrack should have a bakery with two 
 ovens, where the men could learn to make and bake 
 their own bread ; and also that the barrack-kitchens 
 .should be so furnished as to enable the men to bake 
 their meat if so inclined, instea<i of being confined, 
 as heretofore, almost wholly to boiled dimiers. A 
 School of C't>okery hss been fonned at Aldcrshott, 
 where men are trained to act as Sergeant-cooks, of 
 whom there is now one to each regiment. His duty 
 is to superintend and direct the operations of the sol- 
 diers detailed from the several companies to act as 
 coi)k.«. 
 
 At various times in 1859 and 1860 certain highly 
 ingenious forms of apparatus were tried, to test the j 
 possibility of cooking for troops while ihi; kitchen it- 
 iitlf in on the march. One of the-se inventions consists j 
 of a compact set of stoves and caldrons, fitted into a | 
 wagf)n, and has been found on trial to answer the 
 purpose perfectly. For a detailed account of field- 
 cookery and cjimpaigu recipes, see F.\Rnow's MouN- 
 T.vi.N ScocTiNO, Chapter XII. (New York, 1883). 
 
 COOLING. — The operation following casting in the 
 fabriealion of cast gyns. The water for cooling the \ 
 gun is tiiken from a hydrant where the supply is con- 
 slant and uniform, the connection being made by 
 rubber hose. It is conducted into the core by means 
 of a mctjillic tube which pas.ses through a water-tight 
 joint in the center of the c^ip and extends to within a 
 few inches of the bottom of the barrel. The water 
 con.se<|uently passes into the core at the bottom anil 
 ascends until it reaches the e.scape-pipc and is dis- 
 charged. The rtow of the water commences as soon 
 as the furnaces are tapped, and is regulated to pro- 
 duce, half an hour after the csusting, a certain change 
 of temperature, nlwut 2.5", between entering and 
 leaving the core. When this is effected the rate of 
 tlow remains constant until the core is removed. .\s 
 s<x)n as possible after the casting the fire in the pit is 
 kindle<l and kept up until the withdrawal of the core- 
 barrel; it is allowed to die out gradually. Meanwhile 
 the mouth of the pit is kept closely covered. When 
 the cliaiure of temperature of the outflowing water 
 has (x'C(jn)e constant or nearly so, the core-barrel is 
 withdrawn. To effect this, it is sometimes neces-sary 
 to largely increase the How of water for a short time, 
 in order to contract the barrel enough to loosen it 
 from the casting. As soon as this is effected the ' 
 flow is stopped. The rope with which the barrel is 
 wrapped takes flre from the heat of the casting and I 
 is consumed, leaving the barrel detached from the ' 
 comjiosition surrounding, and allowing its withdraw- 
 al witliout difficulty. As soon as the core-barrel is 
 with<lrawn the water is turned into the bore, being 
 conveyed by the conducting pipe to the bottom, and \ 
 escaiiing by means of a lube ca.st into the gun-head, 
 entering the Ixire a few inches from the upper end of 
 the casting. The rale of flow of the water through 
 the bfjre is so n'gulaleil as to produce a change of 
 Ixiut 100° between entering and leaving at half nn 
 hour after the removal of the barrel. It is then 
 
 allowed to remain constant tintil the gun becomes 
 cool. The time occupied in cooling by this process 
 varies from four lo six days, according to the size of 
 the gun; for a •JO-inch gun a longer time may be re- 
 (piired In case the condition of the melal in the 
 furnace before casting shoulil indicate that a slower 
 rate of cooling is desirable, the process of cooling by 
 air is resorted to after the withdrawal of the core- 
 barrel. The cuiTcnt of air is furnished by a rotary 
 blower driven by steam or water power, and is con- 
 ducted into the gun by a sheet-iron pii^e which ex- 
 tends to within a short distance of the bottom of the 
 bore. Ctx)ling by this process usuallj' requires two 
 or three days more than by the water process. See 
 Conlinfi of ('nutiiias and li/xliiuiii Oun. 
 
 COOLING OF CASTINGS.— The enormous time re- 
 quired by a large casting for cooling is not generally 
 known. A solid ca.sting .sufficiently large for a 
 1.5-incb gim weighs about 3.5 tons; it is red-hot three 
 days after having Ix'eii cast, and only becomes cold 
 enough to handle after a fortnight. The cooling of 
 a casting must be uniform, so far as uniforaiit)- is 
 po.ssible. This Is impossible strictly in any casting; 
 the approach to it is most difficult in heavy solid 
 cjtstings, and hence the great advantage of the prac- 
 tice of hoUow-ciLsting upon a suitably made core, 
 admitting of internal cooling by artificial means. 
 
 The contraction of cast-iron in becoming .solid in- 
 troduces strains into the mass by consolidation of one- 
 portion of the casting before another. When a large 
 gun is cast solid and the metal cools in the ordinary 
 way, the external portions solidify long before the in- 
 terior has ceased to be liquid, and the process of solidi. 
 fication is propagated, as it were, in parallel lavers 
 from the outside to the center of the mass. AVhen 
 the first layer or thickness of solid crust has formed 
 in the exterior, it forms a complete arch all round, so 
 that the contrattion between fluidity and solidifica- 
 tion of each subsequent layer is accommodated by 
 portions of matter withdrawn radially from the interior 
 toward the still c(K>ling exterior; that is to say, from 
 a smaller toward a larger circumference. 
 
 The final effect of this, propagated to the center of 
 the mass, is twofold. First. To produce a \-iolent 
 stjite of internal tension in the particles of the metal 
 in radial lines from the axis of the gun inward as a 
 cj'lindcr, tending to tear away the external iK)rfion8 
 of the mass from the internal" nucleus. Second. To 
 |>roduce about the center or along the axis a line of 
 weakness, and one in which the texture of the metal 
 is soft, porous, and of extremely low specific graWty. 
 The effect of this unequal contraction may be so 
 great as to crack the interior metal of cast-iron can- 
 non, even before it has been subjected to the force of 
 gunpowder ; and large masses of iron which have 
 been cooled very rapidly by casting them in iron molds 
 have been known to split open longitudinally, from 
 no other cause than the enormous strains to which 
 thev are thus subjected. 
 
 "f he great improvement in the fabrication of cast- 
 iron gims is (.'aplain Rodman's process of cooling 
 them as far as pos.sible from the interior, and for 
 this purpose casting them hollow. The design is to 
 remedy the varir)us ilefects of the old process; princi- 
 pally to obviate the tendency of solid castings to burst 
 by their own initial strains) l)v reversing the process 
 of cooling and shrinking described above. Since 
 there would then be no force opposed to the contrac- 
 tion of the inner lavers of metal, except the trifling 
 cohesion of the liquid or pa.stj- mass that thev shrink 
 away from, they would not be left in tension, and 
 therefore they could not exert any power to pull the 
 exterior layers into compression. 
 
 The method employed is to carry off the internal 
 heat by pa.ssing a stream of water through a hollow 
 core, inserted in the center of the mold-cavity before 
 casting, and to surround the flask with a ma.ss of 
 burning coals to prevent too rapid radiation from the 
 exterior. Extensive trials have been made to test the 
 merits of this plan, and the results show that cast-iron.
 
 CO-ORDINATES. 
 
 405 
 
 CO-ORDINATES. 
 
 cannon made by it are not only stronger, but are less 
 liable to enlargement of the bore from continual 
 tiring, the surface of the bore beinj: the hardest and 
 densest part of the casting, and best calculated to re- 
 sist pressure and abrasion. See Coit-iron Q-uns, Oi-d- 
 nance, and Eoi/miin Gun. 
 
 CO-ORDINATES.— What is termed the method of 
 co-ordinates is an invention of Descartes, whereby 
 algebra anil the calculus may be employed in geomei- 
 rieal investigations. The method is sometimes called 
 algebraical geometry — sometimes, and more propeily, 
 analytical geometry; and it is commonly treated under 
 the head of "geometry of two dimensions" or of 
 " geometry of three ilimensions," according as it is 
 applied to investigate the proju-rties of tigures all in 
 one plane, or of curved surfaces. The" method is 
 capable of a popidar explanation. Co-ordinates are 
 lines so measured off fiom a fixed point, called the 
 origin of co-ordinates, and along fixed lines passing 
 through it, called the axis of co-ordinates, as to de- 
 termine by their quantities the position of any oth- 
 er point relative to the origin. The first step is to 
 find how to determine the position of a point in a 
 plane. Take any fixed point in it for the origin of 
 co-ordinates, and through it draw two fixed lines — 
 the co-ordinate axes — at right angles to one aiiotlier. 
 Then, if the perpendicular distance of the pouit from 
 each of these axes be given, its position will be deter- 
 mined. Referring to Fig. 1, if P be the point, and O 
 be taken for the origin of co-ordinates, OX, OY for 
 
 place: and from this eciuation, combined with that of 
 
 a straight line, etc., every property of the circle may 
 be determined. It 1' move so that the sum of the 
 distances from two fixed points shall be always the 
 Siune, and we express the relation between .r and p in 
 that ca.se, we sho\dd have the equation of an ellipse. 
 This suffices to show in a general way the nature of 
 the method. Equations belweeu .r and ,v are called 
 the equations of the lines, whether straight or curved, 
 traced out by the point 1^; and by means of them, 
 though they but express relations between quantities, 
 the (/ualitiin of the lines to which they refer may, by 
 artifices exjilained in every lreali.se on the subject, be 
 detected. Nay, by a.ssunung equations between x 
 and y, and examining the lines which points rejjresent- 
 ed by them would trace, many singidar curves have 
 been discovered. There are a varietj- of conditions 
 to be attended to in the interpretation of such equa- 
 tions, de]w>niling on the assimiptions set out with, in 
 choosing the origin and axis. The axis of .r or OX 
 being taken to the right of the origin, and the axis of 
 >/ or OY being perpendicular to it and above it, x and 
 y are counted positive when they are measured along 
 their axes to the right of and above the origin respec- 
 tively, and negative when they are mea.sured to the 
 left and downwsirds respectively. Suppose r = OM 
 = ON, and y = MP = MP, ="NP3 = NP,: the co- 
 ordinates of the points P, P,, Pj, Pi would be (+J, 
 + y), ( + r, -y), (-J, +y), (- x, -y) respectively. 
 These points being equidistant from O, we may sup- 
 
 ( 
 
 '■^ 
 
 o 
 
 P 
 
 \ 
 
 N 
 
 
 7 
 
 \1 
 
 »s»_ 
 
 L 
 
 1/ 
 
 tp 
 
 ^04. 
 
 Fig. :;. 
 
 jr 
 
 Fio. .■}. 
 
 the axes, then if we know NP or OM, the perpendicu- 
 lar distance of P from OY, and measure off from O, 
 OM on the axis OX, and through M raise a line per- 
 pendicular to OX, 1^ must lie in this line, for it con- 
 tains all the points in the plane which are at the per- 
 pendicular distance OM iiom the axis OY. Simi- 
 larly, if ON or PM, the i)erpendieular distance of P 
 from the axis OX, be known, and we measure that 
 distance off from <) along OY, and through N draw 
 a perpendicular to OY, the iioinl must be in that per- 
 pendicidar. It is Ihcrcfoic ;it the intei'seetion of the 
 perpendiculars through .M and N respectively. When, 
 as in the figure, the fixed lines are at right angles to 
 one another, the co-ordinates OM, ON are called the 
 rectangular co-ordinates of the point. Let us now see 
 what use can be made of this mode of deteimining 
 the position of the |)oint. for the discovery of the 
 properties of lines and surfaces. As the values of the 
 co-ordinates change for the different points in the 
 plane, they are denoted by the varialjles f and //. 
 Now, if we suppose the point P to begin to move 
 according to a determinate law, and the co-ordinates 
 to change their magnitudes so as always to be its 
 co-ordinates, knowing the law of P's motion, we are 
 able to exjiress in algebraical jthra-seology the law of 
 the corresponding changes in its co-ordinates. For 
 instance, if P moves so .as to be always at the same 
 distance from O, OP is constant, and the square on 
 OP is equal to the sum of the sqviares on OM and 
 PM. Putting this into algebraical language, we have 
 the equation x- -\- y'' — R', or y = ± ^ R' — x', 
 where R = OP. This is called the equation of the 
 circle referred to its center as origin, and lo rectangii- 
 lar co-ordinates; and it expresses the law according 
 to which the changes of the co-ordinates must take 
 
 pose a circle to pass through them. Re curring now 
 to the equation of the circle, y = ± 1 R' — x-, the 
 meaning will be seen of the two values + and — oi y 
 given by the quadratic. Often the axes of co-ordinates 
 selected for convenience arc oblique, i.e., inclined at 
 some other angle than a right angle. An equation 
 between co-ordinates referred to one set of axes may 
 always be tRmsformed to co-ordinates referred to 
 another, by the process known as the transformation 
 of co-ordinates. A similar transformation of equa- 
 tions by the same process may be made where it is 
 desired to refer the line to a new origin. 
 
 W' hat has been said above refers to the co-ordinates 
 of a ]ioint in a plane, or to what is called geometiy of 
 two dimensions. But the rationale is the same with 
 that of connecting in eipiations the co-oniinates of 
 points in space — the subjects of geometry of three di- 
 mensions. The position of a pouit in space requires 
 three co-ordinates to determine it, and these are usu- 
 ally denote(l liy the syndiols .c. ,v. J. An origin be- 
 ing taken, and three axes. OX, OY, OZ. mutually at 
 right angles to one another, the point is referre(l to 
 the three planes through these axes, z, or PN, is its 
 height above the pl.uie through YOX; y, or NM, is 
 its distance per])en(lieul:irlv from the plane XOZ; and 
 x, or OM, is its perpendicular distance from the 
 plane ZOY. It is clear that these three determine the 
 position of the jjoinl. In three dimensions, as hi two, 
 thc-problem may be statwl to be : Given the law of 
 the motion of P, to express the law regulating the 
 variations of its co-ordinates as ii moves. The alge- 
 braic expression of the latter law is, the equation of 
 the surface traced by the point in moving over all the 
 space it can traverse consistently with the law of its 
 motion. The method of co-ordinates, l)eside9 its ase
 
 COPIHO. 
 
 406 
 
 COPYING MACHINES. 
 
 in gronu'try, is of grciit value for rt'solving forces in 
 jrunnery, luxl also for finding Ihe resultaul of a great 
 nmny of tlieni. See Truieftory. 
 
 COFINO. — The nierlous or rising parts of battle- 
 ments an' sometimes called eops, but the term coiiing 
 is usually applied to the covering course of a wall, 
 which is "made either sloping or round, s<i as to tlirow 
 oil water. Where Ihe coping is of hewn stone, it is 
 fn-iiuently ornamenled with a circular molding run- 
 ning aloiig the lop, and sometimes the angle at the 
 lop is simply taken olT to prevent it being chipped. 
 
 COPPEK.-^One of the most luiciently-known metals, 
 whose name is derived from the Island of C'vprus, 
 where it was first obtained by the Greeks, lu the 
 earlier times copper does not appear to have been em- 
 ])loyed by itself, but always in admixture with other 
 meijils, principally tin, forming what is now called 
 bronze. There is every reason to Ix'lievc that, next 
 to Ihe large quantities of tin which thev obtained, one 
 of Ihe great mducements which the I^henicians had 
 iu making s«'arclies for metals in Great Britain was 
 the copper which they procured In their workings in 
 Cornwall. 
 
 CopiK-r is sometimes met with in nature in a state 
 of ptirily, but gcnerallv it is associated with oxygen, 
 water, and carbonic acid, forming the native carbon- 
 ate of copper or malachite (CuO,HO + CuO,CO.j), or 
 with iron and sulphur, forming the native sulphurets 
 of copiH'r and iron or copper pyrile« (Cu2S,Fe2S3). 
 In smaller tjuantity copper occurs as the oxide (CuO) 
 and sulphate (CuOSOj), and in all cases the ore is ob- 
 tained from fissures or veins in other rocks. The 
 principal yield of co]iper-ore in Great Britain is from 
 Ihe mines in Cornwall, but large supplies are also ob- 
 tained from Australia, and from Cuba ami Chili in 
 South America. In North America, in the ncighbor- 
 hotnlof Lake Superior, copi)cr-ore occurs abundantly, ' 
 and a vein of metallic copper is there found which in 
 some places is about two feet in thickness. 
 
 In the extraction of copper from it.s ores the metid- 
 lurgic proccs.s<s followed are very tedious and com- | 
 plicati'd, which mainly arises from the difficulty of 
 separating the iron and sulphur from the copper. 
 The general piiniiple which regulates the working-up 
 of the ore is to burn away the sulphur (S) as sulphur- 
 ous acid (SOi). and to carry olT the iron by means of 
 rtuxes in Ihe form of scoria' or slag. Metallurgists 
 enumerate ten distinct steps in the production of com- 
 mercially pure copper. I 
 
 Copper has the equivalent 31.7 — new system, 63.4. 
 It is Ihe only red metal, has the specific gravity 8.78 
 when cast, and 8.06 when rolled or hammered;" fuses 
 at 1006 F , and at a white heat passes off in vapor, 
 and burns with a green flame. It is very malleable, 
 and can thus be beaten out into thin leaves; is very 
 ductile, so as to admit of being drawn out into thin 
 wires; and its tenacity is only inferior to that of iron. 
 It is a powerful coiufuclor of electricity, and hence is , 
 employed in the construction of lightning-conductors 
 and in telegraph-wires for underground or submarine 
 cominunication. Copper is also employed largely in 
 the sheathing of wooden vessels and iirthe arsenal. | 
 
 Copper forms many compounds. There are two 
 oxides, the black oxide (CulJ) and the red oxide 
 (Cu,0). The latter is employed in eolorini: gla.ss of a 
 ruln-rcd tint. The i/reiu n/nt which forms on the 
 surface of a copi>er-sheeted ship, and on copper coins 
 and ves.sels which lie in moist places for some time, 
 is a carbonate of copper, and is due to the carbonic 
 acid and oxygen of the air acting upon the copper in 
 Ihe presence of moisture. It is very poisonous, and , 
 hence any barnacles w liich may atla"ch themselves to [ 
 the coppiT sheathing are poisoned. The carlKinate of 
 copper, under the name of blue rerdiU'r, is lart'Cly 
 Iirepared and sold as a pigment. The subclilori(fe o"f 
 copper, moistened and ex|K)sed to the air, yields the 
 pigment known jis lininxirick ijreiii. There are .sev- 
 eral comiMjunds obtained by allowing acetic acid to 
 act upon oxide of copper which are commercially 
 called Uur and green renlitjrU. The suljihate of coif- 
 
 |H'r, or blue rilrinl (CuO.SOa -|- .'illO), is pn pared by 
 dis.solving the black oxide in suli>liuric acid, and al- 
 lowing the salt to crystallize out. The crystals are 
 large and present a fine blue color. It Is soluble 
 in water, and is extensively used by the <lycr for the 
 production of several blue ami green colors. The 
 soluti(m of blue vitriol is also emi>loyed in the pre.s- 
 ervation of timber from dry-rot, and it forms a con- 
 stituent of some writing-inks. See Bronze and Can- 
 ni'it'Uittiils. 
 
 COPPER SCIS8EL.— The clippings of copper left 
 after the formation of percussion-caps, friction-tubes, 
 coinatre, etc. 
 
 COPTIC LEGION.— In 1799 Ihe French troops in 
 Egypt, not receiving any reinforcements, grew weaker 
 every day through loss in combat and disca-sc, when 
 I General Kleber, who commanded after the departure 
 of Napoleon, organized a Corps of Copts, or native 
 Christians, about 600 strong, which was known as 
 the Coptic Legion. They were aimed the same as 
 the French soldiers. 
 
 COPYING. — A term applied in i)hotography to the 
 reproduction of paintings, engravings, manuscripLs, 
 mai>s, etc. The kinds of camera and lens most suit- 
 able for the puqiose will be found described under 
 their respective heads; the quality and condition of 
 chemicals uecessarj' are based upon the facts, tluit 
 long exposure is almost invariably re(iuired,and that, 
 in the majority of cases, it is desired to copy black 
 marks iqion a white ground, as in a sheet of music, 
 for exami>le. Where it is obvious that nothing that 
 can be called a middle tint is re(iuired, but simply 
 pure black and white, recourse slK)uld be had to or- 
 ganic matter in the bath; a little acetate of .soda and 
 an extra amount of acetic acid maybe also added, 
 and an old collodion containing free iodine employed. 
 It is imporlant that the work or .surface to be cojjied 
 slioidd be placed in a strong light, and e.xaclly at right 
 angles lo the axis of the lens, which should be iux- 
 nislied with a .<»«»^? stop. These three conililions, it 
 will be seen, are such as are calculated to insure den- 
 sity iu the blacks of the negative, freedom from dis- 
 tortion, and sharpness at the edges of the picture. 
 The copying of oil-))aintings seems to the amateur, 
 at first sight, to present almost insuperable difficul- 
 ties, on account of the reflected liglit from the var- 
 nish pa.ssing through the lens, and producing black 
 patches on the negative. This may. however, be 
 completely avoided by the employment of a lens of 
 long focus, which admits of Ibe oblique pencils of 
 liglit passing off without entering the camera. At- 
 tention to the laws of the reflection of light will sug- 
 gest to the reader the importance also of avoiding a 
 bright liglit immediately behind the camera, as the 
 rays of light would then fall on the varnished sur- 
 face, nearly at right angles, and be reflected into the 
 camera. The oil painting, tlieicfoii'. though placed 
 in strong sunshine, for the purpose of giving vigor 
 to the more obscure ])arts, shoulil be -^o arranged as 
 to allow the light to fall on it at an angle of about 
 •i'l' or 40 . 
 
 COPYING MACHINES. — The various contrivances 
 for procuring duplicalfs of writings w illioul Ihe la- 
 lH)r of transcribing tluiu may l)e reduced to t\vo 
 cla.s.se8. In the one the writing is first made and 
 then copi<'d; in Ihe other the copy and Ihe original 
 are iirodu<ed at Ihe same lime. 1"he es.sence of the 
 first melhod is this: In writing the original, an ink 
 is used that is made for the iiurpose, or common ink 
 thickened by Ihe addition of a little sugar. When 
 the writing is dry, a damped sheet of thin unsized 
 paper is laid ujion it, and over this a piece of oiled 
 paper. The whole is then subjected to pressure, and 
 the damped paper is found lo have taken off an im- 
 |)ressi()n of tlie writing. It is of course the reverse 
 of the original, but Ihe nature of the paper allows it 
 to be read right on the other .side. The machines for 
 ecmimunicating Ihe ])res.sure are of various kinds. 
 Some pass the .sheets between rollers like Ihe copper 
 plate press; others act on the principle of the com-
 
 COBBIE. 
 
 407 
 
 COBDAGE. 
 
 mon prinfing-press. A simple plan is to wTap the 
 sheets round a wooden roller of about an inch diam- 
 eter, lay this upon a table, and roll it under a flat 
 board, pressing all the while. Another vcrj' common 
 method of copying is by means of prepared black- 
 ened paper laid between two sheets of thin writing- 
 paper. The writing is traced tirmly on the tipper 
 sheet with a steel or agate point or common black- 
 lead pencil, and the lines are foimd trimsfcrred in 
 black from the blacke.ied sheet to the paper adjacent. 
 By ha\Tng several of these blackened leaves, a num- 
 ber of copies may be produced at once. The black- 
 ened paper is prei^ared by saturating it with a mix- 
 ture of lard and lamii-bhiek, and cleaning it so far 
 that it will not soil paper imless pres.sed against it. 
 
 CORBIE. — A word obsolete in English except as a 
 heraldic term for a raven. Sec Heraldry. 
 
 COBDAOE. — A rojif is composed of threads of hemp 
 or other hlirous material. These threads are called 
 yarns. A number of these yarns twisted together 
 form a ntnintl, and three or more strands twisted to- 
 gether f(jrm a rope. The ropes in ordinary use are 
 composed of three strands laid right-handed, or, as it 
 is called, with the sun. Occasionally a large rope will 
 be found laid up in four strands, also trilh the sun. 
 This is generall}' u.sed for stationary rigging, such as 
 shrouds, guys, heavy gun-slings, etc., and is some- 
 times called shroud-laid. Small halyards are some- 
 times laid with four strands and a core; this kind of 
 rope runs more smoothl}' and wears longer. Vuhle- 
 laid ra]>e is composed of nine strands, and is made by 
 first laying up three ropes of three strands each, with 
 the sun, and then laying the three ropes up together 
 into one, against the sun. Right-hand rope must be 
 coiled itith the sun, and cable-laid rope ayainst the 
 sun. The size of rope is always given in inches and 
 fractions, and is measiued on the circunifirenee, for 
 the reason that it is seldom possible to get a scpiarely- 
 cut end in order to mesisure the diameter. In making 
 requisitions for rope, it .should be clearly indicated 
 tkit this measure is the one considered. Spun-yarn 
 is made by twisting together verj' loosely two or more 
 well-tarrecl yams, and is designated by the number 
 of its yarns; as, two-yarn, three-yani, etc. It is used 
 for serving, seizings, stops, etc. , and is very pliable. 
 Marline is also made of tarred yarns, but is tightly 
 twisted, and is much harder and" smoother than spun 
 yarn. It is not tit for serving when the rope served 
 IS to be bent up, as it is not pliable enough to cover 
 the rope in such cu.scs. The Iright of a rope is any 
 part not an end. A bight is formed by bending or 
 doubling the rope so as to form a loop. This dis- 
 tinction should be particularly jioted, and the two 
 terms should not be confounded. The interstices be- 
 tween the strands of a rope are called the jair. and 
 rope is called long or short jawed as it is loosely or 
 tightly laid up together. Tiiose ropes which are sta- 
 tionary are called standing rigging; as, guys for a gin, 
 gun-slings, etc. Those which run through blocks or 
 pulleys, suchas gin-falls, trace-roi>es, etc., are running 
 rigging. 
 
 Worming a rope is filling up the divisions between 
 the strands by passing spun-yarn along them, to ren- 
 der the surface smooth for parceling and serving. 
 Parceling a rope is wrapping narrow strips of canvas 
 about it, well tarred, in order to secure it from being 
 injured by rainwater lodging between the' parts of 
 the service when worn. The parceling is put on irith 
 the lay of the rojie. Parceling is also used to prevent 
 chafing or cutting of a rope when a strain is brought 
 against a rough surface or sharp edge. For this pur- 
 pose old rope or canvas wound around is suflicieut. 
 ti-rring is the laying on of spun-yarn or other small 
 stuff in turns round the rope, close together, and hove 
 taut by the use of a serving-board for small rope and 
 serving-mallet for large rope. Small ropes are sonie- 
 timcs served without being vyornied, as the cre\-ices 
 between the strands are not large enough to make 
 the surface very uneven; but a large rope is always 
 wormed and parceled before being served. The ser- 
 
 vice is put on against the lay of the rope. Whipping 
 is securing the end of a rope with twine to prevent it 
 from fraying out. For temporary u.se it maybe done 
 by winding twine about the end of the rojie and 
 seeming the end of the twine l)y passing it under two 
 or more turns of the twine and pulling it tight. It is 
 better, however, to secure the ends by sewing them 
 through the rope, so that each stitch may lie in the di- 
 vision between two strands. This is called a sewed 
 whipping. 
 
 Splicing is putting the ends of ropes together by 
 opening tlie strands and placing them into one an- 
 other, or by putting the stranils of the ends of a rope 
 between those of the bight. (Fig. 1.) 
 
 A Shart Splice. — Unlay the strands for a convenient 
 length; then take an end in each hand, place them 
 one within the other, and draw them clo.se. Hold 
 the end of one roiie and the three strands which come 
 from the opposite rope fast in the left hand, or if the 
 rope be large, stop them down to it with a rope-yarn. 
 Take the middle strand, which is free, pass it orer 
 the strand which is first next to it, and then through 
 under the secontl and out between the second and 
 third from it, then haul it taut. Pass each of the 
 six strands in the same manner; first those of one 
 end and then those of the other. The same opera- 
 tion may 1k' repeated with each strand, passing each 
 orer the third strand from it, under the fourth, and 
 through; or, as is more usual, after the ends have 
 been stuck once, untwist each strand, divide the yarns, 
 pass one half as above described, and cut off the other 
 half. This tapers the splice. 
 
 A Long Splice. — Unlay the ends of two ropes to a 
 distance three or four tiines greater than for a short 
 splice, and place them within one another as for a 
 short splice. Unlay one strand for a considerable 
 distance and fill up "the interval which it leaves with 
 the o]ipositc strand from the other rope. Twist the 
 ends of these two together, then do the Siime with 
 two more strands. The two remaining strands are 
 twisted together in the place where they were first 
 crossed. Open the two last-named strands, divide in 
 two, take an overhand knot with the opposite halves, 
 and lead the ends over the next strand and through 
 the second as the whole strands were passed for the 
 short splice. Cut ofl" the other two halves. Do 
 the same with the others that are i)laced together. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Frc. 3. 
 
 dividing, knotting, and pa.ssing them in the same 
 manner. (Fig. 2.) Before cutting off <uii/ of the half 
 ■•(trands the rope should be got irell upon n stretch. 
 Sometimes the whole strands arc knotted, then di- 
 vided, and the half strands passed as above described. 
 This splice does not increase' the diameter of the rope, 
 and is used for splicing a fall or other rope that runs 
 through blocks or pulleys. 
 
 An Eye-splice.— V\\\i\\ the end of a rope for a short 
 distance and lay the three strands upon the standing 
 part, .so as to form an eye. Put the first end through 
 the strand next to it. "Put the second end over that 
 strand and thuxiugh the second, and put the remaining
 
 COSBOH. 
 
 403 CORMONTAIGNE SYSTEM OF FOKTIFICATION. 
 
 end Ibrcuirli the third strand on tlie other side of tlio 
 rope. (Fijr. S.) Tiiixt them, us in the short splice, 
 tiv dividiu'ff the strands and stickinj; theni again. 
 "fUis spUee is useil to form u jiormanent loop in the 
 end of a roiK-. 
 
 A (>'n»mH<»^— Take a strand just unlaid from a 
 rQ))e, with all its turns in il, and form a ring of the 
 size vou wish by pulling the end over the staniling 
 part." Then lake the long cud and carry it twice 
 rouud the ring in llic crevices, following the lay until 
 the ring is complete; then take an overhand knot 
 with the two enils. divide the yarns, and stick theiu 
 as in the long splice. I'setl for a tninnion-loop for 
 rolling or slewing a gun. See Blocks, Mec/ianical Ma- 
 iitiinrs, and liopf. 
 
 CORDON.— 1. In military operations, a line of sen- 
 trie^ incliisliii: or guarding any particular space of 
 ground, to prevent the pas.s!ige of persons other than 
 I nose belonging to the army. The sentries arc placed 
 within sight of each other. If intended to guard 
 against contagious diseases, it is called a Cordon Sa/ii- 
 hiire. 
 
 2. The coping of the escarp or inner wall of the 
 ditch, someliiues callcil the magistral line, as from 
 it the works in permanent fortilicalion are traced. Il 
 is usually rounded in front, and projects about one 
 foot over the niiusonry; while it protect.* the top of 
 the revetment from being sjitursited with water, it 
 also offers, from projection, an obstacle to an encmj' 
 in e><ula(linL' the wall. 
 
 CORDUKOY ROAD.— A roadway formed of logs 
 laid side by side across it, as in marshy places; so 
 called froni its rough or ribbed surface, resembling 
 corduroy. 
 CORE-BARREL.— The core-barrel, as represented 
 in the engraving, consists of a water-tight 
 iron tube, AD, about fifteen feet long and 
 three fourths of an inch thick, its exterior 
 diameter at the head being twelve inches, 
 anil tapering one fourth of an inch, at the 
 lower extremity, to facilitate its withdrawal 
 after the cast. It is roiuided at its lower end, 
 D, and fluted throughout the cylindrical 
 part, to allow the escape of gas generated by 
 the burning of the composition with which 
 it is covered. To prepare the core for cast- 
 ing, journals are first fitted, at either ex- 
 tremity of the barrel; it is then placed in a 
 hori/.ontid position upon an iron truck, l)e- 
 iiig supported by the journals, which rest in 
 bearings. While so supported it is easily 
 turned by means of a crank attached to one 
 of the journals, and is first wrapped or 
 .served with white-hemp stuff (18-thread), 
 covering that portion of the barrel which 
 comes in cont.ict with the molten iron. 
 Over this a coating of molding-composition 
 is applied quite wet, which is wrapped 
 with twine, to insure its adhering. When 
 alK)Ut h-alf dry the outer or last layer of 
 composition is ajjplicd, which, being made 
 quite sticky, adheres readily. Great care 
 is taken to have the surface of the core |icr- 
 feclly smooth, and tlie couiposition of uni- 
 form lliickness. The diameter of the core- 
 barrel for a l.l-inch gun, when complete, 
 is l:i.75 inches at the top, and slightly 
 tapered at the bottom. When ready, the 
 tnick supportimr the core-barrel is rolled 
 into the drying-oven, and when perfectly 
 dry removed; the usual lime required being 
 eighteen boiirs. The composilion then receives a 
 coating of coke-wash, when il is again placed in the 
 oven, where it remains until thoroughly drv. Ujwn 
 its final removal the journals at eillier extremity are 
 removed, Ik-Iu!.' ri'])laced by the regular cap on lop, 
 and a tight-filling s<rew-plug at the boMom, which 
 is covered with molding<-omposition, and dried by a 
 fire built under it. 
 The gauge for centering the core consists of a long 
 
 IB 
 
 wooden rod, on the end of which a piece of Ixiard is 
 fixed at right angles, and on this board a light is 
 placed. The length of this prt)jecting board, previ- 
 ously determined, is the distance the core should l>e 
 from the mold when in the center. Having adjusted 
 the core in the mold by means of the .screws tittwl 
 in the legs of the spider, it iss 'cured tirndy by clumps, 
 made to fit over the lop of the frame und under the 
 tlunge of the flask. 
 
 The core-barrel is withdrawn about eighteen hours 
 after the aisting, !is soou as the metal becomes sufti- 
 eiently cool to permit of its removal. The witli- 
 druwiil causes no delay or trouble, as the rope with 
 which it is wrapped is consumed, and therefore leaves 
 the barrel detuched from the composilion surrounding 
 il, the latter adhering to the bore of the gun. See 
 
 CORE-BOX.- The core-box, employed in the fabri- 
 cation of hollow projecliles and shown in the draw- 
 ing, consists of two hemispherical cups. The lower 
 one is made in two sections, which are so constructed 
 as, when united, to receive and hold the .spindle in 
 place, and also to form a l)ase for the core-box to rest 
 upon while being filled. The core is formed by pour- 
 ing the composition into the opening ut the lop of the 
 upper cup and ramming it down until the interior 
 space is filled. The surface at the ojiening is then 
 rounded off with a former, and the core-box is re- 
 moved. The core Is then thoroughly dried in an 
 oven and afterward painted with coke-wash. 
 
 The reijuisite compression being given by .screws, 
 the core is by meaiLs of a gauge placed exactly in the 
 
 center of the mold and supported in that position by 
 the stem which forms the fuse-hole. The stem is 
 perforated with small holes to allow of the escape of 
 steam and gas generated by the heal of the melted 
 metal; that purt of it which comes in contact with 
 the melted iron and forms the fuse-hole is coated with 
 sand. In pouring the melted iron into the mold with 
 the ladle care shoidd be taken to prevent scoria and 
 dill from entering with it, and for Ibis purpose the 
 sui'face shoidd be skimmed with a wooden stick. 
 After the iron has become sufflcienlly hardened, the 
 flasks arc i)|>cncd and flic sand knocked from the 
 casting. Then the core is broken up and removed, 
 and the interior surface cleaned by a scrai)er. The 
 greatest care is lo be taken lo remove every particle 
 of sand or fragment of iron from the interior. The 
 sinking-head or )>rojecting portion at the gate, and 
 aroinid the base where the two halves join, is taken 
 olV with a lile or chisel if necessary. A number of 
 the lialls are now jilaccd in a large revolving iron 
 cylinder, which by friction polishes and makes the 
 surface more miifonn. See Fiihiiratioii uf Projectilen. 
 
 COREEf SHOT.— An elongated proiccl'ile having a 
 cavily ill Ihc body of il. This cavity is for the pur- 
 pose of throwing the center of gravity towards the 
 front end of the projectile, thus insuring greater 
 steadiness of flight. Tlie hollow projecliles are either 
 shells or casc-shol, both of wliicb, in Iheir constj-uc- 
 tion and use, are similar lo those descrilied for smooth- 
 bore guns. l{ille-])rojeclilcs have a length of two to 
 three times Ibeir diameler, depending upon the pat- 
 tern, and whclhcr .solid or hollow, the luller being 
 generallv the lon^'cr. See Pn'tcflilis. 
 
 CORMONTAIGNE SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 — Cornioiilai^'ne. Ihc iinnii'dialc successor of Vauban, 
 holds a place only second lo this master of the art in
 
 COEMONTAIGNE SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 409 CORMONTAIGNE SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 
 the estimation of the engineers of the French school. 
 In planning the front which has received his name, 
 Corraontaigne seems to have applied himself rather 
 to remedy the defects noticeable in the methods of 
 Vauban than to produce any radical change in the 
 combinations which had thus far received the sjinction 
 of engineers generally. Observing that from the 
 great height given by Vaulian to his scarp-walls 
 tlicy might be easily breaclied from a distance, C'or- 
 mi)nt;iigne suppres.sed the small wall .supporting the 
 parapet and dimini.shed the height of the scarp-wall, 
 placing the top of it on a level with the crest of the 
 glacis. He adopted as a principle thiit all mason ry 
 ultould he marked frmii thi' fin nf the enemy's hatterkm 
 at a diKtanre, and to obtain this point he has so ar- 
 ranged the height of his principal scarps, and the 
 command given to the glacis crest in front of them, 
 that the top of the scarp shall not lie above the level 
 of the crest, thus masking from view the entire scarp, 
 by the earth forming the glacis, from all positions in 
 advance of the glacis crest. C'ormontaigne was the 
 tirst to develop clearly the intiuence of large demi- 
 lunes on the progress of the attack, by their forming 
 deep re-enterings between them in front of the bastion 
 salients. Also the increased strength gained by forti- 
 fying on a right line, or on polygons with a great 
 number of .sides. In lx)th of these cases the fronts 
 a.s.sailed cannot be enveloped by the as.s;ulant's works, 
 and the demi-lunes from their salient position intercept 
 the prolongations of the bastion-faces, thas masking 
 them from the positions from which alone an entilad- 
 ing lire could be brought upon them. The moditica- 
 tions of Vauban's trace are different in the various 
 works of C'ormontaigne; but the following he indi- 
 cates in his memoirs as the one preferred by him. 
 The exterior side is 360 yards; the perpendicular, J; 
 the faces of the bastions, J of the exterior side; the 
 flanks are 40 yards, and are so placed that the curtain 
 shall be 130 yards. This combination makes the lines 
 of defense somewhat less, and fhe bastions larger, than 
 in Vauban's method. The dimensions of the enceinte- 
 ditch are so regulated by C'ormontaigne as to furnish 
 earth sufBcient for the embankments. It is 28 yards 
 wide at the salient, and from 'I to 4 yards wider oppo- 
 site the tonaille ; this admits the entire tire of the 
 tianks to sweep the ditch. The tenaille is made \\ ith 
 a curtain and wings; a ditch 10 yards wide being left 
 between it, the curtain, and the flanks. C'ormon- 
 taigne placed little value on small demi-lunes, as they 
 form but slight and therefore weak reenterings before 
 the bastions, and conse(iuently retard but little the 
 enemy's attack uiion llicin; liesides this, a small demi- 
 lune covers but very ini])erfectly the shoulder-ang'.cs 
 of the bastions. To remedy these defecls, his demi- 
 lune is so laid out that the prolongations of the magis- 
 trals of its faces will intersect the bastion-faces at 30 
 yards from the shoulder-angles; the lengths of its 
 faces being 120 yards. To circumscribe as much as 
 jiracticable the space in the demi iune which the ene- 
 my, after he gains it, requires for his works, the ex- 
 tremity of the demilune terre-plein, which is also the 
 top of the co\nilerscarpof the redoubt, is drawn at 20 
 yards from the magistral of the face: the ditch of the 
 redoubt is 10 yards wide, and the magi'^lral of its face 
 is parallel with the cf)unterscarp. By this arrange- 
 ment the ditch is well flanked by the face of the bas- 
 tion near the shoulder-angle. The general width of 
 the covered-way is 10 yards. C'ormontaigne enlarged 
 considerably the re-entering place-of-arms, to which 
 he added a redoubt with a revetted scarp and counter- 
 scarp. The addition of this work is a great impro\e- 
 ment upon the covered- way of Vauban, who intlicales 
 in his works small redoubts of earth, or tambours 
 of wood, for the same purpose. C'ormontaigne's re- 
 doubt increases the strength of the covered-waj; the 
 troops assembled in the covered-way for sorties are 
 secure under its flres; it sees in reverse, and protects 
 any breach made in the face of thedemi-lune; finally, 
 it serves, in connection with the extremity of thedemi- 
 lune, to cover the opening left between the flanks of 
 
 I the bastion and the wings of the tenaille, through 
 
 I which, if a breach was made in the curtain, the in- 
 terior retrenchments, restmg upon either the flanks or 
 faces of the ba-stion, could lie turned. Traverses are 
 placed along the covered-way, to close the plaees-of- 
 ai-ms, defend the covered-way, and intercept projec- 
 tiles fired in ricochet. The crest of the glacis is broken 
 into a cremaillere line, to allow room for the defiles 
 of the traverses. The short branches of the crcmail- 
 lOre throw a fire on the sjdients of the covered-way; 
 the i)ositions of the long branches iire so taken that 
 the defiles may be seen and swejjt by the fire of the 
 works in their rear. C'ormontaigne, after a series of 
 trials, whose object was to give the ditches such 
 dimensions that they should furnish the earth re 
 quired for the embankments, regulated the command 
 of the different works as follows: The lowest work, 
 which is the demi-lune covered-way, he lays down as 
 a rule, shall command the exterior ground by not less 
 than 7+ feet; and the works most advanced shall Ije 
 commanded by those in the rear. It was found that, 
 for the purpose of equalizing the excavations and 
 
 I embankments of the front, the crest of the demilune 
 covered-way should have a command of lOA feet 
 above the natural ground. The uest of the bastion 
 covered-way, and of the re-entering place-of-arms, 
 coninuvnds the crest of the demi-hme covered-way by 
 2 feet. The magistral of the enceinte is horizontal, 
 it.i elevation being the same as the mean elevation of 
 the crest of the bastion covered- way. The scarp-wall 
 
 ; is ;iO feet high. This dimension has since been gen- 
 erally adopted by engineers. The relief of the te- 
 naille is detemiined as in Vauban's method, so as not 
 to mask the fire of the flanks upon the ditch opposite 
 the extremity of the demilune; as it is here that a 
 breach may Ije ma<ic in the bastion-face, through the 
 ditch of the demi-lune. The demi-lune is commanded 
 bjthe enceinte 3 feet, and by its own redoubt \\ feet. 
 
 I The dend-lune, therefore, commands its covered-way 
 
 ! 7 feet. The redoubt of the re-entering place-of-amis 
 conmiands the crest of the glacis only 4A feet; its in- 
 terior crest is so placed as not to mask the fire of the 
 bastion faces on the glacis in advance of it. The in- 
 terior crests of all the works are 7 J feet atwve their 
 terrc-pleins, except that of the tenaille, which is 64 
 feet; and of the redoubt of the re-entering place-of- 
 aiTns, which is 9 feet. The interior crests of the faces 
 of all the works exposed to enfilading tires are one 
 foot higher at the salients than at the extremities. 
 The pr()file of the parapet of the principal outworks 
 is llie same as that of the enceinte. The communica- 
 tions are generally of the same nature, and placed 
 about in the same positions, as in Vaulian's method. 
 The planes of the glacis are .so <letermined that they 
 ma\' be swept by the tire of the works in the rear; 
 their inclination is usually about twenty-four base to 
 
 [ one iH-rpendicular. When a greater command of the 
 site than that afforded by the enceinte is requisite on 
 any front, Comiontaigne places a cavalier within the 
 bastion. To this work he gives thesiune fonn as that 
 of the bastion; placing the faces and flanks of the two 
 pandlel to each other. The faces of the cavalier are 
 alone revetted, as well as the counterscarp of their 
 ditch, which is cut within the bastion. This ditch is 
 broken off at the shoulder-angles of the cavalier, and 
 directed upon the faces of the ba.stion; thesi' portions 
 also having a revetted scar]) and coimterscarp. A 
 parapet is tlirown up behind the scarp, and between 
 the flank of the cavalier and the ba.stion faces; thus 
 isolating the anterior portion of the bastion, and fur- 
 nishing an interior retrenchment which, when the 
 shoulders and flanks of the bastions are masked from 
 the as.s;iilant's view, can only be carried by a breach 
 made either in the cavalierface, or in tlie portions 
 resting on the cavalier and bastion faces. From the 
 
 , preceding it ap)iears that the most important modi- 
 fications made by Connontaigne in Vauban's first 
 method consist — i. In the means tj\ken to cover the 
 vuuimry from disl.ant batteries. 2. In more capacious 
 
 , bastions susceptible of receiving efticient permanent
 
 COEHET. 
 
 410 
 
 C0KP8. 
 
 interior rttrcm-linuMils. 3. In an enlarged denii-hine, 
 whieh pliut-s the bastions in strong re-enterings, covers 
 llie sln)ulder-iuigles, jind admits of a redoubt in its 
 interior, whieb Work strengthens the demilune, and 
 sees in reverse the breach made in the bastion-face. 
 4. In an enlarge<l re entering place-of-arms, contain- 
 ing a redoul)t which strengthens the entire covered- 
 way, and covers the movement of the troops in sor- 
 ties. The.st- moditications, although of great value, 
 :uid constituting an im|X)rtant step in the art, still 
 leave much to be desired ; and engineers since Cor- 
 niontaigne's time have sought to reme<ly the defects of 
 his methcxi, of which the following are the principal: 
 1. The enceinte has rather too slight a command, and 
 is without any bomb proof shelters. 2. The inclina- 
 tion of the sujierior slope of its paraj>ct, which is J, is 
 too small to have the ditches well flanked. 3. A 
 breach can Ik- made in the ba.stion-face through the 
 ditch of the demilune. 4. There are dead spaces in 
 the ditch of the demilune, near the extremities of its 
 faces, a. The redoubt of tlie re entering place-of-arms 
 is not tenable after the demilune is taken. 6. The 
 traverses of the covered-way do not afford the requi 
 site protection to that work. 7. Finally, the comnui- 
 nications are mostly inconvenient, and not well cov- 
 ered from the a.s.sailant"s tire. See Fortification and 
 Syiitem of Fortification. 
 
 COENST. — 1. A metallic wind-instrument resemb- 
 ling a trumpet, and used in bands. The cornu of the 
 Romans, like the instruments mentioned in Leviticus 
 (.\xv. 9). was curved and fonned from a horn. It 
 was afterwards of metal, probably copper. Its inven- 
 tion is credited by Athenajus to the Etruscans. It 
 differed from the tibia in being larger, and from the 
 tuba in being curved. It had no keys or stopples. 
 
 The comet-i piston, represented in the drawing, is a 
 
 modern w-ind-instniment of the trumpet kind, is gen- 
 erally made of brass, has two or three valves, and in 
 bniss bands takes the soprano and contralto parts. It 
 was first intrfKluced in France as an orchestral instru- 
 ment. Its tones arc less powerful, but farmore easily 
 managesible. than those of the trumpet. See Band. 
 
 2. fn the British service, the lowest grade of com- 
 missioned officer in the cavalry, equivalent to Enm/n 
 in the infantry, liis duly being to be;ir the standard. 
 With the Lieutenant, he a.ssisted the Captain in the 
 daily duties connected with the troop to which he be- 
 longed. There were as many Cornets in a cavalry 
 regiment as there were troops. A Cornet "s connnission 
 used, in the days of " purclia.se," to cost £450; but 
 much larger sums were habituallv paid, varying ac- 
 coriling to the celebrity, or ratlicr the fashionable 
 character, of the Corps. The pay was Six. per day, with 
 1». or U. ti//. extra for field-allowance. The hidf-pay 
 varied from 2*. M. to :i«. M. The pay being uttxTlV 
 inconsistent with the price paid for the comniissioti, 
 none but wealthy men could enter the cavalry. In 
 1871 the rank wa.s abolished. Sub-Lieutenauts (who 
 arc merely probationary Lieutenants) being substi- 
 tuted. 
 
 COHNETTE-BLANCHE.— An ornament which in 
 ancietit liinis served lo distinguish French officers 
 who were high in e<iinmand. It was worn by them 
 on the tops of their helmets. It likewise meant a 
 
 Royal Standard, and was substituted in the room of 
 the" Royal Pennon. The Cornette-blanche was only 
 inifurled when the King joined the armv; and the 
 persons who served under it were Princes, Noblemen, 
 Slarshals of France, and old Captains, whose orders 
 came direct from the King. 
 
 COKNING.— That process in the manufacture of 
 gun|K)wder which takes place after the cake is re- 
 moved from the hydraulic pres.s — having been pre- 
 viously broken down — to the granulating-house, when 
 it is pa.s,sed through rollers anil sieves, until the dif- 
 ferent-sized grains are formed. Corning is another 
 term for granulating. See Gunpoirder. 
 
 COBONA. — An upper saddle-blanket used in pack- 
 ing. Next to the skin of the animal is placed a piece 
 of clean cloth, or an ordinary woolen blanket neatly 
 folded; over this is placed the corona. It is made 
 of woolen cloth, witjj worked ornamental borders, 
 and consists of two or three folds stitched together. 
 The number or name of the animal to which it 
 belongs is generally stitched upon it in colored cloth. 
 In tidiing the corona off, grasp it in the center, front 
 and back, let the sides come together, and place it 
 across the aparejo, back to the rear. The corona 
 should be the same size a.s the sjvddle-blanket, and 
 should neatly cover it, on the animal. See Packing. 
 
 COKFOBAL. — The rank below that of Sergeant. 
 In the British army, at present, Corjxiral is the grade 
 next below non-commissioned officers. When the 
 regiment is formed as a corps, he has no function 
 different from the private soldier. In barracks or 
 camp, however, he exercises certain disciplinar)' con- 
 trol over the privates. At present, in the British 
 army, there are 32 Corporals to each regiment of cav- 
 alry, and 40 for each infantry battalion. They re- 
 ceive pay varying from 1». 3rf. to 2*. orf. per day. 
 The Lance Corporal is an as.sistant Corporal, who re- 
 mains, however, on private's pay ; he wears one 
 chevron on his arm, and two when he rises to the 
 rank of Corporal. In the United States army, a Cor- 
 poral is the lowest officer in a company, standing be- 
 tween a private and Sergeant, and does duty in the 
 ranks as a private, except that he places and relieves 
 sentinels, and at drill has charge of a squad. 
 
 COBFOBAL HAJOB. — In the British service, a troop 
 Corporal Major is the non-commissioned officer of the 
 highest rank in a troop of the Household Cavalry; 
 his position and authority are the same as those of a 
 Color-sergeant of infantry. A regimental Corporal 
 Major is the non-commissioned officer of the highest 
 rank in each of the three regiments of Household 
 Cavalry, and corresponds to a Sergeant Major of 
 infantry. 
 
 CORPOBAL PUNISHMENT.— The infliction on the 
 bare back, by means of a cat-o'-ninc-tails, of a certain 
 number of lashes for crimes committed by soldiers. 
 Except for very grave offenses, such punishment is 
 seldom resorted to in the army, and then only during 
 war-lime or on board ship. The number of lashes is 
 limited to ."iO. 
 
 COBPOBAL'S GUABD.— An exprcs.sion used to in- 
 dicate a detachment of several men under arms. It 
 may be ajiiilied to a squad equal to that usually 
 placed under the charge of a Corporal for drill, 
 jxilice. guard-duty, etc. Generally made use of in a 
 derisive manner. 
 
 COBFS.— The Articles of War use the word corjM 
 in the sense of a i)ortion of the army organized l)y 
 law with a heail and members; or any other military 
 boily having such organizjition, lus the JIarine Corps. 
 A regiment is a corps; an independent company is a 
 corps; a body of officers with one head is a corps, as 
 the Tojiographical Engineers. Detachments of part-s 
 of regiments, or of whole regiments, united for a par- 
 ticvilar object, whether for a camitaign or a part of a 
 campaign, are not corps in the sense of the Rules and 
 Articles of War, for such Ixxlies have neither bend 
 nor members comnn'ssioned in the particular body 
 temporarily so uniteil; but the officers with such de- 
 tachment hold commissions either in the corps com-
 
 COBFS ABTILLEBY. 
 
 411 
 
 COERESPONDENCE. 
 
 posing the detachment, in the army at large, in the 
 Marine Corps, or Militia. 
 
 A corps o]x;rating with an army should consist of 
 three divisions of the line, a brigade of artillery, and 
 a regiment of cavalry. If the corps is to operate in- 
 dependently, the cavalry force should be increased to 
 a division. The same principles which govern the 
 evolutions of a division are applicable to a corps. 
 The commands of the GSeneral are communicated 
 through his Staff -otficers; the)' are general in tlieir 
 nature; embrace the particular formation he may de- 
 sire for each division; the direction the line is to ex- 
 tend ; the point where its right or left is to rest ; and 
 such further instructions as may be necessary lo carry 
 out his views. Orderlies for the Corps, Division, ami 
 Brigade Commanders are detailed from the infajitry, 
 and are mounteii. 
 
 COBFS ABTILLEBY.— A portion of the field-artil- 
 lery left at the entire disposal of the ( )tticer Command- 
 ing the Artillery, to employ in any manner required 
 by the Corps Commander. It is sometimes termed 
 reserve-artillery, and should consist of both light and 
 heavy batteries. It fidtills two purposes — one to sup- 
 port the dirmonal guns, and the other to give the 
 means of combining a large number of pieces as an 
 ardlliry iixus for a decisive elTort either offensive or 
 defensive. | 
 
 COBPS D'ABMZE.— In the militarj- system of the 
 greater Continental European States, an organization 
 of the forces in the time of peace. The whole mili- 
 tary strength is divideil into several corps, each com- 
 plete in itself as an array, with everything needful for 
 service, Staff and Artillerj -park included. The Eng- 
 lish army is now distributed into eight army corps, 
 stationed in eight territorial centers. The French j 
 army had in ISiO nineteen mrps d'armie ; which i 
 have been increased in strength by the recent military I 
 
 present the Corps has one Chief, six Colonels, twelve 
 Lieutenants, twenty-four Majors, thirty Captains, 
 tweuty-six First Lieutenants, and ten Seconil Lieu- 
 tenants; also the Battalion. The Corps is a s|x,-cial 
 arm of the service, charged with the reconnoitcring 
 and surveying for military purposes; the selection of 
 sites, the "formation of plans, projects, and estimates 
 for military defenses of every kind; the construction 
 and repair of fortitications and defensible works of 
 every description, whether temporary or permanent; 
 the planning, laying out, and superintending all mili- 
 tary works, defensive or offensive, of troops in the 
 tield, camp, or cantonment; the examination of all 
 routes of communication by land or by water, both 
 for supplies and for military movements; the plan- 
 ning and construction of militiiry roads and bridges; 
 the planning and execution of such works of river 
 or harbor improvement, including sea-walls, break- 
 waters, and light houses, as may be a.ssigned to it by 
 law, or by the President of thetnited States; the col- 
 lection, arrangement, and preservation of all reports, 
 memoirs, estimates, plans, drawings, and models re- 
 lating to the several duties above enumerated. All 
 quarters for officers and soldiers, all workshops and 
 storehouses required within the lines of permanent 
 fortitications, are constructed by the Corjis of Engi- 
 neers as a part of the work. Until 1866 the Engineer 
 Corps had the superintendence of the United States 
 Militarj- Academy at West Point, but since that year 
 all branches of the service are admitted to their share 
 of supervision. See Engbie^ring and Royal Cvrpn of 
 Engineers. 
 
 doBBECTIVE GAUGES.— A device for testing and 
 correcting fixed caliper-gauges, and also as a refer- 
 ence in imy case to prove dimensions within it.* 
 range; the disks are not constructed on what is termed 
 the pyramid plan; each one is separate, ground inde- 
 
 Corrective Gaup^^^ 
 
 reorganization. Glermany had in the same year eigh- ' 
 teen corps d'armee. In the Austrian service the nor- 
 mal number of corps d'annee is thirteen. The mili- 
 tary strength of Russia, as finally settled in 1876, is 
 distributed over fourteen military districts. See Ar- 
 my Ciirps. 
 
 CORPS DES GUIDES. — A body originally formed in 
 France in IT.iG. consisting of one Captain, one Fir."*! 
 Lieutenant, two Second Lieutenants, two Sergeants, 
 two Corporals, one Anspessade, and twenty Privates, 
 called the Fusilifr-rfuides. Another Corps of Guides 
 was also formed in 1796. This corps now forms 
 part of the Imperial Guard. 
 
 CORPS OF ENGINEERS.- A Corps orgsmized in the 
 United States in 1.S02, to consist of one Colonel, one 
 Lieutenant Colonel, two Majors, four Captains, four 
 First and Second Lieutenants, and Cadets, — the whole 
 number not to exceed twenty, — to he stationed at West 
 Point, and to constitute a Military Academy. In 1838 
 the Corps was increased to forty -seven otficers, and a 
 Corps of Toposraphical Engini'crs in addition wasor- 
 ganized. In 1846. Sapi>ers. Jliners, and Pontoniers 
 (bridge builders) were added. In 1861, at the begin- 
 ning of the Rebellion, three additional companies were 
 provided for, and one of Topographical Engineers 
 was added. This company was disbandetl in 1863, 
 and its officers sent to the" Corps of Engineers. At 
 
 pendently to standard size, and tested b}? tlie measur- 
 ing machine. The usual set, as shown in the draw- 
 ing, is made to embrace forty-nine sizes, advancing 
 1)\'^ sixteenths from one fourth of an inch to two and 
 one half inches, and by eighths to four inches, but 
 can lie furnished with any number of sizes up to any 
 required diameter. ^ca'Oauge, Measuring-inachine, 
 and Standard Scale. 
 
 COBRESPONDENCE. — All official correspondence 
 between the Heads of the different Departments of 
 the Staff of any command and its Commander pas-ses 
 through the Adjutant General. Assistant Adjutant 
 General, or Adjutant of the command, as the case 
 may be. Communications to or from a Commander 
 and those under his command pass through the Ad- 
 jutant General, Assistant Adjutant General, or Adju- 
 tant on duty with it, excepting only such communica- 
 tions between a Disbursing Officer and the Chief of 
 the Bureau in which be serves as relate exclusively 
 to the ordinary routine of business in their own De- 
 partment. Ail communications, reports, estimates, 
 etc., from officers serving at a military post, as well 
 as communications of every nature addressed to them 
 relating to affairs at the post, pa.ss through the Past 
 Commander. All communications, whether from an 
 inferior to a superior, or rice rers/r, are, as a general 
 rule, to pass through the intenuediate Commanders.
 
 COBBIDOB. 
 
 412 
 
 COBUNDUM. 
 
 In cases of pressinj; necessity, wliidi leave no time 
 fi)r rcgul.ir comnuinicniion, the necessity is staled. 
 The siiine rule iroveriis in verlial applications. A 
 Lieuteniuit scekiiii; an iuiluljieuce applies thivngh 
 his Captain, a Captain through the Adjutant, and so 
 on. This, however, is not interpreted as including 
 matters in relation to which the intermediate Com- 
 manders can have no knowledge, and over which 
 they are not cxjicctcil to exercise control orlo express 
 opinion. All communications from superior to in- 
 ferior officers are answered through the same chiui- 
 uel iLs rweived. 
 
 Officers cannot apply to the Secretary of War or 
 Generid of the Army for jiersonal favors, or address 
 Iheiu on olliciid nialters in any other manner than is 
 l>res<TilH-<l liy Regulations and military usjigc. All 
 such conununications must be in writing, and ad- 
 dres-ifd to the Ailjutant Genend of the Array, through 
 the intiTineiliate Commanders. Applications made 
 in any other mode than that above prescribed are not 
 entertained, but are construed as a breach of disci- 
 pline, subjecting the writer to arrest and trial for dis- 
 obedience of orders. Generally otHccrswho forward 
 cxmimunicalions indorse on them their remarks or 
 opinion, without other letters of transmittal. Ollieial 
 letters should genend ly refer to one matter onl}-. 
 Those transmitting rolls and returns should refer to 
 no other subject. Applications for opinions or deci- 
 sions uixm questions relating to official business are 
 not made by persons in the militarj' ser\ice to the 
 Judge Advocate General, or to officers connected with 
 other branches of the Government, as the Attorney 
 Genend. or officers of the Treasury Department, 
 without first .submitting such question to the Secre- 
 tary of War through the regular channels. Xo offi- 
 cer is add re.s.s<Hl in orders or official communications 
 by any title other thiin that of bis actual rank. All 
 comnmtiications on public senice are marked on the 
 enveloix' "Official Busines.s." 
 
 Whenever more than three pages of the sheet used 
 are re(|uired for the body of the communication, an 
 additional half-sheet, or more if ncccs.s;ny, is neatly 
 pasted to the first sheet, so that the outer page may 
 be left entirely blank. Letter-paper is folded in 
 three, foolscap in four, equal folds, parallel with the 
 writing. The iimer eiige of the sheet is the top when 
 folded. The left-haml fold of the outer page is the 
 first fold. The first fcld is used exclusively for a 
 brief analysis of the contents of the original com- 
 munication, the office marlvs, and noting of inclos- 
 ures. Indorsements commence at top of the second 
 fold, and follow each other in regular order of date 
 on successive folds, leaving room after each for office 
 marks. In no ca.se should a loose wrapper be placed 
 aroun<l an t)fficial paper, except as a mere covering, 
 on which nothing is to be written; but additional 
 space for indorsiinents should be provided by neatly 
 pasting slips of paper on the under side of the la.sf 
 fold — right-hand edge of the original paper — each 
 slip to c<)rres|X)nd in" length and w'iilth (when pitsted 
 on) with the length and "width of the original fold, 
 and to turn back upon the last fold like tlie leaves of 
 a lxx)k. By this arrangement the first fold on which 
 the office marks and brief are made is always outside. 
 Printed lal)els, by way of indorsement, are "not pasted 
 on the papers; thev cause the folds to crack, and in- 
 cresLse the bulk of the paix'rs. All inclosurcs arc 
 nmnbered, and liear the proper office marks. Inclos- 
 urcs of the original commimieation are noted on the 
 first fold, just below tlie l)rief. If others are added 
 when an indors<Mnent is made, the number of them is 
 noted at the foot of their appiopriate indorsement, and 
 also on the first fold of the original communication, 
 and to the latter notation is added the mimt«'r of the 
 indorseiiKMit to which they l)elong, thus: Oiu' indm- 
 lire — Fiph iiiiliir/uminl. Inclosurcs to indorsements 
 are numlicriHl in the s;ime series as those to the ori- 
 ginal paper, and the numlicr of the indorsement to 
 which they belong is added Ih'Iow. If few in nuin- 
 ber and not bulky, inclasurcs may be kept inside 
 
 the original paper. If otherwise, they will l)e folded 
 together in a wrapper marked '■ Inclosurcs, " as an ac- 
 cdrnpanviiig package. 
 
 COKRIDOK.— The covered-way lying aroiiud the 
 wbnlc compass of the fortifications of a place. 
 
 CORROSION. — A six'cies of dis.solution of metallic 
 bodies either by an acid or a sidine menstruum Can- 
 non-metals should be able to resist the corroding ac- 
 ti<m of the atmosphere, and the heat and the products 
 of combustion of the powder; should be susceptible 
 of being easily bored and turned; and should not be 
 too costly, on account of the very great number and 
 weight of caimon required for the military service. 
 
 CORBOSIVE SUBLIMATE.— A laboratory substance 
 described as the bichloride of mercury. It is formed 
 by introducing hot mercury into chlorine gas; the 
 mercury intlames and the bichloride is formed. There 
 are other ways oi preparing it. What is tenned ky- 
 anizing is applying this substance to the preserva- 
 tion of timber, cordage, aiils, tent-cloths, and other 
 fabrics from ilecay by mold, or by the ravages of 
 insects. This mode of preserving the articles men- 
 tioned is the invention of Mr. Kvan. 
 
 CORRUGATED IRON. — Comnion sheet - iron, and 
 what is improperly called " galvanized-iron" (i.e., 
 sheet-iron coated with zinc by immersion in a bath of 
 the fased metal), have of late lieen made available for 
 manj' useful purposes, by \-irtue of the great addi- 
 tional strength imparted to the sheets by corrugation, 
 which is merely an application to metallic substjinces 
 of the old coiurivauce of " goffering or crimping," by 
 means of which the frills of the olden time were 
 made to keep their shape. The sheets of metal are 
 passed between rollers, the surfaces of which are 
 formed into rounded grooves and ridges, the ridges 
 of one roller tilling the grooves of the other. The 
 metal in passing between these is compresse'd into a 
 waving form, or corrugated. It will be e;isily under- 
 stood that a piece of sheet-metal, of gi\en size and 
 thickness, if rolled up to form a tube, will resist a 
 much greater bending strain thim when fiat. Now 
 the curves of the corrugation may be regarded sis a 
 scries of half-tubes, and the additional strength is due 
 to the application of the same principle. Walls and 
 roofs of temporary' buildings are now extensively 
 made of this material. Railway-sheds, emigrants' 
 houses, temporary churches, store-rooms, and sheds 
 for dock yards, etc., are among the common applica- 
 tions. >tr. Francis, of Xew York, has ai^plied the 
 principle to the construction of light boats, the 
 .strength of which, and their power of resisting vio- 
 lent blows, such as boats are subject to on landing 
 through a surge, is said to be remarkably great. On 
 this account they are proposed to be used for life- 
 boats, ships' bdafs, etc. They a'e made by stamping 
 the metal in enormous dies, of the shape and size of 
 the boat, and grooved for the recpiired corrugjitions. 
 Small boats thus constructed recpiiro no internal 
 bracings, the requisite rigidity and strength being 
 given entirely by the corrtigations. 
 
 CORSELE'T.—" A small ctiiniss, or i>iece of armor to 
 cover the front of the body, worn formerly by pike- 
 men. See Ariiinr. 
 
 CORSEQUE.— The common name of the ranseur in 
 Pranci . See Iiaii»ti/r. 
 
 CORSESCA.— A kind of spear used in the sixteenth 
 century. Now obsolete. 
 
 CORSC— An Italian word used to express not only 
 the racing of horses (without riders), but also the slow 
 driving in jirocession of handsome equipages through 
 the ))rincipal streets of a town, such as almost always 
 takes place in Italy on festivals. This custom has 
 given a name to many streets in almost all the larger 
 townsof Italy. The" best known of these is the Corso 
 in Honu'. wliich is the scene of the celebrated diver- 
 sions of the carnival. 
 
 CORTEGE.— The official staff, civil or militarj-; a 
 train of allendants. Sec Tritimpli. 
 
 CORUNDUM. — A lianl mineral consisting of crys- 
 talline alumina. The sapphire and ruby are allied
 
 COSIONE. 
 
 413 
 
 COUNCIL OF ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 substances of different colors. Corundum is used in 
 powder of varying lincncss; is made u)) into wheels 
 and laps with gums, resins, glue, etc.; and is em- 
 ployed in the armory in the form of cones, cups, 
 tiles, slabs, wheels, lajis, bobs, points, and tapes. 
 
 COSIGNE.— The French expression commonly used 
 for the ii;irole or countersign. 
 
 COSSACKS.— A jx'ople inhabiting those parts of the 
 Ru.ssian Empire ^\ hich bonier on the northern domin- 
 ions of Turkey, Poland, and the .southern contines of 
 Siberia. Botli the name and origin of this people are 
 involved in great uncertainty. They seem to have 
 none of the national characteristics of the Rus.sians, 
 and are probably a mixed Caucasian and Tartar race. 
 They form a sort of independent rei)ublic, paying no 
 taxes to Russia, but cheerfully contributing their nu- 
 merous anil valuable contingent of men, who are 
 well known as the most harassing light troops that 
 ever exercised a predatory warfare in the tniiu of any 
 army. 
 
 COSTON SIGNAL-LIGHTS.— These consist of red, 
 green, and white lights and their various combina- 
 tions, representing the different numbers and pend- 
 ants. The colors assimilate a.s far as possible with 
 those of the day-flags. The case is made of fusi-- 
 paper 3 inches long and U inch in diameter. A 
 cylindrical block of soft wood i inch long forms the 
 bottom, with a wooden nipple attached to tit into 
 the signal-holder or tiring-pistol. Through the cen- 
 ter of the bottom is a small hole with a thin copper 
 tube ,',; inch in diameter, extending through the 
 middle of tlie case to within i inch of the top. Hol- 
 low drifts are used in tilling, which are struck fifteen 
 moderate blows with a half-pound mallet for each 
 charge. The ca.sc is filled to the top of the copper 
 tube; the last charge l)eing i ounce of mealed powder. 
 A small strand of quick-match is put through the 
 copper tube and wooden l)Ottom, the upper end 
 stitched to the side of the paper case above the 
 mealed powder, and the lower end split to make 
 sure of its ignition by the cap from the pistol. The 
 top of the case is covered with a thin wafer of brown 
 paper immediately over the quick-match and mealed 
 powder; then over all is a pasteboard top with a rim 
 secured to the body of the case bj- a strip of pajKT 
 pasted on the two. The wooden bottom is covered 
 with shellacked paper. The signal is finally cov- 
 ered with white, red, or green paper, according to the 
 color of the composition, and packed in laboratory- 
 boxes for issue. 
 
 The several colors in the Coston signals are in- 
 tended to burn from 8 to 10 seconds. In a signal 
 composed of three colors 1^ charges of the composi- 
 tion of the last color to be burned are put in first and 
 driven; a thin circular disk of paper is put in the 
 case on top of this composition, then IJ charges of 
 the second color are piit in and driven, a piece of 
 paper put on, and then 11 charges of the first color to 
 be burned are put in and tlrivcn. 
 
 When a signal is composed of Imt tT\'0 colors, the 
 lower third of the paperca.se is filled with powdered 
 clay, and driven the same as the composition, then 
 on top of this clay the second colored composition is 
 driven, and on that the first. When but one color 
 forms a signal, two thirds of the case is first filled 
 with clav, and the composition driven in the upper 
 third, 'fhe following compositions are used for Cos- 
 ton signals: 
 
 For the white signals — .5 parts sublimate of sul- 
 phur; 5 parts sulphuret of antimony; 2 parts red oxide 
 of lead; 3 parts sulphuret of arsenic; * part bleached 
 shellac; 24 parts nitrate of potash. 
 
 For the red light — 16 part.s chlorate of pota.sh; 
 6 parts oxalate of strontium; 2 jiarts bleached shel- 
 lac; 2 parts sugar of lead; i part desiccated lamp- 
 black. 
 
 For the green light — 4 parts chlorate of mercury; 
 2 parts bleached shellac; 12 parts chlorate of bariiun. 
 See Sitiriol-rnrket. 
 
 COTICE.— In Heraldry, one of the duninutives of 
 
 the bend. It is a fourtli part of the bend, and is usu- 
 ally borne in couples with a head between. Some- 
 times written Cont. See Iknthiry. 
 
 COTTON WASTE.— The refu.se cotton collected in 
 cotton-mills. It is used for wiping machinery, and 
 should be put away wilh care in some out-of-the-way 
 place when the work of the day is over, or sat\irate(i 
 in w aler with a solution of soda and boiled, when the 
 oil will be extracted. In its oily state with i)articular 
 oils, such as vegetable-oils, it is liable to sjioiitaneous 
 combustion, and should not therefore he left about. 
 It is very dangerous, as will be realized, to leave it 
 in houses where gunpowder is manufactured. It is 
 not at all unlikely that the explosion in many gun- 
 powder-housies, the reason of which has been un- 
 known, has been caused from cotton waste contain- 
 ing oil having been left in the houses at night, and 
 thus ignited the building or buildings. In some cot- 
 ton \\ asle itself there are the elements of fire. 
 
 COUCHANT.— In Heraldrj', a beast lying dow n, and 
 with his head up, is cmuliant. If the head is down, 
 he is dortiiant. See Heraldry. 
 
 COUDIEEES.— Small plates of metal, of various 
 shapes, fixed together by straps and buckles, over 
 the mail, in order to give an increa-^ed security to the 
 elbows. 
 
 COTJLLABT.— A military instrument of war used in 
 the early part of the fifteenth century for the purpose 
 of casting great stones. 
 
 COUNCIL OF ADMINISTEATION.— A Board of Of- 
 ficei-s periodically assembled for the administration 
 of certain business matters. In the United States ser- 
 vice, the Commanding Otflcer of everj' post, at least 
 once in everj- two months, on muster-days, convenes 
 a Pout Council of Adtiiinistratioii, to consist of the 
 three regimental or company officers next in rank to 
 himself; or, if there be b>it two, then the Uro ne.xt; if 
 but one, the one next; and if there be none other than 
 himself, then he himself acts. Regimental Councils 
 of Administration consist of the three officers of the 
 regiment on duty at headquarters next in rank to the 
 Commander. The junior member records the i)ro- 
 ccedings of the Coimcil in a book, and submits the 
 same to the Commanding Officer. If he disapprove 
 the proceedings, and the Council, after a reconsidera- 
 tion, adhere to its decision, a copy of the whole is 
 sent by the Officer Conmianding to the next higher 
 C'ommander, whose decision is final, and entered in 
 the Council-book, and the whole is published in 
 Orders for the information and goverimient of all 
 concenied. The proceedings of Councils of Admin- 
 istration are signed by the P*resident and Recorder, 
 and the Recorder of each meeting, after entering the 
 whole proceedings, together with the final order 
 thereon, deposits the book with the Commanding Offi- 
 cer. In like manner, the approval or objections of 
 the Officer ordering the Council are signed with his 
 own hand. The Post Council prescribes the quantity 
 and kind of clothing, small equipments, and soldiers' 
 neces-sjiries, groceries, and all articles which the Post 
 Traders maj- be required to keep on hand; examines 
 the Post Traders' books and papers, and fixes the 
 tariff of prices of the Siud goods or commodities; in- 
 spects the Po.st Traders' weights and measures: fixes 
 the laundress' charges, and makes regulations for the 
 Post School. Councils of Administration at posts oc- 
 cupied by companies of the s:ime regiment, at regular 
 meetings" set aside and cause to be paid over to tlie 
 regimental treasurer fifty per cent of the amount ac- 
 cruing to the post fund during the preceding two 
 months after deducting the expenses of the bakerj-. 
 This amount is carried by the Regimental Treasurer to 
 the credit of, and will constitute, the regimental fund. 
 When a post is garrisoned by companies of ;!ilTerent 
 regiments, the Council makes an equitable divi.sion 
 ofthe sum allotted to the regimental fund, and causes 
 the sum belonging to each regiment or corjis to lie 
 paid over to its Treasurer. In csise of the loss of regi- 
 mental, post, or company funds, the circumstances of 
 the loss are carefully iiivestigated by the Council of
 
 COUNCIL OF WAK. 
 
 414 
 
 COUNTEB OUARO. 
 
 Ailmiiiislnitiou, iiud rc|M)rtc'il with a recomiiU'iKliition 
 as to the rfsi)ousibilily, tlirout'li the pro|XT chiiuucls, 
 to the Adjuiaut GfUfral, for Uecision by the Secre- 
 tary of War. 
 
 COUNCIL OF WAK.-^A conference of officers, in 
 niililiiry nr naval warfare', on some matter in which 
 the C'ommaniler wishes to fortify bis jmljrment by an 
 apiH-al to that of others. The F^rench make a s|X'(ial 
 provision for a Council of Defense in a garrison. 
 The Governor or Cominandanl may summon the 
 I leads of Departments to meet him in consultation 
 whenever be may think such a step desirable; and 
 the opinions expre.s.si'd at such meetings are placed 
 upon reconl. The t'ommandant of a gsirrison gener- 
 ally solicits the oi>inion of a Council of War liefore 
 surrendering to besiegers. The English Military 
 Cotle Icjives these matters to the discretion of the 
 C'ommaniler. 
 
 COUNTER APPROACHES.— With a strong, well- 
 disciplined giirrison, skillfully commanded, one of the 
 most efficient auxiliary means of defease is to be 
 found in counter-approaches from the main defensiye 
 works on the point of attack, towards the position of 
 the besieger's lints. Tlie.se consist of simple trenches 
 pushed forward from the most advanced works as far 
 as can be safely done with a view of obtaining enlilad- 
 ing and reverse fires, both of artillery and infantry, 
 on the trenches and batteries of the besiegers. The 
 front to be occupied by the counter-approaches, the 
 distance to which they should be pushed forward in 
 advance of the main works, and the direction they 
 should ri'ceive will depend upon the natural features 
 of the site, the positions and strength of the lx;sieger's 
 works, and the bearing of the main defensiye works 
 upon the ground over which the counter-approaches 
 must be run. 
 
 The portions of the liesiegcr's works that the counter- 
 approaches can be made most effective against are his 
 batteries and bis Iwyaux of approach. Positions, 
 therefore, should be given to the coiuiter-approaches, 
 and a sufficient front to obtain enfilading and slant 
 reverse views on the boyaux with artillery and nuis- 
 ketry, and a fire of Sharp-shooters on the batteries, 
 with a complete \iew of the ground in advance of 
 them, not obstructing, however, the fire of the main 
 defenses. The trenches by which they are coimectctl 
 with the defensive works should be enfiladed by these, 
 and should be so run that the retreat of the troops 
 through them shall not be liable to be cut off, whilst 
 they should offer a convenient and short line of com- 
 munication. To prevent them from being of imme- 
 diate use to the Ixsiegers, if carried by open assault, 
 the reverse of the trenches, even of those which are 
 enfiladed from the main defensive line, sboulii receive 
 a gentle slope to the rear to enable the trench to be 
 swept by a slant or even direct fire from the works in 
 the rear. If good positions can be found for them, 
 the counter-approaches should be supported by strong 
 field-works; otherwise stockaded keeps for small de- 
 tachments may be made at suitable points to assist in 
 repelling any ojieti a.s.s;iult of the besiegers. 
 
 From the most advanced line of the counterap- 
 proacbes, picked men may be sent forward to occupy 
 good position.s to aimoy the artillerists and working 
 parties of the besiegers by taking shelter behind any 
 cover from fire or by digging boles, from which, by 
 throwing the earth in front, they can speedily gaiii 
 cover. These holes may be gradually enlarged so as 
 to contain three or four men each, wlio can lie readily 
 rallied for mutual sujiporl against open assjuills bV 
 small detachments of the besiegers, or for small sorties 
 against their workmen. The counter-approaches will 
 also be usi-d for jjosilions for movable batteries of 
 light ritled guns, which can l)e shifted from point to 
 point during the day, wherever they can best aimoy 
 the besieger's works and find cover, and be witii- 
 dra'.vn at night to .secure them from the danger of 
 capture. During Ibis period the Engineer Ollicers and 
 workmen are employed in organizing the ]K)int of at- 
 t;ick for a rigorous defense. The covered-\vavs arc 
 
 palisadi il with care. TamlKiurs, or block-houses, are 
 e.stablisbe<l in the salients of the most advanced and 
 ex|)os«'d outworks, and al.so in the re-eulerings, where 
 guards are constjintlv i>oste(V. See AppriHirhes. 
 
 COUNTER-ARCH.— In fortification, a vertical arch 
 coiinccling the to]is of the counterforts. 
 
 COUNTER-BATTERY.— A battery employed to dls- 
 mounl or silence, by direct fire, the guns of an 
 enemy's works. In such a batteiy the interior crest 
 should be nearly parallel to the line to be counter- 
 battered. A position somewhat oblique to the line, 
 so that the shot of the battery may enter the embra 
 sures obliquely, is also a good one for tearing away 
 the cheeks of the embrasures and exposing the guiis 
 of the defenses. Whenever a position has to l)e 
 taken up for an enfilading or a counter-battery, in 
 which the direction that can be given to the interior 
 crest is very oblique to that which it ought to receive, 
 it will be necessary to make the embnusures of the 
 battery with a corresponiling obliquity to the direc- 
 tion of the parapet; but to avoid the inconvenience of 
 these embrasures when very oblique, it will be neces- 
 sary to break the interior crest into a serrated line, to 
 allow the muzzles of the guns to be run the requisite 
 distance into the embrasures; placing one side of the 
 indent perpendicular to the axis of the embrasure, 
 and the other parallel to it. 
 
 For ricochet, the batteries are best armed with 
 smooth-bore 18- and 2-t-pouuders and 8-inch howit- 
 zers. The fire of the guns is mainly directed against 
 the artillery of the defenses; that of the how itzers to 
 sweep the covered-ways and ditches, to destroy the 
 palisiidings and the traverses by the explosion of the 
 shells that may lodge in them. As a general rule, 
 there need not be more than seven pieces, nor should 
 there usually be less than three in any one battery; 
 the numlxT depending upon the bearing which the 
 artillery of the part to be silenced may have upon the 
 ground on which the works of the besiegers must be 
 placed. The batteries should be sis far asunder as 
 practicable, so as not to invite a concentration of the 
 fire of the defenses upon any point, by the accumula- 
 tion of a large number of pieces on it, and thus mul- 
 tiply the chances of the loss both to the troops and 
 maU^riel. 
 
 The greater i^art of these batteries will occupy fixed 
 positions during the time they are in use, and which, 
 as has been stated, will depend upon the positiotLs 
 occupied by the artillery of the besieged. Other bat- 
 teries of lighter caliber, which can be easily shifted 
 from point to point, as the exigency may reqtiire, can 
 be used in combination with these, by taking aclvan- 
 tage of any natural covers, or by throwing up slight 
 parapets like those in ordinary field-works. For bat- 
 teries of ritled guns, with long ranges, the guns may 
 safely and advantageously be placed in barbette. For 
 positions within more certain range of the besieged 
 works, the guns should be jilaced in embrasures more 
 or less open according to the field of fire desired. 
 Sec liiiKi rit'H and h'lifi/inHnr/ liiittrry. 
 
 COUNTER CHANGED.— In Heraldry, when several 
 metals and colors are intermi.xed, one being .set against 
 the other, I hey are said to be counter-changed. 
 
 COUNTERFORT.— In fortification, a mass of stone 
 or lirick work added to the revetment of a rampart, in 
 such a way as to form a buttress for resisting the 
 pressure of the ma.ss of ejirth. Counterforts occur at 
 intervals of about twenty feet, and assist in preventing 
 the earth from i^tishingdown the revetment-wall into 
 the ditch. When jimperly constructed, counterforts 
 very effectually enable tbe'walls to resist the shock of 
 distant artillery. Tiny have been made dovetailed. 
 firl<i)i//ii/(ir. and ilhiiiinxtied. 
 
 COUNTER-GUARD.— 1. An outwork designed to 
 defend the two faces of a bastion or ravelin from a 
 direct fire, so as to retjird a breach being made. The 
 counter-guard consists of two lines of rampart par- 
 allel to the faces of the bastion or ravelin, and sepa- 
 rated from them by a narrow ditch. The crest of 
 the counter-guard must be some three feet lower than
 
 COUNTEB-HURTEBS. 
 
 415 
 
 COUNTEBMIKES. 
 
 that of the works it covers, in order not to obstruct 
 the defense. Lest the enemy should estaljlish a bat- 
 tery on the counter-guard, the terre-jilein, or flat space 
 behind its parapet, is made very narrow. Noizet 
 speaks of the counter-guard as a valuable, and some- 
 times a necessary, element of a front; preferring it 
 in some ca.ses to the demi-lune. Like all other out- 
 works, when used, it should be tiauked by the en- 
 ceinte flanks, be swept on the interior by the lire of 
 its faces, and not intercept their tire on the ground 
 in advance of it. Vauban, in his third method, forms 
 his enceinte with a high scarp-wall, of the same di- 
 mensions and form as in his tirst method; and he 
 procures his flanking aiTangemeuts for the enceinte 
 by small bastioned towers of ma-sonry, which are 
 Ciusemated in the lower story, and have mi open bat- 
 tery in the upper, covered by a masonry parapet. 
 This enceinte he covers with spacious counter-guards 
 of the form of lunettes, the faces, flanks, and gorges 
 of which are revetted, and which cover the bastioned 
 towers of the enceinte; and between the flanks of 
 these counter-guards, and covering the curtain of the 
 enceinte between the bastioned towers, he places a 
 tenaille. A demilune, in the form of a lunette, is 
 placed in front of the counter-guards and tenaille; 
 •within which he has placed a redoubt with a revetted 
 scarp and coimtersearp. The whole of this combi- 
 nation of outwork-s he incloses with a covered-way 
 ammged in the usual manner. C'ormontaigne uses 
 the counter-guard only as an exceptional outwork; 
 and has applied il, in some of the works constructed 
 by him, to strengthen a point that would otherwise 
 have been too weak; but not, as by Vauban, as a con- 
 stituent [lart of his method. Two of the most emi- 
 nent modern Engineers, Coehorn and C'arnot, in their 
 methods, use earthen counter-guards to cover their 
 enceintes, giving them only sufficient thickness at the 
 top for a parapet and a banquette fur infantry; .so 
 that, being taken bj' the assiiilant, he will not find 
 sufticient room to place a breach-battery upon their 
 terre-pleius against the enceinte. In this way they 
 serve chiefly as masks or face-covers to the enceinte- 
 faces. Haxo forms of the counter-guard a constitu- 
 ent element of his method, giving it, like Vauban, 
 the form of a lunette. See Ovtwork^. 
 
 2. A plate of metal, flat or concave, plain as in 
 open work, found on the side of the barrel (and per- 
 pendicular to its axis) in swords of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 COUNTEB-HUBTEES.— In gimnerj', pieces of iron 
 bolted to the rails on which the gun-carriage moves 
 to check it in front and rear. 
 
 COUNTEKMAND.^To revoke, as a former com 
 mand; to direct or order in opposition to an order 
 previously given, thereby annulling it or prohibiting 
 its execution. 
 
 COUNTEBMABCH.— An evolution by which a body 
 of men change front, and at the same time retjiin the 
 same men in the front rank. On the same principle, 
 a whole army will sometimes change front. If after 
 the covmterniarch the order about facf be given, the 
 same front will be preserved, with the rear rank in 
 front, and what was previously the right now serving 
 as the left. A rear rank may also become a front 
 rank by merely countennarching round the end of 
 the latter, which remains stationary. 
 
 To place a piece of artillery and its caisson in the 
 same relative positions on the groimd they occupied 
 l)cforc, b\it facing in the opposite direction, the In- 
 structor commands: 1. CouiiUrmarch, 2. March. At 
 the command march, the leading carriage reverses, 
 and moves at once to the position occui)ied by the 
 rear carriage at the beginning of the movement; the 
 rear carriage follows the track of the leading one, 
 reverses on the Siime ground, and preserves its dis- 
 tance. On the completion of the countermarch, the 
 section moves forward in the new direction. To halt 
 the section upon the completion of the countermarch, 
 the Instructor commands: 1. Section, 2. H.\lt. The 
 command halt is given when the heads of the lead- 
 
 horses of the leading carriage reach the position oc- 
 cupied by the hind part of the rear carriage at the 
 beginning of the movement. 
 
 COUNTEBMINES.— Galleries or chambers exca- 
 vated under the glacis or some other part of a defense- 
 work of a fortress. Their purjio.se is to foil a besieger. 
 In a fortress on a large scale there are cnveloping- 
 galleries, counterscarp -galleries, listening-galleries, 
 galleries of communication, ancl other subterranean 
 pa-ssages, imder various parts of the outworks, all for 
 the purpose of assisting the defenders in discovering 
 and frustrating plans laid by the Ix'sicgers. Listen- 
 ing-galleries are sometimes pushed forward even to 
 the foot of the glacis. In such places si'lected men 
 put their ear to the ground, and listen for the aji- 
 proach of the enemy, as denoted bj' the sound of tools 
 used in driving a mine or gallery of attack, The 
 sound of a pickaxe so emiiloyed can be heard through 
 the groimd at a distance of BO feet. As there are no 
 openings above, tliese galleries cannot be driven be- 
 yond a certain distance, as the sappers would be 
 stifled for want of air. If a mine be flriven to blow- 
 up the defen.se-works, a countermine is driven to 
 blow up the besiegers; and sometimes the two parties 
 carry their works so far as to meet in the subterranean 
 passages, and there fight. If there be only a thin 
 wall of earth left between them, they will fire pistols 
 through bored holes, or drive in cartridges or smoke- 
 balls. This terrible work is mostly carried on b3' 
 .s;ippers and miners. 
 
 The systems of countermines proposed by most 
 writers on this branch of the defense are genendly of 
 too complicated a character to admit of being exe- 
 cuted at a reasonable cost, and they require for their 
 service not only a large amount of powder, but also a 
 great mmiber of miners. The following arrangement 
 has been proposed to meet in a simple and satisfac- 
 tor)' manner the requisites of a subterranean defense: 
 Parallel to the capital of an assailable salient of the 
 work, four listening-galleries ma.y run out to a dis- 
 tance trom 50 to 80 yards beyond the salient; the in- 
 j terval between these galleries being twice the line of 
 i least resistance of the heaviest charged mines. If we 
 , take this line at 7 yards, or 21 feet, which is about 
 : the greatest for common mines, the interval of the 
 galleries will be 15 yards. The dimensions of the lis- 
 tening-galleries for alxiut the first 20 yards may be 
 those of a grand gallery, and the remaining part may 
 be a common gallerj". These galleries will depart 
 from a transversal grand gallery about 6 yards in ad- 
 , vancc of the counterscarp at the .sjdieni, which will 
 I serve as a commimication between them, and also as 
 I a depot. Other transversals of the size of half-galler- 
 ( ies, or branches, will be made at diflFerent intervals 
 for the purpose of ventilation. This group of galler- 
 ies will have their outlet into the ditch, through two 
 galleries, one leading from each extremity of the 
 transversal grand gallery. 
 
 To flank thLs group, other listening-galleries may 
 extend obliquely outwards from the two outside par- 
 allel galleries. To serve the mines of this group, a ser- 
 ies of ascending branches may lead from the galleries 
 to chambers, placed midway between the galleries, 
 and having a line of least resistiuice of 4 yards. This 
 will place these chambers at about 8 yards from the 
 two adjacent galleries. Smaller branches may lead, 
 if necessary, from these last branches to other groups 
 of chambers having a line of lea-st resistance of 2 or 
 3 j'ards. A series of chambers with lines of least re- 
 sistance of T yards will be established in juxtjiposition 
 with each listening-g;illery. Froiu this arrangement 
 it will be readily seen that ground over the mines can 
 be entirely broken up, and that the successive explo- 
 sions of "the mines of one group will destroy the 
 branches and galleries which lead to them, without 
 injuring those of other groups. The object of this 
 disposition is to blow up by repeated explosions the 
 ground over which the enemy must approach upon 
 the assailed salient. Groups of gjilleries and mines 
 similar to the one in advance of the salient may be
 
 COUVTXB FABOLE. 
 
 416 
 
 COUNTEHSCAHP GALLEBT. 
 
 iiiranjrcil for the dofcns«> of tho interior of the work 
 lit Ihf siilii'nt. As ihf air in tlio crallcrics of mines is 
 li;ilile to l)eeonie foul from various causes, some me- 
 ehaniesil c-ontrivances anil ehemieal methods by which 
 the vitiated air can be removed and fresh air inlro- 
 duceil have to 1h' resorti'd to for the pur|)osi' of ena- 
 blinjr the miners to circulate throuv;li them with 
 safety. Air pumps, bellows, ami artilieial draufthts, 
 proeiirisl b_v kindling a tire at one of the outlets of a 
 system of "pilleries, are the onlinary expedients by 
 which this object is attained. 
 
 The great iH'cuniarv outlay requisite in establishing 
 a system of g-alleries, the time and lalwr for their con- 
 struction, besides the large corps of exixTienced mi- 
 ners and the e.xtni provision of powder demanded for 
 their ellicient service when the .system embraces any 
 consiilerable extent of surface, has led Engineers to 
 consider whether the end proposed by subterranean 
 means of defense might not be attained by some more 
 simple expedients. Since the applicalioii of galvanic 
 currents to exploding mines, and the facilities which 
 it affords to ellect this at very considerable distances, 
 it has been proposed to substitute isolated shafts for 
 
 Countermining Opt-rations at Siege of Sebastopol. 
 
 galleries, placing them in positions most suitable to 
 attiiin the besieger's works. The shafts, to give them 
 a character of permanency, may be lined with ma- 
 sonrj- and receive a stone "or iron cover, which may 
 tH! concealed from \-icw by placing it several feet be- 
 low the surface. When wanted for service, the shaft.s 
 are ehargeil and tamped in the usual manner, and con- 
 nected with a galvanic battery by insulated wire con 
 duetors, laid sulbciently far belo'w the surface of the 
 ground to be without the sphere of the besieger's ex- 
 cavations and of other accidents. 
 
 We find remarkable countemiining operations at 
 the siege of Sebasloixil. There the French had to 
 work under far more uiifavoral)le circumslanecs than 
 the Russians; the system of countermines of the latter 
 ln-ing well ventilated by shafts sunk in the ditch of 
 biLstion No. 4, and others in the glacis, and also being 
 l)clow strata of a hard limestone rock, anil the French, 
 moreover, having a greater distance to push their gal- 
 leries to reach tlie Russian counteniiines than these 
 were from their defensive works in their rear. Svith 
 lhes<! disadvantages, the French resolved, about March 
 14, IH.'i.'i, to l)reak up sullicient gro\md between their 
 ihinl ])arallel and the ditch of bastion Xo. 4, by a 
 connected series of mines, to give them front enough 
 for a fourth parallel, which was to contain troops to 
 
 cover their further mining openttions. All of their 
 subseijuent mining labors on this point, up to the 
 <lo.-i«' of the siege, tended to this object; and at this 
 period the effect of Iheir arduous labors is shown in 
 the drawing. A is the sjdient of bastion; B, l)Ottoni 
 of ditch and entrance to countermines, C, (.'; D, D, 
 crater formed by explasions of French and RiLssian 
 mines; E, E, French galleries of attack; F, third par- 
 allel from which French attack was made; G and U, 
 communications between third parallel and PYench 
 trenches in and around the bonlcrs of crater, D, D, D. 
 During these operations the French executed about 
 100 feet of ramps and shafts, and about 41M)0 feet of 
 galleries and branches. They exploded six under- 
 chargeil mines and camouHets; twenty stone fougas- 
 ses; thirty-live over-charged mines; imd sixty-four 
 over-charged sliafls: making a total of one hujidred 
 and twenty -live explosions; using in all atout 130,(X)0 
 poundsof powder. Their losses in killed, in wounded 
 from momentary suffocations, and in tho.se rescued 
 after having been buried alive, among their own mi- 
 ners and some auxiliary force from the infantry of 
 the line, were two hvmdrcd and twenty-eight in all; 
 of which eight were oflicers, killed cither in the mines 
 or trenches by explosions, and eight by the Russian 
 fire. Not only did the PYeuch use theifmines to gain 
 a footing for their fourth parallel, but they were 
 obliged to resort to the same means to open, in the 
 rock, commimicafions between these two parallels. 
 See lilititer, Gnlleri/, and Mines. 
 
 COUNTER-PAKOLZ.— A word given in any time of 
 alarm, as a signal. See Parole. 
 
 COUNTER-PASSANT.— In Heraldry, a term for two 
 beasts pa.ssing each other the contrary wav. 
 
 COUNTERPOISE CARRIAGE.— A "sort "of carriage 
 which, aiijiliid to a gun mounted in barbette, allows 
 it to re'oil beliintl the parapet or other shelter, and 
 by means of a counterpoise brings it, or assists in 
 bringing it, again into buttery after it has been loaded. 
 In the Moncrieff carriage the counterpoise is a heavy 
 weitjht between the cheeks of the lop carriage. In 
 the ^ving carriage the weight is in a well under the 
 liintle block, and is attached to the carriage by a wire 
 cable. 
 
 COUNTER-ROUND.— A body of officers who.se duty 
 it i< to fiecnicnlly visit and inspect the rounds and 
 sciiliiiels. 
 
 COUNTERSCARP.— The side of the ditch opposite 
 to the parapet. The slopes of the scaqi and counter- 
 scarp will depend on the nature of the soil, and the 
 action on it of frost and rain. The scarp is less steep 
 than the counterscarp, because it has to sustain the 
 weight of the parapet. It is usual to give the slope 
 of the scarp a base equal to two thirds of the Iwise of 
 the natural slope of a mound of fre.sh earth whose al- 
 titude is equal to the depth of the ditch; the base of 
 the counteiscarp-slope is made equal to one half the 
 same base. 
 
 To determine the exact dimensions of flie ditch 
 for a given jiarapet requires a mathematical calcula- 
 tion. On the tield a result may be obtained approxi- 
 mating sulliciently near the truth for practice, by as- 
 suming the dciilh of the ditch and dividing tlie sur- 
 face of the i)rofile of the jiarapct by it to obtain the 
 width. In excavating the ditch it will be found that 
 more earth will be furnished at the salients than is 
 required there for the i)arapet; and that the re-enter- 
 ings will not always furnish enough. On this ac- 
 count the width of the ditch should not be uniform, 
 but narrower at the sjilients than at the re-enlerings. 
 See Srtirji. 
 
 COUNTERSCARP - GALLERY.— The counterscarp- 
 gallery consi.vts of a framework, covered on top with 
 a sheeting, which is jilaced within the counterscarp 
 at the .salients. The front of the gallery is made of 
 nine- or ten inch scantling, placed upright, and ar- 
 ranged with loop-hole defenses; these pieces are con- 
 nected at top by a cap-sill. Cro.ss-pieces are notched 
 on the cap-sill "about three feet apart; they are sup- 
 ported by shores placed four feet from the front
 
 GOTTRTEBSCABF-WALL. 
 
 417 
 
 COtmTEB- SHAFT. 
 
 piece. The cross-pieces may project three feet be- 
 jond the shores, and, if neces.sar3-, be braced from 
 the shores. The gallery is covered on top b3' 1}- 
 inch sheeting; and tehind in a similar manner, 
 but only to the height of live feet above the bottom. 
 
 A, Section; B, Elevatiua of a CounterscarivgaUery for a Work 
 with a RevetttKi Scarp, C. 
 
 This arrangement gives a free space behind the back 
 sheeting for the play of the rammer in loading. The 
 height of gallery niay be only seven feet; its width, 
 according to the foregoing arrangements, is four feet. 
 It should be covered on top by at least three feet of 
 earth. The level of the gallery should be the same 
 as the ditch; and there should be a small ditch in 
 front of it, to prevent the enemy from closing on the 
 loop-holes, or obstructing their tire by filling the 
 ditch in front of them by means of sand-bags, fas- 
 cines, etc. The entrance to the gallery is by a narrow 
 door. See Scarp-ijallery. 
 
 COUNTEKSCAKP-WALL.— A revetted counterscarp 
 is regarded as addinir to the 
 difficulty of descending into 
 the ditch, and as offering 
 jjreater security against an 
 open assault. For this pur- 
 pose the wall should not be 
 less than 12 or 15 feet in 
 height to offer a serious im- 
 pediment; in any case, where 
 motives of economy do not 
 imperioasly demand it, the 
 counterscarp-wall of the en- 
 ceinte should be from 18 to 
 24 feet in height. This height 
 will not only give great se- 
 curity to the ditch, but, as 
 ' will be seen in the descrip- 
 tion of the siege- works of the 
 as-sailant, it will delay con- 
 siderably his progress, as the 
 gallery by which he must 
 generally reach the bottom of 
 
 the ditch from the level of the covered-way terre- 
 plein is one of the slowest and most laborious of his 
 operations. 
 
 Besides giving greater security against a surprise, a 
 revetted counterscarp enables the a.ssailed to circulate 
 through their ditches even when the assailant has es- 
 tablished his trenches along the glacis-crest, as the 
 top of the counterscarp-wall will screen the troops 
 pa-ssing along the bottom of the ditch. It also affords 
 facilities for forming a countcrscarp-galleiy behind 
 it, loop-holed for the defense of the ditch in an open 
 assault, which, for small works ^vithout thorough 
 flanking arrangements, will be found very serWce- 
 able. Be-sidcs, this gallerj' will be found of great 
 ■utility where a system of defensive mines is to fonn 
 a part of the defenses. But as counterscarp-galleries, 
 if seized by the as.sailant, may be turned against the 
 defenses, it is important that they should be placed 
 io positions where they will be oi little value to the 
 assailant if seized bj- him. 
 
 The necessity for revetting with a wall of masonry 
 the scarp and counterscarp of a wet ditch in which 
 the water can be retained at a level of six feet in 
 
 depth is not so obvious; as when the ditch is wide 
 the oljstacle of the water alone would seem to be suffi- 
 cient to secure the place from a surpri.se. JIany 
 works under this condition have been built with sim- 
 ple earthen scarps and counterscarps; in some in- 
 stances a cheminnle-ronde being formed bj- leaving a 
 wide bcrm between the foot of the exterior slope and 
 the crest of the scarp, and planting a loop-holed 
 stockade near the cresl. But in rigorous climates, 
 where the water freezes quickly, a wet ditch is no 
 longer a security in winter; and a revetted scaqj of at 
 least 24 feet m height, with a steep earthen counter- 
 scarp, is a better security against a surprise than the 
 expedients projwsed of keepuig an open channel 
 along the middle of the ditch of 12 feet in width, 
 pilmg up on each side of it the ice taken from the 
 chaimel, and throwing water over the exterior slopes 
 to freeze and form a slippery surface to an assatUting 
 column. See S'lirp-r/itUery. 
 
 COUNTEE-SHAFT.— An opposite and parallel shaft 
 driven by band or gearing from the former one. The 
 drawing shows the counter-shaft which accompanies 
 the Tanite Company's large No. 5 wheel enierj-grin- 
 dcr, much used in amiories. The counter-shaft may be 
 overhead, or it may receive the impulse from below. 
 The Pratt clutch is generally applied to the coimter- 
 shaft. This clutch is imsurpassed in ease of work- 
 ing, freedom from binding, durability, and readiness 
 of adjustment. The shipper-slide has no transverse 
 strain; the clutch- jaws cannot become bound; the 
 contact of the surfaces to produce motion is perfect; 
 there is no shock in starting or reversing — no sudden 
 tension of the belts, or undue strain upon the shipper- 
 handle. Counter-shafts with this clutch may or maj' 
 not be provided with cones. The Pratt friction-pui- 
 
 Coiinter-siiaft. 
 
 leys are furnished with sleeves and collars for adap 
 tjition to many machines where instantaneous starting 
 and stopping is desirable. A turea<led shoe is fur- 
 nished with the collar, by means of which the attach- 
 ment maj" be made to an ordinary straight shaft, by 
 threading the shaft a length slightly exceeding the 
 thickness of the collar. 
 
 Supposing we have a main shaft running 110 revo- 
 lutions, and a 12-inch hand-lathe counter-shaft with 8- 
 inch tight and loose pulleys running 220 revolutions, 
 we can find the following elements in a very simple 
 manner: 1. To find the size of the pulley on the 
 main shaft, multiply the diameter of the pulley on 
 the counter-shaft by its number of revolutions" and 
 divide the product by the number of revolutions of 
 the main shaft. The quotient will be its diameter: 
 
 8 X 220 = 1760, ~ = 16 inches diameter. 2. To 
 
 find the number of revolutions of the counter-shaft, 
 multiply the diameter of the pulley on the main shaft 
 by its number of revolutions and di\ide the product 
 by the diameter of the pulley on the counter-shaft :
 
 COUNTEBSION. 
 
 418 
 
 COTTFLES. 
 
 1760 
 16 X 110 = 1760, -—- = 220 revolutions. 8. To 
 
 find llic size of the pulley on the counter-shaft, mul- 
 tiply tlu- (liiinu'tiT of tin" pulley on the msiin shaft by 
 its luiinU'rtif rcvululiiins mul (li\idi' Iho prcKliu-l by the 
 number of revolutions of the counter-shaft: 16 X 110 
 
 = 1760, .,'., = 8 inches diameter. 
 
 CODNTEESIGN. — A watchworil or number jrivcn 
 dailv ill linie «{ war by the (.'ommanrter of an army 
 to tlie force under liis command, in order that 
 friends may I>e distinguished from foes; it is ex- 
 chunjred befwi en Liiards, and intrusted to those em- 
 
 g loved on duly in puardiiijr the camp or gniTison. 
 ;efore the enemy, the countersign must be given by 
 every one who approaches n sentrj-'s post, otherwise 
 he will not 1h' j>ermitted to pass. See PartAf. 
 
 COUNTERSINK. — An enlargement of a hole to re- 
 ceive the head of a 
 screw or bolt. The 
 sides of the hole are 
 merely chamfered if 
 the hole is to receive 
 the head of an ordi- 
 nary woikIcu screw. 
 Wlien a flat -headed 
 screw or the head of 
 a bolt is to be let in 
 flush with or below 
 the surface, a tlat 
 bottom is required. 
 The countersinking- 
 machine is quite a 
 useful one in the ar- 
 senal and armory on 
 general work such a.s 
 strap- and T- irons, 
 metal plates, harness, 
 hooks, etc., where 
 several holes are to 
 be made, on a regu- 
 lar or irregular line, 
 as each piece can be 
 drilled and counter- 
 sunk at one opera- 
 tion. The engraving 
 represents six spin- 
 dles; but the appara- 
 tus may be provided 
 with any nuniber re- 
 quired, according to 
 the work to be done. 
 The drills can be ad- 
 justed very close to 
 each other, or seve- 
 ral inches apart, even 
 while the machine is 
 running. The spindles are suspended from a 
 frame fastened to the ceiling, and power is applied 
 to the upper ends by melius of belts from horizontal 
 counter-shafts. The engraving shows but one table- 
 slide; some countersinking-machines have two tables, 
 with which the ofierator tan do two different kinds 
 of work at once if desired, or he can use all the spin- 
 dles on one table. 
 
 A very convenient countersink and drill combined 
 is so constructed that the countersink follows the 
 drill, and the job Is tiiiished at one operation, saving 
 the adjusting of work and tools twice. The counter- 
 sink is so shaped that it may be readily groimd when 
 dull, and is finished with round shanks either i or Jj 
 inch diameter. 
 
 COCNTEE SWALLOWTAIL. — In fortification, a 
 kinil of oulwiirk very nuirh resembling a single tc- 
 nailli'. See SirnltDirtnil. 
 
 COUNTER -TRENCHES.— Trenches made against 
 the liesiegers, which consequently have their parapets 
 tumc<l against the enemy's approaches, and arc 
 enfiladed from several parts of liie place on purpose 
 
 to render them useless to the enemy if he should 
 chance to lome into possession of them. See Voun- 
 Ur-<il'j'ro(ie/irii. 
 
 COUNTEE-TAIE.— An heraldic fur. It differs from 
 Fiiir by having its cups or bells of the same tincture* 
 placed base against base and ])oint against point. 
 The tinctures aic "/• and diitn. See Ihraldi-y. 
 
 COUNTERVALLATION.— In military engineering, 
 a chain of posts constructed by the besiegers of ii 
 fortitied place ; it completelj' surrounds the place at 
 a certain distance, and is intendetl to prevent sorties 
 of the besieged. The post-s are generally small 
 redoubts, either isolated or connected by a line of 
 earthworks. It is only during very protracted sieges 
 that countervallalions are conslrucled. They bear a 
 certain relation lo circumvallation. 
 
 COUNTER -WORKS.— Works undertaken for the 
 purpose of dtstroying or rendering useless those of 
 an < iicinv. See Vounhr-miiuH. 
 
 COUNTRY.— The region outside of a fort down to 
 whicli the glacis slopes. See SiU'. 
 
 COUP DE MAIN.— A sudden and vigorous attack 
 for the purpose of instantaneously capturing a posi- 
 tion. See (_/iiiiyt_. 
 
 COUP DE POING.— A small pistol with a wheel- 
 lock, invented in the sixteenth century. It is made 
 entirely of iron, and the barrel is about 6i inches in 
 length. It is called tfi-zerol in Germany. 
 
 COUP D'CEIL. — The art of distinguishing by a ra- 
 pid glance the weak points of an enemy's position, 
 and of discerning the advantages and disadvantages 
 offered by any given space of country, or .si'lecting 
 with judgment the most advantageous position for a 
 camp or battle-field. Experience is a great aid in the 
 acquisition of this necessary military faculty, but 
 exijcrience and science alone will not gi-^e it. 
 
 COUPED. — A term in Hcraldiy. used to describe 
 the head or any limb of an animal cut off from the 
 trunk, and smooth. It is distinguished from i-nieed, 
 i.e., forcibly toni off, and therefore ragged and un- 
 even. A distinction is also made between coiipid and 
 (Muped close, the latter signifying that the head or limb 
 is cut off close, leaving no part of the neck or trunk 
 attached to it. When cros.ses, bars, bends, and the- 
 like, are cut so as not to touch the sides of the escut- 
 cheon, they are also sjiid to be couped. See Utraldrj/. 
 
 COUPE-GORGE.— This term, literally mcjiuing ci'it- 
 (liriHit, is itsed in a military sen.se to signify any spot 
 or position which affords an enemy so many advan- 
 tages that the troops who occupy it must either sur- 
 render or be cut to pieces. 
 
 COUPLES.— The name given in statics to pairs of * 
 equal parallel forces acting in opposite directions, 
 and at different points of a bodv. It is shown in the 
 article Par.vllel FoitCES that -when two parallel 
 forces act in opposite directions on a body, they may 
 be replaced by one equal to their difference acting 
 parallel to them in the direction of the greater, at a 
 point not between but beyond the points where they 
 are apjilied ; and which point recedes the further 
 from their ])oints of application the nearer they 
 approach equality, getting to an infinite distance 
 when they become equal, and when Iheir resultant 
 accordingly is zero. In this limiting citse the forces 
 constitute a couple; they have no tendency to tranxlale 
 the body ; their action goes wholly to make it rotate 
 abr)Vit an axis passing through its center of gravity, 
 and perpendicular to the plane in which the couple 
 acts. Such iH'ing the case, a couple cannot be replaced 
 or coimteracted by any single force, for such a forco 
 would produce translation; it can only be replaced or 
 balanced by other couples. The length of the stnught 
 line which meets the lines of action of the forces 
 at right angles is called the "arm" of a couple, and 
 the product of the force into its arm is called its 
 " moment." Most of the leading propositions in the 
 theory of couples are readily seen to be true, as soon 
 as they are sfiited. For instance, as the axis round 
 which a couple fends to make a l)ody rotate pas.ses 
 through the body's center of gravity perpendicularly
 
 COUPLING-STSAP. 
 
 419 
 
 COTTET MARTIAl. 
 
 to the plane of the couple, it does not matter what 
 position the couple occupies in its own plane. Also, 
 supposing the body to Ix' rigid, the couple may be 
 moved iuto any plane parallel to its own, provuled 
 its new position be rigidly connected with the origi- 
 nal position. It is also obviou-s, on the principle of 
 the lever, that the efficiency of the couple deix-nds 
 on its moment simply, so that its arm may be short- 
 ened or lengthened at pleasure, provided the force be 
 increased or diminished as the case may require, so 
 as always to make the product of the force and arm 
 the same. Suppose ropes fastened at the bow and 
 stern of a ship pulling with equal force in opposite 
 directions; they will make the ship turn round an 
 a.\is through its center of gravity, at a rate depending 
 on the force applied to the ropes. If the ropes lie 
 fastened to opposite points of the ves.sel nearer mid- 
 ships, it will only turn round at the Mine rate, pro- 
 videil the force applied to the ropes be increawd; 
 and, on experiment, it would be found that the force 
 must be increased so that its product into the dis- 
 tance between the ropes shall equal the product of 
 the force in the first case into the length of the ship. 
 Through this we can compound coupTes acting in the 
 same plane, for we can turn them round till their 
 arms coincide, and then give them a common arm; 
 their forces will then act in llie same lines, when 
 their resultant into the arm will lie the new couple. 
 So two couples which are situ;;te<l in planes inclined 
 at any angle to each other may be replaced by a single 
 couple. Suppose the couples both to be moved in 
 their respective planes till their arms coincide with 
 the line of intersection of the planes, CD. Bilng 
 them then to a common anu in this line, AB. At 
 each end of this arm we shall 
 have a pair of forces, say P and 
 Q, inclined lo one another at the 
 /t z)'^^'''''^ \ angle of inclination of the planes. 
 r. ^ ^ ] Their resultant, by the composi- 
 
 tion of forces, will be a force R, 
 acting in a line Ix'tween the planes. 
 We shall have then forces R act- 
 ing at each end of the arm, and 
 evidently in directions parallel 
 and fipposite. R X arm AB, then, 
 is thi' moment of the resultant 
 couple. Having seen how to com- 
 pound couples whose plimes are inclined to one an- 
 other, the theory of the composition of couples may 
 be said to be complete; for if they are in parallel 
 planes, we know we can bring them into the same 
 plane and to a common arm, and so into a common 
 couple. In statical theory, an)' number of forces 
 acting on a bod}', and not in equilibrium, may be 
 reduced to a single force, a single couple, or a sin- 
 gle force and a single couple. We have shown that 
 the couples may all be reduced to one, as well as 
 those forces which do not produce couples. If the 
 single force do not act iierpendicularly to the plane 
 of the couple, it can always be compounded with the 
 forces of the couple, so as to reduce the whole to a 
 single force; if it act perpendicularly, tlien it cannot 
 be compounded with the couple, and the body will 
 have at once a motion of translation and motion of 
 rotation. See Fora! and Rotation. 
 
 COUPLING-STEAP. — A strap connected to the off 
 bit-ring of the off horse, thence through the near bit- 
 ring, and leading back to the harness of the near 
 horse. Used with artillery-horses, and also for rest- 
 ive horses in ordinar}' service. 
 
 COUPTJHE.— A passage, about twelve or fifteen feet 
 broad, cut through the glacis in the re-entering angle 
 of the covered-way, to facilitate sjiUies by the besieged. 
 They are sometimes made through the lower curtain 
 to let Imats into a little haven built in the re-entering 
 of the counterscarp of the outworks. 
 
 COUBCON. — A long piece of iron which is used in 
 the artillerj- and which serves to constrain or tighten 
 cannon. 
 COUBIEBS. — Government servants employed for 
 
 I carrying, securely and expeditiotisly, important dis- 
 patches. Active and accustomed to travel, speaking 
 several languages, and witli a sufficient idea of their 
 I own consequence, they will set out at a moment's no- 
 tice, pursue their way by steamer, by rail, by hired 
 voiture, or on horseback, with little intcnnission by 
 night and bj- day, until they reach their destination. 
 Acquainted with routes, officials, and methods of 
 clearing the wav, and provided with all proper cre- 
 dentials, including a requisite supply of cash, noth- 
 ing inlerrupis them in their eager course. 
 
 COUEONEMENT.— In fortification, this term signi- 
 fies the most exterior part of a work when besieged. 
 Sometimes written Counmuement. 
 
 COUBTEL. — An ancient mililarj- implement which 
 served both for a knife and a dacger. 
 
 COTIET MAETIAL.— A Court for the trial of any- 
 one belonging to the army or navy for some breach of 
 militarj' or naval law. The mcmliers of the Court fill 
 the functions both of Judge and Jury. In the British 
 army, Courts-ilartial are Genentl, District, or liegi- 
 iiu'Ktul. The first is the only one of the three em- 
 powered to award death or transportation for life as 
 a punishment to the offending person. It consists of 
 thirteen Commissioned Officers, if so many can be ob- 
 tained at the time and place; and a Deputy Judge 
 Advocate is specially apjiointed to conduct the prose- 
 cution. A Non-commissioned Officer, or a Private, 
 may be tried by any one of the three kinds of Court, 
 but a Commissioned Officer only bj- a General Court- 
 ilartial. A Dintrii-t or Garrinun Court-Martial may 
 be convened by a Field-officer commanding a district 
 or corps, without requiring the Sovereign's sign-man- 
 ual. It consists of a number of members, varying 
 from three to seven, with a Captain or higher officer to 
 act as Deputy Judge Advocate. Such a Court tries 
 Warrant Officers, Non-commissioned Officers, and 
 Rank and File, and can only treat such offenses, or 
 alleged offenses, as meet with secondary pimisbment. 
 A Regimental Court-Martial may be convened by the 
 Commanding Officer of a regiment or detachment; it 
 consists of three or more members; it treats of minor 
 offenses, and can award onlv minor punishments. In 
 all these kinds of Court-5larlial the members are 
 sworn in; the Court is an open or public one; the 
 vote or sentence is decided by majority, the junior 
 members voting first; but two thirds of the whole 
 number, in a General Court-Martial, are necessary to 
 give validity to a sentence of death. Before execu- 
 tion, the sentence of every military Court-JIartial has 
 to be approved and confirmed by the Convening Au- 
 thority. Sometimes Courts of Jiiqniry are held in- 
 stead "of a Court-Martial, not to try or to punish, but 
 to make an investigation; the memlxrs not being 
 on oath. Such a Court occasionally precedes a 
 Court-Martial. In the United States the Court is 
 composed of from five lo thirteen Commissioned Offi- 
 cers of suitable rank. Regimental Courts-Martial, 
 having jurisiliction of minor offenses, consist of not 
 less than three Commissioned Officers; Garrison 
 Courts-Martial are similarly constituted. A General 
 Court-Martial for the army can be held only on the 
 order of the President, or of the Commander of the 
 Army, or an officer commanding a separate Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 The following is the form of the order appointing 
 a General Court-Martial, the last paragraph being 
 omitted when the Court can be kept up w ith thirteen 
 members: 
 
 Head<)vartkbs, , etc. 
 
 A General Court-Martiatis appointeil to met-t at . on 
 
 the day of , or as soon tliiTeafter as practicable, 
 
 for the trial of , and such other prisoners as may 
 
 be brouKbt before it. 
 
 DETAO. FOR THB COUET. 
 
 10. . 
 
 11. 
 
 12. • 
 18. • 
 
 J. A.
 
 COUBTHABTIAL. 
 
 420 
 
 COTJKT-MAKTIAL. 
 
 A greattr number of ofBcrrs than thiwe named cannot be 
 affiembled vrilhout manifeiit injury to tbe senive. 
 By onliT of . ' 
 
 AMst^1nt Adjtttattt General. 
 
 Under the provisions of the 74lh Article of War, of- 
 ficers who may appoint a Court-Martial arc compe- 
 tent to appoint a Juil.i.'c Advocate for the sjime. Ac- 
 conlinsrlv, a Judge Advocate must hv apiwinted for a 
 Rcgimeiital or a trarristni Court-Martial in like man- 
 ner as for a General Court. The President of a 
 Coun-Martial. besides his duties and privileges as 
 menilKT. is the orsan of the Court to keep order and 
 conduct its business. He speaks and acts for the 
 Court in each ca.se where the rule has been prescribed 
 by law, rejmlation, or its own resolution. In all 
 their delilxratious the law secures the equality of the 
 members. The 86th Article of War docs not confer 
 on a Court-Martial the power to punish its own mem- 
 bers. For disorderly conduct a member is liable as 
 in other otTenscs ajniinst military discipline; improper 
 words are to be taken down, auil any <li.sordcrly con- 
 duct of a member reportetl to the Authority conven- 
 ing the Couil. Application for delay or postpone- 
 ment of trial must, when practicable, be made to the 
 Authority convening the Ci)urt. When made to the 
 Court, it must he before plea, and will then, if in the 
 opinion of the Covirt well founded, be referred to the 
 Authority convening the Court, to decide whether the 
 Court should be adjourned or dissolved, and the 
 charges reserved for another Court. Upon applica- 
 tion by the accused for postponement on the ground 
 of the absence of a witness, it ought distinctly to ap- 
 pear on his oath — 1st, that the witness is material, and 
 how; 2d, that the accused has u.sed due diligence to 
 procure his attendance; and, 3d, that he has rea.sona- 
 blc ground to believe, and does believe, that he will 
 be able to procure such attendance within a reason- 
 able time stated. Prisoners are tried on joint charges 
 only for offenses necess;irily invohing concert of ac- 
 tion. In all other cases the charges must be separate. 
 Whenever the same Court-JIartial tries more prison- 
 ers than one, and they are arraigned on separate and 
 distinct charges, the ("otnl is sworn at the commence- 
 ment of each trial, and the proceedings in each case 
 are made up separately-. 
 
 The Judge Advocate summons the necessarj- wit- 
 nesses for the trial; but he does not summon any wit- 
 ness at the exjjense of the United States, nor anv offi- 
 cer of the army, without the order of the Court, 
 unless satisfied that his testimony is material and 
 iiecess;iry to the ends of justice. UtBcers or enlisted 
 men who receive a summons to attend as witnesses 
 before any Militarj' Court, Board, or any Civil Court, 
 or other Tribunal competent to issue subjiwnas to 
 witnesses, outside the limits of the Department where 
 they may Ix; serving, before starting to ol)ey the sum- 
 mons, forvvanl it through the proper channels to the 
 Commanding General of the Department, that the 
 necessary orders may Ix; issued. Orders from com- 
 petent military authority are required for the move- 
 ments of all othcers and eidistcd men in such cases. 
 In cases of extreme urgency, and when the public in- 
 terest woidd be liable to suffer by delay. Post Com- 
 manders may authorize immediate departure in obe- 
 dience to the summons. In such cases special reports 
 are made of the facts and reasons to the Dejiartmeiit 
 Commander for his approval of the action taken. A 
 Post Conunander who may be summoned is governed 
 by the foregoing. The Judge Advocates of Military 
 Courts, in i.ssuing process under section 1202, Re\-is(;cl 
 Statutes, to compel the attendance as wilnc.sses of per- 
 sons not in the military .service, formallv direct the 
 same to stmie officer designated liy the Dcinutment 
 Commander as available for the service. The nearest 
 Jlilitary Commander will thereupon furnish the neccs 
 sary military force for the execution of the process 
 ■whenever such force shall be actually required. The 
 preliminary summons or subpa'na " may be served 
 tqxin a witness by any person whatsoever. Cases of 
 habitual drunkenness "and utter worthlcssness, which 
 
 have not already been made the occasion of a trial by 
 Court-Martial, "may l>e tried under the charge of 
 "Conduct to the iirijudice of good order and military 
 discipline," with separate specifications for each one 
 of the acts of drunkenness. Civil employes of the 
 Vt'nr Department serving with, or other jiersons prop- 
 erly attached to, an army in the tielil in time of war, 
 nniy be understood as agreeing that thev will submit 
 themselves for the time being to military control. 
 Accordingly, under the 63d Article of VVar, such 
 persons are within military jurisiliction, as pro\-idcd 
 for in siiid article, when their treachery, defection, or 
 insubordination might endanger or embarnuss the 
 army to which they belong in its operations against 
 what is known in militjiry phrase as "an enemy." 
 To enaljle the officers of an army to preser\-e good 
 order and discipline is the object of this paragraph, 
 and these may be as necessary in the face of hostile 
 savages as in front of anv other enemy. When an 
 army is engaged in offensive or ilefcnsive ojx^rations 
 ag;nnst a public euemv, it ma}' be said to be " in the 
 ticld. " The fact that troops are oix-ratingin a region 
 of country chiefly inhabited by hostile Indians, and 
 remote from the exercise of ci\il authority, may en- 
 ter into the description of "an army in the field." 
 Under other circumstances, these civil employes do 
 not belong to the military establishment in a sense 
 making tlieni amenable to trial by Court-Martial. 
 The legal pimishmeuts for soldiers by sentence of 
 Court-Martial, according to the offense and the juris- 
 diction of the Court, under the law, are: death; con- 
 finement; confinement on bread-and -water diet; soli- 
 tary confinement ; hard labor; ball and chain; forfeit- 
 ure of pay and allowances; discharges from ser\-ice, 
 and reprimands; and, for Non-conimis-sioucd Officers, 
 reduction to the raiiks. The idea of punishment or 
 degradation is not associatcil with the honorable and 
 important duty of guards b_v imposing sentences of 
 extra tours of guard-duty. Solitary confinement, or 
 confinement on bread and water, cannot exceed four- 
 teen days at a time, with intervals between the periods 
 of such confinement not less than such jx^riods, and 
 not exceeding eighty-four days in any one year. 
 
 ^\'hen the sentence of a Court-Martial is imprison- 
 ment, the Court indicates whether the prisoner shall 
 be confined in a penitentiary or a militarj- prison, ac- 
 cording to law and the nature of the offense. WTien 
 the Court has sentenced a prisoner to a military pngon 
 for anj' offense, no power is competent to increase the 
 punishment by designating a peititintian/ua the place 
 of confinement. In order to keep men who are con- 
 fined for purely military offenses ajiart from the 
 moral influence of sucli as are convicted of jienal 
 offenses, it is desirable thai Courts-Martial shouKl 
 designate confinement in a peniteiitiarj' instead of a 
 military prison, wheu it can be done legallj' vmder the 
 97th Article of War. The sentence of a Court-Mar- 
 tial involving confinement for a definite period of 
 time is considered as beginning from the date of the 
 jiromidgation of the sentence in Orders, if the person 
 sentenced is in custody at that time, unless the time 
 of its commencement is otherwise e.V])re&sly fixed bj' 
 the sentence of the Court or in the Order promulgat- 
 ing the proceedings. AVlun soldiers under sentence, 
 or awaiting sentence, commit other offenses for which 
 they are tried and sentenced, the second or cumula- 
 tive sentence may be exectited upon the exiiiration of 
 the first, whether" the C^ourt or Reviewing Authority so 
 specify or not. A sentence to confinement, witli or 
 without forfeiture of pay, caimot, in terms, be made 
 to commence at a date prior to the confinnation of 
 the proceedings of the Court. If it is jiropcr to take 
 into consideration the length of confinement to which 
 the prisoner has been subjected previous to such con- 
 firmation, it may be done by the mitigation of the 
 sentence, so that its term from the date of approval 
 shall not extend beyond the period contemplated by 
 the Court or by the Reviewing Officer When a sen- 
 tence imposes forfeiture of the monthly pay, or of a 
 stated portion of the monthly pay, for a certain num-
 
 COTTST-HABTIAL. 
 
 421 
 
 COUBT-HABTIAL. 
 
 bcr of montlis, the force of the sentence is to stop/or 
 each month the amount stated. Thus, tin (hlhirs of ' 
 iKoiithly pay for one ymr would lie a stoppage of one [ 
 Iiundred and twenty dollars. When the sentence is 
 silent as to the date of conunencement of the forfeiture 
 of pay, it betrins with tlie date of proniulgatiun of the 
 sentence in Orders, and does not apply to pay accrued 
 previous to that date. This holds good whether the 
 sentence imposes a forfeiture of a speeilie<l sum or 
 one of a certain amount per month. Where the s;ime 
 time is covered by two or more forfeitures, they must, 
 as to such time, apply together, until all are satisfied. 
 The rate of forfeiture for a given time will then be 
 the aggregate of the rates of the several forfeitures 
 applicable thereto, whether the actual rale of pay for 
 the time be greater or less. 
 
 A Court-Martial cannot assign and make over the 
 pay of a soldier to any other iierson, and the receipt 
 of such person is not a sufficient voucher for the Dis- 
 bursing Officer. Nor can a soldier be required to re- 
 ceipt for money paid without his consent to another 
 person. The Authority which has designated the i 
 place of confinement, or Higlier Authority, can change 
 the place of confinement, except in case of prisoners 
 confined in the Leavenworth Military Prison, who are j 
 subject only to the orders of the Secretary of War. 
 Onlnance Sergeants, Commissary Sergeants, and Hos- 1 
 pltal Stewards, though liable to discharge, may not ! 
 iie reduced. Nor are they tried by Regimental or l 
 Garrison Courts Martial, unless bj' .special permission! 
 of the Department Commander. Every Court-^^Iar- 
 tial keeps a complete and accurate record of its pro- 
 ceedings, to be authenticated by the signatures of the 
 President and .Judge Advocate, who also certify, in 
 like manner, the sentence pronounced liy the Court in 
 each case. The record must show that the Court was 
 organized as the law requires; that the Court and 
 Judge Advocate were duly sworn in the iiresence of 
 the prisoner; that he was pre\iously asked whether \ 
 he had any objection to any member, and his answer 
 thereto. A copy of the Order appointing the Court is 
 entered on the record in each case. The record is 
 clearly and legibly written, as far as practicable, with- 
 out erasures or interlineations. The pages are num- 
 bered, with a margin of one inch on the left side of 
 each page, and at the top of the odd and bottom of 
 the even pages; through this last margin the sheets 
 are stitched together; the documents accompanying 
 the proceedings are noted and marked in such man- 
 ner as to alford an ea.sy reference. No recommenda- j 
 tion is embraced in the body of the sentence. Those 
 members only who concur in the recommendation 
 sign it. I 
 
 The record of the proceedings of a Court-Martlal 
 is Indorsed on the first fold, by the Judge Advocate 
 or Recorder of the Comt, with the name of the place 
 where the Court is held; the date when the procceil- 
 ings were signed; the designation of Order convening 
 the Court; the names of the Presiding Officer, the 
 Judge Advocate, and of the Prisoner tried. 
 
 . 18-. 
 
 Proceedings of a General Court Martial, 
 convened by Special Orders Xo. — , 
 dated Headquarters Department of 
 
 Colonel A B , 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Pi-esident, 
 
 Lieutenant C D . 
 
 Infantry, 
 
 Judge Advocati:. 
 
 CASE TRIED. 
 
 Private E F , 
 
 Artillery. 
 
 The Judge Advocate transmits the proceedings 
 without delay to the officer ha\'ing authority to con- 
 firm the sentence, who states at the end of the pro- 
 ceedings In each case his decision and orders thereon. 
 
 ^Vhen a ^Military Court adjourns for three days or 
 more, the members belonging to the command where 
 it assemltles, or to adjacent posts (to which, with the 
 sanction of the Department Commander, they retin-n 
 on the daily adjournments), will be liable to duty 
 with tlieir respective commands during the time of 
 such adjourmnent, and the adjournment should l)e 
 reported by the Judge Advocate or Recorder to the 
 Conmianders concerned. When the Court adjoimis 
 for less than three days, its members will ordinarily 
 be exempt from other duty during that time. This 
 paragraph is directopi- only, and may be modified by 
 Department Commanders, according to the exigencies 
 of the ser\ice. When a Court adjourns without 
 day, the members return to their posts and duties 
 unless othenvise ordered by the President or Com- 
 petent Authority. 
 
 AN'hen General Courts-Martial try cases requiring 
 the decision of the President of the United States, 
 they should not be dissolved until his action is pro- 
 mulgated; bitt upon the completion of the trial the 
 members should be ordered to resuitie their res])ective 
 duties. \Vhen a Court-Martial appears to have erred 
 in any respect, the Reviewing Authority may recon- 
 vene the Court for a reconsideration of its action, 
 with suggestions for its guidance. The Court may 
 tliereupon, should it concur in the views submitted, 
 proceed to remedy the errors pointed out, and may 
 raodifv or completely change its findings. The ob- 
 ject of reconvening the Court in such a ca.se is to af- 
 ford it an opportunity to reconsider the record, for 
 the purpose of correcting or modifying any conclu- 
 sions thereon, and, also, to make any amendments of 
 the record necessary to jierfect it. Anything like a 
 reojiening of the case, by calling new witnesses, or 
 recalling those already examined, is wholly foreign to 
 the proceeding. The power to pardon or mitigate 
 the punishment ordered by a Court-Martial is vested 
 in the Authority confirming the proceedings (except 
 in case of prisoners confined in the Leavenworth Mil- 
 itary Prl.son), and in the President of the United 
 States. An abatement of five days upon each month 
 of consecutive good conduct may be allowed to mili- 
 tarj' prisoners upon each sentence to confinement for 
 over six months. For the Leavenworth Military 
 Prison the orders are Issued by the Commander of 
 the Jlilitarj' Department of the Missouri. All other 
 orders for pardon, mitigation, or discharM of prison- 
 ers confined In the Leavenw orlh ]yiilitar\- Prison must 
 emanate from the ^^■a^ Department "An crder re- 
 mitting forfeiture of pay operates only as to time sub- 
 sequent to its date. Tlie forfeiture contimics opera- 
 tive for the time between date of promulgation of 
 sentence and date of order of remi.sslon, and at the 
 rate fixed in the sentence if the forfeiture be one of a 
 certain amount per month; or, if it be of a specified 
 sum. at the rate of the soldier's current pay, less de 
 duction for Soldiers' Home. To this extent a remitted 
 forfeiture must stand as a charge against the soldier's 
 paj' until s;itisfied. In case of a sentence contemplat- 
 ing pajiiient of a stated sinu to a soldier upon his re- 
 lease from confinement, such payment is made only 
 when there is sufficient balance to his credit after de- 
 ducting all aullu>rized stoppages. 
 
 Company Commanders should be careful in noting 
 sentences upon muster-rolls to give all of the data 
 affecting pay, including the dates of the several orders 
 of sentence and remission. Where one or more iiay- 
 ments have been made to the soldier for time sub- 
 sequent to date of an order of sentence, the muster- 
 roll should be made to show the amount that has 
 been dedtieted on account of the forfeiture. The 
 data required by this regidation should continue to 
 be borne on succcs.slve muster-rolls until tlie entire 
 amount of the forfeiture for the time between dates of 
 orders of sentence and remission shall have been de- 
 ducted. 
 
 Whenever prisoners are sent to the Leavenworth 
 Military Prison to serve out llieir sentences, the order 
 promulgating the sentence, and the descriptive list (to
 
 COUST OF CHITALBT. 
 
 422 
 
 COTTST OF INQUIBT. 
 
 wbifh will Ik- iippciuUtl a statement of conduct), are 
 forwardoil witli tlieni. 
 
 The emjiloynient of a Hoix>rtor, under section 1203, 
 Rcnstil Statutes, is only authorized for General 
 Courts-Martial in eas<-s when' the Authority convening 
 the I'ourl may consider such an ollieer neces-vury. 
 Svhen l<e|><>rters are employed, they mv allowed not 
 to e.xeeol ten dollars a dav, to ci>ver the whole iteritHl 
 of at).s4'nee from their residence, traveling, or on duty. 
 If the place of meeting of the Court lie chanwd, 
 transiK)rlation in kind is'allowiti. They are paid l)y 
 the Pay Department on the usual cerfiticate of the 
 Judge Atlv(K'ate. 
 
 Under the Rules and Articles of War, it is made 
 the iluly of Contmanding Otlicers to see reparation 
 made to the party or parties injured, from the pay of 
 soldiers who are guilty of abuses or disorders com- 
 mitted against citizens." l'|H)n proper representation 
 by any citizen of wanton injury to his person or prop- 
 erty, accomitanied by satisfactory proof, the Com- 
 manding Otiieer of the troops causes the damage to be 
 assessed by a Board of Otiiiers. the amounts stoppt'd 
 against the pav of the offenders, and reparation made 
 to the injured party. This prix'ceding is indei^end- 
 enl of any trial or sentence by Court-.Nlartial for the 
 criminal offense. See Pidd<>fficer's Oiiirt, Oiirrimn 
 Court- Mil rtiitl. General Court-Mtirtial, and Heginuntal 
 Coiirt-Mnrtinl. 
 
 COURT OF CHIVALRY.— A Military Court estab- 
 lished by Edward 111., of which the Earl Marshal 
 and Ihe Lord High Constal)le were joint Judges. 
 When held before the Earl Marshal alone it was 
 merely a Court of Honor; but when both were pres- 
 ent it was also a Criminal Court. Having encroached 
 on the common law, its jurisdiction was detine^l by 
 an Act under which the Court claimed jiower to give 
 relief to such of the nobility and gentry as thought 
 themselves aggrievetl in matteis of honor, and to 
 keep ui) the distinctions of degrees and quality. In 
 criminal ca.ses a jury was snorn; but in general the 
 proceedings of the Court were summary matters, be 
 ing brought under its cognizance by comjilaint or 
 petition. An attempt was made to revive the func- 
 tions of the Court in Queen Anne's time; but, except 
 as represented by the Earl Marslial's Court (see Col- 
 Uge of AriiiK). it has now gone into abevance. 
 
 COURT OF HONOR.— A Military Court atithorized 
 by the regulations of the Prussian service, convened 
 for the puqmse of sustaining the honor of the .service 
 and of individuals, and of punishing ofliecrs who may 
 be found giulty of conduct de^ iating even in the least 
 from the principles which actuate military men as men 
 of honor. The Court of Honor of a regiinent consists 
 of all Conunissioned Otlicers in it except the prosecu- 
 tor, the defendant, near relations, olticei-s aitpearing 
 as witnesses in the case, otticers on leave, detached 
 service, vmdcr arrest, or awaiting trial before any 
 Court; and has for its regular busine.ss management a 
 Councilor Honor, consisting of the Senior "Captain, 
 Senior First Lieutenant, and Senior Second Lieuten- 
 ant. The Court has juristliction over all acts or omis- 
 sions (not providetl for by any tixed laws) which arc 
 unotli<'er-like or ungentlemaidv in their nalure, par- 
 ticularly such as contracting debts, improper choice 
 of sociifty, excessive use of into.xicating liquors, gam- 
 . bling, ()uarrels, carelessness or neglect of duty, and 
 scandal. With the exception of General Otlicers. all 
 olliccrsof the Standing Army, the Heserve, the Land- 
 wehr, and those of the H<'tired List are subject to 
 the laws of the Court of Honor. The Court to in- 
 vfcstigate the conduct of a Field-officer is made up of 
 the Field-officers of the division to which the officer 
 belongs. 
 
 COURT OF INQUIRY.— In cases where the Gen- 
 eral or Commanding Ollieer may order a Court of 
 Inquiry to exanune into Ihe nature of any transac- 
 tion, accusation, or imputation aL'ainst anv officer or 
 .soldier, the sind Court shall consist of one or more 
 officers, not exceeding three, and a Judge Advcx-iite, 
 or other suitable iwrson as a Kecorder, to reduce the 
 
 proceedings and evidence to writing, all of whom 
 shall lie sworn to the faithful perfonnanee of duty. 
 This Court shall have the sjime power to summon 
 witnesses as a Court-.Martial, and to examine them on 
 oath. But they shall not give their opinion on the 
 merits of the cn.se excepting they shall be theivlo 
 specially required. The parlies accused shall also be 
 jK'nnitted to cross-exair.ine and interrogiite the wit- 
 nesses so as to investigate fully the circumstances in 
 the question. The proceedings of a Court of Inquiry 
 must be authenticated by the signature of the Re- 
 corder and the President, and delivered to the Com- 
 manding Officer, and the s:nd proceedings may be 
 admitted as evidence by a Courl-Martial, in cases not 
 capital or extending to the dismission of an officer, 
 provided that the circiunstances are such that oral 
 testimony cannot Ix? obtained. But Courts of Inquiry 
 are prohibited unless directed by the President of the 
 United States or demanded by the accused. The 
 Court may 1m? ordered to report the facts of the case 
 with or without an ojunion thereon. Such an order 
 will not be ctimidied with by merely reporting the 
 endence or testimony; facts being the result, or con- 
 clusion established by weighing all the testimony, 
 oral and documentarv, before the Court. 
 
 When a Court of hKjuiry is directed to be assem- 
 bled, the order should state whether the Court is to 
 report the fads or not, and also whether or not it is 
 to give an opinion on the merits. The Court should 
 also be instructed whether its attention is to be ex- 
 tended to a general investigation, or to be confined to 
 the examination i>{ particular points only, as the case 
 may seem to require, in the judgment of the officer 
 under whose authority it is as.sembled. Where the 
 subject is multifarious, the Court should be instructed 
 to state its opinion on each point separately, that the 
 proper authority may be able to form his judgment. 
 
 The Court may sii with open or dosed doors, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the transaction to be investi- 
 gated. The Court generally sits with open doors; 
 but there may lie delicate matters to be examined 
 into that might render it proper to sit with doors 
 clo.scd. The form of proceeding in Courts of Inquiry 
 is nearly the same as that in Coiuts-Martial: the mem- 
 bers being assembled, and the parties interested called 
 into Court, the Judge Advocate or Recorder, by di- 
 rection of tlie President, reatls the order by which 
 the Court is constituted, and then administers to the 
 members the following oath: "You shall well and 
 tiidy examine and inquire, according to your evi- 
 dence, into the mailer now Ixfore you, without par- 
 tiality, favor, affection, prejudice, or hojie of reward: 
 so hel]) you G(k1." The accusijtion is then read, and 
 the witnesses are exanuncd by the Court; and the 
 liarties accused are also pennitted to cross-examine 
 and interrogate the wilnesses so as to investigate fully 
 the circumstances in question. The examination of 
 witnes.ses Ix'ing linished, the parties Ix?fore the Court 
 may address the Court should they see fit to do so; 
 after which the President orders" the Court to be 
 cleared. The Hecorder then reads over the whole of 
 the proceedings, as well for Ihe ptirjiose of correct- 
 ing the record as for aiding the memory of the mem- 
 bers of the Court. After mature delilieration on the 
 evidence adduced, they proceed to find a state of 
 facts, if so directed by the order constituting the 
 Court, and to declare whether or not the grounds of 
 accuwition are sufficient to bring the matter before a 
 General Court-Marlial; and also to give their opinion 
 of the merits of Ihe case if so re(juired. The Court 
 should be careful to examine the order by which it is 
 constituted, and be particular in conforming to the 
 directions contained therein, either by gi\ing a gen- 
 eral oi>inion on the whole matter, a statement of fact.s 
 only, or an o))inion on such facts. The proceedings 
 of Courts of Inquiry have been reUiriud to be recon- 
 sidered when Ihe Court has been unmindful of these 
 points. It has been settled that a member of a Court 
 of IiKiuiry may be objected to for cause. The pro- 
 ceeilings must Ix' authenticated by the signatures of
 
 C01TSSINET A HOTTSaUETAIBE. 
 
 42.- 
 
 C07£S£D DEFENSES. 
 
 the President and Recorder, and delivered to the 
 Commanding Otlicer or Autliority which ordered the 
 Court; and the said proceedings may be admitted in 
 evidence by a Court-Martial, in cases not capital nor 
 extending to the dismission of an officer, provided 
 oral testimony cannot be obtained. Transactions 
 may Ixjcomc the subject of investigation by Courts of 
 Inquiry after the lapse of any number of years, on the 
 application of the partv accused or by order of the ' 
 President of the Unitecl States; the limitation men- 
 tioned in the Articles of War being applicalile only 
 to General Courts-Martial. It is not necessary to pub- 
 lish tlie proceedings or opinion of the Court, although 
 it is usually done in General Orilers. The Court is 
 dissolved by the Authority that ordered it to convene. 
 
 COUSSINET A MOUSftUETAIEE.— A bag formerly 
 ■worn by a Frencli soldier on his left side beneath the 
 cross-lielt. It lnuig on a hook near the butt of his 
 masket. The ex])ression likewise signifies a wedge 
 Jised to support the mortar in its frame. 
 
 COUSTIL A CROC— A short sword of Italian origin 
 used in the fifteenth centurj', and very much like the 
 anelfict. 
 
 COUTEEE. — An ancient piece of armor which cov- 
 ered the elbow. At present but little used. 
 
 COTJVRE-BASSINET.— A plate that moves on a 
 hinge and covers the priming after it has been placed 
 above the pan or bassinet. 
 
 COVEE. — 1. Natural or artificial protection from 
 the fire of the enemy, the former being afforded by 
 liills, woods, banks, walls, etc., the latter by fortifi- 
 cations constnictcd for the puqiose. 3. To stanil ex- 
 actly in front or in rear of another man or object. 
 
 COVERED COMMUNICATIONS. — Shelter-t'renches 
 are nnich used to afford covered communications 
 along a given front; to connect the works in a " line 
 with intervals;" to bring a musketry -fire upon grotmd 
 which cannot be swept by the fire from a particular 
 work, etc. A trench, when used as a communica- 
 tion for infantry only, should be made three feet deep, 
 and four feet wide at the bottom. The earth should 
 be thrown on the side towards the enemy, and then 
 leveled off in the form of the .su]ierior sloj)e of a par- 
 Jipet, .so that the men in the trench can fire over this 
 mass of earth. If the trench is to be used for the 
 pa.s.sage of artillery, or to be used by bodies of troops 
 passing from one point to another along the front, the 
 least width at bottom should be made eight feet, and 
 the height of the top of the mound of earth should be 
 at least six feet and a half above the bottom of the 
 trench. The side of the trench toward the enemy 
 should be cut into offsets, and arranged so as to allow 
 a fire of musketrj' over the parapet. Shelter-trenches 
 are rarely made to follow a straight line, but usually 
 conform to the contour of the ground. The trace 
 should be marked on the groimd if there is time to do 
 it. It will economize the laborof the troops, and avoid 
 an unnecessary waste of time. The trace should be 
 governed by the general rules laid down for field-works, 
 and great care should be taken that it cannot be en- 
 filaded by a fire of the enemy. Profiles are not neces- 
 sary. The points which would be occupied by them 
 may be marked by men standing ujion the edge of 
 the proposed trench towards the enemj-. A line 
 "would then be marked on the ground, by a pick, pass- 
 ing through the points selected. Parallel to this line, 
 and twelve or fifteen feet in rear of it, the line of 
 troops should be formed The front rank, furnished 
 with intrenching-tools, would be,rfn the digging; the 
 rear rank would lie down. Reliefs sliould lie formed, 
 and the trench rapidly executed. The slielters for 
 artillery or cavalry may be made in a very sliort time, 
 in a way similar to that shown for the sheltei'-trench 
 for infantry. On undulating ground the shelter-trench 
 for infantry is fre([uently on (he slope; the shelter for 
 artillery would generally be on or behind the crest. 
 A piece of artillery on the crest of undulating ground 
 can be quickly run vnider cover, if it be desirable. 
 This cover can be q\iickly and easily imjiroved, by 
 making a slight excavation and arranging a mass of . 
 
 earth in front of the gun. Slopes of thLs kind could 
 be used for infantry as well as for artillery; and where 
 a simple screen is the main object to he had, the com- 
 munication would be along the reverse slope. See 
 Commi/hir/ilioiix. 
 
 COVERED DEFENSES.— To this class belong those 
 constructions and arrangements intended to shelter 
 the troops and matt'riel from vertical tire. Scarp and 
 counterscarp galleries, ca.semates, ca.semated caixjn- 
 ieres, lionib-proof barracks, etc., are examples. In 
 the permanent works of more recent construction in 
 our own country and in Europe, revetment-walls with 
 relieving arches have in most cases l)cen introduced 
 instead of tlie onlinary tliick walls with comiterforts, 
 which had been hitherto the usual mode of retaining 
 the earth of the rampart and parapet. The piers of 
 the relieving arches, which also serve as counterforts 
 to the revetment-wall, are rectangular in plan, and 
 usually run 1)aek from Vi to 16 feet. They are from 
 4 to 6 feet thick, and jilaceil from 12 to 18 feet apart 
 between their center lines. The arches are usually 
 full center and two feet thick, with a I'ough shapeti 
 capping which adds an additional thickness from 9 
 to 12 inches over the crown of the arch. When the 
 scarp-walls are entirel}- delaehcd, leaving an open 
 conidor between them and the rampart, they are 
 pierced with one or two tiers of loop-holes, from 
 which a fire can be brought upon the ditch and upon 
 the terre-plein of the covered-way, or any work in 
 front of the enceinte. To give cover to the men at 
 the loop-holes, arched recesses are made in the thick- 
 ness of wall, or else short counterforts are built back 
 from the wall, which serve as the piers of covering 
 arclres. The width of the rece.s.ses .should admit of 
 three or four loop-holes at the usual distance apait, 
 their height and depth being sufficient to give the 
 men shelter from vertical fire and allow them to han- 
 dle their amis with convenience. The most simple 
 method of arranging a gallery liehind a counterscarp- 
 wall for the defense of a ditch is to build another 
 wall ])amllel to that of the counterscarp, and to throw- 
 au arch over between the two to cover the top of the 
 gallerj-. The counterscaiTi-wall is pierced with loop- 
 holes aiTanged in the same w ay as in scarp-galleries. 
 
 Caponiere defenses for the ditches are classed un- 
 der the head of what are termed difingive casemates, 
 which are bomb-proof aiched stnictures for receiving 
 cannon, firing through eml)ras>ues pierced in the 
 front or mask wall of the casemates. Defenses of 
 this class, w hen used to flank the ditch, are tenned 
 casniuikd caponieres. These defen.ses are usu- 
 ally placed in the ditch at the middle point of the 
 side or front to be flanked. The outline of their plan 
 is mostly that of a lunette, the flanks being perpen- 
 dicular to the line of the scarp, and the two faces 
 making a salient angle of (iO . The caponiere is 
 either built in juxtaposition with the enceinte, or else 
 detached from it. In the latter case an inclosure is 
 formed between the two by a loop-holed wall which 
 connects the flanks with the scarp-wall. Each flank 
 consists of one or two tiers of arched chambers, the 
 piers of the arches being perpendicular to the back of 
 the walls of the flank. Each chamber is of .sufficient 
 dimensions for the service of a single gun with a con- 
 tracted field of fire. In some cases looji-holes are 
 pierced for small-anns on each side of the embra- 
 sure; in others the casemates of one story are pierced 
 for cannon, and the other for small-anns. The case- 
 mates are closed in rear by a thin wall, which is pro- 
 vided with windows forlight and venlilalion; and 
 the piers are pierced with doorways to fonn a com- 
 munication between the chambers and to assist the 
 ventilation. Flues or vents are made in the front 
 wall, just under the arches, for a like p\in>ose. Where 
 it may be neeessjiry, the lower floor is drained by a 
 conduit throusrh the front wall. 
 
 It should be observed that whatever advantages 
 covered defenses afford as shelter from the as.sallant's 
 fire, they present the inconveniences of a compara- 
 tively niin-ow and obstructed field of view to the as-
 
 COVEEED FLANK. 
 
 424 
 
 CBASLE.. 
 
 sailed, which is further obscured by tlie smoke which 
 mav iralher within the pillerv, nnd in front of the 
 lo«ipiioles. fwm these causis the assiiiled hnvinc to 
 aim at a venture, his lire is likely to be less effective 
 than in o[Hn defenses, where the smoke disperses 
 nipidlv and leaves a clear tield of \new. The same 
 may iV said of looivholed walls covering exterior 
 corridors Avhere the space to the rear is confined. 
 Owuijr to these considenitions, loop-holed and covered 
 defenses of the kind in question should be restricted 
 to s]>ecial defensive purposes, where an object within 
 tlie field of tire can be attained with some cerlauify 
 whether seen or not by the a.ssailed; as, for example, 
 the protection of a ditch, or a scarp- wall which can- 
 not 1k' flanked from within the work; for sweeping a 
 covered-way, or the interior of any outwork which 
 cannot Ijc brought well under the fire of the iianipel 
 of the main work. As the main object of covereil 
 defenses is protection against shells, it is essential 
 that the arches of the galleries should be bomb-proof. 
 As the span of these arches is usuallj' small, a thick- 
 ness of 3 feet given to the masonrj', nnd a covering 
 from 4 to 6 feet'bf earth above it, are ordinarily con- 
 sidered sufficient for the object in \-iew. "With regard 
 to the front walls of these constructions, as they are 
 too thin to withstand the direct action of artillery, 
 they must either be covered by earthen masks, as a 
 itlacis raised Iwyond the counterscarp, for example, or 
 be used only in positions where they are not exposed 
 to this tire. See CiMinale^. 
 
 COVERED FLANK. — The platform of tUe ca.scmate, 
 which lies hid in the bastion. These retired flanks 
 are a great defense to the opposite bastion and pas- 
 sage o* the ditch, because the besiegers can neither 
 sec nor casilv dismount their uiuis. 
 
 COVERED-WAY— COVERT-WAY.— In fortification, 
 an open corridor or passage bordering the ditches of 
 the enceinte and outworks, if there l)e any, forming a 
 continuous line of commimicatioh around the fortifi- 
 cation, masked from flic view of the enemy by an 
 embankment of sufficient height to cover the troops 
 in it. The covering embankment is arranged towards 
 the covered-way like an ordinary parapet, and receives 
 on the exteriora gentle slope or glacis. This outwork 
 is indis|)ensable to a garri.son determined on an active 
 and vigorous defen.se. By means of it the garrison 
 have a covered position beyond the ditch where they 
 can assemble with safety, either for the purpose of 
 making a s(]rtie, or to guard the ditches and the com- 
 numications across them; and it affords them also a 
 secure point of retreat if repulsed in a sortie, as a re- 
 serve left in the covered-way will be at hand to clieck 
 the pursuit by their fire, and enable the retreating 
 party to gain the enceinte. The covered-way prevents 
 all access to the ditch by a strong fire of musketry, 
 which sweeps all the exterior ground, and affords 
 facilities for posting beyond the ditch .sentinels and 
 small detachments to guard the ditches and the com- 
 mimicafions across them. It is the most indispensable 
 of all the outworks, and if is only in rare cases that 
 we can do without it. Vauban placed a high value 
 on this work, which, to use his own words, "costs 
 less to the defense and more to the assault than any 
 other work." See (}ntirork». 
 
 COVERING FASCINES.- Fascines made of stout 
 picket siulT, not less than one inch thick, without 
 any mixture of small brushwood. They may be 
 used in ]ilace of planks for the superstructure of 
 wooden liridges; and may also be used, if no stout 
 planks or spars are to Ije'had. for the roofs of field 
 jiowflermagazincs. They may lie made of the usual 
 di;iniet(r of nine inches. Their length will depend 
 upon Ihi' iiarlicular purpose for which they are in- 
 tend iil 
 
 COVINARII.— The soldiers who fought on the 
 roriinin, ;i kind of war-chariot used by the ancient 
 Britons and Belgians. 
 
 COWARDICE.— Want of courage to face danger. 
 The Articles of War declare that any oHleer or sol- 
 dier who mislx'haves himself before the enemy, rims 
 
 away, or shamefully abandons any fort, post, or 
 guard, which he is conunanded to defend, or speak.s 
 words inducing others to do the like, or casts away 
 his arms or ammimition, or quits his post or colors to 
 jilunder or pillage, shall suffer death, or such other 
 punishment as a Courl-M;irtial may direct. 
 
 COW-BOYS. — A liand of marautlers in the time (Tf the 
 American Revolution, con.sisting mostly of refugees 
 who atihered to the British side, and who infested the 
 so-called ruiitml (/n/niul lying l)etween the American 
 and British lines, plunilering all tliose who liad taken 
 the Oath of Allegiance to the Continental Congress. 
 The tcnn has recently been applied to marauding 
 parties in the 'Western Strifes and Territories. 
 
 CRAB. — A winch on a movable frame with power- 
 gearing, used in coniu'Ction with derricks and other 
 nonpennanent hoisting-machines. The larger gear- 
 wheel is on the sliaft of the roller, and is rotated 
 by the spur-pinion and hand-cranks. The crab or 
 geared capstan used in mechanical maneuvers con- 
 sists of a strong frame of oak timber firndy fastened 
 to the ground 1)}' stakes, or tied by rings in the ends, 
 of the side pieces. The l)oftom side pieces are joined 
 by two cross-braces, between the tenons of which, ami 
 through from end to end of e;ich, passes a liolt, firmly 
 fastening the frames together. The bottom and top 
 side pieces are joined by four upright and eight in- 
 clined braces. A bolt passes through the upright 
 braces from top to bottom, binding the parts together. 
 Extending across the frame are two shafts, which rest 
 in cast-iron boxes fastened to the top pieces. Upon 
 one is fastened a cast-iron drum and a large geared 
 wheel, having 110 tcetli; on the other a small geared. 
 wheel with 14 teeth and the cranks for turning, which 
 are held in place by nuts. This axle has a motion in 
 the direction of its length to disengage the geared 
 wheels when desired. See Mechinifiil Manewren. 
 
 CRACKED HEELS. — From careless grooming, wash- 
 ing horses' legs and imperfectly drjing them, permit- 
 ting them to stand in accumulations of tilth or ex]iosed 
 to draughts, the skin becomes inflamed, tender, itchy, 
 thickened, and by and by cracked. An ichorous 
 noisome discharge exudes, and lameness often results. 
 In animals with xonniX, gximmy legs it is sometimes 
 constitutional; underbred horses with rough hairy 
 fetlocks present the majority of cases; wlnte heels, 
 Ix'ing more delicate, are especially affected; whilst 
 the hind limbs, exposed as they are to filth and cold,, 
 suffer most frequently. 
 
 Cradle. 
 
 CRADLE. — A machine used for transporting heavy 
 guns short distances. It is made of oak, and consists 
 essentially of two parallel rails 13 feet inches long
 
 CSASEBS. 
 
 425 
 
 CBAITES. 
 
 and 10 by 12 inches thick. Thcw rails arc united by 
 a tnuisom near each end and one in the middle; tbesie 
 transoms have such length as to make the entire width 
 of the cradle 60 inches. A bolster is placed over each 
 end-transom; the ends of these bolsters are flush with 
 the exterior siiies of the rails. The bolsters for the 
 support of tlie breech are 6 inches hi;jli and 8 inches 
 thick; that for the cliase, V) inches high and 6 inches 
 thick; the middle part of the top of each is slightlj' 
 hollowed out to form seats for the piece. A movable 
 bolster, having notches at each en<l to fit upon the 
 rails, is intended to be placed tight up against the 
 middle part of the gun after it has been placed on the 
 cradle. Diagonal braces are fitted inside iK'tween the 
 rails and transoms. The under part of tlie ends of 
 the rails, both front and rear, is beveled off, so that, 
 in moving in either direction, the rollers can be caught 
 under the craille witlt facility. The under .surfaces 
 of the rails are shod with iron to prevent them from 
 splintering out. A ring is attached l)y a link and eye- 
 bolt to each end-transom for the purpose of attaching 
 blocks and tackle when moving the cradle and piece. 
 The cradle moves on wooden rollers; each roller is 78 
 inches long and 7 inches in diameter. From six to 
 ten rollers are required; they rest and move on way- 
 planks laid on the groimd. See Mechanical Maneu- 
 vers. 
 
 CSAKEBS. — A term applied to the choice soldiers 
 of various organizations in the time of Henry VIII. 
 
 CEAKYS. — An ancient term commonly applied to 
 great guns. It is now quite obsolete. 
 
 CKAMPETS.— A term vers- frequently applied to 
 the cramp-rings of a >word-scalibard. 
 
 CKAMPTON KOTAKY PUDDLING - FURNACE. — 
 This furnace, used iu the Royal Gun Factory, is de- 
 sigueil to accomplish the following points: (a) The 
 utilization of slack or small coal without the produc- 
 tion of smoke; (4) the automatic feeding of fuel and 
 air in proper proportions, l)y which only jjerfect com- 
 bustion can be effecteil; ('■) the production of heat of 
 the highest intensities with perfect regularity both a:; 
 regard intensity and quality; ((f) the constriiction of 
 puddlitig-fumaces wiUiout brick-work, composed of 
 a single chamber, in which the gas is produced, con- 
 sumed, and the material treated; (e) the reduction of 
 wear and tear both of the lining and of the furnace 
 b.v the prevention of unecjual contraction and cxjian- 
 sfon; (f) also to effect the fettling of the rcvoh-ing 
 fumaci' in a quick, simple, and eilective manner; (g) 
 and, lastly, to eliminate phosphorus and sulphur from 
 common pig to such an extent as to enable good steel 
 to Ik; produced from it. 
 
 This puddling-fumace consists of a cylindrical ca- 
 sing of wrought-iron, the easing being made double, 
 so that a water-space is formed both at the sides and 
 at the ends. To the center of one end is attached a 
 two-way cock, which communicates with two pipes. 
 Through one pipe the incoming water is conducted 
 direct to the front of the furnace, while through the 
 other heated water escapes at a temperature of 90 de- 
 grees. The main body of the furnace is hooped at 
 two points by steel tires, these tires each taking a 
 bearing upon a jiair cif canying-wheels. These carry- 
 ing-wheels or rollers turn on Ivarings .supported bj- 
 plummerbltTcks fixed to the large cast-iron baseplate 
 which carries the whole furnace. The turning-gear 
 of the furnace is verj- simple, and consists of a pinion 
 engaging a toothed segment lx)lted to the casing, and 
 worked by a small engine with diagonal cylinders. 
 The supply of the powdered fuel is arranged by 
 means of a" revolving worm or creeper, which carries 
 the dust along the duct, where it is deposited in 
 front of the extremity of an air-pipe leading from the 
 fan, the blast from w"hich delivers the coaUlust into 
 the furnace and assists in its combustion. It may 
 be here stated that at the time the trial of this fur- 
 nace was proposed coal was at an enormous 'price, 
 and any economy of fuel was of the highest impor- 
 tance. " The results of experiments with this furnace 
 showed that the iron produced from it was defective 
 
 in the following important qualifications: 1. It could 
 not be often reheated; 2. It was not free from blister; 
 3. It was often red-short. These defects render it 
 imsuitable for the manufacture of ordnance. See 
 Furnace and Iron. 
 
 CEANE-DBEDGE.— A variety of drcdgingmachine 
 fonnerly used, but now, in a great measure, super- 
 seded by the boom-dredge. The crane-dredge, as 
 commonly built, is provided with a set of three- 
 threaded blocks, for multiplying the hoisting-power; 
 but since these augment the prejudicial resistance of 
 friction, and increase the time of hoisting and discharg- 
 ing the filled dipper, we have a.sstimcd the drum-strain 
 to be transmitted directly to the dipper-bail. This is 
 fair for comparative purposes, since it reduces both 
 dredges to the same relative conditions — the new 
 dredge being generallj- worked with a single chain, 
 although the threaded" blocks might be applied to it 
 if deemed expedient. It is apparent that at com- 
 mencement of work the greater the angle included 
 between the hoisting or excavating chain and the 
 dipper-handles, the greater will be the force in the 
 direction of the bank, and the smaller in the line of 
 the dipper-handle. Experiments have been conduct- 
 ed with a \iew to making this angle as large as possi- 
 ble without impairing the efliciencj' of action, and the 
 first step in this direction was the invention of the"ex- 
 tension-crane," which remedied the matter a trifle; 
 then followed the arm pivoted to the long side of the 
 crane, and bearing, at its outer end, sheaves, over 
 which the hoisting-chain was worked. This invention, 
 while fulfilling its mission, was yet so annoying in its 
 action that it was abandoned. 
 
 In the common form of the crane-dredge, the angle 
 included between the excavating-chain and the dipper- 
 handles is about 8°. After much study and exten- 
 sive experiments, Mr. Ralph R. Osgood invented his 
 boom-dredge, in which the angle in question is almost 
 30 . Since the component oif force in the direction 
 of the bank is almost directly pro]>ortional to the size 
 of this angle, the boom-dredge will have a bank force 
 nearly 3.5 times as great as given by the crane-dredge. 
 The boom-dredge, by dispensing with fall-blocks, is 
 enaljled to raise its load quicker, and with less loss 
 of power by friction, than the crane-<lredge; and also 
 requires a shorter dipper-handle, from the fact that 
 its uppermost point of support — the friction-t'lutch 
 or brake — is brought, by means of the falling or mova- 
 ble boom, 10 feet or more nearer the dipper. It is 
 also strained less, thus requiring less material for its 
 consti-uction and being less liable to bend or break. 
 See Boom-dredge, Dredging^machine, and Eicarator. 
 
 CBANES. — Cranes are employed for moving ord- 
 nance, molds, and other heavj' mas-ses about a foun- 
 dry. They are fitted with cog-wheel gearing to ob- 
 tain power at the expense of time, and are often 
 worked by steam. Care must lie taken to give great 
 strength to this machine, and to cause its motion to be 
 easy on its pivot. When proiXTly adjusted a weight 
 may be lifted and transported from one point to an- 
 other, anjwliere within the limits of the circle de- 
 scribed by the arm. 
 
 Cranes are most clearly classified by reference to 
 their modes of transferring their loads horizontalh'; 
 and, thus considered, are found to divide themselves 
 into the following groups, \\i.: 1. Rniary — In which 
 the load is revolved around a fixed center, such as a 
 mast or column. 2. Rectilinear — In which the load 
 is moved in straight lines, in one or more directions. 
 Both types of cranes are subflividcd into two general 
 classes as to their movements, \vl. : (A) Fijid — A\'hen 
 their supporting members are fixed in some ix.'nnancnt 
 location. (B) ilomble — When the crane as a whole 
 can be moved about. And into four oilier general 
 clas.«es as to their source of motive power, viz. : (a) 
 Hand — 'When the motions, either vertical or horizon- 
 tal, are effected by manual power. ('<) Poirtr — When 
 the motions arc e&ectcd by power derived from line 
 shafting driven by a stationari' engine or other fixed 
 motor, (c) Stca'n: — When the motive power is de-
 
 CKARZS. 
 
 426 
 
 CBANE8. 
 
 rived from a steam-cndnc nttached diirotly to tlie 
 crane itself and morinu' with it. (rf) HydmiiUf — 
 ■When Ibe motive power consists of hvdmiilic prcs- 
 sun' olitained from a pump or accumulator, and car- 
 rietl to llie cnuie by pilK-s. 
 
 A further distinction is coveretl by the term lofo- 
 motire, which is ajiplied to cranes (usually of the 
 rotarj- type) which are capable of propelling them- 
 selves uJh)!! a roadway or track. Rotary cranes com- 
 prise the following principal t)7H.>s, viz.: 1. Siring- 
 eriinet — In which the central ma.st is pivoted to the 
 tloor and nx)f of the building, and the load is sus- 
 pended from a block tixed at the outer end of an arm 
 proje<'ting horizontally from the mast, the only hori 
 zontal motion iK'ing one of rotation. 2. Jib-franM — 
 In whiih the central mast is pivoted to the floor and 
 roof of the buildinir, and the lojid is susiwnded from 
 a trolley traveling in and out upon an arm or jib pro- 
 jectinglaterally from the mast. 3. Column-cranes— 
 Whicii consist of a jib-crane constructed to revolve 
 around or upon a fi.xid cohnnn forming the support 
 of a building or floor. 4. Pillar-cmnfn— In which 
 the central column or pillar is entirely supported by a 
 heavy foundation built at its base, and the load is 
 suspended from a Ixiom projecting from the pillar 
 and revolving with it or around it. '>. DerrM'-cranes 
 — Which consist of a jil)-crane for yard use, the up- 
 per end or ])ivot of the mast being held in pasition by 
 guv-riHls or stays, instead of by attachment to a roof 
 or ceiling. 6. Wnlking-cram'K — Which consist of a 
 pillar- or" jib-crane mounted on wheels, and arranged 
 to travel by power or bv hand upon one or more rails. 
 7. Locoinothi'-cranes — Which consist of a pillar-crane 
 mounted on wheels, and provided with a steam-en- 
 gine and toiler, the ix)wer of which is available for 
 operating the crane and for propelling it upon its 
 tracks. 
 
 ReHiUnear Cranes comprise the following principal 
 types, \iz.: 1. Bridge-cranes — In which a tixed bridge 
 spans an opening, and the load is sasjicnded from a 
 truck or trolley capable of moving across the bridge. 
 3. Tram-cranes — In which a truck or short bridge, 
 from which the load is suspended, is arranged to travel 
 longitudinally upon a pair of overhead-rails, but is 
 without capacity for transverse motion. 3. Trareling- 
 cranes — In which a rectangular space is provided 
 with overhead-tracks upon two of its opposite sides, 
 and is spanned by a bridge arranged to travel longi- 
 tudinally upon these tracks, the load being suspended 
 from a truck or trolley cajiable of moving transversely 
 across the bridge, so "that the load may 1k' moved to 
 or from any jwint within the entire" rectangle. 4. 
 Gantries— la which an overhead-bridge is supported 
 at each- end by a frame, or trestle, extending down- 
 wards, and having wheels in its ba.se to permit of 
 travel upon two longitudinal tracks laid upon the 
 ground, so that the entire structure can move endwise 
 upon the latter, and the load, which is suspended from 
 a truck or trolley on the bridge, can lie moved trans- 
 versely across the briilge. 5. liotarii Britlgecranes — 
 W^hich combine a rotary with a rectilinear movement, 
 and consist of a bridge hanng one end ]nvoted to a 
 central pier or post,' while the other or outer end 
 travels on a circular overhead-track, or is supported 
 by a giuitry-frame traveling upon a circular track 
 u|ion the gr-ound, the load being suspended from a 
 truck or trolley traveling transversely across the 
 bridge. 
 
 The most important factor in the economy and con- 
 venience of a crane is the mechanism by which the 
 load is lifted and lowered, as it must nee<'s.snrily come 
 into action every time the crane is used. Inall ap- 
 plications of power, from whatever source derived, it 
 nmst Ik." remembered that the gearing of a machine 
 can only modifv the power applied in one of two 
 ways, \nz.: (1) Sy reducing its velocity, and proixjr- 
 tionatcly increasing its force or "pull." (2) By in- 
 creasing the velocity, and proportionately decreasing 
 the intensity of the jKiwer transmitted." 'Under no 
 circunvstances, miless the motive force is increased 
 
 can power Ix; gained except by a sacrifice in speed, or 
 can speed be increased except by a si>crifice in power. 
 If either or both must be increased without diminish- 
 ing the other, it can only be accomplished by sup- 
 plying more motive jiower. The function of gearing, 
 then, is to change the force or direction of the ]x)wer 
 applied. If it is well designed and constructed, 
 tills may l)e done with only a small loss from fric- 
 tion; while if badly made, the gearing may absorb 
 much power in wasteful friction of its moving |)arts. 
 In machinery for hoisting, the " purclia.se," or conver- 
 sion of velocity into lifting jiower, is usually effected 
 ]iartly by a multiplication of the ropes or "chains of 
 the tackle through which the load is suspended, and 
 partly by gearing within the machine, which latter 
 thus Ix^comes an iniiwrtant feature in crane-work. 
 The gearing ordinarily used for this purpose consists 
 either of spur-wheels and i)inions or of worm-wheels 
 and worms, or Ixith combined, and the smoothness 
 and economy of power of the machine depend largely 
 upon the maimer in which the gearing is made. 
 
 A second feature of piime importance in the hoist- 
 ing-gear of a crane is the inotle of sustaining the load, 
 and guarding against its "running down" when the 
 application of the motive ]50wcr is discontinued. 
 This has heretofore Ix'en accomplished, in machines 
 having spur-gearing, by a ratchet-wheel, the jniwl of 
 whiclT has to be eutirely disengaged to permit lower- 
 ing to occur, or by a brake, which, when on, prevents 
 all motion of the machine, and which requires to be 
 held or thrown off, both in hoisting and lowering. In 
 machines having worm-gearing the end is attained by 
 a constniction of the worm-wheels such that the fric- 
 tion between the worm and the wheel is sufficient to 
 prevent the backward rotation of the worm under the 
 pressure of the teeth of the worm-wheel Ciiused by the 
 load, the resistance thus generated sufficing to prevent 
 the running down of the load. There is a current 
 opinion among machinists in general that worm-gear- 
 ing offers so disastrous a frictional resistance in wear, 
 that its use, except for purposes where little ix)wer is 
 to be transmitted, and where certain slow movements 
 are to be effected, is not permissible in good mechan- 
 ism. This view is supported by most of the text- 
 books, which invariably represent the laying out of 
 the teeth by considering the worm as a rack with in- 
 clined teeth where the pitch-lines of the worm and 
 wheel are taken on a plane pa.ssing through the a.xis 
 of the worm. Now, the fact is that the use of worm- 
 cearing for hoists, cranes, boring- bars, lathes, etc., 
 has Ix'en growing in favor and it is found that neither 
 excessive loss cf jiower nor excessive wear of gearing 
 ensues. In regard to friction, it is established thai 
 for the ordinary ratio of wheel to worm, SiW not to 
 exceed 60 or 80 to 1, well titled worm-gear will trans- 
 mit motion backward throuirh the worm, exhibiting 
 a lower coefficient of friction than is found in any 
 other description of running machmery. 
 
 In order to reach this result the following method 
 of laying out a worm-gear and worm is employed. 
 Assume the teeth on the worm to be .B-i of the pitch 
 radially, of which .GOP is to be the line of contact 
 with the teeth of the wheel (on the radius .and also on 
 the plane through the middle of the teeth), and that 
 .05P l)e for clearances between the roots and points 
 of worm and wheel teeth. Let the teeth of the wheel 
 follow the circle of the worm thnmshout the arc, 
 whicli ought not to exceed m . Let R = outside 
 radius of worm; R/j = radius of pitch of worm; F 
 = face of wheel at r(X)t of teelh; and P = pitch of 
 teeth: then R/) = i-J R -j- (H _ .fiP) cos (/ [- , and 
 F = 2(R -I- .05 P) sin a. To simplify the jirix-ess of 
 la>ing out worm-wheels, it has been usual to make the 
 outside radius of the worm R = 2P, and the angle a 
 = 00 , wh.'u R;) = 1.606P, and F - 2.0.5P. The 
 effect of this nielhod of setting out pitch-lines for the 
 teeth of screw-gearing is to lirins: the bearing, or 
 working lines of contact, for Ixith orders of teeth 
 more nearly on the true pitch line, and not to throw 
 much effort or work on the ixtints of the teeth of the
 
 CBANES. 
 
 427 
 
 CBANXS. 
 
 worm-wheel outside of the true pitch-line. The fol- 
 lowing illustration represents a wonn-whecl and wonn 
 conslrticted in accordance with tlie above system, and 
 of the proportions enii)loyed in the Weston cranes. 
 
 In all cranes, except those of small size, i>ro%isiou 
 should be made for one or more changes of speed in 
 hoisting and lowering, so that the speed may be varied 
 according to the load and the nature of the work to 
 be done. Cranes operated by power ntay l)e so con- 
 structed that the maximum load can be lifted at the 
 quickest speed; but they are usually .so proportioned 
 that this can be done only at a slow speed. By this 
 plan much economy of gearing, space, and cost is 
 effected, and the practical efliciency of the crane for 
 all ordinary uses is not impaired. The most perfect 
 construction is one that permits a change of speeds to 
 be made whether the hoisting-gear is in motion or at 
 rest, and which sustains the load automatically while 
 a change of speed is being made. The hoisting-gear 
 of a crane should therefore attain the following re- 
 sults, viz. : (1) Such changes in direction and velocity 
 
 t I..TlMi-of Roolof Tiv>rt 1 
 
 I ITK Seyl»n o" '^'■'^ Une.X Y ! 
 
 L L. PlftQ.orTog.ofToolb 
 
 ' Worm wheel and Worm. 
 
 ■of the power applied as will give the desired motions 
 to the load. (2) The accomplishment of tliis with a 
 minimimi lo.ss of ix)wer through friction. (3) The 
 safety, lx)th of the operator and the load, under all 
 conditions; to insure which the load must be always 
 self -sustained and incapable of " running down." (4) 
 Capacity for changes of speed and for convenient 
 transition from one of these to another at will, 
 whether the gearing is in motion or at rest, and for 
 the automatic support of the load during the act of 
 changing speeds. 
 
 In some types of rotarj- cranes no traverse mechan- 
 ism exists, except an aiTangemcnt of parts whicli pro- 
 ■\ndes for the rotation of the crane. In others, such 
 as jib- and derrick-cranes, provision must also be 
 made for moving the truck or trolley horizontally on 
 the jib, and the same provision is required for mov- 
 ing the trolley of bridge- and traveling-cranes trans- 
 versely on the bridge. In all such cases a separate 
 mechanism, distinct from the hoisting-gear, lias here- 
 tofore Ix-en employed, and is still sometimes desir!d)le 
 or convenient. When employed, its parts should \k 
 as few and simple as ixjssible, and it should be so far 
 
 iudciK'ndent of the hoisting-gear as to |)ermit either to 
 be u.sed at any time separatelj- or conjointly. In 
 power-cranes provision should be made for accelerat- 
 ing the speed of the trolley -travel whenever the nature 
 of the work admits of it. The lx;st iKissible result is 
 attained when travel of the trolley is effected without 
 varying the vertical position of the load, and without 
 causing useless movement of the hoisling-eliain or 
 rope over the sheaves through which it sujiports the 
 load, which movement would involve much additional 
 friction, and cause rapid wear of the chain or rope. 
 In traveling-cranes a point of great importance is the 
 parallelism of the bridge-travel with the longitudinal 
 tracks. Any defect here results in increased resist 
 ance to traction, .and any considerable error might 
 cause derailment. In traveling-cranes, as heretofore 
 built, the use of Hanged wheelshas been relied upon 
 to prevent derailment, and the propulsion of the 
 bridge has been effected by a transverse shaft extend- 
 ing the whole length of the bridge, and connected by 
 gearing with the truck-wheels sui>porting each end 
 of the bridge, so that, by revolving 
 the shaft, the truck-wheels would be 
 rotated, and the bridge be thereby pro- 
 pelled, provided the adhesion between 
 the wheels and the rails was sufficient. 
 In some instances, where the adhesion 
 has not been sufficient to prevent 
 slipping, a cast-iron rack has been laid 
 adjacent to the longitudinal tracks, 
 and extending their whole length, and 
 pinions, gearing into this rack, at- 
 tached to the axles of the truck-wheels, 
 so that propulsion is effected indepen- 
 dently of the adhesion of the truck- 
 wheels to the track. If the load were 
 always central on the bridge, and the 
 motive jiower always applied to this 
 shaft at the center of its length, this 
 plan would answer well, although it 
 is somewhat clumsy: but in practice 
 the load is constantly varying in posi- 
 tion, and the motive" power is applied 
 at one end of the long transverse 
 shaft, so that torsion of the shaft in- 
 duces a considerable variation in the 
 travel of the ojipositc ends of the 
 — bridge. This error is a conslanllj' 
 
 varjing one, according to the ixirtion 
 of the load resting upon each truck, 
 as detei-mined by the pasitiou of the 
 trolley, the load" being never equally 
 distributed between the two trucks 
 except when it is exactlj- in the cen- 
 ter. It follows, therefore, that this 
 system of bridge-travel, although op- 
 erative, is radically defective, and 
 that its use involves a constant loss of power by 
 needless friction, and entails a proportionate amount 
 of wear and tear of rails, wheels, and driving- 
 gear. A Ijetter and more simple method of bridge- 
 propulsion has lately been introduced, by means of 
 which the lomritudinal motions of the bridge are 
 effected by jiuUint) each of its ends, simultaneously 
 and at equal speed, in the desired direction. For this 
 purpose light wire cables are used, which, by a very 
 simple ami ingenious arrangement of guide-sheaves, 
 arc made to act tts a " squaring device" to hold the 
 bridu'e at all times peqiendicular. or stiuare, to the 
 tracks upon which it travels. By this system the 
 friction of traction is reduced to a mininuun, and the 
 danger of derailment from unequal travel of the op- 
 jiosite ends of the bridge entirely ob\iated. From 
 the above facts it becomes evident that a iK-rfect sys- 
 tem of bridge-propulsion must hold the bridge always 
 absolutely square with its tracks, and must profKl the 
 opposite ends of the bridge in the same direction, at 
 the same time, and at the same speed, however un- 
 equally the load may be distributed. It is desirable 
 also that, in laree cranes at least, provision be made
 
 csAjns. 
 
 428 
 
 CRANES. 
 
 for startiiii; the briiljrt' slowly from a state of rest, ami 
 thi'n incrnisinij the s|hih1, and also for varying tbu 
 speed while llie bridge is iu iuoUod. 
 
 Cbtiin-wheel, Guide, and Stripper. 
 
 In almost every type of crane the load is primarily 
 carried upon a flexible cord of some kind. Xli's 
 usually consist.s of rope, ei!hcr hemp or wire, of of 
 chain. Eaih of these has distinc- 
 tive merits !ind objections. Ropes 
 
 have the advantage of being formed 
 of many parts or fibers, so that no 
 splicing (ir welding is necessary in 
 their manufacture, and they thus 
 have an assured and practically 
 uniform strength throughout their 
 length. Chains, on the contiary, 
 consist of a series of independent 
 links, each of which is foniicd from 
 a stnuglit bar, and welded, so that 
 a single imperfect weld injures the 
 whole, the strength of a chain being 
 obviously limited by the strength 
 of its weakest link. By care and 
 good workmanship, however, this 
 danger Ciui be avoided, in which 
 case the chain l)ecomes as safe as 
 the rope, and much more durable. 
 Where a rope is used, the hoisting- 
 gear must necessjtrily include a 
 drum or barrel uiwn which the rope 
 is wound up when hoisting takes 
 place. Chain may also be thus 
 woimd up on a barrel, and this has 
 heretofore been the common prac- 
 tice when chains have been em- 
 ployed in crane-construction, and a 
 prominent feature in cranes of large 
 capacity has usually been a propor- 
 tionately large "winding-barrel " to 
 receive the chain. A chain, how- 
 ever, admits of another mode of 
 construction, which consists in .sub- 
 alitutiug for the wide barrel or dnmi 
 a pocketed " eliain-wheel," consist- 
 ing of a narrow wheel or sheave, 
 of a width only slightly greater 
 than that of the chain, and having 
 fonned uiK)n its peripher\' a series 
 of indentations or "pockets," ex- 
 actly corresponding in size and 
 shape with the links of the chain, 
 so that the chain and the pockets 
 fit togetheraeciirately, and slipping 
 of the chain upon the ehidn wheel 
 becomes impossilile. It thus follows that rotation 
 of the chain-wheel causes positive motion of the 
 chain at a speed equal to the circumferential velo- 
 
 city of the wheel, in a manner precisely similar to 
 the motion of a rack driven by a pinion, or of one 
 spur-wheel driven bv another. 
 
 I'he lx;st material for the chain- 
 wheel lias been found, by experience, 
 to be soft cast iron, as this causes 
 the least wear upon the chain, and 
 as it is of course best to have the 
 wear come upon the wheel (which 
 is easily and cheaply replaced) than 
 upon the chain. In all of the several 
 types of cnuies, the chain-wheels are 
 made and inserted so as to be easily 
 rejilaeed. This, however, does not 
 recpiire to be frequently done, as the 
 wheels will usually eiidure live or 
 six years of constant use before wear- 
 ing out. To further insure the jiroper 
 engagement of the chain-wheel and 
 chain, a chain-guide is jirovided as 
 shown in the drawing. The func- 
 tions of this chain-guide are (1) to 
 cause the chain to enter i)roperly in- 
 to engagement with the wheel; (2) to 
 hold it in engagement with sevend of 
 the pockets of the wheel, so that the 
 strain upon the chain is distributed 
 over these several pockets, and "stripping" of the 
 wheel prevented; and (3) to permit the lower half 
 of the wheel to be used for engagement with the 
 
 Jlb-crace Frame. 
 
 chain and yet cause the slack side of the chain to 
 follow the wheel up to the horizontal center line- 
 again.
 
 CBAirZQUENIESS. 
 
 429 
 
 CBAP£. 
 
 The construction by which these results are oh- 
 tained is clearly illustrated in the drawinjr, in which 
 A represents a pocketed chain-wheel mounted upon 
 the plate or frame B. C is the " chain-guide," en- 
 veloping the lower half of the chain-wheel A, and 
 bolted securely to the plate B. The innner curved 
 surface of the chain-guide is grooved, and is of such 
 shape as to leave a space between it and the periphery 
 of the chain-wheel merely sufficient to admit the 
 chain. The latter is thus compelled to enter proper- 
 ly, and is held securely in engagement with the 
 pocketed chain-wheel throughout the arc of contact. 
 At E the chain-guide carries a small roller, over which 
 the slack chain passes downward into a suitable box 
 or receptacle. To insure the proper separation of 
 the chain from the chain-wheel at the point of dis- 
 engagement there is pro\ided a "chain-stripper." 
 This piece, marked D in the drawing, is also bolted 
 to the plate B, and isprovidcd with a. projecting 
 tongue or rib, D', the point of which lies deep in the 
 center groove of the wheel, and thus strips or sepa- 
 rates the chain from the wheel sus it reaches the proper 
 point, and prevents any clinging of the chain to the 
 wheel. A prolongation of the " stripper" D covers 
 the guidesheave at E and insures the proper pas.sing 
 downward of the chain. The construction of the 
 chain-wheel and its adjuncts, which is al)ove illus- 
 trated and described, constitutes a perfect deWce 
 for hauling in and pajing out chain, whether fully 
 loaded or empt)-, and is moreover easier upon the 
 chain, and more conducive to its endurance, than 
 any ordinarj- form of winding barrel or drum. With 
 slight modifications, to adapt it to the varying condi- 
 tions, this construction is embodied in all of the var- 
 ious types of the Weston cranes. 
 
 Construction in iron has been adopted almost ex- 
 clusively for the frames, girders, etc., of the Weston 
 cranes. The great variety of structural shapes of 
 iron which are now obtainable, and the increasing ca- 
 pacity of our rolling-mills to jjroduce shapes of large 
 area and of great length, have greatly simplified 
 and cheapened the building of iron crane frames and 
 girders of moderate sizes. Wherever the dimensions 
 of the work admit, these irons are employed. In 
 machines of larger size resort is had to plate-girders, 
 as described below, while for the columns of large 
 pillar-cranes and similar machines cast-iron in single 
 pieces is employed. The frames of small jib-cranes 
 may frequently be constructed by using a single iron 
 for each of the principal members, in which case the 
 I-beam section is found best. For larger sizes, sjiy 
 from 3 tons upwards, a double frame, each of the 
 principal members being composed of two channel- 
 irons, is found better. The latter construction is 
 shown in outline in the drawing, in which the jib, A, 
 mast, B, and brace, C, are each composed of two chan- 
 nel-irons, separated sufficiently to give proper room 
 for the attachment of the mechanism and to permit 
 the main chains, depending from the trolley, to pass 
 between the two irons forming the jib. The best 
 and most economic construction requires that the 
 brace, C, shall intersect the jib, A, at a distance from 
 the mast equal to four fifths of the extreme effective 
 radius of the crane; that is, that the distance X should 
 be one fourth as great as the distance Y. When for 
 any reason it is necessarj' that the brace intersect the 
 jib at a point nearer to the mast, as, for instance, at C , 
 as shown by the dotted lines, a much greater depth is 
 necessary in the irons forming the jib, and frequently 
 also in those composing the mast. Where it is pos- 
 sible to obtain greater height of mast above the jib, 
 as indicated by dotted lines at M, a suspension-rod, 
 N, may be substituted for the brace, C, and the latter 
 omitted, thus gi\Tng entire freedom below the jib. 
 The intersections of the several members of jib-cranes 
 thus constructed are best united by the overlapping 
 of the web of one part upon the other, and by gusset- 
 plates, all firmly fastened by proper riveting, 
 
 In proi)ortioning the frames and girders, such di- 
 mensions arc adopted as will insure a factor of safety 
 
 of «(> throughout; that is, such that the strains de- 
 veloped, with the maximum load suspended at the 
 I center, or point of greatest stnun, shall not exceed 
 1 one sixth of the breaking strength of the material em- 
 ployed. We state the case in this way for the reason 
 that it is still customary with most engineers to make 
 such calculations upon the basis of an assumed 
 ' ' factor of safety. " The best and latest practice, how- 
 ever, is to proportion the parts with reference to the 
 elastic strength of the material employed, and it is 
 the present practice, so far as ]x)ssible, to give such 
 dimeasions to the f rsimes and girders that under no 
 condition shall any of their members be strained to 
 within 'jO per cent of the elastic limit of the material. 
 At all intersections of members, and at points of 
 attachment with wrought or cast-iron parts, an excess 
 of strength is alwaj-s provided to allow for the weak- 
 ening of bolt and rivet holes and other contingencies. 
 Special attention is given to securing unusual strength 
 and safetj' in these details of the Weston cranes, all 
 of which are based upon exact and careful calcula- 
 tion. A comparison of one of these cranes with most 
 others of equal nominal capacitj' will show much 
 difference in the amoimt and disposition of material 
 employed, so that, although the latter may ix)ssibly 
 lift their full nominal load without breakmg down, 
 tlie former may be relied upon to do so always with 
 aljsolute safety. Doubtless a load of 10 tons could be 
 lift^Ml with a .i-ton crane without disabling it; but in 
 executing a contract to furnish a Weston crane of 10 
 tons capacity, the builders furnish one proportioned 
 as above explained, and of a strength such as to make 
 it absolutely safe for its intended work. See Bridge- 
 crant. Column- crane. Derrick -crane. Differential 
 Pulley -block, Ilooks, Jib-crane, Locomotice- crane. 
 Pillar -crane. Salary Bridge -crane. Swing-crane, 
 Take-iipg, Tracding crane. Trolleys, and Walking- 
 cram'. 
 
 CRANEftUENIEHS. — A surname given to .the foot- 
 troops who, in ancient times, were armed with the 
 crinii'rmin. 
 
 CRANEQUIN. — The windlass crossbow anciently 
 used by foot-soldiers who were surnamed crane- 
 quiidi rs. 
 
 CRANK. — In machinery, an arm or a bend on an 
 axle or shaft which may be driven by a connecting- 
 rod or by the hand, its use being to convert an alter- 
 nating straight motion into a continuous revolution. 
 A crank may have part of the shaft on both sides, so 
 that one rod may drive two wheels. There are two 
 positions in a crank in which the connecting-rod ex- 
 ercises no power whatever; viz., when the arm of the 
 crank is jiarallel to the comiecting-rod, and again 
 when the crank is at the op])osite point of its course. 
 A push or pull of the rod in such circumstances can 
 only press the shaft Against its bearings. The eflfect 
 is greatest when the rod and the crank-arm are at 
 right angles, and it decreases gradually on both sides 
 of that position, until at the top and "bottom it is re- 
 duced to nothing. In order to carry the crank over 
 these dead points, as they are called, a tly-wheel is 
 fixed on the shaft; this receives part of the force of 
 the rod while at its best, acts as a res<-rvoir, 'and l)y 
 its stored-uii momentum carries the shaft round when 
 the rod is powerless. 
 
 CRANNOGES.— The name given in Ireland and in 
 Scotland to the fortified islands in lakes which were 
 in common use as dwelling-places and places of ref- 
 uge among the Celtic inhabitants. The etiiTiiology of 
 the \\ord is uncertain, but it is believed to refer to 
 the timber which was employed either in the fortifi- 
 cation of the island, or in "the construction of the 
 houses which were placed upon it. 
 
 CRAPE.— A thin fabric made of raw silk, which 
 has been tightly twisted, without remo\-ing the vis- 
 cous matter" with which it is covered when spun by 
 the worm. It is simply woven as a thin gauze, then 
 I dressed with a thick solution of gum, which in dry- 
 ing causes the threads partiall.\- to unt^\-ist, and thus 
 gives a wrinkled and rough appearance to the fabric.
 
 CSATSS. 
 
 430 
 
 CRESCENT. 
 
 It is usually dyed black, and is xised for mouming- 
 apparpl. 
 
 CKATEB.— Tbc form of the crater in ordinary soils 
 has not bcfn accuratily asciTtained. The only use of 
 the exact determination of this fonn would be to cal- 
 culate pre<isel y the tiuantity of earth thrown from the 
 crater, and by that means to proportion the charjre to 
 the effect to l)e priKhiced. Different tigures have 
 bet'D assigned by Engiuerrs to the solids constituting 
 the crater: some assuming it to be a cone, the center 
 of the powder being taken as the vertex; otliers, a 
 paralndoid. the center of the |)Owder Ix-ing the focus, 
 etc. To afford a uniform and simple nile for calcu- 
 lating the volume ot the eniter, the solid will lx> as- 
 sumed as a truncated cone, the radius, O D. of the 
 lower circle, being also assumed at one half the 
 radius, P B, of the upjx-r circle. The radius, P B, of 
 the upper circle is termed the cratt-r radius; the 
 line, < ) P. drawn from the center of the powder per- 
 pendicular to the surface where the explosion takes 
 
 Section of Crater. 
 
 place, the line of least resiaUtnce ; and the line, O B, 
 drawn from the same center to any point in the cir- 
 cumference of the upper circle, me radiua of explo- 
 tion. 
 
 It was for a long time supposed by miners that a 
 crater could not be formed with a radius greater than 
 twice the lino of least R'sistance with any charge; but 
 the experiments of Belidor have .shown that, by suc- 
 cessive augmentations of the charge, the crater radius 
 may be increased to six times this line, but not much 
 beyond; that within this limit the ratio of the diame- 
 ters of the craters is nearly that of the scjuare root of 
 the charges; and that gjillcries can be destroyed by 
 such mines at distances of four times their line of 
 least resistance. The physico-mathematical theory of 
 mines is still very imperfect, owing to the impractica- 
 bility of ascertaining the exact effects of the explosion 
 of powder in a medium which is seldom homogene- 
 ous, and the resistance of which, arising from its 
 tenacity, compressibility, etc., to the expansion of the 
 gases, can only be arrived at by a wide range of ex- 
 periments made with minute care. From the want 
 of these elementary data, the formulie at present in 
 use, to determine the charges for different media, are 
 neces-sarily empirical, and their results are to be relied 
 on only within the limits in which they coincide with 
 experiments. For most cases in practice these ap- 
 proximations are near enough, and valuable as the 
 only guides that the miner has to refer to. See Mines. 
 
 CKAVAT. — A part of the uniform prescribed for 
 officers in the United States army. The cravat is 
 black, and the tie is not permitted to be visible at the 
 oiiening of the collar, ^(■ilher cravats nor stocks are 
 worn bv the euliste<l men when on duty. 
 
 CBEEDMOOE RIFLE-EANOE. — Tlie largest and 
 most coiiiplcte rille-range in the United State.s. It is 
 a station on the Long Island Itjiilroad, about 10^ 
 miles ea-st of New York, was estjiblished in IUTI, and 
 is much frcfiuenled by riHemen for target jiract ice. 
 
 CREESE.— A -Malay dagger, generally with a wavy 
 or Jl'imiii'/ bliide, which the Malay triljes render still 
 more fatal by dipping into jmison. Sometimes writ- 
 ten CreiiM, ("rtstrit, Oris, Krees, and Kris. 
 
 CREU AILLE. — In (ield-fortification, the term cre- 
 m/;//// is employed when the inside line of the parapet 
 is broken in such a manner as to rescmlile the teeth 
 of a saw. This advantage is gained by the measure 
 that a greater fire ain be brought to l)ear upon the de- 
 file than if only a .simple face wiuj opj)ose(i to it; and 
 consc'iueutly the passage is rendered more difficult. 
 
 CREMAILLERE LINE. — An indented line, consist- 
 ing of long and short branches, which may be ar- 
 ranged as shown in the drawing. The long branchea 
 are usually made 70 ^ards long, or more, and ar» 
 directed towards ground which cannot be occupied 
 
 CriTnailU^rc Line. 
 
 by an enemy. The short branches are made about 
 30 yards long, and are usi-d to flank the Ions branch- 
 es. " Instead of giving the long branches tlirections 
 parallel to each other, they may all 1m' directed upon 
 a single point, which the enemy cannot reach. See 
 Lines. 
 
 CRENAUX. — In fortification, small openings or 
 loop-holes, made through the walls of a fortified towa 
 or place. They are extremely narrow towards the 
 enemy, and witle within; so tliat the balls from the 
 besiegers can scarcely even enter, whereas two or 
 tliree soldiers may fire from within. 
 
 CRENEL— CRENELLE.— A term sometimes used 
 for a liiittlemcni. but more frequently for the embra- 
 sures in a battlement. The adjective crenellated is ia 
 frequent use to signify that a building is supplied 
 with crenelles. See Battteinenl. 
 
 CRENELLE.^In Heraldrj-, a term meaning em- 
 battled, and used to signify that any ordinary is 
 drawn like the battlements of a wall. See Heraldry. 
 
 CREFISA. — The iron-shod shoe worn by the early 
 Greek philosophers and soldiers. It did not cover 
 the whole of the foot. 
 
 CRESCENT. — 1. A musical instrument consisting 
 of a staff with arms and suspended bells, used in a 
 band. — 2. In Heraldrj', the crescent is used both as 
 a bearing or charge, and as a difference, or mark of 
 cadency. In the latter case it designates the second 
 son anil those that descend from him. — 3. A repre- 
 sentation of the half-moon with the horns turned up- 
 wards, called a crescent, is often used as an emblem 
 of progress and success. It is generally spoken of as 
 "The Arms" of the Turkish Empire, but is more 
 properly the emblem of the Empire and people — not 
 a very appropriate one in our day. It was, however, 
 the emblem of the Greek before it became that of the 
 Turkish rule ; and at the present day is frecjuently to 
 be seen on churches in iloscow and el.sewhere in Rus- 
 sia, generallj'sumiountetlwith the cross, marking un- 
 questionably the Byzantine origin of the Russian 
 Church. — 4. The name of three orders of knishthootl. 
 In 1799, after the battle of Aboukir, the Sultan Selim 
 III. testified his gratitude to Xelson by sending him 
 a crescent richly adorned with diamonds. It was not 
 intended as an order, but Nelson wore it on his coat, 
 and on several occasions called himself the Knight of 
 the Crescent. Selim was flattered by the value which 
 the English Admiral, already decorated with so many 
 orders, .seemed to attach to his gift ; and it was this 
 circumstance which determined him, in 1801, to 
 found the Order of the Crescent. Mohammedans 
 being forbidden, in the Koran, to cany such marks 
 of distinction, the order is conferred only on Chris- 
 tians who have done si-rvice to the State. The second 
 person on whom it was conferred was General Seba.*- 
 tiani, for his defense of Constantinople agiunst the 
 English fleet in 1.S07. The insurrection of the Janis- 
 Siiries suspended the efforts at Europeani/.ing which 
 Selim had begun ; and when they were resumed by 
 Mahmud, he instituted .several other decorations. 
 There was an old Order of the Crescent instituted at 
 Algiers by Rene, Duke of Anjou, brother and heir of 
 Louis III., King of Naples, in 1464. Its objects were 
 those common to the religious military orders of 
 those days : the honor of God, the defense of the 
 Church, the encouragement of noble actions, and the 
 glory of the founder. The Dukes of Anjou and
 
 CBEST. 
 
 431 
 
 CSIHE. 
 
 Helmet and crest 
 of Kut,'Ht- lie Ouinov, 
 Earl o£ Wiuohester. 
 
 Kings of Sicily were sovereigns of the order. The 
 badge was a crescent of gold, on which was the 
 word Loz, enameled in red letters, the import being 
 Loz (laus) en Croissant— Praise by Increasing. Like 
 many other orders founded by the smaller sovereigns, 
 the Order of the Crescent did "not sur\ive the founder. 
 See Cadency. 
 
 CREST. — 1. In fortification, the intersection of sur- 
 faces making a salient angle with the plane of site. 
 2. Though popularly regjirded as the most important 
 feature in heraldic emblems, the crest, in the eyes of 
 heralds, is an external adjunct to the shield, without 
 which the bearing is complete, and which may con- 
 sequently be altered without materially affecting its 
 signilicance. Occupying the highest ijlace on the 
 helmet, it is the member of the bearing by which the 
 knight was commonly known in battle; and from 
 this circumstance it is to it that the term (oijiiisanct; 
 (from a/gnosco, to know) is properly given. Its claim 
 to a classical origin is probably better than that of 
 any other portion of coat-armor. Jupiter Amnion is 
 represented as haWng borne a rams head on his hel- 
 met, and Mars the figure of a lion or a tiger. Alex- 
 ander the Great, on the pretense that he was sprung 
 from Jupiter, assimied the nim^s 
 head; and Julius Ctesarbore a star, 
 to denote that he was descended 
 from Venus. The helmet, as we 
 see it represented on ancient statues 
 and gems, was frequently adorned 
 with a crest. Sometimes it was of 
 horse-hair; at other times a lion or 
 other animal was placed on the 
 helmet, either erect or couchant. 
 Newton, in his Dhphiy of Herald- 
 ry, says that the first crest to be met 
 nith in the monuments of English 
 chivalry is that on the great seal of Richard Civiir 
 de Lion. The helmets in this inst.ince, and in that of 
 Roger de Quincy, Earl of Winchester, differ in form 
 from those afterwards used, the crest occupying a 
 much larger space. Crests are said to have come 
 into gentral use about the time of Henrj' III., and to 
 have been used as marks of distinction ijy Command- 
 ers in the Holy Wars, as they had formerly been by 
 the Roman Centurions. For lightness they were often 
 made of stuffed leather, which was gilt, silvered over, 
 or painted — a circimistance which explains their 
 greater size then than in later times, when they were 
 made either of wood or metal. The earliest example 
 of the wreath on which the crest is now invariably 
 
 f laced is that on the monument of Sir John Harsick. 
 t consisted of two pieces of silk, of the colors of the 
 armorial lx?arings of the wearer, twisted together by 
 the lady who had chosen him for her knight. Though 
 crests are now invariable appendages to shields, and 
 many of them are appropriated to particular families 
 by hereditary descent, they are believed to have been 
 originally assumed at the pleasure of the wearers; 
 and thej' are even now less strictly under the cogni- 
 zance of the heralds than the devices on the shield, 
 which must always be assigned by competent author- 
 ity. Crests are so various that a classification of 
 them is scarcely possible. The following is an abridg- 
 ment of that given by Newton, who has written very 
 fully on the subject. The most ancient class of 
 e.'ests he believes to have consisted of ferocious ani- 
 mals, which were regarded as figuratively represent- 
 ing the bearer and his pursuits. Secondly, they were 
 device^ assumed as memorials of feats of chivalry, 
 and for the purpose of perpetuating traditions and 
 family legends, either in addition to or differing 
 from those represented on the shield. Thirdly, they 
 served only to give a more prominent place to objects 
 already represented on the shield. Fourthly, tliey 
 commemorate<i religious vows, or expressed the relig- 
 ious or knightly aspirations of the bearer. Fifthly, 
 they were mere whims, and were adopted for no very 
 definite reason, and served no very definite purpose. 
 As many of them belonged to persoas not on^- uncon- 
 
 nected by family, but having different names, they no 
 longer served the purpose of distinction when sepa- 
 rated from the shield. To this latter class belong the 
 vast majority of mo<lem crests lussimied at the sug- 
 gestion of seal-engravers and coach-painters. 
 
 CEESTED.— In Heraldrj-, when a cock or other 
 bird ha.s its comb of a different tincture from its Inxly, 
 it is said to be crested of such a tincture, naming the 
 tincture. See Heraldry. 
 
 CRETE.— The earth thro^s-n out of a ditch in a for- 
 tification, trench, etc. The most elevated part of a 
 parapet or glacis. 
 
 CRIB-BITING.— A bad habit met with especially 
 in the lighter breeds of horses and those spending a 
 considerable amount of leisure in the stable. The 
 act consists in the animal seizing with his teeth the 
 manger, rack, or any other such object, and taking 
 in at the same time a deep inspiration, technically 
 called mnd-suckinrj. Crib-biting springs often fnmi 
 idle play, may be first indulged in during gr(X)ming, 
 especially if the operation is conducted "in the stall, 
 and the animal be needlessly teased or tickled ; is 
 occasionally learned, apparently, by imitation from a 
 neighbor ; and in the first instance is fre(iuently a 
 symptom of some form of indigestion. Its indulgence 
 may be suspected where the outer margins of the 
 front teeth are worn and nigged, and will soon be 
 proved by turning the animal loose where he can find 
 suitable objects to lay hold of. It usually interferes 
 with thriving and condition, and leads to attacks of 
 indigestion. It can be prevented only by the use of 
 a muzzle or throat-strap; but in those newly acquired 
 cases resulting from gastric derangement, means must 
 further be taken to remove the acidity or other such 
 disorder. See Veleriiuiry Art. 
 
 CRIB-STRAP.— A neckthrottler for crib-biting and 
 wind-sucking horses. 
 
 CRIME. — ^In its legal as opposed to its moral or 
 ethical sense crime is an act done in eolation of those 
 duties for the breach of which the law has jirovided 
 that the offender, in addition to repairing, if it be 
 possible, the injury done to the individual, shall make 
 satisfaction to the community. A private wrong or 
 ci\-il injury, on the other hand, is an infringement on 
 the rights of an individual merely, for which com- 
 pensation to him is held, in law, to be a complete 
 atonement. From this definition, which is that gen- 
 erally adopted by lawyers, it is obvious that legal 
 criminality is not a permanent characteristic attach- 
 ing to an action, but one fixed upon it arbitrarily, 
 from considerations of expediency. Without chang- 
 ing its moral character, the sanie action may, and 
 verj' often is, a crime in one country or in one gen- 
 eration, and no crime in another country or a suc- 
 ceeding generation. Malice, or e\\\ intention, how- 
 ever, is in all cases essential to the character of crime, 
 for, though there may be an immoral act which it is 
 inexpedient to punish as a crime, it can never be ex- 
 pedient to punish as a crime what is not an immoral 
 act. But it is not necessary that the evil intention 
 shall have had reference to the party injured. If the 
 offender acted in defiance of social duty, and regard- 
 less of order, a crime has been commitleil, though it 
 may not have been the particular crime which he 
 intended. For example, it is murder it A kill B by 
 mistake for C, unless the killing of C would have 
 been justifiable or excusable. The law can take no 
 cognizance of a bare intention which has not ripened 
 into any sort of act. How far attemptji to commit 
 crime are punishable is always a question of tlitli- 
 ' culty. The general rule seems to lie, that if such 
 acts can be unequivocally connected with the crim- 
 inal intention, they are punishable, though not to the 
 same extent as the completed crime. Pupils under 
 seven years of age, and insane persons, as being in- 
 capable of design or intention, are regarded in the 
 eye of the law as incapable of crime; but questions 
 as to the responsibility of persons hil)oring under par- 
 ! tial in.sanity are often surrounded with praclicjil difli- 
 1 culties, wliich are positively insoluble. The defense
 
 CSIHFINO-H0USE8. 
 
 432 
 
 CBOUFIEKEB. 
 
 of compulsion, or n't mnj"r, as it is called by lawj'ers, 
 If completely cstablUhi'd iu fact, is generally sulli- 
 cient iu law." The subjection of a servant to a mas- 
 ter, or (if a wife or child to a husband or parent, will 
 be no defensi' for the commission of an act of the 
 criminality t>f which the offender was aware, unless 
 it amount to compulsion. Magistrates acting bona 
 fide, and soliliers acting under their officers in the 
 onlinary line of duty, are not liable to a criminal 
 cbarce." Extreme want is no excuse for a crime in 
 law, "though it furnishes a ground for an application 
 for mercy. 
 
 In the" tt>chnical language of the law of England, 
 the term offdne has a wider signification than crime, 
 the latter including only such of the former as are 
 punishable by indktment. Crimes are divided into 
 mi»dtineanorg and felonks. the latter being a higher 
 species of offense than the former. For the specifi- 
 cations of crimes, capital and military, see Articles of 
 W-ir. 
 
 CRIMPING HOUSES. — Houses in which persons 
 •were entrnpped into the army; hence the name of 
 "Crimp Seri.aant." In a riot in London some of 
 these receptjtcles were destroyed by the populace, in 
 consequence of a young man who had been enticed 
 into one being killed in endeavoring to escape, Sep- 
 tember Hi, 1794. 
 
 CBINED. — A tenn in Heraldry. When the hair of 
 a man or woman, or the mane of a horse, differs in 
 tincture from the rest of the charge, the object is said 
 to be ffiiieil. of such a metal or color. See Heraldry. 
 
 CBINIERE.— Small plates of armor used in the 
 Middle Ages to defend the necks of war-hon-es. Also 
 written Sfanifire. Sometimes written Criiiet. 
 
 CRIQUES. — Small ditches which are made in dif 
 ferent parts of a ground for the purpose of inunda- 
 ting a countrj-, in order to obstruct the approaches of 
 an enemy. 
 
 CBOATS. — In military history, the light, irregular 
 troops; generally people of Croatia. They were or- 
 dered upon all desperate services, and their method 
 of fighting was the sjune as that of the Pandours. 
 
 CBOCHERT.— A hagbut or hand-cannon anciently 
 in use. Now obsolete. 
 
 CROCUS. — A polishing-powdcr composed of pero.x- 
 ide of iron. It is prejiared from crystals of sulphate 
 of iron, calcined in crucibles. The portion at the 
 bottom, which has been exposed to the greatest heat, 
 is the hardest, is purplish in color, and is called cro- 
 cus. It is ased for polishing bra.ss or steel. The 
 upper portion is of a scarlet color, and is called rouf/e. 
 It is used for polishing gold, silver, and speculum 
 metal. Bomje, the cosmetic, is made from safflowcr, 
 or from carmine, which is a preparation of cochineal. 
 
 CROOK. — A circular tube belonging to band-instru- 
 ments, such as the French horn or trumpet, which 
 fits into the end of the instrument next the moulh- 
 pi'^cc, for tlie purpose of making the pitch of the 
 in.strument suit the key of the music; the notes of the 
 parts for these instruments being always written in 
 the natural kev of C, with the name of the key of the 
 piece marked in letters. 
 
 CROSS.— 1. The Order of the Cross was originally 
 a spiritual order of knighthood, which sprang up in 
 Palestine in the lime of the Crusjides, and was then 
 called the BiOilihiwiti- Order. After the commence- 
 ment of the thirleeiitli century, the knights of this Or- 
 der adopted the monastic life, settling chiefiy in 
 Austria, Bohemia, JloraWa, Polan<l, and Silesia. 
 Pope Gregory IX. confirmeil the Order in 1328. Its 
 principal .seat is now in Boliemia, and its members 
 generally hold ecclesiastical prefeniient.s or profes- 
 sorships in the University of Prague. They are dis- 
 tinguLshed by a cross of red .satin, with a si'x-jiointed 
 star under it, and are sometimes called SUUitri. 
 
 2. A term in Ilemldrv. If we a.ssume the art of 
 blazon to have originated in connection with the Cru 
 Slides, it will not surprise us to find the symljol of the 
 Christian faith so frequently introduced into the 
 escutcheons of ancient and noble families everywhere 
 
 in Europe. It is one of the honorable ordinaries, and 
 indeed, from its sacred character, is esteemed by 
 heralds as the most honorable charge. Its form varies 
 so much that Mene.-itrier counts 42 cros.ses; LaColom- 
 bicre, 72; and Guillim, 3U. Most of the architectural 
 cro.sses occur in Heraldry, along with many others. 
 See Victoriti Cross. 
 
 CROSS BAR SHOT.— A shot which is folded into a 
 sphere for loading, but on partinjj from the muzzle 
 is exjianded into a cross with sections of the shot at 
 the extremities of the arms. 
 
 CBOSSBELTS. — Belts worn over both shoulders 
 and crossing the breast, usually worn by Sergeant.s. 
 
 CROSS- BOW.— An ancient weapon of "offense of the 
 eleventh century. The cro.s.s-bows of the cavalry were 
 lighter than those of the infantry, and the string was 
 stretched Ijy means of a simple lever, called a goat's- 
 foot. There are seven different sorts of this wea- 
 pon, viz., ihc goaf'sfiM/t cross-boir, xlm irindlasn croiis- 
 bow, the latch cross-boir, the German cross-boir, the 
 cn»s-bow a galet, the ramrod cross bote, and the 
 Chinese croim-binr. The wood most sought after in 
 France for the making of bows was the yew; and in 
 Charles VII. s time (1422-1463) a law was passed for 
 the planting of yew-trees in all the Norman church- 
 yards, so that wood might never fail for the new 
 weai)on, which was then in great favor. The bow 
 was used until the introduction of fire-arms and guns; 
 even later it was still popular, and preferred to the 
 cross-bow. The Scythians, Cretans, Parthiaas, and 
 Thracians were as much celebrated in ancient times 
 for their skill in the handling of this weapon as the 
 English archers were during the Christian Middle 
 Ages. See Archers. 
 
 CROSS-BOW A GALET.— A cross-bow of the six- 
 teenth century, so called from the round pebbles, 
 leaden bullets, and earthenware balls that were shot 
 from it instead of bolts. It was called balestre by the 
 Germans. 
 
 CROSS FIRE.— The cros-sing of lines of fire from two 
 or more [wiiuts or places. See J'Vre. 
 
 CROSS-GUARD.— The transverse I)ar that forms a 
 cross w itli the blade and the barrel of a sword, at 
 their ]ioint of junction. 
 
 CROSS-LIFT.— To cross-lift a piece or other object 
 is to cross handspikes under it from opposite sides; 
 the butt end of the handspike is on the ground, and 
 the power is applied b_r lifting at the other end. By 
 cro.ss-lifiing, the piece is moved in a direction nearly 
 at right angles to its axis. See Mechanical Maneuvers. 
 
 CROTCHET. 1. In fortification, an indentation in 
 the glacis of the covered-way at a point where a tra- 
 verse is placed. 2. The arrangement of a boily of 
 troops, either forward or reanvard, so as to form a 
 line nearly ijcrpendicular to the general line of bat- 
 tle. 
 
 CROUPER— CRUPPER.- A strap of leather which is 
 buckled to a .saddle, and, passing under the tail of a 
 saddle-animal, prevents the saddle from slipping or 
 being thrown forward on the animal's neck. The, 
 eroupcr is seldom used with military sadtUes, but it 
 forms a most iminirlanl part of the packing-gear. The 
 
 tendency of the aparejo to work forward is ovsrcome 
 by a wide c!-ouper (the dock-rest being of soft and 
 round leather to avoid galling) attached to its outside 
 and iiassimr b.iek over the hips. It should be care- 
 fully adjiistcii and always kept clean. See Packing. 
 CROUPIEBES.— Armor placed on the buttocks and 
 haunches of war-horses in the Jliddle Ages, to protect 
 them against the arms of tlie adversary.
 
 CBOWBAB. 
 
 433 
 
 CBVCIBLE-STEEL. 
 
 CBOWBAR. — An iron bar used as a lever to move 
 hea\y weiglits in nieelianical maneuvers, drills, etc. 
 
 CBOWN. — xVs the emblem of sovereignty in modern 
 Europe, the crown was l)orrowed rather from the 
 diadem than the crowns of antiquity. This decora- 
 tion was originally Oriental. xVlexander the Great 
 adopted it from the Kings of Persia; and Antony 
 assumed it during his luxurioiLsintercours*' with Cleo- 
 patra. According to some, its adoption for the gods 
 originated in the tillct, which was a.ssigned to Bacchus 
 for the purpose mentioned as that which led to the 
 itse of the con\nvial crown. In modern States, 
 crowns were of very various forms, till hendds de- 
 vised a regular series of them to mark the various 
 gradations of sovereignty, from that of the Emperor 
 down to what are now called the coronets of counts 
 and barons. The Pope also had his triple crown. 
 So entirely was the crown regarded as the .symbol of 
 sovereignty that the word came often to be used as 
 synonymous with the Monarchy — a sense in which ' 
 we will still speak of the Crown of England, and the 
 domains and possessions of the Crown. 
 
 The crowns of kings and emperors are closed 
 above, whilst the coronet of a noble is merely an 
 open circle surrounding the heail; hence to chue the 
 crown has been the ambition of princes desirous of 
 shaking off the authority of feudal superiors and as- 
 suming a complete soveieigntv. 
 
 CROWNING OF THE COVERED- WAY.— Having 
 reached, during the third period of the siege, to with- 
 in some si.\ yards of the crest of the covered-way bor- 
 dering the ditches, and from which the scarps of the 
 works to be breaclied can be seen, and their ditches 
 commanded and enfiladed, a trench is pushed forward 
 from each of the direct approaches parallel to and 
 within tive or six yards of the crest. As this trench 
 nece&sarily leads towards the retired parts, it will be 
 more or less exposed to a commanding enfilading fire 
 from points nearly in its line of direction, and to a 
 slant and more or less reverse fire, from each of which 
 it will be necessary to cover it by ordinary and wing 
 traverses; besides which it will be well in some cases 
 to nm out to the rear flanking ends of trenches, and 
 ■when the reentering itself is deep it may be found 
 necessarj' to connect these trenches, making a con- 
 tinuous line or secondary parallel within the salient 
 points gained. This trench, when Iwrdering the crest 
 of the covered-way, is termed the croiniing of the 
 mrered-iray , and, as has l»en shown, it may be effect- j 
 ed either uniler an open ass;\ult or by a systematic , 
 approach by sap. 
 
 When the crowning of the covered-way is com- \ 
 pleted, or whilst in progress, preparations are made j 
 for constructing batteries to open breaches in the 
 main works, and for counter batteries to control the 
 fire of any gims which the besieged, taking advantage 
 of the paralyzed state of the batteries in front of tlie 
 first and second parallels, from the obstruction offered 
 b}' the approaches in advance of the third parallel, 
 and even by the pandlel itself, may now put in posi- 
 tion. The positions given to the counter-batteries are 
 usually such as to fire in the directions of the ditches 
 and against the portions of the main work by which 
 these are swept, and tho.se of the breach-batteries will 
 be as nearly opposite as practicable to the points where j 
 it is deemed best to open breaches. The counter-bat- 
 teries are thus usuallj' thrown around the salients, and 
 the breach-batteries are placed further in, but still 
 near the counter-batteries, as the}' are less exposed 
 here to plunging or reverse fire than if placed further 
 in. The principal point to be observed is that the 
 breach when made sliall be wide enough for the front 
 of the a-ssaulting colunm, be practicable or of e^isy 
 a-scent, and open the interior of the work throughout , 
 the entire width of the breech. The wider the breach, 
 of course the better, but one of thirty yards width is 
 considered a formiclable gap for the besieged to at- 
 tempt to close, with troops alone, to opjMse an as 
 saulting colunui. See )'iiege. 
 
 CBOWN-WORK.— The crown-work, in a permanent 
 
 fortfication, consists of two or more bastioned fronts, 
 with their outworks, placed in front of some portion 
 of the enceinte, to give it additional .strength. It is 
 terminated like the horn-work by two wings, which 
 rest either upon the enceinte, or upon two demi-lunes. 
 Its covered-way, like that of the horn-work, forms a 
 continuous communication with that of the enceinte. 
 Certain arrangements of the bastioned lines give rise 
 to the bridge-heads known as hurn-irttrks ancl croirn- 
 trorhx. Let a point be taken in front ot the bridge 
 and some distance from it. Through this point let 
 a right line be drawn perpendicular to the general 
 direction of the bridge. On this line thus drawn as 
 an exterior side let a bastioned front be constructed, 
 and its salients be joined with the banks of the river 
 by straight lines, which are so directed that they can 
 be swept by a fire from the opposite bank. The re- 
 sulting trace is known as a horn-work. It is plain 
 that this work will only be used when the main ap- 
 proach to the bridge lies in the prolongation of its 
 length. 
 
 If through a point assumed in front of the bridge 
 two right lines were drawn making an angle with each 
 other, and prolonged until they reached the banks of 
 the river, and on these two lines, as exterior sides, 
 bastioned fronts were constnicted, the resulting trace 
 would he that of a crown-work. It is plain that this 
 trace will be emploj-ed when the approaches to the 
 bridge are oblique to the direction of the bridge, and 
 that the enemy would use one as quickly as the other. 
 If there are several approaches, and the entire front 
 is exposed to attack, a continued bastioned line might 
 be used, inclosing the space in front of the bridge 
 from bank to bank. In this case, if a salient occupies 
 the central position, the line is known as a crown- 
 work. In the latter ca.se it is called a compUjc eroitn- 
 irork, to distinguish it from one constructed on two 
 sides only, which is called »impU crown-work. See 
 Uiirn trnrk: 
 
 CROW'S-FEET.— Obstacles placed en the ground 
 over which cuvalry may be expected to pass. They 
 are formed of four points of iron, each spike abovlt 
 two and a half inches long, and so arranged that 
 when thrown on the ground one of the points will be 
 upwards. Boards, with shaqi nails driven through 
 them, may supplv the place of crow's-feet. The 
 boards arc imbedded in the groimd, with the sharp 
 points projecting a little above it. See Acce*sory 
 Meiiiiii of Defense and Caltliorp. 
 
 CRTJC'lBLE-STEEL.— The best and most uniform 
 quality of steel can only be obtained by fusion. That 
 obtained by cementation is, as a rule, very unequal 
 in quality; and uniformity can only be attained by 
 reix-ated fagoting and welding, steps which are neces- 
 sarily attended with a loss of carbon and consequent 
 reduction of hardness. The requisite uniformity of 
 comjwsition may, however, be obtained by breaking 
 up the crude bars pro- 
 duced in the forge or ^otv.,, g" 
 by cementation, and ex- '1 \4(' 
 posing them to a high [J f i 
 degree of heat in cnici 
 bles out of contact witli 
 tlie air. The product, 
 when melted, is poured 
 out into cast-iron mold^ 
 forming ingots of er>i- 
 cible-xlee! , which are ve- 
 ry much more regular 
 in lx)th composition iuid 
 texture than the origi- 
 nal material. 
 
 Crucibles of very re- 
 , fractory fire-clay, mix- 
 ed with plumbago, varj-ing in capacity from thirty 
 to fifty and a hundred pounds, or more, in weight, 
 are charged with fragments of blister- or shear-steel, 
 and placed in furnaces. The furnaces, as shown 
 in the drawing, are furnished with covers, and a 
 ^ chimney which increases the draught of air, and the
 
 CBUSASES. 
 
 434 
 
 CBUSHISG-FOECE. 
 
 cruiililes are furuislicd wiili lids of c-liiy to exclude 
 Ihf air. Till- furiiacis comaiiiiiig Hit' cnicibles are 
 tilk'il wilb fuel; and for the ix-rfect fusion of tlie 
 steel tbe most intensi' heat is kept up for two or three 
 hours. Wheu the steel is thoroujrhly iiielte<l the cru- 
 cibles arc removed either by hand of machinery, and 
 their contents jioured. in the liquid slate, into ingol- 
 molds of the shajw and size required. When the cru- 
 cibles are emptied, if sound, they are returned to the 
 mixin^room a.irain, and charged. 
 
 Althoiijih steel may be cast into ingots, it is too 
 imperfi-cllv tluid to be cast into very small articles. 
 The ingot-s of steel are taken to the forge or rolling- 
 mill, and prepared by hammering or rolling into 
 shape in the same manner as other sleel, but with 
 less heat and with more precaution. The great secret 
 of the manufacture is in tlie selection and mixture 
 of irons, and in the pouring of sound ingots. Large 
 Citstings arc made by cmptj-ing a sufficient num- 
 ber of large crucibles into an immense l;ulle placed 
 over the mold; the ladle is then t.pped from the 
 bottom. Great skill in melting and pouring the 
 metjil, and particularly in heating and forging such 
 great masses, without burning them on the outside 
 or failing to condense them to the core, is of ob\'ioas 
 importance. Steel, like iron, is improved by ham- 
 mering and rolling; consequently when a large cast- 
 steel block is required of great tenacity for a par- 
 ticular purpose, the metal is not run into a mold of 
 the sha|)e and size of the required tinisheii dimen- 
 sions, but it is east into a short, thick ingot, and then 
 hammered and drawn to the required tinished dimen- 
 sions, or it is rolled to the required shape between the 
 rollers. 
 
 The drawing down of a heavy ingot requires, first 
 a uniform heat throughout the ma.ss; and, to soften 
 the center of such a casting without burning the 
 outside, a moderate and steady temperature main- 
 tained for several days; secondly, the effect of the 
 hammer must be felt at the center of the mass, in- 
 stead of being confined to the outside. A light blow 
 would be absorbed in changing the figure of the 
 surface-metal, and in breaking and distorting the 
 grain, while a great weight falling from a mode- 
 rate height would be resisted by the whole mass of 
 the forging, and thus felt at its center. See CaM- 
 steel and Sttd. 
 
 CBUSADE8.— The name given to the Religious 
 Wars carried on during the Middle Ages between 
 the Christian Nations of the West and the Moham- 
 medans. The first of the.se was undertaken simply to 
 vindicate the right of Christian pilgrims to visit the 
 Holy Sepulcher. On the conquest of I'alestine, how- 
 ever, the objeet of the Crusades changed, or at least 
 enlarged, and the efforts of the subsequent Crusaders 
 ■were directed to the rescue of the whole land from 
 the Saracens, who had repossessed themselves of it. 
 From an early period in the history of the Church, it 
 was considered a pious act to make a pilgrimage to 
 the Holy Sepulcher, imd to visit the various spots 
 which the Saviour had consecrated by his presence. 
 When Palestine Wiis conquered by the Arabs in the 
 seventh century, that fierce but generous people re- 
 spected the religious sjiirit of the pilgrims, and 
 allowed them to build a church and hospital in Jeru- 
 salem. Under the Fatimides of Kgvpt, who con- 
 quered SjTia about 980 .\.d., the position l)Oth of the 
 native Christian residents and of the pilgrims lie- 
 came less favorable; but the subjugation of the coun- 
 trj-, in 1065, by brutal honles of Seljuk Turks from 
 the Caucasus rendered it intolerable. These barba- 
 rians, but i^cently converted to Mohammedanism, 
 were nearly as ignorant of the Koran as of the Scrip- 
 tures. They hardly knew their fellow-religionists, 
 and are said to have WTeaked their vengeance on the 
 Mussulmans of Syria, as well sus on the Christians. 
 The news of their atrocities iiroduecd a deep sensation 
 over the whole of Christendom. The first to take 
 alarm were, naturally enough, the Bvzanlinc Mou- 
 archs. In 1073, the Greek Kmperor "Manuel VH., 
 
 sent to supplicate the a.ssistance of the great Pope, 
 Gregory \\l., against the Turks, accompanying his 
 jieiilion with many expressionsof ])rofound respect for 
 His Holiness and the Latin Church. Gregory — who 
 beheld in the supiilicatioii of Manuel a grand oppor- 
 tuuily for realizing the Catholic unity of Christendom 
 — conlially responded; but circiunstances prevented 
 him from ever carrying the vast designs which he 
 entertained into execution, and the idea of a Crusade 
 died gradually away. It was, however, revived by 
 his successor. Urban II., an able and humane man, 
 whose sympathies were kindled by the burning zeal 
 of Peter the Hermit, a native of Amiens, in France, 
 who had made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, wit- 
 nessed the cruelties perpetrated by the Turks, and 
 was now traversing Europe, preaching everywhere to 
 crowds in the open air, and producing the most ex- 
 traordinary enthusiasm by his impassioned descrip- 
 tions of how Pilgrims were murdered, robbed, or 
 beaten; how shrines and holy places were desecrated; 
 and how nothing but gieed restrained the ruffian 
 Turks (who made the Christians pay heavy taxes for 
 their Wsits to Jerasalem) from (le.s'trojing the Holy 
 Sepulcher and extirpating every vestige of Christian- 
 ity in the land. As soon as the feelings of Europe 
 had been sufficiently heated. Urban openly took up 
 the question. Two Councils were held in 1095. At 
 the second, held at Clermont, in France, a Crusade 
 was definitely resolved on. The Pope himself de- 
 livered a stirring address to a vast multitude of 
 clerg3' and lajTiien, and as he proceeded the pent- 
 up emotions of the crowd burst forth, and cries of 
 Veils mill (God wills it) rose simultiineously from the 
 whole audience. These words, Deua cull, by the in- 
 junction of Urban, were made the war-cry of the 
 enterprise, and everj' one that embarked in it wore, 
 as a badge, the sign of the cross; hence the name 
 Cnisdde. 
 
 CRUSHER-GAUGE.— An instrument employed for 
 determining the pressure of the powder in the bore 
 of a gun. It is so constructed as to register the maxi- 
 mum iiressure of the powder-gas at the particular 
 point in the bore where the apparatus is placed. As 
 used in England, it consists of a screw-plug of steel 
 with a movable base, which admits a copper cylin. 
 der; one enii of the cylinder rests against 
 an anvil, while the other is jircssed by a 
 movable piston, kept against the cylinder 
 by an annular spring ; the cylinder is 
 centered in the chamber by a small watch- 
 spring, to prevent the escape of gas to 
 the chamber; the head of the piston and 
 body of the anvil are fluted; four small 
 holes communicate with the main vent 
 through the upper part of the plug; a 
 gas-check is placed against the lower end 
 of the piston. The action of the gauge 
 is as follows: The gas, acting on the piston, crushes 
 the copper cylinder against the anvil; the amount 
 of compression it sustains indicates the pressure. 
 The arta of the copper cylinder for 8-inch guns 
 is I'j of a square inch; that of the piston being J of a 
 square inch. A table of results to produce definite 
 amounts of pressure by the testing-machine affords 
 a means of comparison of the results produced 
 in the gun at different points of the bore. See Pres- 
 mirc-r/iDif//'. 
 
 CRUSHING FORCE.— The samples submitted to the 
 test_of conqiression are small cylinders, the lengths of 
 which are generally two and a" half times their diam- 
 eters. Bars of greater length than tliese diameters 
 are liable to bend under Uic pre.s.sure before the frac- 
 ture occurs; and if the lengths be less than two diam- 
 eters, the fracture in its regular form may not be 
 fullj' develojx^d, and a portion of the sjimple mav be 
 pulverized or reduced to small grains. The ends of 
 each sample are made perfectly jiarallel and iierjien- 
 diculartotheaxis, solhatall par'isof the samiile will be 
 equally pre.s,se(l. The dimensions of the .sample are care- 
 fully measured before placing it. The depression or
 
 CEU8T. 
 
 435 
 
 CEYPTOGRAPHT. 
 
 permanent set at every 5000 pounds, for insiance, is 
 then carefully noted. Tbe breaking-weight is record- 
 ed, as well a-s the angle of fracture of the specimen. 
 The strength per square inch will be 
 g _ weight 
 area 
 
 See Rndman Tetting-mofhine. 
 
 CRUST. — In a horse, the internal part of his foot 
 which covers the more sensitive parts, and to which 
 the shoe is immediately attached. 
 
 CRYPTOGRAPHY.— ^.Secret writing, or writing to 
 understanrl which the recii)icnt must know the key. 
 Such modes of communication have been in use from 
 the earliest times. The Lacedsemonians, according 
 to Plutarch, had a method which has been called the 
 scytale, from the staff employed in constructing and 
 deciphering the message. When the Spartan Ephors 
 wished to forward their orders to their Commander 
 abroad, they wound slantwise a narrow slip of parch- 
 ment upon the staff so that the edges met close toge- 
 ther, and the message was then added in such a waj' 
 that the center of the line of writing was on the edge 
 of parchment. When unwound, the scroll consisted 
 of broken letters; and in thai condition it was dis- 
 patched to its destination; the General to whose hands 
 it came deciphering it by means of a staff exactly cor- 
 responding to that used bj' the Ephors. Polybius 
 has enumerated other methods of cryptography. " The 
 art wa.s in use also among the Romans. L'pon the 
 revival of letters, methods of secret correspondence 
 were introduced into private business, diplomacy, 
 plots, etc. ; and as the study of this art has always 
 presented attractions to the ingenious, a curious Iwdy 
 of literature has been the residt. John Trithemius, 
 the Abbot of Spanheim. was the tirst imjiortant writer 
 on cryptography. His PiAigrnjiliui, published in 1-500, 
 ha-s pas.sed through many editions, and has supplied 
 the basis upon which subsccjuent writers have worketl. 
 It was begun at the desire of the Duke of Bavaria; 
 but Trithemius did not at tirst intend to publish it. on 
 the ground that it would l)e injurious to public inter- 
 ests. The ne.\t treatises of iniiiortance were those of 
 John Baptist Porta, a Neaiwlitan mathematician, who 
 wrote De Furtirix Literarum Noti», 1563 ; and of 
 Blaise de Vigenere, whose Tiaitt^dett Chiff res appeared 
 in Paris in 1587. Lord Verulam proposed an ingen- 
 ious .system of cryptography on the |ilan of what is 
 called the double cipher; but while thus lending to 
 the art the influence of his great name, he gave an in- 
 timation as to the general opinion formed of it and as 
 to the cla.sses of men who used it ; for when prosecut- 
 ing the Earl of Somerset in the matter of the poison- 
 ing of Overbury, he urged it as an aggravation of the 
 crime that the Earl and Overbury " had ciphers and 
 jargons for the King and Queen and all the great 
 men — things seldom used but either by Princes and 
 their Ambassadors and Ministers, or by such as work 
 or practice ag-ainst or, at lea.st, upon Princes." Other 
 eminent Englishmen were afterwards connected with 
 the art. John Wilkins, subsequently Bishop of Ches- 
 ter, published in 1641 an anonjTnous treatise entitled 
 Mercury, nr The Secret and Swift Me»ttenger, a small 
 but comprehensive work on the subject, and a timely 
 gift to the diplomatists and leaders of the Civil War. 
 The deciphering of many of the Koyalist Papers of 
 that period, such as the letters that fell into the hands 
 of the Parliament at the battle of Na.seby, has by 
 Henrj- Stubbe been charged on the celebrated mathe- 
 matician, \)r. John Wallis, whose connection with 
 the subject of cipher- writing is referred to in the 0.\- 
 ford edition of his mathematical works, 1689; as also 
 by John Da\ys. Dr. Wallis states that this art. for- 
 merly sciirccly known to any but the Secretaries of 
 Princes, etc. , had grown very common and familiar 
 during the civil commotion, " so that now there is 
 scarcely a person of quality but is more or less ac- 
 quainted with it, and doth, as thjere is occasion, make 
 use of it." 
 
 Schemes of cryptography are endless in their vari- 
 
 ety. Bacon lays down the following as the " vir- 
 tues" to be looked for in them: "that they be not 
 laborious to write and read; that they be imi)o.s.sible 
 to decipher; and, in some cases, that they Ix; without 
 suspicion." The principles are more or less disre- 
 garded bj' all the modes that have been advanced, 
 mcluding that of Bacon himself, which has been 
 unduly e.xtoUed by his admirers as " one of the most 
 ingenious methods of writing in cipher, and the most 
 ditlictdt to lie di'ciphered, of any yet contrived. " The 
 simplest and commonest of all cijihers is that in which 
 the writer selects in place of the proixr letters certain 
 other letters in regular advance. This method of 
 transposition was used by Julius Csesar. He, " per 
 quartam elementorum literam," wrote <? fora, e for J, 
 and so on. There are instances of this arrangement in 
 the Jewish rabbis, and even in the sacrwl writers. An 
 illustration of it occurs, Jeremiah .\xv. 26, where the 
 Prophet, to conceal the meaning of his jirediction 
 from all but the initiated, writes Shuhaeh instead of 
 Babel (Babylon), the place meant; i.e., in place of 
 using the .second and twelfth letters of the Hebrew 
 alphabet (B, ft, T), counting from the l>egitming, he 
 wrote the second and twelfth (/iA,AA,cA),coimting from 
 the end. Tothiskind of cipher- writing iJuxtorf gives 
 the niime Athbash (from n, the tirst letter of the He- 
 brew alphabet, and th, the la.st; ft, the second from the 
 beginning, and /(, the second from the end). Another 
 Jewish cabalism of like nature was called Albam; of 
 which an example is in Isaiah vii. 6, where Tabeal is 
 written for Remaliah. In its adaptation to English 
 this method of transposition, of which there are many 
 modifications, is comparativelj' easy to decipher. A. 
 rough key maj' be derived from an examination of 
 the respective qviantities of letters in a type-founder's 
 bill or a printer's " case." The decipherer's first 
 business is to classify the letters of the secret message 
 in the order of their frequency. The letter that occurs 
 oftencst is e; and the next in order of frequency is t. 
 The following groups come after these, separated 
 from each other by degrees of decreasing recurrence: 
 (I, 0, /(, /, /', K, h; d, I; c, it, u, m; /, >/, g, p. b; r, k; 
 J-, g, j, z. All the single letters must be </, /, or 0. 
 Letters occurring together are ee, oo, ff, II, ««, etc. 
 The commonest words of two letters are (roughly ar- 
 ranged in the ordeT of their frequency) of, to, in, it, 
 is, be, he, by, or, as, at, an, so, etc. The commonest 
 words of three letters are the and and (in great excess), 
 for, are, but, not, etc. ; and of four letters, that, with, 
 from, hare, this, they, etc. Familiarity with the com- 
 position of the language will suggest numerous other 
 points of value to the decipherer. 
 
 Bacon remarks that though ciphers were commonly 
 in letters and alphabets, yet they might be in words. 
 Ujjon this basis codes have been constructed, classi- 
 lied with words taken from dictionaries being made 
 to represent complete ideas. In recent years such 
 codes have lieen adapted by merchants and others to 
 communicjitions by telegraph, and have served th« 
 purpose not only o"f keeping liusiness affairs private, 
 but als') of reducing the excessive cost of telegraphic 
 messages to distant markets. Obviously this class of 
 ciphers present greater difficulties to the skill of the 
 decipherer. Figures and other characters have been 
 also used as letters; and with them ranges of nume- 
 rals have been combined as the representatives of syl- 
 lables, parts of words, words themselves, and com- 
 jilete phrases. Under this head must be placed the 
 dispatches of Giovanni Michael, the Venetian Amba.s- 
 sador to England in the reign of Queen Mary, do<u 
 ments which have only of late years l)een deciphered. 
 JIany of the private letters and" papers from the jx-n 
 of Charles I. and his Queen, who were adepts in the 
 use of ciphers, are of the same description. One of 
 that Monarch's letters, a document of considerable in- 
 terest , consisting entirely of numerals, pur|>osely com- 
 plicated, was in 1858 deciphered by Prof. Wheatstone. 
 the inventor of the ingenious crypto-machine, and 
 printed by the Philobiblon Society. ' Shorthand marks 
 and other arbitrary characters have also been largely
 
 CRYSTALLIZATION. 
 
 436 
 
 CUBICAL FOWDEE. 
 
 imported into crvptograpliic systems to rpprcscnt both 
 letters and wonls— eominonly the latter. This iilan 
 i.s said to have been first put into use by tlie old 
 Iloniun poet Euuius. It forms the basis of the 
 metboil of Cicero's frcwlmau, Tiro, who seems to 
 have syslemalized the labors of his predecessors. 
 A large quantity of these characters have Ix.-en ea- 
 gravt-d in Gruter's Iii»Tiptioiiei>. A corres|>ondence 
 of Charlemagne was in part made upon marks of this 
 nature. 
 
 A favorite system of Charles I., useil by him during 
 the year 1646, wivs made up of an ali>hal)et of twenty 
 four letters, which were represented by four simple 
 strokes varied in length, slope, and position. This 
 alphabet is engraved in Clive's Li/war SysUiii tfS/wrt- 
 hitnd, 1830, having been found amongst the Koyal 
 mauascripts in the British Museum. An interest at- 
 tiiched to this cipher from the fact that it was em- 
 ployed in the well-known letter addressed by the 
 kiiig to the Earl of Glamorgan, in which the former 
 made concessions to the Koman Catholics of Ireland. 
 
 Complications have been introduced into ciphers 
 by the employment of " dummy" letters — " nulls and 
 irisignificants," as Bacon terms them. Other devices 
 have been introduced to periilex the decipherer, such 
 as spelling words backwards, making false divisions 
 between words, etc. The greatest security against 
 the decipherer hius Ix-en found in the use of elaborate 
 tables of letters arranged in the form of the multipli- 
 cation-table, the me.ssage being Constructed Iiy the aid 
 of preconcerted key-words. In a letter dated 30th 
 February, 16.'59-60, Ilvde, alluding to the skill of his 
 political opponents in deciphering, says that " nobody 
 needs to fear them if they write ctircfully in good 
 cii)hers." In his next he allays his correspondent's 
 apprehensions as to the deciphering of their letter: " I 
 confess to you, as I am sure no copy coidd be gotten 
 of any of my ciphers from hence, so I did not think 
 it probable that they could be got on your side of the 
 water. But I was as confident, till you tell me you 
 believe it, that the devil himself cannot decipher a 
 letter that is well written, or tind that 100 stands for 
 Sit H. Vane. I have heard of many of the pretend- 
 ers to that skill, and have spoken with some of them, 
 but have found them all to be mountebanks; nor dicl 
 I ever hear that more of the King's letters that were 
 found at Naseby, than those which they found deci- 
 phered, or found the ciphers in which they were writ 
 were deciphered. And 1 very well reraeiiiber that in 
 the volume they published there was much left in 
 cipher wliich could not be understood, and which I 
 believe they would have explained if it had been in 
 their power." An excellent moditieation of the key- 
 word principle was constructed by the late Admirid 
 Sir Francis Beaufort; it has been recently published 
 in view of its adaptation to telegrams and" post-cards. 
 Ciphers liave been constructed on the principle of al- 
 tering the places of the letters without changing their 
 powers. The message is lirst written Chinese-wise 
 upward and downward, and the letters are then com- 
 bined in given rows from left to right. In the cele- 
 brated ci|)hcr used by the Earl of Argyle when plot- 
 ting against .lames II., he altered the position of the 
 ■words. Sentences of an indifferent nature were con- 
 structed, but the real meaning of llie messjiife was to 
 be gathered from words placed at certain intervals. 
 This method, which is connected with the name of 
 Cardan, is sometimes called the trellis or card-board 
 cipher. The wheel-cipher, which is an Italian inven- 
 tion, the string-cipher, the circle-cipher, and many 
 others, are fully explained, with the nece.ssjiry dia- 
 grams, in the authnrilies named above — more particu- 
 larly bv Kluber in bis Kri/iiUirjraphik. 
 
 CKY8TALLIZATI0N. — Of the various circum- 
 stances which affect the strength of cannon-melal, 
 the most important appear to be those which connect 
 themselves with ci^-slallizalion. It is a law of the 
 molecular aggregation of crystalline solids, that when 
 their particles consolidate undir the intiuenee of heat 
 in motion, their crj'stals arrange and group them- 
 
 selves with their principal axes in lines perpendicular 
 to the cooling or healing surfaces of the solid; that is, 
 in the lines of direction of the heat-wave in motion, 
 which is the direction of least pressure within the 
 mass; and this is true, whether in the case of heat 
 passing from a previously fused .solid in the act of 
 cooling and crystallizing on consolidation, or of a 
 solid not having a crystalline structure, but capable 
 of assmning one upon its temi>eralure being suffi- 
 ciently raised by heat ajiplied to its external surfaces, 
 and so pa.ssing into it. 
 
 The metals used in gun-consti-uction are crystal- 
 lizing bodies, which in consolidating obey more or 
 less perfectly, according to their conditions, this law; 
 so that in castings of llie.se metals the planes of crj's- 
 tallization group themselves perpendicularly to the sur- 
 faces of external contour; that is, in the directions 
 in which the heat of the tluid metal has jias-sed out- 
 wards from the body in cooling and .solidifying. Be- 
 cause the crystals of these metals are alwajs small 
 and are never very well pronounced, these directions 
 are seldom very apparent to the eye, but they are not 
 the less reid. Their development (.lepends upon — 
 
 First — The character of the metal it.self ; all irons 
 that present a coarse, large-grained, dark, or spangled 
 fracture contain a large proportion of uncorabined 
 carbon or graphite, and form in castings of equal size 
 the largest crj'stals. 
 
 Second — The size or mass of the castings; the larg- 
 est castings presenting for anj' given variety of metal 
 the largest and coarsest aggregation of crystals, but 
 by no means the most regular arrangement of them, 
 which depends chietty upon — 
 
 Third— The rate at which the mass of the casting 
 has cooled, and the regularity with which heal has 
 been carried off by conduction from its surfaces to 
 that of the mold adjacent to them. 
 
 Those castings in which the fluid iron is poured 
 into a nearly cold aud very thick mold of cast-iron, 
 whose high conducting power rapidly carries off the 
 heat, present the most complete aud perfect develop- 
 ment of the crystiiUine structure perpendicular to the 
 chilled surfaces of the casting. In such, crystals are 
 often found penetrating more than an inch into the 
 substance of the metal, clear aud well defined. These 
 prevailing directions of crystalline arrangement may 
 be made more clear to the eye by the accompanying 
 drawings, which show sections of a round and a 
 square bar of cast-iron where the crystallization is 
 well developed. In the round bar the crystals all 
 
 radiate from the center; in the square bar they are 
 arranged perpendicularly to the four sides, and lience 
 have four lines in the diagonals of the square — in 
 which the (enninal planes of the crystals abut or in- 
 terlock, and alioul which the crystallization is always 
 confused ami iiTcgular. The result of this arrange- 
 ment is to create planen of weaknesa where the differ- 
 ent systems of crystals intersect. 
 
 The size and arrangement of the crystals of a metal 
 have an imiiortant intiuenee on its ".strength. This 
 arises from the fact that the adhesion of the crystals 
 by the conlaci of Iheir faces is less than the cohesion/ 
 of the particles of the crystals themselves, and that 
 consequently rupture takes place along the larger or 
 principal crystalline faces. See Ciintim/i Oiins. 
 
 CUBICAL POWDER.— This powder is of a regular 
 cubical grain. Ijcim; fdrnied by cutting the press- 
 cake in two directions at right angles to each other by
 
 CUBIC EQUATIONS. 
 
 43^ 
 
 CUNETTE. 
 
 means of saws. A sample was tested in 1876 with the 
 following results: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 OJi 
 
 ^ 
 
 t 
 
 Na-htre or 
 Gun. 
 
 Kind of 
 
 Powder. 
 
 
 
 J5 -J 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 r^ 
 
 ^1 
 
 It 
 > 
 
 b 
 
 
 iM 
 
 Ww 
 
 Feff. Lb». 
 
 8-inch rifle. 
 
 Cubical, 
 
 D = 
 
 1.T65. 
 
 G = 
 
 5«. 
 
 35 
 
 1711 
 
 1.446 46,50n 
 
 »-incli rifle 
 
 Cubical, 
 
 U = 
 
 1.765. 
 
 <i = 
 
 5«. 
 
 4U 
 
 :!;» 
 
 1,43BOM,T50 
 
 A.S tested in the 11-inch rifle, this powder proved 
 " high," a pre.s,sure of 28,000 pounds resulting with a 
 charge of only .50 pounds. Each grain of this ])ow- 
 der is about ,75 inch in size, and the granulation is 
 about 72 to the pound. Sec Oitnpoirdir. 
 
 CUBIC EQUATIONS.— A cubic c(|Ualion containing 
 but ouc unliuowu quantity is one iu which the high- 
 est exponent of the quantity in any tenn i.s 3. Every 
 such equation can be reduced to the general form 
 r'-\- px-\-q = 0, in which the coetiicicnt of j-' is 1, 
 and that of ?' is zero. Every cubic equation of this 
 form has three roots, all of which may be real, or one 
 only may be real and the other two imaginary. The 
 roots will all be real when p is essentially negative 
 
 and ^> ^ numerically. One root only will be real 
 
 when p is essentially positive, or when it is negative 
 
 and |-«<j numerically. 
 
 and 
 
 pi 
 
 \i pis essentially negative 
 two of the roots are equal. When one 
 
 -?! 
 27 4' 
 
 of the roots only is real, the equation may be solved 
 by the following formula, known as Cardan's for- 
 mula: 
 
 x=Y- 
 
 :+.(M)^./q^'+g). 
 
 2 ^\^ ' 27 
 
 When the roots are all real, this formula fails to 
 give their values. The solving of cubic equations is 
 of frequent necessity in the investigation of the i)rob- 
 Icms of gunnerj*. 
 
 CUBIT.— A measure employed by the ancients, 
 equal to the length of the armfroni the ellx)w to the 
 tip of the middle finger. The cubit of the Romans 
 was about 175 inches^ and that of the Hebrews 22 
 inches, but its length is now generally stated at 18 
 English inches. 
 
 CUGNOT SYSTEM OF FOETIFICATION.— A sy.stem 
 having a circular tracing and dispensing with out 
 works. The revetment of the escarp contains a 
 loop-holed gallery, with machicoulis for 
 the defense of the ditch and the counter- 
 scarp. Sec Fortification. 
 
 CUIBASS. — The cuirass, as its name 
 implies, was originally a jerkin, or gar- 
 ment of leather for soldiers, so thick and 
 strong as to be pistol-proof, and even 
 musket-proof. The name was afterwards applied to 
 a portion of armor made of metal, consisting of a 
 back-plate and breast-plate hooked or buckled to- 
 gether: with a piece jointed t(j the back called aeulet 
 or gorde de reines. The French cuirass, represented 
 in the drawing, is composed of a breast-plate, a, 
 and a back-i)late, b, joined to- 
 gether by straps. The thick- 
 ness and form of the bre;ust- 
 l)late are such as to ward off 
 small-arm projectiles beyond a 
 distance of forty yards; this 
 distance is a.ssumed imder the 
 supposition that within it the 
 infantry soldier will he too 
 busily eniTJiged preparing to 
 defend liimsclf against the cav- 
 alni- soldier, with his bayonet, 
 to tire his piece. The back- 
 piece is only made of sufficient tliickness to resist the 
 stroke of a sword; it is presumed this will induce the 
 
 wearer to present his front rather than his l)ack, when 
 he arrives within a short distance of his enemv. The 
 middle of the breast-plate is formed into a ridge, and 
 the sides slope off to deflect projectiles coming from 
 the front. The thickness at the ridge is .23 inch; 
 from this it tapers to the edges, where it is .078 
 inch. The back-piece is .047 inch thick through- 
 out^and the weight of the entire cuirass is about 
 16.75 lbs. The edges are turned up to prevent the 
 point of a sword from slipping off against the Ixxly. 
 The cuirass and helmet worn Ijy the leading sjipper 
 in digging a siege-trench are "thick enough in all 
 their i)arts to resist a bullet at the distance of 40 
 yards. See Armor. 
 
 CUIRASSIERS.— Heavy horsemen, in the time of 
 (^uccn Mary, wearing body-armor over bulT coats. 
 1 luy carried swords and pistols, and the reins were 
 strengthened with iron chains. In modern armies 
 the name is often given to the hea\'icst cavalry. Na- 
 poleon's twelve regiments of cuira.ssicrs attracted 
 much attention during his wars. The tirst rank of 
 Kus.sian cuirassiers are armed with lances. The only 
 cvnra.ssiers in the British army (wearing the cuira.s.s) 
 are the Life-guards (red) and llorse-guards (blue); and 
 in these the cuirass is now regarded rather as a mat- 
 ter of show than of use. See Ciiiram. 
 
 CUISSABT. — Among ancient armor, cuis-sarts were 
 worn by troopers. They consisted of small strips of 
 iron plate laid horizontally over each other round the 
 thigh, and riveted together. Also written Cuish, Cuts- 
 mrd, Cuisse, and Cuitisot. 
 
 CUL-DE-SAC. — A street or alley with an opening at 
 only one end easy therefore of entrance, but not for 
 exit; thence any verj' close, confined, uncomfortable 
 place. The expression is applied to a position in 
 which an army tinds itself with no way of exit except 
 to the front. 
 
 CULLEN BIFLE. — A magazine-gun carrying a 
 great number of cartridges, as many as 40 or 50. 'This 
 arm has been used to some extent in the United 
 States, but has not met with any coasiderable success. 
 See Maflcizine-gun. * 
 
 CULOT. — An iron cup inserted in the conical open- 
 ing of the Minie and other early projectiles. "This 
 culot, moving before the inertia of the lead is over- 
 come, forces the ball into the grooves. It has since 
 been discovered that the ball is forced as well without 
 as with the culot, and it has accordingly been sup- 
 pres.sed. 
 
 CULVEEIN. — The introduction of cast-iron projec- 
 tiles, which are much stronger and denser than tho.se 
 of stone, led to the invention of a new species of can- 
 
 ^ASo^\^^^Sa |j|| oi-^l 
 
 Culverin— "Queen Anne's Pock<-t -piece. " 
 
 non called ctdvcrins, which vcrv nearly correspond in 
 construction and ap])eiirancc to the guns of the prcs- 
 ent day. The great strength of the.se pieces and their 
 projectiles permitted the use of a large charge of 
 powder; and their introduction proved an important 
 step in the improvement of artilleiy. The idea 
 was entertained by ancient artillerists — foimded on 
 the relation which cannon were erroneouslj- sup- 
 posed to bear to small-arms— that the range in- 
 creased with the length of the piece; and in conse- 
 quence many culverins were made of enonnous 
 length. A remarkable piece of this description still ex- 
 ists at Dover, England, familiarly known as " Queen 
 Anne's iiocket-piece. " While it carries a liall weigh- 
 ing only 18 pounds, it is more th,an 25 feet long, bee 
 Cdnrirm. 
 
 CUNETTE.— In fortification, the bottom of the 
 ditch, when drj', usually receives a slight slope from 
 the foot of the scarp and countersrarp to its center, 
 where a small drain, termed a cunelte. is dug to re- 
 ceive the surface-water and keep the ditch drj-. In
 
 CUPOLA. 
 
 438 
 
 CUPOLA-FUBNACE. 
 
 some cases, from motives of economy, the difference 
 
 of level l)etween the cunelte iinil llie foot of the conn- 
 
 terscan>-«'i'll '* iiuriiuiitl, thus givins: a less heiftbt of 
 
 wall. This pnutice, however, can only be followed 
 
 where the foundations of the 
 
 wall will lie secure, from the 
 
 soil of the bottom of the ditch 
 
 Ix'ing of such a natuiv as not to 
 
 jield from the effects of the 
 
 weiither upon it. Also written 
 
 CiirttU. See I}itc/i. 
 
 CUPOLA. — A revohing shot- 
 proof turret, formed of strong 
 tiuilH'rs, luid cjused with mas- 
 .sive iron plates of Vi and 14 in- 
 ches thick. In some .systems 
 of cupohus the tower is erected 
 on a ba.<i' which is made to turn 
 on its center by means of steam- 
 power. Within the turret heavj- 
 ordnance is placed, and tired 
 through openings made in the 
 sides. — The term cupola is also 
 applie«l to a blast-furnace in 
 which iron is melted. See Cit- 
 polii-furiiact. 
 
 CUPOLA FURNACE.— Many 
 costly experiments have been 
 triMl of late years in order to 
 determine, along with other re- 
 lated questions, the best form 
 of blast-furnace in which iron 
 is smelteil. Which is the most 
 serxnceable fonn is as yet a very- 
 much disputed point; but, ac- 
 cording to the published ac- 
 counts, furnaces of the unusual 
 height of 80 to 100 feet give, as 
 a rule, the best results. To this 
 end it is indisj)en.sable that the 
 following conditions are ful- 
 Sllcd : 1. Kapid melting, that 
 tile iron may be gotten under 
 the slag as soon as possible, to 
 prevent e.v])osure to the blast, 
 which, at tlie high temperature 
 in the cupola, rapidly decar- 
 bonizes the iron. 2. t'niform 
 combustion in the melting part 
 of the eui>ola. It is evident that 
 iron melted at different tempera- 
 tures will vary both in quality 
 and in temperature, and castings 
 poured from such iron will not 
 be uniform in quality or shrink- 
 age. 3. Such an arrangement 
 of the cuiwla and method of 
 intHMlucing the blast as will 
 maintain the tluidily of all the 
 slag in the cupola, so that it may 
 be drawn off when necessary. 
 It is apparent that when tlieslag 
 has chilled around and above 
 the tuyeres, drawing off the 
 melle(lslagl)<l()w does no good 
 whatever. In most cupolas the 
 blu-st is intrtHluced at two op- 
 posite points ; in some cases 
 four and six tuyeres arc used, 
 but in the sjune plane. In very 
 large cupolas from .'iO(M1 to 
 lO.tHJO cubic feet of air |Kr min- 
 ute are re(|uired. This large 
 amount of air introduced at 
 these few points cannot in- 
 stantly Ix; elevated to the high temperature in the 
 cui«)la (over 3(KK) Fahrenheit), consequeiuly com- 
 bustion is arrested at the entrance, and the slag is 
 chilled by the cold air around the mouth of the 
 tuyere. These obstructions are constantly increased 
 
 by the melting slag, which cools as it falls, and ad- 
 heres to those already formed as soon lus struck by the 
 lilast. If the melting is continued sufficiently long, 
 the entire opening above the tuyeres is bridged over. 
 
 The Tnicsdale Cupola. 
 
 melting ceases, and the bottom mu.=t be dropped. 
 The combustion, inuler these circumstances, has 
 necessjirily Ix'cn very imperfect. In some parts (as 
 alx)ve the chilled sliig at the mouth of the tuyeres) 
 the fuel has scarcely been ignited, while in "other
 
 CUEARI. 
 
 439 
 
 CURB BRIDLE. 
 
 parts the heat has been so intense that when Ihe cur- 
 rent is forced by the accumulalcd nittss of chilled slag 
 against the liniuLTof the cupola, it is often melted out 
 nearly to the shell. The result is bad iron, great loss 
 in castings, a low percentage of effect for fuel used, 
 iind a biid condition of cupola. Another style of 
 cupola is made with continuous tujeres, in which 
 the blast enters all around Ihe cupola in a sheet. It 
 is well known that neither water nor air can be pro- 
 jected in this way to any considerable distance. To 
 attempt to throw" water "from a Hat nozzle would be 
 simply ridicidous. In cupolas constructed on this 
 plan the blast has but little power to penetrate Ihe 
 stock, l)ut turns upward near its entrance, leaving the 
 stock in the center unsupplied with air. On this ac- 
 coimt cupolas using sheet-blast are constructed of an 
 oval or oblong shape, bringing their opposite walls 
 closer together, in order that thus the blast may reach 
 the center. It is well known tliat cupolas, willi walls 
 straight or nearly straight, are nuicli weaker and 
 more dillicidt to keep in repair than the cylindrical 
 form, and require sjiecial arrangements to keep the 
 brick in place. If the difficulties encountered in the 
 old-slyle cupola -were obviated by this plan, these 
 evils might be borne ; but they are not : the walls 
 being brought nearer together, the liability of biidg- 
 ing over is increased without any compensjiting bene- 
 fit. The majority of foimdrymen who bixw tried 
 this construction have gone back to the old style, or 
 have lined them in cylindrical form and substituted 
 the round tuyeres for the sheet-blast. 
 
 The drawing shows the Truesdale cupola, in sec- 
 tion. In this furnace we find — 1. A very considera- 
 ble contraction of the lower part of the cupola, or 
 that jiart containing the tuyeres. The blast is thus 
 introduced nearer tbe center, lessening Ihe distance 
 necessaiy to force the air, and also the amoiuit of 
 fuel required to make the bed. The boshes or in- 
 clines i)artially support the descending stock, render- 
 ing it more oi)en below than above, and on this ac- 
 count the blast is more easily diffused through the 
 entire mass. 2. An important feature is a largely 
 increased number of tuyeres, distributed over a much 
 larger surface. By this arrangement the blast is ena- 
 bled to penetrate and diffuse itself through every part 
 of the .stock, and at the same time is so subdi\-ided 
 that the amount entering at any one place is not so 
 great as to arrest combustion or chill the slag before 
 lieing elevated to the temperature necessary to enter 
 into combu.stion. A further advantage is that the cold 
 air entering through the tuyeres protects a certain area 
 of surface about each tuyere, aud when placeil suffi- 
 ciently contiguous to each other, as shown in the draw- 
 ing, the whole interior melting surface is protected. 
 3. Another important feature in this cupola is the ar- 
 rangement of graduated tuyeres, each tuyere ha\ing 
 the orifice admitting the blast diminished as they 
 a.scend in the series. By this means the gas generated 
 by the heat evolved in combustion at the lowest se- 
 ries of tuyeres (a considerable portion of wliicl! in its j 
 rai)id a.scent woukl pass out of the cupola uncon- 
 sumcd) is met by a fresh supply of oxygen and util- 
 ized. The siime operation is repealed by each tuyere 
 in the series for the one below it. The saving Ihus 
 effected amounts to ten per cent of the entire aruount 
 of fuel burned. An examination of the drawing will 
 give, perhaps, a clear idea of the interiorof this cupola 
 during the process of melting. The lower tuyeres in 
 the series having larger openings, and consequently 
 more volume and strength, Ihe blast penetrates fur- 
 ther into the stock before iiscending than the blast 
 from the next series, which, being somewhat dimin- 
 ished and having less force, a-scends before reaching 
 as far inward as Ihe blast from the tuyere below it, 
 and so on through the entire series, Ihe upper set 
 supplyinir the blast nearest the circumference. It 
 will readily be seen that this arrangement s<'cures Ihe 
 perfect dis'tribution and diffusion of the blast through- 
 out the entire cupola, effecting uniform, rapid, and 
 perfect combustion, with the complete consumption 
 
 of all the gases generated, without chilling the slag, 
 which, in a fluid stale, floats on the melted iron, pro- 
 tecting it from decarbonizalion. The effects are 
 rapid melting and shaq), with hot iron of a mnform- 
 ly good quality throughout Ihe entire heal. See Foun- 
 dry, Iron, and Markmzu- (JupoUi-farna<-e. 
 
 CUEAHI.— A celebrated poison" used by some trilies 
 of South American Indians for ix»i.soning their arrows. 
 It is by means of this poison that the small arrows shot 
 from the blow-pipe become so deadly. The nature 
 and source of this poison remained long unknown, 
 the Indians being very unwilling to reveal the secret, 
 which seems, however, to have Ix'cn at last obtained 
 from them by Sir RolxTl Schomburgk, and it is now 
 regarded as pretty certain that the principal ingredi- 
 ent is the juice of the Stryrhnoii toxifera, a tree or 
 shrub of the same genus with that which yields nux 
 vomica. It lias a climbing stem, thickly covered 
 with long sijreading reddish hairs; rough, ovate, 
 IKiintcd leaves, and targe, round fruit. The poison, 
 when introduced into the blood, acts on the nervous 
 system, and produces paralysis, with convulsive 
 movements, and death ensues. It is supposed to be 
 the most powerful sedative in nature. Artificial res- 
 piration is the most efficacious means of preventing 
 its effects. It has been proposed to employ it in the 
 cure of lockjaw and hydrophobia, and it has recently 
 been asserted, as the residt of experiment, that it can 
 be \evy beneficially employeil in the former disease. 
 Like snake poison, it is comparatively inert when 
 taken into the stomach. Also written "0"/Y(n, B'oor- 
 ali, and Wtx/rnra. See Arroie-jx/iaoiiK. 
 
 CURB. — ]. A strain of the straight ligament which 
 runs down the back of the hock of a horse. It is 
 most common in animals with straight small hocks 
 and that conformation known as skkle-h(iiiii<; whilst 
 like other strains it occurs from sudden and violent 
 exertion, often proceeding in llie lighter breeds from 
 leaping or galloping in heavy ground, and in Ihe 
 heavier from Ihe effort of keeping back a load whilst 
 going down a steep incline. Swelling appears on Ihe 
 inner and back part of the joint, generally causing 
 lameness, which is most apparent in trotting, and, in 
 slight cases, usually wears off after the aiiimal has 
 been out for ten niinutes. Fomentations must first 
 be used to allay the irritation and inflammation; when 
 heat and tenderness disappear, cold applications will 
 be advisable; when, after ten days, Ihe enlargement 
 still continues, a blister is generally neces.sarj-; whilst, 
 from the first, all work must be forbidden. 
 
 2. A fimnel-shaped iron border standing out from 
 the incorijorating bed of a gunpowder-mill at an an- 
 gle of 45 degrees, and 3 feel high, serving to keep the 
 charge in the bed, and all extraneous matter out of it. 
 
 CURB-BIT. — A stiff bit having branches by which a 
 leverage is obtained upon the jaws of a horse. The 
 lower end has rings or loops for the reins, and the 
 u|iper end has loops for Ihe curb-chain and the rhick- 
 Ktriijin of the head-stall. The curb-chain has usually 
 twisted links, and is fast by one end to Ihe loo|)of the 
 o^ branch, and is hooked to the loop of the nidr 
 branch. It forms the fulcrum for the leverage of the 
 branches. 
 
 CURB-BRIDLE.— A bridle used in the military ser- 
 vice, and having a curb. To put on the curb-bridle, 
 take the reins in the right, the crown-piece in the left 
 hand, approach Ihe horse on the near side, passing 
 the right h.and along his neck; slip the U'ins over his 
 head, and let them rest on his neck; take the crown- 
 piece in the right hand, the left side of the bar of 
 the bit resting on the first two fingers of the left hand; 
 bring the crownpiece in front of and slightly below 
 its proper position, insert the thumb of the left hand 
 into the side of the mouth alxsve the tushes; press 
 open the lower jaw; insert the bit by raising the 
 crown-piece, pass the left hand under Ihe brow-band, 
 draw Ihe ears gently under the crown-piece, beginning 
 with Ihe right ear; arrange the forelock, secure Ihe 
 throat-lash, and then the curb-strap, taking care 
 not to make them set too closely. There should be at
 
 CUBIET. 
 
 440 
 
 CURTALL. 
 
 least three finjjcrs' breadtli bolween the Ibroat-Uush and 
 the jaw, and one liugir's breadth between the curb- 
 stnip and jaw. The bit 
 sbouUl baii^ so as to 
 toueh, but not ilraw up, 
 the corners of the mouth. 
 In no ca.se sbouKi the toji 
 of the niouth-i)iece touch 
 the pahitc. The halter 
 may be taken off before 
 liridlin!;, the reins beinj; 
 lirsi pas.sed over the neck; 
 if the bridle be put on 
 over the headstall, the 
 hitching-strap. if not left 
 at the inau{;er or picket- 
 line, shoukl be lied round 
 the neck or attachctl to 
 the left saddle ring. The 
 hitchinjr-strap may be al- 
 so arranged as follows: 
 loop it two or three times 
 through the ring, so that 
 the loop may be about 
 eight inches long; wind 
 the strap several times 
 around the loop, and 
 draw the end of the strap tightly through it. See 
 Bridle and Unbridle. 
 
 CUKIET.— A breastjihite made of leather. The mr- 
 colli or jnptin, which usually covcreil the former 
 styles of armor, wiis laid aside about the time the 
 cuirass was adopted, sjiy the reign of Edward III. 
 The early cuini-ss of the Greek.s was of linen, which 
 was afterwards covered with plates of horn or scales 
 of horse-hoofs. The Ro.xalani wore leather with thin 
 plates of iron. The Persians wore a similar cuirass. 
 The Romans introduced flexible bands of steel, fold- 
 ing over one another during the fle.xure of the body. 
 Tlie Roman hasUiti wore chain-mail (hauberk-s). The 
 same ujition, as well as the Greeks, used the back- 
 and l)re;i.st plate. See Armor. 
 
 CUEEACH.— The name given in the British Islands 
 to a canoe or Ixiat made of a slender frame of wood 
 covered with skins. Skiffs of this sort, ;is well as 
 canoes hollowed out of the trunks of oaks, were in 
 use among the Britons in the earliest times of which 
 we have record. Julius C:csar, who built some of 
 them after the British model, tells us that the keel 
 and gunwales were of light wood, and the sides of 
 wicker, covered with bides. Similar descriptions of 
 the currach are given Ijy Pliny, Lucan, Solinus, 
 Festus A\ienus, Sidonius Apollinaris, and others. 
 The first occurrence of the name seems to be in 
 Gildas, who wrote in the sixth century; he speaks of 
 the currach as in use among the Scots and the Pict-s. 
 A long voyage in the North Sea, made in a currach 
 during the same century, by one of the companions 
 of St. Columba, is comiiicmoratcd by Adamnan, who 
 died in 704. In 878 three Irish ra'issionuries sailetl 
 in a currach from Ireland to Cornwall; the vovage 
 occupied seven days; and the size of the currachls 
 indicated by the remark that it was one of two skins 
 and a half. An old Life of St. Patrick speaks of a 
 currach "of one skin, with neither helm nor oar." 
 Tlie currach of a larger size had a ma.st and sail. 
 The currach still continues to Ik- used on the Severn, 
 and on many i)arts of Ihe Irish coast, especially oil 
 the shores of Clare and Donegal. The last currach 
 known to have been use<l in Scotland is in Ihe Mu- 
 seum at Elgin. It was employed on the Spey, to- 
 wards the end of last century. "A boat of bison-skin, 
 essentially the same with the" British coracle, is in ase 
 amornr some of the Indians of N'orih .Vmerica. 
 
 CUEEENT-HETES. — An instrument for measuring 
 the velocity of currents. One form, the pil'il-liihe, 
 act.M by the ascension of water in a vent-)>ipe whose 
 lower orifice is presented .s(juarely to the current, the 
 inclieation l>eing read by a float "or graduation iii or 
 niK)n the vertical i)art "of the lul)e! Another form 
 
 acts as a dynamometer, by opposing a resisting body 
 to the action of the current, and indicating Ihe force 
 of the action by a dial or graduated bar. The dyna- 
 mometer current-gauge of Woltmann (1790) is a light 
 water-whwl operated by the current, and having on 
 its axis an endless screw, which operates toothed 
 wheels and a register, the rate or force being deduced 
 from the rotations in a given time. The drawing 
 
 shows this instrument adapted for use in small rivers 
 and streams, or to show the number of gallons tiow- 
 ing from any reservoir or vessel. The mean velocity 
 
 of water in rivers equals 
 
 ( Vb - 1)' + D 
 
 , when T is the 
 
 surface velocity expressed in inches. In the absence 
 of a meter, the surface-velocity may be determined 
 by carefully noting the time required for a chip or 
 any small substance to float a measured distance. 
 Tlie following are the asual expressions applied to 
 river- velocities: 
 
 Sluggish, about li ft. per second, or 1 mile per hour. 
 Ordinary, " 3' " 3 " 
 
 Rapid, "5 " 3 " 
 
 Very rapid, "8 " 5 " " 
 
 Torrent, " 9 or more " 6 " " 
 
 CUEEENT SEEIES.— In military administration, 
 orders issued from Established Commands, such jis 
 Divisions, Departments, etc., being numbered in 
 regular order for each year. This expression is fre- 
 quently used when referring to orders issued in the 
 year passing or current. 
 
 CUEBICLE GUN.— A verj' small piece of ordnance, 
 mountcil upon a carriage of two wheels, and drawn 
 b}' two horses. The artilleryman is seated on a box, 
 and the whole can Ijc moved foi-ward into action with 
 astonishing rapidity The timibrils belonging to cur- 
 ricle-guns carry 60 rounds of ball-cartridges. This 
 gim is no longer in general use. 
 
 CUEEIEE.— .V very small musketoon with a swivel 
 mounting; but little "used at present. 
 
 CURRY-COMB.— A kind of scrajier used for dress- 
 ing horses. It consists of a number of iron plates 
 notched on one edge to form rough teeth. The.se 
 Jilates are fastened in parallel lines to an iron back, 
 to which a handle is attached, and the hor.se is "cur- 
 ried " liv scrubbing witli the teeth. 
 
 CUETAIN.— The curtain, in a fortification, is the 
 liortion of rampart or wall between two bji-stions or 
 two gates. In a regular siege, to batter down the 
 curtain is one of the main operations depended on, 
 and many of the exlernal works constructed by the 
 defenders are intended to frustrate, or at least em- 
 barrass. Ibis operation See Bastioned ForU. 
 
 CUETAIN-ANGLE.— The angle of a fortification 
 between the Hank and curtain. S(M Sastioiied Fi^rts 
 and Oiirliiiii. 
 
 CUETAL AXE.— A short sword with a curved blade. 
 The name has been moditied from lime to time: 
 couUtlliiii'hc, eoiitiiUixf, nirtk-axe, curtal-axe, coute- 
 laee, eti rte-lauHe , and oitlans. 
 
 CUBTALL. — An ancient piece of ordnance, peculiar 
 for its shortness. Sometimes written Ourtald.
 
 CUBVATUEE. 
 
 441 
 
 CUSHMAN COMBINATIONCHUCK. 
 
 CTJEVATURE. — The curvature of a plane curve at 
 a point is its lenrieucy to depart from a tangent to the 
 curve at that point. In tliu circle this tendency is 
 the same throughout, for the curve is perfectly sym- 
 metrical round its center; in otlier words, the curva- 
 ture of a circle is constant. In different circles the 
 curvature is inversely as the radius — i.e., it diminishes 
 as the railius increases. The reciprocal of the radius 
 is accordingly assumed as the measure of curvature of 
 a circle. A straight line which has no curvature may 
 be consiilered part of a circle whose radius eijuals in- 
 linit}' as the reciprocal of infinity, measures the cur- 
 vature, and is = 0. 'I'he constancy of curvature in the 
 circle suggests an absolute measure of curvature at 
 any point in any other curve; for whatever be the 
 curvature at that point, we Ciin always tind a circle 
 of the same curvature. The radius of the circle 
 which has the stime curvature at any point in a curve 
 as the curve itself at that point is called tlie radius of 
 curvature of the curve for that point; and the circle 
 itself is called the onrulating circle. If we know the 
 radius of curvature of a curve al different point.s, we 
 can compare its curvature at those points. We have 
 thus the means also of comparing degrees of curva- 
 ture in different curves. The problem of measuring 
 the curvature of a curve at any point is the same, 
 then, "with that of finding its radius of curvatiire. In 
 some simple cases, as in the conic sections, this may 
 be done geometrically ; it is usually necessarj-, however, 
 to employ the calcidus. If the curve be referred to 
 rectangular co-ordinates, and J', y be a point in it, then 
 it Ciin be .shown that the radius of curvature 
 
 (•+£)' 
 
 dx* 
 
 If the curved line, instead of being plane, twists in 
 space, it is called a curve of double curvature. 
 
 CUKVE. — In common language, a crooked line that 
 departs verj' gradually from the straight direction; in 
 mathematics, however, it is usually restricted to lines 
 that follow some law in their change of direction. 
 Thus, the law of the circle is that all points of 
 it are equally distant from a fi.xed point, called the 
 center. The law of a plane curve is generally ex- 
 pressed by an equation between the co-ordinates of 
 any point in it referred to 
 a tixcd point. When the 
 cqtiation of a curve con- 
 tains only powers of -r an<l 
 y, the curve is algebraic; 
 when the equation contains 
 other functions.logarithms 
 for instance, of .r and >/, 
 the ciu-ve is called transcen- 
 dental. The cycloid, e.g., 
 is a transcendental curve. 
 There are alsf) curves, 
 like the sjiiral, that do not 
 continue in one plane; 
 these are called curves of 
 double curvature. To ex- 
 press the law of such a 
 curve requires three co 
 ordinates and two equa- 
 tions. Curves are said to be 
 of the first, second, third, 
 etc., order, according as 
 their equations involve the 
 first, second, third powers 
 of .>■ or !/. The circle, el- 
 lipse, paraliola, and hyper- 
 bola are of the .second or- 
 der of curves. There is 
 only one line of the first order, namely, the straight 
 line, which is also reckoned amond the curves. The 
 higher geometry investigates the amount of curvature 
 of curves, their length, the surface they inclose, etc. 
 
 The number of curves that might be drawn is, of 
 course, infinite. Quite a large number have received 
 names, and are objects of great interest to the mathe- 
 matician — in some ca.ses, for their beauty; in others, 
 for their remarkable properties. Among the most in- 
 teresting are the following: 1, circle; '2, cllip.se; 3, 
 hyperbola; 4, parabola; 5, ci.ssoid of Diocles; 6, con- 
 choid of Nicomedes; 7, lemniscata; 8, cycloid; 9, har- 
 monic curve; 10, trochoid; 11, the witch; 12, cardiode, 
 
 13, curves of circular functions — e.g., curve of sines; 
 
 14, the logarithmic curve; 15, the spiral of Archi- 
 medes; 16, thecatenary; 17, the tractory; 18, Ihetrac- 
 trix; 19, the ovalsof t'a.s.sini; 20, the reciprocal spiral. 
 
 The term <■«;■(•*■ is also aiJjilied to a draughtsman's in- 
 strument having one or a variety of curves of various 
 characters other than arcs, which may be struck by a 
 conipa.ss. Such a combination of curves is shown in 
 the drawing. They are frequently constructed for 
 specific purposes, such as iihipirrinht's eiirees, radii- 
 cin-ns, etc. 
 
 CURVED FIRE.— When a projectile is fired so as 
 just to clear an interposinjj cover, and then descend 
 upon the object, the line of tire being peri)endicular 
 or nearly so to the front of troops or works to be de- 
 stroyed, such practice is termed enmd fi-e in order 
 to distinguish it from ricochet. This kind of fire has 
 been long employed to dislodge troops posted bchiml 
 cover by firing common shells from guns or how- 
 itzers. Smaller charges and higher angles would, as 
 in ricochet, be required than for ordinar}- direct fire. 
 The emplojTnent of curved fire at the siege of Stras- 
 burg by tlie Prussians, during the Franco-Prussian 
 AYar, was very successful, a hidden escarp at a range 
 of 910 yards ha^•ing Ix-en breached with a 6-incli 
 B. L. R.gun, with a charge of powder j\ the weight 
 of the projectile fired, which was 60 lbs. Under 
 curved fire it is necessary that a projectile should 
 strike the revetment at a considerable angle of de- 
 scent, with sufficient energy to destroy the masonry. 
 Xow, in order that a considerable angle of descent 
 may be obtained at a moderate range (from 1000 to 
 loOO yards) it is necessary that the remaining velocity 
 should be low; and this may be obtained in two ways 
 — by a projectile that has been fireil originally with 
 a comparatively high velocity, and has lost it rapidly; 
 or by a projectile that has been fired originally ^vilh 
 a lower velocity and a higher elevation, but has not 
 lost its velocilyso quickly. If the projectile has the 
 s:mie weight in Imth cases, the first result would be 
 obtained by a short shell of large caliber, the second 
 by a long "shell of .smaller caliber, the resistance of 
 the air ha\'ing a greater effect on the former than the 
 latter. The "question is, which of the two systems 
 wouki be preferable ? 
 
 CURVE OF RESISTANCE. — When the velocities of a 
 projectile at two points in the trajectory near together 
 are known, the amount of resistance, R. offered by the 
 air at the mean velocity can be formed from the for- 
 mula R - OQO ■ '■* ^'liich w = weight of the 
 
 projectile; r and c' = the velocities at the two points; 
 and S = the space in which the velocity is reduced 
 from » to . If several resistances are determined in 
 this maimer from velocities obtained in practice, a 
 riirre of re«ixlinicf, which will give the resistances at 
 all intermediate velocities, niav be constructed. 
 
 CUSHMAN COMBINATION-CHUCK.— A variety of 
 chuck much employed in the annory anil ordnance- 
 shops. The drawings show the construction and 
 action of the device. That portion of the jaws 
 which enters the bodv of llie chuck is cut into a half 
 nut (A, Fiff. 3) that" engages with a screw (B), the 
 square head of which projects through the face or 
 rim of the chuck to receive a wrench. Below this 
 projecting head is a Ix-vel pinion inside lhc*rim that 
 engages with a circular rack or toothed ring (C C). 
 Turuins any one of these screws will actuate the 
 rack an"d everv other screw, and so far it is simply a 
 concentric- jawed chuck. The toothed ring rests upon
 
 CUSTOM OF WAK. 
 
 442 
 
 CUTS. 
 
 a plain ring (D D), the periphery of which is a screw- 
 llireail llmt enj^ges with a similar thread on the in- 
 side of the shell," so that hy turning the rin!!; in one 
 direelion it is moved forward towards the face of the 
 chuck, and bv turninir it the other way it is carried 
 towards the liaek of the thiuk. By this means the 
 
 circular rack may be meshed in gear with the pinions 
 on the screws, or disengaged from them (Fijg. 1 
 and 2). AVheu in and out of gear the ring (1) D) is 
 held in position by a spring catch. Should it be re- 
 quired to move one or more of the jaws further from 
 the center than the others, the spring catch is released 
 
 pressed either to their intrenchmcnts or into a forti- 
 fied town from which they had marched or sallied. 
 
 CUTS. — 1. Movements in saber-exercise, executed a^ 
 follows: 
 
 Front Cut. — Being at guard, raise the saber, the 
 arm half extended, the iiand in front of the right 
 
 by thumb-pressure, the supporting ring is turned out 
 by a knob at the back of the cbuok, and the circular 
 rack unmeshed. In this condition it has the charac- 
 teristics of an indejiendent jaw-chuck. Sec Chuck. 
 
 CUSTOM OF WAE.— The custom of war in like 
 cases is the common law of the army recognized by 
 Congress in the Articles of War, as a rule for the 
 government of the army whenever any doubt shall 
 arise not explained by the Rules and Articles estab- 
 lished by Congress for the government and regula- 
 tion of the army. To render a custom valid the 
 folliiwing qualities are requisite: 1. Antiquity; 3. 
 Continuance without interruption; 3. Have been ac- 
 quiesced in without dispute: 4. It must be reasona- 
 ble; 5. Certain; 6. ('ittiijiiihirrn — that is, not left to tlie 
 option of every man whether he v.'iW use it or not; 
 7. Customs must be consistent \\ith each other. 
 
 CUT.— A term employed in mechanical maneuvers 
 signifying to move the object horizontally, without 
 rolling, by moving each end alternately in the re- 
 quired direction. Sce'VAiand ^f^rhnnil•al ^faneurerll. 
 
 CUT-AND THRUST SWORD.— An ancient offensive 
 weapim used for cutting and thrusting. It was 
 stniight-bladed, at first short and broad, afterwards 
 longer and ilouble-edged, sharp pointed, with a rect- 
 angular slie:itli, .nnd always worn on the right side. 
 
 CUTLASS. — A short, heavy. cur\Mng sword; espi>c- 
 ially used by seamen in tioarding or repelling board- 
 ers. Tlie term is abbreviated from curl/iUij-c. Rosa- 
 lind calls it ji nirth-iij;'. It is usually about 3 feet 
 long, with a japanned liilt. 
 
 CUT OFF. — In a military sense, this phra.se is vari- 
 ously applicable. To rut off an enfmy'n retreat is to 
 maneuver in such a manner as to prevent an oppos- 
 ing army or bo<ly of men from retiring when closely 
 
 Fio. •.'. 
 
 shoulder, and a little higher than the head, \he edge 
 upward, the point to the rear, and higher than the 
 hand. (Two.) Cut, extending the arm to its full 
 length. (Thkee.) Resume the guard. The first posi- 
 
 j tion of front cut is the position of raise saber. 
 
 Left Cut. — Being at guard, turn the head and 
 shoulders to the left, raise the saber, the arm extended 
 to the right, the hand in quarte and as high as the 
 head, the point higher than the hand. (Two.) Cut 
 
 ! diagonally to the left. (Three.) Resume the guard. 
 Big/d ft//,— Being at guard, turn the head to the 
 right, carry the hand opposite the left breast, the point 
 of the saber upward, the edge to the left. (Two.) Ex- 
 tend the ami quickly to its full length, and give a 
 backhanded cut horizontally. (Thuee.) Resume the 
 guard. The left and right rutx are used against in- 
 fantry, inclining the body forward, and cutting at 
 the neces,sary angle. 
 
 Rear <'»?.— Being at guard, throw the right shoul- 
 der well back, and execute the first motion of right 
 rut. (Two.) Extend the arm cjuickly to its full 
 
 J length, and give a back-handed cut horizontally to 
 
 I the rear. (Three.) Resume the guard. 
 
 Left in Quarte and Tierce Cut. — Being at guard, 
 execute the first motion of left cut. (Two.) E.xecute 
 the second motion of hft cut. (TnuEE.) Turn the 
 
 ! hand in tierce and cut horizontally. (Fotni.) Re- 
 sume the guard. 
 
 night in Tierce and Quarte C«<.— Being at guanl, 
 execiitc the first motion of right cut. (Two,) Exe- 
 cute the second motion of right cut. (Three.) Turn 
 the hand in quarte, and cut horizontally. (Four.) 
 Resume the guard. 
 
 lixir in Tierce and Quarts Cm^— Being at guard, 
 execute the first motion of vcrtrcw*. (Two.) Execute 
 the second motion of rear cut. (Three,) Turn 
 the hand in quarte, and cut horizontally. CFo0R.) 
 Resume the guard. See Siber-e.rerciKe. 
 
 I 2. When breaching walls, it is necessary to separate 
 
 I that part of the masonry or revetment to he over- 
 thrown from the adjoining portion, in such a manner 
 that it may soon be brought down by its own weight 
 
 j and by the tire directed upon it. The iK-st nietho<l 
 of effecting this is to cut the wall first in a horizontal 
 
 ! direction, and then vertically at such distances as the 
 strength of tiie masonry may rctiuire. In general, 
 the height of the horizontal cut should be alxiut one 
 third the total height of the scarp wall from the bot- 
 tom, though in some cases it may be preferable to 
 
 ' make it as high as the middle line of this wall. This 
 will deixMiil greatly upon the thickness of the wall, 
 and should be deterniiiie<l in each case at such a 
 
 I height that the breach may be practicable. If ton
 
 CUTTER-GEINDEH. 
 
 443 
 
 CYCLOID. 
 
 high, the ramp composed of the debris will be inter- 
 cepted by a portion of the wall; if too low, the open- 
 ing will be masked by the debris itself. The length 
 of the cut will l)e regulated by the width of passage 
 required for the assjiultiag party, generall.y. from 30 
 to 30 yards. Each gun ha.s a certain space allotted to 
 it, and commences tiring at one extremity, spacing 
 the shots at regular intervals depending upon the cali- 
 ber of the gun. Returning, it tires at points exactly 
 between the former, and finishes by destroying any 
 salient parts of the masonry left uninjured through 
 out the line. The completion of the cut will be 
 known by the earth falling tlirough. By marking on 
 the platform the direction of the stock and wheels at 
 each fire, on returning the projjcr direction Cim eiisily 
 be given to the piece. The elevation will remain un- 
 changed. The number of vertical cut.s having been 
 determined so that no .section of the wall shall be 
 sustained by more than one counterfort, the cuts are 
 formed by first tiring a shot at a certain distance 
 above the horizontal line and then another in the cen- 
 ter of this interval; the intermediate .SiUient points ore 
 destroyed a.s before. A .second equal length of cut- 
 ting is effected in the same manner, and so on until 
 the length is sufficient. Care must be taken that the 
 extreme vertical cuts progrcs.s a.s rapidly as the others. 
 These vertical cuttings need not, in general, be car- 
 ried to a greater height than one half the distance be- 
 tween the horizontal line and the cordon, nor is it 
 always necessary that they should jx-netrate quite 
 through the revetment a.s in the case of the hoiizontal 
 cut. If the wall does not fall on the completion of 
 the cuts, a few volleys are fired at the middle of the 
 spaces thus outlined. After the wall has fallen, the 
 counterforts are battered down, and, if necessary, the 
 fire continued upon the backing of earth in order to 
 make the slope easv of ascent. See Breoeht'ng. 
 
 CUTTEE-GKINDEK.— A grindstone or emery-wheel 
 specially constructed for grinding the .sections of cut- 
 ter-bars. In the machine commonly employed in the 
 United States arsenals, the platen to which the hold- 
 
 er and guide are attached is adjusted in height to 
 suit the diameter of the cutter to be operated upon. 
 The guide rests against Uie tooth that is being ground, 
 thus g-au^ng the work perfectly, even though there 
 may be irregularity in the size of (he teeth. The 
 machine Ls adapted to cutters of all sizes and styles 
 of teeth, whether straight, beveled, or spiral. Either 
 small grindstones or emery-wheels may be attached 
 to the spindle. 
 
 The drawing shows a verj' efficient machine of this 
 class, made by E. E. Garvin and Compaiiy. The 
 construction lias lx;en simplified by substituting a 
 planed knee for the heavy stud in former use. A 
 sliding platform, made to move more freely than in 
 the old style machine, is fitted to this knee ami is 
 
 bound in any desired position by tightening a gib by 
 means of a hand-screw shown beneath. A special 
 attachment is also provided for this machine when 
 required for surface-grinding. The drawing shows 
 it in position on the machine, with the cutter grind- 
 ing-head on the floor. The machine can be changed 
 from » cutter-grinder to a surface-grinder in a few- 
 minutes. Upon the sliding platform is a stand capa- 
 ble of being held by a cam binder at any desired 
 angle. This stand is used for the manda-I-stud, and 
 has a graduated arc of 90 degrees for .'Siting the stud 
 at any angle. The centers .shown in the drawing 
 enable the operator to sharpen reamers and taps of 
 almost any shape. \Vilh this machine all sizes and 
 shapes of cutters can Ix? handled from i inch to &i 
 inches diameter, and face mills, by using platform 
 shown at foot of machine, up to 12 inches diameter. 
 The arrangement is such that lilenly of space is al- 
 lowed for the hands in sliding the work upon the 
 mandrel. The slide and spindle bearings are sheathed 
 and covered with cap-nuts for the exdusion of dust 
 and emery. The spindle-boxes have adjustment for 
 wear, and the sliding surfaces are substantially gibbed. 
 The surface grinder will grind a piece io inches 
 long and H inches wide. The slide is operated by a 
 rack and pinion movement, making it very sensitive 
 and quickly handled. The cross-feed is operated by 
 a screw attached to the end of the knee. This attacli- 
 ment is very usefid in grinding small hardened work, 
 ' such as straight edges, cutting dies, calipers, gauges, 
 etc! Small pieces can be held in a vise made fast to 
 the slide for that purpose. The countershaft-hangers 
 are adjustable and self-oiling. The following are the 
 general dimensions: 
 
 Tight and loose pulleys on coimtershaft 4J by 2 in. face 
 
 j Speed of countershaft 400 rev. 
 
 Weight of machine, complete 300 lbs. 
 
 I CUTTING-OFF MACHINE.— This most useful ma- 
 chine is essential to the proper equipment of the 
 
 i foundrj', arsenal, and other places where shafts, rods, 
 bars, or pii)es are to be cut to length. Cutting off 
 constitutes a large share of the blacksmith-work of a 
 machine-shop, and when performed in the usual mau- 
 
 ' ner costs three times as much as if done bj" a ma- 
 chine. The ordinary mode of cutting off consists of 
 three operations — heating, cutting with chisels, and 
 finishing the ends afterwards; either of these opera- 
 tions costs as much as to cut off by a machine which 
 performs all at once. The Belts machine can be 
 operated by unskilled workmen, and can be set in an 
 iron-room to save space in the machine-shop; the 
 tools require no dressing, and can be ground by any 
 one. Such a machine can Ix; profitably employed 
 where five or more machinists are at work, and is 
 found to be a very imixirlaut machine tool. The an- 
 gle and movement of the tools are wholly different 
 from Uiose of a lathe, which cannot 1k' used" to advan- 
 tage for such work; the tools have uniform section, 
 and are supported to the end at their bottom edge in 
 a special tool-clump, having a new adjustment toalter 
 the angle of the cutting edge of the tool, in operating 
 on soft or hard material. In rolling mills and iron- 
 works, where large numbers of pieces are to be cut, 
 one attendant can operate two machines if both are 
 arranged with iiowcr-feed. 
 
 CUTTING-SHOE. — A horseshoe with nails on only 
 one side, lor honrcs that cut or interfere. See Hone- 
 shoeing. 
 
 CTANE. — An ancient metallic composition used for 
 the ornamentation of cuirasses and for the cmbellish- 
 menl of llie bos.ses of shields. 
 
 CyCLOID. — If a circle 
 roll along a straight line 
 on its own plane, a point 
 on the circumference de- 
 scribes a curve which is 
 called the cycloid. The 
 curve is one of the most 
 interesting we know in respect both of its geometri-
 
 CYLINDER. 
 
 444 
 
 CYLINDRICAL CHAMBER. 
 
 cal properties and connection with dyunmics. One 
 of its most inteix-stiiig proix-rties is tliis: The time 
 of !i iKxly's descendinj; from rest from any point 
 in tlie lire of iin inverted cycloid to the lowc.st |X)int 
 is the siime, from wlinlfver point of tlie cur\-c the 
 Iwdv b«>irin'i to descend. This is sometimes expressed 
 bv s;»viii/ tliat the cycloid is the inochrououii ciirre. 
 I'lie "iHHly liiivin;; reached tlie lowest point will, 
 throujth the imiX'tiis received in the fall, ascend the 
 opix)site branch of the curve to a heiirht equal to that 
 fn>m which it fell, losing velocity in its a.sceut by the 
 same degrees as thasc by which it acquired it in its 
 tiescent, and it will employ precisely the s;inie time 
 in ascerKling as it did in descending. It is clear that 
 if a surface could be procured that would be perfectly 
 smooth and hard, the cycloid would thus present a 
 solution of the problem of perpetual motion. The 
 curve was discovereil bv Galileo in 1615. 
 
 CYLINDER.— 1. The" name of a genus of geomet- 
 rical solid tigiux's, of which there may be an endless 
 species. The most common kind ot cylinder is that 
 which is generated by the revolution of a rectangular 
 parallelogram about" one of its sides, which line is 
 called the a.xis of the cylinder. But in order to em- 
 brace all varieties of cylinders, we must generalize 
 the mode of generation." A cyUnder, then, is a solid 
 
 The exhaust valve-seat is removable for greater 
 convenience of construction, and to allow for re- 
 facing. Below the exhaust-valve is the exhaust-pas- 
 siigc. The steam enters the cyliniler through a three- 
 ported seat, afterwards uniting to form but one open- 
 ing into the cylinder, and is exhausted through the 
 lower part of this stime port, which then by one large 
 oixjning commimicates with tlie chest in which the 
 exhaust-valve is liK-ated. There is no real connection 
 between the two, however; each valve within its own 
 chest controls its own ]X)rts, and live steam cannot 
 enter the e.vhaust. The valves are carefully scrai>e*l 
 to an accurate Ixiaring, and being tial are ciisily fitted 
 luid remain tight for a long time. Both steam- and 
 exhaust-valves have a constant travel under all con- 
 ditions, and this conduces to equal wear, while from 
 the simple construction, whenever repairs are needed, 
 they may be eiisUy made in an ordinary shop with 
 ordinary" tools. This is a very desirable point. The 
 valve and valve-stems as well, as the eccentrics, are 
 provided with means of adjustment so that the de- 
 sired amount of lead and cut off may be given the 
 steiim-valves, and the exhaust-valves .set for the de- 
 sired release and degree of comiiression. Each valve 
 can be adjusted independently of the others so as to 
 act in the most etflcient manner. See Sleam-eiiffine. 
 
 Cummer Cylinder. 
 
 generated by a line which moves parallel to itself 
 while one end traces upon a plane any curve what- 
 ever. When the position of the generatinir line is at 
 right angles to the plane, the cylinder is rig/i/; when 
 not, it is iibli//iie. If the curve" traced is a circle, and 
 the line perpendicular to the plane, the cylinder is a 
 rirjlit i-iiriiUir cylinder, etc. In all cases "the content 
 of the cylinder is found by mviltiplvinir the number 
 of sipiare units in the hasi' by the number of linear 
 units in the altitude, which is the perpendicidar dis- 
 tance iH'lween the two enils. The area of ihc convex 
 surface is equal to a rectangidar parallelogram whose 
 base is the circumference of the end, and its heisht 
 the length of the generating line. To this must~be 
 added the areas of the two ends, to get the entire 
 surface of the cylinder. 
 
 2. That chai'nlier of a steam-engine in which the 
 force of steam is utilized upon the piston. The 
 oylinder is generally designed to meet the require- 
 ments of the valve-construction. The drawing shows 
 an elevation of the Cummer cylinder, in which is 
 seen, in part s<'ction. the steam-passage \\\\\\ a short 
 Ic^ngth of pijx', and below it the exhaust-passage. 
 On either side are the steam- and exhaust-chests; that 
 on the riirht has the cover removed, showing steam- 
 and exhaust-valves. The valve-stems are also shown; 
 they pass through the steam- and exhaust-passages and 
 connect the valves at one end with those at the other. 
 
 CYLINDER-GAUGE.— An instrument employed in 
 the ins])ection of cannon. It is a hollow cylinder of 
 iron, turned to the least allowed diameter of the bore, 
 and one caliber in length. It 
 has a cross-head at each end . 
 one of wliich has a smooth hole 
 through its axis to tit the staff, 
 and the other is tapped to re- 
 ceive the screw in the end of 
 it. The cylinder-gauge is in- 
 troduced into the bore of the 
 gun, and must pass freely to 
 the bottom of the tore, "fhe instnuuent shows that 
 the l>ore is not too small. See Jnsjkctioii of Ord- 
 nann . 
 
 CYLINDER-MILL.— One form of a mill for pulver- 
 izing the ingredients of gunpowder, baring a cvlin- 
 drical nuuier traversing on a bed-stone. See frwn- 
 poirdir. 
 
 CYLINDER-POWDER.— That of which the charcoal 
 is made in iron evlinders. See Giinjioiedei: 
 
 CYLINDER STAFF.— An instrument used, in the 
 inspection of ordnance, to measure the length of the 
 bore. It is supported by a rest of a T-form at the 
 muzzle, and the extremity inserted in the gun is 
 armed with a mKiKin-iiKi-pnint and a i/ttide-p/ale. 
 
 CYLINDRICAL CHAMBER.— In tiic S-inch siege- 
 mortar, and in the eprouvettc-mortar, the tottoin of
 
 CYLINDBICAL INCH. 
 
 445 
 
 DAM, 
 
 the bore iit the mouth of the chamber is formed of a 
 portion of a sphere, so that the projectile closes the 
 month of the chamber. In other howitzers the cham- 
 ber is connected by means of a conical surface, the 
 junctions being rounded off to i)revcnt being worn 
 away by the action of the powder. Cylindrical cham- 
 bers when narrow and deep give greater ranges than 
 shallow wide ones, which do not contiue the powder 
 so much; but as in the former the g>i.s acts on but a 
 smidl segment of the projectile (usually hollow), it 
 sometimes breaks it; and for this reason too great a 
 depth in cylindrical chamber must be avoided. 
 
 CYLINDRICAL INCH.— A term employed in ord- 
 nance. It is a cylinder whose base is one inch in 
 diameter and whose altitude is one inch. 
 
 CYMBALS. — Military instruments of percassion, 
 which, when struck one against the other, produce a 
 loud harsh sound of no fixed pitch. The best cym- 
 bals are those made in Turkey and in China. At- 
 tempts to discover and imit^ite the composition of the 
 metiil have all failed. The notes in music for this 
 instrument are all placed on the s;ime line or space, 
 in rhythmical succession. Cymbals, although mili- 
 tary instruments, are now much used in the orchestra 
 
 by modern composers. Cymbals are among the most 
 ancient instruments, bein^ represented in different 
 forms upon the sepulcliral tnonunieuts. They were 
 used by the Levites in tlic Temple Ordinances, and 
 the sons of Asaph excelled in their use. They are 
 
 mentioned among other instruments, 1043 B.C., when' 
 David brought the ark home, — harps, psalteries, tim- 
 brels, cornets, cymbals (2 Sam. vi. H). The It/ud- 
 sonndiiig and high-sounding cymbals mentioned in 
 Ps;tlms cl. 5 were probably the clashing cymbals and 
 rattling castanets. See Band. 
 
 D 
 
 DAG.— A thick climisy pistol tised in the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries. In the Spanish Tragedy, 
 published in 1603, one of the characters shoots the 
 dag. 
 
 DAGEN. — A peculiar kind of poniard used in very 
 ancient limes. Now obsolete. 
 
 DAGGER. — A weapon resembling a sword, but con- 
 siderably smaller, being used for stab- 
 bing at close quarters. Daggers are 
 generally two-edged, and very sharp to- 
 wards the point. Originally it had no 
 guard for the hand, and was worn at 
 the girdle in a sheath. It is now re- 
 garded as a general military weapon 
 in European countries. The dagger 
 was a part of the equipment of the 
 Frank warrior, who probably called it 
 a C'»deJ, or somethin;: like that. It does not differ 
 materially from the dirk of the Gadhelic branches of 
 the Celts, or the poniard of the nations who acknowl- 
 edge Latin as the base of their mother-tongues. In 
 the fourteenth century it was carried by citizens, yeo- 
 men, sailors, and ladies. It survives in England in 
 the midshipman's dirk, and in other places as a *fi7«^^', 
 a bowie-knife, etc. Some ingenuity has lieen expende<l 
 on this weapon in the mode of attaching it to the 
 handle and pnniding the latter with a pistol. 
 
 DAGUE.— A short thick poniard which was for- 
 merly much used when individuals engaged in single 
 coin bat. 
 
 DAHLGKEN BREECH-STRAP.— A strap connecting 
 the breech with a separate trunuion-ring, in order to 
 avoid longitudinal weakness in a gun, without dis- 
 turbing the usual and convenient preponderance. 
 The strap is made of bronze, and cast in two pieces: 
 one piece constituting the strap, half the tniimion- 
 ring, and the greater part of the trunnions; the other 
 constituting the opposite half of the trunnion-ring 
 and the remainder of the tnmnions. The l^vo parts 
 are riveted together at the trunnions. This strap 
 remedies another and greater defect of ca.st-iron guns 
 than longitudinal weakness — the imsoimdness of the 
 eastimr around the trunnions. 
 
 DAHLGREN GUN.- The Dahlgren gims of large 
 caliber are made of cast-iron, solid, and cooled from 
 the exterior. To produce uniformity in the cooling, 
 the piece is cast nearly cylindrical, and then turned 
 
 down to the required shape, which is shown in the 
 dramng. The thickness of metal around the seat of 
 the charge is a little more than the diameter of the 
 bore, which rule holds good for nearly all cast- 
 iron guns. The chase, however, tapers more rapidly 
 than in other cast-iron guns, which gives the ap- 
 pearance of greater thickness of metal at the reiu- 
 
 Dahlffren Gun. 
 
 force. The chamber is of the Gomer form. The 
 principal guns of this system are of 9- and 11 -inch 
 caliber. A piece of 10-inch caliber has, however, 
 been introduced into the Navy, on Admiral Dahlgren 's 
 plan, for firing solid shot with 40 lbs. of powder. 
 The 1.1-inch and 20 inch naval guns are shaped ex- 
 teriorly after the Dahlgren pattern, but are cast hollow 
 and liave the elliptical chamber of the Rodman sys- 
 tem. The following table shows the principal dimen- 
 sions, etc., of Dahlgren guns: 
 
 
 Leiitrtli 
 
 Miucl- 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Service- 
 ebar^. 
 
 Mnxi- 
 liiun) 
 
 WelBhl 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 Bore. 
 
 D m. 
 
 
 Chai-ge. 
 
 Shot. 
 
 ShelL 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 SO-incli. 
 
 163 
 
 M 
 
 100.000 
 
 100 
 
 
 1,080 
 
 
 15-incli 
 
 130 
 
 48 
 
 43,000 
 
 35 
 
 60 
 
 400 
 
 330 
 
 13-inch 
 
 130 
 
 44.7 
 
 36.1100 
 
 40 
 
 
 280 
 
 224 
 
 It-inch. 
 
 1.33 
 
 33 
 
 16,000 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 170 
 
 180 
 
 10 inch. 
 
 1101 
 
 29.1 
 
 12,000 
 
 ia< 
 
 16 
 
 125 
 
 100 
 
 
 107 
 
 2S.3 
 
 9,300 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 a3 
 
 70 
 
 lS5-pdr.. 
 
 117J 
 
 33.85 
 
 16,500 
 
 40 
 
 
 1* 
 
 100 
 
 See Cast-iron Oiins and Ordnance. 
 
 DAM.— A barrier for raising the level of water in a 
 stream, for the purpose of forming a reservoir, inun- 
 dating, or for turning the water in another direction. 
 Several dams are sometimes placed upon a water- 
 course for the purpose of preventing too rapid an es- 
 cape of water where it is needed for irripition or for 
 moving machinery. There is also a variety of daia
 
 DAMAGES. 
 
 446 
 
 DANCETTE. 
 
 called a cofft'r-<lum, in wliicli an inclosurc is bounded 
 by n Imrricr which pri'Vcnts exterior water from en- 
 terinjT, used f:enerally for the purpose of excavation. 
 Dams eoiistrueled for raisiiii; the level of water have 
 an im|)orlant use in the slack-water navigation of 
 rivers. The materials which enter into the construc- 
 tion of dams differ accordinj; to circiunstances. If 
 the structure be required to bar a narrow gorge and 
 a considenihle stream, it must be made very strong, 
 not only to withstand the hydrostatic pressure, but 
 also the force of the current, which often, during 
 freshets, becomes very great. The materials are then 
 generally composed of a combination of wood-work 
 and ma.sonry. Masonry may l>e i>rincipally used 
 when the gorge is so narrow as to allow of the con- 
 struction of a sufficiently small horizontal arc to resist 
 the pressure. When the dam is very long (across a 
 wide stream), unless a va-st amount of stone is used, 
 wooden braces must be employed. When the body 
 of water to be restrained is not more than four or live 
 feet deep and the bottom is tinn, a clay or stiff loam 
 embankment nine or ten feet thick, well compacted, 
 will answer the purposi- if a gate be provided to keep 
 the water from flowing over the top of the embank- 
 ment, which would cause it to wear away. It is not 
 always economy to build the dam in the narrowest 
 part of the stream, or where the opposite banks 
 nearest approach each other. This will often cause, 
 during a freshet, too great a depth of running water 
 over the dam, by which it may be endangered. A 
 point should be selected where the dam can be made 
 of sufticienf width to allow the water to pour over it 
 without piling up too much, and where the founda- 
 tion is good. The lini' of a dam may be transverse or 
 diagonal to the How of water. The diagonal is some- 
 times of advantage in increasing the width of flow, 
 but is liable to interfere with the bed of the stream 
 below more than the transverse line. Where practi- 
 cable, the form of an arc, the convexity fronting up 
 stream, is the best; but a broken line may sometimes 
 be employed to advantage, the angles "pointing up 
 stream acting as braces, while the angles pointing 
 down stream may be held by natural rock-formation 
 or heavy masonry strengthened by bracing. 
 
 DAMAGES. — The costs of repairs of damage done 
 to arms, equipments, or implements, in the use of the : 
 armies of the Uniteil States, arc to be deducted from 
 the pay of any officer or soldier in who.se care or use ! 
 the said arms, equipments, or implements were when f 
 the said damages occurred: provided, the damage 
 was occasioned by the abuse or negligence of said 
 officer or soldier. Every officer commanding a regi- 
 ment, corps, garrison, or detachment is required to 
 make once every three months, oroftener if reqvnred, 
 a written report to the Chief of Ordnance stating all 
 damages to arms so lx;longing to his command, imd 
 naming the officers and soldiers by whose negligence 
 or abuse the damages were occasioned. 
 
 Burinck damagen, in the British armv, is the term 
 applied to injuries done to barracks, barrack-furni- 
 ture, etc., by soldiers, when the actual i>eri>etrator 
 cannot be discovcriil. 
 
 DAMASCENING DAMASKEENING.— The art of 
 producing upon ordhiury steel certain r)rnamental 
 appejirances resembling those obser\-eil on the famous 
 Daniiuscus blades. Attention was first drawn to this 
 branch of industry by the Crusjiders, who brought 
 from Damascus to Europe many articles made of 
 suiKTior steel, such as sword-blades and daggers. 
 These v^-rc found to possess not only great ela.slicity, 
 united with considerable hardness, but their surfaces 
 \yere covire<l with beautiful designs, formed by a 
 tissue of dark lines on a light ground, or light lines 
 ■upon a dark ground, and occasionallv by the inlaying 
 of gold on the steel-blue ground. Yhese Damascus 
 blades appear to have been constructed of steel and 
 iron weldf'd together; and the elegant designs were 
 brought out by immersing the bhules in dilute acids, 
 which, eating away unequally the surface, gave rise 
 to the mottled apiwirance. In genuine Dama.scus 
 
 blades the designs run through the substance of the 
 
 blade, and the watering, or regidar, almost symmet- 
 rical figuring, is not worn oil by friction, or even 
 grinding. Imitations of the watering of Damascus 
 steel are produced on common steel l)y etching with 
 acids; and in this way landscapes, in.seriptions, ami 
 ornaments, and decorations in genend, are imprinted 
 on the steel-blue ground. Gold and silver are also 
 inlaid in the higher da.ss of swonl-blailes and other 
 articles. Gun-barrels are occasionally sid)jected to 
 the process of tlamasccning. Attempts have lieen 
 lately made in France to accomplish damascening by 
 means of photography, but ;is yet with verj' imper- 
 fect results. 
 
 DAMASKIN.— A certain variety of saber; so called 
 from the manufacture of Damascus. 
 
 DAME. — Among nnners, any portion of the earth 
 which may remain after the explosion of a mine has 
 taken place. It likewise means a piece of wood with 
 two handles ased to press down tiu-f or dirt in a 
 mortar. 
 
 DAMMER. — A resinous substance found in many 
 parts of India; it exudes from different kinds of 
 trees. That used in Bengal Ls yielded by the Shorea 
 robustd, or the .sill-tree. There are three kinds, the 
 white, black, and coar-se dammer, which appear to 
 resemble the resin obtained from the pine. It is in 
 very general use throughout Eastern and Southern 
 Asia. In arsenals it is u.sed to protect packages, etc., 
 which are likely to be exposed to damp or wet in 
 transit. 
 
 DANAI, — An ancient name of the Greeks, derived 
 from Danaus, King of Argos, 1474 B.C. 
 
 DANAIDE.— An hydraulic machine made of two 
 cylinders, one within the other, turning easily on a 
 vertical axis, and having a small space between them. 
 The smaller one is closed at the bottom, and the 
 other has a hole in the middle of its ba.se. The bot- 
 toms of the two are separated by partitions reaching 
 from the circumference to the center, but the ring- 
 like space between the cylinders is open. If water 
 be turned into this space horizontally to the surface 
 of the cylinders, they begin to revolve by friction, 
 which motion is increased by the water in revolution 
 acting on the radial partitions in the base. It is 
 found that nearly three quarters of the hydraulic 
 power can thus l)e utilizeil. 
 
 DANA PROJECTILE. — This projectile consists of a 
 cast-iron body having a conical base, to which is at- 
 tached a cup-shaped ring of brass, tfpon discharge. 
 
 »lie ring is driven forward upon the base, and by this 
 movement the .soft metal expanded into the grooves 
 and rotation communicated to the projectile. As the 
 front end of the sabot jiasses the shoulder it is crowded 
 down info the groove cut round the body of the shot, 
 and thus "clinched," as it were. The .same end is 
 sought in the arrangement at the bottom of the sabot, 
 where the gas, acting in the cannelure, presses the lip 
 into the groove cut in the cast-iron. Such is the pro- 
 vision designed to secure the .sjdiol from stripping. 
 Turning upon the projectile is pre- 
 vented by wedge shaped projections 
 and reces.ses upon the ba.se of the 
 projectile and the mider surface of 
 the sabot. See Krimndiiiq Prnjictilts. 
 DANCETTE.— One of the lines of 
 partition in Heraldry, which differs 
 from indented only in the greater 
 size of the notches. The indenta- 
 tions where the division \»perfess dancctfc never ex- 
 ceed three in number. See Heraldry. 
 
 DaDcette.
 
 SANOEBOUS SPACE. 
 
 447 
 
 DANIELL BATTEBT. 
 
 DANGEROUS SPACE— That 7X)ne, partly boforc 
 riiul partly Ix'vond the ohjcc-t tired at (the sights 
 having been correctly elevated), which is covered by 
 the trajectory. The object may he ilisplaced to the 
 front or rear of its correct ranse-point a dLstance 
 ecjual, in the aggregate, to the depth of this zone, 
 and still Ix' hit by the projectile. The danyerous 
 space will, of course, Ix' in(ria.st-d by the (irer ly- 
 ing down and aiming at his adversary's feet. A 
 part of the dtiugiions i>]iafe is near the muzzle of the 
 gun in the rising Ijranch of the trajectory ; the rest of 
 it is in the falling branch. These two parts are con- 
 tinuous up to iuid including the battleraiige. The 
 dangerous apace varies considerably with the weapon 
 used. It is readily seen in the drawing how, with 
 
 an equal divergence of the bullets in both cases, 
 those having flat trajectories hit the target, while 
 those having highly-curved trajectories miss it, the 
 one striking above and the other below it. It also 
 varies with the object fired at, and for the same arm 
 diminishes a.s the range increases beyond battle-range; 
 up to this point it increases with the range. 
 
 The dangerous spaces corresponding to difTerent 
 distances are generally for a height of 63 inches for a 
 foot-soldier and 8 feet 2i inches for a mounted man. 
 The following table shows the dangerous spaces for 
 lx>th a foot-soldier and a cavalryman, corresponding 
 to the different graduations of the rear sights of the 
 muskets of different nations: 
 
 DANIELL BATTERY.— A constant battery, much 
 used in mining operations. The containing vessel of 
 the DanicU cell is of copper, which serves likewise as 
 the negative element of the pair. Inside of this is 
 another ves.sel of porous unglazcd earthenware con- 
 taining a rod of zinc. The space between the copper 
 and the iK)rous cell is filled with a solution of the sul- 
 phate of copper, which is kept concentrated by crj-stals 
 of the salt lying on a projecting .shelf, near the surface 
 of the solution, and dilute sulphuric acid is placed 
 with the zinc in the porous cell. When a tangent 
 galvanometer is included in the circuit, the needle 
 keeps steadily at the same point for hours. The ra- 
 tionale of its action is given as follows: The jxjrous 
 cell which keeps the fluids from mingling does not 
 hinder the passage of the current; wh(-n the atoms of 
 hydrogen that would ultimately be freed at the copper 
 reach the porous cell, they displace the coi)]X'r in the 
 sulphate of copper, and copper instead of hydrogen is 
 thrown on the copper plate. To give a graphic repre- 
 sentation of this action, it is necessarj' to suppose that 
 the sulphate of copper is CuSOj, the direct combina- 
 tion of the metal (Cu) with a salt radical 'SO,) called 
 sulphion, and that the di.s.solution of the zinc arises 
 from the decomposition of sulphuric acid, regarded 
 as the sulphionide of hydrogen (H-jSO,), the SO, di- 
 rectly attacking the metal. This view of the compo- 
 sition of oxygen salts, though new in Daniel''s time, 
 is now universally admitted. Taking these letters to 
 represent the molecules, and beginning with the cop- 
 per (Cu) of the outer ve.s.sel, and ending with the zinc 
 (Zn) of the rod, we have the arrangement before dis- 
 charge, Cu.Cu SO,,Cu S O.. 'H .SO"; H TSOI Zn ; and 
 after it, CuCu SO.Cu 80,"'H SO.,H SO.Zn. The 
 discharge, therefore, effects a deposition of copper 
 at tlie copper, and the formation of suljihionide of 
 hydrogen at the porous cell, and of sulphionide of 
 zinc at the zmc rod. Instead of hydrogen in its 
 na.scent state being depo.sited at the eopix>r, we have 
 copper in the same condition; but the galvanic polari- 
 zjition eau,sed by the latter is very much inferior to 
 that resulting from the fonner, and hence the .STiperior 
 electro-motive force of Daniell's cell. The poroiLs cell 
 keeps the sulphate of zinc from reaching the copper, 
 and thus obviates another source of diminished force 
 in the one-fluid batterj'. The sulphate of zinc once 
 formed is itself subjected to the decomposing action 
 of the pile, and zinc is deposited on the copper plate, 
 thus tending to give a zinc-zinc instead of a coppcr- 
 
 FOOT-SOLDIER (63L>jche»). 
 
 DiSTAKCES. 
 
 220 yards. 
 
 330 " .. 
 
 •J40 " . . 
 
 .^50 " .. 
 
 660 •' .. 
 
 770 " .. 
 
 880 " .. 
 
 990 " .. 
 
 1100 " .. 
 
 United 
 States. 
 
 France. 
 
 Yds. Tds.'Y(U. Yilt.'TrU. 
 
 Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Old Cai^ New Car- 
 tridge, tridge. 
 
 •iJO ! 69 !2S0 
 
 78 49 
 
 4.3 36 
 
 32 29 
 
 24 21 
 
 19 18 
 
 16 IS 
 
 12 12 
 
 10 10 
 
 101 
 
 57 
 
 S2 
 
 ,38 
 
 34 
 
 28 
 
 2.'> 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 80 220 
 87 
 60 
 Si 
 26 
 21 
 17 
 14 
 11 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Yds. Ydt. Yds. Yd». 
 72 220 I 89 280 
 46 102 
 52 
 
 53 71 
 .38 43 I 34 
 80 80 ) 25 
 24 I 22 ! 20 
 20 1 16 
 16 18 
 14 11 
 11 
 
 Spai». 
 
 Yda. 
 
 220 
 89 
 48 
 .32 
 23 
 19 
 15 
 12 
 10 
 
 Hol- 
 land. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Prcssia. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 220 
 
 re 
 
 77 
 
 4« 
 
 47 
 
 .36 
 
 .31 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Ida. 
 
 78 
 56 
 
 r<j«. 
 
 220 
 94 
 51 
 34 
 26 
 21 
 16 
 13 
 11 
 
 Swrr- 
 
 ZSR- 
 
 LAKD. 
 
 Yds. 
 71 
 46 
 35 
 27 
 21 
 16 
 13 
 II 
 9 
 
 CAVALRYMAN (98J^ Inchesi. 
 
 220 yards 
 
 220 
 3.30 
 70 
 54 
 38 
 30 
 85 
 80 
 16 
 
 11-^ 
 
 .lOfl 
 
 n3 
 
 oon 
 
 103 
 
 <VM 
 
 98 
 68 
 50 
 38 
 SO 
 23 
 19 
 IS 
 13 
 
 220 
 330 
 94 
 57 
 43 
 3-3 
 36 
 82 
 
 '4 
 
 114 
 81 
 59 
 46 
 36 
 90 
 84 
 20 
 16 
 
 220 
 3.30 
 84 
 50 
 88 
 30 
 83 
 19 
 15 
 
 56 
 43 
 33 
 26 
 81 
 18 
 14 
 
 230 
 330 
 80 
 48 
 36 
 28 
 83 
 19 
 14 
 
 101 
 78 
 54 
 42 
 32 
 25 
 21 
 17 
 14 
 
 220 
 330 
 82 
 50 
 37 
 28 
 23 
 19 
 14 
 
 108 
 72 
 55 
 48 
 32 
 25 
 21 
 
 li 
 
 220 
 330 
 91 
 SI 
 40 
 31 
 S» 
 20 
 15 
 
 108 
 80 
 58 
 43 
 34 
 27 
 23 
 17 
 15 
 
 220 
 
 380 
 
 89 
 
 54 
 
 42 
 83 
 26 
 81 
 16 
 
 107 
 77 
 67 
 45 
 36 
 30 
 84 
 20 
 IS 
 
 220 
 330 
 77 
 47 
 35 
 27 
 22 
 17 
 14 
 
 97 
 
 ■m " ::::: 
 
 76 
 57 
 43 
 34 
 28 
 84 
 18 
 15 
 
 3.30 
 93 
 55 
 42 
 32 
 25 
 20 
 15 
 
 81 xv\ 1 ■7^ .330 
 
 70 
 
 440 " 
 
 59 
 44 
 35 
 28 
 23 
 19 
 15 
 
 84 57 1 ^' 
 
 ta 
 
 ■MO " 
 
 55 1 45 
 43 .31'. 
 
 46 
 34 
 26 
 21 
 
 in 
 
 40 
 
 6tiO " 
 
 88 
 
 770 " 
 
 83 
 26 
 81 
 16 
 
 30 
 24 
 20 
 
 85 
 
 880 » 
 
 990 " 
 
 81 
 16 
 
 1100 " 
 
 16 13 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 See Battle-range.
 
 DANK BOTABY FUBNACE. 
 
 448 
 
 DAUPHINS. 
 
 zinc pair. The consUincy of DiinicH's batttrv is not 
 imlimiti'd, for the sulphate of zinc which results from 
 the action, biini; a liad loiuluctor of electricity, cn- 
 fei'bles the current. In the Dauiell cell used for tele- 
 graphs, the conudnmg vessel is of glass, and no sul- 
 phuric acid is added to the water round the zinc, as, 
 in the course of the attion, sufficient acid comes 
 Ihrough from the s\ilphate cell. See Galrani»m. 
 
 DANK ROTAKY FUBNACE.— In order to lessen the 
 •rnal aniDunl of labor involved in working the charge, 
 various mechanical appliances have been proposed 
 in substitution for manuiU i>uddling. They may lie 
 generally elu-ssitied luider two heaiU; namely, those 
 imitating the motions of hand-stirring, and those using 
 rotating or o.scillating hearths. The drawing shows 
 Dank's rotary furnace, which has a lire grate, a, 
 like an oniiiiary puddling-furnacc, with a bla.st, b, 
 under the gnite, and also, k, over the tire. The ash- 
 pit and tire^hole are closi'd. The tire-bridge, il, is of 
 iron, and hits a water-pipe cast into it to cool il, and 
 a lining of tire brick next to the tire, and on top, and 
 a covering oifitUing next to the charge. A ring of 
 hard metal is placed on the bridge-plate for the bearing 
 of the chaml)er, and forms a butt-joint. The revolving 
 chamber, e, is an open-ended cylinder, one end of 
 which bulls agiiinsi Ibe ring on the bridge, where the 
 ga.si's are admitted from the fire at c; and the other 
 end serves as a door for the reception antl removal of 
 the charges, and also for the escape of the products of 
 combustion. The chamber rests on rollers, hh, and 
 
 has a circumfeR'nlial toollied wheel, /, which is geared 
 to an engine. The chamber is lined with a mortar of 
 pulverized ore and lime, which is laid on the inside 
 (juile thick ami dried. The lining is completed by 
 " fettling," which consists in charging a small quan- 
 tity of fine ore and melting it while the chamber is 
 revolving. \Vlicii il is melted the revolution is 
 stopped, and the molten melal settles in a pool at the 
 bottom. Small and large lumps of ore arc thrown 
 into the pool, which is allowed to solidify. A fresh 
 quantity of tine ore is again charged, and'the process 
 repeated, the ehamlxT being stopped at a different 
 place each lime. This is continued until the whole 
 chamber is lined wilh Ihe ore. or " fettled," when it is 
 rcjidy for charging. At the opposite end or front of 
 the furnace is a movalile piece, fgd, which nnsv.ers 
 the purpose both of door and flue. It can be moved 
 by means of suitable apparatus overhead, and when 
 in its jilace the escaping ga.scs pa.ss through at / into 
 the Hue and chimney. When it is removed for Ihe 
 introdiiclion or removal of Ihe charge, Ihe end of the 
 chamber is open. The operation of the furnace is as 
 follows: A quantity of mill-cinder is lirst charged, 
 and on this ibe iron in a inollen or heated condition.' 
 A partial rotation is given lo the furnace from time 
 to lime lo exi>ose all portions of the charge to the ac- 
 tion of the ga.ses. ^Vhen the whole of the charge is 
 melted, the chamber is revolved once or twice a min- 
 ute lo obtain Ihe most perfect action of Ihe cinder on 
 the iron. After five or ten nnnutes the iron begins 
 lo thicken, and the rotation is stopped. The heal is 
 niised, and the cinder liquefies, and floats over the 
 iron, contjiining all the impurities of the iron. The 
 cinder is tjippcd off by the tap-hole, m, and the tap- 
 hole clascfl. The heat is again raised, and the cham- 
 ber revolved six or eight times a minute, by whiclj 
 means the charge Is da-shed uboni violently in the 
 furnace. A high lemperalure being kept \i\\ and the 
 
 charge conlimially liirned over, the particles begin lo 
 adhere when Ihe rolalious are reduced to Iwo or tliree 
 in a minute, and Ihe ball speedily forms. The props, 
 H II, of the movable piece are removed, and Ihe flue 
 and front of Ibe furnace are moved away, and Ihe ball 
 withdrawn and carried to the hanmier or squeezer, 
 where il is formed into a lilnoni. See Funmn. 
 
 DANNEBKOG.— An ancient baltle-slandard of the 
 Danes, bearing the figures of a cross and crown, and 
 alleged to have fallen from heaven at the battle of 
 Volmar, 1219 -V.d. Like the palladium, it was sup- 
 posed to insure victory, but it was twice captured and 
 twice relak<n. The Order of the Danuebrog ranks 
 second in Ihe Danish orders of knighthood. 
 
 DANNEVIBKE.— A wall of defense again.st Ihe 
 Franks built by Ihe Danes in 808 .\,n., reaching from 
 Ihe Norlh Sea to Ihe Baltic. During Ihe troubles of 
 18-t>< Ihe line of the old wall was strongly fortified, 
 but Ihe works were destroyed in 1864. 
 
 DARA BOOKA.— A fomi of kettle-drum of ancient 
 and modern Egypt, and the coimecting-link between 
 Ihe driiiit jirojicr and the UiiKhimriin-. It is more 
 generally called tnm-tain. See Ti'in'tmii. 
 
 DART. — A missile spear or ja\elin much in use 
 among the ancients, and yet seen among many of the 
 more barbarous nations. The Catlres of South 
 Africa and the original inhabitants of Australia are 
 very expert in the use of the (imeyai. The darts in 
 use among the ancients were of two kinds, namely, 
 spear-headed (that is, without barbs) and bearded. 
 The former were often attached to a long cord, ena- 
 bling the thrower to recover his weapon after having 
 tlu-own it. Dart-heads are usually made of iron, but 
 among .savage nations flints, sea shells, fish-bones, 
 and other hard substances have been employed; and 
 among some of the aboriginal inhabitants of Africa 
 and America the dart was merely a shari)-pointed 
 stick, the end of which was carbonized by fire. The 
 weapon is always very simple in its construction, and 
 is usually from 3 to 5 feet long. 
 
 DATERAU — The Bornu na'me for a most excellent 
 African contrivance, used in some parts of the Sahara 
 Desert, by means of which tcni-ropes may be secured 
 or horses picketed in sand of the driest description, 
 as in that of a simd-duue, whence a tent-peg would 
 be drawn out by a strain so slight as to be almost im- 
 perceplible. The plan is to tie to the end of the tent- 
 rope or tether a small object of any descrplion by 
 its middle, as a short stick, a stone, aI)undleof twigs, 
 or a bag of sand, and to bury it from 1 to 3 feet in 
 the loose sand. It will be found, if it has been 
 buried 1 foot deep, that a strain equal to about 50 
 pounds weight is necessary to draw it up; if lA feet 
 deep, thai a.much more considerable strain is ncces- 
 sarj'; and that if 2 feet deep, it is (luitc impossible 
 for a single man lo pull il up. Theoretically this is 
 obvious ; for, supposing Ihe earth lo consist of 
 smooth, spherical grains of one .size, and granting 
 that these grains cannot move horizontally at Ihe 
 moincnl of drawing, and Ihat they i/i iikI mow verti- 
 cally ujiwards, it is plain Ihat the substance attached 
 to the rope when moved upwards nuisl start before it 
 an inverled jiyramidal pile of grains. Take the most 
 unfavorable ca.se, supposing il to be a triangular pile; 
 then the number of grains to be started (and conse- 
 quently their weight) varies as "T -y— ,, ~ , or 
 
 1 , « . o 
 
 in a ratio greater than n^ (n being thelnmiber of lay- 
 ers of grains alK)ve). In practice Ihe gnuns of sjind 
 are capable of a small but variable amotmt of lateral 
 displacement, which gives relief lo the movement of 
 sand cau.sefl by the (hitinim. On Ihe other hand, the 
 friction of the grains of sand tends lo increase the 
 difflculty of movemenl. Of course the resistance 
 varies under dilTerenl circinnstances; but it is no ex- 
 aggeration lo estimate its increase as seldom less than 
 as Ihe .square of Ihe deplh. 
 
 DAUPHINS. — Ornamental handles on bra.ss gims 
 over Ihe trunnions, .so called from their resemblance 
 to the fish of that name.
 
 BATJPHUI'S CROWN. 
 
 449 
 
 BEAN FIELD-GUN. 
 
 DAUPHINS CROWN.— A circle of gold .sel round 
 •with eight tieurs-du-lis, closed at tlie top with four 
 dolphins, their tails conjoined in a Heur<le-lis. 
 
 DAWK. — A method of traveling in India which 
 •consists in posting hy palanquin from stjitiou to 
 station, or for any distance. The traveler must lirst 
 pureha.-* a strong palanquin, which he can have for 
 from 40 to lOU rupees (£4 to £10), but which he can 
 always dLsiiose of when his journey has been com- 
 pleted, and generally at a profit, "llis ch)thes, to- 
 gether with whatever articles he may not uumediatcly 
 need, are carried in tin boxes or wicker baskets called 
 pettarahs, by sep;u~.ite Ix-arers, who pa'Cedeor accom- 
 pany the palanquin; whatever he con.siders uecessaiy, 
 however, he keeps besiilc himself inside. At all the 
 stage.s, which arc from 9 to 11 miles apart, there are 
 relays of bearers, pre\iously i)ro\ided by the Post- 
 ma.ster, the usual number for one palanquin being 
 eleven. All arrangements as to cost are made with 
 the Postmaster of each presidency before starting, but 
 the traveler is also expected to give some small sum 
 to his bearers at the end of each stage: eight annas 
 (one shilling) among the entire set of bearers is as 
 much as is expected in the way of gratuity. The 
 horse-dawk, a kind of carriage with seats for four, 
 and capable of being used as a bed in which two can 
 sleep, the baggage being conveyed on the top, set on 
 wheels, and drawn by horses, is in use on the great 
 trunk road from Calcutta to the upper pro\inces, but 
 has not been established throughout the countrj' gen- 
 erally Frequently written Diik. 
 
 DAY. — Originally the space of time during which 
 it is light, in opposition to the space of darkness or 
 night; it now more usually denotes a complete alter- 
 nation of light and darkness. It is the earth's rota- 
 tion that causes the vicissitude of day and night. 
 The earth being a globe, only one half of it can be in 
 the sun's light at once; to that half it is day, while 
 the other half is in its own shadow, or in night. But 
 by the earth's rotation the several portions of the 
 surface have each their turn of light and of darkness. 
 This happens because the position of the earth is 
 such that the equator is on the whole presented to- 
 wards the sun; had either pole lieen towards the sim, 
 that hemisphere would have revolved in continual 
 light, the other in continual darkness. One complete 
 rotation of the earth does not make a day, in the 
 usual sense. If the rime is noted when a particular 
 fixed star is exactly south or on the mciidian, when 
 the same star comes again to the meridian the next 
 day, the earth has made exactly one rotation, and the 
 time that has elapsed is called a sidereal day. This 
 portion of time is always of the same length; for 
 the motion of the earth on its axis is strictlj- \ini- 
 form, and is, in fact, the only strictly uniform mo- 
 tion that nature presents us with. Sidereal time, 
 or star-time, from its unvarying vinifonnity, is much 
 ased by astronomers. But the passage of a star across 
 the meridian is not a conspicuous enough event for 
 regulating the movements of men in general. It is 
 not a complete rotation of the earth, l)ut a complete 
 alternation of light and darkness that constitutes their 
 day. This, which is called the civil or the solar Aay, 
 is ineasured I)etween two mei idian passages of the 
 sun, and is about four minutes longer than the side- 
 real day. The cause of the greater length is this: 
 When tiie earth has made one complete turn, so asto 
 bring the meridian of the place to the simie position 
 among the tixed stars as when it was noon the day 
 before, the sun has in the mean time (al)parenlly) 
 moved eastward nearly one degree among the stars, 
 and it takes the earth about four'minutes more to move 
 round so as to overtake him. If this eastward motion 
 of the sun were imiform, the leiisth of the solar day 
 would be as simple and as easily determined as that of 
 the sidereal. But the ecliiilic or sun's path crosses 
 the earth's equator, and is therefore more oblique to 
 the direction of the earth's rotation at one time than 
 another; and besides, as the earth moves in her orbit 
 -Nvith varying speed, the rate of the sun's ajjparenl 
 
 motion in the ecliptic, which is caused by that of the 
 earth, must also varj-. The consequence is that the 
 length of the solar day is constantly fluctuating; and 
 to get a fixed measure of solar time, astronomers have 
 to imagine a sun moving uniformly in the celestial 
 equator, and completing its circuit in the same time 
 as the real sun. 'fhe time marked bj- this imaginarj- 
 sun is called mean solar time ; when the imaginary' 
 sun is on the meridian, it is mean noon; when the 
 real sim is on the meridian, it is appartnt noon. It is 
 obvious that a sun-di.d must show apparent time, 
 while clocks and watches keep mean time. Only in 
 four days of the yetir do lhe.se two kinds of time coin- 
 cide. In the intervals the sim is always either too 
 fast or too slow; and the difference is called the cgna- 
 tidu of time, because, when added to or subtracted 
 from apparent time, it makes it equal to mean time. 
 The mean solar day is divided into twentj -four hours, 
 the hours into minutes and seconds. A sidereal day, 
 we have seen, is shorter; its exact length is 23 hours, 
 Ti% minutes, 4 seconds of mean solar or common time. 
 Astronomers divide the sidereal day also into twenty- 
 four hours, which are of course shorter than common 
 hours. In the course of a civil year of 'itSTt days, the 
 earth turns on its axis 366 times, or there are 366 side- 
 real dajs. Astronomers reckon the day as beginning 
 at noon, ami count the hours from 1 to 24. The civil 
 day begins at midnight, and the hours are cotmted in 
 two divisions of twelve each. The ecclesiastical ilay 
 was reckoned from sunset to sunset. See Intema- 
 tinned Date-line. 
 
 DAT-BOOK. — In the British service, a sort of pri- 
 vate memorandum-book in which the Pay-.sergeant 
 enters all details of exjieuditure other than pay under 
 each man's head. These entries are made at the 
 moment, and afterwards transfened to the ledger. 
 
 DAY'S MARCH.— The length of a day's march for 
 troops of any army dejiends, to a great extent, uix)n 
 the condition of the roads, the supply of water, for- 
 age, etc.; also upon the advantages to be gained over 
 the enemy. Under ordinarj- circumstances infantrj' 
 should march from 15 to 20 miles a day, halting 
 about 10 minutes every hour. Cavalry should march 
 about 20 miles a day, and be kept at a walk, halting 
 several times during the day. The march of artillery 
 should be governed by the movements of the arms of 
 the service to which it is assigned for duty. 
 
 DEAD - ANGLE. — Any ground over which the de- 
 fenders' fire may pass, but so high aliove the as.s!iil- 
 ant that he cannot be injured hy it, is called a diad- 
 space, or a dead-eivgle. Thus, in a redan or a lunette, 
 if the enemy gets into the ditch, he is safe from any 
 fire coming over the parapet. The ditch in each of 
 these cases has the defect known as a dead-space. It 
 was to remed)' these defects, which exist in all works 
 where the angles are all salients, that parts of a work 
 were drawn back, or made to form re-entering angles, 
 for the puipose of arranging lines from which direct 
 fires could be brought to bear upon the groimd not 
 defended by the lines adjacent to it. 
 
 DEAD HEAD.— 1. An extra length of metal cast on 
 the muzzle-end of a gim in order to contain the dross 
 and porous metal which floats on the sounder metal 
 beneath. AVhen cooled and solid the dead/iead is cut 
 off. It is called also the sprue. 2. The tail-stock 
 of a laihe containing both the dead-spindle and back- 
 center. See Lathe. 
 
 DEAD-MARCH. — A piece of solemn music intend- 
 ed to be playeil as an accompaniment to a funeral pro- 
 cession. 
 
 DEAD-PAT. — Pay drawn for dead .soldiers, whose 
 names are kept on the rolls, and which is appropri- 
 ated l)y dishonest ofticers. 
 
 DEAD-SHOT. — An unerring marksman: one whose 
 scores are always high. The term is frequently ap- 
 plied to the bi-^t shot in a companv or regiment. 
 
 DEAD-SPINDLE.— The non-rota"ting spindle in the 
 t/iil-sl'ic/c or (letidheiid of a lathe. Sec Leithe. 
 
 DEAN FIELD-GUN. — A 3i-inch bronze muzzle- 
 loading field-piece, constructed on the plan of the 3^-
 
 DEAN MAGAZINE-OUN. 
 
 450 
 
 DECAOOir. 
 
 inch Kodmnn muzzle-loading rifle, model 1870. It 
 is without preiwmlenince. Its length and weiirht are 
 very niiirly the sune as those of the liirhl 12-j)ounder, 
 ami it is adapted to the siune ouriage. The main 
 jHi'uliarity in its coustruetion eonsists in the applica- 
 tion of Mr. Dean's patent process for condensinj: and 
 lianlenin-r the metal of the bore. The ritlin;; consists 
 of st'ven lands and -rrooves each. The lands air .50 
 inch in width. The grooves are 1.07 inch in width 
 and .07") inch in dei)th. The twist is uniform, mak- 
 ing one turn in Vi fwt. The vent is in the normal 
 position, or. the top of the gun. The gun was cast 
 solid ui a cast-iron flask or " chill " about 3* inches 
 thick, the interior surface being covered with a slight 
 coating of clay and sjuul. The metal used consisted 
 of three old bronze (i-pounders furnished by the Ord- 
 nance I)ei)artment and a part of a bronze 12-poundcr 
 on hand at the foundry. At the second casting the 
 metal of the rejected piece was returned to the fur- 
 nace, with the excejition of a section reserved for 
 tests, and another part of the 12-pounder was adiled 
 to suiiply the deficiency. The weight of the charge 
 of melalWas 3364 pounds, the time of melting 1 hour 
 50 minutes, and time of fusion 1 hour 10 nunvilts. 
 The gun was removed from the tlask 18 hours after 
 casting, and when thoroughly cooled was placed in a 
 lathe and the sinking-head cut off. It was ne.xt 
 bored oul in a boring-machine to a diameter of 3.37 
 inches. 
 
 To condense the metal of the bore the gun was 
 then inclosed in the iron tlask in which it was cast, 
 and was placed in the condensing-machine and firmly 
 secured by lieavy iron rods. Six mandrels, varying 
 in diameter from 3.42 inches to 3.50 inches, were used 
 in the operation. These, by means of a hydraulic 
 press of 10-inch bore, were in the order of their size 
 successively forced down the bore of the piece and 
 ^\ithdrawn, and the operation was repeated until the 
 most of the resilience of the metal had been overcome 
 and the bore enlarged to very nearly 3.50 iiiclies in 
 diameter. The ])ressures used varied from 500 to 
 2400 poimds per square inch — making a total pres- 
 sure of from 19i to 94 tons. After condensing the 
 bore the gun was removed to the rifling-machine and 
 rifled, the grooves being planed out to a little less than 
 the required depth. It was then put back in the con- 
 densing-machine and tlic bore still further enlarged 
 by means of an expanding mandrel so constnicted as 
 to follow the opposite lands and grooves. On account 
 of a slight error in the width of the rifling-tool, tlie 
 grooves were left too narrow for the ribs of the man- 
 drel, and consequently the edges of the lands were 
 slightly abraded in the operation. A little grinding 
 with tine emery removed much of the rough edge 
 left upon the lands, but did not wholly restore the 
 smoothness desired. In this connection it should be 
 stated that the condensing process was only ajiplied 
 to the cylindrical portion of the bore, and consecjucnt- 
 ly the metid at the bottom was left in its ordinary 
 condition. The gim was next turned down in lathes 
 to its prescribed exterior dimensions and a copper 
 vent-piece inserted. The following are the principal 
 dimensions of the gun: 
 
 _ . ,, Indies. 
 
 Exterior diameter at t)ie muzzle 6.70 
 
 Exterior diunieter Hi iiiolies tiom muzzle (maximutn). 11.32 
 
 Exterior dinmeter 6.5 inelies from muzzle. 11.05 
 
 Diameter of knot* of ca6cal>el 8.75 
 
 I)iameter of iruiiiiioiis ', 4^2 
 
 Diameter of rimboses .'!!!!."!!! sieS 
 
 Length of trunnions, { ril**' '.....'..'.'.'. siss 
 
 ( leib 3.34 
 
 Distance between rimbajM^ 11.0.50 
 
 Width of pro()ve8 "*.'.'. 1*07 
 
 Depth of (grooves "" '075 
 
 Width cif lands " ' '5 
 
 Twist of rilliiiK '.'.!!l44' 
 
 Leii(f 111 of bore \"\ 65 0.3 
 
 Length of rlHing ,',',,', 6o!3"8 
 
 Axis of vent frr)m bottom of bore 1..I6 
 
 Total lenfrth of piece ,. 73^86 
 
 Weitriit. I'.Vi'i pounds. 
 
 See liriiiin' (liiiin and Ordnanre. 
 
 DEAN MAGAZINE-OUN.— The breech-block of this 
 
 gun is operated by a small lever, through the interven- 
 tion of two links, the latter of whicli catises the re- 
 coil-block to descend while the former forces the 
 breech block to the rear, when the lever is thrown to 
 the front. The lock is of the usual outside pattern 
 and needs no extended description. Two magazines 
 are provided, one in the butt and one in the tip- 
 stock, either of which may be used by locking olY, by 
 means of a cut-otT, the other. The carrici', which is 
 open at Ixith ends to receive cartridges from either 
 magazine, has a vertical motion at right angles to the 
 axis of the piece. It is operated by the lever in the 
 sjune general manner as the ^Vinchester repeater, so 
 well known in this country. This gun carries ten 
 cartridges in the tip-stock magazine, six in the butl- 
 .stock, and one in the chamber. See Mmjiiziiu yuii. 
 
 DE BANGE FERMETURE.— This fernicture is no- 
 ticed at length in the ailicle Scufi.TZ WiUE GCN, 
 and only a general description of the mode ot check- 
 ing the escape of gas is intended to be given in this 
 connection. Its general features are shown iu the 
 drawing. It recommends it.self prominently by ef- 
 fectiveness, its extreme simplicity, 
 and its not rcipiiring the surface 
 of the bore to be rcces.sed. Its suc- 
 cess has warranted its adoption in 
 the land-service of France, and it 
 is applied to all calibei's. The 
 gas-check is composed of a fillet 
 or collar made of a linen-cloth 
 disk with a proiier-sized circular 
 hole, central with the circumfer- 
 ence, set ujj into the form of a 
 collar to receive its filling. This 
 latter consists of a mixture of two 
 thirds of shredded asbestos and 
 one third of mutton-suet, packed 
 into the collar, which is then 
 closed and completed by a seam 
 formed on the inside surface of 
 the body. Any seams outside 
 woidd be fatal to the construction. Considerable in- 
 senuity has to be exercised iu so forming the linen 
 disk; and the present arrangement has been the re- 
 sult of considerable experiment before successful 
 results were secured. Two zinc or shaet -brass col- 
 lars cover at top and bottom this colkir, and it i» 
 placed, in addition with two copper rings, between 
 the rondelle and the face of the feriueture, a tail or 
 rod to the rondelle p.assing through the fernicture and 
 being keyed to keep the system in position in the 
 block. The vent, lined with copper, finds place in 
 the axis of the breech-block, thus affording central 
 fire. See Brora! mil Ring and Sehnltz Wire l}un. 
 
 DEBLAI. — In fortification, any hollow space or ex- 
 cavation in the ground made during the construction 
 of fortifications or siege-works. The canty itself is 
 the (h'blai, while the earth taken from it is called the 
 rembliii. 
 
 DEBOUCHING.— In military tactics or evolutions, 
 the marching out of a body of troops 
 from a wood, defile, or other con- 
 fined s]iot into open ground. 
 
 DEBRIS.— Ruins of a building or 
 town which has been sackcil ; the 
 broken remains of an army after a 
 defeat, 
 
 DEBRUISED.— A term peculiar 
 to English Heraldry, used to indi- 
 cate the grievous restraint of an 
 animal, and its being debaiTed of 
 its natural freedom by having any of the ordinaiies 
 laid over it. See Hiraldn/. 
 
 DECAGON. — In fortification and plane geometry, a 
 figure of ten sides. When tlie siiles are equal, the 
 figiu'e is called a regular decagon. A decagon may 
 be formed from a pentagon by forming any irregular 
 triangles on its sides in such a way that no two of 
 them sliall have their .sides in the same straight line. 
 A regular decagon is got from a regular pentagon liy 
 
 Debniised.
 
 DECAMP. 
 
 451 
 
 SECHABOEITBS. 
 
 describing a circle round the latter, bisecting the arcs 
 between its angular points, and drawing lines joining 
 the angular points to the points of section. 
 
 DECAMP. — To quit any place or position in an un- 
 expected manner. It likewise signifies to march an 
 army or body of men from the ground where it be- 
 fore lay encamped. 
 
 DECANUS.— In Roman military history, a petty of- 
 ficer who presided over the ten soldiers of his "con- 
 tubernium, or those living in the same tent. 
 
 DECARBONIZED STEEL.— Since 1873 all small-arm 
 barrels turned out at the National Armory have been 
 made of decarbonized steel (Bessemer), and about one 
 in si.\ h\mdred only have been found to burst in proof. 
 The principal defects of decarbonized steel as a ma- 
 terial for gun-barrels are fine -scams running in the 
 direction of the length of the barrel. These seams 
 arc sometimes so fine as to escape the numerous iii- 
 sj)CCtions to which the barrels are subjected in the 
 course of manufacture, and are only delected by the 
 browning process. Though such barrels ha\e strength 
 to resist the proof-firing, they are rejected for service. 
 A good decarbonized steel for rifle or carbine barrels 
 has sufficient strength to resist a charge composed of 
 one proof-bullet and suilicient musket -powd(;r to fill 
 the bore to the muzzle. A wrought-iron rifle or car- 
 bine barrel will only endure about one half of this 
 charge. The breech-loading system after it is finished 
 and assembled to the barrel is subjected to a " finished- 
 proof " charge of a single service-bullet and a charge 
 of 85 grains of nmsket-powder, which is all that can 
 be crowded into the cartridge-shell. Numerous trials 
 have .shown that the Siiringfield system will stand at 
 least 120 grains of powder and three service-bullets, 
 weighing altogether 1265 gi'ains. The fact that a 
 small-arm barrel seldom or never bursts or swells at 
 the muzzle in proof shows conclusively that when such 
 defects are found in service the cause is some obstruc- 
 tion in the bore. Obstructions arise generally from 
 the improper stopping up of the muzzle to keep out 
 moisture. It maj' arise from dirt introduced by rest- 
 ing the muzzle of the piece on the ground. Instances 
 have occurred of the bursting of ser\ice-l)arrels by a 
 bullet in the bore— the result of a charge insufficient 
 to e.xpel it. Very accurate and delicate machines are 
 now used to weigh each finished cartridge and reject 
 any that may be deficient in powder. The barrel of 
 a rifle will endure at least 10,000 service-fires before 
 its accuracy is sensibly impaired; and its exterior di- 
 mensions may be very much reduced by wear with- 
 out impairing its strength for service. See Small- 
 anna and A'freL 
 
 DECEASED OFFICERS AND SOLDIERS.— In the 
 United States service, the death of an officer, \vith 
 cause, date, and place, is reported without delay by 
 his immediate Commander direct to the Adjutant 
 General. When the death occurs away from the 
 officer's station, in hospital or on leave, it is the duty 
 of the Army Medical Officer, if there be one in <liarge, 
 or of any officer having cognizance of the fact, to 
 make the report. A duplicate of the report is sent to 
 Department Headquarters. Inventories of the effects 
 of deceased officers, as required by the 125th Article 
 of War, are transmitted to the Adjutant General of 
 the Army. If legal representatives take pos.scssion 
 of the effects, it is so staled on the inventory and the 
 report of death. If there be no legal representative 
 present to receive the effects, a list of them is sent to 
 the nearest relative of the deceased officer. At the 
 end of two months, if not called for, they are sold at 
 auction and accounted for as in the case of deceased 
 soldiers; except that swords, watches, trinkets, and 
 such articles are labeled with the name, rank, regi- 
 ment, and date of death of the owner, and sent 
 through the Adjutant General to the Second Auditor 
 of theTreasury for the heirs. On the death of any 
 officer in charge of public property or money, the 
 Commanding Officer appoints a Board of Survey to 
 take an inventory of the same, which he forwards to 
 the proper Bureau of the War Department; and he 
 
 designates an officer to take charge of the .said prop- 
 erty or money till orders in the ca.se are received from 
 the proper authority. Funeral expenses of officers 
 who die at a military post or station are ordinarily 
 not a proper charge against the Appropriations for 
 the Array. E.\pcn.ses "of the interment of ofiicers 
 killed in action, or who die when on duly in the 
 field, or at po.sts on the fronliers, or when traveling 
 on orders," may, imder certain circmnstiuices, lie or- 
 dered paid by the Secretary of War. But, except 
 when emergency rcciuires that the Commanding Offi- 
 cer of the Department or District shall order the Ixjdy 
 to be transported from the battle-field to a suitable 
 place of interment at the nearest town, post, or sta- 
 tion, before the approval of llie Secrclary can be ob- 
 tained, such ap|)roval must be had in advance. No 
 accounts are paid for any .such expenditure until the 
 approval of the Secretary of War in writing is ob- 
 tained. The unclaimed remains of officers or soldiers 
 who may die :it temporarj- camps, or on detached 
 .service, are decently inclosed in coflins and trans- 
 ported by the Quartcnnaster's Department for buri- 
 al at the nearest military post or national cemetery, 
 imless the Commanding Officer deem burial at the 
 place of death to be proper. 
 
 Inventories of the effects of deceased soldiers re- 
 ciuired by the 126th Article of War are prepared in 
 triplicate, two copies to be foi-warded to lint Adju- 
 tant General by the Commanilitig Officer of the com- 
 I)any to which the deceased belonged, together with 
 final statements of pay, clothing, etc.; the other copy 
 to be retained with the company records. Each in- 
 ventorj' is indorsed, "Inventory of the effects of 
 
 , late of company ( — ), regiment 
 
 of , who died at , tlie day of , 
 
 18 — ." When a soldier, absent from his company, 
 dies at any post or station, it is the duty of his imme- 
 diate Commander to furnish direct to the Adjutant 
 General the required inventories and final statements, 
 and at the same lime to forward to the Commanding 
 Officer of the company to which decea.sed helonged a 
 report of his death, specifying the date, place, and 
 cause; to what time he was last paid, and the money 
 or other effects in his po-ssession at the time of his de- 
 cease; and if a legal representative receive the effects, 
 it is so stated in the report. If the soldier leave no 
 effects, that fact is rejjorted. This report is noted on 
 the next muster-roll of his company. Should the ef- 
 fects of a deceased soldier not be administered upon 
 within a short period after his decease, they are dis- 
 posed of by a Council of Administration, under the 
 authoritj- of the Commanding Officer of the po.st, and 
 the proceeds deposited with a Paymaster to the credit 
 of the United States until they are claimed by the 
 legal representatives of the decea.sed. In all such 
 cases of sales by the Coimcil of AdiTiinistration a state- 
 ment in detail or account of the proceeds, duly certi- 
 fied liv the Council and Commanilins Officer, accom- 
 jianietl by the Paymaster's receipt for the proceeds, 
 arc forwarded b)' the Conmianding Officer to the 
 A<ljutant General. The slatenwnl is indorsed, " Re- 
 port of the proceeds of the effects of , 
 
 late of eompanv ( — ), resiment of , who 
 
 died at ,"the day of , 18—." The 
 
 effects in all cases are turned over, when called for, 
 to the legal representatives without further authority 
 from the Adjutant General. When the effects are 
 turned over to the relatives of the deceased, before 
 these inventories are .sent to the Adjutant General, 
 their receipts therefor are attached to the inventories. 
 In all other cases one copy of the reeeij^t is sent with 
 a letter of transmittal to the Adjutant General, and a 
 duplicate retained with the company. Receipts in 
 duplicate are taken from the Paymaster for funds 
 turned over to him — one copy to be sent direct to the 
 Adjutant General, and one retained with the eom- 
 panv. 
 
 DECHARGEURS.— Hen appointed to attend the park 
 of artillery, and to assist the non-commissioned offi- 
 cers, etc., who are employed on that serrice. It is
 
 SECIUATION. 
 
 452 
 
 DECOY. 
 
 the duty of the former to keep a specific account of 
 articles rccfivi'il ami coa-iunictl, in onier to enable the 
 latter to furnish their oHieers with accurate state- 
 ments. 
 
 DECIMATION. — A military punishment, rarely in- 
 flicliil iu the present day. A^Tien a considerable botly 
 of trixips eoniiuitled some irrave niililarv olTensi-, 
 which would be punished with death if committed 
 by an individual, the pimishnient was awarded to one 
 tenth of them by lot, iit-itead of to the whole number, 
 in order that the army might not be too much weak- 
 encii. 
 
 DECISIONS.— In'Courts-Martial, the majority of the 
 votes decides all questions as to the admission or rejec- 
 tion of e\idenee, and on other points invoh-ine law or 
 custom. If equally di\ided, the doubt is in favor of 
 the prisoner or accused. 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.— The Ameri- 
 can Ueclaration of Independence was agreed upon 
 July 4, 1776, by the thirteen American Colonies then 
 in revolt against England. Its historj' is brief but 
 important. Early in 1776 the Delegates in Congress 
 from Massachusetts were directed to vote for mde- 
 pendenceof England. Soon afterwards several other 
 Coloniessent similar instructions. Washington wrote: 
 " A reconciliation with Great Britain is impos.sil)le. 
 "When I took command of the army I abhorred the 
 idea of independence; but I am now fully sjilislied 
 that nothing else will sjive us." Pennsylvania and 
 Xew York were the la.st to acquiesce in the demand 
 for a declaration. The tenor of these instructions to 
 the Delegiites from their constituents was in favor of 
 cutting loose from GtcaI Britain entirely and forming 
 an in(iependent government. June 7, 1776, Richard 
 Henry Lee moved in Congress that " These United 
 Colonies are and of right ought to be free and inde- 
 pendent States." Four days later the motion was 
 adopted, and two Committees were raised to present 
 a Declaration and the Plan of a Confederation. On 
 the Declaration Committee were Jefferson, Franklin, 
 John Adams, and Roger Sherman. They reported 
 June 2.S, but action was delayed, as the New York 
 and Pennsylvania Delegates, having received no 
 special instruction, thought they had no authority to 
 vote for the Declaration. The Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence was draftetl by Tliomas Jefferson, and but 
 very slightly changed from his copy. When it came 
 up for tinal action it received the vote of every Dele- 
 gate. The vote was taken by Colonies, and every 
 Colony gave unanimous approval. It was immedi- 
 ately signed by the names of -56 members present, and 
 as soon as the slow means of printing and circulating 
 in those days could spread it, it went forth not only 
 as the defiant answer of the Colonies to the demands 
 of the mother-country, but as a claim for the )M)litical 
 emancipation of mankind. It ought to be known by 
 hciirt by every lx>y and girl in America. Xot many 
 j'cars ago the reading in full of the Declaration of In- 
 dependence was considered as nece.ssary in any social 
 celebration of the 4th of July as a prayer in religious 
 services; but in these days, partly froin careles.sncss, 
 but more from the large infusion of foreigners whose 
 habits and ideas have greatly modifietl the primitive 
 notions of our own people, the custom has fallen into 
 disuse. 
 
 DECLAEATION OF WAK.— The formal announce- 
 ment by a goveriunent of its intention to wage war 
 against another is a proceeding which is observed 
 among all civilized nation.s. In the United States the 
 declaration of war is a power exercised by Congress 
 alone. During the Age of Chivalry, a Herald made 
 declaration of war at the enemy's Court, his tabard 
 on bis arm. 
 
 DECLINATION ■ NEEDLE. — When a magnetic 
 nee<lle is suspended or made to rest on a ])oint .so as 
 to be free to nK>ve in a horizontal plane, it finds its 
 jio.sition of rest in a line joining two fixed ]X)ints on 
 the horizon; and when made io leave that jxisition, 
 after several oscillations, it returns to it again. At 
 ccrttiin places on the earth's surface these two points 
 
 are the north and south pomts of the horizon; but 
 generally, though near, they do not coincide with 
 these. A vertical plane passing through the points on 
 the horizon indicated by the needle is called the 
 magnetic meridian, in the same way that a similar 
 I^lane, passing through the north aiid south points, 
 is known a.s the astronomical meridian of the place. 
 The angle between the magnetic and astronomical 
 meridian is termed the declination or variation of the 
 needle. The declination is east or west according as 
 the magnetic north lies ea.st or we.st of the true north. 
 Instruments for determining magnetic declination are 
 called ileelinaliou needles, or declinometers. In this 
 instrument there are two things e.s.sential — the means 
 of a.seertaining the astronomical meridian, and a nee- 
 dle for showing the magnetic meridian. The com- 
 mon form of declinometer consists of a tripod pro- 
 viiled with Icveling-screws, and sujiporting a pillar, 
 to which is fixed a graduated azinmthal circle. A 
 compa.ss.box, with vernier attached, moves on the 
 azinmthal circle by means of a pivot at the top of the 
 pillar. Two uprights are fi.xed to the side of the 
 compass-box, on which rests the axis of a telescope. 
 A graduated arc is fixed to the bottom of one of the 
 uprights, and the angle of elevation of the telescope 
 is marked by a vernier on the arm attached to the 
 axis of the telescope. A level is also hung on the 
 axis of the telescope for adjusting the instrument. 
 Inside the compass-box is another graduated circle, 
 the line joining the zero-pouits of which is parallel 
 to the axis of the telescope. All the fittings are in 
 brass or copper, iron, of course, being unsuitable. 
 The compass-box and telescope move round as one 
 piece on an axis pa.ssing through the center of the 
 azinmthal circle. AVhen an oljservation is made, 
 the telescope is pointed to a star whose position with 
 regard to the astronomical meridian is known at 
 the time of observation. The telescope with the com- 
 pas,s-box is then brought the proper number of de- 
 grees on the azimuthal circle, imtil its axis is iu the 
 meridian of the place. If, when the telescope is in 
 this position, the north end of the needle stand at the 
 zero-point of the inner circle, the declination would 
 be 0'; but if it lie east or west of this i>oint, the de- 
 clination is shown liy the degree at \vbieh the needle 
 stands. It is difficult to construct a needle so that 
 the line joining its poles exactly coincides with the 
 line joining its \-isible extremities. If this coinci- 
 dence be not perfect, the geometrical axis of the 
 needle according to which the reading is made lies to 
 the right or left of the magnetic axis, and conse- 
 quently of the true reading. To remetly this, the 
 needle is so made that it can rest cither on its lower 
 or upper surface. In finding the true reading, the 
 position of the needle is marked, and then it is tiinied 
 upside down and again marked, the mean of the two 
 readings giving the true one. The declination of the 
 needle may be also ascertained by the dipping-needle. 
 The ordinary compa.ss which must be used by mak- 
 ing allowance for declination is a declination-com- 
 pass. .See I)ip)iiii;i-na'(Uf and Miuinctism. 
 
 DECOMPTE.— A liquidation or balance which from 
 time to time was made, in tlie old French ser\ice, be- 
 tween the Cajitain of a company and each private sol- 
 dier for money advanced or in hand. 
 
 DECORATION-DAY.— The anniversary, in the Uni- 
 ted States, on which Howers are placed on soldiers' 
 graves, and which is observed on Slay liOth. This 
 day wits set apart for the purpose mentioned soon 
 after the War of the Rebellion. 
 
 DECORATIONS.— In pyroteehny, the compositions 
 which are pl.iccd iu the" lieads of rockets, in paper 
 shells, etc., to make a brilliant display when the re- 
 ceptacle is burst. See Pi/roUrhni/. 
 
 DECOUPLE.— In Heralilry, a term signifying sev- 
 ered or disjoined, so that the ends stand at a distance 
 from one another; as, a clurron (hroiipW. 
 
 DECOY.— To lead or to entice into a snare; to lead 
 into danger by artifice; to entrap. An enemy is said 
 to be decoyed when a small body of trooiJS draws
 
 SECBEHERT. 
 
 DEFENCE. 
 
 thfni into action, while tlie main body lies in ambush 
 ready to act with the greatest effect. 
 
 DECBEMENT.— An heialdic term by which the 
 wane of the moon is indicated. A rnuun tkcreacent 
 is a half-moon with her horns turned to the sinister. 
 The terms (Itrnitrtnl and dtcours are likewise used. 
 
 DECUBIO— DECUBION.— A Roman cavalry otlicer, 
 commanding ten men. Decuriones Muniei|iales were 
 Roman pro\-incial magistrates who had the same 
 power in free and corporate towns as the Senate had in 
 Rome. At tirst numbering 10, as their name implies, 
 they frequently numbered 100 in later times. Their 
 duly was to watch over the interests of their fellow- 
 citizens, and increase the revenues of the common- 
 wealth. They were required to be 25 years of age, 
 and to possess a certain income. The legion was 
 ofticered by six Trihunes, sixty Centurions, with an 
 equal niuuber of officers who served as tile-closers for 
 the infautrj-; and twenty Decuriims of cavalry; 
 besides these there were the officers of the velites, who 
 fought out of the ranks. 
 
 DEEP.— A term used in the disposition or the ar- 
 rangement of soldiers placed in ranks Ijcfore each 
 other; hence two deep, three deep, etc. Deep line of 
 operations, a long line. 
 
 DEFAULT.— The common expression for a military 
 offensi- in the British ser\ice. 
 
 DEFAULTER BOOK.— A book in which the record 
 of Climes committed by soldiers is entered. There 
 are two ilefauller-books in a regiment, the conijiany 
 and the rtyinuutdl. In the former all offenses of 
 whatever description committed by non-conmiissioned 
 officers and soldiers, whether ptmishment may have 
 been awarded or not, and every act of drunkenness 
 committeil by a soldier, are inserted. Cases of ab- 
 sence, which may be considered equivalent to drunk- 
 enness, are not to be so ninnbered, but in lieu thereof 
 the letter D is to be inserted in nd ink opposite cveiy 
 such ciise, b}- the officer commanding the company. 
 All offenses are to be inserted in the officer's own 
 handwriting. In the latter, or regimental defaulter- 
 book, all punishments awarded by the Commanding 
 Officer of the regiment, or by Courts-Martial, are in- 
 serted. In this book also all offenses are to be en 
 tered for which a punishmi nt excelling seven days' 
 continement to l)arracks has been awarded. 
 
 DEFAULTERS.— 1. Soldiers who have been guilty 
 of military offenses. The term is generally applied 
 to men sentenced to contiuemenl to barracks, and j 
 attaches to them until the completion of their punish- 
 ment. 2. If any officer employed or who has hereto- ^ 
 fore been employed in the Civil, Jlilitary, or Kaval 
 Departmentsof the Government to disburse the public I 
 money appropriated for the service of those Depart 
 ments", respectively, shall fail to render his account or 
 pay over, in the manner and in the times required by 
 law, or the regulations of the Department to which he 
 is accountable, any sum of money remaining in the 
 hands of such officer, the First or Second Comptroller 
 of the Treasury, as the case may be, shall cause to be 
 slated and certify the account of such delinquent 
 otlicer to the Soli<?itor of the Treasury, who shall im- 
 mediately proceed to issue a warrant of distress against 
 such delitiquent officer and his sureties, directed to 
 the Marshal or Marshals of the district or districts 
 where they reside; and the Marshal shall proceed to 
 lew and "collect the sum remaining due by distress 
 am) sale of goods and chattels of such delinciuentoffi- j 
 cer; and. if tlie goods are not sufficient, the sjune may 
 be leWed upon the person of such officer, who may 
 be committed to piison, there to remain until dis- 
 charged by due course of law. But the Solicitor of 
 the Treasiirv, with the approbation of the Secretary 
 of the Treasury, may postpone for a reasonable tiine 
 such proceedings where, in his opinion, the public 
 interest will sustain no injuiT by such postponement. 
 If any person shall consider himself aggrieve<I by any 
 warrant issued as above, he may prefer a bill of com- 
 plaint to any District Judge of the United States, and 
 thereupon the Judge may, if in his opinion the case : 
 
 requires it, grant an injunction to stay proceedings. 
 If any person shall consider himself aggrieved by the 
 decision of such Judge either in refusing to issue the 
 injimction, or, if granted, on its dissolution, such per- 
 son may lay a copy of the jiroceedings had before the 
 District Judge, before a Judge of the Supreme Court, 
 who may either grant the injunction or permit an ap- 
 peal, as the case may be if, in his opinion, the equity 
 of the case requires'it. The judgment on a warrant 
 of distress under this Act, and the proceedings un<ler 
 the judgment, are a bar to any sub.sequcnt action for 
 the same cause. No money" appropriated shall be 
 paid to any person for his conipen.salion who is in 
 arrears to the United States, until such person shall 
 have accounted for and paid into the Treasurv' all 
 sums for which he may be liable: provided, that no- 
 thing herein contained shall be construed to extend to 
 balances arising solely from depreciation of treasury 
 notes received by such person to be expended in the 
 public service; but in all cases where the pay or sidary 
 of any person is withheld, in pursviance of this Act, it 
 shall be the duty of the Accounting Officers, if de- 
 manded by the party, his agent or attorney, to report 
 forthwith to the agent of the Treasury Department 
 the balance due; and it shall be the dutv of the said 
 agent, within si.xty days thereafter, to order suit to be 
 commenced against such delinquent and his sureties. 
 
 DEFEAT.— 'The rout or destruction of an army by 
 an enemy. Strictly the word expresses the complete 
 want of success of an army; a repulse signifving less, 
 and a rout more, than defeat. It is also used to mean 
 re.sistance with success; as, to defeat an a.ss;mlt. 
 
 DEFECTION.— The act of aliandoning a person or 
 cause to which one is bound by allegiance or duly, or 
 to which one has attached himself. See Abandon. 
 
 DEFENCE— DEFENSE.— 1. In military law, the de- 
 fendant's answer to the plea, or the method of proceed- 
 ing adopted by the defendant to protect himself against 
 the plaintiff's action. 
 
 In point both of law and reason, a Court -Jlartial has as 
 much power over the evidence introduced by the pris- 
 oner as over that of the prosecutor, and can reject the 
 witnesses of the one as well as the other, or any ])art 
 of such v\-itne.s.ses' testimony. Courts-Martial are par- 
 ticularly guarded in adhering to the custom which 
 obtains of resisting ever^- attempt on the part of 
 counsel to address them; but eases have occurred in 
 which profes.sioual gentlemen in attendance have been 
 permitted to read the defense prepared for the pris- 
 oner. A Court will prevent a prisoner from adverting 
 to parties not before the Court, or only alluded to in 
 e\-idence, further than may be acluallv necess;iry. 
 X\\ coarse and insulting language should he avoided 
 in anv part of the defense. 
 
 2. "in fortitication, all sorts of works that cover and 
 defend the opjiosite posts. The parapets of all coast 
 and harbor defenses should be constructed of earth, 
 where favorable sites can be found; but for low sites 
 that can be approached within grape-shot range such 
 ba'teries must give place to masonry defenses; and 
 where masonry -casemated castles with three tiers of 
 guns in casi'inatcs, and w ith guns and mortars on the 
 roofs, are resorted to, embrasiires of wrought-iron will 
 be found applicable. With such batteries well con- 
 structed, the direct fire of ships has little effect. JIov- 
 able columns of troops in numbers, dejiending on the 
 ])robable object of the enemy, must be held in some 
 central position. If railroads are toconvey the troops, 
 a central ix)int within a radius of sixty miles will he 
 within good supporting distance. If railroads are not 
 relied on, the distance "should not be greater than fif- 
 teen miles. The columns should be at le;isl seven 
 tenths infantr>-. one tenth cavalry, and two tenths field- 
 artillery; the "latter being useful to opiiosc the debar- 
 kation "of troops. The French charge l)Oth the fleet 
 and the armv with the movable defense of coasts. 
 Steamers and" llolillas, armed with howitzers, are parti- 
 cularly suited to that object. Corps of troops assembled 
 at sonic central position are held ready to be thrown 
 upon a threatened point. Batteries of howitzers give
 
 DEFENSIVE BATTLE. 
 
 454 
 
 DEFENSIVE WAB. 
 
 their aid to these corps. Concerted sigtuls are care- 
 fully nrnuige<l. 
 
 Tlie iliftiise of works attacked by resrular ap- 
 proiicbts culls for the most active and vijrilant exer- 
 tions on the part of the besieged, espt-cially so from 
 the artillery. So soon as the operations of the be- 
 sieger indicate what work of a line, or the particular part 
 of a work, is his objei-tiye, cycn,- effort must be made 
 to restrict the extent of his lines of envelopment. To 
 this end, adjacent and collateral works must be armed 
 with pieces of the heaviest caliber, so situated as to 
 take the lines of aiiproaches as much as possible in 
 flank. These batteries \yill give special attention to 
 the lonir-nuige batteries of the iK'sicgers. Every avail- 
 able piece of artillery must be brought forward and 
 placed in battery so iis to strike the besiegers at stune 
 jKiint or other. " Unrcmitted tire must be mainlained 
 ag-.iinst the heads of the approaches; these, from their 
 ojK-n chanicter, are pec\diarly vulnerable to morlar- 
 fire. As many mortars as possible shouhl be placed 
 in batteries cs'tablished for this special puri)ose. It 
 is not ad\-i.sable to crowd artillery into tlie objective 
 point of the enemy, but rather to the right and left of 
 it; this secures a cross-tire, and at the siime time with- 
 draws the pieces from the points upon which the be- 
 siecer concentrates his fire. If an assault is to be 
 apprcliended, batteries, especially of machine-":uus, 
 should lie established so as to sweep the ditch and pre- 
 vent the enemy from making a lodgment by digging 
 into the scarp and parapet. These batteries nuist be 
 ■well secured by means of bomb-proof covers and gun- 
 shields. Traverses must be thrown up to protect the 
 guns, and bomb and splinter-proofs constructed to 
 shelter the cannoneers. An interior line of iutrench- 
 ments should Ix; constructed in rear of that part of 
 the main work attacked. This should be well sup- 
 plied with light pieces of artillery, which may be 
 kept under cover until the proper moment and then 
 run up to drive the enemy from his lodgment on the 
 main work. The supply of ammmiition must be 
 closely attended to, and uilder no circumstances, where 
 it is possible to avoid it, should it be allowed to fall 
 below the probable neeils. All of the operations of 
 the artillery in the defense, as well as in the attack, 
 should Ije directed bv one held. See Ilarhor Difenius. 
 
 DEFENSIVE BATTLE.— In a purely defensive bat- 
 tle, an anuy chooses a jwsition in which to await the 
 enemy and there to give battle with no other end 
 in view than to holcl this position and re]iulse the 
 enemy. The fact that a party acts on the defensive 
 supposes something wanting either in the mniibers or 
 elBciency of his tn)ops; either of which defecl.s can 
 only be remedied by resorting to aids, offered either 
 by "nature or art, "for restoring the efiuilibrium be- 
 tween the opposing forces. There is oue point that 
 needs to be strongly incidcated, which is that a posi- 
 tion should not only lie strong tactically, but good 
 strategically. It should not oiily lend itself to the 
 maneuvers of our troops and to tlie efficacy of their 
 fire; but, if forced, shoidd favor a safe retreat. The 
 advantages offered by heights for the defensive may 
 induce mto serious disaster a General who takes a 
 position of this kind from purely tactical considera- 
 tions, without regard to their strategical bearing; or, 
 when this latter consideration does not come up, who 
 looks simply at the defensive properties without ex- 
 amining also the advantages that a skillful enemy, 
 operating offensively, migiit derive from them. 
 
 Suppose an army to occupy a ridge of heights, 
 cro.ssing obli(iuely its line of retreat; its right resting 
 on an inaccessible obstacle. Now, an army advanc- 
 ing to the as.sjiult of this position might look upon it 
 in two aspects. First, strategically, .seeing that by 
 making the attack on the right, although the ground 
 there is the most ditlictdl, it will force the assailed 
 back, so as to expose bis line of retreat, and may 
 therefore be well worth the effort and cost. Second, 
 tactically, to assjiil vigorously the more exposed left 
 wing, and, throwing it back on the right, necessarily 
 produce u disa.ster; as the character of the ground, a 
 
 narrow plateau, is supposed to be such that it will 
 not adnut of a change of position of the assailed to 
 meet this attack in front. However otherwise ad- 
 vantageous, it would evidently be imprudent then 
 for a General to take up a position of this kind, 
 unless so superior to the enemy thiit he will be able 
 to foil an attack on either wiiig. There remains, 
 however, one more rcsource to the General, in a simi- 
 lar case, when he has ample time to employ it, and 
 that is fortiticatiou. This is oue that everj- great 
 General has, at one time or another, availed himself 
 of, and, in everj- case, with advantage, ililitary his- 
 tory is full of examples where the scale of great and 
 decisive battles has turned on the taking or holding a 
 mere lield-work that had occupied but a few hours' 
 time to throw u)i. This, however, belongs to the 
 domain of fortification, one of the most difficult as 
 most imix)rtant branches of the military art, and 
 which demands for its proper exercise military quali- , 
 tications of a high order. There probably has ex- 
 isted no great engineer who, when called upon, has 
 not shown himself a superior Gener.il; nor a great 
 Genend who did not fidly acknowledge and ajipre- 
 ciate the art of fortification. 
 
 Where an army is forced to accept a defensive bat- 
 tle in an open position, which affords no points on 
 which its tianks can rest with security, there is but 
 one disposition of combat open to it, and that is to 
 secure the wings by such an accumulation and dis- 
 tribution of troops upon them that the assailant will 
 rim a greater risk in an attack on one of them than 
 on the front. The center in this case will be deployed 
 in the first line, so as to bring all its fire to bear, iMith 
 direct and cross, over the approaches to it. The 
 troops to support the wings will be massed, so as to 
 be ready to act promptly, as the phases of the action 
 may demand; and the reserve will occujiy a central 
 position in the rear, from which it can promptly be 
 thrown upon any point pre.s,sed by the assailant. 
 
 It is in such "positions that the formation of the 
 order of battle by squares is resorted to when the 
 iis-sailant is very superior in cavalry. This is done 
 either liy a forriiatiou of small squares by single bat- 
 talions, or by resorting to larger ones, as to those 
 formed of four or more battalions. The first have 
 the advantage of being very promptly formed, but 
 they afford hardly more interior space than is ^vanted 
 for their own staff. lea\ing whatever cavalry and 
 artillery we have to find shelter between the stjuares. 
 The large squares demand more complication of ma- 
 neuver, and more time in their formation, but afford 
 a large interior space, where the caissons of the artil- 
 lery, and even the ca\ airy, if in small numbers, may 
 fiiiil shelter. In this last disposition some of the artil- 
 lery would V)e in battery in front of those angles of 
 the squares where its fires can best sweep the ap- 
 IJroaches on the two adjacetit sides of the square; 
 other portions will be in the intervals of the squares, 
 so as to throw a fiank and cross fire over the ap 
 proaches to them. The sharp-shooters may be ad- 
 vanced a little on those angles which are not occupied 
 by the artillery so as to strengthen these weak points. 
 I'he cavalrj-, if in sufiicient force to charge oppor- 
 tunely, will" take post between the squares, where it 
 will be least expo.sed to the enemy's artillery, and be 
 ready to seize the projier moment for entering into 
 actifJn. See Batties, MUed Battle, and Offemive Bat- 
 (h: 
 
 DEFENSIVE PATROLS. —That class of patrols 
 made with a view of insuring greater security from 
 the enemy's attempts to pass or force the line of out- 
 ]X)sts. They consist usually of three or four men, 
 who go the rounds, along the chain of sentinels and 
 between the posts; .seldom venturing farther than a 
 few hundred paces beyond the sentinel's chain; the 
 object being to search points which might present a 
 cover to the enemy's .scouts, and to keep the sentinels 
 on the alert. 
 
 DEFENSIVE WAR.- A war undertaken to repel 
 invasion or the attacks of an enemy. Defensive war
 
 DEPEBEED PAT. 
 
 455 
 
 SEFILEHEKT. 
 
 may be divided into three kinds. It is either a war 
 su-staincd l)y a nation which is suddenly attacked by 
 another who is superior in troops and in means; or a 
 nation makes this sort of war by choice on one side 
 of its frontiers; or it is a war become defensive by the 
 ]oss of a battle. See War. 
 
 DEFERRED PAY.— An increa.se of 2d. per diem 
 granted by Parliament to the non-commissioned offi- 
 cers aiid soldici-s of the British army and Reserve, 
 uniler the following comlitions: The 'Zd. per diem for 
 the Army with the Colors to be payable on the dis- 
 charge or death of every non-commissioned officer or 
 msm, in respect of all senice (pre\iously to the com- 
 pletion of 12 years' service) from April 1, 1876. The 
 2d. per diem for the xVrmy Reserve to be paid annu- 
 ally in arrear to all men iii it. Any simi earned by a 
 man dying during the year to be" paid, to his repre- 
 sentatives. £1 per man, now paid for necessaries, 
 not to be pavable to men acceiitiug the new tenus. 
 
 DEFILADING.— Thai part of the art of fortifica- 
 tion which consists in determining the directions and 
 heights of the lines of rampart, so that the interior 
 may not be commanded by the tire of any works 
 -which the enemy may raise. Defilading is divided 
 into horizontal and vertical. The object of the first 
 is to prevent the lines being commanded in the direc- 
 tion of their length, or enfiladed; the prolongations 
 of the lines, therefore, must avoid all points where 
 hostile works could be erected. Vertical defilading 
 determines the height of rampart necessarj' to protect 
 the interior from direct fire. Sec Defilement. 
 
 DEFILE.-rIn a military sense, any narrow place 
 the passage of which can be made by troops only 
 when undeployed. Jloimtain-pa.sses, river-crossings, 
 narrow isthmuses, and roads through close forests 
 represent the usual forms of defiles. They necessari- 
 ly imply obstacles in the way to the free" movement 
 of armies, and are therefore important features in 
 a theater of war, and cousc(jueiitlv points demand- 
 ing special attention by way of dcfensi\e arrange- 
 ments. For these no precise" rules can be laid down; 
 nevertheless some general principles may be stated. 
 The chief advantage offered by a defile is, that with 
 but comparatively slight intrenchmenls a small force 
 is able to hold a position against a much greater; this 
 lor the reason that, owing to the essential nature of a 
 defile, the attacking force must operate in a .con- 
 strained position, not admitting of much development 
 of fire. The main object, therefore, is to secure such 
 a column of fire over the defile a-s to make it impos- 
 sible for the enemy to stem it; this is best accom- 
 plished by selecting such points as will give an en- 
 filade fire. They should be selected with a ^^ew to 
 mutual support, and intrenched in such manner as 
 to be secure against capture hy roup de mni'ti. The 
 enemy must be compelled to make his attacks with 
 divided forces and inferior numbers. This is best 
 accomplished by occupying several positions within 
 flanking distance of each other. He will, probablv, 
 not be able to attack all simultaneously, and it will 
 be a costly operation for him to attack them in de- 
 tail. 
 
 The positions shotdd be so chosen as to allow them 
 to concentrate their artillery-fire upon any point 
 where it might be advantageous for the enemy to 
 establish batteries, and the artillery of the defense 
 should be of such power as to prechide all pos.«ibility 
 of his doing so. All hollow approaches, such as 
 would he formed by ravines in a mountain-pass, 
 must he searched by the fire of artillery. This, as a 
 rule, will require pieces to be placed in ojien batteries 
 exterior to the inclosed works. Such batteries must 
 be well supported by infantrv sheltered in rifie- 
 trcnches. The whole system shotild be so connected 
 as to leave no part isolated or without the support of 
 other parts, and the defense of each point must be 
 stubborn in the extreme to prevent the enemy from 
 gaining possession of advantageous positions. All 
 parts of the line or group of works must be in com- 
 ■munication by telegraph, telephone, or signaling, or 
 
 by all three. This is a matter of the greatest mo- 
 ment in securing not only the physical but also the 
 moral support of the parts. In every ca.se artillery 
 should form a chief feature in the means of defense; 
 the kind of pieces tor the dilTerenl parts of the .system 
 will depend upon the character of the ground and of 
 the nature of the attacks that may Ijc expected. As 
 a nde, all approaches must be covered by fire; where- 
 cver horizontal fire caimot be made to r"each, mortars 
 must be used. However nmch the pieces may be 
 scattered, they must be capable of concentrathig "their 
 fire upon any position the enemy may assume. 
 
 If a defile is to be held for the purposes of an army 
 either advancing or retiring in front of an enemy, the 
 head of it towards the enemy nmst be secured" bv a 
 line .similar to a W te-de-] mi t ;' this for the puri>ose", if 
 advancing, of giving room for the army to deploy 
 after passing the defile, and to prevent the enemy 
 from striking it while defenseless in column; if re- 
 treating, the same disposition is necessary to hold the 
 pursuing army in check while the trcxips are defiling 
 to the rear. In both ca.ses, as tlu: oliject is to keep 
 the enemy from closing in for a iiitehed battle, artil- 
 lery must be freely used. In the attack upon a de- 
 file, intrenched, armed, and defended as it should be, 
 artillerj- will be the most imjiortant weapon; this for 
 the reason tliat, from the very nature of defiles, other 
 arms can act but feebly, while artillery posses.ses the 
 power of reaching its object beyond intermediate ol> 
 stacles. As much artillery should be brought to act 
 as pos-sible, and, although it may be widely dispersed, 
 its tire mast be concentrated ujion some partictdar 
 work in the system of defenses. The work must be 
 attacked with such vigor and jiersistencv as to insure 
 its destruction and easy capture. Other works are 
 succcssivelj' attacked in the siuiie manner. The op- 
 erations upon both sides thus jiartake of the nature 
 of a siege, and are governed by the s.-ime iirinciples. 
 
 DEFILEMENT.— Where the site of a field-work is 
 sentibl.v horizontal and there are no commanding 
 points V ithin cannon-range from which an assailant 
 can .sret such a view into it as to regulate his file with 
 some certainty, there is no controlling motive for 
 making the relief otlier than muform; though it les.s- 
 ens, (o some extent, the effects of an enfiladin.s fire, 
 by making a face higher at the salient, giving it a 
 uniform slojie back, as the higher the covering mass 
 over which the fire of the assailant nuist pa.ss to reach 
 the interior of a work, the greater will be the portion 
 of the work screened. The extent of the cover thus 
 gained will dcjiend upon the an,i;le of ele\ation and 
 the charges with which the assjiilant's fire is main- 
 tained. SVith great angles and heavy charges from 
 eonsidendile distances, and great angles and light 
 charges when near to the work, the projectile may 
 receive a great plimge in the descending branch of its 
 trajectorj', so as to fall quite clo.se behind the cover- 
 ing object; but these great plunges arc unfavorable to 
 ricochet, so that if the a.s.sailant wishes to i)reser%-e 
 this fire, which is generally regarded as the most 
 etTective in enfilading the interior of a parapet, he 
 must sacrifice the effect of great plunges, and submit 
 to the advantage of better cover which the a.s.sailcd 
 gains by raising his .salients, or using traverses for the 
 same end. When the site is not horizontal and there 
 are commanding hei.shts from which the inteiior of 
 the work can be plunged into, by firing under small 
 angles of depression, or ground lower than the work 
 from which a reverse fire can be obUuned, on the 
 more elevated portions, over the iiarajiet of tlie lower 
 portions, the parts thus exposed must be s<Teencd 
 either by raising the panipet to a siutable height, or 
 by interposing a covering mass within the work for 
 the same object. The operation by which, this is 
 effected is termed defilement, and when a work is thus 
 screened it is sjud to be defiled. 
 
 Defilement is seldom practicable, nor in fact is it 
 necessary for lines of any considerable extent. The 
 most that can be attempted is so to vary the plan, 
 when it can he done and not impair the etficiency of
 
 DEFILEMENT. 
 
 450 
 
 DEFILEMENT. 
 
 the tire of the different purls on the approaches, as to 
 jirevent the proloiipitiou of any imporlaut face or 
 tluuk frv>ni falliiiir ou any point where the assjiiU'il 
 wtuilil have a coniinaniiln;; position to enlilaile; 
 nillier !rivins: those (larts a direction such that their 
 prolonjnition ovilwards sliall fall on low frrouud.oron 
 ix>inls inaccessihle to the artillery of the assjuled. 
 No spi-eitic rules can Ik' laid dowii further than of a 
 gcnend character. Taking', for e.\anii)le, a line of 
 works to he thrown up within cannon-shot of a range 
 of heij-'hts the crests of which lie in the siime direc- 
 tion and are sensibly horizontal, the best cover that 
 could be obtained in thisca.se would be a simple rijrlit 
 line of uniform relief, the direction of which should 
 be parallel to that of the crests. If the site on which 
 the line is placed is horizontal, by giving a good 
 height to the parapet a sheltered zone for the troops 
 and iiKili'ri)! of more or less extent will in this way be 
 obtained. If the site slopes much from the RUige of 
 heights, then the same height of parapet will mask 
 a broader zone of shelter, and the more so as the de- 
 clivity of the surface is the more decided. But if the 
 site slopes towards the crests, then the dilticulty of 
 obtaining slu-ller will be the greater as this counler- 
 slojx' is the grejiter. If instead of a ri^ht line a 
 broken line is used, as a redan or a serrated line, then 
 it will be will to make the face of each redan or 
 tenaille as short as practicable, and to make the sidi- 
 ent angles very obtuse. In this manner but short 
 lini'S will be presented to an entilailing tire, and the 
 prolongations of these lines be brought to intersect 
 the crest of the range at more distant points, thus 
 forcing the assjiilant to use higher angles of elevation 
 to reach them from his entilailing position. When 
 the line of the crests descends in a right line towards 
 the site, then supi>osing the general direction of the 
 parapet to Ik- a right line, the most favorable position 
 for the defilement, by a vuiiform relief given to the 
 line', will be to give the line of the parapet a direction 
 upon the jioint where the line of the crests prolonged 
 would meet the site. The zone of shelter co\'i-red by 
 the iianipti in this case will l>e .so nuich the greater, 
 anil the delilenient the better, as the general direction 
 of the panipet makes a greater angle with that of the 
 crest. The same remarks apply to a sloping or 
 counter-sloping site. As the position of the works 
 become the less restricted, there will be freer play for 
 the skill and eje of the engineer to olitain a good so- 
 lution of theipiestion. For works open at the gorge 
 and inclosed works defilement becomes more im- 
 portant, as, the force being small, every means should 
 be employed for its safety. In such works there is 
 also much less freeilom to vary the plans. The most 
 that can be done is to avoid entilading or reverse 
 views, by opening more or less the salient angles so 
 ns to bring the more prominent dangerous points 
 within the angle of the adjacent faces prolonged, or 
 to bring those prolongations upon dangerous points as 
 distant as practicable. In the lirst ca.si- a reverse fire 
 on either face will be avoided, and in the second the 
 enfilading position of the a-ss;ulanl will be thrown to 
 a further distance. The ilifikment of field-works is 
 not indis|X'ns!ible to a good defense; nor is it always 
 pnieticable. It is, however, not only a conservative 
 means, but it also Inspires the assailed with confi- 
 dence; for the soldier regards with much distrust the 
 strength of his position when he tinds himself ex- 
 posed to the plain view of the enemy from an elevated 
 ix>int. 
 
 For the solution of all problems of the defilement 
 of permanent works the engineer requires: 1. The 
 limit exterior to the defenses beyond which tlie effect 
 of the enemy's fire may be regsirded as so uncertain 
 us to be neirlected. 2. The presumed positions 
 within this limit that the enemy may take up to 
 brini; his artillery to bear upon the works. 'A. An 
 accurate topoj;rapliical niaj) of all the ground within 
 the above limits, as given by its horizontal curves re- 
 ferred to u plane of comparison. 4. The magistnds 
 and interior crests of the works, as either detinitely 
 
 or proximately arranged, referred to the sinie plane. 
 The limits beyond which the enemy's lire, from the 
 usmd nmtxith-bore sUyenuiif, may be disregardeil, 
 owing to the uncertainty of long ranges, are 1500 
 yards, where the work is exposed only to a direct or 
 "front fire, and 2(X)0 yards when open to a reverse fire. 
 For rijitd ijun», which will hereafter Ik- used in all 
 siege-operations, these limits should cmbRice all the 
 exterior ground within the accurate range of the 
 hea\icst gims of thus class. When the terre-pleins, 
 therefore, are covered, either by their parai>ets or 
 other means, from batteries at these distances, they 
 may be considered as offering shelters sufficiently 
 secure for the troops, etc., upon them. It may hap- 
 pen that there are points beyond these liiiuts, but 
 within the extreme range of .siege-guns, which, from 
 their ]X)sitioiis, it would not be sjife to disregard; but 
 these will form exceptional cases, and, when they 
 occur, will be treated in the sjime manner as those 
 within the limit.s. The surface of the site embraced 
 within the exterior liinit.s and the line of defenses 
 may be ilivided into iliree zones; »«<■ Ijing betweea 
 the limits and the position of the first parallel of the 
 attack; the second between the positions of the first 
 and second parallels; the third between the positions 
 of the second and third parallels. In any position 
 tliat the as.sailant can take up for his batteries, with- 
 in the first zone, it is usually estimated that he will 
 not throw u]) any parapet with a greater command 
 than 10 feet over the ground on which it is placed. . 
 Granting this, the muzzles of his gims, behind the 
 parapets, will not be raised higher than 6 feet above 
 the natural surface; so that assuming the sm-face of 
 this tir^t zone to be raised 6 feet above its true posi- 
 tion, this may be regarded as the limit, vertically, 
 within which the assailant's lines of fire will be re- 
 stricted; and therefore if the interior of the defenses 
 is covered from the fire within this limit, the troops, 
 etc., will be secure. That the as.sailant will not in all 
 likelihood elevate his guns above this limit will seem 
 probable, when it is taken into consideration that any 
 advantage he might derive from doing so would not 
 be commensurate with the labor it would cost him. 
 For suppose the enemy to have taken up a positioa 
 for an entilading battery at 1000 yards frimi any " 
 salient, to enfilade one of its faces of the length of 
 100 yards, and that he should decide upon raising his 
 guns 'A feet, or 1 yard, above the limit just laid down; 
 a simple ]iroportion will show that by this increase in 
 the height of his battery he will be able to attain a 
 point at llie farther end of the face oidy 8.6 inches 
 lower than he would have done in the ])osition of the 
 a.ssigned limit — an advantage which, considering the 
 uncertainty of the fire at the assumed ranges, would 
 hardly coiiipensate fhe additional labor of giving to 
 his works the additional command. In the zone be- 
 tween the first and second parallels the limit may be 
 reduced to4( feet; for at this distance from the de- 
 fenses their tire is so tiestructive and certain that the 
 enemy cannot, without great loss of life and time, 
 raise the parapet of his batteries higher than 8 feet 
 at)0ve the natural surface. From the third zone the 
 musketry of the enemy may be brought to bear upon 
 the defenses; and from this position, during sorties 
 from the defenses, or at any other opportune moment 
 when their fire is not active, the enemy might mount 
 on the parapet of his trenihes, and from there deliver 
 his fire. This would bring his line of fire about 10 
 feet above the natm-al .surface. The limit, vertically, 
 of this zone may therefore be safely assimied at 10 
 feet al)ove the natural surface. 
 
 In fhe defilement of each ijart separately of the line 
 of defenses, those portions alone of these zones should 
 be regarded as dangerous which are embraced within 
 arcs, or other lines drawn at the foregoinu: distances 
 from the sjtlients, or the faces of the part to be de- 
 filed. It may also hapiien that, within the limits of 
 dangerous ground for one portion of the line of de- 
 fenses, there may be other portions which, from their 
 position, may mask the portion to be defiled from all
 
 SEFLAOSAIION. 
 
 457 
 
 DELVIGNE LIFE SAVING GUN. 
 
 the dangerous points beyond them; in which case the 
 points thus shut off need not bereirarded, in effecting 
 the operations of defilement. Within tlic limits of 
 the zones of danger, positions may be determined for 
 front, for reverse, and for enfilading fire. If the two 
 faces, for example, of a work be prolonged to inter- 
 sect the extreme limit of dangerous ground, the sector 
 which they embrace may be termed the limits of di- 
 rect or front fire ; since, from every position that can 
 be taken up within this sector, a direct tire alone can 
 be brought to bear upon the two faces. The two 
 sectors which lie adjacent to this may be termed the 
 limits of lateral or reverse fire, since they afford posi- 
 tions from which a reverse fire can be obtained 
 against one of the faces, and a front fire upon the 
 other. It is also only within these last limits that 
 positions for enfilading the tcrre-pleins of the faces 
 can be obtained. The problems of defilement which 
 present themselves for solution may embrace one or 
 more of these cases in any example; depending upon 
 the relative positions of the interior crest of the work 
 to be defiled, and of the dangerous ground embraced 
 within the foregoing limits. In the case of direct tire 
 alone, the terre-pleins can be screened by their para- 
 pets. In that of a reverse tire on one face alone, its 
 terre-plein, in some cases, may be screened by a suit- 
 able position assigned to the parapet of the other. 
 Where both are ex"posed to this fire, one or more 
 traverses must be resorted to as a screen. Against an 
 cntihuling tire on one face alone, a portion of the 
 parapet of the other, near the salient, may be a 
 surticient protection in some cases; but, for the most 
 part, traverses, placed across the terre-plein, will be 
 the (inlv remedy. See Direct Defilemeiil anil Jiererge 
 Difihiiiciit. 
 
 DEFLAGRATION.— A term applied to the rapid 
 coml)ustion of ignited charcoal when a nitrate (such 
 as nitrate of potash) or a chlorate (such as chloi-ate of 
 potash) is thrown thereon. As chlorates do not occur 
 naturally, it follows that deflagration with a natural 
 salt indicates a nitrate: and if the deflagration be ac- 
 companied by a violet flame, it is characteristic of 
 nitrate of potash (ordinary niter or saltpeter); and if 
 by a strong yellow flame, it is indicative of nitrate of 
 soda (euliical niter). 
 
 BEFORMES. — In a military sense, this word signi- 
 fies to break; as, cUforiimr une colonne, to break a col- 
 umn. 
 
 DEGAT. — The laying waste an enemy's country, 
 particularly in the neighborhood of a town which an 
 arm_\ attempts to reduce by famine, or which refuses 
 to |)av military exactions. 
 
 DEGORGEOIR.— A sort of steel pricker used in ex- 
 amining- the vent of a cannon; a priming-wire. 
 
 DEGRADATION.— In military life, the act of de- 
 priving an officer forever of his commission, rank, 
 dignity, or degree of honor, and taking away at the 
 same time every title, badge, or privilege he may pos- 
 sess. 
 
 DEGRADED.— A term in Heraldry signifying placed 
 upiii! steps or degrees, as in a cross Calcary. 
 
 DEGREE OF LATITUDE.— A space along the me- 
 ridian through which an observer must pass to alter 
 his latitude bj' one degree — i.e., in order to .sec the 
 same star one degree nearer to or further from the 
 zenith. The space must be found by actual meas- 
 urement ; and owing to the earth being an oblate 
 spheroid, and not a sphere, it varies with the place 
 of observation — the degrees being generally longer 
 towards the poles, where the earth is flatter, and 
 shorter at the wpiator, where the earth is more curved. 
 If the earth were a sphere, a degree woidd be exactly 
 a litiOth jiart of the meridian. As it is, the length of 
 a degree of latitude depends on the latitude of the 
 place. From a variety of observations conducted at 
 various times and i>laces, from as far hack as the time 
 of Eratosthenes (250 B.C.). tables have been con- 
 structed showing the length of degrees at different 
 latitudes. The Jength of "the middle degree," as it 
 is called, or that of places in latitude 45°, may be 
 
 taken appro.ximately at eo^'o Enclish miles. The as- 
 certained differences between dicgrees of latitude is 
 one of the proofs of the earth's spheroidicity. 
 
 DEGREE OF LONGITUDE.— The space between two 
 meridians that make an angle of 1 at the poles, 
 raeasm-ed by the arc of a circle parallel to the equator 
 passing between them. It is clear that this space is 
 greatest at the equator, and vanishes at the poles; and 
 it can be shown that it varies with the cosine of the 
 angle of latitude. The annexed table shows the 
 lengths of a degi-ce of longitude for places at every 
 degree of latitude from 0° to 90 . It is computed on 
 the supposition that the earth is a sphere. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 English 
 
 Deg. 
 
 English 
 
 Deg. 
 
 English 
 
 Deg. 
 
 English 
 
 lat. 
 
 miles. 
 
 lat. 
 
 miles. 
 
 lat. 
 
 miles. 
 
 lat. 
 
 miles. 
 
 
 
 69.07 
 
 23 
 
 63.51 
 
 46 
 
 47.98 
 
 69 
 
 24.73 
 
 1 
 
 69.06 
 
 24 
 
 63.03 
 
 47 
 
 47.06 
 
 70 
 
 23.60 
 
 a 
 
 69.03 
 
 85 
 
 62.53 
 
 48 
 
 46.16 
 
 71 
 
 22.47 
 
 3 
 
 68.97 
 
 26 
 
 62.02 
 
 49 
 
 45.26 
 
 78 
 
 21.32 
 
 4 
 
 68 90 
 
 27 
 
 61.48 
 
 50 
 
 44.35 
 
 73 
 
 20.17 
 
 5 
 
 68.81 
 
 28 
 
 60.93 
 
 51 
 
 43.42 
 
 74 
 
 1908 
 
 6 
 
 68.62 
 
 29 
 
 60.35 
 
 52 
 
 42 48 
 
 75 
 
 17.86 
 
 7 
 
 68.48 
 
 30 
 
 59.75 
 
 63 
 
 41 53 
 
 76 
 
 16.70 
 
 8 
 
 6831 
 
 31 
 
 59.13 
 
 54 
 
 40.56 
 
 77 
 
 15.52 
 
 
 
 68.1.5 
 
 32 
 
 58.51 
 
 55 
 
 39 58 
 
 78 
 
 14.35 
 
 10 
 
 67.95 
 
 Xi 
 
 57.87 
 
 56 
 
 88.58 
 
 79 
 
 13.17 
 
 11 
 
 67.73 
 
 34 
 
 57.20 
 
 57 
 
 37.58 
 
 80 
 
 11.98 
 
 18 
 
 67.48 
 
 35 
 
 56 .51 
 
 58 
 
 36 57 
 
 81 
 
 10.79 
 
 13 
 
 67.81 
 
 36 
 
 55.81 
 
 59 
 
 85 54 
 
 82 
 
 9 .59 
 
 14 
 
 66.95 
 
 37 
 
 55.10 
 
 60 
 
 84.50 
 
 83 
 
 8.41 
 
 15 
 
 66.65 
 
 38 
 
 54.37 
 
 61 
 
 83.45 
 
 84 
 
 7.21 
 
 16 
 
 66.31 
 
 39 
 
 53.62 
 
 62 
 
 82 40 
 
 a5 
 
 6.00 
 
 17 
 
 65.98 
 
 40 
 
 52.85 
 
 63 
 
 31.33 
 
 86 
 
 4.81 
 
 18 
 
 65,62 
 
 41 
 
 52.07 
 
 64 
 
 30.24 
 
 87 
 
 3.61 
 
 19 
 
 65.24 
 
 42 
 
 51.27 
 
 65 
 
 89.15 
 
 88 
 
 2.41 
 
 20 
 
 64.81 
 
 43 
 
 50.46 
 
 68 
 
 88 06 
 
 89 
 
 1.21 
 
 21 
 
 64.42 
 
 44 
 
 49.63 
 
 67 
 
 86.96 
 
 90 
 
 0.00 
 
 IH 
 
 63.97 
 
 45 
 
 48.78 
 
 68 
 
 85.85 
 
 
 
 DEHORS. — In the military art, all sorts of outworks 
 in general, placed at some distance from the walls of 
 a fortification, the better to secure the main places, 
 and to protect the siege, etc. 
 
 DELF. — An heraldic charge, representing a square 
 sod or turf, the term bein^ derived, it is supposed, 
 from the verb to delee or dig. A (Mftenro' is tlie ap- 
 propriate abatement for him who revokes his chal- 
 lenge, or otherwise goes from his word. See Abate- 
 ment. 
 
 DELINEATOR. — A perambulator, or geodeticjd in- 
 strument on wheels, with registering devices for re- 
 cording distances between points; a pendulum ar- 
 rangement by which a profile line is inscrilx-d on a 
 traveling strip; and certain other data, according to 
 construction. 
 
 DELIQUESCENCE.— The power that certain salts 
 have of attracting moisture and dis.solving into water. 
 Saltpeter has generally many deliquescent and im- 
 ]iiirc salts in it,"which in the process of refining it is 
 freed from before beuig u.sed for gunpowder pur- 
 poses. 
 
 DELIVER BATTLE.— A term taken from the 
 French lirrer hat^lilU■, meaning to enter practically 
 upon a contest; the opposing armies being in sight 
 of each other. 
 
 DELIVERY. — The draught or allowance by which 
 a pattern is made to free it.self from close lateral con- 
 tact with the Siind of the mold as it is lifted. Also 
 calletl (Irair-taptr. 
 
 DELLIS. — The Bosnian and Albanian horsemen, 
 who served without pay in the Turkish armies. 
 
 DELVIGNE LIFE-SAVING GUN.— This piece of 
 ordnance weighs 20 kilos, is made of gun-metal, 
 about 18 inches long, and has an iron tail-iiiece 
 screwed into the breech and jointed, so that in firing 
 it is simply thrust into the soil until the square breech 
 l)rinirs up." The elevation is regulated by a quadrant 
 and plummet put Into the muzzle. The bore is alwut 
 \i inch, and the piece carries wooden arrows, fitted 
 with iron tails to reach the charge; and at the muz- 
 zle these arc much larger than the tail-piece, so that 
 the shock of explosion operates on the stjuare bases 
 of the arrows, which are protected by rings of metal.
 
 SELVIONE KIFLE. 
 
 458 
 
 DEHI-LVNE BED01TBT. 
 
 In loiidin;; this jiitcc, a vacant space is left and the 
 cartridge is tired near its outer end; the piece beini; 
 very short, this brings the vent about in tlie center of 
 the" length. The iron arrows are about one third 
 longi'r ihau the gun, and about half the length of the 
 arrow is in the gun when ready to lire. The ad\au- 
 Uiws claimed by Delvigne in this little piece are its 
 cheapness and [wrtabilily , while with suflicieut charge 
 it gives an eipial or better range; besides the wooilen 
 and irt>n arrows he tires a wooden arrow out of the 
 )vrri<r or almost any gun, which has crass-bars of 
 round iron made malleable to resist the shock. These 
 cross-pieces are fixed at right angles to the arrow, 
 near the outer end, and arc alx)ut as long as three di-» 
 ameters of the arrow. It is found that in tiring this 
 the cross-pieces are bent to an angle of about forly- 
 tive degrees with the plane of the arrow, and thus 
 form an anchor or grapnel, useful for many purpo.ses. 
 Arrows of wood have the advantage of floating if 
 they droji near the wreck, and of being readily re- 
 covered when they go beyond or fall short. The iron 
 tliehe is intended for long ranges or strong contrary 
 winds. The distance depends much on weather, on 
 the amount of charge, elevation, and the line running 
 clear. 
 
 In 1872 Delvigne's new gun, weighing 20 kilos 
 (44.09 pounds), gave a range of 300' meters (328.09 
 yards), with a wooden tli^che weighing 8 kilos (17.63 i 
 pounds), and a shot-line 8 millimeters (.315 inch) in 
 diameter. See Lifc-mnncj Rnrlets. 
 
 DELVIGNE KIFLE.— A rifle having a chamber 
 .screwed into the breech at the bottom of the bore, 
 wltich supplies an apartment for the powder. The 
 shoulder of the chamber provides a place on which 
 the ball rests, and thus preserves the powder. The 
 ball enters freely, and is rammed and made to take 
 tlie grooves. A sabot was subsequently attached to 
 the under side of the ball, and attached to it was a 
 patch of greased serge, which served to prevent foul- 
 ing in the bore. 
 
 DEMEMBRE.— An heraldic term signifying that the 
 members of an animal are cut from its body. ALso 
 writ ten DiKineinhfred. 
 
 DEMI— DEMY.— In Heraldry, an animal Ls said to 
 be (h ml wlicn only the ui)|icr or fore half of it is 
 represented. In inanimate objects the dexter half 
 per jiale is usually intended, when it is said to be 
 demi, though a demi-Jleur-de-Us, fcr example, may be 
 a 1i)iir-(U-U» divided ])er fess. See HeniMry. 
 
 "demi-bastion.— In fortification, a kind of half- 
 bastion which frequently terminates the branches of 
 a crown-work or horn-work, ainl which Ls also occa- 
 sionally used in other places. Sve Batilion. 
 
 DEMI CANNON.— A variety of ordnance, anciently 
 vised, carrying a ball ranging from 30 to 36 pounds 
 in weight. 
 
 DEMI-CULVEEIN. — An ancient piece of ordnance, 
 carrving a ball weighing 9 or 10 pounds. 
 
 DEMI-FILE. — That rank in a French battalion 
 which immediately succeeds to llic iien-e-ch'iin-ftU, and 
 is at the head of the reniniiiiiii; half of its depth. 
 
 DEMI-GORGE.- In fortiflcation, half the gorge or 
 entrance into the bastion, not taken directly from 
 angle to angle, where the bastion joins the curt.nin, but 
 from the angle of the flank to the center of the bas- 
 tion, or the angle which the two curtains would make 
 by their ])r()longation. 
 
 DEMIHAG. — A very small arquebuse, of which the 
 slock was bent or lifHiked, in order that it might be 
 held more readily. It was much used in the .sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 DEMI LANCE.— A light lance or half-pike; also the 
 term for a light horseman who carried a lance. I 
 
 DEMI-LUNE. — The object of this work is to secure 
 the gates of the place from a surprise; to mask from 1 
 the enemy's liattcries the flanks and curtain of the 
 enceinte; to give cross-tires on the salients of the ba.s- 
 lions; and to favor sf)rties. The fire from the demi- 
 lune is very effective on the enemy's works along the 
 bastion capitals. Finally, it is a work of which the 
 
 enemy can only obtain pos.sc.ssion after great labor 
 and loss of time; and when carried, it is with great 
 ditliculty that he can render it tenable, as it is e.xiM)sed 
 to the flre of the enceinte, within a short range. En- 
 gineers since t'onnontaigne, tiiiding that the demi- 
 lune still admilteil of being enlarged with advantage, 
 have accordingly so determined its dimensions tliat 
 it may be thrown so far to the fr<mt as will still place 
 the breach which an enemy may make in its face 
 within the range of the musketry of tlie bastion-face. 
 In large fronts, like Noizet's, tlie demi-luue may be 
 thus made to cover about 30 yards of the ba.siion- 
 faces from the .shoulder-angle, and thus secure re- 
 trenchments resting against this part from Ix-ing 
 turneil by a breach made near the shoulder-angle. 
 These considerations limit the salient angle of the 
 demi-lune to 60 , and place the salient at not more 
 than 210 yards from the bastion-face, as this dis- 
 tance will i)ring the breach at almut 180 yards from 
 this face, or within the efl'ective range of musketry. 
 The demi-lune thus arranged places the bastions, in 
 all cases, in strong re-enterings; l}ut when the angles 
 of the polygon are very obtu.se, the faces of the bas- 
 tions prolonged also fall within the salients of the 
 demilunes, and are therefore not easily enfiladed. 
 The demi-lune, with numerous advantages, is not 
 without defects. Its faces, from their position, are 
 exposed to an enfilading flre; it deprives the curtain 
 of all action ou the exterior ground; and it is only 
 when the angles of the bastion are very oi)en that the 
 re-enterings formed by the demi-lunes become of a 
 formidable character. The glacis of the demilune 
 covered-way forms a ridge, which is .serviceable to 
 the enemy by masking his works on one side of the 
 ridge from the fire of the collateral works on the 
 other. Various de\-ices have been proposed by engi- 
 neers to remedy this defect of exposure to entilading 
 fire. Some have proposed raising a very high \xm- 
 net at the .salient, to act as a traverse and limit the 
 effect of a plunging enfilade. Others have ]>ro- 
 posed a curved pan-coupe in the salient, of suflicieut 
 size to mount several guns to flre in the direction 
 of the capital. Others suggest breaking the faces 
 into several crochets, like the covered-way, and with 
 like purpose. Others propose to draw tlie salient of 
 the parajiet so far inwards that the faces jirolonged 
 will fall without the limits of the as.snilant's enfllading 
 positions. Others propose to occupv the salient with 
 a high casemated traverse, to cover from enfilade and 
 to give a strong fire from the casemates on the assjiil- 
 ant's apjiroaches in advance of the salients of the ad- 
 jacent works. See Ovfiri>rks a\u\ Ran I in. 
 
 DEMI LUNE CUT.— This cut isolates the part of the 
 dcnii-Ume near the extremity of the face from the 
 salient ])orliiin; this part, being arranged with a para- 
 pet behind the cut, can be defentlcd after the enemy 
 has efTected a lodgment on the demilune salient. The 
 cut thus prevents the enemy from driving the be- 
 sieged from the redoubt of the re-entering plaee-of- 
 arms: which he might do were the whole demi-lune 
 to fall at once into his possession. By jilacing the 
 interior line of the bottom of the cut sufficiently above 
 the bottom of the ditch, the scarp of the demilune 
 redoubt may be partly covered, and at the same time 
 an obstacle may be placed in the way of an enemy 
 who might attempt to cirry the work behind the cut 
 by first getting into the cut. The slope given to the 
 bottom of the cut still leaves a height between the ex- 
 terior line and the bottom of the demilune ditch 
 which will secure the cut from an assault on that 
 side. The object of this slojie is chiefly so to dimin- 
 ish the height of the demi lunc scarp that it may not Ix' 
 exjioscd to a battery, which can be jilaced on the glacis 
 of the re-enterinir lil.ice-of-arms. As to the interior 
 crest, it is placed as low as possible, and is arranged 
 to cover the interior from the plungimr fire of the 
 enemy when estiiblished on the demilune salient. See 
 llilxtiiiii-fnfr Cut. 
 
 DEMI-LUNE REDOUBT.— The essential object of 
 this redoul)t is to sweej) at close range the terre-plein
 
 OEHI-FABALLELS. 
 
 459 
 
 OEMOLITIOV. 
 
 ■of the demilune and to render its defense more obsti- 
 nate by the support it receives from tbe redoubt. The 
 enemy lia\ing possession of the demi-lune will be 
 obliged to earry its redoubt Iwfore he can assault the 
 breach he may have made in the bastion-face, as this 
 breach is seen in reverse by the tire of the Hanks of 
 this work. The redoubt should be as advanceii as 
 possible, to sec in reverse the lodgments of the enemy 
 on the glacis of the collateral works. The face of the 
 redoubt is directed on the interior .shoulder-angle of the 
 bastion to have its ditch flanked by the bastion-face. 
 In placing the salient of the magistral below the salient 
 of the demilune, the top of the scarp- wall will be near- 
 ly on the level ^\-ith the demi-lune terre-plein. This 
 .arrangement will force an enemy, lodged on the demi- 
 lune terre plcin, either to lower his battery to effect a 
 breach in the redoubt, or else to enijiloy a mine for 
 this purpose; either of which operations will cost him 
 much labor tmd loss of time. The least command 
 should be given to the redoubt over the demi-lune, to 
 enable the tire of the redoubt to sweep the demilune 
 tcrre plein. The flanks of the redoubt arc principally 
 to procure a reverse tire on the breach in the bastion- 
 faces; their length is estimated for three guns. The 
 piece nearest the extremity of one flank should be 
 covered I)y the extremity of the opposite flank from 
 the reverse tire which might come through the re- 
 doubt-gorge from the enemy's lodgment on the bas- 
 tion covered-way. The terre plein of the flank is 
 made 11 yards, "as it is habitually armed with can- 
 non. The scarp-wall of the redoubt may be reduced 
 to the minimum dimensions of 12 feet. But on 
 nceount of its importance, and also not to diminish 
 too much the interior space, it has been found that 
 the dimensions adopted, 16.50 feet, best satisfy the 
 requisite conditions. Tbe top of the wall slopes 
 towards the gorge, so that at tbe shoidder-angle it 
 may be about 4 feet lower than at the salient; the 
 object of this is to expose as small a portion of the 
 wall as pos-sible to the enemy's tire through the demi- 
 lune cut; which from its width might admit of a 
 breach l)eing made in tbe rcduulit, through it, from 
 the enemy's lodgment on the re-entering place-of-arms. 
 The dimensions named are employed in the Noizet 
 system of fortification. See Demi-hine. 
 
 DEMI PARALLELS. — In siege operations it is usual 
 to place the third parallel so near to the defenses as 
 to t)ring the covered-ways, or other most advanced 
 defcn.ses which may be assaulted openly, within range 
 of stone mortars, placed in batteries either within or 
 in front of this parallel; its position, for this ob.iect, 
 should be some 60 yards from the salient points of 
 the most advanced portions of the defenses, so as to 
 bring their interior within the range of the stone.s and 
 other missiles thrown from the mortars. In giving 
 the third parallel this position, there will be a wide 
 zone of ground between it and the second parallel, 
 over which the approaches connecting these two 
 parallels nuist be rvm, which would be very Tnuch 
 ex]iosed to the sorties of the besieged, as well as the 
 third parallel, were its protection left to troops sta- 
 tioned as a guard in the second parallel. To provide 
 protection for these approaches and for the third 
 pamllel whilst in process of construction, ends of 
 treiKucs, termed demi-pnmlleh, arc nm out on the 
 right and left of the lines of the approaches, far 
 «noiii;h to contain sufficient bodies of troops to pro- 
 tect the men working on the trenches in advance of 
 them from sorties, the positions of the demi-paral- 
 lels will be regulated by the same tactical considera- 
 tions as those which fegidate the positions of the 
 parallels. The length to which they should be ex 
 tended on the flanks of the approach will be regu- 
 lated bv the ntnnber of troops that it may be deemed 
 necessary to post within them, and also from the con- 
 sideration that they shall not obstruct or be endan- 
 gered by the fire of anv batteries to their rear. 
 
 DEMI PIKE.— A kiiid of spontoon, seven feet long, 
 used l)v the infantn' or for boarding. 
 
 DEMI PLACE D'ARMES.— In fortification, a circu- 
 
 lar trench constructed upon the prolongation of 
 the lines of the covered-way, to the right and left of 
 the zigzags, to cover the troops employed in their de- 
 fense. 
 
 DEMI REVETMENT.— A revetment of the scarf on- 
 ly to the height protected by the glacis. 
 " DEMOLITION. — In militarj- operations it sometimes 
 Ix-comes necessarj- to destroy buildings, bridges, etc. 
 Wooden structures are very readily and effectually de- 
 stroyed by burning. Ordinary dwelling-houses of 
 stone or brick may be blown do\\ii by pljicing against 
 the walls charges of from 2.") to .50 pounds of powder, 
 each contained in a bag, box, or any convenient ves.sel, 
 and exploded by means of an electric primer, a slow- 
 burning time-fuse, or a piece of slow-match. The 
 cft'ect of the explosion is to blow away a portiim of the 
 foot of the wall, that above .set lluig down without, as a 
 nde, toppling over. An inside angle or corner of the 
 Iniilding is the most advantageous place for the 
 charge, for the reason that, being confined on two 
 sides, the exjilosive force acts more powerfnllv than 
 when against a plain surface, and also because the 
 angle or comer of the building, being :i point of great- 
 est .s-upport, when blown away leaves the remaining 
 jiarts greatly weakened. Against strong and massive 
 walls, such as are generally found in large public 
 cditices, charges of po%\der, unless verj- heavy, have 
 but little effect when simply exploded against the 
 wall without tamping. Inside angles should, if pos- 
 sible, be taken, or when the building has buttres.ses, 
 the angles formed by them are advantageous for con- 
 fining the explosive force anil causing it to take effect 
 on the wall. The powder is placed in a box or kc^ 
 and covered with earth and stones. 'When placed 
 five or six feet above the foot of the wall the effect is 
 greatly increased. In all cases where demolition is 
 to be produced, dynamite may well Ik? used instead of 
 gtmpowder. Its destructive cifect is more than thirty 
 times that of powder, weight for weight. 
 
 To destroy the arches of a niasoniy bridge, exca- 
 vate a hole down to tbe crown or haunch of the arch, 
 place in it a charge of one or \\\o hundred jxiunds of 
 jiowder, according to the thickness of the arch, tamp 
 it wtjl with earth and stones, and explode it. The 
 amount of powder is determined from the formula 
 X = a A'-' X B: in which X is the charge in pounds, 
 A the line of least resistance thixjugh the arch, and B 
 the breadth of the bridge, both in feet. AA"hcn the 
 width of the arch is over 25 feet, two charges should 
 be placed, to prevent the chance of blowing a hole 
 through the middle without bringing down the sides. 
 Tlie.st" should be exploded simultaneously, if pos,sible. 
 \Vhen the side walls are lightly built, it is better to 
 pull enough of the stone away to allow a timnel being 
 run on top of tbe arch to the"middle of the roadway. 
 This does not interfere with the use of the bridge 
 during the oiieration, and if it is not desired to destroy 
 tbe bridge immediately, the charge may be kept in 
 its jilace ready for use at any moment. In this case 
 the charge should Ix" in a tight box or barrel, well 
 pitched to jirotect it against moisture. The charge 
 may be exi/loded by means of an electric primer, the 
 ordinarj' fus'e used in blasting, or with a powder-hose. 
 This latter is made of canvas or any stuff that will 
 held thie-grained powder, and is in<losed in a trough 
 to protect it from the moisture of the eai1h. 
 
 Wooden bridges are ca.sily burnt; but if great se- 
 crecy is necessarj-, a hole may lie Ixired with an auger 
 in a" main-brace and a charge of powder or dyna- 
 mite exploded therein, blowing it to pieces. C'harses 
 should bejilaced in several of the braces and cxploefcd 
 as near simultaneously as pos.sible. During the ^\ ar 
 of the Rebellion a small torpedo was de^•ised for this 
 purpose. It consisted of a tin cylinder 1.75 inch in 
 diameter and about 7 inches long. Both ends of the 
 cvlinder were open, anil through it pa.s.sed a bolt of 
 .to-inch iron, with a stout head at one end and a nut 
 at the other, each having a diameter of 2 inches. A 
 I washer of the same size as the head was placed under 
 the nut; through a hole in the washer passed a strand
 
 SXKOLITION OF ABTILLEBT. 
 
 460 
 
 dinsimeteb;. 
 
 of slowmiitch to coiiimunicate tire to the powder with 
 which the ey liiuler was lillecl. A coat of varnish pro- 
 tectwl the jjowilir from moisture. To use it, a hole 
 2 inches iu diameter was bored ia the timber; into 
 this the tor]K<lo was tiriveu, head downwards, and 
 the fuse iirniled. The most effectual way of destroy- 
 init au iron bridge is to attack the abutments by null- 
 ing down so as to gi't liehind tlie masonry a large 
 charge of powder or dynamite, which l>eing exploded 
 di-stroys the supports" of the suiH-rstructure. When 
 time and means iHTmit, remove as many bolts as jios- 
 sible, st> as to weaken the parts, after which Ijuild a 
 strong tire and heat the main-braces to make the 
 bridge sjig and warp out of shape, or to come down 
 entirely. 
 
 Canals may be temporarily disabled by cutting em- 
 bankments. "The most elleclual way, however, is to 
 blow up a lock, which may be done by digging down 
 Ix'hind a facing wall and placing agauist it a charge 
 of two or three hundred pounds of powder or a few- 
 pounds of dynamite, tamping well and exploding it. 
 A lock destroyed in this manner requires a long time 
 to rejiair. The arches of an aqueduct may be broken 
 by drillinii holes and blasting. An army depending 
 U|X)n a railroad for its supplies should be provided 
 with an organized Construction Corps, fully equipped 
 with every means for making speedy repairs. Dam- 
 ages done to railroads arc easily repaired, in compari- 
 son with those lione to canals. 
 
 DEMOLITION OF AETILLEKY.— The destruction 
 of ordnance by artificial or other means. This is per- 
 formed, if the gun is an iron one, by half tilling the 
 piece with powder, and jamming in one or two shot 
 with stones, bits of iron, etc.; over this a complete 
 tamping with stones and earth till the bore is tilled. 
 To break oft the trunnions is not always an infallible 
 mode of destroying ordnance, as they can still be 
 tired from the ground. When time admits of only 
 partially crippling guns by remo\ing one of the 
 trunnions, it is be.st done by laying the end of the 
 trunnion on a block of wood, the blow being given 
 by a sledge-hammer, or (if that be not at hand) by 
 heavy shot. A gun maj' be destroyed by tiring a 
 shot at it behind one of the trunnions, which, if it 
 shouUl not bre-.ik it, would render it unsafe. The 
 lirst method, however, particularly if the muzzle is 
 ])artly buriiil in the groiuiil, will be found certain to 
 liursl the gun. To render bronze guns imscr\icealilc, 
 tire a shot into them from some other piece, behind 
 the trunnions, which will prevent the possibility of 
 their being used airain. See Demolition. 
 
 DEMONSTRATION.— In military operations, an 
 a]iparent movement or maneuver the chief object of 
 which is to deceive the enemy and induce him to 
 divide his force, as if to meet dangers from various 
 quarters. AVhen thus divided and weakened, he may 
 be attacked with greater chance of success. 
 
 DENONCIATEUE.— In a general sense, a person not 
 impii jxrly calliil a military informer. So rigid in- 
 deed were the regulations (even in the most corrupt 
 state of the French Government) against every species 
 of misiippHcation and embezzlement, that if a private 
 dragoon gave information to the Comrai.ssjuy of 
 Musters of a troop-horse that had passed muster," hav- 
 ing been used in the jirivate .seniec of an ofticer, he 
 was not only entitled to his discharge, but received, 
 moreover, 100 livres in ea.sh, and became ma.ster of 
 the horse and ecjuipage, with which he retired unmo- 
 lested. The olticer was sunnnarilv dealt with. 
 
 DENSIMETER.— This instrument, employed in the 
 determination of the specilic gravities of metals for 
 cannon, is simply a fonn of the hydrostatic balance, 
 and was adopted in placeof the hydrometer, fonnerly 
 in use, in order to substitute a more expeditious |iro- 
 eess for the slow and tedious operation by the latter. 
 The instrument consists of a delicate beam-scale. A, 
 having suspended from one extremity of the beam a 
 brass bucket, B, the l)ottom ui which is perforateil 
 with holis. Underneath the Ijucket, and resting on a 
 lri|)od, D — which stands over the scale-pan in such a 
 
 manner as not to interfere with either the movement 
 of the balance or working with the ]ian — is a glass 
 jar, C, to contain w.ater for the immersion of the 
 bucket and specimen. A mark is scratched upon the 
 jar near the top. and this mark indicates the height at 
 which the water should, after the immersion of the 
 bucket, always stand jirevious to an experiment. The 
 immersion of the specimen caiLses the water to rise 
 above this mark, immersing an additional portion of 
 the stem of the bucket, anil the latter loses, in conse- 
 quence, a slight portion of its weight in reference to 
 the beam. A correction, therefoiv, becomes neces- 
 Siiry to comiiensjite for this apparent loss in weight. 
 To determine this correction, the bucket-stem is 
 graduated in the following maimer: The beam having 
 been thrown into action, and the immersed bucket 
 balanced by weights in the pan attached to the oppo- 
 site arm, a mark is made upon the stem of the bucket 
 where it is intersected by the surface of the water. 
 The height of the water in the jar is then raised till 
 as much more of the stem is immersed as is likely 
 ever to be the case iu practice. Another mark is then 
 made where the stem is now intersected by the water, 
 anil the loss of weight in the bucket a.sccrtaiiied. The 
 loss in weight, for the maximum immersion of the 
 stem, amounts to only one tenth of a grain, while the 
 coriesponding length of stem is nearly one inch; the 
 space between the marks, therefore, may be readily 
 subdivided into tenths, and the neces.s;iry coiTections 
 can thus be read off the stem in actual weight to the 
 nearest tenth of a grain. By using simply a thread 
 in place of the bucket, the above correction might be 
 neglected; but the greater convenience offered by the 
 latter has led to its final adoption. A thermometer is 
 suspended from the upper edge of the jar, as shown 
 in the drawing. 
 
 The process, with this instrument, of taking the 
 specific gia\nty of a specimen of metal naturally sug- 
 gests itself. The jar being filled witli water to the 
 fixed mark, and the bucket suspended therein, the 
 beam is thrown into action, and the weight of the 
 immersed l)ueket ascertained by means of weights 
 placed in the o)iposite scale-pan. This weight being 
 noted for dilT(>renl temperatures can be tabulateci, 
 and thus become a known element for all calculations 
 of the specific gravity with this instrument. The 
 specimen of meial is then placed in the pan under- 
 neath the jar. and weights added to the other pan till 
 the balance of the beam is restored. The sum of these 
 weights is the weight of the specimen in air ])lus the 
 weight of the bucket iu water. The specimen is now 
 transferred from the ])an to the bucket, and replaced 
 by weights in the pan underneath the jar, till the 
 equilibrium is again established. The sum of these 
 latter weights is the weight of the volume of water 
 displaced by the specimen ])lus the weiirht lost in the 
 bucket due to the immersion of an additional portion 
 of its stem. The loss in weight is read olT the biickct- 
 .stem in tenths of a grain, and is to be subtracted from 
 the weights in the pan underneath. Denote the weight
 
 t
 
 DENSITY. 
 
 461 
 
 DEPAETMENT OF WAS. 
 
 of the bucket in water, as first determined, by a; the 
 same weijjbt of bucket and the weight of the sjjecimen 
 in air by li; the weight requisite to restore the equi- 
 poise after immersion of the specimen by c; the loss 
 of weiglit in the bucket by rf, and the correction for 
 temperature by t. Then designating by D the specitic 
 gravity of the metal tested, 
 
 D: 
 
 (b-a) 
 
 The following is the form of the record of computa- 
 tion: 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF ARTULEHY STUDIES.— A De- 
 partment at AVoolwich, for advanced scientitic instruc- 
 tion, and for the instruction of officers generally, in 
 iniif/rul and kindred subjects. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF THE DIRECTOR OF ARTIL- 
 LERY STORES.— In Ihe British service, a Departuieut 
 charged with the regulation of armaments and the in- 
 troduction of new mait'riel; also the superintendence 
 of tlie manufacture of warlike stores. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF WAR.— "There shall be an Ex- 
 ecutive l)e|)artment, to Ix' denominated the Depart- 
 ment of War; and there shall be a principal officer 
 therein, to be called the Secretary for the Department 
 
 
 ■Weights. 
 
 1 
 
 Logarithms corresponding to- 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 %h 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 + 
 
 6} 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 Il 
 
 
 
 Specimen. 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 g+ 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 ft -0. 
 
 c-d. 
 
 e + h-/. 
 
 
 
 O) 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 bcs £ 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 K 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 ^0- 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 770 
 
 e 
 
 f 
 
 h 
 
 .8951309 
 
 
 Steel 
 
 877 
 
 &428 
 
 817.25 
 
 0.25 
 
 3.8080759 
 
 2.9122325 
 
 1.9992771 
 
 7.8548 
 
 
 See Dupont de Nemours Dendmeter and Mercury Den- 
 siiiiffer. 
 
 DENSITY.— When of two bodies of equal bulk or 
 volume the one contains more matter than the other, 
 it is said to have greater density tlian that other. The 
 quantity of matter is measured by the weight, and 
 tliiis density and specific gravity come to be propor- 
 tional to one another. Platina, which is about 21 
 times tlie weight of water, long passed for the densest 
 body; but Breithaupt of Freiburg, in 1833, made out 
 iriiliiiiii to be twice as ilense. Rare is opposed to 
 dense, and the rarest body known is /ii/drnr/in, ^^•llich 
 is about 14^ times rarer tlian atmospheric air. The 
 densitj' of bodies is diminished by heat and increased 
 by cold. In the manufacture of gunpowder it is 
 very necessary to attend to the density, as so much 
 dejiends >ipon this all-important point in regidating 
 the unifonnity, time of burning, and strength of the 
 powder. Experience has shown the density most 
 likely, under certain circumstances, to produce a good 
 result in thedUTerent natures of powder manufactured, 
 Iioth as regards their action upon the velocity of the 
 shot and the pressure upon the gtm. A large-grained 
 dense powder burns slower than a small-grauicd pow- 
 der of low density, and tends to preserve the gun 
 better, as it docs "not throw such a strain upon it; 
 heme the reason that large-gTained and dense powder 
 is used with all larire ordnance. See Unnpmoder. 
 
 DEPARTMENT COMMANDER.— An officer a.ssimi- 
 lattd to the Commander of a separate army, with the 
 same powers and duties in similar cases over all the 
 troops within tlic limits of the Department. He de- 
 rives his authority to command from the highest power 
 of the Government. In the United States|^ certain du- 
 ties of the Deiiartment Commander are defined by 
 statute. He can convene Courts-Martial, and his ac- 
 tion is final on all cases fried by such Courts, except 
 in the cjise of a General Officer, "or where the sentence 
 of the Court extends to the loss of life or the dismissal 
 of a Commissioned Officer. In time of war he is 
 authorized to execute the death-penalty in cases of 
 jwrsons con\icted as spies, mutineers, deserters, or 
 murderers, and in cases of guerrilla marauders con- 
 victed- in time of war of robbery, iiurglary, arson, 
 rape, assault with intent to commit rape, or violation 
 of the laws of war. See Geographical Departments 
 ■and Divimm and Military Department. 
 
 of War. He is to perform and execute such duties 
 as shall, from time to time, l)e enjoined on or in- 
 tnisted to him by the President of the I'nited States, 
 agreeably to the Constitution, relative to military 
 ccmmissions, or to the land forces or warlike stores 
 of the United States, or such other matters respecting 
 military affairs as the President of the United States 
 Shall assign to said Department. And furthcnnore, 
 that the said princijial officer shall conduct the busi- 
 ness of the sind Department in such manner as the 
 President of the United States shall, from time to 
 time, order or instruct. That there shall l)e in said 
 Department an inferior officer, to be appointed by the 
 said principal officer, to be employed therein as he 
 shall deem proper, and to be called the Chief Clerk in 
 the Department of War, and who, whenever the said 
 principal officer shall be removed from office by the 
 Presitlent of the United States, or in any other ease 
 of vacancv, shall, during such vacancy, have the 
 charge and custody of all records, books, and papers 
 appertaining to said Department. The Siud iiriuciiial 
 officer, and every other person to l)e aitiiointed or em- 
 ployed in said Department, shall, before he enters on 
 the execution of ins office or employment, take an 
 oath or alfinnation well and faithfully to execute 
 the trust committed to him." (Act Aug. T, 1789.) It 
 seems impossible to read this Act of Congre.ss, and 
 contend tliat oflicers of the army are a portion of the 
 War Department. And the statute-book will be 
 .searched in vain to find authority given to the Sec- 
 retar)' over any officers other than officers of Staff 
 Departments, or over subjects disconnected with the 
 custody of public records, the support and supply of 
 troojis, the manufacture and care of warlike stores, 
 the keeping of exact and regular returns of all the 
 forces of the United States, or other kindred admin- 
 istrative matters, such as receiving the proceedings 
 of Courts-JIartial anil laying them before the Presi- 
 dent of the United States for his apjiroval or disap- 
 proval, and orders in the case. There is no Act of 
 Congre.ss which authorizes the Secretary of War to 
 command the troo])s, and lie l)cing no part of the 
 army, the President, of course, cannot authorize him 
 to do so. But the Secretarv of War is the regular 
 constitutional orpui of the President for the admin- 
 istration of the military establishment of the nation; 
 and rules and orders publicly promulgated through
 
 D£P£NS£S. 
 
 462 
 
 DEPRESSINO-CASRIAGES. 
 
 him must Ik- rwcivHl iis the nets of the Exeoutivc, 
 and OS such arc biutliiii; uiwn all within the sphere of 
 his Icpil anil conslilutioniil authority. 
 
 Bv an Act i>f t'ongrress iipprovcii March 3, 1818, 
 it is"provi(lwl: That it shall be the duly ot the Sec- 
 retary of War, and he is hereby authorized, to jire- 
 paregenend reirulations, better detiuinir and pre- 
 scribing the re>peelivc duties and powers of the 
 sevend olVuers in the Adjutant General, Inspector 
 Geiiend, Ciuarterinaslcr General, and Coinnussarv of 
 .Ordniuice Depart nienls, of the Topographical Lngi- 
 nirrs, of the Aids of Generals, and generally of the Gen- 
 eral and Heginiental Staff: which reguiation, when 
 api)roveil by the President of the I'niteil Slates, shall 
 be rcspe'cted and ol)eycd, imtil altered or revoked by 
 the Siune authority. " Here was a partial delegation 
 , of legislative [wwer; and under this power of legis- 
 lation so contined to the sevend Staff Departments, 
 the Secretary of War, with the approval of the Presi- 
 dent, established Bureaus of the War Department, 
 making the head of each Staff Department Chief of 
 a Bureau, in all fiscal and administrative matters con- 
 nected with hi^ particular Deiiartmcnt under the Gen- 
 eral direction of the Secretary of War. The War 
 Department thus centralized all army administration, 
 ami efforts have since been made to centralize in the 
 same way the command and government and refla- 
 tion of tiie army. But as the old 62d Articl(> of War 
 declares that when different corps come together the 
 oflictr highest in rank shall command the whcjle and 
 give ortlers for what is needful to the .service, unless 
 otherwise specially directed by the President of the 
 United Stiites, according to the nature of the case, 
 while the 61st Article gives the command to the .sen- 
 ior regimental officer within his regiment , when other 
 troops arc not present, such centralization, if not a 
 violatiim of law, would be a \iolation of all inililary 
 principles, destructive alike to discipline and military 
 spirit. For commands given immediately by the 
 highest authority cause agitaiion rather than action. 
 The superior authority becomes weakened in propor- 
 tion as the eye becomes accustomed to it. Fear of 
 it ceases, and when the highest authority habituates 
 it.self to doing everjMhing, as soon as it ceases to be 
 sufficient to do all there is nothing done. All de- 
 grees of rank and command have their degree of im- 
 portance. Authority must regularly ascend and de- 
 scend. Ever\' inferior grade is the lieutenant of its 
 superior graile, even to the oldest soldier, who re- 
 places the corporal. Obedience is reciprocal to au- 
 thority. Rules established by Congress, defining the 
 rights, powers, and duties of all ofiicers and soldiers, 
 are niucB needed. See Secnkiry of War and War 
 Driiiiiti/iint. 
 
 DEFENSES. — A term used in a military sense to im- 
 ply secret service money. 
 
 DEPLOYMENTS.— A" general term for tactical ma- 
 neuvers by which the front is extended. The follow- 
 hig ])<iitits are general: On Jii-st or laM roii>/'<i»i/ — all 
 companies except the desigiiated company go t() right 
 or left, as the Major may command. If "to the ri'//it, 
 the point of rest is the l^ft of the line; if to the Iffl. 
 the jjoint of rest is the rig/it of the line. //' on an iii- 
 leru/r omiuini/, and the Major commands, "Fours 
 right and lift." the front compaines go to riaht, and 
 rmr companies go u, l.ft, and point of rest is the Uft 
 of designated company, if Ibe command be, " Fou'rit 
 Uft anil riijlil," the fnmt companies go to /(//, and rair 
 companies go to right, and ]>oint of rest is "the rii/ht of 
 the design.Hlcd company. In all cu.ses companies are 
 drcssid lowiird \\\f jmini of rixt. 
 
 DEPORTATION.— The forcible removal of a people 
 from their country: in former times employed as a 
 means of sc'curing the fruits of conipiesl.' In the 
 Scriptures it is recordeil that not only the .Jews but 
 other peoples were carried away captives. Bani.sh- 
 menl is stdl a mellnxlof punishirig political offenders 
 in France and some other ccMmtries. 
 
 DEPOSITION— The testimony of a witness set down 
 in writing. Depositions arc taken either by a Judge ; 
 
 or by a Commissioner specially appointed by him for 
 that" purpose. The questions to which the deix)si- 
 tions are answers are usually put by the legal repiv- 
 sentatives of the parties to the suit, \mder the control 
 of the Court or Commissioner, and the answers arc 
 taken down by the Clerk of Court, or by a Clerk 
 sijecially appointed for the purpose. If the compe- 
 tency of the questions or the admissibility of the wit- 
 nesses he objected to, the objection must be stated to 
 the Court or Commissioner. The latter may either 
 dispose of the objection at the time, or reserve it for 
 the opinion of the Court by which he was appointed. 
 It is a rule in the laws of e\ idence of all countries 
 that the deposition cannot be read where the witness 
 might be himself produced, because his oral testi- 
 mony is the best endence, and secondary evidence 
 is never admissible. Where he is dead, however, or 
 insane, or lieyond the jurisdiction of the Court, his 
 deposition then becomes the best e\idence and may 
 be read in Court. 
 
 DEPOSITS.— Soldiers may deposit with the Pay- 
 master any portion of their savings, in sums not less 
 than tive dollars, the same to remain so deposited un- 
 til final |)aynicnt on discharge. The Paymaster fur- 
 nishes each depositor with a deposit-book, in which 
 each deposit maile is entered in the form of a ccrtiti- 
 catc, signed by the Paymaster and the Company Com- 
 mander, setting forth the date, place, and amount (in 
 words and ligures) of deposit, and the name of sol- 
 dier making same. The attention of enlisted men 
 should be calletl to the imixirtancc of jireserving de- 
 posit-books as the only certain means of insuring ab- 
 solutely correct repayment without delay. On the 
 death of a soldier, account should be made of each 
 deposit in the inventory of his effects, and on the ac- 
 companying final statements with which his deposit- 
 book will be tiled. The separate and accurate state- 
 ment, by date and amoimt, of each deposit is abso- 
 lutely essential to the correct calculation of interest. 
 For any sums not less than fifty dollars deposited for 
 the period of si.\ months or longer, the soldier, on his 
 final discharge, is paid interest at the rate of 4 per 
 cent per annum. Deposits and interest thereon are 
 forfeileii by ilesertion, but arc wholly exempt from 
 forfeiture by sentence of Court-Martial and from lia- 
 bility for the soldier's debts. 
 
 DEPOT. — In military matters, a name sometimes 
 given to a place where army stores arc deposited dur- 
 ing war. In the English Regimental System, how- 
 ever, a depot used to be the town or barrack where 
 certain stores belonging to the regiment were kept, 
 as well as the regimental books and some of the men, 
 when the regiment was ortlercd on foreign service. 
 It was rarely that a whole regiment was engaged in 
 active service at once; either one or two companies 
 were generally kept at home, under the command of 
 one of the officers, and were called Depot Companies. 
 They formed a nucleus where recnut.s were received 
 and drilled, and where the cor]K)rale existence of the 
 regiment might be kept tip. By the Military Forces 
 Localization Act of 1872, under which the United 
 Kingdom is divided into seventy sub-districts, every 
 battalion, whether at home or aliroad, has a depot of 
 two conijianies. The depots of two battalions consti- 
 tute the deiK)t-ccnter. or sub district l)rigade, to which 
 the volunteers and militia of the .sub-district are atlil- 
 iatcd. In time of war the depot wouUl expand into 
 a third batinlion. 
 
 DEPRESSED GUN.— Any piece of ordnance having 
 its nioiilli (le|ir(sM d below the horizontal line. 
 
 DEPRESSING-CARRIAGES.— These carriages per- 
 mit Ibe Lcun to lire over a panqiet in the usual man- 
 ner, and upon recoil allow the piece to descend liehind 
 the jiarapel, where it can be reloaded in safely. Va- 
 rious i)lans for effecting this have been proposed, but 
 none aelually adopted, in the United Stales service. 
 The King carriage, mounting a 1.") inch guB, ha.s, 
 however, lx;cn tested and found to work etVicicntly. 
 This consists in lowering the rear end of the chassis 
 until it nearly touches the ground, thus forming an
 
 DEPRESSION. 
 
 463 
 
 DEBBICE. 
 
 inclined plane at an angle of about 30' to the horizon. 
 The topcarriase is attached to a counterpoise by a 
 band composed of wire ropes. This counterpoise is 
 a hcavj- ma-ss of metal descending into a well in front 
 of tlie pintle. The carriage that has been adopted, 
 and hereafter to be furnished for the barbette ser\ice, 
 has an increase of lo inches in height over those of 
 old pattern. This moditication is effected by insert- 
 ing sections, similar in construction to the chassis-rail, 
 between the rails and feet, props, and fork of the low 
 chassis. The increase of height thus gained admits 
 of a corresponding depression of the terre-plein, and 
 consequently greater protection behind the parapet 
 for the cannoneers. The gun, nevertheless, is ex- 
 posed as before. Depressing-carriages are intended 
 to protect the piece and carriage as well as the can- 
 noneers. The accuracy of modern artillery-tire in- 
 crea.ses the danger to the guns with which a work is 
 armed; and the disabling of a piece by the enemy's 
 lire is of greater moment now tlian formerly, when 
 works were garnished with a greater number, and of 
 such small size as to Ije readily replaced when in- 
 jured. 
 
 DEPRESSION.— 1. The pointing of any piece of 
 ordnance so that its shot may be projected short of 
 the point-blank. 2. The dtp of the horizon, or the 
 angle through which the horizon appears depressed 
 in consequence of the elevation of the spectator. Let 
 A be a point on the surface 
 of the earth, and B a point 
 situated in a vertical line 
 from i*_ Let BH lie a tan- 
 gent to the earth's surface 
 drawn from B, BA a line 
 in the same vertical plane 
 perpendicular to AB. The 
 angle ABII is the true dip 
 of the horizon to a specta- 
 tor at B. The true dip 
 measured in minutes is 
 equal to the distance in 
 nautical miles of the visi- 
 ble horizon. Let C be the 
 center of curvature of the 
 surface; then, since C'HB 
 is a right angle, the angle ABH = HCA, and the 
 minutes in this angle arc the nautical miles in the arc 
 AH. To find this angle in minutes or nautical miles, 
 the rule is: Multiplj- the square root of the height in 
 feet by 1.063. The true dip of the horizon, however, 
 is not exactly the sjime as its apparent depression. 
 The apparent sea-horizon is raised above its true place 
 by refrtiftion through an angle, which varies accord- 
 ing to the state of the atuiosphere and the relative 
 temperatures of the air and water, the variation rang- 
 ing from one third to one tnenly-third of the amount 
 of the true dip. The nde commonly employed is to 
 diminish the true dip by about one fourteenth of its 
 amount, to find the apparent dip. If S be a star or 
 the sun in the same vertical plane with ABH. and an 
 observation of the altituile above the sea-horizon be 
 made by means of a sextant from the point B, the 
 apparent dip of the horizon must be subtracted from 
 the observed angle, in order to find the altitude of the 
 sun. Owing to the uncertainty of the amount of re- 
 fraction, the nearest minute to the dip given in the 
 tables is usually taken. The following table gives a 
 Jsample of the amount of the apparent dip under or- 
 dinary state of the atmosphere and equal temperature 
 of air and water: 
 
 Height. 
 
 Dip. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Dip. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 m. s. 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 2 50 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 20 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 3 10 
 
 3 
 
 1 40 
 
 4 20 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 5 20 
 
 5. 
 
 2 10 
 
 40 
 
 6 10 
 
 6 
 
 2 20 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 240 
 
 100 
 
 9 .50 
 
 I DEPTH. — A technical word peculiarly applicable 
 to bodies of men drawn up in line or column. The 
 depth of a battalion or a squadron is the number of 
 men in rank and tile from front to rear. 
 
 ! DEPUTY ADJUTANT GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT. 
 — In the British service, a Department charged (uuiler 
 the Commander-in-Chief) with the discipline, promo- 
 tion, and distribution of bri:rades. 
 
 DEPUTY ASSISTANT ADJUTANT GENERAL.— 
 In the British service, a sul)oriliuate olticer of the 
 Adjutant Generals Department, who performs simi- 
 lar duties to those of an Assistant Adjutant General. 
 In the field, a Deputy A.ssislant Adjutimt Genei-al is 
 attached to each division. 
 
 DEPUTY MARSHAL.— In the Britieh service, the 
 senior Sergeant Major of each regiment of Foot- 
 guards, who sees afier and makes out the routes of 
 deserters, and receives an allowance for so doing. 
 
 DERASER. — A tenn meaning to cut off the super- 
 fluous clay from a gun-mold jirevious to its being 
 placed in ihe (lit. See ('iintiiiij and Mold. 
 
 DERIVATION.— Derivation, or drift, is the de%-ia- 
 
 1 tion peculiar to ritle-projcctiles, the divergence being 
 on the side towards which the grooves tmiit. It is a 
 constantly increasing divergence from the plane of 
 fire, and is allowed for, in ;dming, by means of a 
 lateral motion given to the rear sight. See Drift. 
 
 DERRICK. — The derrick is a machine used for 
 hoisting or lowering hea\-j- bodies to or from the top 
 of vertical walls or similar places. It usually con- 
 sists of one spar or leg; but the one employed for 
 raising 15-inch guns consists of two legs made of 
 round spars of jellow pine, 29 feet long, 11 inches 
 diameter at the "foot and 9 inches at Ihe toj); one sill, 
 half round, 16 feet long and 11 inches in diameter; 
 one cap, half round, 8 feet long and 9 inches in diam- 
 eter; two u-on straps, with keys and wedges for 
 securing cap to legs. ><ear eaeli end of the sill, on 
 the square side, is a mortise, into which fits the tenon 
 on the foot of the leg. The cap is similarly mor- 
 tised to receive the top of the legs, and is held fast in 
 this position by the straps fitting over it and keyed 
 through the legs. 
 
 The derrick %vill be readily understood by notic- 
 ing its action when raising a 15-inch gun. To per- 
 fomt this work, it is put together on top of the 
 rampart (or other place to which the gun is to be 
 raised); the sill is about five feet from the edge of the 
 wall; the main-tackle upper block is lashed to the 
 
 : cap near one leg, and the muzzle-tackle upper block 
 near the other leg. The ends (jf the giiys are hitched 
 to the ends of Uic cap; the middle laid across the 
 legs, and a half-hitch taken over each end, thus 
 doubling them; a stout thimble is placed in the bight 
 of each, into which the guy-tackles are hooked. 
 Secure holdfasts must be obtained for the guys; to 
 these the guy-straps are attached, and in the bight of 
 each a stout thimble is placed, into which the guy- 
 tackle is hooked. One end of the fore guy is attached 
 to the middle of the cap by a round tiim and two 
 half-hitches, the end being securely stoppered to the 
 gu}-. A luff-tackle purchase is applied to the fore 
 guy and its holdfast, and by means of this the 
 
 ' derrick is raised to a vertical po.sition. The sill is 
 firmly secured, with stakes or by bracing with skids, 
 against s<jme fixed object. The girlline is attached 
 to the cap by a strap, and ^laving been raised with the 
 derrick, a man is sent up by it, who, by the sjmie 
 means, receives the leading blocks, which he secures 
 
 I to the cap by means of straps. The main-tackle fall 
 is next rove "through the blocks, and the lower block 
 lashed to the gun 2 feet 6 inches in rear of the axis 
 of the trunnions. The muzzle- tackle fall is rove, and 
 the lower block lashed 3 feet in front of the axis of 
 the trunnions. These blocks are each la.shed to the 
 gun by seven turns with the lower-block lashing, the 
 lashing being frapped on each side of the blocks 
 with its ends. Two snatch-blocks are attached to the 
 sill, one near the foot of each leg, by strong straps. 
 These straps should be laid on the ground under the
 
 SEBRICX-CRANE. 
 
 464 
 
 DESERTION. 
 
 eill previous to raising tlic tlerricli, and if Uie (jround 
 Is ^nivfllv thev slioulil Ix- proteclt-d from chnting t)y 
 a canvas" laid 'iiiuliT Ihfiu. Tliroujrh these snatdi- 
 l(liK-ks the main and nuiz/.le tackle falls are severally 
 led, each to one of the capstans. The capstans are 
 manned hy sixteen men each. A strain is brought 
 \i\MU the falls, and the giiytackles hauled upon until 
 the heail of the ilerrick is almost vertically over the 
 cilgf of the wall. The capstans are worked and the 
 gim is hoisted, care being observed to work the cap- 
 stans so as to keep the jiicce in a horizontal position. 
 One or more shifting-i)lanks are let down by ropes 
 aipiinst the side of the wall to prevent the gun from 
 ciiatinu' against it and to ease it over the coping. 
 AVhen the gun reaches the top of the coping, preven- 
 ter-tackles are hooketl to straps aroinid the breech 
 and muzzle. When the piece is suthciently high, the 
 guy lulT-tackles are hauled upon jind the piece landed 
 on" cribs or blocks. The prcvcntcr-tacklcs are like- 
 ■n-ise used to assist in bringing in the piece and land- 
 ing it in a proper position. If it is desired to place 
 the gun on the cradle, the falls are slacked off and 
 the sill of the derrick moved far enough back to 
 admit the cradle. The gun is again raised and 
 landed in its bed on the cradle. The derrick .should 
 not be allowed to assume an inclination of less than 
 four on one. 
 
 To lower the gun, the piece is brought to the edge 
 of the wall on the cradle; the derrick is erected over 
 
 it; the gun-sling and the tackling are attached, all in 
 the manner explained for hoisting; the capstans are 
 worked; the piece lifted and ea.sed to near the edge 
 of the wall l)y the preventer-tackles. The cap of the 
 derrick having been placed directly over the piece, 
 the strain will increase its inclination sufficiently to 
 allow the gun to be eased to the edge of the wall. 
 In this position the piece is allowed to rest on blocks 
 or skids, tlie cradle is removed, and the sill of the 
 derrick moved up close to the gun. The gun is then 
 hoistetl, easetl over the edge, and lowered to the foot 
 of the wall. The derrick is dismantled in the inverse 
 order in which it was put up. One capstan, if 
 powerful enough, is sufficient for lowering or hoist- 
 ing the jjun, in which case the lower block is lashed 
 to the piece at the center of gravitv. The lashing is 
 c.veculed as U>fore cxjilained. The capstan usually 
 Issued to artillery post« is, however, not sufficiently 
 powerful, and it will invariably require two of theni. 
 Care must be taken to keejt llt'e guys hauled upon so 
 that the cap and sill remain always parallel to each 
 other; the derrick is thus prevented from twisting. 
 By omitting the cap and then lashing the heads of 
 the .spars together with shear lashing, the derrick 
 may be iLScd as shears. In this ca.se, "only the main 
 tackle can be u.sed. When spars can be procured of 
 siilllcient length to construct shears high enough, it is 
 iK-st to place the shears at the fool of the wall instead 
 
 of on the top. The shears should be not less than 20 
 feet higher than the wall. This method permits the 
 ])icce to be raised and eased over to the teiTc-plein 
 with less inclination, anil consequently less st.-aln 
 upon the legs of the shears a'ld on the guys. See 
 CapKtfin, Gill, and Mtrhiiniral Mdinnim. 
 
 DERRICK-CRANE.— A heavy crane for out-door 
 usi'. Its construction is subst"anlially identical with 
 that of the jib-crane except that the head of the mast 
 is miiiported by guy-rods, instead of by attachment to 
 a roof or ccilitig. This style of crane "is built of capa- 
 cities from 5 to 20 tons, and of any desired dimensions 
 of mast and jib. The description of the jib-crane will 
 apply to this crane also, all of their several parts bein^ 
 identical, except that in this case the mast is extended 
 somewhat above the jib, and the upper bearing, in 
 which the mast revolves, is sup)iorted laterally by guy- 
 ropes, or rods, attached at their lower ends to suitable 
 anchors in the ground, or to adjacent buildings. The 
 motions of hoisting and lowering, and travel of the 
 trolley on the jib, are all efTeeted by means of the 
 mechanism at the foot of the mast. By pushing or 
 pulling the suspended load rotation of the crane is 
 effected as easily as in the case of the ordinary jil)- 
 crane. This crane is adapted for u.se in foiuKlry- 
 yards, quarries, and on wharves, and can be substitu- 
 ted for the pillar-crane, where the guy-rods are not 
 objectionable, orwhere there is difficulty in ol)taining 
 the foundation neetled to sujijiort a pillar-crane. It 
 can also be arranged for operation by power, or by 
 direct steam. See Cranes and Jib-crane. 
 
 DESCEND.— A term, in a military sense, signifj-ing 
 to make an attack or incursion as if from a vantage- 
 groiuid. 
 
 DESCENTS. — In fortification, the holes, vault.s, and 
 hollow places made by undermining the ground. The 
 (kscentu into (he ditch arc cuts and excavations made 
 by means of saps in the counterscarp, beneath the 
 covered-way. They are covered with thick boards 
 and hurdles; and a certain quantity of earth is thrown 
 u]K)n the top in order to ob\iate tlie bad effects which 
 might arise from shells, etc. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE BOOK. — A company book in which 
 dcirrijitiir lixta of the soldiers are kept. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE LIST.— A paper giving a brief his- 
 tory of the soldier, a description of his person, and 
 the" statement of his account. It accompanies him 
 wherever he goes, being intrusted to his Detachment 
 or t'onipany Commander. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE MEMOIR. — This memoir, which 
 should always accompany a sketch of a topographical 
 reconnoissjmce, is intended to convey that information 
 relating to the natural features of the ground not ex- 
 pressed upon the sketch; to express that information 
 for which there arc no conventional signs; and to pre- 
 sent those facts relative to the ground which become 
 important l)y being considered in connection with the 
 prol)ablc niililary operations to be underlaken. 
 
 DESERTER.— A soldier who forsakes his flag. In 
 time of war such an act is punishalile with death or 
 otherwise as a Court-Martial may decide. In time of 
 pwice the pimi.shment is com])aratively light. De- 
 serters from the American army, having entered the 
 service of the enemy, suffer death if they fall again 
 into the hands of "the United Stales, whether by 
 capture or being delivered u)) to the American army; 
 and if a deserter from the enemy, having taken ser- 
 vice in the army of the United States, is cajitured by 
 the cneiuy and pimished by them with death or other- 
 wise, it is not a breach afeainst the law and usages of 
 war, rc(|uiriMg redress or retaliation. 
 
 DESERTION.— The crime of a man ab.sconding, dur- 
 ing the jieriod for which he is enlisted, from the ser- 
 \icc. In England Ibis crime was, by certain old 
 statutes, made punishable with death; but now the 
 punishment for desertion is prescribed by the annual 
 Mutiny Acts. By these any t'ourl-Martial inay inflict 
 a sentence of eori>ora! pmiishmeiit, not exceeding fifty 
 lashes, for desertion, and may in addition award im- 
 prisoimicnl for the period prescribed by the Articles
 
 BESICCAnOH. 
 
 465 
 
 DETACHED WOBES, 
 
 of War. By 20 Vict. c. 13, s. 35, and 22 Vict. c. 4, 
 8. 35, it is provided that deserters may Ije marked on 
 the brea.st in guiii)Owder or ink with the letter D. 
 This provision is omitted in tlie Mutiny Act, 1860. 
 Recruits deserting before thej' have joined their regi- 
 ments are to be taken to tlie rejrimenl nearest to the 
 place where tliey were found, Init to sulTer no punish- 
 ment except loss of bounty. Inducing to desert was 
 formerly punishable by death; the jiunishinent has, 
 by modem stiitutes. beeii commuted to ]>enal .servitude. 
 If simply " absent without leave," a British soldier, 
 besides undergoing some kind of punishmeni, forfeits 
 his regular pay for the days of absence; but if his 
 non-appearance involves actual desertion, he loses all 
 claim to additional pay, good conduct money, and 
 pension. The number of deserters from the liritish 
 army is very great. In one jjarticular period of eight 
 months it was found that no less than 8822 men 
 deserted from the regular army, and 6614 men from 
 the militia ; in 1874, 793!} men deserted from the 
 army; and in 1875, 5629. Many ex]ierienced officers 
 attril)ute the evil to the temptations of l)oimly, rather 
 than to any other cause; and adxisc that the same 
 amount of money should be applied to the soldier's 
 benefit in some other form. 
 
 In the United States, the President is authorized to 
 drop from tlie rolls of the army for desertion any of- 
 ficer who is absent from duty three months without 
 leave; and no officer so dropped shall be eligible for 
 reappointment. And no officer in the militarj' or 
 naval service is in time of peace dismissed from ser- 
 vice except upon and in pursuance of the sentence of 
 a Courl-JIartial to that effect, or in commutation 
 thereof. A reward of $30 is paid for the apprehen- 
 sion and delivery of a deserter to an officer of the 
 anny at the most convenient post or recruiting station. 
 This reward includes the remuneration for all ex- 
 penses incurred in apprehending, securing, and deliv- 
 ering the deserter. Rewards and expenses paid for 
 apprehending a deserter are set against his pay on 
 conviction by a Court-Martial of desertion, or upon his 
 restoration to duty without trial on such condition. 
 Where a soldier, for whose apprehension as a sup- 
 posed deserter the reward of ^30 has been paid, is 
 brought to trial under a charge of desertion and ac- 
 quitted, or convicted of absence without leave only, 
 the amount of the reward is not stopped against his 
 pa.v. Deserters make good the time lost by desertion, 
 unless discharged by competent authority. They are 
 considered as again in service upon return as deserters 
 to military control. Deserters are brought to trial 
 wth the lea.st practicable delay. While awaiting trial 
 they receive only the clothing absolutely necessary, j 
 and no pay. Every deserter forfeits all pay and al- 
 lowances due at the time of desertion. The author- [ 
 ized stoppages and fines due at the time of desertion ] 
 are deducted from the arrears of pa}'. If the stop- ^ 
 pages and tines are greater than the arrears of pay, 
 the balance is deducted from pay due after apprehen- 
 sion. 
 
 Deserters from the enemy, after being examined, 
 are secured for some days, as they nnty be spies in 
 disguise; as opjiortTmities offer they are sent to the 
 rear; after which, if they are found lurking al>oul the 
 armj', or attempting to return to the enemy, they are 
 treated with severity. The arms and accouterments 
 of deserters are turned over to the Ordnance Depart- 
 ment, and their horses to the corjis in want of them, 
 after Ix-ing branded with the letters " U. S." The 
 compensation to be accorded to deserters for such ob- 
 jects is according to appraisement made under the 
 direction of the Quarterma-ster's Department. The 
 enlistment of deserters from the enemy, without ex- 
 press permis.sion from General Headtjuarters, is pro- 
 hibited. Soldiers who may be discovered to be de- 
 serters from the Na^-y or JIarine Corps arc immedi- 
 ately dropped from the rolls of the army. In all such 
 cases reports arc fonvarded with descriptive rolls to 
 the Adjutant General's Office, and the men held with- 
 out pay, awaiting instructions. This b not reg.arded 
 
 as requiring the discharge of any man who mav have 
 been enlisted in the army after ha\'ing received a dis- 
 charge from the Xa\y or Marine Corps, the recruiting 
 officer being in ignoi-ance of the fact that he had de- 
 serted from either of those branches of the ser\iee; 
 but whenever such fact of desertion becomes known, 
 it will be regarded as a bar to enlistment in the army. 
 In ca.se, however, of such enlistments, no benefit can 
 accrue to the soldier for previous time served in the 
 army. Every pers<jn who entices or procures, or at- 
 tempts or endeavors to entice or procure, any soldier 
 in the military .service of the United States, or who 
 has been recruited for such service, to desert there- 
 from, or who aids any such soldier in deserting or at- 
 tempting to ilesert from such serWee, or who harbors, 
 conceals, protects, or as-sists any such soldier who may 
 have deserted from such ser\-ice, knowing him to 
 have deserted therefrom, or who refuses to give up 
 and deliver such soldier on the demand of any officer 
 authorized to receive him, is punished by imjirison- 
 ment for not less than six months nor more than two 
 j'ciirs, and by a tine not exceeding $500. 
 
 DESICCATION.— The expulsion of moisture from 
 solid substances. This is effected at various tempera- 
 tures, according to the nature of the substance, and 
 by different means, such as the water-oven, air-bath, 
 etc. Tlie wood of fuses is thus treated. 
 
 DESPATCH.— An otlicial document or letter penned 
 by a Commander in the field to other authorities. 
 The term is also applied to letters received from Gov- 
 ernors of Colonies. All correspondence from Mili- 
 tarj- Commanders to superior authority in the field, 
 detailing their acts before the enemy, come imder the 
 head of despatches. 
 
 DETACH. — To separate for a special object or use; 
 as to send out a body of men on .some particular ser- 
 vice, separate from that of the main bodv. 
 
 DETACHED BASTION.— In fortification, a bastion 
 which is sejiarated fnjin the enceinte liv a ditch. 
 
 DETACHED 'WOEKS.— In fortification, the works 
 that arc situated beyond the range of fire of any other 
 works, and which, for their security, have "to rely 
 upon their own strength and resources. The object 
 of such works is to defend and hold isolated points 
 that are of importance, such as railroad or other 
 bridges, mountain-pas.ses, naiTow defiles, fords, points 
 upon rivers, to close them against the passage of hos- 
 tile vessels, etc. The character and extent of a work 
 of this class will depend upon the degree of impor- 
 tance attached to the object for which it is construct- 
 ed, the amount of force available for its occupancy, 
 and the nature of the localilv. In ever\- instance 
 
 #^^: -fm 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 artillery- would fortn an important element in its 
 means of defense, and the position of the work should 
 be selected so as to allow free u.se of it. ^^'orks of 
 this kind may be cla.ssified under three heads: 1. 
 Those which, being secure on the flanks and in the 
 rear, are assjiilalile only in front. Under this class 
 may be placed open batteries located on the banks of 
 rivers, or at the entrance of harbors, to prevent the 
 pas.sage of an enemy's vessels. 2. Those which are 
 assailable in front and on the flanks, but not in rear. 
 3. Those which arc as.sailablc on all sides. 
 
 FiTit C/«*«.— This is applicable to narrow defiles 
 where the flanks are secure against being turned. 
 When the width of the defile is not greater than 1800 
 yards, the line may lie a straight one (A B) for infan- 
 trj', with short advanced lines'on the flanks, as repre- 
 sented in the drawing (Fig. 1), for artillery. Should
 
 DETACHMENT. 
 
 466 
 
 DETACHMENT. 
 
 the conformation of the around be not suitable for 
 placing urtilK-rv precUly as representetl in the draw- 
 inff. then the 'most coinmanding position on some 
 othir part of the line will ix- selwted for it, bearins: 
 iu mind always to si^cure as far as possible cross tire 
 over the ground in front. When the delilc exceeds 
 IW^Kt yanis in width, a i-n »»((■«<>(• or ivrniUd line is 
 adopteil. ami on it the artillery is disposed as repre- 
 sented in Fig. 2. , . ■, 
 Seoiid f7</«i.— The plan of works of the second 
 class admits of great variety, deiX'nding on the extent 
 of the position. The inosl"siniple is that of a work of 
 onlv two faces, the sjilient being towards the assiiil- 
 aut's line of approach. This work Is termed a ruiax. 
 The faces should receive such direction as to sweep 
 the approaches to the flanks of the position. As 
 
 Fig. S. 
 
 many pieces as possible are placed in the salient, and 
 others disposed along the faces in the most command- 
 ing positions for sweeping the ground in their front. 
 The angle formed at the sjdient Viy the faces should 
 never be less than 60 . When the tiank approaches 
 extend somewtat to the rear, a flank is added to each 
 face of the redan; it then becomes a biiutu. The 
 flanks receive such directions as will sweep by their 
 fire that iX)rtion of the flank approaches which can- 
 not be reached from the faces except by a very 
 obliijue tire. The artillery is placed in position at the 
 salients, in each of which is a pan-coupee. 
 
 Third Clam. — The works comprised in this class are 
 termed inclosed works; as, being as.sailable on all 
 sides, they must, for security, present a complete line 
 throughoiit to atiy assault. These works may be di- 
 vided into three "orders: 1. Polycpmd ii-orks, or re- 
 doubtx ; 2. TtiiailUd irorks, or star-forts ; 'A. Bas- 
 tioneil irtirks. See Field-fortification. 
 
 DETACHMENT. — Detachments consist of small 
 bodies of troops, composed of one or several arms, 
 to which are intrusted some mission connected with 
 the operations of the main body, but, for the most 
 part, performed beyond the sphere of its support; 
 such, for example, as the occupation of some post, or 
 defile, which is to be held temporarily, as necessary 
 to the movements of the main body; the surprise of a 
 post held by the enemy; the seizure of a convoy, etc. 
 The composition of a detachment will depend upon 
 the nature of the duty to be performed; the character 
 of the countr)' in which it is to operate; the distance 
 of the point to be reached; and the more or less celer- 
 ity required in the operation. As a general rule, de- 
 tachments should be formed only of light troops, 
 well acquainted with their duties; and, in every 
 ca.se where it can be done, they should consist of a 
 proper proportion of each arm of the service, if the 
 duty upon which they arc sent is at all of an Im- 
 portant character. By this combination each arm is 
 enabled to act with more boldness and vigor, from 
 the support with which it will meet in the others, and 
 can better select it.s moment for action, according to 
 the character of the ground on which it finds it.sclf. 
 The combats of detachments will be mostly restricted 
 to firing and the skillful emploj-ment of skirmishers. 
 The troops must be kept perfectly in hand for mutual 
 support, the artilUrj' keei>iug near the infantry-, and 
 the cavair}-, whenever the opportunity is presented, 
 haziu-ding only short but vigorous charges against 
 the enemy. The officer placed in command of a de- 
 tachment should he thoroughly conversjint with the 
 handling of troops, so as to insure constant reciprocity 
 of sui)i)()rt, and to be able to seize upon those oppor- 
 
 tunities of bringing the proper arm into ik linn. and 
 for i)a.ssing from the defensive to the offensive, whicb 
 combats between small bodies of troops so frequently 
 present. 
 
 As a detachment must rely mainly on its own re- 
 sources, the fursound and miit'rirl of the troops 
 should be rigidly insiH'Cteil iK'fore marching, to sec 
 that the men' anil horses are in a sound .state; that 
 nothing is wanting iu their equipments; that the gun 
 and other carriages are in good traveling order; and 
 that the necessary amount of ammunition, provisions, 
 and fonige have lieen provided for the expedition. 
 Every source of infomiiition should be consulted with 
 resitect to the nature of the roads and the country 
 over which the column is to march; luid good maps, 
 telescopes, and guides should be provided. If a re- 
 connais-sance of the line of march hits been directed, 
 it should Ix- jilaced in charge of ii well-informed staff 
 or other oflicer conversant with the duties required 
 of him, so that the Commander of the detachment 
 may be accurately informed of the state of the roads, 
 as "to their practicability for men, horses, and car- 
 riages; particularly the" number of hours of march 
 froin station to station; and the character of the ob- 
 stacles with which he may be liable to meet, from the 
 state of the bridges, the "nature of the watercoui-scs, 
 and the defiles along the route. In order to avoid 
 being anticipated in our object by the enemy, every 
 attention should be paid to preserve strict order among 
 the troops, and to advance with celerity, so that 
 secrecy may be kept until the detachment reaches its 
 destination! The troops for this purpose should be 
 kept as closely together as the character of the 
 ground will permit; and when guides are employed 
 thev nuist be strictly watched, and not be dismissed 
 until the march is' completed. The distribution of 
 troops, or the <>;•(/<;• nf march, will mainly deix-nd 
 upon the character of the country; the geuei-al rule to 
 be followed is so to place each arm in the column 
 that the troops may be formed for action by the 
 most prompt and simple movements. In a very open 
 country the greater part of the cavalry will be at the 
 head o"f the column; where it is somewhat broken, 
 half of the cavalry may be in front, and the remain- 
 der in the rear; and in a very difficult country the 
 infantry will lead. The artillery may be placed iiv 
 tlie intervals of the column where the country is not 
 difficult; in the contrary case it will be in the rear, 
 but covered by a small detachment which it pre- 
 cedes. 
 
 The colunui must be secured from a sudden attack 
 of the enemy by an advanced-guard, fiankers, and a 
 rear-guard. " The advanced-guard will be composed 
 of cavalry or infantry, or of the two combined, accord- 
 ing to the character "of the country. In some cases it 
 may be well to have two or three light jiieces with 
 tlie"advanced guard. The strength of the advanced- 
 guard, for detachments not over two thousiuid men, 
 need not be greater than one fifth of the whole; for 
 larger bodies it may be between a fourth and a third, 
 according to the degree of resistance it may be re- 
 quired to offer. The^tdvanced-^uard of a detachment 
 shoidd .seldom leave a wider uitcrval than about a 
 thousand paces between it and the main body. In a 
 broken country, when this force consists of infantry 
 alone the distance slioulil be less, to avoid an ambush. 
 The nuiin body of the advanced-guard slwndd always 
 be preceded a few hundred paces by a strong patrol 
 of cavalry or infantry, to search the ground and se- 
 cure the advanced-guard from falling into an ambush, 
 or from a sudden attack. The fiankers will consist 
 mainly of a few detachments, which march parallel 
 to the column and a few hundred jiaees from it, ac- 
 cording to the character of the gnanul; these will 
 throw out a few men, from a hundred to a hundred 
 and fifty jiaces, on their exjiosed flank, to keep a vigi- 
 lant lookout, in that direction, for the enemy. Oc- 
 casional patrols may also be sent out on the flanks 
 when it is deemed necessar)' to push an examination 
 to some distant point, or to" gain a height offering a
 
 DETAIL FOB DUTY. 
 
 467 
 
 DETONATION. 
 
 commanding view of the country. As the object of 
 the flankers is rather to ^ve timely notice to the 
 m.ain body of au enemy's approach than to offer any 
 serious resistance, the detachments of which they are 
 composed need only consist of a few men. "The 
 rear-jruard. excejJt in a very broken or mountainous 
 coumrj-, which would offer facilities to the enemy for 
 slipping to the rear, need only be a small detachment, 
 placed more to prevent stragglers from falling to the 
 rear thiin for any other object. Kight-marches should 
 not be made, except in case of necessity. When their 
 object is to surprise an enemy, if there be an ad- 
 vanced-guard, it should be kept near the head of the 
 column. Patrols should be sent forward, with orders 
 to advance with great caution and not push on too 
 far. Flying patrols maj', if leiiuisite, be kept up on 
 the fianks. The most exact order and silence should 
 be maintained, and extreme vigilance be exercised to 
 avoid placing the enemv on the alert. 
 
 DETAIL FOR DUTY."— A roster, or table, for the 
 regular performance of duty either in camp or g;trri- 
 son. The general detail is regulated by the Adjutant 
 General, according to the strength of the several 
 coqis. The Adjutant of each regiment superintends 
 the detail of the officers and non-commissioned offi- 
 cers for duty, and the Orderly Sergeants detail the 
 privates. 
 
 DETONATING-FUSE.— By a detonating-fuse, or det- 
 onator, is meant one that causes a detonating ex-plo- 
 sion. The ordinary method of jiroducing explosion 
 is by the direct application of flame. By the detonat- 
 ing method, explosioti of the main charge is caused 
 by the concussion exerted by a small charge of ex- 
 plosive material in the fuse. Fulminatiug-mercury 
 seems to possess peculiar properties as a detonator, 
 and practicall}' is the only body so used. Detonat- 
 ing-fuses are used when violent shattering explosions 
 are desired. Thus nitroglycerine, gtm-cotton, and 
 their preparations are always fired by means of a 
 fulminate exploder. The ignition of the fulminate 
 may be accomplished in the ordinary manner, or by 
 the use of electricity. 
 
 The simplest fulminate exploder is made by at- 
 taching a copper case or large cap containing the ful- 
 minate to the end of a Jiiece of common running-fuse. 
 If the fuse fits the cap closely it may be retained in 
 place, and the cap protected against moisture by press- 
 ing round it wax, hard soap, or other similar sub- 
 stance. If the fuse is too small, it must be passed 
 through a plug of wood or small cork fitting the cap, 
 and the whole fastened on as above. Before it is 
 fastened into the cap the end of the fuse must be 
 spread out so as to insure contact with the fulminate. 
 Fifteen grains is the usual amount of fulminate placed 
 in the cap; it should be put in when wet, with some 
 gtimmy solution or varnish, so that it will dry to a 
 solid lump which will not shake loose. Even in ex- 
 ploding powder there is often great advantage in 
 using detonating-fuses. It is difticult to prove that 
 actual detonation of the powder is brought about, 
 but experiment has shown that a much more \iolent 
 action can be obtained by using this mode of firing. 
 See Delinuiti'iri and Fhki. 
 
 DETONATING POWDEK.— One which explodes by 
 a blow. The compound used in the ('riming of per- 
 cussion-caps and fuses is tlie fulminate of mercurj' or 
 of silver, collected as a precipitate when the metal, 
 dissolved in nitric acid, is poured into warm alcohol. 
 The jirecipitate is collected, washed, and dried. 
 
 DETONATING PRIMEE.— A primer exi)loded by a 
 fu.se, and used in blasting-operations to violently ex- 
 plode gun-cotton, instead of the former plan by 
 which the cliarirc of gun-cotton was simply ignited. 
 
 DETONATION.— The instantaneous explosion of 
 the whole mass of a body. ThiLs, when gtmpowder 
 is fired in the usual manner, true combustion takes 
 place, which goes on with comparative slowness from 
 the surfaces of the grains toward their interioi-s. On 
 the other h.and, when nitroglycerine is fired by means 
 of f ulminating-mercury, the whole mass explodes si- 
 
 multaneously, or very nearly so. Doubtless a certain 
 time is always necessary; but with the so<-alled deto- 
 nating explosives it can be practically neglected, and 
 the explosion called instantaneous. 
 
 Some explosives seem to always detonate, no mat- 
 ter how fired (chloride of nitrogen, the fulminates, 
 etc.), while others are detonated or not according to 
 the method of firing (gun-cotton, gunpowder, etc.). 
 Probably all explosives can be detonated if the right 
 methods of doing so are known. Gun-cotton seems 
 to have a greater range of susceptibilitj- to different 
 modes of firing than any other explosive agent. It 
 can be made to burn slowly without explosion, and 
 the rapidity of its action can be increa.sed up to the 
 detonating point. Nitro-glycerine always explodes 
 powerfully, but its effect is much lessened when fired 
 ^ith gunpowder. Gunpowder, as ordinarily used, 
 is, of course, not detonated, as the violent, sudden ef- 
 fects of detonation would be undesirable. For other 
 puriioscs (e.g., torpedoes, etc.) it would be a great 
 advantage if it could be made to give more violent 
 explosive effects by a peculiar mode of firing. It has 
 been demonstrated that this can be done, although 
 the best mode of doing it, or whether detonation is 
 actually accomplished, is not known. Probably a 
 mechanical mixture like gunpowder can never be 
 brought by any mode of firing to ajiproach as near 
 to a perfect detonation as the chemical substance 
 nitro-glycerine or gun-cotton; but, even if not det- 
 onated, better effects for certain u.ses may be obtained 
 from it if the proper means are used. 
 
 Detonation is produced l\y the application of the 
 requisite concussive force by means of a detonating- 
 fuse. A detonating-fuse is one which causes explo- 
 sion by the blow or shock it gives, while the ordinary 
 fiLse usually ignites by simple inflammation. Det- 
 onating-fuses are generally charged with fulminating- 
 mercury, a substance which seems to be specially 
 arlapled for this use. With such fuses are fired nitro- 
 cljxerine anil its preparations and dry gim cotton, 
 ^iiere seems to be for each explosive about a certain 
 amount and kind of force required to effect detona- 
 tion, which must not be materially dei)arted from. 
 If the fuse is too weak, inflammation or a feel le ex- 
 [ilosion only will result; if too heavily charged, it is 
 more likely to scatter or disintegrate the nuilerial 
 acted tipoii than to explode it. There is also a rela- 
 tion between the mass of the explosive and the charge 
 of the detonating-fuse which must be observed. This 
 relation is more" marked with some explosives than 
 with others. Thus, nitro-glycerine is a body easily 
 detonated, and the siune amount of fulminate seems 
 to fire equally well all usual quantities. If a single 
 particle is "detonated, the action quickly extends 
 through the whole mass. Other substances, less easily- 
 detonated, require that as the mass is increased the 
 force applied shall be increa-sed, so that all the parti- 
 cles shall receive a sufficient blow, otherwise only a 
 part will be detonated. 
 
 In a detonation we have the fullest explosive effect. 
 The suddenness of the explosion concentrates the 
 blow, making it sharp and violent. For certain pur- 
 poses this is much more effective than woidd be the 
 siime total amount of force more slowly exerted. 
 For instance, in blasting hard rock the violent explo- 
 sion will throw out and shatter much more rock pro- 
 portionally than the slower explosion, which intends 
 to escape' in the ilirection of the least resistance. 
 Therefore, in lilasting with nitroglycerine, for exam- 
 ple, hard tamping is unneces.sarj-. The explosion is 
 too sudden to allow the gases to "blow out the tamping 
 and so escape. The effect is consequently equal in 
 all directions. The advantages gained in blasting 
 with nitro-glvcerine and its preparations are so great 
 that their u.se is constantly increasing, in spite of their 
 high cost and the iM-ejudice against them on account 
 of the manv accidents that have occurred with them. 
 When a scattering, tearing effect is desired, the det- 
 onating explosive must be used. See Deionating-fiua, 
 Erplogum, and Gunpoitder.
 
 DEVA8TATI05. 
 
 468 
 
 DEVIATION OF PK0JECTILE8. 
 
 DEVASTATION.— In warfare, the act of clcstroy- 
 injr. layiiii; waste, demolishing, or unpeopling towns, 
 forlitiiil plaofs, etc. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT. — That process in photography 
 which iiiiincilialily follows c.vposurc, and which rcii- 
 diT^ the piituiv visible in nil its details. It consists 
 in the pn'cipitation or deposition of luir mattrinl on 
 that portion of the sensitive surface which has been 
 acted on by light; the same principle therefore pre- 
 vails in all proc-esscs. This may be made clearer by 
 reference to a few examples, "in the daguerreotype 
 process, an io«lized silver plate, after exposure in the 
 camera, is e.vjiosed to the vapor of mercury; the 
 vajxir adheres to those ixirlious of the iilate which 
 have undergone a peculiar molecular change from the 
 action of light, but not to those part.s unacted on. 
 The light.s of the picture are therefore "developed," 
 or " brought out," by the acquisition of nnc vutteriid, 
 i.e., mercury. A collodion ue.^itive is similarly 
 " brought out" by the precipitation, by means of a 
 <ieoxidi/.iug ageni, such as pyrogallic acid, or proto- 
 sulphate of iron, on the actinutd portion of the plate, 
 of iteir iiKiUria/, comimsed of metallic silver and or- 
 ganic matter. A similar change takes place in the 
 chrvsotype process, where the metallic salt with 
 which the paper is impregnated is reduced to a state 
 of protosah, which reacts through the decomi)Ositiou 
 of water, and causes the precipitation of neir materiiil, 
 in the form of tinely diWded metallic gold, on the 
 parts where light has acted. Other processes might 
 b<' cited, but these are deemed sufficient to Ulustrate 
 the principle slated above. 
 
 DEVIATION OF PROJECTILES.— The term devia- 
 tion must be understood to mean not only the deflec- 
 tions, right or left, of the line of lire, but also the dif- 
 ferences l)etween the ranges of similar projectiles tired 
 under like condition from the s;mie guns. Very great 
 irregularities occur in the patlis of spheiical projec- 
 
 niay lie blowing with or against ilie projectile. The 
 lower the velocity of a projectile, the greater will l)c 
 its detlection caiised by the wind, as, for instance, 
 upon mortjtr-shclls, on which, having low velocities 
 and long times of liight, the wind e.xercises a very 
 disturbiiig influence. The greater the density of the 
 projectile, the less will its motion, during flight, be 
 afTccted by the wind; and thus shells are more in- 
 tiuenced by wind than shot. The wind exercises a 
 very great deflecting influence upon an elongated pro- 
 jectile during its flight, rendering it dillicult to obtain 
 accuracy of tire at long ranges, even from ritie<l guns, 
 excepting in very calm weather. If the center of 
 gravity t)e placed verj- near the center of the long 
 axis, the force of the "wind will be pretty evenly dis- 
 tributed over the whole length of the project ile. 
 Should, however, the center of gravity be placed far 
 in advance of or behind the center of tigure, the force 
 of the wind will press unequally upon the shot, and 
 uncertain deflections will most probably occur. 
 
 It is imi)ossible with our present facilities to manu- 
 facture large (piuntities of powder of a perfectly uni- 
 form quality; but supix)sing it could be accomplished, 
 the force from a given charge would be liable to va- 
 riation according to the state of the atmosphere, and 
 the condition of the powder as affected by the time it 
 has Ix'cn in store; it will also be frequently found in 
 practice that the charges have not been weighed out 
 with perfect accuracy, nor the gun loaded so that the 
 projectile is always in the same position with refer- 
 ence to the charge. The consequence is that verj' 
 few projectiles tired from the siime gun with wh:it, 
 are called equal charges leave the bore with exactly 
 the same initial velocity. 
 
 The deviation of a projectile caused by the rotation 
 of the earth is a complicated problem. The principle 
 that this rotation will impress upon the projectile a 
 tendency, upon lca\'iug the bore, to move with the 
 
 /mmmmmmwwmmmmmmmmmm:^ 
 
 \ i immimsm sis;isim!smism&^iism$sim!k^ .. 
 
 e- — Q^ 
 
 ii 
 
 Flo. 1. 
 
 tiles. If a number of projectiles be fired from the 
 same gun, with equal charges and elevations, and 
 with gunpowder of the s;ime quality, the gun-carriage 
 renting ui)on a platform, and the piece being pointed 
 with the greatest care before each roimd, veiy few of 
 the projectiles will range to the same distance; and, 
 moreover, the greater part will be found to deflect 
 considerably, unless the range be very short, to the 
 right or left of the line in which the gim is pointed. 
 AVith elongated projectiles the tire is far more accu- 
 rate, but still the ranges and deflections are subject to 
 varialit)ns of greater or less amount. The causes of 
 the deviations of projectiles, whether tired from 
 smf)oth-lx)re or rifled guns, and independent of inaccu- 
 racy in pointing, and variable position of the gun- 
 carriage, are wind, variable projectile force, and rota- 
 tion of the earth. 
 
 Should the wind bo Iilowing in gu.sts and be changc- 
 nble in direction, it is ditlUult to allow for it in point- 
 ing the gun; but with a steady breeze in a pretty 
 constant direction, a few roimds will generally be 
 sullieient to show the allowance nece.s,siiry. The 
 velocity of the wind is very low compared with that 
 of the projectiles, but it remains usually nearly the 
 same throughout its flight, whereas the" velocity of 
 the projectile decreases rapidly; it therefore fre- 
 quc'Ully happens that the wind appears to have 
 greater effect towards the end of the range, and it 
 may lie often noticed in iiraetice thai projectiles de- 
 ^•iate in a rapidly increasing curved line. The wind, 
 if strong, will ereatly affect the ranges of projectiles; 
 decreasing or increasing the range according as it 
 
 same velocity in the same direction as the point upon 
 the surface from which the gun is fired is readily 
 comprehended, but not its apjilication to some par- 
 ticular cases. The deviation due to this cause is too 
 slight to be regarded in practice. 
 
 The line of sight may be improperly placed and 
 situated out of the veriical plane, either in conse- 
 quence of the construction of the gun or its carriage, 
 or by the effect of the inclination of the plane ujiou 
 which it is placed. In these two cases the line of fire 
 maintaining a fixed and determined position, in re- 
 .spect to the axis of the gun and the vertical jilane of 
 fire, the deviations are constant for equal distimces 
 and e<|ual inclinations, and it becomes easy to correct 
 them after a few trials. 
 
 The barometric state of the atmosphere may also 
 produce an effect upon the ranges; for the greater 
 the density and elasticity of the displaced fluid, the 
 greater will be the refanlaticra of the ]irojectile. 
 
 Sjtfnririil I'nijirtilfs. — The princi]ial causes of the 
 deviations of jirojectiles fired from smooth-bore guns 
 are: 1st. Windage. 2d. The imperfect form and 
 roughness of the .surface of the projectile. 3d. Ec- 
 centricity of projectiles arising from their not being 
 homogeneous. 
 
 Windage causes iiTegularity in the flight of a pro- 
 jectile, from the fact of the "elastic gas acting in the 
 first insl!uu'e on the uitper portion of the projectile 
 and driving it against the bottom of the bore. The 
 projectile reacts at the same time that it is impelled 
 forward by the charge, and strikes the upper surface 
 of the bore some distance in advance, and so on, by a
 
 OETIAIION OF FBOJECTUES. 
 
 469 
 
 DEVIATION OF FBOJECIILE& 
 
 succession of rebounds until it leaves the bore in an 
 accidental direction and with a rotatory motion, de- 
 pendins chiefly upon the position of the last impact 
 ag'.iiust the bore. Thus, shouM the last impact of a 
 concentric projectile, when tired from a irun, be on 
 the right-hand side of the bore, as represented in 
 Fig. 1, it will have a tendency to detiect to the left in 
 the direction b, while at the same time a rotation will 
 be given to it in the direction indicated by the arrows, 
 or to the right; the effect of this rotation being to 
 cause the projectile itself to de\iate to the right dur- 
 ing its flight, so that the deflection will not be to the 
 left, but to the right, unless the range is vcrj' short. 
 If the projectile leave the gun, rotating on a vertical 
 axis, with it.s forward part moving from left to right 
 — supposing the observer to be behind the piece — 
 there will be a diminished pressure on the right side, 
 and an increased one on the left side, which will 
 therefore cause it to deviate to the right. If a pro- 
 jectile strike the bottom of the liore, the rotation of 
 the fore-part would be from up downwards, and in- 
 stead of deflecting to the right, the range would he 
 decreased. Supjiose Ihe projectile to rotate in an 
 opposite direction, the results would be reversed. 
 Should it, on leaving, strike any intermediate part of 
 the tK)re, a comjMund effect would be produced, ac- 
 cording to the position of the point of impact. It 
 appears from these explanations that a projectile 
 lca\ing the gun, rotating on any axis except one 
 parallel to that of the bore, will deviate according to 
 the tlirection of the rotation. 
 
 Sho\ild the center of gravity of a projectile not 
 coincide with the center of figure, it is termed efcen- 
 Irk, and Ls found to de\iate according to the position 
 of the center of graxity when the ball is placed in the 
 bore of the gun; should the line joining the center of 
 gravity and the center of figure of a projectile be not 
 parallel to the axis of the bore, the charge of powder 
 will act on a larger surface on one side of the center I 
 of gravity than on the other, so that there will be a | 
 rotation from the lighter towards the heavier side. 
 
 It is found in practice that projectiles denate in a 
 curved line, cither to the right or to the left, the curve 
 rapidly increasing towards the end of the range. 
 This probably occurs from the velocity of rotation 
 decreasing but slightly compared to the velocity of 
 tran.slation; or if a very strong wind is blowing stead- i 
 ily across the range daring the 
 whole time of its flight, this de- 
 flecting cause being constant, flif?^"' 
 while the velocity of the projec- ^d ^^t^C--" 
 tile diminishes, the curve will -ot^^^X^^ — ' 
 manifestly increase with the J^ '' 
 range; the trajectory is, there- 
 fore, a curre of dmihle curva- 
 ture, its projection on either a 
 
 on the upi)er, and effects will be produced depend- 
 ing on the resultant direction of the resistance of the 
 air in relation to the center of gravity. Practically, 
 the path of the projectile is found to result in a (le- 
 viation increasing uniformly with the distance from 
 the gim, and depending, as to its direction, on the 
 direction of the deflecting force at the moment of its 
 first application. It the deflecting force act on the 
 projectile in a vertical direction upwards, the horizon- 
 tal projection of the line of flight will be a line deviat- 
 ing to 'he right or left of the plane of fire, according 
 as the twist is right- or left-handed. If the deflecting 
 force act in the opposite direction, the projectile will 
 he deflected to the left or right, according as the twist 
 is right or left; and whatever be the direction of the 
 deflecting force, the deviation will be a unifonnlj' in- 
 creasing one at right angles to it. 
 
 These effects may be illustrated experimentally by 
 means of a gyroscoi)e provided with a small elongated 
 projectile instead of the disk used for ordinary ex- 
 periments. The projectile must lie made with the 
 greatest care, so that its center of gravity coincides 
 exactlv with that of the two rings within which it is 
 placed; the rings are so arranged that one can turn 
 round a vertical axis, and Ihe other round a horizon- 
 tal axis, the projectile being therefore free to turn in 
 any direction. A cylindrical portion of metal ex- 
 tends beyond the ba.se of the j^rojectile, in prolonga- 
 tion of its longer axis, round which the string is 
 wound to give the required rotatory motion. As the 
 projectile in the gjroscope has no motion of transla- 
 tion, a strong cunent of air must be directed upon it, 
 so as to represent the resistance of the atmosphere 
 to a projectile moving with a high velocity. The 
 diameter of the nozzle of the blower should l)e equal 
 to, or rather larger than, that of the projectile, and 
 the center of the blast should be directed below the 
 point of the projectile. 
 
 The line of flight is not absolutely a straight line, 
 but becomes a curve of double cunature; and if pro- 
 jected on a vertical plane at right angles to the plane 
 of fire, would consist of a series of eycloidal curves, 
 were the time of flight sufficiently great, increasing 
 the distance of the projectile from the plane of fire by 
 the length of one of them at each revolution. The 
 length of these curves de])ends upon the amount of 
 the deflecting force, and their number is equal to the 
 
 horizontal or vertical ]ilane being a curved line. 
 
 From the foregomg considerations it follows that 
 the smoother the surface of the projectiles and the 
 less their windage and eccentricity, other things being 
 equal, the greater will be their accuracy. Ex|ieri- 
 ments show that the preponderating side should be 
 put next the charge, and the line joinins the center of 
 gravity and the center of figure should he parallel to 
 the a.xis of the Ixire. The iW)sition of the preponder- 
 ating side is found liy floating the projectile in a bath 
 of mercury, and the degree of promptness with which 
 an eccentric shot, floated as aI)ove. assumes the posi- 
 tion due to its preponderance is regarded as the mea- 
 sure of that preponderance. 
 
 Ehugatad Piojediles. — If the projectile come out of 
 the gun perfectly centered, that is. rotating round its 
 longest axis, and ha\-ing that a.xis coincident with the 
 line of flight, there will be no tendency, either of the 
 axis of rotation or of the projectile itself, to deflect, 
 so long as the motion is in a straight line, because the 
 resistance of the air will act uniformlv all around. 
 
 Fio. i. 
 number of revolutions made by the projectile in its 
 flidit. 
 
 When an elongated projectile is fired from a rifled 
 gun, it leaves the bore rotating rapidly round its 
 Fonger axis; and if the initial velocity were very low, 
 the projectile experiencing but slight resistance from 
 the atmosphere, Ihe larger axis would remain (as in 
 vacuo) during Ihe whole time of flight parallel or 
 nearly so to its primary direction, as shown in Fig. 
 2. AVhile explaining "the effect pro<luced by the 
 resistance of the air upon an elongated projectile 
 moving with a high velocity, the projectile will be 
 suppased to have what is terined a right-handed rota- 
 tion; that is, the upper part turns from left to right, 
 with reference to an observer placed behind Ihe gun: 
 for the direction of the grooves of rifled pieces is 
 almost invariablv so as to give such rotation. After 
 the projectile has left the bore, the n'sultant of the 
 i-esistanee of the air will, unless the center of gravity 
 be very far forward, net upon a point in front of the 
 center of gravilv and below Ihe longer axis, at all 
 
 As soon, however, as the lrajcctor\- has begun to angles of elevation given in practicsd giinnerv. The 
 curve downwards under the influence of gravitv, the effect produced by this pressure will depend chiefly 
 resistance of the air acts more on the imder side than upon the form of the head Ox the projectile; there-
 
 DEVICE. 
 
 470 
 
 DIADEM. 
 
 fore let iLf Id the first place consider the effect upon 
 a ciinoid'il head. 
 
 Of it)urse lUe longer a.xis of an elongated projectile 
 does not n-niain, during tlight, conlinuidly a liuigent 
 to the tmjeclory, unless the center of gniviiy, iis in au 
 arrow or rocket, is very near the facen'Md: yet, jtrac- 
 tieally, on aceounl of the driHiping of the iK)int, the 
 longer axis may throughout a eonsiileralile portion of 
 the time of tli'ght api)ro.\iniate very nearly to a tan 
 gent to the trajectory. The elTi-ct-s on targets funiish 
 most satisfactory eyidence of this; it is almost inyari- 
 ably found that the holes made in targets are circular, 
 even wlu'U elongated jirojectiles descend at consider- 
 able angles. The most probable explanation of this 
 fact must evidently be that the point of the projec- 
 tile has dro4>peil during Ilight, so that, on striking, 
 the longiT axis is nearly ix-rpeuilicular to the plane of 
 the targt't. 
 
 This drooping of the point is of importance; for 
 did the a.xis remain pandlel during flight to its pri- 
 mary direction, the projectile would most jiroljably, 
 ■when tired at auv but a very low angle, on striking 
 an object of hard material and solid structure, turn 
 up against ii lennthways, and therefore produce but 
 trifling etfect. iThis has not, however, been found to 
 take place in pnictice; but on the contrary the pene- 
 tration of elongiited projectiles at considerable ranges 
 Ls always remarkably great. There is little fear of 
 the projectile turning up agiunst an object unless the 
 velocity of translation and rotation be very low, and 
 the angle of tire very high. 
 
 It is found in practice that conoidal headed projec- 
 tiles tired from rifled gims giving a riirhl-handed rota- 
 tion always deviate to the right; and In the few cases 
 tried with guns giving a left-handed rotation the 
 deviation is to the left; with flat-headed projectiles 
 tlii-se deviations are reversed. This peculiar devia- 
 tion is called drift, and is generally constant for the 
 same ranges; so that it can be allowed for in pointing 
 the gun, by using a horizontal slide graduated and at- 
 tached to the tangent scale, or by inclining the tan- 
 gent scide to the left. See Projectihs and Trnjectnry. 
 
 DEVICE. — A motto exi)res.sed by means of a pic- 
 torial emblem. The motto proper originated in the 
 emblem, a written inscription coming to be added to 
 the pictorial design, with the \iew of rendering the 
 meaning more explicit. Devices thus consist of two 
 part.s — a pictorial figure called the "body," and a 
 motto in words called the "soul " of the ileWce. As 
 early its the times of .Eschylus, the " Seven Heroes 
 before ThelK's" all appear with dences on their 
 shields: and the same is related by Xenojihon of the 
 Lace(hemonians and Sieyonians. In the Middle 
 Ages, devices on coat-armor came into regidar and 
 formal use, and Chivalry employed them in its courtly 
 cx-pressions of de%-otion to the 'fair sex. They were 
 usi-d iMjth as charges on the shield and as crests. The 
 only resjiect in which the device differs from other 
 heraldic end)leins is that it has always some specific 
 reference to the history, or circumstances, or position 
 of the Ix-arer. As an e.xample: Louis XIII. of France 
 had a falcon as a device, with these words; " Aquila 
 generoKinr alts" (A more generous bird than the 
 eat'Ii), by which he meant to denote his own supe- 
 riority to the Emperor, whose device was an eagle. 
 ])evi(<'s, moreover, were generally borne only by "the 
 individual who assumed them, and not by the other 
 memlnTs of his family or his descendants, like the 
 crest or cognizjmcc. ^They were often contrived to 
 typify n s]Kcial enterprise", the general character of 
 tlie wearer, or even to designate his name— as the 
 iiiulberri/ tn.rs in the embroidered trappings of the 
 hors<' of Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk. On 
 all festal (Kcasiotis Ihey figured on trimnphal arches, 
 on banners and hangings. At a later (jeriod it 
 IxKMme cusloman- to work devices iulo laiildings: 
 friezes and stained windows were often coveri-d witli 
 them. This practice has recently nuieh gone out, at 
 least in its <irii.nnal form. .Sir I'lirnUiry. 
 
 DEXTER RIFLE.— A breech-loading smallann pos- 
 
 sessing a fixed chamber closed by a movable breech- 
 block, which rotates al>out a horizontal axis at 90°. to 
 the axis of the barri'l, lying Klow the axis of the 
 
 ' barrel and in front — l)eiug moved from above by a 
 thumb-piece. 
 
 The arm is opened by half- or fuU-cockiug the 
 hammer, and then swinging down the breech-block 
 by depressing the thumb-piece on the right side of 
 tfie frame. This pushes back the tiring-pin and the 
 locking-brace, by the earn acting on the tiring-pin 
 retractor and locking-brace retractor respectively. It 
 is clo.sed by raising the thumb-piece, .so as to swing 
 the breech-block up into place. In so doing, the 
 
 [ locking-brace is thrown forwaril by its spring into 
 place vindcr the breech-block, as soon as the latter is 
 
 I closed. 
 
 ! The piece'is locked by the position of the locking- 
 
 ' brace, the lower end of which abuts ujxtn the guard, 
 and is tired by a center lock of the usual i)attern. 
 Both extraction and ejection are accomplished by a 
 revolving extractor, i)ivotetl near the breech-block 
 pin, and struck by the block in its descent. In open- 
 ing the block the locking-brace is forced againSt the 
 trigger, and is held there by the block; the hammer, 
 therefore, caimot be made to fall while the piece is 
 opened. 
 
 DHALL-BUSH. — The wood used in India in the 
 l^reparation of charcoal for gunpowder. It grows iu 
 most parts of India, and has been found to inake the 
 best cliarcoal of the several woods at i)resent known 
 in that country. Dhallbush has a growth of a few 
 months: the seed is planted in April, and the grain 
 riiiens about the 1st of .lanuary the next year, \vhen 
 the bushes are cut down. The stalks are brousrht 
 in and stacked for use at the iiowdcr-works. "f he 
 wood is white and soft, and contains much sjiccha- 
 rine matter. Hence insects breed internally, while 
 externally it is attncketl by various moths, which 
 deposit their larvse. The charcoal is good, it.':' fibrous 
 texture distinct, and it rings with a clear, metallic 
 soimd, being at the same time soft and friable. A 
 bi'cgah of iirhiir, another word for the dhall-bush, 
 is calculated to give about 2110 maunds of wooil in its 
 yearly crop, or the charcoal for l(i() barrels; hence 
 10,000 barrels would require a yearly cultivation of 
 60 bcegahs. As a general ride, the wood should be 
 stripped of its bark |)revious to charring; this prac- 
 tice \vas not innforudv p\irsucd in the Indian ])owder- 
 m:inufactories iu former years, owing, it is sup])osed, 
 to the expense, and, perhaps, the importance of ))eel- 
 ing the wood not having been realized. The peeling 
 process is now strictly carrieil out. See Cliiirrmil. 
 
 DHAO. — A Burman tool or weapon (half chopper, 
 half sword) used in clearing jungle and in cutting 
 <lown trees of all kinds. The Burmese make great 
 use of this cuttimr instrument. 
 
 DHARSCH SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In this 
 system the enceinte en tenaille consists of a mere 
 wall, forming a parajiet, and covered by counter- 
 guards, ravelins, and lunettes. Defensive liarracks 
 are constructed on tlu' terre-])lein of the ravelins. 
 
 DHURREE. — An Indian term for a coarse kind of 
 cotton carpet, called also a »itri/ifffe; it is used for 
 the tiixiring of tents, and very generally for car|X!ts 
 in most houses in the Xorthwest Provinces of India. 
 This kind of cloth is made in diiTereiit parts of the 
 country, and very often by prisoners in jails. A 
 small .s.'itringee is i.s.sued by the Coniniissjirial Depart- 
 ment to every Kurojuan soldier, whiclr is placed on 
 his sleeping cot in baiTacks, and in which his bedding 
 is folded up on the march. 
 
 DIABLE. — A truck-carriage on four trucks, used 
 for moving heavy ordnance short distances; it is pro- 
 vided w ilh draught-hooks at each end, so as to be eas- 
 ily drawn to Inint or rear. 
 
 "DIADEM.— The Uiime given to the fillet of silk, 
 woolen, or linen whi<'h served as the distinguishing 
 ornament of kings. It was generally narrow, being 
 only a little broader on the foreheail. The diadem 
 of the Egyptian goddesses and kings bore the symbol
 
 DIAGOMETES. 
 
 471 
 
 DIAMAGNETISH. 
 
 of the sacred serpent. The diadem of Bacchus, as it 
 apix-nrs in ancient sculptures, was a plaited band 
 going round the forehead and temples, and tied be- 
 iind, with the ends hanjnnp down. Among the Per- 
 ■sians the diatlem wa.s boimd round the liara or turban, 
 and was of a blue color, worked with white. The 
 early Roman Emiierors refrained from using this orna- 
 ment, in order not to call up recollections of the hated 
 .kingly office. Diocletian was the first to introduce it 
 again, and Couslautine the Great added new orna- 
 ments to it. After his time it was adorned with a 
 single or double row of pearls and precious stones. 
 Queens are also seen on coins ornamented with the 
 diadem, with the addition of a veil. It was tinally 
 superseded by the crown. See Crown. 
 
 DIAGOMETEE.— A kmd of electroscope, in which 
 a drj' pile is employed to measure the amount of 
 ■electricity transmitted by different bodies or determine 
 their conducting power. Used to detect foreign mix- 
 ture in olive -oil. 
 
 DIAGONAL. — In plane geometry, a straight line 
 joining any two angles, not adjacent, of a rectilineal 
 figure. A line drawn between two adjacent angles 
 ■would coincide with the boimdan-line. A triangle 
 has no diagonal, because any two of its angles are 
 adjacent; a four sided figure has two diagonals ; a 
 five-sided, tive ; a six-sided, nine ; etc. The number 
 of po.ssible diagonals in any figure is found by taking 
 three from the nimiber of sides, multiplying the re- 
 mainder by the number of sides, and taking half the 
 product Thus, in the six-sided figure, the process is 
 
 3x6 
 
 —5 — = 9. If the diagonals must be so drawn as not 
 
 to intersect, their number is always three less than 
 the number of sides. It makes no difference whether 
 they all proceed from one angle or not. A diagonal 
 in a solid bounded by planes is a line joining any 
 two .solid angles so situated that the line does not co 
 incidc with any line on the surface. To find the num- 
 ber of such diagonals in a given solid; JIultiply the 
 number of solid angles by the same number dimin- 
 ished by one. and from half this product sidJtract the 
 innnlior of edges on the figure, and also the sum of 
 the number of diagonals in all the faces. Thus, the 
 
 8x7 
 cube gives -^5 12 — 6x2 = 4 diagonals. 
 
 DIAGONAL SCALE. — A system of lines bj means 
 of which hundredths of units may be laid down 
 or measured v.ith compasses. "When the numbers 
 representing the lengths of the sides of any figure 
 would give lines of an inconvenient size taken from 
 the scale, the numbers may be all multiplied or all 
 <ii\'ided by such a number as will adapt the lengths 
 of the lines to the required dimensions of the figure. 
 See Sfale. 
 
 DIAL - COMPASS. — This little instrument has a 
 needle three iuchcs long, and ■nitli its compass-circle 
 is inclosed in a circular box set upon a brass liase four 
 inches square, three edges of which are chamfered 
 and divided; one on the W side of the compass into 
 inches and tenths, the two others into degrees and 
 lialf-dcgrees, and figured from a center on the south- 
 west comer of the base. The compa.ss-circle is mova- 
 ble in order to set off the variation of the needle, and 
 has a vernier attached to it on the inside, reading a 
 divided arc on the face of the compass to tbri'e min- 
 utes of a degree. There is also on the south side of 
 the face an are of 180 , figured from to 90 on each 
 side of the south or zero line of the face. A little 
 pendulum with index-point hung from the center-pin 
 reads this arc, when the compass is set up, vertical, 
 on the raised south edge, thus making it a clinometer 
 or slope-measurer. The sight is hinged so as to fold 
 in packing, but when erect makes laut a fine silk 
 thread attached at one end to the sight and at the 
 other to a bra.ss hour circle above the compass-glass, 
 at an angle with the plane of the hour-circle equal to 
 that of the latitude of the place where the compass is 
 
 u.sed. The hour-circle Is divided for any required 
 latitude like that of a sun-ilial, the hair serving as a 
 gnomon to give apiiarent time with the sun. When 
 It is desiretl to use the instrument at a latitude a de- 
 gree or two either higher or lower than that for which 
 the hour-circle is divided, the end of the thread at- 
 tached to the sight may Ije made adjustable, so as to 
 be either raised or lowered on the sight until the 
 angle of the thread witli the plane of the hour-circle 
 
 is made equal to that of the latitude required. In 
 using the dial-compa.ss it is first leveled carefidly, the 
 equation of time for the given day allowed for, and 
 then by oliservation on the sim at midday the true 
 meridian approximately obtained. The needle may 
 then be set to the meridian by laying off the variation, 
 and any deflection of the needle from the true meri- 
 dian will indicate the presence of veins of magnetic 
 iron-ore. See ('liru>iiiet<r and Solar Oimpass. 
 
 DIAMAGNETISM.— The fact that iron is attracted 
 by the magnet has liocn known from verj' remote 
 times; that bismuth exhibits a rcpidsive action towards 
 the maguetic needle has been now known for nearly 
 a hundred years. Dr. Faraday was the first ( 184.5) to 
 show that all bodies are more or less affected by mag- 
 netic influence, and his beautiful researches on the 
 subject have ojiened up a new field in the domain of 
 science. He found that the magnetism of bodies was 
 manifested in two ways — either in being attracted by 
 the magnet, as iron, or in being reiiellcd, like lasmuth. 
 When a needle or slender rod of iron is suspended 
 between the poles of a magnet, as in Fig. 1, being 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 attracted by them, it takes up a position of rest on 
 the line, a b, joining the two poles. When a substance 
 iK-haves itself in this manner, it is sjtiii by Faraday to 
 be paramagnetic, and to place it.self a.riai!.i/, a h Ixring 
 the axis. A rod of bismuth, on the other baud, being 
 repelled bv the poles of the magnet, comes to rest in 
 the line, r'd, at right angles to ah. Bismuth, and the 
 like substances, lie calls diamagndir, and they are 
 sjud to place themselves eqtiatoriaUy, cd Iieing the 
 equator. These terms, being both definite andgniphic, 
 have been univcrsiUy adopted. Magnetic is the term 
 used bv Faraday to indicate magnetism of either sort, 
 although in general language it is understood to refer 
 to paramagnetic bodies, such as iron, etc. Paramag-
 
 DIAHETEB. 
 
 472 
 
 DICTATOR. 
 
 nctic Ivxlies, then, nro those which manifest the siuiie 
 pro|H'iiii-s with resiird to the magnet that iron dws; 
 nnil (liiiniairnelic biKlies arc tliosc which, like bismuth, 
 show oi)iK)site l)ul corresponiiing proiXTties; so that in 
 circunLstances where imranMgncticlioilies phicc them- 
 selves axiallv, diamairnelic iKniics place themsi'lves 
 cquatorially;' and where the former are attracted, the 
 latter are ix-iKlled, and rice rerm. A paramagnetic, 
 therefore, not in the elongalc<l form, but in a compact 
 shaiK', such as a ball or cube, is attracted by either 
 IK)le of the masrnct when suspended nam it; a ball or 
 eulv of a dianiagnetic, on the other hand, experiences, 
 when so placed, n'pulsion. The paramagnetism of 
 iron, nickel, and cobalt iK-comes manifest in the pres- 
 ence of magnets of ordinary power; but the magnetism 
 of most other substjuices is' so feeble as to Ix- developed 
 oidy under the inlluence of the strongest magnets. As 
 electro-magnets far exceed jx-rmanent steel magnets 
 in stri'ngth, they are selected for investigations on the 
 magnetism of "bodies. To observe the effect of the 
 magnet on liquids, Faraday placed them in long tubes 
 of verv thin glass, and suspended them as in the Ciise 
 of solid needles. It was found tliat some arranged 
 themselves axially, and others equatorially. The at- 
 traction and repulsion that liquids experience in the 
 presence of the magnet has been prettily shown by 
 Plucker. A large drop of liquid is placed in a watch- 
 glass. Figs. 2 and 3, and laid uix)n two poles of the 
 magnet. " If the liquid be paramagnetic, the surface 
 becomes depressi-d at the interval between the poles, 
 and Iii'!ipe<l up over the extreme edges of them. Fig. 2. 
 A diamaguetic liquid, on the other Hand, shows a de- 
 
 Fio. : 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 prcssion at each edge of the poles, and a heaping up 
 at the center. Fig. 3. The magnetic nature of Hames 
 and gases has lx;enalso studied. When the flame of a 
 candle is brought between the poles of a magnet, it is 
 repelled by them, and thrown out horizontally into 
 an ecjuatorial position. To ascertain the magnetism 
 of gases. Faraday inflated soap-bubbles with them, 
 and their para- or diamagnetism wsw exhibited liy 
 their being attracted or repelled l)y the poles. He 
 ft.scertained the same by causing the gases to flow out 
 from glass tulx?s in the presence of the poles, when 
 the peculiar magnetism of the gj»s was shown by its 
 choosing an axial or ccjuatorial means of egress. The 
 following list gives the kind of magnetism displayed 
 by the more common substances: Paramtir/titlic — 
 Iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese, chromium, titanium, 
 palladiiun, paper, sealing-wax, peroxide of lead, plum- 
 bago, red-lead, sulphate of zinc, shellac, vermilion, 
 charcoal, proto and per salts of iron, sjilts of manga- 
 nese, oxygen, air. Biiiiiinf/wlk — Bismuth, antimony, 
 zinc, tin, cadmium, sodium, mercury, lead, silver, 
 copper, gold, arsenic, uranium, tungsten, rock-crvstal, 
 mineral acids, alum, glass, lilharge, niter, phospliorus, 
 sulphur, resin, water, alcohol, ether, sugar, starch, 
 wo<k1, l)read, leather, caoutchouc, hydrogen, carbonic 
 acid, coal-gas, nitrogen. The nature of the medium 
 in which the IkxIv under examination moves exerts a 
 powerful influence on the nature and amount of the 
 maaiietism it exliiliits; thus, if a glass lube be filled 
 with a .solution of the jirotosulphatc of iron, and sus- 
 pended tx-tween the poles, it will place itself axiallv. 
 It will do the same if made to move in water, or" a 
 solution more dilute of the protosulphate of iron. It 
 will lx> indifferent in a solution of the same strength; 
 but it will place itself equatorially in a stronger solu- 
 tion. Thus, the same sutisiance may appear para- 
 magnetic. indilTerent, or di.imagnetic according to 
 the natvire of the me<lium in which it moves. As a 
 general rule, a body shows itself paramagnetic to- 
 war<ls one less paramagnetic than it.self, indifferent to- 
 wards one equally magDctic, and diamagnctic towards 
 
 one more paramagnetic than it.self. The same takes 
 iilace, miiltiliH iiiiiUtitdiK, with diamagnelic substances 
 I'his has given rise to the theory thai there is no such 
 thing as diamagnetism /« r « , aiul that Ixidies are dia- 
 magnelic only in media of greater paramagnetic power 
 than their own. This view of the ca.se is, however, 
 rendered highly improbable from the fact that dia- 
 magnetism is exhibited as ilecidedly in a vacuum as- 
 in any medi\ini, and a vacuum cannot be supposed to 
 possess magnetic j)roperties of any kind. 
 
 DIAMETER. — A line passing through the center of 
 a circle, bmmded at each end by the circumfereuce. 
 When great accuracy is not recpiired, the iiroixirtion 
 of the diameter of a circle to the circumference may 
 be taken as 1 to 3.1416. To And the diameter of a 
 spherical shot, its weight being given, multiply the 
 cube root of the shot's height by 1.923 for the diam- 
 eter. In taking the diameter or calilx'r of the bore of 
 a rifli'd gun. it is measured across the hinds. 
 
 DIAMOND-POINT.— A stylus armed with a dia- 
 mond, either ground, conical, or made of a .selected 
 fragment of the desired shape. Wilson Lowry intro- 
 duced the diamond-point into engravers' ruling-ma- 
 chines. Etching-tools have been pointed with dia- 
 monds. Uiaraond-points are used in ruling the gradua- 
 tion of the finer kinds of instruments; also by Nobert, 
 it is supposed, in ruling the wonderful scries of lines 
 that form the tests of the micro.scopes of higher 
 powers. 
 
 DIAMOND-TOOL.— A metal-turning tool whoso cut- 
 ting edge is formed by facets. Much used In the ar- 
 senal. 
 
 DIAPHRAGM - SHELL.— A shrapnel shell used in 
 the English ser\ice. It is used with smooth-bore 
 ordnance, and is an Improvement on the original 
 shrapnel shell; it is the invention of General Boxer, 
 R.A. It has a wrought-iron partiti.m or diajibragiu 
 which separates the bursting-charge from the bullets. 
 The channel of communication, termed the loading- 
 hole, from the exterior of the shell to the powder- 
 chamber, into which the Ijursting-charge is poured, 
 is closed and opened by a small screw. The bursting- 
 charge in this shell is considerably reduced, and the 
 interior of the shell is coated with marine glue, in 
 order to insure complete separation between the ])ow- 
 der of the bursting-charge and the coal-dust thrown 
 between the l>ullets. The bursting of the shell is 
 facilitated by four grooves formed in its interior sur 
 face which act as so many lines of " least resistance." 
 See Shrll. 
 
 DIAPRE.— A term applied in Heraldry to fields and 
 charges relieved Ijy arabesque and geometrical pat- 
 terns. These [lattcrns were generally of a darker 
 shade of the sjime tincture. This being merely an 
 ornamental device, not affecting the heraldic value 
 of the objects to which it was applied, was generally" 
 left to the fiiicy of the painter. See Heraldry. 
 
 DICTATOR. —In the earliest times, the name of the 
 highest Magistrate of the Latin Confederation, and in 
 some of the Latin towns the title was continued long 
 after these towns were subjected to the dominion of 
 liome. In the Himinn Republic the Dictator was an 
 extraordinary JIagistrate, irresponsible and endowed 
 with absolute authoritv, whose original name was 
 M(i;iiKttr Po)i)i!i. The frequency of crisca, or critical 
 periods, in the <{uick, aggressive growth of the Roman 
 State necessitateil such an oflice. The first Dictator 
 (T. Larcius or M. Valerius) w.as appointed 501 B.C., 
 nine years after the expulsion of the Tarquins. Ac- 
 cording to Livy. the immediate cause of this dictator- 
 ship was a formiilablc war with the Latins. In general 
 no one could be ai)|K)inted Dictator who had not been 
 previously Consul, and this condition was very rarely 
 dispensed" with. Niebuhr is of opinion that ihe Dic- 
 tator was originally created or elected by the Curiic, 
 like the Kings, but it is more probable that the Senate 
 ])a.ssed a decree ordering one of the Consuls to name 
 or proclaim {dircn) a Dictator. Originally, of course, 
 the Dictator was a Patrician; the first Plebeian who 
 filled the ofHce being C. Marcius Rutilus, 356 B.C.,
 
 DIDIONS FORMULAS. 
 
 473 
 
 DIDION'S FOSHULAS. 
 
 who was nominated liy the Plebeian Consul JI. Popil- 
 lius Lienas. The Dictatorship coukl not iHirftiUy be 
 held longer than six months, nor was it ever so, ex- 
 cept in the c;ises of Sulla and Ca?sar, which were 
 altogether pecidiar. It must not be supposed that 
 during a Dictatorship the functions of the other Magis- 
 trates were positively suspended. The Consuls and 
 other regular authorities continued to discharge their 
 proi)er duties, but in subordination to the direction 
 and command of the Dictator; being for the time 
 simply his officers. The superiority of his power, 
 when compared with that of the Consuls, a|)pears 
 chietly in these three points: he was far more in- 
 dependent of the Senate; he had a more extensive 
 power of punishment, without any appeal; and he 
 could not be called to account after his abdication of 
 the Dictatorship for anything he had done during the 
 jierioil of his office. The liiiiits of his power were as 
 follows: he could not touch the Treasury; hecould not 
 lea\'e Il;dy; and he could not ride through Home on 
 borsel)ack without previously obtaining the permis- 
 sion of the people. While the Consuls hatl only 12 
 Lictors, the Dictator was preceded by 24, bearing the 
 securer and fasces. To him also belonged the Killa 
 cunilix and the t^ffii pratexUi. The last legally elected 
 Dictator was M. Junius Pera, who entered on his 
 office 216 B.C. From this time iioiiiimd Dictators 
 were frequently appointed for the purpose of holding 
 the electiofLS, but even these finally disiippeared, 202 
 B>c. Henceforth, in critical times, a sort of dictato- 
 rial power was conferred on the Consuls by the Sen- 
 ate by the well-known formula, "That the Consuls 
 should .see to it that the State should receive no 
 damage." This practice rendered the appointment 
 of l)ii-tiitfirs no longer necessary. 
 
 DIDIONS FORMULAS. — In consequence of the 
 variable nature of the resistance of the air, it has 
 been foinid impossible to integrate the differential 
 ecpiations of the real trajectorj', even under the su]i- 
 jiosition that this resistance varies in as simple a ratio 
 as the square of the velocitj'. Several distinguished 
 mathematicians have obtained exjjressions which ap- 
 proximate to the true results, but the expressions are 
 generally too complicated to be of much practical 
 value. 
 
 Captain Didion^Professor of Gunnery in the Ar- 
 tillery School at Metz, however, furnishes an ap- 
 proximate solution to this difficult question, which 
 may be used in practice. To do this, he considers 
 the" resistance of the air equal to 
 
 and by assuming a mean value for the different incli- 
 nations of the elements of the trajectory to their 
 
 ds 
 horizontal projections, which makes y- constant, he 
 
 is able to integrate the differential equations, and 
 place them under the following forms: 
 
 y = X tan .1 
 
 9 
 
 tan 9 = tan ^ — jr 
 
 2 F'^cos-'.^ 
 
 X 
 
 t = 
 
 Fcos .1 
 
 -D; 
 
 F* cos* j^' 
 Fcos A 1 
 cos XJ 
 
 The same notation being preserved as in the equa- 
 tions in the article Eqcvtioxs op Motion op Pro 
 JECTILES, it will be perceived that the ccpiations in 
 air differ from those in vacuo by the midtipliers B, 
 I, D. and V respectively. The multiplier B relates 
 to the fall of the projectile; /, to the inclination; D, 
 to the duration; and C, to the velocity; they are each 
 
 ( x.v ix F 
 functions of — and — '■■, in which a is the constant 
 c r 
 
 relation of the arc to its projection, F, = Fcos A, 
 and c and r are coefficients of the formula for the 
 
 resistance of the air. The general expression for a 
 
 — • — ^')* 
 llie values B, 1, I), and U, for such values of c and 
 r as are likely to arise in service, have been computed, 
 and arranged in tabular form. 
 
 So long as the inclination of the trajectory is slight, 
 (1 iliifers but slightly from unity ; for aii angle of 
 15 it does not exceed .01 ; anil as it only enters 
 iiito the tenn which relates to the resistance of the 
 air, the error does not exceed a pressure correspond- 
 ing to .25 inch in the height of the barometer ; it 
 
 may, therefore, be regarded as unity, and — reduces 
 
 c 
 
 to -. The same with regard to -^. or "^<=°^4 . 
 
 c " r r 
 
 as a cos A, when A = 10°, differs only about .01 
 from unity; and this expression may be reduced to 
 
 — . When the angle of projection does not exceed 
 
 3°, cos ..1 differs only .001 from unity, and we can 
 everywhere replace Fcos A by V. Under this angle, 
 
 -.- differs but slightly from unity, and we have 
 
 F 
 V = J., which IS the same as if motion took place in 
 
 a horizontal plane. 
 
 All cases of the movement of projectiles which oc- 
 cur in practice may be divided into three distinct 
 classes: 1st. When the angle of projection is slight 
 or does not exceed 3 , as in the ordinary lire of guns, 
 howitzers, and small-iirms ; 2d. When the angle of 
 projection is greater than this, but does not exceed 
 10 or 15 , as in ricochet-tire, etc.; 3d. When the angle 
 of projection exceeds 15 , as in the fire of mortars. 
 
 1st Class. Fcrr nmull imgles of projection, as in 
 r/iiDS, hmritzers, and mniiH-arnis. — For slight varia- 
 tions of the angle of projection above or below the 
 horizon, the form of the trajectory maj' be considered 
 constant; and when the object is but" slightly raised 
 above or depressed below the horizontal piimci it may 
 be considered as in this plane. In consequence of 
 the windage, and the balloting of the projectile which 
 results from it, the projectile does not always leave 
 the bore in the direction of the axis. The angle 
 formed by the line of departure and the axis of the 
 piece is called the angle of departure. For guns in 
 good condition the vertical deviations do not exceed 
 5 , and for howitzers 10 ; the side deviations never 
 exceed 4 30 '. To obtain exact results, therefore, it 
 is necessary to correct the an"^le of projection for the 
 angle of departure, when the latter is known. Under 
 
 the supposition that a, cos A, and ;- are each 
 
 cos 
 equal to unity, the equations of the trajectory in air 
 may be reduced to 
 
 y = xtaBA- 2^5; 
 
 tan = tan J. 
 
 ^ I- 
 
 V 
 
 (1) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 (4) 
 
 Knowing the weight and diameter of the projectile, 
 
 c can be calculated by the formula c = = — r- if it be 
 
 •' SgA 
 
 not found in the table which accompanies it. We 
 
 r V 
 
 know — and — , and bv means of the tables can de- 
 
 c r 
 
 tcmiine the desired values of B, I, D, and JJ. 
 
 Of the three things, the initial velocit.v, F, the dis- 
 tance of the object, X, and the angle of projection,. 
 .1, two being known, to tletermiuc the third.
 
 DIDION'8 rOBMULAS. 
 
 474 
 
 DIDION'S F0BH1TLA8. 
 
 1 To determine the angle of projtelion, ^.— Make 
 y = in ctiuation (1), aiid solve it with reference to 
 tan A; we have 
 
 tan^ = |^a 
 
 2 To determine the initial reJocili/. T'.— Make y = 
 in equation (1), solve it with reference to 1', ami mul- 
 tiply both members by -; we have 
 
 in equation (5) the co-ordinates a and ft, and V,; solve 
 it with reference to ¥■, substitute tan « for -, and 
 dinde both members by r. We have 
 
 i/o r ' 2 
 
 X _ 
 
 rT 2 tan -i ~ ' 
 X 
 
 and g, seek in the Tables of 
 
 Having the values of 
 
 X V 
 
 Multipliers for the value of - the value of -, which 
 
 gives that of g ; multiply - by 1427 and wc shall 
 
 have V. , , « . 
 
 3. To determine the range, X— JIake y = m equa- 
 tion (1), obtain the value of X, and divide both mem- 
 bers of the equation by c ; we have 
 
 X„ tan AV- 
 
 — 2f ^ ; 
 
 c cig 
 
 -p. 
 
 Havinsr the initial velocitv, V, and angle of projec- 
 
 ' V 
 tion, A, we can determine — and p; seek in the 
 
 V X 
 
 tables for the value of - that of -, which gives p ; 
 r c 
 
 having — , multiply it by e, and we have X. 
 
 In tiring spherical case-shot it is important not 
 onlv to know the time of flight, in order to regulate 
 the" fuse, but it is important to know tliat the projec- 
 tile will have sutlicieiit reniainiiig velocity to render 
 the impact of the contained projectiles effective. 
 
 4. The time of flight can lie obtained from equation 
 
 (3), or t = yD. 
 
 X V 
 
 Knowing — and — , we can obtain 
 
 the corresponding value of D from the tables. 
 
 5. The remaining Telocity can be obtained from 
 V XV 
 
 equation (4), or ^ = jf- Knowing — and — , obtain 
 
 from the tables the corresponding value of U. 
 
 2d Class. Fornnxiles of projection not exceeding W 
 or 1.5 , rw in the ricochet-fire of guns, howitzer), and 
 mortars. — The formulas are: 
 
 y = X tan A 
 
 tan = tan A — 
 
 ' cos 
 
 CTcosO 
 
 . (5) 
 
 . (6) 
 
 . (7) 
 
 . (8) 
 
 If the object he on ti lewl with the piece, the solution 
 of lliis cliL-iS of problems is the siine as those of class 
 1st, when the angle is very small; if not, it will be 
 neeessarj' to substitute for V, V = F cos .4, and after 
 having obtained V, divide it bv cos A, which 
 gives V. The object Ix-ing situated at the distance a 
 from the piece, and at the distance b alwve the hori- 
 zontal plane passing through the center of the muz- 
 zle, is seen under an angU' of deration t, for which 
 
 tan t = — . One of the two things, the initial velocity 
 
 or angle of projection, being known, to detennine the 
 other.' 
 1. To determine the initial telocily, V. — Substitute 
 
 
 tan ^ — tan « ~ "' 
 
 Having the value of g, seek in the tables for the 
 
 known value of — the value of — - corresponding to 
 c r 
 
 it, and multipljing bv , we shall have V. 
 
 2. To delermtne the angle of projection. — The re- 
 sult will Ix' sufficiently near the truth if we substitute, 
 in equation (.5), I'for I', or I'cos.;!; and soling it 
 with reference to tan A, we have 
 
 tan ^ =: tan « + -^B, 
 
 in which we substitute for B its value corresponding 
 
 a V 
 
 to — and — , obtained from the tables. 
 
 <• r 
 
 3d Class. Properties of trajectories under high 
 angles of projection. — As a projectile rises in the as- 
 cending branch of its trajectory, its nUicHy is dimin- 
 ished ijy the retarding effect of the air and the force 
 of gravity: in consequence of the resistance of the air 
 alone, the velocity continues to diminish to a point a 
 little beyond the summit of the trajectory, where it is 
 a minimum; and from this point it increases, as it de- 
 scends, under the intlueuce of the force of gravity, 
 until it becomes uniform, which event depends on 
 the diameter and weight of the projectile and the 
 density of the air, or, in other words, upon the value 
 of c. ' The inclination of the trajectory decreases 
 from the origin to the summit, where it is nothing; 
 it increases in the descending branch from the sum- 
 mit to its termination, and if the grounil did not in- 
 terpose an obstacle, it would become vertical at an in- 
 finite distance. An clement of the trajectory in the 
 descending branch has a greater inclination than the 
 corresponding element of the ascending branch. 
 Strictly speaking, the trajectory jji air is au expo- 
 nential" curve with two asyiii])totes; the first is the axis 
 of the piece, which is tangent to the ti-ajeetory when 
 the initial velocity is intinitc; the .«■/-«)/? is the vertical 
 line toward which the trajectory approaches as the 
 horizontal component of the velocity diminishes and 
 the effect of the force of gravity increases. The oi rra- 
 tiirc of the trajectory increases in the ascending 
 branch to a point a little beyond the summit. The 
 point of greatest curvature is" situated nearer the sum- 
 mit than the point of minimum velocity. In the tire 
 of mortar shells uniler great angles of projection, and 
 at customary distances, the trajcdorv mav be con- 
 sidered as an arc, in which the angle of fall "is slightly 
 ^eatcr than the angle of projection. In the ascend- 
 ing branch the arc commences under an angle of .1, 
 and terminates under an angle of 0; the ratio of the 
 length of this arc to its projection, or a, is calculated 
 for all ai-cs from .5' to 7o\ and arranged in groups of 
 fives. Tlie value of a is considered the sjmie in the 
 descending as in the ascendiug branch. The multi- 
 pliers, B, I, D, and the divisor, U, are calculated for 
 
 the values '-- and"^ -', and they are employed in 
 
 equations (5), (6), (7), (8), as in the preceding class of 
 cases. 
 1. Find the initial velocity of a mortar-shell, knovoing 
 
 th£ range and angle of jn'ojection.—We know — , and 
 
 by solving equation (5) as before we have 
 
 */ w rV tan ^ ^' 
 
 VS
 
 DIE. 
 
 475 
 
 DI£-8INKIN0. 
 
 HaWng determined the value of q, seek in the 
 
 tables the value of — - corresponding to it for - ; 
 r c 
 
 y 
 
 then multiply it by r, and we have V. 
 
 2. To determine the angle and rrlnritii of fall, and 
 the time of flight, knotting tlie inilinl rdority ,nid range. 
 
 3. 2'o determine the range, knowing the initial veloe- 
 
 aV 
 ity and angle of projection. — We have a and^— ^; 
 
 make y = in equation (5); solve it with reference 
 
 to X, and multiply lK)th members by — , and we 
 
 iiave 
 
 — B — sm 2 A = p. 
 
 e gc 
 
 Having found the value 
 
 , aX 
 
 which for — '■ 
 r 
 
 gives p, multiply it by — , and we have X 
 
 In consequence of considering the inclination of 
 the trajectory as constant in the preceding equations, 
 the resistance of the air is slightly undcrestiinaled in 
 the more inclined portions of the trajectory, or at tlie 
 beginning and end, and slightly overestimated in the 
 less inclined portions, or about the summit. It fol- 
 lows that the calculated trajectory will at first rise 
 above the true one, then pass below it, and again pass 
 above it; the calculated ranges will therefore be found 
 slightly in excess. From the law of inertia, a ritle- 
 projectile moves through'the air with its axis of rota- 
 tion parallel to the axis of the bore. Hence it fol- 
 lows that an oblong projectile, fired under a low 
 angle of projection, presents a greater surface to- 
 ward the earth, and less parallel to it, than a round 
 projectile of the same weight; consequently the ver- 
 tical component of the resistance of the air is greater, 
 and the horizontal component less, in the first case 
 than in the second. The effect of this will be to give 
 an oblong projectile a flatter trajectory and longer 
 range than a round one. See Equations of Motion of 
 Pmjectili-s, Multipliers, Projectiles, and Rem«tanee of 
 the Air. 
 
 DIE. — 1. In punching-machines, a bed -piece which 
 has an opening the size of the jiunch, and through 
 which the i)iece is driven. This piece may be a 
 planchet or blank, or it may be merely a plug driven 
 out of the object to form a bolt- or rivet-hole. In nut- 
 machines the nut-blanks may be made by one die and 
 punched by another. — '2. A deWce consisting of two 
 parts which coact to give to the piece swaged between 
 them the desired form. — 3. A former and punch, or a 
 
 tap- wrench and at the same time saving the necessity 
 of an extra wrench, as it combines the two. 
 
 DIEGO. — A very strong and heavy sword common' 
 Iv used in combat. 
 
 " DIE-SINKING.— The art of engraN-ing the die or 
 stamp used for striking the impression on coins, etc., 
 and for stamping thin plates of metal into various 
 devices. The importance of die-sinking has much in- 
 creased of late on account of llie great extension of the 
 process of stamping tliin metal. Many kinds of work 
 formerly bent into shape by the hammer and punch 
 are now struck by a few blows l)elwcen suitable dies. 
 As examples of these we maj' mention the oniainental 
 work of giis-tittings, window-curtain cornices, common 
 jewelry, ornamental trays, dishes, boxes, etc. For 
 such purjioses a pair of (lies is required, one in relief, 
 the other in intaglio, and the metal is pressed between 
 them. Xot only are ornamental articles stamped in 
 this manner, tint useful articles, coiniwsed of many 
 parts, are made entirelv by cutlers and dies, each part 
 being cut and stamped by a pair of dies, and then the 
 part.s united by another pair, the junction beingeffected 
 by overlaps, which the uniting dies press into their 
 places. The astonishing cheapness of many of the 
 Birmingham products is mainly due to the use of dies 
 for doing by a single lilow the work that fonnerly re- 
 quired long and tedioa< manipulation. The most an- 
 cient and familiar application of dies is in the striking 
 of coins and medals; the method of sinking the dies 
 used for this purpose will serve to illustrate the general 
 method of die-sinking. Suppose the coin to be of the 
 size of a shilling: a cylindrical piece of steel, about 
 three or four inches in length, and two in diameter, 
 is prepared by slightly rounding one end of the cylin- 
 der, then tuining and sm(X)thing upon the middle of 
 this a flat face efjual to the size of the coin. This 
 blank die, which is carefully softened, is then en- 
 graved with the de\ice of the coin in intaglio. This is 
 a very delicate and arti.'itic process, and is effected by 
 a great number of careful touches with small and 
 very hard steel tools. The face of the die is now 
 hardened by placing it face downwards in a crucible 
 upon a laver of bone-dust, or a mixture of charcoal 
 and oil. "In this ijosition it is raised to a cherry -red 
 heat, then taken out and plunged in water. When 
 properly tempered, it is in a state to be used for 
 stamping the coin; but dies of superior workmanship, 
 from which many impressions are required, are not 
 thus directly used, as the expense of engraving is 
 very great, "and the risk of lireakage considerable. 
 This first ensrraved <lie, called the matrix, is therefore 
 reserved only for making other dies. An impression 
 in relief is made from tliis matrix on a small block of 
 steel, which is called the puncheon: this is retouched 
 and hardened, and from it the dies directly used for 
 
 m s 
 
 8D 
 
 Billings Stock and Dies. 
 
 cameo and intaglio die, between which a piece of sheet- 
 metal is pres,sed into shape by a blow or simple pres- 
 sure. — t. One of the pieces which combine to form a 
 hollow screw for cutting threads on bolts and such 
 like. • The two portions arc fitted in a »t'>ck. In 
 some the dies are set up by screws, in others by 
 scrolls. The drawing represents the Billings stock 
 and dies. The arrangement for holding in the dies 
 is novel. Two feathers hold the dies in position, as 
 shown in the drawing. Turning the screw from the 
 top die and pressing on the pin at the lower edge of 
 the plate leaves the ilies free to fall out. A pair of 
 dies for holding taps may be used in the plate in 
 place of the thread-dies, making a very convenient 
 
 I strikins the coins or medals are impressed. When 
 the enSraving is not very costly, a small number of 
 
 : impressions required, or a soft metal is to be stamped, 
 the work is stamped ilirectlv from the engraved die 
 
 ! or matrix. When the device is in high relief, and 
 the metal is hard, manv heavv blows arc required. 
 Some of the finest large "bronze medals require -JOO or 
 300 blows for each impres,sion, and tlie metal has to be 
 annealed bv heatins between everv two or three lilows. 
 It is on this account that the difTcrence between the 
 price of pewter and bronze medals of the same subject 
 is so great, tlie pewter being so much softer. Copper, 
 althoush harder than pewter, is much softer than 
 bronze; and hence the reader will easily understand
 
 DIXTART. 
 
 476 
 
 dietary; 
 
 whv the device on the bronze eoiniige. manufacturol 
 at tbe new mint of Birniin^ham, is in mueh lower 
 relief than tlie ohl copix'r coinage, as it would not pay 
 to use re|>eateil blows and annealini: in slrikinjr com- 
 mon coins. An impression in high relief or in deep 
 intaglio may be obtained by one single blow by the 
 clieh> method. For this a fusible alloy is used, such 
 as type-metal, or, still better, an alloy of two parts bis- 
 muth, one lead, and one tin, which fuses at about 212 ', 
 and becomes ixtsty before solidifying. The metal is 
 poured into a Ikix or tray a little larger than the die, 
 and when in a pasty condition the die is placed over 
 it and struck smartly with a hea\'y mallet or a coining- 
 press. A. steel die is by no means necessary for this; 
 sharp impressions may be obtained from bronze 
 medals themselves, or even from wood and plaster 
 casts. A cliche mold may be made in the first in- 
 stance from the medal, anil then a cliche relief from 
 
 Die-slnklnR Machine. 
 this mold, if the process is skillfully conducted. The 
 skill required consists mainlv in strikinir the blow 
 with a ff)ree proportionate to the depth of the impres- 
 sion and the softness of the metal, and in selecting the 
 riirht moment for doing sf), jitst as the fus<^'d mctjd is 
 on the point of solidifying; for, if too tluid, it will 
 merely Ik' driven aside; and if at all .set, an imperfect 
 impression results. The metal should be of about the 
 consi.stence of melted sealing- wa.v, and then the sur- 
 face is set by contact with' the cool die or medal, 
 whileihe Ixxly of the metal still yields to the pressure. 
 Cliche molds are admirably adapted for electro- I 
 depositing. The dniwing represents the Pratt and i 
 
 Whitney die-sinking machine, which is much used 
 in tbe arsenal for work on small-amis, reces.sing dies, 
 and finishing recesses of all varieties of curved or 
 irregular shapes. The work to be oiH'rated upon is 
 held in the vise, which mav be moved in all directions 
 horizontally by compountf slides on the tjible of the 
 machine, and may be elevated or depressed by the 
 vertical movement of the iilateu. The cutter, which 
 may be of any suitable size or form, revolves whh the 
 spindle which is dri%'en by a belt, giving much 
 smoother action than is possible with gears. The 
 work may be gviidid either by a pattern or forming- 
 piece, or controlled wholly by the operator. These 
 machines are very strongly built, insuring smooth 
 work, free from chatter-marks, and are ailapted par- 
 ticularly to forming and finishing reces,ses of circular 
 or irregular shape, and for recessing dies for the drop- 
 press, .Sire Stdtiijiiiig. 
 
 DIETARY. — Rule of diet, or an allowance of food. 
 On the ojiposite page is the diet-table for hospitals in 
 the Unitecl States army. 
 
 The following are "the recipes for full diet for tea 
 men: 
 
 1. Coffee. — Coffee, roasted, 5 oz.; sugar, 6A oz.; 
 milk, } pt. 
 
 Directions. — Put the coffee in 44 quarts of Ixjiling- 
 water. Stir well until boiling lias recommenced. 
 Cover the boiler and continue the boiling two min- 
 utes. Take the boiler off the lire, pour into it one 
 pint of cold water, and replace the cover. In ten 
 minutes the coffee may be carefully |K)ured into 
 coffee-pots, and the sugar and milk added. 
 
 2. Tea. — Tea, i oz. ; sugar, i) oz.; milk, A pt. 
 Dinctions. — Put the tea,"closely tied up in a bag of 
 
 netting, into five quarts of boiling water. Let it boil 
 one or two minutes. Take it off the tire and let it 
 stand, covered, on the I'ange fifteen minutes to draw. 
 Add the milk and sugar. 
 
 Z. HojnNT. — Hominy, 15 oz.; salt, I oz. 
 
 DinHioiis. — Wash the hominy thoroughly in warin 
 water. Put the salt into the boiler with one quart of 
 water. When boiling stir in the hominy. Let it 
 boil, very gently, twelve hours, tilling \\\t with boil- 
 ing water as the water in the boiler wastes, but with- 
 out stirring. Drain off all the water that remains 
 after it is sufficiently cooked. Add any beans that 
 may lie left from Wednesday's dinner to Thursday's 
 breakfast. 
 
 4. HicE. — Rice, 1 lb.; salt, J oz. ; water, 1 gill. 
 Diicrtioxs. — Put the salt and water into a boiler, 
 
 and when boiling add the rice, previously well 
 washed . Boil three quarters of an hour, or until the 
 grains are soft. Drain off the water; let it stand a 
 few minutes beside the fire. 
 
 5. Succotash. — Beans, i lb. ; hominy, 1 lb. ; gravy,. 
 i pt.; salt, I oz. ; pepper, ^n oz. 
 
 Directions. — Wash the beans and hominy thorough- 
 ly in three waters to cleanse them. Then put them 
 to soak in a sufficient quantity of water to cover 
 them for live hours, after 'which pour off the water, 
 being careful to drain them quite dry. Then put 
 them in a boiler or vessel prc\iously prepared with i 
 pint of boiling water ami boil over a slow tire six 
 hours; then add J pint of gravy, j ounce of salt, ^ 
 oimce of |)epi)er, and simmer over the tire one hour, 
 after which it is ready for use. Frequent stirring is 
 nece.s.sary to keep it from scorching. 
 
 0. GuAVY. — Beef -drippings, j pt.; water, | pt.; 
 flour, 'il oz. 
 
 Directitms. — Heat the beef-drippings. Mi.x the 
 flour into a smooth paste with ? pint of cold water. 
 Slir the paste into ;' pint of boiling water and let it 
 boil 8 minutes. Adil to it the hot beef-drippings 
 and let the whole heat together for a few minutes. 
 The graNy will require neither pepper nor salt if the 
 beef from which the drippings arc taken has been 
 sufliciently sea.soned while roasting. 
 
 7. JIe.\t-IIash.— Meat, 2* lbs.; bread, 10 oz. ; 
 potatoes, l.j oz.; pepper, ,'j oz.; salt, } oz. 
 
 Directions. — Chop the meat (previously boiled witli
 
 BIETAET. 
 
 477 
 
 I>I£TABT. 
 
 the bones) fine; boil and mash the potatoes; mix both 
 together with the bread, crumliled line, and the pep- 
 per and stilt, moistening with the broth in which the 
 meat and bones were boiled, without adding water. 
 Simmer for half an hour, stirring constantly. 
 
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 8. Codfish-hash.— Codfish, 4J lbs.; potatoes, 8 
 lbs.; pork-drippings, ? lb. 
 
 lUrections.— Put tlie codfish to soak overnight, 
 fleshy side downward; drain ofif, and renew the 
 water twice, if possible. In the morning put it into 
 a boiler and simmer it until it is tender. Chop it 
 fine. Have the potatoes toiled and mashed; mix 
 them well with the codfish. Put the whole over the 
 fire; stir in the pork-drippings, and let it heat thor- 
 oughly. 
 
 9 Codfish, Boiled. — Codfish, 4J lbs. 
 
 Dircclhnt. — Soak the codfish overnight, as for 
 codfish-hash; put it into a boiler with water enough, 
 to cover it entirely. Let it simmer gently half an 
 hour, or until tender. 
 
 Mnclcerel, Boiled. — Proceed as with codfish, except 
 that it is to be boiled only a quarter of an hour. 
 
 10. Potatoes.— Potatoes, 6J^ lbs.; salt, J oz. 
 Directwim. — Wash the potatoes thoroughly; put 
 
 them into boiling water, enough to cover tiieni. Let 
 them boil twentj- minutes or half an hour, and drain 
 off the water. Let them remain at the tire a few 
 minutes. 
 
 11. Beef-soup. — Beef, 7i lbs.; flour, i lb. ; turnips, 
 13 oz. ; onions, 1 lb.; cabbage, 10 oz. ; pepper, ^ oz. ; 
 salt, 2i oz.; water, 6i qts. ; rice, 21 oz. 
 
 Directions. — Cut the meat in pieces of 3 pounds 
 each; crack the bones, so as to expose the marrow, 
 without splintering them in fine pieces. Put all the 
 ingredients, except the rice and pepper, into a boiler 
 with 6A quarts of cold water and heat till it boils. 
 Boil very gentlj' for two and a half hours. Take out 
 all the meat; cut it from the large tiones, and return 
 the bones to the boiler. When boiling recommences, 
 put in the rice and continue to boil l)riskly one and a 
 quarter hours. Add the pcp])er. Have the flour 
 mixed into a smooth paste with cold water; stir it in 
 carefully. Let it boil a quarter of an hour, stirring 
 all the time. 
 
 12. Beef (or Mutton) Stew.— Beef or mutton, 3* 
 lbs. ; flour, + lb. ; rice, 6i oz. ; potatoes, 1 lb. ; pepper, 
 Yii oz. ; mixed vegetables, 2 oz. ; salt, -^ lb. ; water, 
 1 gal. and 1 \iX. 
 
 Direeti/>m. — Cut the meat in pieces of 6 ounces 
 each. Put it into boiling water with the salt. Let it 
 boil one and a half hours. Add the rice, which must 
 first be thoroughly wa.shed. Boil three quarters of 
 an hour. Cut the potatoes and mixed vei'etables into 
 small slices and add them to the meat and rice. Let 
 the whole boil half an hour longer. Put in the pep- 
 per. Mix the flour into a smooth paste with cold 
 water and stir it in the stew. Let the whole boil ten 
 minutes, stirring constantly. 
 
 13. Roast Beef or Mutton. — Roast beef or mut- 
 ton. Si lbs.; pepper, \ oz.; salt, I lb.; water, * ^1. 
 
 Directions. — Cut the meat from the bones m as 
 large pieces as practicable; roll and tic them. Bake 
 the meat in pans with the salt and water. Put into 
 the oven and bake three hours, or longer if necessary. 
 Add the pepper ten minutes l)efore it is done. The 
 quantity of meat above named is three quarters of 
 that is.sued for dinner and the next day's breakfast; 
 the other quarter is to be thrown with the bones, 
 which must be cracked, into a boiler, with water 
 enough to cover them, the whole to simmer until the 
 meat can be easil.y separated from the bones. The 
 meat with the broth is to be set aside for ha.sh. 
 
 14. Pork and Beans. — Pork, 4J lbs.; beans, 1 qt.; 
 pepper, A oz. 
 
 Directions. — Soak the beans overnight in plenty of 
 water. Boil the pork and Iwans separately lor two 
 hours. Put alx)Ut one .seventh of the whole quantity 
 of the pork in pans, surrounded and covered with the 
 beans. Add the pepper. Bake one hour over a 
 moderate tire. Bake the remainder of the pork for 
 the same length of time. Any beans left from dinner 
 will be mixed with hominy for Thursday's breakfast. 
 
 1.5. CABii.\GE. — Cabbage, 2 J lbs.; salt, j oz. 
 
 Directions.— Fnt the cabbage and salt in boiling 
 water. Boil half an hour. Drain off the water.
 
 DIED £T HON OBOIT. 
 
 478 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL PULLET-BLOCK. 
 
 16. Turnips.— Turnips, 2Jlbs. ; salt, | oz. 
 Virtctioiit. — SVnsh ihi; turnips thorouijhlv and pare 
 
 them. Put iheiii with the salt into boilinj;; water. 
 Let them boil one hour. 
 
 17. CoiJJ-SL.\w. — Cabbage, 2Mbs.; \inegar, I'o pt. 
 DirtfUoitK. — Slice the cabbage fine. Pour over the 
 
 vinegitr anil nii.x well. 
 
 IS. Pickled Beets. — Beets, 2J lbs.; vincsrar, I'oPt. 
 
 Directions. — Boil the beets two houn-. Pare and 
 slice them. Pour the vinegar over them. 
 
 19. KicE-PuDDrso. — Rice, 10 oz. ; sugar, 3^ oz. ; 
 flour, li'o oz. ; salt, J oz.; cinnamon, J oz.; water, 3 J 
 qts. 
 
 IXrectioM. — Wash the rice carefully. Put it into 
 the water when Iniiliiig, with the suair and sjdt. 
 Boil gently three (luarters of an hour. Add the flour, 
 previously mixed into a smooth paste with cold water, 
 and the cinnamon. Stir it on the tire cai-cfuUy for 
 five or ten minutes. Put it into pans and bake for 
 two hours. 
 
 20. Stewed Fnrrr. — Dried fruit, 15 oz.; sugar, 2 
 oz.; water, 2J qts. 
 
 iHnetioM. — Soak the dried fruit for three hours in 
 three gallons of water. Drain and add the sugar. 
 Boil gently two hours, or until quite soft. 
 
 21. Savouy Bue.\d.— Bread, 2+ lbs. ; onions, -^t^ lb. ; 
 bcefKlrippings, \ lb. : pepper, ,'5 oz. ; salt, f oz. 
 
 Directi'iim. — C'runil)le the bread fine. Chop the 
 onions. Mi-K together with the beef-drippings, salt, 
 and pepper. Bake until nicely brown. See Food 
 and liiitioii. 
 
 DIEU ET HON DROIT.— The motto of the Royal 
 Arms (if England, first as-sumed by Richard I,, to in- 
 timate that he did not hold his empire in vas.salage 
 of any mortal. It was afterwards assumed by Ed- 
 ward III., and was continued without interruption 
 to the time of William, who used the motto Je imiiii- 
 titndray, though the fonncr was still retained upon 
 the great seal. After him Anne used the motto 
 Sem/ier eadem ; but ever since her time Dit:u et mon 
 droit has continued to be the Royal motto. 
 
 DIFFERENCES.— Differences," in Heraldr^y, though 
 often, or indeed generally, confounded with marks 
 of cadency, have, in strict usage, a totally different 
 function — the former being employed to distinguish 
 brothers and their descendants after the death of the 
 father, the latter whilst he is still alive. Differences 
 in this limited sense may consist cither of a chief 
 added to or a l)ordure placed round the plain shield 
 borne by the head of the house; or should the shield 
 exhibit anv of the ordinaries, as the bend, fess, pale, 
 etc., the difference may be indicated by an alteration 
 on the lines. The proximity of the bearer to the head 
 of the house is indicated by the character of the line 
 by which the differencing chief or bordure or ordi- 
 narj- is marked off from the field, the following being 
 the order usually observed; the first or eldest bnjther, 
 on the death of his father, inherits the i)ure arms of 
 the house; the second brother, if the ditference is to 
 consist of a Imrdure, carries it plain; the third, in- 
 grailed; the fourth, invected; the fifth, embattled; 
 etc. Other modes of differencing have been inventecl 
 by heralds, and are not unknown to practice; such, for 
 example, as changing Ihe tinctures either of the field 
 or of the principal tigures, of which Nislxl gives many 
 famous examples— altering the posiiion or number of 
 the figures on the shield, adding different figures from 
 the mother's coat or from lamls, and the like. Where 
 the cadet is far removed from the principal familv, if 
 the field be of one tincture, it is sometimes divided 
 into two, the charge or charges being counter-charged, 
 so that metal may not lie on metal, or color on color. 
 The confusion iK'twecen iliffereilces and marks of 
 cndenev, al)ove referred to, is l)y no means peculiar 
 to the heraldic usjige of England, tbnngh there it is 
 more prevalent than in Scotland. In~ France the 
 cadets of the House of Bourlxjn have been in the 
 habit of continuing these marks, and at the present 
 day, as in Mackenzie's time, the lalx;l or lambel is to 
 be seen on the arms of all the members of the Orleans 
 
 family. That no distinction between what we call 
 marks of cadency and differences was there observed 
 is further apparent from the fact that whilst such 
 was the practice of the House of Orleans, the House 
 of .:Viijou carried a bordure gules, and that of Alen- 
 (jon a bordure gules charged with eight bezants. In 
 Germany, Sir George JIackenzie says that the several 
 branches of great families distinguish themselves only 
 by different crests, and he gives as the reason that 
 all the sons succeed equally to the honors of the fam- 
 ily. In Britain and in trance some change is al- 
 ways made on the shield as airried by the head of 
 the' house; but the practice even of gooil heralds has 
 been so irregular as to bring the rule very nearly to 
 what Mackenzie holds to be the correct one — \'iz., 
 that every private person should be allowed, with the 
 sjiuctiou of the proiXT authorities, "to make what 
 marks of distinction can suit best wiUi the coat which 
 his chief bears.'' See Cadtitci/ and Ihraldry. 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL PULLEY BLOCK. — The portable 
 hoisting-device generally known by this name was in- 
 ventedsome twenty years ago. It secured immedi- 
 ately great popularity, and its use extended rapidly 
 throughout the civilized world, wherever modern 
 machinery was known and appliances for lifting 
 heav}' weights were needed. No previous device had 
 ever embodied the .sjmie conveniences, namely, great 
 lifting power and the ability to hold the load suspend- 
 ed at any point, and the accomplishment of these ends 
 by a machine of great simplicity, compactness, and of 
 light weight. The univers;il adoption, throughout 
 the world, of the Weston differential puUej'-block as 
 the standard type of portable hoists is due to the fact 
 that it perfectly meets all of the.se requirements and 
 in the simplest possible way. Since its introduction 
 other machines have been invented for similar uses, 
 but no one of them combines in itself the important 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 characteristics of power, safety, simplicity, and por- 
 tability to a degree which equals that of the Weston 
 block. The latter is demonstrably a reduction of the 
 problem to its simplest possible form, and therefore 
 can never be superseded. In recent text-books it is 
 given a place among the other mechanical powers or 
 elements, thus recognizing the fundamental character 
 of its design and usefulness. 
 
 The principle of the de\ice is very ancient, but it Is 
 only recently that it has been embodied in a machine 
 of practical utility. In designing any mechanical 
 power the object to be aimed at is this, that while the 
 power moves over a considerable distance, the load 
 shall only be raised a short distance. When this ob- 
 ject is attained we then know by the principle of en- 
 ergy that we have gjiined an increase of power. The 
 principal points of this machine will be understood 
 from Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. It consists of three parts — 
 an upper pulley-block, a movable pulley, and an end-
 
 SITFEBENTIAL PULLEY-BLOCK. 
 
 479 
 
 DIFFEBENTIAL PULLET BLOCK. 
 
 less chain. We shall briefly describe them. The 
 upper block, P, is furnished With a hook for attach- 
 ment to a support. The sheave it contains resembles 
 two sheaves, one a little smaller than the other, fas- 
 tened together ; they are in fact one piece. The 
 grooves are furnished with ridges which prevent the 
 chain from slipping around them. The lower pul- 
 ley, Q, consists of one sheave which is also furnished 
 with a groove. It carries a hook to which the load is 
 attached. The endless chain performs a part that 
 will be understood by the arrow-heads attached to it 
 in the figure. The chain passes from the hand at A 
 up to L, over the larger groove in the upper pulley, 
 then do^\Tiwards at B, under the lower pulley, up 
 again at C, over the smaller groove in the upper pul- 
 ley at M, and then back again by D to the hand at A. 
 When the hand pulls t he chain downwards, the grooves 
 of the upper pulley begin to turn together in the 
 direction shown by the arrows on the chain. The 
 large groove is therefore winding up the chain while 
 the smaller is lowering. 
 
 In the pulley which has been employed in the ex- 
 periments to be described the effective circumference 
 of the large groove is found to be 11.84 inches, while 
 that of the small gioove is 10.36 inches. When the 
 upper pulley has made one revolution the large groove 
 must have drawn up 11.84 inches of chain, since 
 the chain cannot slip on account of the ridges; but in 
 the same time the small groove has lowered 10.36 in- 
 ches of chain ; hence, when the upper i)ulley has 
 revolved once, the chain between the two must have 
 been shortened by the difference between 11.84 and 
 10.36 inches, that is, b\- 1.48 inch; but this can only 
 have taken place by raising the movable pulley through 
 half of 1.48 inch, that is, through a space of .74 inch. 
 The power ha-s then acted through 
 11.84 inches and has raised the re- 
 sistance .74 inch. The power has 
 therefore gone through a space 16 
 times greater than that through 
 which the load moves. In fact it is 
 very easy to verify by actual trial 
 thai the power must be moved 
 through 16 feet in order that the 
 load may be raised 1 foot. We ex- 
 press this by saying that the velocity 
 ratio is 16. " By applying power to 
 the chain, D, "proceeiling from the 
 smaller groove, the chain is lowered 
 by the large groove faster than it is 
 raised by the small one, and the 
 lower pulley descends. The load is 
 thus raised or lowered \\-ith great 
 facility by simply pulling one chain, 
 A, or the other, D. 
 
 We shall next consider the me- 
 chanical efficiency of the differ- 
 ential pulley - block. The block 
 which we shall use is intended to 
 be worked by one man and will 
 raise any weight not exceeding a 
 quarter of a ton. We have already 
 learned that for the load to be 
 raised 1 foot the power must act 
 through 16 feet. Hence were it 
 not for friction we should infer that 
 the power need only be the sixteenth 
 part of the load. "A few trials \\-ill 
 show us that the real efficiency is 
 not so large, and that in fact more 
 Fig. 2. ,jj.^„ ],.^]f ,|,p power exerted is 
 
 merely expended upon overcoming friction. This 
 will lead afterwards to a result of considerable prac- 
 tical importance. Placing upon the load-hook a 
 ■weight of 200 pounds, we lind that 38 pounds attached 
 to a"hook fastened on the power-chain is sufficient to 
 raise the load; that is to siiv, the power is about i of 
 the load. If we make the "load 400 pounds we find 
 the requisite power to be 64 pounds, which is only 
 about 3 pounds less than i of 400 pounds. We may 
 
 safely adopt the practical rule that with a differential 
 pulley-block of this class a man will be able to raise 
 a w eight six times greater than he could raise without 
 such assistance. 
 
 A series of experiments carefully tried with different 
 loads have given the results shown in the followinj: 
 table: 
 
 Circumference of large groove, 11.84 inches; of 
 small groove, 10.36 inches; velocity ratio, 16; mechani- 
 cal efficiency, 6.07; useful effect, 38 per cent; formu- 
 la P = 3.87 + .1508R. 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 Calculated 
 
 Difference 
 
 Number 
 
 R. 
 
 Obsen-ed 
 
 of tbe ob- 
 
 of Ejtperi- 
 
 Load in 
 
 power in 
 
 senred and 
 
 meut. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 pounds. 
 
 calculated 
 Talues. 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 10 
 
 12.3 
 
 + 2.3 
 
 2 
 
 113 
 
 20 
 
 20.8 
 
 + -8 
 
 3 
 
 168 
 
 31 
 
 89.2 
 
 - 1.8 
 
 4 
 
 Hi 
 
 38 
 
 37.7 
 
 — .3 
 
 5 
 
 280 
 
 48 
 
 46.1 
 
 — 1.9 
 
 
 
 .■W6 
 
 54 
 
 54.6 
 
 + -6 
 
 7 
 
 392 
 
 64 
 
 68.1 
 
 - .» 
 
 8 
 
 448 
 
 72 
 
 71.5 
 
 — .5 
 
 9 
 
 604 
 
 80 
 
 80.0 
 
 .0 
 
 10 
 
 660 
 
 86 
 
 88.4 
 
 + 2.4 
 
 The first column contains the numbers of the ex- 
 periments; the second, the weights raised; the third, 
 the values of the corresponding powers. The calcu- 
 lated values of the powers are given in the fourth col- 
 umn, and the differences between the observed and 
 calculated values in the last column. The differences 
 do not in any case amount to 2..t pounds, and consid- 
 ering the size of the loads raised (up to a quarter of a 
 ton), the formula represents the ex-periments with sat- 
 isfactory- precision. 
 
 Suppose, for example, 280 pounds is to lie raised; 
 the product of 280 and .1508 is 42.22, to which when 
 3.87 is added we find 46.09 to be the requisite power. 
 The mechanical efficiency found by dividing 46.09 
 into 280 is 6.07. To raise" 280 pounds 1 foot, 280 foot- 
 pounds of energy would be necessarj-; but in the dif- 
 ferential pulley -block 46.09 pounds must be exerted 
 for a distance of 16 feet in order to accomplish this 
 object. The product of 46.09 and 16 is 737.4. Hence 
 the differential pulley -block requires 737.4 foot-pounds 
 of energy to Ix- applied to it in order to produce 280 
 foot-pounds; but 280 is only 38 per cent of 737.4, and 
 therefore with a load of 280 pounds only 38 per cent 
 of the energy applied to a differential pulley -block is 
 utilized. In general we may state that not more than 
 about 40 per cent is profitably used, and that the re- 
 mainder is employed in overcoming friction. 
 
 It is a very rernarkable and useful property of the 
 differential "pulley that a weight which has been 
 hoisted by it will remain suspended, without any 
 tendencyto run down; this is a point of great prac- 
 tical convenience. The rea.son « hy the load does not 
 run down in the differential pulley may be thus ex- 
 plained. Let us suppose that a weight of 400 pounds 
 is to be raised 1 foot by the differential pulley-block; 
 400 imits of work are" neces.sar}-, and therefore 1000 
 imits of work must be applied to the power-chain to 
 produce the 400 units (since only 40 per cent is util- 
 ized). The friction will thus "have consumed 600 
 units of work when the load has been raised 1 foot. 
 If the power- weight be removed, the pressure support- 
 ed by the upper pullev-block is diminished. In fact, 
 since the power- weieht is alwut { of the load, the pres- 
 .sure on the axle when the power-weight has been re- 
 moved is only i of its pre^^ous value. The friction 
 is produced by' the pressure of the pulleys on their 
 axles and is nearly proportional to that nre-ssure; 
 hence when the power has iK'cn removed the friction 
 on the upper axle is i of its previous value, while the 
 friction on the lower' pulley remains unaltered. >\e 
 may therefore a.ssume that the total friction is at 
 least i of what it was before the power weieht was 
 removed. Will friction allow the load to descend?
 
 DIFFERENTIAL WINDLASS. 
 
 480 
 
 DIOPTRICS. 
 
 600 foot-pounds of work were requinnl to overcome 
 till' friction ill the iisceut: iit least 5 X 600 = 514 foot- 
 pounds would l)e necessary lo overcome friction in 
 the iles<-enl. But where is this enerjiy to come from? 
 The load in its descent could only yield 400 units, 
 and thus ileseeni l>y the mere weii:hl of the load Is 
 imiKissihle. To enable the load to descend, we have 
 actuallv to aid the movement liy pulling the chain D 
 (Fiipi. 1 and 2), which proceeds through the small 
 groove in the uppi-r pulley. 
 
 The princii>le which we have hero established ex- 
 tends to other mechanical innvers and may I'c stated 
 generally. AN'henever rather more than lialf of the 
 applied "energy is iLselessly consumed by friction, the 
 load will remain susi>chded without overhauling. 
 Sif CniiuK. I/'ii>(tiii!/-ni'i'-/iiiiis, and Trainrail. 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL WINDLASS.— A windlass whose 
 biirivl consists of two portions of varying diameters. 
 The roiH." winds on to one iis it winds otT the other, 
 the elTect of a revolution being governed by the differ- 
 ence between the circumferences of the two portions. 
 If it w ind on to the larger and off of the smaller the 
 load is elevated, and conversely. Sec Chinese ^S^ind■ 
 Ian*. 
 
 DIKES. — Dikes and bridges, used in fortification, 
 ill no way diller in princiiile from similar construc- 
 tions used elsewhere. The communication across the 
 enciinle-tlitch leading from the gateway is usually an 
 ordinary wooden bridge. The bay of this bridge at 
 the piteway is spanned by a drawbridge of timber, 
 ■which when drawn up closes and secures the gate- 
 way. This drawbridge is manuevered by some of the 
 usual mechanisms emi^loyed for this jiurpose; and 
 for convenience of maneuvering should not be longer 
 than 12 feet. Care should be taken that it should tit 
 the recess in the face of the wall so clo.sely that there 
 will not be room enough between it and the jambs of 
 the gateway to insert a crowbar to force back the 
 1)riilge. See liridqti) and f'ommunkatioiiii. 
 
 DILLICH SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In this 
 system the ravelins before the ba.stion iire replaced by 
 counterguards and the counterscarp of llie main ditch 
 Ls directeil on the shoulder-angles. The low Hanks 
 are ca.semated on the Italian meThod. In another sys- 
 tem Dillich adopt-s the tenaille-tracing. 
 
 DIMACHJE. — In ancient times a kind of horse- 
 nien, answerinsr to the dragoons of the modems. 
 
 DIMIDIATION.— In Heraldry a mode of marshal- 
 inir arms, adopted chietly before quartering and im- 
 paling according to the iiKKlern practice came into 
 u.se, and subsequently retained to some extent in Con- 
 tinental though not in English Heraldry. It con- 
 sists in cutting two coats of arms in half by a vertical 
 line, and uniting the dexter half of the one to the 
 sinister half of the other. Coats of husband and wife 
 Were often so marshaled in England in the thirteenth 
 and fiairteenth centuries. Mr. Plaiiche traces the dou- 
 ble-heailed eagle of the German Empire to a dimid- 
 ialiil coat, with half an eagle for the Eastern and 
 anntlicr half for the Western Empire. Sw Heraldry. 
 
 DIMINISH. — In a military sense, to decrease the 
 front of a battalion; to adopt the columns of march, 
 or maneuver according to tlie obstructions and dith- 
 culties which il meets in advancing. 
 
 DIMINISHED ANGLE.— In fortiticalion, the angle 
 foriniil by Ibc exterior side and the line of defense. 
 
 DIMINUTIONS.— A word sometimes usi'd in Her- 
 aldry for difTerences, marks of ciidency, and brisures, 
 iuclilTinrillv. 
 
 DIOPHANTINE ANALYSIS. -That seclion of the 
 theory of unlimit<-d or indelenninate j^roblems which 
 allempis lo tind rational and commensurable values 
 answering to cerliun equati(ais between .scjuares and 
 culies. This cla.ss of problems was lirst and chiefly 
 treated of by Diophantus, who has given his name to 
 the theory of their solution. We shall not here at- 
 tempt lo explain the nature of the analysis, which is 
 verv subtle and guided liy few gerural ruli's. The 
 dilllcullies of the solution of diophanline problems in 
 most cases foil to be overcome by the skill and in- 
 
 genuity of the analyst. We contine ourselves to 
 stating the following examples of the problems solved 
 by the diophiintinc analysis; 1. To tind two whole 
 
 I numbers the sum of whose scpiares is a square. 2. To 
 tinil three .square numbers in arithmetical progression. 
 
 1 3. To liud a number from which two given squares 
 being severally subtracted, each of the remainders 
 may be a .square. Solutions of problems in gunnery 
 are"frei|uenlly accomplished by this analy.sis. 
 
 j DIOPTRICS. — That branch of geometrical optics 
 which treats of the transmission of rays of light from 
 one medium into another, differing in kind. It con- 
 sists of the residt-s of the application of geometry to 
 
 [ ascertain in particuliir cases the action of what are 
 called the laws of refraction. When a ray of homo- 
 
 ] geneous light is incident iqion a surface, the angle 
 which its direction makes with the normal or perpen- 
 dicular to the surface at the point of incidence is in 
 dioptrics, as in catoptrics, called the angle of inci- 
 dence. The angle which the refracted ray makes 
 w ith the same line is called the angle of refraction. 
 This being premised, we may state the laws of refrac- 
 tion. 1. The incident and refracted ray lie in the 
 same plane with the normal, at the jKjiut of incidence, 
 and on op])osite sides of it. 2. The slue of the angle 
 of inci<lence, whatever that angle ma}' be, bears to 
 the sine of the angle of refraction a constant ratio 
 dependent only on the nature of the media between 
 which the refraction takes place, and on the nature 
 of the light. According to the second law, if we 
 call the angle of incidence i, and that of refraction /•, 
 we shall h:ive sin i = // sin r, where // is a cjuantity 
 depending upon the nature of the media and of the 
 light. It will have, for iust;incc, a certain value for 
 refraction from vacuum into glass, another from glass 
 into water, and so on; also, it will have one value for 
 red light, another for green, and so on. The quantity 
 // is called the refractive index, and is greater than 
 1 when refraction takes place from vacuum into a 
 medium, and in general is greater than 1 when the 
 refraction is from a rarer into a denser medium, and 
 less than 1 when the opposite is the ca.se. In dio])- 
 trics the laws of refraction may be considered as 
 depending for their truth upon experiment; In physi- 
 cal optics thej' are deductions from an hypothesis 
 respecting the constitution of light. They are not 
 nierelj' approximately true; they are absolute physical 
 laws. 
 
 Before proceeding to consider the simpler leading 
 cases of refraction, one or two interesting proposi- 
 tions in dioptrics require to be explained. 1. If the 
 refractive inde.x for a medium, when light is incident 
 upon it from vacuum, be /(, and the index for another 
 medium, under the same circumstances, be ;/ , then, 
 when light proceeds from the second medium into 
 
 the first, the refractive index is —• The proof of this 
 
 proposition depends upon the two following experi- 
 mental laws: (1) If a ray of light proceed from a 
 point to a second, suffering any retlections or refrac- 
 tions in its course, then, if it be incident in the 
 reverse direction, i.e., from the second point, it will 
 follow the exactly reverse course to the first point. 
 This is jiroved by experiment, but may be accepted 
 as axiomatic. (2) If a ray pa.ss from vacuum 
 through any number of media, hanng their faces 
 plane and jiarallel, when the ray emerges into vacuiun 
 its direction will be iiarallel "to that which it had 
 before incidence. To deduce the jiroposiliou from 
 these laws, let i be the angle of incidence from 
 vacuum upon the first medium, r the angle of refrac- 
 tion, which will also be the angle of incidence upon 
 the second medium. Also let r' be the angle of 
 refraction into the si'cond medium, which will also 
 lie the angle of incidence upon the second bounding 
 surface. By the second of the preceding experimen- 
 tal laws, the angle of emergence into vacuum will bo 
 «. Hence we shall have, by the first of these laws, 
 sin i = fi' sin r at the first .surface, and sin i — ft sin 
 r' at the second. From these cquutioiis we have sin
 
 OIF. 
 
 481 
 
 DIPLOPIA. 
 
 r = — , sin r , which proves tlie proposition. 
 
 It fol- 
 
 lows that if // be the refractive index from vacuum 
 into a medium, that from the medium into vacuum 
 
 will be — . 2. Our .second proposition relates to what 
 
 is called the eritkal angle. If i be the angle of inci- 
 dence of a ray within a medium, the refractive index 
 of which is //, and r the angle of refraction into 
 vacuum, then we have from the former proposition 
 
 sin t =r — sin r. From this formula, if i be given, r 
 
 may be found, and a real value will be given to r so 
 
 long as sin t is < — ; but when i has a value greater 
 
 than that determined by the equation sin i = —, the 
 
 H 
 
 formula fails to give us a value of ;■, for the sine of 
 an angle cannot be greater than 1 . And experiment 
 shows that, in fact, there is no refracted ray when 
 the angle of incidence is greater than that above 
 assigned, the ray being wholly reflected within the 
 
 medium. The angle of which the sine is — is called 
 
 u 
 the eritical angle. For glass it is about 41' 45'; for 
 water, about 48° 30'. This angle is sometimes called 
 the angle of total reflection. In internal rctiection at 
 the surfaces of media, the reflected light is more 
 nearly equal in intensity to the incident than in any 
 other case of reflection. While it thus appears that 
 refraction from a denser into a rarer medium is not 
 always possible, it may be added that it is always 
 possible from a rarer into a denser. 
 
 We shall now investigate some simple cases of 
 refraction. 1. In case of refraction at a plane sur- 
 surface. Let DIMN (Fig. 1) be 
 any medium bounded by a plan, 
 DI, and let R be a radiant point 
 and RD and RI two incident 
 rays of a divergent pencO pro- 
 ceeding from R to the surface of 
 the medium; then RD being per- 
 pendicular to the surface sutlers 
 no refraction, but proceeds along 
 DM within tlie medium ; but 
 RI is refracted in the direction 
 IX, which, produced outwards, 
 meets the normal DF in F. Fig. i. 
 
 Therefore a small pencil of rays proceeding from R, 
 and having RD, perpendicular to the surface, for 
 axis, will be refracted into another pencil diverging 
 from the imaginary focus F; for all the rays inter- 
 mediate between RD and RI will converge very near 
 F when the pencil is small. An eye within the 
 medium, and between N and M, would thus, the 
 pencil being small, see the luminous point R as if it 
 were at F, or further off than it really is. In the 
 opposite case, in which the luminous point is within 
 the refracting medium, similar reasoning shows that 
 after the rays emerge from the plane surface into the 
 air they will, if the pencil be small, appear to pro- 
 ceed from an imaginarj' focus nearer to the surface 
 than the luminous point. 2. The case of refraction 
 through a prism, which we are next to consider, is, 
 in fact, but the case of refraction through a medi- 
 um bounded by plane surfa- 
 ces which are not parallel. 
 Conceive anj' two planes at 
 right angles to the plane 
 of the paper, and making 
 on that plane the figure BAG 
 (Fig. 2). The question is 
 as to the laws of transmis- 
 sion of a ray. SPQR, of 
 homogeneous light through 
 the prism. Draw mil' and 
 n'n perpendicular to the sides. Then nPQ and n QP 
 are respectively the angles of refraction at the first, and 
 
 
 
 i" 
 
 '\ 
 
 R 
 
 A 
 
 D 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 of incidence at the second surface. Now, a.s n QA and 
 nPA are each of them ri^ht angles, and as all the 
 angles in the figure n QAP are equal to four right 
 angles, it follows that the angles at n and at A together 
 are equal to two right angles. But the angle at n , 
 together with the angles » PQ and n QP, are equal to 
 two right angles; therefore must the angles n PQ 
 and ft QP together l>e equal to the angle at A. In 
 other words, in refraction through a pnsm: 7"/ie sum 
 of the angles of refrmtiem at the first suiface, and of 
 incidence at the second, is equal to the angle contained 
 between the plane sides of the prism. From this it 
 might be shown that the deviation of a ray caused 
 by pa.ssing through a prism is always towards the 
 thicker part of the prism, if the medium be denser 
 than the surrounding atmosphere. It is a geomet- 
 rical proi)08ition which the student may solve for 
 himself, that if / be the angle of incidence at the first 
 surface, and e that of emergence at the second, and 
 if <f be the angle of the prism, then 6, or the change 
 of direction of the ray in its pa.ssage, is obtained from 
 the formula (5 = i +"<; — a. 3. Wc now take up the 
 ca.se of refraction at a single spherical surface of a 
 medium denser than the surrounding air. And first, 
 of parallel rays refracted at a convex spherical sur- 
 face. Let ABQP (Fig. 3) be the refracting medium, 
 whose terminating convex surface is spherical, C be- 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 ing the center of the surface, while V is its vertex. 
 Let XV be the axis of a pencil of parallel rays, of 
 which any ray, RI, is incident at I. Then, if CTX 
 be a normal, the angle of refraction. CIF, will Ix! less 
 than the angle of incidence, RIN, and the refracted 
 ray will thus turn towards the axis, and meet it at 
 some point, F. When the pencil is small, or the 
 aperture, AVB, of only a few degrees, the rays will 
 clearly nearly all converge to the siime point, F. 
 To find the position of F, we have, in the triangle 
 ICF, the anele CIF = r, the angle of refraction, and 
 ICF, the supplement of 10 V or NIR (by parallel 
 lines), i.e., of (', or the angle of incidence. There- 
 fore IF : CF : : sin i : sin r. And as for a very 
 small pencil IF may be taken = VF, we have FV : 
 FC : : sin i : sin r, or : : h : 1. And putting FV = F, 
 the principal focal distance, and VO = R, we have 
 
 F = — ^R. If the medium be crown-glass, for 
 It — 1 
 
 I 
 which the value of ft is f , we have F = _ R, or 
 
 F = 3 R; i.e., the principal focal distance is equal to 
 three times the radius of the sphere. The student 
 may, by similar reasoning, ascertain for himself the 
 focus of parallel rays incident on a concave .spherical 
 refracting surface, as also the focus in the case of a 
 pencil of parallel raj-s within the medium and emerg- 
 ing from it. The case of a divergent pencil is incapa- 
 ble of such elementary treatment as to justify its 
 insertion here. For branches of the subject treated 
 under separate heads the reader should refer to the 
 articles C.\rsTic, Lens, and Refu.^ction. Under 
 Refr.'^ction he wiU find a table of the values of « — 
 the refractive index — for various media and kinds of 
 light. See Catoptrics and Chromatics. 
 
 ""DIP. — 1. A name sometimes given to the superior 
 slope of a parapet. 2. The inclination of the sole of 
 an embrasure. 3. The slight downward inclination 
 of the anns of an axle. 
 
 DIPLOPIA. — To insure correct and comfortable 
 vision the two eves must work in unison ; for if the 
 rays of light do" not fall on a corresponding spot of
 
 DIPFINO-NEEDLE. 
 
 482 
 
 DIBECT DEFILEMENT. 
 
 the retina of each eye, two objects instead of one will 
 1m; seen, us represented in ibe dniwiug. Dii)lopia, or 
 double-sight, is caused by weakness of the muscles 
 which move the eye from side to side. They are no 
 longer able to hold the two eyes stciuiily fixed toward 
 the object, and the eye moving out or in causes the 
 individual to see the object double. This can often 
 be very much relieved l)y prismatic lenses. Paresis 
 of the ciliary muscle Ls the inability to maintain the 
 adjustment of the eyes for near objects any length of 
 time without fatigue; for instance, in reading or sew- 
 ing, especially by insuflicient light, the fatigued ciliary 
 muscle relaxes and the accommodative power of the 
 
 eyes is suddenly lost, causing the print or work to 
 become confused and unintelligible, together with a 
 feeling of fatigue and pain about the eyeballs. In 
 such cjises, after a few minutes' rest and closing the 
 eyes, work can be resumed but for a short time only, 
 as the muscle will again lose its strength and relax. 
 This disagreeable trouble arises from a debilitated 
 condition of the whole system, which, though not felt 
 in other part.s of the body, is apparent in the muscle 
 of accommodation, on account of its position and the 
 character of the work it is called upon to perform. 
 After a fit of illness, or a jjreat shock causing nervous 
 prostration, this ditliculty is often apparent. Persons 
 whose eyesight had Ix-en previously perfect should 
 not resort to glas.ses of any kind when affected with 
 these spasms of the sight, but wait patiently until 
 nature does the work by restoring the tone of the 
 whole system. This advice does not apply to tho,se 
 who have this same trouble that arises from a hyiier- 
 metropic form of the eye, and not from the Ciiuse 
 mentioned above. A skilled oculist, on examination, 
 would at once detect the cause and prescribe the 
 remedy. See Miiapiix. 
 
 DIPiPING-NEEDLE.— If a magnetic needle be sup- 
 ported so as to be free to move vertically, it does not 
 at most places on the earth's surface rest in a horizon- 
 tal po.silion, but inclines more or le.ss from it. If the 
 vertical plane in which the needle moves is the mag- 
 netic meriilian of the place, the angle between the 
 needle and the horizontal line is called the dip or 
 inclination of the needle. The dip of the magnetic 
 needle at any place can be ascertained with very 
 great exactness by means of the dipping-needle, ft 
 consists of a graduated oirele fixed vertically in a 
 frame, and moving with it and a vernier on a. hori- 
 zontal graduated circle. This last is supported by a 
 stand funn'slied with leveling-screws. At the center 
 of the vertical circle there' are two knife-edges of 
 agate, .suiiported by the frame, and parallel to the 
 plane of the circle. The needle rests on tliesp knife- 
 edges by means of two tine polished cylinders of 
 steel, which are placed accurately at thecri-nter of the 
 needle, and project at right angles from it: so adjust- 
 ed, the needle moves with little or no friction. It is 
 so made, moreover, that before l)eing magnetized it 
 remains indiJBfercntly in any position ; after magneti- 
 
 zation, therefore, the dip which it shows is wholly 
 ilue to the magnetic influence of the earth. In order 
 to understand how an obsiTvation is made with the 
 dipping-needle, we must regard the directing force of 
 the earth's magnetism exerted upon the poles of the 
 needle in any vertical plane in which it may hapiK'ii 
 to be, as resolved into two forces, one acting at right 
 angles to the plane, and the other acting in the plane. 
 There being a corresponding but opposite force at 
 each pole, we have thus two statical couples acting 
 on the needle — one tending to turn it at right angles 
 to the plane in which it moves, and the other tending 
 to bring it roimd to a position in the plane such that 
 the needle and the forces of the couple may be in a 
 line. In the dipping-needle the mode of support 
 completely neutralizes the first of the couples ; and 
 the position that the needle takes in any plane is due 
 wholly to the seconil. When the l)lane of the needle 
 is at right angles to the magnetic meridian, the forces 
 of this latter couple act vertically, and bring the 
 needle to the same position. This, then, gives us the 
 means of determining the magnetic m,criilian, for we 
 have only to bring the vertical circle round till the 
 needle stands at 90 to put it in a plane at right angles 
 to that meridian ; and then by moving the vernier on 
 the horizontal circle over 90' we place the upper cir- 
 cle and needle in the plane of the magnetic meridian. 
 The dipping-needle thus serves the purpose of a dec- 
 lination-needle. In bringing the needle round from 
 the plane at right angles to the magnetic meridian, 
 the dip is less and less, till it becomes least in the 
 plane of that meridian. We might thus also find the 
 magnetic meridian, for it is that plane in which the 
 dip of the needle is least. When the needle is in the 
 plane of the magnetic meridian, the couple which acts 
 in other vertical planes at right angles to them disap- 
 pears, and the whole force of the terrestrial magnet- 
 ism acts at each pole of the needle, forming a couple 
 which swings the needle round till it stands in a line 
 with itself. The degree on the circle then pointed to 
 by the needle is the dip at the place of observation . 
 Two readings are necessary, for the reason stated 
 under Declination-needle. One reading is taken. 
 
 the needle is then reversed so as to change its sup- 
 ports, and then a .second reading is noted, and the 
 mean of the two gives the correct reading. The posi- 
 tion of the needle when the dip is read off is mani- 
 festly the same that a needle suspended in air, if that 
 were possible, and free to move in any way, would 
 finally assume. In resolving, therefore, the total di- 
 rective force of the earth as we have done above, we 
 must keep in mind that it always acts parallel to the 
 direction of the dipping-ueedie. See Incliualhii- 
 
 DIPPING OF THE MUZZLE.— When a piece of ar- 
 tillery is tired, the action at the vent brings increased 
 pressure on the elevating-screw or (|Uoin. The reac- 
 tion from this naturally throws down the muzzle. 
 
 DIRECT DEFILEMENT.— The direct defilement of
 
 DIRECT EMBBASUBE. 
 
 483 
 
 DIRECTORY. 
 
 a work may be practically performed on the ground 
 as follows : Let A B C D F be the plan of a work, 
 a lunette for example ; and the points ( ), (), etc. , lyinjr 
 within the angle formed by the prolonged direction of 
 the two faces B C, I) C, the most elevated ixjints of 
 a commanding position in front of the work. At the 
 points A, B, etc. , let straight poles be planted verti- 
 cally, and on the poles along the gorge-line let a point 
 be marked, at three feet above the ground. Let two 
 pickets be driven in the ground along the gorge-line, 
 and a cord, A B, or a straightedge of pine, be fast- 
 ened to them on the same level as the two points 
 marked on (he poles at A and B. Let an observer 
 now place himself in the rear of A B, so as to bring 
 the poles at B, C, and D, and the points O, O, etc., 
 within the siune field of vision. Let observers be 
 placed at B, C, and D. The lirst observer now sights 
 along A B until he brings his eye in the position that 
 A B will appear tangent to the most elevated of the 
 points O. Having accurately determined this posi- 
 tion, he next directs the other observers to slide their 
 hands along the poles until they are brought into the 
 .same plane of vision with the point O and the line 
 A B, and to mark those points on the poles. These 
 points, together with the two first marked, will evi- 
 
 Plan of Work, A B C D F, showing the manner of Defiling 
 it from the Heiglats, O, O, lying in front of its faces. 
 
 dently be in the same plane, and this plane, pro- 
 duced, will be tangent to the highest point (). It is 
 denominated the nimpanl plane. Now if a point l)e 
 marked on each pole at five feet above the points thus 
 determined, these points will be contained in a second 
 ideal plane, parallel to the first, and five feet above it. 
 This plane is denominated the plane of defikinent, 
 and the interior crests of the work are contained in 
 this plane, being the lines joining the highest points 
 marked on the poles. As the gorge-line is farthest 
 from the heights, and the rampant plane ascends to- 
 wards them, it will necessarily pa-ss at more than three 
 feet above every other point of the parade of the 
 work ; and the plane of defilement, in like manner, 
 will pa.ss at eight feet above the parade at the gorge, 
 and at five feet above the highest point O. A plane 
 of front defilement is therefore defined to be that 
 plane which, containing the interior crests of a work, 
 passes at least eight feet above every point of the pa- 
 rade, and at least five feet above everj' point that the 
 enemy can occupy within the range of cannon. See 
 DefiUnitnt and Pfune nf Defilement. 
 
 DIBECT EMBBASUBE.— When the directrix of an 
 embrasure is perpendicular to the direction of the 
 parapet, the embrasure is termed direct. The form, 
 dimensions, and construction of the embra.sure in 
 mask-walls present a problem which has otTenil no 
 little difiicullj-, in a satisfactory solution, to engineers, 
 by which the best cover could be given to the guns 
 and men by exposing the lea.st surface to embrasure- 
 shots, whilst thq guns should receive a suitable tra- 
 
 verse to command a wide field of fire. In the embra- 
 sures of our works the general form Is the same as 
 those usually found in Europe, but they present a 
 verj' considerably less amount of exterior and throat 
 opening than European embrasures. In some of our 
 cjirlier works the sole, cheeks, and top of the embra- 
 sures are constructed of brick, as being a material 
 that would ha le.ss destructive from the splinters 
 driven in by embrasure-shots. This view, however, 
 has been abandoned in our more recent works, the 
 embrasures biing onstnutitl, on the contrar)', of 
 heavy stone blocks carefully and strongly bonded ; a 
 brick arch being thrown above the embrasure within 
 the ma.ss of the mask-wall to seoue the upper portion 
 from yielding, should the l)lock forming the ceiling 
 of the embrasure be damaged. See KriAramire. 
 
 DIBECT YY&Y..— Direct or hirizoiital fire is where 
 the piece is discharged having but a small angle of 
 elevation, and the projectile strikes the object without 
 touching the intermediate ground. A fire is said to 
 Ix; direct, slant, or enfiladintj according as its direc- 
 tion is perpendicular to, makes an angle of 30 with, 
 or is on the prolongation of the line at which it is 
 aimed; when the line is taken in the rear the fire is 
 denominated a re terse fire ; and when a given space 
 is defended by the fire from several points ero.ssing 
 over it, the defense is denominated a crossfire. 
 
 DIBECTING-CIBCLE.— To form a gabion, a direet- 
 ing-circle is made of two hoops, the difference be- 
 tween their radii being such that, when placed con- 
 centrically, there shall be about IJ inch between 
 them. They are kept in this position by placing 
 small blocks of wood between them, to which they 
 are tied with pack-thread. The directing-circle is 
 placed on the ground, and seven or nine stakes, 
 about 1 inch in diameter and 3 feet long, arc driven 
 slightly into the ground between the hoops, at 
 equal "distances apart; the directing-circle is then 
 slipped up midway from the bottom, and tied in that 
 position. Twigs about half an inch in diameter, and 
 as long as they can be procured, are wattled between 
 the stakes like ordinary basket-work. When finished 
 to within about 2 inches of the top, the gabion is 
 placed with the other end up, the directing-circle 
 taken off, and the gabion completed to within 2 
 inches of the other extremities of the slakes. The 
 wicker-work at the two ends is secured by several 
 withes, and the ends of the pickets are sharpened. 
 The gabion is then ready for use. See Gabion. 
 
 DIEECTING - SERGEANT. — When a company is 
 being drilled in marching, a Sergeant distinguished 
 for precision in marching is selected, who is called a 
 Direcling-serseant, and placed in front of the guide 
 on the line established. This Sergeant is charged 
 with the direction and step, and marches on points 
 selected by himself directly in front of him. The 
 right guide of the company marches straight in the 
 trace of the DirectinL'-sergeant. 
 
 DIRECTION. — 1. In gminery, the path or course a 
 lirojcetile takes when fired from a gvm. The path 
 pursued may be either a good or bad direction, with 
 reference to the points aimed at. 2 That element of 
 pointing which relates to the movement of the piece 
 around'an imaginarj' vertical axis. The direction is 
 given when the plane of sight pa.s.si'S through the ob- 
 ject. Elevation is a movement about a horizontal 
 a.xis. See Pointinq. 
 
 DIRECTOR OF ARTILLERY AND STORES.— An 
 officer in the English service appointed by the Seere- 
 tarv- of State for War to assist the Controller-in-Chief. 
 His duties are confined to all questions relating to the 
 manufacture, provision, supply, and maintenance of 
 mimitions of war. 
 
 DIRECTOR OF SUPPLIES AND TRANSPORT.— An 
 officer in the Endish service appointed by the Secre- 
 tarj' of Slate for War toas.sist the Controller in-Chief. 
 This officer has to deal with all questions relating to 
 the i)rovision and supply of food, forage, fuel and 
 light, lo<lgin!r and trans|iort. 
 
 DIRECTORY.— Upon the death of Robespierre, m
 
 DiaSCTKIX. 
 
 484 
 
 DISABLING CANNOK. 
 
 1794. a n-action commenced In the Convention itself, 
 as well lis tliTOU^hout all Knince. airiiiiist lUe simirui 
 nary cxcessi's of llie Terrorists. I'ltimatclv ii new 
 t'orislilution— that of the year 3 (1795)— jpive birth to a 
 new govermneni . coiniwsetl of a legislati ve iKuiy (livid- 
 «i into two Councils; the Council of Five llundreil, 
 whose fimetion was to propose laws; and the Council 
 of the Ancients, whose function was to pass them. The 
 actual executive power wils intrusted to live inenilters 
 cho.s«'n from both sections, and who .siit at the Luxein- 
 iKiurir. Their names were Lt'lH-aux, Letoumeur, 
 KewlK'l, Barnis, and Carnol. These live constituted 
 the famous Directory. They assumed authority in a 
 moment of immense peril. France was environed 
 with jripintic adversaries, while distrust, discontent, 
 and the maliceof rival factions made her internal ad- 
 ministration almost hopeless. The frantic heroism of 
 her soldiers sjived her from spoliation by the for 
 eigner; and had all the members of the Directory 
 been patriotic and honest, she might liii\e been saved 
 also from spoliation by her own chililren. But, on 
 the contrary, the home policy of the Directory was 
 deplorable." The demoralization which hiul begun to 
 characterize officials even in Danton's time now 
 .seized almost every class. Barras, a representative of 
 all the turpitude of the hour, set the exami)le. The 
 nniiorily of the two Councils were equally corrupt; 
 and although there were some both in the Councils 
 and Directory whose virtues and talents were unim- 
 peachable, yet they were too weak to coimteract the 
 knavery of their associates. It soon became clear 
 that France could not be reconsolidated by the fag- 
 ends of the licvolution. The power and skill requi- 
 site for such a herculean work must be sought for 
 elsewhere, among men who had received a nobler 
 discipline than could be obtained in the political 
 sijuabbles of the metropolis. Such was the thought 
 of the Abbe Sieyes. He turned his eyes to the army, 
 where a host of new and brilliant names had ap- 
 peare<i — Hochc, Joubert, Brune, Kleber, De.s;iix, 
 Ma.ss<'na, Moreau, Bernadotte, Augercau, Bonaparte. 
 Sieyes pro|)ounded his plan for the overthrow of the 
 Directory, and the establishment of a Consulate, that 
 should be, in reality, a Monarchy umler republican 
 forms, first of all to Moreau, who was fright<'ned by 
 its audacity; then to Beniadottc, whose excessive 
 caution hindered him from approving of it; then to 
 Augercau, who could not iniderstanil it; and finally 
 to Bonaparte, on his return from Egypt. The la.st 
 admired the project; a conspiracy was rapidly formed; 
 all those fimctionaries who had been jiromised places 
 by the Directory, but had not received them, offered 
 their aid; and by the coup d'lUit of the 18lh Brumaire 
 an end was put to a government of weakness, immoral- 
 it v, and intrigue. It was succeeded bv the Consulate. 
 DIRECTRIX.— 1. The center line in the plane of 
 lire of an embrasure or platfonn. See Emhrnsiire. 
 2. A right line perpendicular to the axis of a conic 
 section in reference to which its nature may Ix? de- 
 fined. Assuming the indefinite line AH in the figure 
 as the directrix, and F a point without it as a focus, 
 then if the line FI) revolves 
 about F as a center, while a 
 IKjint D moves in it in such 
 a manner that its distance 
 from F shall idways be to 
 CD, its pcrpendicillar dis- 
 tance from the line AB, in 
 a constant ratio, then the 
 ctirve VD, described by the 
 point D, is a conic .section, hikI is an ellipse, a parab- 
 ola, or an hypcrlxiln according as FD is less than, 
 ef^ual to, or greater than CD, or FV than VA. The 
 constant ratio referred to is called the determining 
 ratio of the conic. 
 
 DIRK.— A variety of dagger or poniard worn by 
 Highland regiments. It is at present worn by officers 
 rather for ornament than for use, lliough in former 
 days it was a valuable weapon. The dirk-knife is a 
 clasp-knife having a large, dirk-likc blade. 
 
 ' DISABILITY.—!. State of being disabled; want of 
 compelent physical or intellectual iwwcr. When a 
 soldier l>ecomes disabled from cx|K)sure, accidents, 
 or other causes, he is discharged from the service on 
 a Surgeon's Certificate of Disability, which enables 
 him to draw a pension. 2. Legal disjdiility is either 
 absolute, which wholly disables the person from do- 
 ing anv legal act — e.g., outlawry, excommunication, 
 attainder, alienage — or partial, such as infancy, cov- 
 I erture, lunacy, ilrunkcnness, and the like, ft may 
 j arise from the act of God, of the law, of the indiWa- 
 ual himself, or of his ancestor, or the ]>erson from 
 whom he inherits. 
 
 DISABLING CANNON.— If necessjtry to abandon 
 nuil< rit'l, it must be disabled or destroyed, so as to be 
 useless to the enemy. Guns are permanently dis- 
 abled by bursting, bending the chase, breaking off 
 the trunnions, or by scoring the surface of the bore; 
 they are temporarily disabled by spiking, breaking 
 off the sights and the scat for the hausse, or in breech- 
 loaders by carrying off or permanently destroying the 
 breech-blocks, etc. 
 
 To burst a cast-iron gun, load with a heavy charge, 
 till the )>ore with sand or shot, and fire at a high cle- 
 \ation. To bend the cha.se of a bronze gun. fire » 
 shotted piece against another, muzzle to muzzle or 
 muzzle to chijsc; or kindle a fire under the chase and 
 strike on it with a sledge hammer. To break off a 
 trunnion of a cast-iron cannon, strike on it with a 
 heavy hammer or fire a shotted gun ag-ainst it. To 
 score the surface of the bore and injure the rifling, 
 cause shells to burst in the gun or tire broken shot 
 from it with high charges. 
 
 To spike a gun, drive into the vont a jagged and 
 hardened steel spike with a soft point, break it off 
 fiush with the vent-field, and clinch it in the bore with 
 the rammer; a nail without a head, a jncce of ram- 
 rod, or even a plug of hard wooil may be used in the 
 absence of a sjiikc. To prevent the spike from being 
 blown out, make a projectile fast in the bottom of the 
 bore by wrapi)ing it with cloth or felt, or by means 
 of iron wedges driven in with a rammer or with an 
 iron bar; if the wedges were of wood they could be 
 easily burnt out by a charcoal-tire lighted with a pair 
 of bellows. 
 
 When it is expected to retake a gun, use a spring 
 spike with a shoulder to prevent its coming out too 
 readily. Mitrailleurs are permanently dis;ibleel by 
 bending the barrels, etc.; they are made temporarily 
 useless by removing the crankhainlles, locks, etc. 
 Carriages are destroyed by piling them up and burn- 
 ing them; to prevent them from moving, the spokea 
 and poles may be cut or siiwed off. Ammunition- 
 chests are blown up or water is poured over their con- 
 tents. Implements are carried off or destroyed. 
 
 To unspike a gun, try to drive the spike into the 
 bore with a punch; if there be a shot wedged in the 
 bore, expel it by powder inserted through the vent. 
 When it is impossible to drive down the spike, if the 
 bore be unobstructed, insert a charge of one third the 
 weight of the projectile, and ram down jurUc wads 
 with a handspike, first placing on the bottom of the 
 bore a strip of wood with a groove on the lower side 
 containing a strand of (luick-match by which the 
 charge is ignited; this plan will not answer when the 
 spike is screwed or riveteil into the vent. In a bronze 
 gun, remove some of the metal at the upjicr orifice of 
 the vent, and pour sulphuric acid into the cavity be- 
 fore firing. Shoidd the preceding methods fail, after 
 several trials, drill out the spike, or drill a new vent 
 if the gun be iron; if it be bronze, un.screw the vent- 
 piece. 
 
 To drive out a shot wedged in the l)ore, unscrew (he 
 vent-piece, if there be one, and drive in wedges so as 
 to start the shot forward, then ram it back again, 
 and with a hook withdraw the wedges that may have 
 held it; or pour in powder and fire it after replacing 
 the vent-piece. As a last resort, bore a hole in the 
 bottom of the breech, drive out the shot, and stop the 
 hole with a screw. See Spiki and Unxpike.
 
 SISASK. 
 
 485 
 
 DISCHABOE. 
 
 DISARM. — The act of depriWng a Ixxly of troops 
 of arms for sf)me ^ross misconduct or crime which 
 renders dismissal from the ser\'ice necessarj-. The 
 Indian Mutiny in 1857-58 affords instances of whole 
 regiments l)eing disarmed and disbanded. Other 
 regiments, at the sjime time, apparently loyal, were 
 simply disarmed, to prevent the chance of the men 
 fallinir upnn their officers. 
 
 DISAKRAT. — Want of array or regular order; like- 
 wisi- to throw into disorder or to break the array of. 
 
 DISBANDING.— In military matters, the brejiking 
 up of a regiment or corp.s. When peace is proclaimed 
 after a war, and a retluction of the arm)- becomes 
 neces,sary, this is effected by disbanding or dlsem- 
 boilying; the men are discharged and the officers are 
 mustered out or placed on half-pay. 
 
 DISBURSING OFFICERS.— Officers whose special 
 functions are to make disbursements of public mon 
 eys. The regulations governing this class of officers 
 are verj- properly and neces.sarily rigid. The follow- 
 ing are duly enforced in the United States service: 
 
 If any Disbursing Officer bets at cards or any game 
 of hazard, his Commanding Officer suspends his func 
 tions, reiiuircs him to turn over all the public funds 
 in his keeping, and immediately reports the case to 
 the proper Bureau of the War Department. In every 
 case where an officer intrusted with the care or dis- 
 bursement of public funds violates this regulation, 
 he is brought to trial before a General Court-Martial 
 by the Department Commander, and is not assigned 
 to duty, or again put in possession of public funds 
 subsequent to his trial, without the approval of the 
 Secretarj- of War. 
 
 Every officer charged with the payment of any of 
 the appropriatioas made by any Act of Congress, who 
 pays to an}' clerk, or other employe of the United 
 States, a sum less than that pro\-ided by law, and re- 
 quires such employe to receipt or give a voucher for 
 an amount greater than that actuaUy paitl to and re- 
 ceived 1)V him, is guilty of embezzlement, and is lined 
 in double the amount so withheld from any employe 
 of the Government, and is imprisoned at hard labor 
 for the term of two years. 
 
 Every person who, ha\'ing charge, possession, cus- 
 tody, or control of any money or other public prop- 
 erty used or to be used in the military sernce, who, 
 with intent to defraud the United States or willfully 
 to conceal such money or other property, delivers or 
 causes to be delivered" to any other person having au- 
 thority to receive the same, any amount of such 
 money or other property less than that for which he 
 received a certificate or'took a receipt, is imprisoned 
 at hard labor for not less than one nor more than live 
 years, or fined not less than one thousand nor more 
 than five thousand dollars. 
 
 If any officer charged with the disbursement of the 
 public moneys accepts, receives, or transmits to the 
 Treasury Department, to be allowed in his favor, any 
 receipt or voucher from a creditor of the United 
 States, without having paid to such creditor in such 
 funds as the officer received for disbursement, or in 
 such funds as he ma^' be authorized by law to take 
 in exchange, the full amount specified in such receipt 
 or voucher, every such act is an act of conversion, by 
 such officer, to his own use, of the amount specified 
 in such receipt or voucher. 
 
 Every officer of the United States, and every per- 
 son acting for or on behalf of the United States, in 
 any official capacity under or by virtue of the authori 
 ty of any department or office of the Government 
 thereof, who asks, accepts, or receives any money, or 
 any contract, promise, undertaking, oblig!ition,gr!itu 
 ity, or security for the paj-ment of money, or for the 
 delivery or conveyance of anj-thing of value, with 
 intent to have his decision or action on any question, 
 matter, cause, or proceeding which may, at any time, 
 be pending, or which may be by law brought before 
 him in his official capacity, or in his place of trust or 
 profit, influenced thereby, is punished by a fine not 
 more than three times the .amount asked, accepted, or 
 
 received, and by imprisonment not more than three 
 years. And if he hold any place of profit or trust, 
 forfeits his office or place; and is thereafter forever 
 dis(iualified from holding any office of honor, trust, 
 or profit under the United States. 
 
 The sureties to the bonds to be given by Disbursing 
 Officers are bound jointly and .severally for the whole 
 
 [ amo\int of the bond, and must sjitisfythe Sccretarj' of 
 AVar that they are worth jointly double the amount of 
 
 I the iKind, by the affidavit of each surety, stating that 
 he is worth, over and above his debts and liabilities, the 
 amount of the Iwnd or such other sum as he may 
 specify; and each surety states his place of residence. 
 See PiibUf Moiici/s. 
 
 DISCHARGE.— 1. The action of firing off a charge 
 from a piece of ordnance or small-arm7 Guns were 
 I'ormerly discharged by primingiiowdcr po\ircd into 
 the vent, or by quick-nuitch, which was ignited by 
 means of slow-match or ])ort-fire. Friction-tubes have 
 for some years past been introduced into the .service, 
 and have been found to be vastly superior in ]>ower 
 and certainty of ignition to either of the above modes, 
 and are now universally used. Breech-loading .small- 
 arms arc discharged by means of a needle or piston 
 coming in contact witli detonating composition at the 
 base of the cartridge. 
 
 2. A release from military service either under 
 compidsion or authority. There are several classes 
 of discharge. First, on a soldier ha\ing completed 
 the tcnu of .ser^nce for which he engaged, and not 
 wishing to renew his services. This is either com- 
 pletion of limited engagement or ser\icc for pension. 
 Second, when permitted to purchase bis discharge. 
 Third, when disabled from wounds or sickness to 
 serve anj' longer. Fourth, when discharged by .sen- 
 tence of Court-Marlial to penal servitude. Fifth, 
 when discharged with ignominy for some offense that 
 brings dishonor on the corps. Si.\tli, when summa- 
 rily discharged as a worthless and incorrigible char- 
 acter. In England, a discharge from the military 
 service is by right at the expiration of the iieriod for 
 which attested; or earlier, by indulgence. In the 
 latter case the grant may be gratuitous, as on reduc- 
 tion of numbers, or when the man is not worih i-etain- 
 ing, or paid for by the man dischargetl. In the last 
 case the soldier pays a sum of money computed 
 w ith reference to the unexpired period of service. If 
 a soldier has many years still to ser\-e, the discharge- 
 purchase may amount to as much as £20. In the 
 Sappers and Miners, where the men are all artisans, it 
 may amoimt to £35; and among this Corps such dis- 
 charges are very frequent, on account of the value 
 placed on the services of the.se intelligent men by pri- 
 vate enqiloyei's. Soldiers are, under the Act of 1870, 
 frequently discharged from service in the regtdar 
 forces, after three or six years therein, on condition 
 of serving the remainder of their original term in the 
 Reserve. Earl Grey, when Colonial Secretary, intro- 
 duced the plan of enabling discharged soldiers to set- 
 tle on a piece of land in the Colonies instead of return- 
 ing home. Soldiers are occasionally ' ' discharged with 
 ignominy," for some offense that brings dishonor on 
 the corps. In such case the regiment is assembled, 
 the crime recapitulated, and the sentence read. The 
 buttons, facings, chevrons, medals, and all decora- 
 tions are cut from the man's uniform, and he is 
 "drummed out " of the regiment, if a foot-.soldier, or 
 
 ' by s<iund of tnmipet, if it l)e a cavalry regiment. 
 Jsotice of his degradation is afterwards sent in writing 
 from the War Office to his parents or relations. 
 
 In the United States .service no enlisted man is dis- 
 chargefl liefore the ex]iiration of his tcnti, except — 
 1. By order of the President, or Secretar}- of War, or 
 the Commanding Officer of a Dejiartment. 2. By 
 sentence of a General Court-Martial. 3. On certifi- 
 cate of disability by the Commander of a Geographi- 
 cal Department or an army in the field. 4. By order 
 of one of the United States Courts, or Justices or 
 .ludges thereof, on writ of ftabean corpus. The au- 
 thority of State Courts to issue writs of habeas corpm
 
 DISCIPLINE. 
 
 486 
 
 DISEMBAKKATION. 
 
 in this matter is not recognized. 5. General-service 
 clerks may be discliiir^-ti by their Commanders. 
 ■\VIien an enlisted num is to l>e discharged, his Com- 
 pany Commander furnishes him certificates of his ac- 
 count or final statemeni*. And to iii*iirf his being at 
 the post to gi't these, no leave of absence, terminating 
 with his serWce, is given to him. The cause of dis- 
 clwrge, and the soldier's age at its tlaU, are stated in 
 the wxly of the discharge-certiticate. The soldier's 
 character is carefully described according to the facts. 
 Whenever the man is unfit for re-enlistment because 
 of bud conduct, the space in the discharge-certificate 
 left for description of character is cut off. The offi- 
 cer signing the character on the discharge-certificate 
 of an enlisteil man stjxtes thereon whether or not the 
 soldier is raarrieil. Insane soldiers are not discharged 
 at the posts where they may he serving, but are dis- 
 charged by the Secretary of War after their arrival at 
 the Grovernment Hospital for the Insane. The Com- 
 pany Commanders forward with their descrii)live lists, 
 and accounts of pay and clothing, certificates of disa- 
 bility in the usual form, and a medical history of the 
 Cjise-s ft>r the information of the Superintendent of the 
 Hospital. An honest and faitliful service of twenty 
 j'ears in the army entitles a soldier to admission to 
 the Soldiers' Home; but applications for discharge by 
 reason of twenty years' service are not entertained un- 
 less the soldier is a fit subject for discharge on certifi- 
 Ciitc of disjibility, or upon condition thai he shall en- 
 ter the Soldiere' Home. 
 
 DISCIPLINE. — Under a perfect discipline, troops in 
 peace and in war, in garrison or In campaign, would 
 be fitted for all the duties of war. To attain this per- 
 fection, it is neccssiiry that discipline should rest en- 
 tirely upon law; it ought to have its roots in patriot- 
 ism; to Ix; adapted to the character of the people; to 
 the spirit of the age, and the nature of the government. 
 It is essential to make rights and duties inseparable. 
 This absolute necessity, and the importance of regu- 
 larity of pa^y, are ti-uths dwelt upon by the French 
 writers. Di'.scipline may be distinguLsiied a-s active 
 and passive. "The first <ierives its power from a mil- 
 itiiry hierarchy or range of sulwrdinalion, skillfully 
 established and regulated; it is secured by calmness, 
 impartiality, promptness, firmness, and the prestige 
 of character in officers. These qualities are mani 
 festetl by preventing wrongs rather than by punishing 
 faults, and by abstaining from arbitrary corrections 
 when obliged to chastise. Discipline, intrusted to such 
 authorities enlightened by military e.\i)erience, will 
 partake of the character of paternal government, and 
 will not be enforced with an unsparing harshness 
 suited only to governments essentially despotic. 
 
 The dogma that militarj* tliscipline can only be 
 sustained by the aid of .severe and unjiitying punish- 
 ment is far removed from the idea here suggested. 
 That unpitying military discipline seems to have 
 pronii>led Peter the threat when he sacrificed a young 
 officer wIkj triumphantly fought the Swedes wlUiout 
 orders. Thus also thought Frederick the Great when 
 he executed the unfortunate Zictten, who violated an 
 order by keeping a light a little too long in his tent. 
 But such harsh principles are no longer in(-ulcateil in 
 the best governed armies of Europe! Passive disci- 
 pline is the fusion of individual interest in national in- 
 terest. The first military virtue is mpritde corpii, with 
 fidelity U) the oath taken u|)on assuming the military 
 character. These duties e.\act obedience to the laws, 
 and to the lawful orders of the President of the United 
 Stales, and officers set over us according lo law. 
 These laws should command oiK-dienec from all in- 
 feriors, anil distinctly define the extent of all author- 
 ity. They ought to bind the President or Com- 
 mander-in-Chief as well as thv simple soldier. Rights 
 and duties must lie reciprocal, and be alike established 
 by law, which should, lo maintain discipline, "pre- 
 cisely determine Ihe functions, duties, aiul rights of 
 all military men— Soldiers, Officers, Chiefs of Corps, 
 Generals." Discipline that has attained this jH-rfec- 
 tion .sui>plies the deficiency of numbers, and gives 
 
 new solidity to valor; since, although surrounded by 
 dangers, the brave man feels that his leaders and 
 comrades are not less devoted, less vigorous, or less 
 ex|)erienced than himself. 
 
 Discipline is sometimes used as meaning "system 
 of instruction," but its signification is much broader. 
 Its technical military sense includes not only the 
 means pro%ided for exercise and instruction, but sub- 
 jection lo all laws framed for the government and 
 regulation of the army. The good or bad discipline 
 of an army depends primarily upon the laws estab- 
 lished for its creation, as well as its government and 
 regulation. 
 
 DISCEETION.— This term includes prudence, wis- 
 dom, the liberty of acting at pleasure, uncontrolled 
 and with unconditional power; all which qualities, 
 if wisely directed, will contribute much, in military 
 affairs, to the successful termination of all undertak- 
 ings. The military i)hrase, to snrrfnder at discntimi, 
 implies surrenderiug without stipulation, throwing 
 one's self on the mercy of a Wctorious enemy. 
 
 DISEMBARKATION.— The act of landing troops, 
 arms, and supplies from a boat or ship. M^hen this 
 can be done at a wharf, it is simply the reverse opera- 
 tion of embarking. "When wharf-accommodations 
 are not available, arrangements will have to be made 
 for transferring the men, horses, and materiel from 
 the vessel to the shore. An army or other consider- 
 able body of troops embarked for an expedition, to 
 be landed under such circumstances, will be pro- 
 vided with general means for disembarking, and the 
 artillery, which usually constitutes an important feat- 
 ure of the outfit, shares with the rest in these general 
 arrangements; but, owing to its nature, much of a 
 special character is required for it, demanding the 
 most ciireful consideration and attention from Artil- 
 lery Officers. Such exi)editions usually embark at 
 seaports where there are acconmiodations that make 
 the operation comparatively simple and easy, and for 
 this reason the many ):)rcparations necessary for land- 
 ing on an open shore are apt to be overlooked, or to 
 be inadequately pronded for. It becomes the espe- 
 cial province of the Artillery Commander to look out 
 for this, and to give his ad\ice and make his wants 
 known to the Army Commander, so that the latter 
 may cause proper provision to be made. The fol- 
 lowing method for the disembarkation of an army 
 corps proved successful during the War of the Rebel- 
 lion, and the same, or some modification of it, will 
 apply in every case. 
 
 The essential articles for forming a landing-place 
 were, several canal-barges; a number of ponton- 
 boats, with balks, chess, oars, anchors, etc., com- 
 plete; a numl)er of gangplanks; a plentiful .supply 
 of lumber, and the necessary amount of ground- 
 tackle, cordage, and tools, "fhe canal-barges were 
 about 14 feet wide and 70 to 80 feet long (drawing, 
 when loaded, 5 feet of water; when light, 2 feet), 
 and of about .SO tons burden. The gang ])lanks 
 were from 12 to 30 feet long and 10 feet \vi(le, and 
 very strong; ropes were attached to their corners, 
 and the larger ones furnished with rollers. By lash- 
 ing two of the canal-barges togetlier, placing the 
 boats some V2 feet apart, imd thr()\ving a false or ad- 
 ditional deck over the whole, a i)latform was formed 
 about -to feet wide and 4.5 feet long, capable of hold- 
 ing all the pieces and caissons of a six-gun field-bat 
 tery. or from forty to fifty horses. This boat or raft, 
 when thus loaded, drew about 4 feet of water. 
 Several of these rafts were prejiarcd for the puriwse 
 of forming a ir/mrf-fiffid, alongside of which vessels 
 could lie and discharge. From this wharf-head to 
 the shore a pimton-liridge was conslnicted. The 
 operation of disembarking consisted in bringing the 
 transports alongside of the wharf-head, placing a 
 gangplank from the deck to the gunwale, and an- 
 other from the gunwale to the wharf-head. Over 
 these gang-planks the horses were led and taken 
 ashore. The guns, caissons, and other carriages 
 were run down the gang-plank and over the bridge
 
 SISEUBABEATIOir. 
 
 487 
 
 SISEHBABKATIOIT. 
 
 by baod. In tbis way but two or three bours were 
 consumed in disembarking an entire batteiy. 
 
 For disembarking artillery by tbis method or indeed 
 by anj' metbwl, smooth or comparatively smooth 
 water is a gine qua non. Infantry and even artillery 
 mnUriel, may be landed with small boats or lighters 
 tbrougb a heavy surf, but a smooth sea is required 
 for horses. When it is not considered exi>edient to 
 construct a wharf -head and bridce, and the water 
 near shore is of sufficient depth, (louble canal boats 
 may be used for rafts to disembark both horses and 
 malrrid. The rafts must have railing around them; 
 this should be strong, the stanchions extending into 
 the boats and secured throughout with bolts and nuts, 
 The horses are loaded from the vessel onto the raft 
 either by means of gang-planks or by slinging Ihein. 
 The raft is towed to the shore by small boats or, bet 
 ter, by a small steam-tug; a gang-plank is run out 
 and the horses led ashore. The guns and caissons 
 are brought a-shore in the s;une manner. When 
 canal -barge.s are not to be bad, small cosisting-schoon- 
 ers may, by removing their deck-hampers, be used in- 
 stead. Large decked-over scows, such as are to be 
 found in seaport towns, make excellent rafts. When 
 the distance from the vessel to the shore does not ex- 
 ceed 1000 yards or thereabouts, a warp-line may he 
 vised for bringing back and forth the raft. Every 
 exertion should be made to erect a wharf, rough and 
 temporary though it be, using for the purpose any 
 kind of boats or scows that can be obtained. It may 
 sometimes Ik" ad\isable to s<icrifice a ship for the pur- 
 pose of forming a wharf-head, by scuttling anil sink- 
 ing her in such depth of water as to leave her spar- 
 deck three or four feet above high water. With a 
 sandy or muddy bottom, a ship might be sunk by 
 loading her down until she rests firmly on the bottom. 
 If the weather is calm she will suffcr'no great injury, 
 and can be floated off when no longer required. The 
 business of constructing rafts and wharfs as described 
 belongs, as a general rule, to the Engineers; but 
 should the Artillcr}' Commander of an expedition 
 anticipate, even in the remotest degree, a failure to 
 provide the requisite means for disembarking, it be- 
 comes his duty to look after it, and he cannot be too 
 zejilous in doing .so. The best plan under .such cir- 
 cumstances is for each transport to carry along with 
 it an outfit capable of discharging its cargo. The 
 most useful boat for lightering that can be e.irricd 
 is the wooden ponton, such as is used for militarj- 
 bridges. It is 31 feet long, 5..5 feet wide at top, 4..5 
 feet wide at lx)ttom, and 2.5 feet deep. Besides the 
 three men required for managing it, it is capable of 
 cjtrrying 40 infantrymen with their arms and knap- 
 sacks, and it will ver\- readily carry six horses. 
 
 Each transport sbo"uld can'v four ponton-boats and 
 all the equipment for two rafts. If there is not .sutfi- 
 cient room on deck for the boats, they may be can-ied 
 stowed fiat to the sides of the ship, bottom outwards, 
 resting on strong .solid chocks bolted to the wales. 
 A strong parbuckle-sling passes around each, with 
 which it is hoisted into place by the yard and stay 
 purchases, and secured by la.siiings; by the same 
 means it is lowered into the water. With several 
 transports, each carr\-ing the above-described out- 
 fit, it is generally practicable, by combining all, to 
 form a bridge. "Suitable vessels can nearly always 
 be obtained for forming the wharf-head. 
 
 When there arc several transport.s unloading at the 
 same time, conspicuous and well-understood signal- 
 marks must be placed opposite each, on the beach, so 
 that it may be known to what points to direct the 
 boats and rafts without confusion. A strong party 
 for each shoidd be on shore to secure the rafts vipon 
 touching, to haul up the gvms and cais,sons, and to 
 take care of the horses. Unless there is some special 
 reason to the contrary, horses \s\\\ always Ix' landed 
 first. This gives them an opportunity of resting and 
 recovering from the trip wbUe the maUrkl is being 
 landed. 
 
 As a last resort, the horses maybe swum ashore, 
 
 and the maUriel landed in the ship's boats — a very 
 tedious operation. The horse is lowered over the 
 side by slinging; a boat must be in attendance below 
 to unhook the fall and clear the sling. A man in the 
 small boat takes him by the halter and, conducting 
 him a short ilistance, gives him the proiKT direction 
 to the shore; without tbis jirecaution, horses some- 
 times become bewildered and swim around the vessel 
 until exhausted. When the deck of the ves.sel is low, 
 .say not over ten feet, and there is a gangway, the 
 hor.se.s may be backed off into the water without 
 slinging. This method should not, however, be re- 
 sorted to if it can possitily be avoided; it is liable to 
 strain and injure the animal, and will everafter make 
 him timid and shy about taking the water when it is 
 necessjiry to cro.ss streams on the march. 
 
 Siege-guns are eniharkid and tlisembarked in the 
 same general manner as light field pieces. When 
 gang-planks are used, they are hauled up or let down 
 l)y means of tackle. When embarking from a wharf 
 or raft without gang planks, the piece is run with its 
 carriaire under the ship's tackle; the gun is slung and 
 hoiste(l aboard and lowered onto the deck or into the 
 hold. In disembarking, the carriage is first \i\\\ upon 
 the wharf or raft, under the ship's tackle, and the 
 piece then lowered onto it. 
 
 When it is necessarj* to land heavy guns by means 
 of lighters, or from small ves.sels, the latter may be 
 beached at high tide; the pieces are raised by block- 
 ing and skids until they can lie rolled down two in- 
 clined skids from the vessi'l to the beach, where they 
 are received upon skids or blocks of sufficient size to 
 jirevent them from burjing themselves in the sand. 
 At low tide they are ren'ioved fiom the beach. 
 
 Sieges, and similar operations calling for the use of 
 the heavier classes of ordnance, are usually of such a 
 protracted nature as to allow of substantial wharves 
 being constructed, and cranes, derricks, and shears 
 provided for unloading weighty iiKih'ritl.- It is but 
 loss of time and labor, often ending in failure, to pro- 
 ceed with imperfect arrangements of this kind. 
 
 The disembarkation of an army must be considered 
 under two heads: 1st. When made without any 
 chance of inteiTuptiou from any enemy; 2d. When 
 made in presence of an enemy, or where an attack is 
 possible. So far as artillery is concerned, the first 
 of (hese- conditions has been discussed in the fore- 
 going paragraphs, and it will not be necessary to enter 
 into "further details here. 
 
 AVith regard to the latter, all questions, political, 
 strategical, "or otherwise, entering into the object of 
 the expedition, having been .settled by the proper 
 authorities, and the army for carrying it out having 
 been orgjinized, embarked, and the transports arrived 
 within the general limits of the field of operations, 
 the first thing to be decided upon is the exact place or 
 places where the various parts of the command are to 
 be init ashore. Many local circumstances will in- 
 fiuenee this decision; among the most important of 
 which will be to secure good anchorage and depth 
 of water near the shore, a general configuration of 
 ground in front which will admit of its being swept 
 iiy the fire of the fleet, a finnand commodious beach, 
 and freedom from prevailing winds or currents which 
 may interrupt the disembarkation. The fire of the 
 fleet must clear the country in front. The infantry is 
 first landed and immediately pushed t)Ut sufficiently 
 far to keep the enemy beyond cannon-range of the 
 landing-place: here it intrenches itself, forming a 
 tiU-de-}iont around the landing. 
 
 Meanwhile preparations will be made for landing 
 the batteries. All the iHiat-rafts will be put together, 
 and if a wharf-head and fioating bridge is to be con- 
 structed it will Ix- commenced at once. Steam-tugs 
 must be in attendance for towing the rafts, carrying 
 orders, and other miscellaneous duties. The Artil- 
 Icrj- Commander designates the order in which the 
 batteries are to disembark, and will sec that the trans- 
 ports take proper positions for effecting this without 
 causing intervals of imneccssury delay.
 
 DISEKBOOT. 
 
 488 
 
 DISK. 
 
 If ilu' attocks of the enemy arc formidaMe and per- 
 si'itfiil iliiuaiKliii!: till- imnudiatc service of artillery, 
 the iruus of sivenil or of all the batteries may be 
 laiulwl without their horses, and taken to positions ou 
 the line 1>V hand, or by the horses of one of the bat- 
 teries landed for that spitial puriX)se. 
 
 When the expedition is larpe anil the nunilwr of 
 inin>iiK)rls. store-ships, etc., great, the worst of con- 
 fu-ion will aris«' iiid<ss some system of marking and 
 ilistiuiiiishin': them is adopted. The Ix'st method is 
 for eaeh t>ne to carry, instead, of her own burgee, 
 the liistiniruishiug flag of the corps to which the 
 trimps on tx.ard belong. This will show at a glance 
 whether thev are infantrj-, artillery, or cavalry, and 
 In what corps, di\ision,"and brigade they belong.- 
 Besides tliis, each ves,sel should have a ntiinber 
 painled. as large as possible, on each quarter. AVhcn 
 embarking, a memorandum is kept and furnished to 
 Commandins: and Staff Otticers .showing what troops 
 are on board" of each transport. The Chief of Trans- 
 jiorts. who .should be a Quartermaster selected for his 
 ])ractieal capacitv in such business, designat<s thi> 
 aiichorau'e-ground for each part of the command, and 
 sees that thev move up at the proper time and in the 
 required order to the place of debarkation. It is 
 with him that the Artillery Commander communi- 
 cates in reference to the movements of the artillery 
 transports. See Tramiiorls. 
 
 DISEMBODY. — To disarm a military body, and to 
 cli^lHiist- with its siTviees for any stated period. The 
 «li-Minbudvini: of the militia is an instance in point. 
 
 DISENGAGE.— 1. To separate the wings of a bat- 
 talion or regiment, which is neces.sary when the bat- 
 talion counter-marches from its center and on its 
 center by tiles. 2. To clear a column or line which 
 luav have lost its proper front by the overhqiping of 
 anv i>articular division. 3. To extricate one's self and 
 the troops commanded from a critical situation. 4. 
 To break suddenly from any particular order in line 
 or column, and to repair to ".some rallying-poiiil. 5. 
 In bayonet exercise or fencing, to quit that side of an 
 enemy's blade on which one is opposed by his guard, 
 in order to eflect a cut or thrusi where an oiiportunity 
 may present. The movement is executed as follows; 
 Being engaffed in lUra, number two covered, the In- 
 structor commands: 1. l^umber one, 2. DisENG.\(iK. 
 dumber one passes his bayonet quickly under the 
 bayonet of number two, to the left side, and lunges 
 as'explained for the lunye in qmirte. Number two, 
 as soon as he loses the touch of his adversarj-, executes 
 the quarte, prime, or butt-parry, and then thrusts or 
 lunges at command. Being engaged in (piarte, num- 
 l)er"two covered, immber one disengages from the 
 left to the right side, and lunges as explained for the 
 liiniji' ill titrr)'. Number two, as soon as he loses the 
 touch of his adversary, parries in tierce or seconde and 
 then thrusts or lunges at command. See Baytmet- 
 eierrime and Enf/arje. 
 
 DISGRACEFUL CONDUCT.— In the army this term 
 implies cnnduct inildcoming an officer or soldier, and 
 includes the following crimes: fraudulently misap- 
 plying public money or stores; malingering and feign- 
 ing disease; willfully maiming or mutilating; maiming 
 or injuring another soldier; tampering with eyes; 
 stealing or feloniously receiving: offense of a felonious 
 or fraudulent nature upon a civilian; indecent assault; 
 jiroducing false or fraudulent accounts or return.s. For 
 each iif which crimes an otliceror soldier can be tried 
 by a (Jencral CoiirlMarlial. 
 
 ■ DISH OF A WHEEL.— The inclination or angle with 
 the nave given to the spokes of a gun-wheel. The 
 most severe sire.ss to which spokes are subject is from 
 the lateral thnist brought to l)ear upon the nave w lien 
 one wheel becomes lower than the other by slipping 
 into a nit, etc. In order, therefore, to place them in 
 a iK'lter position to resist this thrusi, the wheel is 
 "dished," or formed into a kind of dome; and just a.s 
 the dome or arch is strong, from its form, to resist 
 pr<-xsure upfin the crown tending to crush it in, so is 
 the wbcvl made strong by the dish to resist the lateral 
 
 thrust tending to force the nave outwards. In fact, 
 not only do the spokes, sustained by the tire, yield 
 mutual'support to each other, but the lateral thrust 
 upon each becomes partly converted into a compress- 
 ing strain, w hich the wood has lietter power to resist. 
 The irreater the dish, the stronger the wheel will be to 
 resist" the lateral strain ; but no more dish .should be 
 given than necessiiry for the safety of the spokes. 
 See Arrhihdld WlwJ axuX Wheel. 
 
 DISJUNCTOB.— This important apparatus, as ap- 
 plied to the chronoscope and shown in the drawing in 
 section, is composed of a mainspring, t, carrying a 
 
 cro&s-pieco covered with insulating material, and pass- 
 ing under the two steel plates, q. By pressing the 
 milled-headed screw, s, the spring is compressed and 
 held by the catch, .r, allowing the plates to come into 
 conlac't with the metid pins, r, and thus complete the 
 circuits by bringing the two screws into connection 
 with one another. "When the catch, r, is pressed, the 
 mainspring being released, its cross-piece strikes the 
 two iilates exactly at the same instant, raises them 
 from the screws, and thus breaks both currents iden- 
 tically at the same time. The arrangement of the 
 .screws and electric current is precisely the same as 
 when using the Navez-Leurs instrument, except that 
 the chronometer-battery must be increased in strength 
 (because its electro-magnet is required to support a 
 greater weigbt than in the Navez-Leurs instrument), 
 and a different method adopted for introducing the 
 disjunctor into the circuit. With the Le BouJenge 
 chronograph, the two wires from the positive poles of 
 the batteries are not joined as \\-ith the Navez-Leurs, 
 but are taken to the two connecting screws of the dis- 
 junctor; antl thus the two currents, though passing 
 through the disjunctor, are kept entirely separate. 
 See Le Boulenr/i- Chroitograph. 
 
 DISK. — An instrument for circular measurements 
 employed, in the insjx'Ction of cannon, when it is de- 
 sired to tjvke the diameter of the bore at many points 
 
 of the circle. There is a brass tompion, V, to fit the 
 muzzle of the gun, with a hole through its center to 
 receive the staff of the star-gatige. It is turned to fit 
 snugly the bore of the piece, into which it enters two 
 or three inches, to hold it firmly in place; and has a 
 projecting flange or face to prevent it going in too far.
 
 SISLODOE. 
 
 489 
 
 DISPOSITION DE GTIEBEE. 
 
 The face is a plane surface with its circumference di- 
 vided into as many equal parts as may be thouirht de- 
 sirable, and numljcred in reirular order. On the staff 
 of the star-gauge a brass slitlo, X, is fitted, haring a 
 thumb-screw to hold it in any position; from its inner 
 end an arm, Z, extends at right angles to the staff, of 
 sufficient length to meet the points on the circumfer- 
 ence of the disk and having a center-line marked 
 upon it This slide is secured at any distance on the 
 staff at which a circular measurement is desired, and 
 with the center-line of the arm coinciding with the 
 center-line of the stjiff; when the arm will indicate the 
 direction of the pair of measuring-points; being in the 
 same plane with them. 
 
 The disk is secured in the muzzle, with its zero- 
 mark coinciding with a light punch-mark on the muz- 
 zle-face directly below the liiw of sight, so that it is in a 
 plane passing through the axis of the piece and per- 
 pendicular to the axis of the tnnmions. To take the 
 measurements, press the staff home until the arm of 
 the slide comes in contact with the face of the disk, 
 and turn it to coincide with the various di\isions of 
 the disk at which measurements are desired. The 
 disk is divided into halves, and the center hole is re- 
 inforced on the inside by a projection, which is turned 
 to receive a collar that tits closely around it, and holds 
 the two halves together when they are placed on the 
 staff. See Inspection of Ordnance and Star-gauge. 
 
 DISLODGE. — In a military sense, to drive an enemj' 
 from thi- position he has taken up. 
 
 DISMANTLE. — To render fortitications incapable of 
 defense bv razing them to the ground. 
 
 DISMISSION.— Xo sentence of a Court-Martial in 
 time of peace dismissing a Commissioned Ofiicer, or 
 which, in war or peace, affects a General Officer, can 
 be carried into execution without the approval of the 
 President of the United States. Disbursing Officers 
 may be dismis.sed by the President alone, without the 
 intervention of a Court -Martial, on failure to accoiuit 
 properly for monevs ])laced in their hands. A Gene- 
 ral Court-Martial in time of peace may dismiss, with 
 the approval of the President, in all cases in which 
 they are authorized to sentence to "death or such 
 other punishment as may be inflicted by a General 
 Court Martial. " Such Court may also sentence a Com- 
 missioned Officer to be ca.shiered or dismissed the ser- 
 vice. In the English service, dismissiil is the sentence 
 p!i.s.sed upon an officer by a Court Martial for conduct 
 which renders him unfit to remain in the army. From 
 the date of publishing the order the dismis.sed officer's 
 connection with the army ceases. It is in the {X)wer 
 of Her Majesty to dismiss any officer from the service 
 witlidut bringing him to trial. 
 
 DISMOUNT.— 1. A word of command, in the School 
 of the Soldier mounted, for mounted men to leave the 
 saddle. To execute the conmiand. rise u])on the left 
 stirrup; p.a.ss the right leg extended over the croup of 
 the horse without touching him; l)ring the right heel 
 to the side of the left; descend lightly to the ground; 
 remove the left foot from the stirrup, and place it by 
 the side of the right, keeping the body erect; let go 
 the mane; jiass the end of the reins over the |)ommcl 
 of the siiddle with the right hand, which then seizes 
 the left rein. (Two.) Face to the left, take two short 
 steps, left foot first; slip the right hand along the left 
 rein, and take the position of stand to horse. See 
 Mount. 
 
 2. In artillery, to take a piece of ordnance off its 
 carriage. With light gims it is performed by the 
 gim's crew with the aid of drag-ropes. With heavy 
 guns, gins and jacks have to be resorted to; but guns 
 of moderate weight can be dismounted by means of 
 tackles, rollers, and handspikes. 
 
 3. Guards, when relieved, are Siiid to dismount. 
 They are marched with the utmost regularity to the 
 parade-ground where they are paraded, anil from 
 thence to their regimental or company parades, pre- 
 viou.slv to beini dismi.ssed to their quarters. 
 
 DISOBEDIENCE OF OEDEKS. — A crime severely 
 punished in all armies. In the Uuitetl Stales the 
 
 Articles of War proride that any officer or soldier 
 who, on any preten.se \vhat.soever, strikes his Superior 
 Officer, or draws or lifts uj) any weaixjn, or offers any 
 violence against him, beiug in the execution of his 
 office, or di.sobeys any lawful command of his Su- 
 perior Officer, shall suffer death or such other punish- 
 ment as a Court-Martial may direct. 
 
 DISPAET.— In gunnery, the dispart is generally de- 
 fined a." a patch of metal placed on the highest point 
 of the muzzle of a gun or howitzer, and which is half 
 the difference between the diameter of the ba.se-ring 
 and that of the swell of the nuizzle. This definition 
 will only strictly apply to cast-iron and bronze ord- 
 nance. Most of the dispart-sights or pntc/ics are not 
 placed near the muzzle, but on the top of the gun, 
 a little in advance of the trunnions; or, as with rifled 
 guns, jast above the trunnions. A better definition 
 for dispart would then be, half the difference between 
 the diameter of those parts of tlie gun upon which the 
 sights are placed. The term is derived from the mode 
 of ascertiiining the dispart, as shown above, and dis- 
 parting (diWding in two) the difference Ix.'tween the 
 two diameters, which /«/?/ difference shows the taper- 
 ing or coning of the metal between the base ring and 
 swell of the muzzle. This patch of metal is intended, 
 in lajnng the piece, to avoid the inconvenience arising 
 from" the line of sights or metid not being parallel to 
 the axis of the gun. Disparts are either fixed or mov- 
 able. See Sight. 
 
 DISPAKT-SIGHT.— A gun-sight, made to allow for 
 the dispart, and bring the line of sight and the axis 
 of the piece into parallelism. See Dispart. 
 
 DISPATCHES.— Official mess;iges. In war, impor- 
 tant dispatches which have to pass through the ene- 
 my's country, or in the \-icinity of his forces, are only 
 intrusted to officers to whom their contents can be 
 confided. Dispatches are frequently in cipher, espe- 
 cially when telegraphed or signaleil with a liability to 
 intercc]ition. See Cryptography. 
 
 DISPERSE. — In a military sense, the power which 
 an armeil liody, cither better handled or in larger 
 numbers, has of scattering a hostile force drawn up 
 to oppose it. Cavalr_v, under these circumstances, 
 forms a prominent part in pursuing or di-six-rsing the 
 enemy. 
 
 DISPLACED. — A term, in the British service, ap- 
 plied to fifficers who are sometimes removed from a 
 particular regiment in consequence of misconduct, 
 but who are at lilierty to serve in any other corps. 
 
 DISPLAY. — A military tenn meaning to extend the 
 front of a cohnnn, and thereby bring it info line. 
 
 DISPLAYED. — In Heraldry, a term meaning erpaJM?- 
 ed; as, an eagle displayed, or'whaf is commonly known 
 !us a spread eagle. See Heraldry. 
 
 DISPLUME. — In a military .sense, to deprive of dec- 
 oration or ornament; to degra<ie. 
 
 DISPOSITION.— In military language, as applied to 
 the strategic position of troops, is of infinite consider- 
 ation both in war and time of peace. In the former 
 ca.se. a knowledge of the counlri,' in which the cam- 
 paign is to be fought, and the various combinations 
 which should be carried out, formed on the disposi- 
 tion of the troops, is very necessary on the part of the 
 General in command, to bring matters to a successful 
 termination, or to prevent the enemy from taking ad- 
 vantage of a bad disposition of his opponent's forces 
 to hara.ss or break them up. The following maxims 
 from the memoirs of General Montecuculi arc worth 
 remembering: 
 
 '• Deliberate leisurely, execute promptly. 
 
 " Let the sjifety of your anny be ever hrst. 
 
 " Leave nothing to chance. 
 
 " Take advantage of circumstances. 
 
 " Use all the means in your power to secure a good 
 reputation." 
 
 DISPOSITION DE GDEBSE.— Warlike arrangement 
 or dis|>osition. Under this bead may be considered 
 the mode of establishing, combining, conducting, and 
 finally terminating a war, so as to produce success 
 and victor}'.
 
 DISRESPECT. 
 
 490 
 
 DITCH. 
 
 DI8KE8PECT.— In a well-disciplined annj" disrespect 
 is not toliTuted. The Articles of War provide that 
 any officer or Mjldier in the I'niteii Stales amiy who 
 uses contemptuous or disresiHTtful words against the 
 Prt-sident. the Vice Prt-sideiit. the Congress of the 
 United S^tati-s, or tlie Chief .Magislnite of Legislature 
 of any of the United Stales iu which he is quartered, 
 or wiio behaves hiuiself with disrespect towards his 
 Coninianding Officer, slmll Ije punished as a Courl- 
 )Iarlial may din-ct. 
 
 DISTANCE.— 1. The space between the observer 
 and any objtrt. In gunnery, to judge distance accu- 
 rati ly is a high qualitication in artillerymen, as well 
 as in soldiers of the line, and is only to be attained by 
 a clear sight, constant observation, and pnuiice in the 
 drill laid down on Ihis subject, termed •'judging 
 distiuice drill," the iiitro<luction of which into the 
 army has been attended with such excellent results. 
 Under the most favorable circumstances, however, 
 judging distances by the eye is not to be depended 
 upon, and this is so much felt in the artillery service 
 that to each gun a nuigefinder will doubtless be at- 
 tached, iriving the distance of objects very accuratel.v, 
 and rendering it unuecesssiry to depend on the eye. 
 
 2. A tenn'in tactics, e.\pressing the relative space 
 left between troops in the ranks, after a formation or 
 movement. Dutiinee is estimated perpendicularly to 
 the front, while interml is estimated parallel to llie 
 front. When mountitl, the following distances are 
 approved: distance between companies in column of 
 fours is 9 yards (front of four troopers, plus .5 yards); 
 distance between companies in column of platoons is 
 platoon front, plus 5 yards; distance between com- 
 panies in column of companies is company front, 
 plus 5 yards; in echelon of companies, distance be- 
 tween companies is company front, plus .5 yards; in 
 echelon formed from line of platoon column, distance 
 between companies is platoon front, plus 5 yards; in 
 echelon of double columns, distance between com- 
 panies is 9 yards; dist;ince between companies in 
 close colunm is 12 yards; full distance between com- 
 panies in double column of fours is i company front, 
 plus 9 yards; dosed distance between companies iu 
 double column of fours is 9 yards; full distance be- 
 tween companies in column, double rank, is front of 
 company in single rank, plus 1 yard; closed distance 
 between companies in column, double rank, is front 
 of comiiany in double rank, i)lus 1 yard; interval be- 
 tween c<'mpanies in line, single or double rank, is 8 
 yards; full interval between companies in line of 
 platoon columns is companj' front, plus M yards, less 
 the front of one platoon; closed interval between com- 
 panies in line of platoon columns is 12 yards; full 
 interval between companies in line of double columns 
 is front of company in line; closed interval between 
 companies in line of double columns is \ front of 
 company in line; full interval between companies in 
 line of companies in columns of fours is front of 
 company in line, plus 4 yards; half interval between 
 companies in line of conijianies in columns of fours 
 is ( front of companv in line. pliu> 4 vards 
 
 DISTANCE OF THE BASTION.— In forlilication, a 
 general tenn al>plle(i to tin- exlerior polygon. 
 
 DISTANT DEFENSE.— A defense consisting in be- 
 ing able to inlernipl the enemy's movements" liy cir- 
 cuilou-i inundations; lo inundate, for instance, a 
 hridge when a convoy is passing, or to insulate bat 
 teries, the heads of siips, or hxlgments w hich have 
 been made in the covered-way. By this species of 
 defense an enemy's communications' may be ])erpetu- 
 ally intercepted, and his approaches so ob.structcd as 
 lo force- him lo leave danirerous inler\als. 
 
 DISTLLATION.— The se-paralion of a body from 
 cxirancous sulishinces by its conversion into" vapor, 
 its removal in that state, and ils subseepienl conden- 
 sation. The operation is lerme<l (linlUUitinu if the 
 va|>or assumes the form of liepiid upon condensiition, 
 even if lliat liquid should solidify upon further cool- 
 ing. The vessels used for distilling are few and sim- 
 ple; those for raising the temperature of the water are 
 
 ! generally of metal, and termed stilU. A still consists 
 of a lK)iler to contain the liquid, to which is adapted 
 a head terminating in a beak, which tits into the con- 
 densing apparatus. There are scvend forms of con- 
 densers in general use — among them the Wuriu and 
 the Luhiq. 
 
 DISTORTED SECTION.— The name applied to a 
 method of apiini.viiuately determining the center of 
 gravity of a gun by experiment. A figure dillering 
 from ii longitudinal half-section of the gun by the 
 substitution in the place of the ordinates representing 
 semi-iliametersof those proportionate to the squares of 
 the diameters is cut from cardboard or other material 
 of uniform weight for a given area. In this a point 
 of suspension from which the axis a.ssumes a horizon- 
 tal position is readily foimd by trial, and its ]x>sition 
 relative to the length of the figure is the .same as that 
 of the center of ghnnty in the gun. In the applica- 
 tion of the method a convenient scale for the length 
 of the gun and for abscis.sas in the line of its axis is 
 one tenth. For the ordinates it w ill asually be con- 
 venient to take one hundredth of the square of semi- 
 diamelers. The principles involved will hardly need 
 explanation. Ana» are made to correspond to vol- 
 umes, imd occupy the same relation to the center of 
 gnjvity. An extension of the plan gives a means of 
 ascertaining approximately the ireiijUt of a gun. It 
 will be found that the area of the figure drawn on the 
 scale proposed presents one square inch for everj- 
 3141.6 cubic inches of volinne of the giui. The area 
 may conveniently be found by comparing the weight 
 of the irregular piece of cardboard with that of a care- 
 fully measured rectangular piece cut from the same 
 sheet. The volume of the gun being found in cubic 
 inches, the only remaining step to find its weight is, 
 of course, to multiply by the weight per cubic inch. 
 Cardboard of the better sort is commonly very uni- 
 form in weight iu parts of the same sheet. See Center 
 of G I'd vita, and Cciitrobnrk Method. 
 
 DISTORTION. — The rules of perspective impose 
 certain conditions in the delineation of natural ob- 
 jects, and when the image formed by a lens on the 
 focusing-screen of a camera obscura does not fulfill 
 those conditions, it is said to Ije distorted. The effect 
 of distortion is to render all straight lines which do 
 not pass through the center of the lens curvilinear, and 
 also .so to alter the relative proportionsof objects in the 
 picture as to be opposed to the principles of true per- 
 sjieetive. Distortion, in the camera obscura, is gener- 
 ally produced by the eccentrical incidence of the 
 oblique pencils. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. — In a general military sense, any 
 division or allotment made for the purposes of war: 
 also minor arrangements made for the supply of 
 corps. 
 
 DISTRICT. — The term Military District is applied 
 to one of those portions into which a country is di- 
 vided for the convenience of command and to insure 
 a co-o])eration between distant bodies of troops. Be- 
 fore >Ir. CardweU's Act of 1872 England was ilivided 
 into four Districts, and Ireland into five, while Scot- 
 land formed one. Xow there are nine general Dis- 
 tricts in England — namely, the Northern, with Man- 
 chester as its headquarters; the Eastern, w ith Colches- 
 ter; the Southern, Portsmouth; the Southeastern, 
 Dover; the Home District, London; the Chatham; 
 the Woolwich; the Aldersholt. In Ireland there are 
 four— Belfast, Dublin, Cork, and the Curragh. Scot- 
 land is still one District, with Edinburgh as head- 
 quarters. Jei-sey is a Military District; and Guernsey 
 and Aldernev form another. 
 
 DISVELOFED. — A term in Heraldry applied to 
 the colors of a regiment or army, which are said, 
 heraldically, to be disveloped when flying. Also 
 written Deielnped. 
 
 DITCH. — The ditch, sometimes called /«««<■, is the 
 excavation made round the works, from which the 
 earth required for the construction of the rampart, 
 parapet, and banquette is obtained. In besieging 
 a fortification, when the ditch is dry, and a descenu-
 
 DITCH-DEFENSES. 
 
 491 
 
 DIVEESIOir. 
 
 ing gallerj- has been constructed, the passiigc of the 
 ditch consists of an ordinary sap pushed from the 
 opening in the countcrsmrp-wall to the slope of the 
 breach, and, when necessary, it is carried on to crown 
 the summit of the breach. If the ditch be full of 
 water, and the locality favors its being drained, every 
 means must be used to break the batardeaiix, to cause 
 the water to How away entirely or in part. If none 
 of the batteries win see the batardeaux, the sluices 
 must be sought and destroyed by shells, or by min- 
 ing. Should the a.ss:ulants be unable to breach the 
 batardeaux or to destroy the sluices, a bridge or 
 causeway must be thrown across. This is one of the 
 most difficult operations in a siege. The bridge or 
 causeway, with its epauleraent, is constructed with 
 pontons or casks, or, if without them, with fa,scines, 
 hurdles, gabions, and Siind-bags, openings being left 
 in the causeway to allow the free flowing of the 
 water, if it be a ruiming stream, or can be made so by 
 the defenders. A wet ditch may sometimes be 
 crossed by a nuft of sufficient length, which should be 
 constructed along the counterscarp, and attached by 
 one end to the bottom of the descent. The raft is 
 then allowed to swing round with the current, if 
 there be one, or is rowed or pulled round, if there is 
 not one, so as to form a connection across the ditch 
 with the breach. 
 
 The ditch should be regulated to furnish the earth 
 for the parapet. To determine its dimensions the 
 following points require attention: its depth should 
 not be less tfuin su- fett, nor its width Uss than twiire 
 feet, to present a respectable obstacle to the enemy. 
 It cannot, with convenience, be made deeper than 
 titehe feet ; and its greatest width is regulated by the 
 inclination of the superior slope, which, produced, 
 should not pass below the crest of the a/iinterscarp. 
 If we assume the height and thickness of the parapet, 
 we can calculate the dimensions of the ditch as fol- 
 lows: Denote by U the volume of the iiarajiet, .S the 
 area of the protile of the parapet, and / the right line 
 generated by the centerof gra\ity of the protile of the 
 parapet, supposing this protile moving parallel to 
 itself, and generating the volume of the parapet 
 under consideration. Denote by M . S', and l similar 
 quantities for the ditch. The volumes for the parapet 
 and the ditch, for any part of the work imder consid- 
 eration, will be expressed as follows: 
 
 and solving with respect to y, and taking the minus 
 sign of the radical, it gives 
 
 y = i tan ^ la; — V«» — JS' cot tp j. 
 
 (6) 
 
 R=Sxl and R = Sxl. 
 
 (1) 
 
 Earth when made into an embankment occupies a 
 greater space than it did in the natural state. Denote 
 
 this increase of volume by — . Since the volume of 
 
 ni 
 
 the earth in embankment is furnished by the volume 
 excavated from the ditch, there results 
 
 Substituting in equation (3) the values taken from 
 equations (1), there results 
 
 M^ (^) 
 
 S'=S 
 
 It will be sufficiently exact to take I' equal to the 
 length of the middle line of the ditch; which being 
 substituted gives S' in known terms. Assume the 
 slope of the scarp i and the counterscarp A greater 
 than the natural slope. Represent the width of the 
 ditch at top by -f, and its depth at the middle by 
 ?/. Denote the angle of the natural slope by (p. Using 
 this notation, the area of the protile of the ditch is 
 given as follows: 
 
 . . (4) 
 
 S =ff{jr- j^y cot <f>y 
 
 Solving equation (4) with respect to x, there results 
 
 7 S 
 
 « = Jgy cot <p + - ; . . . . (n) 
 
 From these equations (5 and 6) y can be assumed and 
 T deduced, or x assumed and i/ deduced. Making 
 tfi = 45% these bust equations reduce to 
 
 « = /o y + y and y = ^(.r - V^^Tj^ j. 
 
 It should be rememlx-red, in a-ssuming values for x 
 and //, that x must not l)e less than twelve feet, and y 
 not less than six nor greater than twelve feet. In 
 practice it will be sufriciently accurate to calculate 
 the area of the assumed protile, assume a depth for 
 the ditch, and, without making an allowance for the 
 increase of volume of the eartli in the embankment, 
 divide the area of the protile by the assmned depth of 
 the ditch. The result will give the width of the 
 ditch at the top. 
 
 DITCH-DEFENSES.— There are two kinds of ar- 
 rangements employed on the exterior of a parapet 
 to add to the strength of a work; viz., the arrange- 
 ments made to defend the ditch, and those made to 
 obstruct an enemy's approach. The term clitth- 
 defense is used to designate the aiTangement made 
 exterior to the parapet by which a fire is made to 
 sweep the ditch. The term nbsiurle is applied to 
 any construction or arrangement, whatever may be 
 its nature, wiiich, by its passive resistance, obstructs 
 the approach of an enemy advancing to assault the 
 work. Hence anything is an obstacle which diverts 
 the attention of the enemy from the assault to the 
 immediate suiToundings of himself. The surest 
 defense for a ditch is a good Hanking arrangement 
 of the work itself: but as this is, in many cases, im- 
 practicable, owing cither to the relief or to the plan, 
 tiank-defenses must be procured by a construction 
 made in the ditch. Several methods may !«• resorted 
 to for this jiurpose, the structures being termed 
 ctipiiiiieres, .mirji ami roiintersoirp galleries. 
 
 DIVERGENT RETREAT.— In marches in retreat, 
 like those in advance, the same general rule holds of 
 keeping to a single line, so as to have our fractions 
 well in hand to oppose the greatest force possible to 
 the enemy. Those retreats that are termed divergent, 
 or errentrie, and which are made at the siime time on 
 divergent routes to deceive the enemy and render bis 
 pursuit uncertain, are extremely dangerous. In 
 separating, to follow the.sc divergent lines, we weaken 
 ourselves on every point; the corps, being isolated, 
 offer no mutual support; they are easily beaten, and, 
 being forced upon any imiwssjible obstacle, or sur- 
 rotiiided, must be either annihilated or forced to sur- 
 render. The enemy, without allowing his attention 
 to be drawn off froiii his object, will stick to one of 
 these fractions until he has destroyed it, knowing 
 that the others must fall an easy prey wherever they 
 may be found, as from their ilispersed condition they 
 can offer no effectual resistance. Jlerely to keep 
 them from reuniting will be enough for present 
 purposes. There is but one case in w liicli our forces 
 can be dispersed with siifety, and that is when we 
 have ,iust gained a decisive victory and are in the 
 presence of an enemy who, having lost his communi- 
 cations, is entirely disorg.mi/.ed and demoralized. la 
 this position of affairs we have only to throw our 
 force into the midst of thesi- broken-up fractions to 
 determine them to tly. We may here attempt any 
 blow; no movements can fail to turn out well except 
 those whicli are too slow and methodical. This 
 exception onlv becomes legitimate tmderthe supposi- 
 tion that the" disorgjiuization and demoralization of 
 the defeated armv are complete. 
 
 DIVERSION.— In connection with marches as stra- 
 tegical movements, thosi- operations ]ierfomied by 
 det;ichments. made to favor some design of the main 
 IkxIv, and termed dirfrsions. find a place. Diver- 
 sions, and detachments made to aid the operations of
 
 DITISE. 
 
 492 
 
 DIVIDING-ENGINE. 
 
 the main body, when they have a lonp circuit to 
 iiccomplish, are contrary to sound strateginil prin- 
 cipk-s. 
 
 In war, a« in every other art base<l upon settled 
 princi|)les, iherv are exceptions to all jjiMienil rules. 
 II is in disifrninsr these cast's that the talent of the 
 Genend is slunvn. Diversions Ixlong to this class of 
 exceptions. There are cases where they are not only 
 called for, lull are iniix-rjitive upon the General. As, 
 for example, when there is some position held by the • 
 enemy that must be carried before any other step can 
 be taken, a diversion mav l)e made either to threaten 
 his line of communications, or to seize some C(>m- 
 mandinjr jxiint near his position which, by forcinsr 
 him to detach to meet the dan.ser to him, will s<5 
 weaken him as to allow us to make our main attack 
 with g(X)d pnxspccts of success. Cases of this kind 
 are of frequent occurrence in mountainous positions, 
 where, in order to force the enemy from some van- 
 tai^'-ground, a diversion on his flank or rear has to 
 be made liy a long circuit. Here the exception be- 
 comes the rule. Still, even in such cases care should 
 be taken to call in the detachment as soon as the 
 risult is obt.'iined, and fall back upon the nde of 
 concentration and unity of operations. Besides, 
 diversions are less dangerous in countries broken by 
 fori'sls and mountains, as the enemy finds it more 
 dirticult to throw himself between the main Iiody and 
 the detachment than in a country which has but f('W 
 such obstructions and masks. In a mountainous ; 
 region a small corps may find it.self in a narrow 
 valley, where il can neither be turned by its rear nor 
 by it.s flanks, and where a large lx)dy would not find 
 room to fight. In such ca.ses the isolated corps need 
 only Ix- strong enough to defend themselves in front 
 along the valleys they occupy. Here dissemination 
 of our forces is only an apparent violation of the 
 general principle; as, by falling back, each cor])s has 
 .still its line of retreat st'cure, and all can concentrate 
 on some cenlnil i)oint in rear of the mountaiu-pas.ses. 
 Another exception is found where our force is very 
 superior to that of the enemy, and that we can belter 
 subsist our troops by separating them. Here we 
 but follow a rule of Xaix>leoii which he invariably 
 put in practice; which is, to disperse our foree to 
 fiilm'M itiid to miicfntratf for battle. However simple 
 this rule may ap|X'ar, none but an able General can 
 carry it out successfully in ])ractice; for it supposes a 
 talent for military combinations possessed alone by 
 Generals of this class. When our superiority in 
 strength and morale is decidedly su])erior to that of 
 our adversary, we may then resort to diversions to 
 threaten his communications, to force him to abandon 
 his fortified positions, to tnake raids into his territory, 
 placing them under contribution, etc. All operations 
 of this character, undertaken even under the most 
 favorable circumstances, nnist tw carried out with 
 promptitude, vigor, and even audacity, to insure 
 success. If made against a timid, irresolute C'om- 
 miuider, the chances of their success are still further 
 increa.sed. But unless such favorable circumstances 
 co-<iperate, it will !«• .safer not to lisk them. 
 
 DIVIDE.— In order to successfully travel the moun- 
 tains il is neeessiiry to understand their complete 
 make-up and to know how to skillfully follow the 
 rfi'n'rfc*. When a divide separates the waters of two 
 streams not unriiiig with each other it is known as a 
 principeil diriite, and always affords the best route of 
 travel. The .sides of eaiions and ravines are fre- 
 quenllv so precipitous that it is neither advisable nor 
 ]>ossible to cross them; and although it is sometimes 
 ca-sy traveling along the bottoms (the level land in- 
 clos<'d between the sides), when not too narrow and 
 rcK-ky, the t«'sl route will, considering all things, be 
 found along the divides. .Such a route is frequently 
 long and <T<X)ked, but it is a good one. Su|iiX)se it lie 
 refjuired to piuss from one stream to another parallel 
 to It, but separated from it by very high and broken 
 mountains. To accomplish this most exjx'flitiouslv, 
 follow up the first stream to a point where we will 
 
 sujiposc a tributary of the stream puts in. Now if 
 there l)e a good route, apparently, over the diWdo 
 alx>ve this tributary, turn and follow it until the prin- 
 cipal (iivide is reached. The route, if i>racti(able, 
 may lie taken along the bottom, shoulil water be 
 desinible. as far as necessary. Having reached the 
 principal divide, pa.ss o\er it and descend by any 
 suitable and practical divide leading from the princi- 
 pal divide to the other stream. It will be found that 
 all the divides lead to the prinei|ial divide, and hence 
 there will be no doubt as to finding the principal di- 
 vide; but it will often require giMid ju<lgment in 
 selecting the most practicable divide leading to it. 
 It will be still more ditflcult to select the practicable 
 divide in descending, as all apix?ar more or Ie.ss prac- 
 ticable from the summit. The innumerable cul-de- 
 goes met with in descending can only be avoided by 
 exercising great caution. In every case the diWde 
 selected should separate tributary ravines of two im- 
 jx>rlaiit tributaries of the stream. It is ea-sily un- 
 derstood how these ravines frequently overlap each 
 other and render the route very sinuous. It is rec- 
 ommended to follow game-trails, when discovered, in 
 passing from one stream to another. They usually 
 follow the most direct and practicable route over a 
 fair divide. When arriving at the steep edge of a 
 ridge, and where difficulty in finding a good trail is 
 anticip.ited, it is a safe rule to descend first on foot 
 and seek a trail for the command or train as you 
 climb back again. It is much easier to make this 
 selection while ascending tlian while descending; for 
 when at the bottom of a hill its bluffs and preci- 
 pices face you, so that they may be readily avoided, 
 but when at the top of the hill these parts are over- 
 looked and not seen until closely approached. The 
 investigation of ra\ines is the exact reverse of that of 
 the divides; but localities are much more readily lost 
 when the ravines proceed thence in various directions. 
 On crossing a divide and coming upon a system of 
 ravines leading to a different priiirlpal ravine, the 
 traveler should make very sure of his course and fre- 
 ((uentlytake the bearings of the most prominent land- 
 marks. 
 
 DIVIDING-ENGINE.— A machine for diWding a 
 circle into a number of parts of equal pro|)ortions, 
 either for the purpose of graduation, as the circles and 
 arcs of astronomical, surveying, and jilotting instru- 
 ments, or for spacing off and cutting the circumfer- 
 ence of a wheel into teeth. The dividing-engine was 
 early apiilicd to a mode of originating screws by 
 Pa])pus Ale.xandriiius, a Greek mathematician of the 
 fourth century. The methods of graduating instru- 
 ments received much attention from Tompion (1660), 
 Shan> (1689), and Bird (IT-l.'i), the latter receiving 500 
 pounds from the Board of Longitude for his method 
 of dividing. Numerous inventions and improve- 
 ments in tliis line followed. The methods of original 
 ijraduation are not practically adojited except for the 
 largest and most important astronomical or geodeti- 
 cal instruments. •Ordinary instruments are graduated 
 by dividing-jilates or engines which copy and adapt 
 a set of already existing divisions. The dividing- 
 plate which is used for common puqioses, such as di- 
 viding compass-rings, etc., is a divided circle with a 
 steel straight-edge made movable on the axis or arbor 
 of the plate in such a manner that its edge during 
 every i).irt of its revolution shall fall in the exact line 
 from centiT to circumference. The ring, protractor, 
 or other instrument to be di\ided is clamped upon the 
 plate with its center exactly coinciding with that of 
 the jilate, and the straight-edge is moved round and 
 made to halt at the required divisions on the circum- 
 ference of the di\idingplate. and by using the steel 
 straight edge as a guide corresponding divisions are 
 marked off upon the concentric arc of the instrument 
 to lie divided. The dividinij-encfine is a very complex 
 machine requiring the greatest accuracy and care in 
 its construction; so much so that the possession of a 
 p<x>d one affords the means of obtaining a very good 
 income with a moderate amount of labor in iLsiiig it.
 
 DIVINE SEBVICE. 
 
 493 
 
 DIVISION. 
 
 Such was tlie case with the instrument of Mr, Par- 
 sons of London, who for many years di\i(ied a large 
 proportion of the best theodolites, sextants, etc., that 
 were made in Great Britain. Among the most cele- 
 brated dividing-engines may be mentioned tho.se of 
 Itiimsden, Troughton, Siinms, and Ross. A detailed 
 account of the construction of these would far exceed 
 our limits. Their principal parts consist of a large 
 circle divided with extreme care by original gradua- 
 tion. This wheel is racked on its edge with teeth as 
 equal and accurate as the divisions; a very carefully 
 constructed endless screw works in these teeth, and 
 is moved through any given number of revolutions, 
 or any measured fraction of a revolution, by means of 
 a trejidle or other suitable power, thus making the 
 requisite steps for each division; another part of the 
 machine cutting a fine line at the moment of the halt 
 of each step. These divisions are cut upon an arc of 
 silver, gold, or platinum, which is soldered or inlaid 
 upon the limb of the instnmient. the precious met;ds 
 being used on account of the oxidation to which com- 
 mon metals are liable. In 1843 Jlr. Simms applied 
 a self-acting apparatus to Troughton s circular di\'id- 
 ing-engine, ami an instrument of this manufacture 
 maj- lie seen at the Coast Survey Building, Capitol 
 Hill, Washington. It has been somewhat modified, 
 and is now driven by a small turbine in the stand. 
 See Gradual inn. 
 
 DIVINE SERVICE.— In the United States army it 
 is earnestly recommended to all officers and soldiers 
 diligently to attend divine .service. The Articles of 
 War provide that any officer who behaves indecently 
 or irreverently at any place of divine worship shall 
 l)e brought before a General Court Martial, there to 
 l)e publicly and severely reprimanded by the Presi- 
 dent thereof. Any soldier who so offends shall , for 
 his first offense, forfeit one si.xth of a dollar; for each 
 further offense he shall forfeit a like sura, and shall 
 be confined twenty-four hours. The money so for- 
 feited shall be deducted from his next pay, and shall 
 be applied by the Captain or Senior Officer of his 
 troop, battery, or company to the use of the sick sol- 
 diers of the same. 
 
 from difficulty of breathing was completely cured by 
 '■ belling," and that deafness is not produced by it, 
 but. on the contrarv, is in some cases relieved. 
 
 DIVING-DKESS. — In Schott's Techniea Ciiriosa, 
 published in 1(5(54, is described a lon'ra ayiiatkn, or 
 aquatic armor, which consisted of a leathern dress, to 
 protect the diver from the water, and a helmet. In 
 1721, Ilalley describes a contrivance of his own of 
 nearly the same kind; its object was to enable the 
 diver to go out from the bell and walk about; he was 
 to be provided with a water proof dress, and a small 
 di\'ing-bell, with glass front, as a helmet over his 
 head, which was to be supplied witli air by means of 
 a lube from the di\ing-bell. The modern diving- 
 dress is made of India-rublier cloth; a strong metal 
 helmet, with rotmd pieces of plate-glass in front, rests 
 upon a pad on the shoulders; the air is supplied to 
 this helmet from above, in the same manner as for 
 the diving bell, but instead of the waste air pas.sing 
 out below, a second tube carries it up. Leaden 
 weights are attached to the side of the diver, and thus 
 he may descend a ladder and walk about below. 
 He carries with him one end of a cord communicating 
 with the a.ssistants above, and by pulling this, as 
 agreed upon, makes a scries of signals. 
 
 DIVISION. — 1. A section of an army, indefinite in 
 point of nuinl)ers. but established as a matter of con- 
 venience. It often comprises infantry, cavalry, and 
 artillery, and is in effect a small army in itself, com- 
 manded by a General Officer. In the Crimean War, 
 for instance, a di\ision comprised two brigades, each 
 of three or four battalions. 
 
 The manner in which a division is posted varies 
 with circumstances: it may be deplo}'ed in single 
 line, with an interval of KX) yards between brigades 
 for batteries, Fig. 1 ; two brigades may be deployed 
 in the first line, the third in a second. Fig. 2; the 
 three brigades may be deployed in two lines each, 
 Fig. 3; or two brigades may be deployed in two lines, 
 the third l)eing held in reserve in line of masses. Fig. 
 4. The batteries are specially assigned by the Gen- 
 eral of Division to the most advantageous positions, 
 an interval of 100 yards being allowed for each. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 + t+ttt 
 
 tttttt 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 . tttttt ■ 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 - tt+tn tt+t*+ ■ 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 . t+tt+t . 
 
 DIVING-BELL.— A vessel inverted in water and let 
 down to anv depth bv means of a rope, air occupy- 
 ing the upper part of the vessel. By means of the 
 diving bell men are able to descend to great depths, 
 and to carrj- on such submarine openitions a-s niay l>e 
 necessar>' in masonry, laying stones, and the like, and 
 of keeping under water for some hours by the aid ol 
 fresh air supplied by pipes or barrels attached to the 
 bell. The workmen accustomed to suba'iueous exist- 
 ence do not suffer inconveniences; novices feel pains 
 in the head and cars, but these pass away after a short 
 initiation. It is stated that one man who had suHerea 
 
 The commands of the General of Division are com- 
 municated through Staff-officers; they should l>e ex- 
 plicit should be couched as far as possible in tactical 
 language, and should be thoroughly comprehended 
 bv the officers delivering them. The batlenes re- 
 ceive their orders throuirh a Chief of .cVrtillery. and 
 conform in their movements to the tactics of the 
 !artiller\-arm. , , ^ i- •. j . 
 
 The field-exercises of a dinsion should be limited to 
 those movements most practiced in active campaign, 
 such as deploying into line from column of fours; 
 advancing and retirinir in line of battle; changes of
 
 SIVISIONAX ASTU.LSBT. 
 
 494 
 
 DOMICILE. 
 
 froDt; change of front of one brigade; deployment of 
 the reserve brisnulc on its right or left, and wilh- 
 dravral of the tliini bripule into rescn'e; change of 
 direction to the right or left by echelon from the left 
 or risrht, and such other movements !»s occasion may 
 require. Brigadis in line are designated right, center, 
 and Uft : or, if one be in rear, right, {eft, and rear; 
 in column they arc designated hading, center, and 
 n<tr. In order that no mistjikes may occur in traas- 
 mittiug ortiers. the luunes of the Brigade Command- 
 ers are always to be mentioned. In all successive 
 formations, «ich brigade after completing the move- 
 ment -stacks arms and breaks ranks. The brigtide 
 is calUii to attention upon the receipt of the next 
 command from the General. 
 
 2. A Military- Dinsion is one of those larger por- 
 tions into which a country is divide<l for convenience 
 and to ti.x responsibility. The Unite<i States are at 
 present dividtti into the following Military Di\Tsions, 
 viz.: 1. DiWsion of the Missouri, comprehend- 
 ing the Departments of Missouri, Dakota, Te.xas, 
 and the Platte; headquarters Chioago. 2. Division 
 of the Pacilic, including the Departments of Cali- 
 fornia, Columbia, and Arizona; headquarters San 
 Francisco. 3. Di\Tsion of the Atlantic, including 
 the Departments of the East and the South; head- 
 quarters Xmv York. 
 
 DIVISIONAL AKTILLERY.— A portion of the fleld- 
 anilkry left to co-operate with the division of in- 
 fantrv or cjivalrv to which it is attached. 
 
 DIVISION COMMANDEE.— The Conmiander of a 
 Division, or of a geographical division of a country. 
 He is assimilated to the Coramivnder of a separate 
 army, with the same powers and duties in similar 
 cas<s over all the troops within the limits of his De- 
 partment. See Gcgraphical Departments and Diri- 
 
 DIVISION-PLATE.— The disk or wheel in the gear- 
 cutting lathe, which is pierced with various circular 
 systems of holes; each circle represents the division 
 of a circumference into a given number of parts. 
 
 DOANE LITTEE.— A litter of poles and raw-hide, 
 proposetl by Lieutetumt G. C. Dosme, United States 
 Army. The poles are 16 feet long, and the frame is 
 so constructed as to give a bed T feet long, 3 feet 2 
 inches wide at one end and 3i feet at the other. A 
 lariat or raw-hide thong is used to cord the bed-space 
 in the following manner: Tie one end at a comer 
 
 yards. It was in 1847 that an item first appeared in 
 the estimates of £20,000 for training and exercising 
 al)Out 9000 men in these battalions. Clerks, artisans, 
 imd laborers formed the body. The Colonel was a 
 naval officer, and commissions were given to the 
 otlier officers. The men received remunenition for 
 time lost in drilling. A few hours per week in sum- 
 mer were set apart for drilling under the management 
 of Sergeants and Corporals of Marines. At first tlie 
 enlistment was voluntarj', afterwards compulsory. 
 The.se battalions were aliollshed in 1861. 
 
 DOG. — A clamp fastened to a piece suspended on 
 the centers of a lathe, and by which the rotation of 
 the chuck or face-plate is imparted to the piece to Ix; 
 turned. The chuck, known as the dog and driver, 
 has two pans. The dog slips upon and is fastened 
 by a set-screw to the object to be turned. The driver 
 is attached to the lathe-mandrel, and has a projecting 
 arm which comes in contact with the dog, and causes 
 it and the work to revolve with the mandrel. 
 
 DOG-BOLT.— The liolt of the cap-square placed over 
 the trunnion of a gun. 
 
 DOLABBA. — A rude ancient hatchet. Dolabras are 
 represented on the columns of Trajan and Antoninus, 
 and alx)imd in all museums. When made of ffint, 
 which was their earliest and rudest form, they were 
 usually c-alled celt^. 
 
 DOLPHINS. — Two handles formerly placed upon 
 a piece of ordnance, with their centers "over the center 
 of gravity, by which it was mounted or dismounted. 
 
 DOMICILE. — By law every man's domicile is in the 
 countn," where he has his permanent residence, or to 
 which he ordinarily retm-ns for the ptirpose of resi- 
 dence after occasional absence; and in case of his 
 death, the right of succession to his goods and chat- 
 tels and personal property of all sorts is regulated by 
 the law of the country of his domicile, afthough he 
 may happen to die beyond its limits. As regards 
 military men, their employment on duty involving 
 only temporary absence iii intention would not, on 
 common principles, cause a change of domicile; and 
 as the laws of different States of the Union vary on 
 the subject of the right of succession to property, the 
 subject is of great interest to military men. An offi- 
 cer who was a native of South Carolina died intestate 
 in the citv of New York, and no heirs being forth- 
 coming, his estate was taken possession of by the Pub- 
 lic Administrator, although tie Rules and Articles of 
 
 Doane Litter. 
 
 over a lashing of a cross-bar notch, pa-ss the rope over 
 the opposite psirallel t«ir 9 inches advanced from 
 whore it is lashed to the cross-bar. The roj-ve comes 
 under the Iwr behind the first cord and Iwck over it, 
 makiu!.' a similar turn over and under the other 
 parallel t«r 18 inches from the point of stjirtinc;; then 
 liack. gaining 18 inches each time, until it reaches 
 and pa.vM's over an interscilion of the cross-tar at the 
 other end of the heil; then jiass the rojie under both 
 parallels and tack over the opposite end of the bar, 
 and corrl tack to the front end its l>efore. dividinsr 
 each space of 18 inches, so that when finisbeil the 
 spaces will he 9 inchi-s between Iveariiiirs. The ob- 
 ji'<-t of a .st-cond conling is to coiintcrtalance the 
 strain of the first, which would tend to throw one 
 parallil forwanl and the niher to the n?ar 
 
 DOCK-TABD BATTALIONS— Prior to the establish- 
 ment 'if Voluntet>r Corps. Dix'k-vard Battalions formed 
 a special element in the Britisli militarv sernce, in- 
 tended chiefly for the defense of the Itoval Dock- 
 
 VTar enacted by Congress provide that, in such cases, 
 an officer of the army at the station shall take posses- 
 sion of the effects "for purposes of administration. 
 " Pci^nal property, in point of law, has no locality, 
 and in case of the decease of the owner must go 
 wherever in ix)int of fact situate, according to the law 
 of the country where he had hisilomicilc.'' The four- 
 teenth Lord Somer\ille enten>d the armv in 174o, and 
 continued in the service till the peaw of 1763. during 
 which^ period he accomp,anied his regiment to Eng- 
 land, Scotland, and Germany, both iii^ quarters aiid 
 on active duty. At his death, in 1796, a question 
 arose whether, under the circumstances, his domicile 
 w-as English or Scotch; and the Ma.stcr of the Rolls 
 (Sir R. P. Arden\ in siving judjrment. said: "I am 
 clearly of opinion Ixirii Sotiienille w.ss a Scotchman 
 upon his birth, and continueil so to the end of his 
 days. He /i/-(vrr<v7*(/ to l>e so, never ha\-ins abim- 
 doned his Scotch domicile, or established another. 
 The decree, therefore, must be that the succession to
 
 DOMUAGE. 
 
 495 SONATO ROSETTI SYSTEM OF FOETIFICATION. 
 
 his personal estate ought to be regulated according to 
 the law of Scotland." His Honor must consequently 
 have been of opinion that, a Scotchman entering the 
 British army does not thereby lose his original Scotch 
 domicile; and since the union of England and Scot- 
 land, the army is certainly as much that of Scotland 
 as of England. Sir Charles Douglas, a Scotchman 
 by birth and original domicile, left his native country 
 at the age of twelve, to enter the navy. From tha"t 
 time to his death he was in Scotland only four times: 
 lirst, as Captain of a frigate; secondly, to introduce 
 his wife to his friends, on which occasion he staid 
 about a year; thirdly, upon a \-isil; and fourthly, 
 when, upon his appointment to a command upon tie 
 Halifax Station, he went in the mail-coach to Scot- 
 land, and died there in 1789. He was not for a ilay 
 resident there in anj- house of his own; nor was he 
 ever there except for temporary occasions. He also 
 commanded the Russian navy "for about a year, and 
 was afterwards in the Dutch ser\ice. He had no 
 fixed residence in England till 1776, in which year 
 he took a house at Gosport, where he lived as his 
 home when on shore. This was his only residence 
 in the British dominions; and when he went on ser- 
 vice he left his wife and family at Gosport. At his 
 death it became necessarv to decide whether his domi- 
 cile was Scotch or English, because he had made a 
 will, bequeathing a legacy to his daughter, with cer- 
 tain conditions, which were void by the law of Scot- 
 land, but valid by the law of England. The House 
 of Lords decided that his original domicile was 
 Scotch, jmd that though he did not lose it in this fii-st 
 instance, by becoming an officer in the British navy, 
 he abandoned it bj' entering a foreign service, arid 
 acquired a Russian domicile; that on returning to 
 England, and resuming his position as a British offi- 
 cer, he acquired an English domicile, but did not re- 
 cover his Scotch domicile; that his subsequent visits 
 to Scotland, not being made (iniimi uiiineiiiii, did not 
 revive his Scotch domicile, and that the succession to 
 his property, as that of an Englishman, was therefore 
 to be governed by the law of England, in which 
 country he last acquired a domicile. In connection 
 with this subject, it may be proper to notice an opin- 
 ion expressed by the Master of the Rolls during the 
 argument of Lord Somerville's case — that an officer 
 entering the military or naval service of a foreign 
 power, with consentof the British Government, and 
 taking a qualified oath of allegiance to the foreign 
 State, does not thereby abandon or lose his native 
 domicile. In Forrest v. Funston, the defeiulant was 
 a Lieutenant in the King's army, and held a situation 
 of Master Gunner at Blackness Castle in Scotland, 
 where he had the charge of considerable military 
 stores, with an apartment for his residence. He was 
 a native of Strabane in Ireland; and it was held by 
 the Court of Session that, though it was his duty to 
 re-side at Blackness, he did not by the possession of 
 his office acquire a Scotch domicile. With respect to 
 the East India Company's Service, the question of 
 domicile does not turn upon the simple fact of the 
 party being under an obligation, by his commission, 
 to serve in India ; but when an officer accepts a com- 
 mission or emplojTnent the d\ities of which necessa- 
 rily require residence in India, and there is no stipu- 
 lated period of ser\'ice, and he jiroceeds to India ac- 
 cordingly, the law from such circumstances presumes 
 an intention consistent with his duty, and holds his 
 residence to hcanimo ft fdetu in India. In the case of 
 General Forbes, in the Court of Chancerj-, the subject 
 of domicile in its relation to military men wa.s exten- 
 sively discussed before the Vice-Chancellor Wood. 
 Nathaniel Forbes, afterwards General Forbes, was 
 born in Scotland of Scotch parents; his father being 
 possessed of an ancestral estate called Auchernach, 
 on which there was then no house. In 1786, Xnthan- 
 iel Forbes, being then a minor, and a Lieutenant on 
 half-pay in the 102d Foot, a disbanded regiment, con- 
 tracted" a marriage with a Scotch lady. He shortly 
 afterwards obtiiined an appointment in" the service of 
 
 the East India Company; and in December, 1787, he 
 sailed for India, where "he continued until 1808. He 
 then obtained a furlounrh. and returned with his wife 
 to Scotland. On the death of his father in 1794 he 
 had succeeded to the family estate in Scotland; and 
 during his furlough he built" a house there, and fur- 
 nished it, and made some imi>rovemenls in the 
 grounds. In 1812 he returned with his wife to India, 
 and remained there for se\eral years. The wife left 
 India in 1818; and in 1822 her hu.sband. who had 
 then attained the rank of a General Officer and was 
 Colonel of a regiment, also quitted Indiji, according 
 to the rules of the service, with the intention of never 
 returning to that country; and he never did return 
 thither. During the whole of his service under the 
 East India Company General Forbes retained his 
 commission and rank of a Lieutenant in the King's 
 army. His domicile was without doubt originally 
 Scottish. After his fina> return from India he had 
 an establishment at a hired house in Sloane Street, 
 London He also kept his hou.sc at Auchernach fur- 
 nished; and had some servants there also. He like- 
 wise became a Justice of the Peace and a Commis- 
 sioner of Taxes in Scotland; and kept his pedigree 
 and papers (including his will) at Auchernach, where 
 he was in the habit" of residing half the year, and 
 where he had constructed a mausoleum in which he 
 wished to be buried. But his health did not permit 
 him to reside constantly at Avichernach, where his 
 establishment was also not suitable for his wife; and 
 his house in Sloane Street was manifestly his chief 
 establishment, and his wife resideil there." He died 
 in 1851. His wife thereupon laid claim to a share of 
 his property according to the Scotch law of succes- 
 sion, and contended that, in the events which had 
 happened, he must be considered to have died pos- 
 sessed of his original Scottish domicile. The sub- 
 stantial question in the case was whether his domicile 
 was in England or in Scotland. If he had been a 
 single man, his final domicile would probably have 
 been considered Scottish. But the Court held that 
 Sloane Street, having been his chief establishment, 
 and the abode of his w'ife, must be taken to have 
 been the seat of his domicile. In pronouncing judg- 
 ment upon the case, the learned Vice-Chancellor 
 ruled the following [wints: 1. That the Scottish 
 domicile of General Forbes, notwithstanding his hav- 
 ing gone to India during his minority, in the service 
 of the East India Company, continued until he at- 
 tained tlie age of twenty -one: on the principle that a 
 minor cannot change his domicile by his own act. 
 
 2. That on attaining twenty-one he acquired an An- 
 glo-Indian domicile; and thereupon his Scottish domi- 
 cile ceased: on the principle that a service in India, un- 
 der a commission in the Indian army, of a person 
 having no other residence, creates an Itidiim domicile. 
 
 3. That the circumstance of his being a Lieutenant 
 on half-pay in a disbanded King's regiment did not 
 affect the question. 4. That the Anglo-Indian domi- 
 cile of General Forbes continued michanged imtil his 
 departure from India in 1822: the furlough, or lim- 
 ited leave of ab.sence. imjilying by its nature that it 
 was his duty to return to India on its expiration. 5. 
 That in 1822 the Auj'lo-Indian domicile of General 
 Forbes was abandoned and lost: the possibility of his 
 being called upon, as Colonel of a regiment, to return 
 at some indefinite time to active service in India be- 
 ing too remote to have anv material bearing upon the 
 question, fi. That he hacl ac(|uircd by choice a new 
 domicile in England on his return from India. 
 
 DOMMAGE. — In a general acceptation of the term, 
 (Jommage signified, in the old French serrice, the 
 compensation which every Captain of a troop or com- 
 pany was obliged to make in con.sequcnce of any 
 damage that his men might have done in a town or 
 on a march. 
 
 DONATO EOSETTI SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 — This .system has a large ravelin with fianks. Its 
 double flanks are not retired. The shoulder-angle of 
 each ravelin is connected by a fausse-braye. The
 
 DONJON. 
 
 49g DOUBLE BORING AND MORTISING MACHINE. 
 
 .shouldcr-iuigU-s of the biislions sind the flanks of Uie 
 nivi'Iin urv joiiicil bv a wall destiniil to prevent deser- 
 tion, and lo eualile llie ollu ers to fro tlie rounds. This 
 wall is ili-stroyeil towanls the latter part of Ibe siege, 
 lo eniililc llietlaiiks to defend the ditch. 
 
 DONJON.— The priueipal tower or keep of a cas- 
 tle or fortress. It was so called either from beinj; 
 placed on a dun or elevation, natural or artitieial, or 
 because, from its ]X)sitiou, it doniinate<l or coninianded 
 Ibe other (larts of the fortress. From the circumstance 
 that the lower or untierground storj- of the donjon 
 
 it secures evenness in the stroke of the pen. See Sou- 
 UtU: 
 
 DOUBLE. — In tactics, to unite, as the ranks or iiles, 
 so as Id form one. To dotihlt upon is an expression 
 mcuninfj lo inclose between two (ires. 
 
 DOUBLE BARRELED GUN.— A pvm having a pair 
 of parallel barrels on the siiine stock ; sometimes one 
 is a rifle-barrel and the other a smootb-l)ore for shot. 
 This combination breech-loading; rifie and shot-gun is 
 c.vcelleut for hunling purposes, and a single one judi- 
 ciously handled will furnish a large command a good 
 
 Double-barreled Gun. 
 
 was u.sed as a prison has come the modern meaning 
 of the word. Also written Dungeon. 
 
 DOOLIE. — An Indian term: a stretcher for carrying 
 the siek and wounded in India. It is composed of a 
 framework of wood, and the seat or flooring of cane 
 or nawar (a coarse cotton tape). At each end of the 
 doolie a triangular piece of wood is fastened to the 
 fniine, on the top of which there is an iron ring at- 
 tached through which Ibe bamboo for lifting the 
 doolie is placed. The lop of the doolie has a light 
 fnimework of wood, over which a coarse red cloth 
 curtain is hung lo screen the sun and wind from the 
 paliciil. Sometimes written Doolee. 
 
 DORMANT. — In heraldic repre.sentation, an animal 
 doniiiiiit has its head resting on its forepaws, whereas 
 an animal eandinnt has its head erect. See Hmildrii. 
 
 DOSSER. — A son of ba.skel carried on the shoulders 
 of men, anil us<>d in carrying the earth from one part 
 of a fortification to another where it is required. 
 
 DOSSIERE. — The common French expression for 
 the back-piece of a cuira.ss. Sec Cuirass. 
 
 DOTTING-PEN.— A pen having a roulette which 
 makes dots or detached marks on the paper over 
 which it is drawn. The drawing represents the in- 
 strument as made by Messrs. Queen & Co., Philadel- 
 phia. It consists of a small, conveniently-shaped 
 
 Oerman-silver plate, upon which is fa.stcncd a pen 
 connected by a .small bar and a ratchet movement 
 with a rolling wheel. The bar is kept in its place by 
 a small spring. Kxira wheels of difTerent patterns 
 accompany the instrument, which, being readily 
 ihanL'ed, allow the making of various forms of lines. 
 In using the insirumeni, care should be taken that 
 tile small |K)inl behind the pen rests on the paper, as 
 
 daily allowance of game in great variety. A few 
 shot-guns should accompany eveiy command in the 
 field. The hunters should be selected with a \iew to 
 the particular game sought after, as they seldom have 
 the siune success with all game. The barrels are usu- 
 ally placed side by side, as in the drawing ; but some 
 sportsmen prefer that one barrel be placed under the 
 other. 
 
 DOUBLE-BITTED AXE.— An ancient form of bat- 
 tle-axe, having two opposite bits or blades. It was a 
 favorite Heaiion with the Franks in the lime of Clo- 
 taire, seveiitli cenlur.y, and with the Danes in the time 
 of Alfred the Great,"ninlh century. It is also shown 
 in the sculptures of Kamak, in Egypt. The battle- 
 axe of the Scythians in the time of Herodotus was 
 double-bitted." It is the Sacan mgarix. The double- 
 bitted axe is found in the tumuli and barrows of 
 North America. It is in three forms: 1, with a cir- 
 cumferential groove for the occupation of the withe 
 or split handle to which it is lashed ; 2, with an eye 
 traversing Ihc head : 8, with a socket for the handle. 
 
 DOUBLE BORING AND MORTISING MACHINE.— 
 A machine designed for Ihal class of work in which 
 two holes are to be bored at a given distance and 
 angle, as in doweling, and in frame, cariiage, and cab- 
 inet work. The I wo sjiindles are mounted on an ad- 
 ju.stable head which enables them to be set loan angle 
 from the horizontal, as shown in the drawing, to the 
 vertical, where one would be over the other ; and 
 to any distance from one to live inches between cen- 
 ters. The table has a vertical movement of twelve 
 inches from the spindle down, slides forward and 
 back, and when i)repared for mortising, sideways 
 also. Adjustable slops delernnne the extent of these 
 motions, ilorlising is done with a revolving cutter 
 cutting on IxHh end and side, producing, when the 
 work is moved sideways, a morti.se willi half-round 
 ends. When only one spindle is to be used, it may 
 1)e di.scomiected from the large gear-wheel by loosen- 
 ing and drawing back the liracket which supports the 
 latter. This sjiould 1m' done whenever the machine 
 is to be used for mortising, for then the bell may be 
 run upon the small pulley and the spindle be dnven 
 at the high speed recpiired, with(mt injury to the gears. 
 For boring, Ibe belt should be run tipon Ihc large pul- 
 ley, as so high a speed is not necessary for boring as 
 for inorlising. The spindles and their pinions are of 
 steel, and the bearings are adjustable. The weight of 
 the machine ;is used in the arsenal is about 500
 
 SOITBLE BEIDGE-HEAS. 
 
 497 
 
 BOTTSLE BANE. 
 
 pounds, and the speed of the countershaft, 950 to 1000 
 revolutions per minute. See Boring-machine and 
 MortiKiiKj-nmchiiie . 
 
 DOUBLE BHIDGE-HEAD.— When the hridge crosses 
 the river at a jwint where there is no bend, it is fre- 
 quently the case that works are constructed at both 
 extremities of the bridge. When this is the case, the 
 works form what is known as a double bridge-lmad, 
 to distinguish it from those usually termed single 
 bridgeheuils. See Bridge-liead. 
 
 DOUBLE CAPONIEKE. — A structure, in perma- 
 nent fortitication, which serves both as a communica- 
 tion and as a defensive work for the ditch. As the 
 former, the passage should admit of a convenient cir- 
 
 be swept Ijy the fire of the curtain, and of a part of 
 the tiank. The portion of the first glacis near the 
 extremity is made into a ijlaciD-coupi , lea\Tng a suffi- 
 cient thicknes-s of parjipet to cover the passage. See 
 Isuizit Si/xUiii ijf Ftjrtifieation. 
 
 DOUBLE HAMMER.— A forging device for opcrat- 
 ini; upon a liliioni or |Hiddler's ball, striking it upon 
 op|H)SJIc sides simultaneously. 
 
 DOUBLE HARftUEBUSE.— A tirearm with a double 
 catch or match-holder. It was mostlj* used for de- 
 fending ramparts ; tlic length being from three to 
 seven leet. The lock is distinguished from that of 
 the simple harquebuse in having two match-holders 
 working in opposite directions. It was often sup 
 
 Double Boring and Hortising-macbine. 
 
 culation, without being too wide, which has deter- 
 mined it.s width at 3.. SO yards. The interior crests 
 should cover the troops within the caponiere from 
 the enemy's establishments on the crest of the bastion 
 covered-way; a relief of nine feet has been found 
 sufficient for this purpose. As a defensive work, it.s 
 fire should sweep the ditch. It is for this purpose 
 that its embankments are arranged on the interior as 
 an ordinary parapet, and on the exterior in the form 
 of a glacis. Its banquette tread is made 2 yards 
 wide, as it should be pali.saded. In order that the 
 embankment of the caponiere may not, by its re- 
 lief, form dead spaces in the ditch, the plane of the 
 first glacis is arranged so as to be swept by the artil- 
 lery-fire of the opposite flank. The plane of the sec- 
 ond glacis, and the return-wall, are so arranged as to 
 
 I ported by a stand resting on iron spikes or wheels 
 
 I that was "called foi/r^uinf. 
 
 1 DOUBLE-HEADED SHOT.— A projectile formerly in 
 use. consjstinir of two shot united at their bases. 
 
 I DOUBLE - QUICK.— Performed in the time called 
 doulih-tiiiici; ; a double quick step or march as pre- 
 .scrilied in Tactics. See ■'*'/). 
 
 DOUBLE BANK.— A line formed of double files. 
 In the United States army, the distance between 
 ranks, from back to breast, \s facing distance: but on 
 rough ground, and when marching in double time, it 
 is increased to thirty-two inches; upon halting, the 
 rear rank closes to facing distance. When the knap- 
 sack is worn, the distance between the ranks is in- 
 creased by the depth of the knapsack. In alignments 
 in double" nuik, the rear-rank men cast their eyes to
 
 DOUBLE K£DAN. 
 
 498 
 
 SKAO. 
 
 the side of the guide vniiIi ttie front-rank men, and 
 nminliiin the proin-r (iislaiice l>etweeii tlie riinks, Tlio 
 iIoul)k' milk, fallal l)y the Hank, is calltil u citluiiin of 
 file*, the sjiuie iis a singlr niiik. In marching in col- 
 umn of tiles, uuli rear rank man ilre.vses on his front- 
 rank man, who is the guiile of the tile. In otiliquiuj; 
 in line in double nink, eaeh rear-rank man follows 
 the man next on tlie right or left, or the sec-ond man 
 on the riirht or left, of his front-rank man, according 
 as the rear-nmk is at facing distance, or at thirty-two 
 inches from the front rank. In obliquing in column 
 of tiles, the guide of each tile is the num of tlie iwik 
 toward w hich the obliiiue is made, the guide of the 
 column Uing the guide of the leading tile. 
 
 DOUBLE KEDAN. — Two redans are sometimes 
 placed side liy side and joined to each other, making 
 a work known as the doiiblf redan; sometimes the 
 outer faces of the double redan are made much longer 
 than the faces which are connected, in which case tin- 
 work receives the name of jiriiKt-rap or siealloirlail. 
 
 DOUBLE SAP.— This sap consists of two heads of 
 s!ip pushes! forwaixi by two brigades working abreast. 
 Its object is to form a trench in a position ex|X)sed to 
 tire in front and on Iwlh sides. The head of the .sap 
 is coveretl by two sap-rollers placed end to end; a bag 
 of wool, or a short sap-roller, being placed at their 
 junction, for a screen. The distance between the two 
 rows of gabions is 13 feet. The earth between the 
 two lines of sap is removed by the usual working 
 parties, as in the case of full s;ip. 
 
 In the case of an eulilading fire and a fire on both 
 flanks, the trench. A, is carried forward by the double 
 
 Flan of a Doul)Ie Sap expos***! t« a Are in front and on lK)th 
 flanks. A, D. Double iJirect .Sap; B. I'arallel; C. Fall Sap 
 at rigtil angles to gain ttie direction D; E, Full Sap con- 
 Dectine the two branches of double direct sap on the right 
 and left. 
 
 sap, until the point of departure, B, is about being 
 exposed to the tire coming in over the Siip-rollers; a 
 change of direction, C, at light angles is then made 
 by the full sjip, to the right Or left, and pushed for- 
 ward the length of about fifteen gabions, or .so far as 
 to intercept any slant fire on either side of the trench 
 in rear, when the original direction, I), is resumed by 
 the double sap. A change of direction is sfjmetimes 
 made by the full stip both to the right and left at right 
 angles to the original line, and pushed to the length 
 of twelve or fourteen gal)i(ms e;ich way. Then, from 
 the extremities of these branches, a direction parallel 
 to the original is taken tip by the doul)le sjip, luid 
 piLshed on until the point of de])arture to the rear is 
 aliout iK'ing exposed, when a change of direction to- 
 wards each other is made at right angles, by the full 
 sa|), and two branches are united on Uie original 
 direction, E, which is resumed by the double sap. 
 See Slip. 
 
 DOUBLE SHELL.— This nature of projectile has 
 lieen introduced into the English service for the use 
 of eertjiin U.M.L. guns, such as the 7-inch and 7-ixlr. 
 M.T. gun, but for no other, though verj- good jirac- 
 tice has Iwen made with tlie.s<> shells froii'i ihe lO-iwlr. 
 field-l)ailery gun. The 7-incli double shell is nearly 
 four calibers long, strengthened by three ribs inter- 
 
 nally, otherwise resembling the common shell. A 
 l)ag"is u.sed 1o contain the bursting-charge as given 
 for comini.n shell. Sec Ih'ulAtxIiniUng. 
 
 DOUBLE-SHOTTING.— A term apiilied to the doub- 
 ling of Ihe shot in the gun, w hereby increased effect 
 is expected. This was formerly a practice more 
 often adopted in the navy tlian in land-artillery. In 
 the latter, double-shotting wa.s only re-sorted to when, 
 the enemy being close on the guns, a double charge 
 of case-sliot was likely to render good service. The 
 introduction of rifled guns has done away with this 
 mode of tire. What is now known as a "double 
 shell' is nothing more than a shell of increased length 
 imd capacity. 
 
 DOUBLET.— An under-garment of linen, slightly 
 quilted, and having rings of mail imiler the breast- 
 I)latc and under the knees and arms, so as to protect 
 the body where the armor was weakest, and where- 
 ever an opening might occur for the sw ord or poniard. 
 It was almost fdenrical with the jerkin. The sleeves 
 were sometimes s<'parate, and tied on at the arm. 
 
 DOUBLE TIME.— The fastest time or step in march- 
 ing, next to the run, requiring 165 steps, each 33 
 inches in length, to be taken in one minute. The 
 degree of swiftness may vary in tirgent ca-ses, and 
 the number of steps be thus increased up to 180 per 
 minute. See Double-quirk:' 
 
 DOUBLINGS.— The heraldic temi for the linings of 
 rolKs or miinlles, or of the mantlings of achievements. 
 See Mnntliiig. 
 
 DOVER IRON. — Previous to casting the gun-casing 
 of the 12.25-inch muzzle-loading rifle of the South 
 Boston Foundry, a mmiber of experimental castings 
 were made and tested with a view to determine the 
 proper quality of iron to be emiiloyed. This course 
 was neces.s;tiy in order to provide a substitute for the 
 Richmond pig-iron, which can no longer be procured 
 of suitable qtiiility for gun construction. The most 
 satisfactory results in these ex|)eriraents were obtained 
 from a mixture of equal quantities of Dover and 
 Muirkirk pig iron. A trial-cylinder, of the same form 
 and dimensions as those described in Captain Rod- 
 man's L'tjh- rim tilts on Mitals fbr Cannon, was then 
 cast from the mixture. This cylinder was cut up in the 
 same manner as those above referred to, and was sub- 
 jected to a similar series of tests for the purpose of 
 determining the physicid properties of the metal. 
 The results obtsiincd from these tests were satisfactory, 
 and it was decided to use a similar mixture for the 
 gun-casing. The Do\er is made at Chatham, Colum- 
 l)ia County, New York, being smelted with charcoal 
 from a brown hematite ore found a few miles south 
 of Dover Plains, Dutchess County, New York. This 
 ore is mined in a wide vein, and is of two kinds, there 
 being two lines of deposit in the stratum. One is a 
 rich, solid ore, yielding from 48 to 55 per cent of iron; 
 the other yields from 38 to 42 per cent. In smelting 
 the iron the two kinds of ore are used in nearly equal 
 proportions, it having been found that such a liiixture 
 gave the Ijcst results. See Iron and Minrkirk Iron. 
 
 DO'WLAS. — A coarse kind of linen; it is usetl in a 
 siiltpcler-refinery for filtering the saltpeter liquid as it 
 is drawn off from the boilers. 
 
 DRABANTS.— A choice company of 200 picked 
 men. ol which Charles IX. of Sweden was Captain. 
 
 DRAFT. — A selecting or detaching of soldiers from 
 an anny, or any part of it. or from a military post; 
 also from any company or collection of jxjrsons, or 
 from the people at large for military service. Also 
 written Driuiijlit. 
 
 DRAG. — A mechanism for slackening the speed of 
 carriages, by ojieratingon one or more of Ihe wheels. 
 The form of drag best known is that of the " shoe," 
 a hollow piece (if iron attached by a chain to the 
 carriage, which being pul Ix'low one of the hind 
 wheels partially reduces the vehicle to the quality of 
 a sledge: by which dragging process the carriage is 
 suitably retarded on going down-hill. As the shoe- 
 drag required to be .-ipplied imd removed with some 
 inconvenient detention of the vehicle, a step was
 
 DSAGOK. 
 
 499 
 
 SBAUGHT-ANIHAtS. 
 
 made in advance when a method of retarding a wheel 
 without detention was discovered. This new process, 
 which is known as tlie patent drag, consists of a con- 
 nected piece of mechanism, altojrether operated upon 
 by the driver without mo\ing from bis scjit. A han- 
 dle affects a series of rods and levers by which a spe- 
 cies of shoe is pressed against one of the wheels, so 
 as to slacken its motion. Such is the kind of drag 
 now very generally attached to gentlemen's traveling- 
 camages, omniliuses, and other vehicles for passen- 
 gers on the roads nuieli traveled. It is of French 
 origin. Applied in either form, the use of the drag, 
 indl-pendenlly of its safety, is to allow horses to con- 
 tinue running at ordinary speed down-hill without 
 being unduly pressed on by the carriage behind them. 
 A similar contrivance, but of a more powerful kind, 
 called a break or hnike, is applied to arrest the motion 
 of railway-trains. See Brake. 
 
 DSAGON. — A small kind of blunderbuss; a short 
 hand-gun of great bore to carry several pistol or car- 
 bine balls or small slugs, and so called from the fact 
 of its havinir a dragon's head at the muzzle. 
 
 DRAGONET DRAGON VOLANT.— The ancient title 
 for two old pieces of anillery. The dragon was a 
 40-pounder ; the clragou volant, a 32-poimder. But 
 neither the name nor" the size of the caliber of either 
 piece is now in use. 
 
 DRAGONNER.— According to the French accepta- 
 tion of the ttrm. to attack any person in a nide and 
 violent manner: to lake anything by force; to adopt 
 prompt and vigorous means; and to bring those jjco- 
 ple to reason l)y hard blows who could not be per- 
 suaded by fair "words. 
 
 thrown on his own resources, display all the intelli- 
 gence, activity, and circumspectif)n of the best light 
 infantr\-. See Cn idlrii ixwA /forM-yuards. 
 
 DRAGOON GUARDS.— A title borne by seven regi- 
 ments ot heavy cavalry in the British ser\ice. 
 
 DRAG-ROPE.— A rope having a .small chain and 
 hook attached to one end of it: it is used in the artil- 
 lery sers'ice for pulling or drawing. Drag-ropes are 
 attached to all ordnance carriages, to assist in extri 
 eating them when in difhculty, in sandy soil, steep 
 ascents, or in descents when there is no shoe attached 
 to the carriage, or locking-chain for holding upon the 
 caiTiage. They are of two sizes in the English ser- 
 vice, hear]/ and lir//il; the former are issued to the 
 20-pdr.,4()-pdr. B.L.U., and 16-pdr. M.L.R. batteries; 
 the latter to the i>-]x\r.. 12-pdr. B.L.R., and 9-pdr. 
 M.L.R. batteries. The chain end is intended to pre- 
 vent the rope being cut by the tire of the wheel. 
 
 DRAG-ROPE KNOT.— A knot the same as the men's 
 /uirtusx/iilr/i; ii is used for fixing handspikes to the 
 roix's attached to heavy carriages which are to be 
 moved by men; three men are attached to each hand- 
 spike. Sonu-linies called lerer-hileJi. 
 
 DRAG-ROPE MEN.— The men attached to light or 
 heavy ordnance, fur the purpose of expediting move- 
 ments in action. The French Serrans a la prolonge 
 are of this des< ription. 
 
 DRAG-WASHER. — A flat iron ring on the axle arm 
 of a carri;ige, having an iron loop attached for the 
 purpose of fastening file drag-rope when nece.ssary; 
 hence the term drag min/ier. It is placed on the axle- 
 arm to prevent the wheel or nave from pressing upon 
 the linch-pin. 
 
 
 DRAGON'S-BIiOOD. — A deep red resinous substance 
 found in the East Indies, Cochin-Chinn, and the East- 
 ern islands. It occurs in masses of various degrees 
 of purilv. and in sticks, enveloix-d in palm-leaves. 
 Dragon 's-l)lood is employed as a coloring matter, and 
 as an incredient in varnishes. Formerly it was used 
 in the browning liquid for gun-barrels, but has been 
 discontinued for .some vears past. 
 
 DRAGOON.— From the old fable that the dragon 
 spouts fire, the head of the monster was worked upon 
 the muzzles of a peculiar kind of short muskets which 
 were first carried bv the horsemen raised by Marshal 
 Bri.ssac in the veaf 1600. This circumstance led to 
 their being called dra coons; and from the general 
 adoption of the same weapon, though without the 
 emblem in (juestion, the term gradually extended it- 
 self till it became almost synonymous with horse- 
 soldier. Dragoons were at one time a kind of mounted 
 infantrv. drilled to perform the services lx)th of horse 
 and foot. At present, rfraff'Wft is simply one among 
 many desisnations for cavah v. not very precise in its 
 application. In the British armv. the lieari/ dragoons 
 and the /(>/''' dragoons are carefully distinguished m 
 resard to ihc weisiht of the men, horses, anil appoint- 
 ments. The first dragoons in the army were the Scots 
 Grevs, established in 1683. The dragoon, when first 
 instituted tr> combine the functions both of the foot sol- 
 dier and cavalic-r, was found, like most mongrels, to 
 have the qualities of neither in a very ser\-iceable de- 
 gree. He still retains his musquetoon, and on out- 
 post dutv, and skirmishing in broken ground, docs a 
 soldiers" dutv with this weapon. Apt for altacks 
 whether in close order or dispersed, he should lend 
 himself to the charse kindlv; and in cases where 
 
 Plate-washers of the pattern represented in the 
 drawing are usually made in large quantities at the 
 arsenals. The following table exhibits their particu- 
 lars: 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Size of 
 Hole. 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Wire 
 
 Gauge. 
 
 No. 
 
 Size of 
 Bolt. 
 
 Number 
 
 in 100 
 Pounds. 
 
 ^.OOO 
 
 21,000 
 
 13,900 
 
 11.290 
 
 6,800 
 
 S.450 
 
 4.S00 
 
 2,600 
 
 2.000 
 
 2,250 
 
 1.310 
 
 1.010 
 
 SCO 
 
 625 
 
 520 
 
 400 
 
 280 
 
 »<0 
 
 220 
 
 175 
 
 DRAIN.— In the mililarv art, a trench provided to 
 draw water out of a ditch", which is afler\vards filled 
 with hurdles and earth, or with fascines or bundles 
 of rushes, and planks to facilitate the passage over 
 the mud. Also written Drein. 
 
 DRAKE.— A small piece of artillcrj- used m ancient 
 times, but now obsolete. _ 
 
 DRAUGHT-ANIMALS.— The subject of draught is 
 of the greatest imiwrlance in the artillerj- arm of the
 
 DRAUGHT HOOK. 
 
 500 
 
 DEAWING. 
 
 service. In which the greater portion of the traa>iix>rt 
 of artilliTV iiutU'rid is ilepeiulent on draugbt-uiiiiniils. 
 Horst-s arx' usually employed for this purpose, though 
 ill India the hea\-y arlilkTy, with the rest of the ma- 
 Uritl of the unny," is drawn or carried by elephants 
 and bullocks. 
 
 In a four f (Kited animal, the hinder feet are the ful 
 cruni of the lever bv which its weight acts against 
 the load; and when tlie animal pulls hard it depresses 
 its chest, anil thus increases the lever; hence we see 
 the benefit that may be derived from large horses, 
 for their levers neces-sarily increase with their sizes. 
 Large horses will draw more than small ones, even 
 though they have less muscular force and are unable 
 to carrv such a heavy burden. 
 
 The "force exerted by a dnmghtanimal may be di- 
 vidiil into two parts, \-iz., that 
 which overcomes the inertia and 
 friction of the carriage and sets it 
 in motion, and that which is ne- 
 ces.siiry to overcome the re.sistances 
 which recur along its path. The 
 first, iK'iiig of momentary duration, 
 aitpro.xiniates the utmost strength 
 of the animal; its intensity should 
 be known in order to give the neces- 
 sary strength to the harness. 
 
 Tf represents the mean force (in 
 poimils) exerted by an animal, in a 
 unit of time, in drawing a load 
 over a road, the length of which 
 is I, Ql represents the quantity of 
 work ))erformed. The direction 
 of the force is taken parallel to 
 the plane along which the load 
 moves. If it make an angle, a, with this plane, 
 the work will lie decomposed into two components, 
 Ql cos ft, which is iianillel to the plane, and Ql sin a, 
 which is pcriK'ndiculur to it : the latter transfers a 
 portion of the load from the ground to the animal's 
 shoulilers, thereby increasing his friction, and to a 
 certain extent the |)ower of traction. 
 
 Careful experiments have been made to determine 
 the proportion of those two component.s most favor- 
 able to the exercise of the animal's power. It was 
 found that the mo.st suitable angle for the traces of 
 an unloaded animal, with the ground, wa.s from 10 
 to 12'; and for one that carried his driver, from 6 to 
 7'; or, in other words, a draught-animal should airry 
 i of his load on his back. 
 
 The relation between the weight of a loaded car- 
 riage and the force to be exjiended by the animal to 
 kei'p it in motion fh.'pends upon so many circum- 
 stances that it is impo.ssible to give a general expres- 
 sion for its determination. It can only be determined 
 by direct experiment in each particular case. See 
 Artill' n/-/wnii)i, Hnlhck, Ehpluint, and Mule. 
 
 DEAUGHT-HOOK.— Either of four large hooks of 
 iron fixed on the cheeks of a gim-carriage, two on 
 each side, used in drawing the gun backward and 
 •forward. 
 
 DRAW-BORING.— The operation of polishing a mus- 
 ket barrel after it has been rifled. 
 
 DRAW-BRIDGE.— For the usually narrow ditches 
 of lield works either a light rolling bridge may be 
 used for a eonimuiiication, from the outlet, across the 
 ditch, or else' an ordinary wooden draw-dridge. A 
 very simple one. ami of easy const ru<.-t ion, was pro- 
 poserl by Colonel Bergere of the French Engineers. 
 The bridge is a light platfonn, «, of joists and boards, 
 long enough to span the ditch, D, and so arranged as 
 to turn around an axle at A, the crest of the scarp. 
 At the |K)int B on each side of the platform an iron 
 gudgeon is firmly attached to it, an<i turns in the eye 
 of a s<M'ket at tlie end of the lever, C B. This lever is 
 formcfl of two pieces of scantling of some touiih flex- 
 ible wood, each about four inches s<juare. The lever 
 has an eye at the middle point, O, which receives a 
 strong iron txilt that connects two ordinarj' gun-car- 
 riage wheels. The two pieces which form lie lever 
 
 are firmly fastened together, as shown in the figure; a 
 weight, consisting of shells filled with sand or shot, 
 being fastened at'the end C and serving sis a counter- 
 poise to the bridge. Two rails. A, of heavy scant- 
 ling are laid for the wheels to run upon in maneuver- 
 ing the bridge, which is done simply by one or two 
 men taking hold of the spokes of the wheels, and so, 
 by turning them, causing them to run backwards or 
 forwards, luid thus raise or lower the bridge. The 
 outlet should be covered by a mask thrown up either 
 on the interior or on the exterior, to prevent the enemy 
 from firing through it into the work. A traverse is 
 thrown across it if placed on the interior. When 
 placed on the exterior a small redan is constructed, 
 just in advance of the counterscarp, of sutticieut size 
 to cover the outlet and the bridge over the ditch. The 
 
 Bergere Draw-bridge. 
 
 passage to the exterior may be either through the face 
 of the redan or between one of the faces and the tlilch. 
 Sufticieut space should be left between the traverse 
 and the parapet for the passage of a gun. The length 
 of the traverse is arranged to prevent the enemy from 
 firing into the work, by an oblique tire through the 
 outlet. The traverse may be of earth or of wood; in 
 either case it shoidd be arranged for defense to enti- 
 lailc the outlet. In some cases the traverse at one end 
 is l)roken forward at right angles, and connected 
 with the jiarapet of the work; the space Ijetween the 
 traverse and parapet at the other end being left open 
 for a passage-way. A defensive stockade with a bar- 
 rier secures this opening from surprise. It should be 
 thrown far enough back to be out of reach of fire. 
 
 DRAWING. — i. The operation of hammering, roll- 
 ing, or drawing through a die, by which a bar or rod 
 of metal or a wire is extended in length to form a rod , 
 tube, or plate. 2. The art of representing the appear- 
 ances of all kinds of objects liy imitation or copying, 
 both with and without the assistance of mathematical 
 rules. The following instruments, necessary for draw- 
 ing and plotting in the field, should be carefully 
 packed in ]x)rtable boxes or pocliet-cascs, and supplied 
 to all Sliiff and Reconnoitcring Oflicers: one pair of 
 6-inch needle-point dividers, with pen and pencil 
 points and lengthening-bar; one pair of 4l-ineh plain 
 dividers; one pair of Jil-iuch needle-point dividers, 
 with pen and p<'ncil points; one spring bow-i)en, with 
 needle-point; one drawing-pen; one German-silver 
 protractor; one horn protractor; one irregular curve; 
 two wooden triangles; and one pair of proportional 
 dividers. 
 
 The first requisite in all drawings is minute accu- 
 racy, both in the geometrical constructions and in 
 writing down all letters and numl)ers which serve 
 either as references or to give dimensions. To attain 
 this, so far as regards the geometriad part, judjrment 
 is to be exercised in the selection of the means for es- 
 tablishing on the drawing the positions of the various 
 points which are either given or to be found; as one 
 method, although in theory as correct as some other, 
 may not, in practice, be found to yield as satisfactory 
 results. The following remarks will serve to illustrate 
 thispoint: 1st. In setting off frwn a aeak of equal parU
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 501 
 
 DSAWINO. 
 
 sateral distances, nhmg a line, wbethpr equal or un- 
 equal, the most accurate method is to commence by 
 first setting off the entire distance, and then the several 
 parts, taking care to verify, from the scale, the aggre- 
 gate of the several partial distances. 2d. W/ien a dis- 
 tance to be set off is so small that it cannot l)e laid down 
 with accuracy by the jioints of the dividers, the fol- 
 lowinir method may be employed: Set back, from the 
 point from which the required distance is to be set off, 
 any arbitrary distance, then set forward, from this 
 last point, a distance equal to the sum of this arbitrary 
 distance and the one required. 3. To set off' a point <tt 
 a fficen jxrpendieular distance from a line, it will 
 mostly be found more speedy, and more accurate, to 
 take off from the scale the given distance, in the 
 dividers, and, .setting one point on the paper, bring 
 the other so that the arc described by it, with the given 
 distance as a radius, shall be tangent to the line, than 
 to employ the usual method of tirst erecting a perpen- 
 dicular to the line and then setting off the required 
 point along the perpendicular. This method will be 
 found convenient in drawing a parallel to a line at a 
 given distance from it by .setting off another point in 
 the .same way, and drawing through the two the re- 
 quired parallel. 4th. In setting off' .several points for 
 the purpose of drawing several parallels to a given line, 
 
 Drawing Instruments. 
 
 as, for example, the parallel lines which lx)und the 
 planes of a parapet, it will be found most speedy and 
 accurate to draw first \ipon a slip of smooth thin paper 
 two lines perpendicular to each other, then marking 
 on one of the lines the respective given distances of 
 the parallels from the other, and cutting the paper 
 close to the line along which the given points are mark- 
 ed off, .so that when the strip is laid upon the draw- 
 ing so as to have one of its lines to coincide with that 
 to which the parallels are to be drawn, their distances 
 from it can be pricked off by a sharp pointed pencil, 
 or in any other way. Hth. Vihen a point is to be con- 
 structed bji means of the intersection of tiro lines nrhi- 
 irarilji chosen, such a position sho\ild be assumed for 
 the arbitrary lines that they shall not form a very 
 acute angle" at their point of intersection, as in that 
 case this point might not be so distinct to the eye as 
 to be marked with accuracy. For example, in erect- 
 ing a perpendicular to a line at a given point, and in 
 like problems, in which points are found by the inter- 
 sections of arcs of circles, it will Ije best and most 
 convenient to take for the radii of the arcs the distance 
 between their centers, as the angle between the tan- 
 gents to the arcs at their point of intersection will 
 then be 60', which is a suflicient angle to give accu- 
 rately the point where the lines cross. In all such 
 cases of determining points, and where a point is 
 pricked into the paper, it will be found advisable to 
 designate the jx>int thus O. by a small circle drawn 
 
 around it with the lead-pencil, in order that the eye 
 may see it with more distinctness. 6th. In determining 
 a portion of n line by the cotistruction of tiro arbitrari/ 
 points, the points should be so chosen "that the portion 
 required may fall Ix-'tween them and not beyond them. 
 7th. No means of verifying the accuracy "of the con- 
 struction of points or lines .should be'omitfed. A 
 general and minute verification of all the parts of the 
 drawing should be made tx-fore any portion of it is 
 put in ink. Neatness is a not unim]>ortant element in 
 the attainment of accuracv in drawing. A few minu- 
 tisB, when attended to, will subserve tliis end. That 
 part of the paper on which the draughtsman is not 
 working .should be kept covered with clean paper, 
 pasted on the edge of the board, so as to fold over the 
 drawing, and the i^arts wliieh are Imished should Ije 
 similarly protected. Before comnieneing the daily 
 work the paper should Ix- carefully dusted, and the 
 scales, rules, and triangles be carefully wiped with a 
 clean dry rag. As few lines of construction as pos- 
 sible should be drown in pencil, and only that part of 
 each which may be strictly neccs.sary "to determine 
 the point sought. As, for example, where a ix)int is 
 to be found by the intersection of two arcs of circles; 
 when the position of the point can be approximately 
 judged of by the eye, only a portion of one are, which 
 will embrace the point, mav be drawn, and 
 the i>oint where the second arc would in- 
 tersect the first be marked without describing 
 the arc. No more of any line of the drawing 
 should be made in pencil than is to remain 
 permanently in ink. The object of these pre- 
 cautions is to keep the paper from becoming 
 covered with dirt and the lines from being 
 defaced by the wear of the paper. In inking 
 the lines the following directions will be 
 found useful: Efface carefully all pencil- 
 lines that are not to be inked, and those parts 
 of the permanent lines which are not to re- 
 main, before commencing to ink. When 
 right lines are tangent to curves, put in ink 
 the curve before the right line; draw all arcs 
 of equal radii at once, one after the other; 
 if several arcs are to be described from the 
 same center, it will he well to put a thin bit 
 of quill over the point for the end of the 
 dividers to rest on, to avoid making a large 
 hole in the drawing. If the drawing is not 
 to be colored with the brush, all the lines 
 of one color should be put in before com- 
 mencing on those of another. If one of 
 the boimding lines of a surface is to be made 
 hearler than the others, its breadth should be taken 
 from the surface they limit and not be added to 
 it ; and when the heavy line forms the boundary of 
 two surfaces, its breadth must be taken from the one 
 of greatest declivity. When the drawing is to lie 
 colored, all lines that are not to be black may tx; put 
 in first with black, making them very faint, so that 
 they may receive their ajipropriate colors after the 
 drawing is otherwise completed. No heavy lines 
 should be put in until the work with the brush is com- 
 pleted. AATien all the lines are in, the drawing should 
 be thoroughly cleaned with stale bread-crumbs, and 
 then have several pitchers of water dashed over it, 
 the board being i>laced in an inclined position to allow 
 the water, colored by the ink lines, to escajie rapidly 
 and not to discolor "the paper. In using the briLsh. 
 whether for flat tints or graded, the requisite depth of 
 tint should be reacheti by a number of faint tints laid 
 over each other: this is especially necc.s.sary in laying 
 tints of blacks, browns, and reds. To obtain an even 
 Hat or graded tint on dry pajx^r requires considerable 
 skill. The best plan for this is tirst to wtt with a 
 large bnish or clean rag the surface on which the 
 tint is to be laid, then with a slightly moist rag clear 
 the surface of water, and before the paper has time 
 to dn,- to lay on the 'int. With this precaution, the 
 heaviest tints of Chinese ink, the most difficult of all 
 to manage on dry paper, can be neatly laid down.
 
 DBAWINO AND ftUAETEKING. 
 
 502 
 
 DREDGING-MACHINE. 
 
 The Uttfring and numbering of a drawing should Ix' 
 in ordimiry printed cliaractcr; this is particularly 
 requisite in the niunlxTinjr, to avoid misapprehen- , 
 sions which often arise from individual peculiarities 
 in writiiii; numbers. As hius Ix-eii already remarkeil, 
 referenivs art' written in Mack, within brackets which, j 
 when practicable, embrace the point referred to. j 
 When not practicable, a small dotted line may lead 
 from the jwint to the reference: thus, O...(25.50); , 
 but to distinguish references from other numbers the 
 designation of the unit is omitted. All horizoiual 
 distjuices between points are written upon a dotted 
 line drawn l>etween the points, with an arrow-head at 
 each end; where several partial distances in a right 
 line are marked, it will be also well to mark the total 
 distance: the latter may be written above or beneath 
 the former. In writing horizontal distiinces, the 
 usual designation of the unit is always WTitten thus: 
 y for yards, ' for feet, etc. All the numbers must be 
 exi)ressc(l in the .same unit, the fractional parts being 
 in decimals. References and hoiizontal distances 
 Ciinnot be too much multiplied, in order to avoid mis- 
 apprehensions, and the results of errors of construction, 
 as well as to save the time that would be taken in ap- 
 plying dividers to the drawing to find from the scale 
 atii.\eil to it the dimensions of any part. A senlf very 
 accuritcly constructed should l)e affl.xed to the draw- 
 ing before it is cut from the board, so that the shrink- 
 age of the paper, which Ls about j^, may affect all 
 the parts eciually, and the scale thus be made to cor- 
 respond to the real lengths of the lines on the drawing. 
 The scale should be divided according to the decimal 
 sj'stcm, as being most convenient for counting off. 
 The first division of the .scale should furni.sh the units, 
 and also their decimal parts if the scale bears that 
 proportion to the true dimensions of the object repre- 
 sented which will admit of these divisions. This 
 first division is numbered from right to left, the zero- 
 point being on the right, the 10-point on the left; the 
 succeeding divisions, to 50 inclusive, should each be 
 equal to the first division, containing ten units each. 
 The remaining divisions may contiiin fifty units each. 
 It will l)c seen that any lumiber of tens, units, or frac- 
 tion:d ])arts of a unit can thus be readily taken off 
 from the scale by the dividers. The scale should lie 
 long enough to give the dimensions of the longest 
 line on the dmwing. The proportion which the scale 
 hears to the true dimensions of the object should be 
 written above the scale; thus, scale one inch to ten 
 yards, or ,),„. And the designation of the unit of the 
 drawing should Ik- aimexed to the last division on the 
 scale, as t/dx. for yards, ft. for feet, etc. 
 
 DRAWING AND ftUARTEEING.— In Great Britain 
 the i)unislimcnl for treason still is that theotfender be 
 drairn to the place of execution on a hurdle; that he 
 be hanged by the neck till he be dead; that his head be 
 severed from his body, and that his body be divided 
 into four parts, or quartered. The Sovereign may, and 
 now certainly would, by a warrant under the Sign- 
 manual, count<'rsigned by a principal Secretary of 
 State, change the sentence into beheading. Iii the 
 case of females llie (|uarlering is dispensed with. 
 
 DRAWING-BOARD.— A board on which drawing- 
 paper is strained for jiainting on in water-colors. The 
 paper is wetted for the jiurpose of being strained, and 
 when attached :it the edges it is permitted to dry and 
 contract. Formerly the drawing-board was fitted 
 into a frame, the edges of the wet paper being made 
 fast by the pressure of the frame on the Imard. Hut 
 the much simpler drawing-board which is now in use 
 is made of a Hat piece or pieces of wfwd, held together 
 and prevented from warping by an edging of other 
 pieces, the grain of which runs in the opposite direc- 
 tion. The wet paper is attached to the edges of the 
 lM)ard with paste or thin glue, and when dry l)ccomes 
 perfectly finn and Hat. SV'hcn the work is finished, 
 the paper is cut bevond the drawing with a knife. 
 
 DRAWN BATTLE.— A fight from which the com- 
 batmls withdraw without either side claiming the 
 victory. 
 
 DRAW PLATE. — A steel plate with a graduated 
 scries of holes, through which metals are drawn in 
 making them into wires or bars. Also a name given 
 to a plate of metal placed before a fire or before the 
 lateral opening between the top of the fireplace and 
 the throat of the chimney. Its use is to force the air 
 to pa,ss through the fire on its way into the chimney, 
 instead of allowing it to pass over the fire. 
 
 DREDGING BOX.— To render the fuses of mortar- 
 shells more certain of tjiking fire, meal-powder is 
 sprinkled over them, after the shell is jilaced in the 
 mortjir, from a dredgiiiy-box. It is made of sheet- 
 copper. The to]) fits over the box, and is pierced with 
 holes for the escaiie of the powder. 
 
 DREDGING-MACHINE.- A machine designed for 
 clearing out or ileepening the channels of rivers, har- 
 bors, etc. The bucket diedging-machine is very 
 eflScient and is much used for the lighter grades of 
 work. It consists of a long stage or framework over- 
 hanging the side of the barge. This frame has a 
 wheel at each end, upon which works a powerful 
 endless chain, to which is attached a series of per- 
 forated iron buckets, each with a shovel-shaped steel 
 mouth projecting considerably on one side. The 
 overhanging framework forms an inclined plane 
 along which the buckets run, descending on one side 
 and ascending on the other. They are so arranged 
 that they descend empty, and on reaching the Ijottom 
 the projecting shovel or scoop-mouth digs into the 
 bottom and partially fills the bucket with the silt; it 
 then turns round on "the wheel at the lower end of the 
 incline, and runs up it till near the top, when it turns 
 over the upper end, and in doing so its contents are 
 emptied into a second attendant barge. This action 
 is continued by every succeeding bucket of the end- 
 less chain. The perforations are for the pas,sage of the 
 water. By varying the inclination of the framework, 
 the working depth may be increased or diminished. 
 Some dreilges are fitted with two complete sets of 
 buckets, one on each side of the vessel. A steam- 
 engine and boiler, suitably placed in the dredge, are 
 provided for ,gi\ing motion to the machinery, and 
 sometimes also to a screw-propeller jihiccd at the stern. 
 The Frisbie engine, shown on page MVi, is much 
 used for dredging purposes in the United States. 
 The manner of connecting the spur-gearing to the 
 drums by Ix)ltiiig directly to the rim of the dnim 
 does away with all torsion" of the shaft and wear upon 
 all keys and feathers, which is a serious defect in 
 most hoisting-engines, causing shafts to split at the 
 key-way. A friction-dutch is set so as to do the work 
 at "which the cables are safe, and then slip, and sjive 
 the engine and gearing from 1)reaking. The ino- 
 tion to operate the clutch is easy and natural; and with 
 a very powerful strap-lirake, the engineer can hold 
 or lower carefully any load he can hoist. 
 
 Perhaps nowhere has river-dredging been carried 
 such a length as in the caseof the Ciydc. which by this 
 process of scoo]iing has at and below Glasgow lieen 
 converted froiua river navigable only for small vessels 
 into an estuary capable of bearing the largest ships. 
 The dredges employed for this pun)ose arc moved by 
 steam, the materials scooped out being carrie<l out to 
 sea by lightei-s. These have a large open tank amid- 
 ships, while the two ends are decked over, and afford 
 such accommodation f(jr cit>w or machimry as may 
 be nece.s.sary. The sides of the hold are hinged from 
 the top, and open outwards, and thus its contents can 
 easily be emptied into the sea. 
 
 The engraving on Iheopposite page repre.sents a new- 
 description of dredging-machine, known as the Ixx/m- . 
 dredg, , of which the Osgood Dredge Company, Alba- 
 ny, N. Y., are the patentees and builders. In view of 
 its valuable peculiarities and the marked success which 
 hasattended its use, both as to efficiency and economy, 
 we give this illustration and a brief statement of its 
 construction and operation, as matters of interest to 
 readers practically acquainted with this cla-ssof ma- 
 chines. The main hull is 80 feet long, 17i feet wide, 
 and 5 J feet deep. On either side of the hull is attached
 
 DRESS. 
 
 503 
 
 DKESS-COAT. 
 
 a ponton 5 feet in width and with other dimensions 
 the same as those of the hull proper. These pontons 
 can be moved when necessary, to permit the dredge 
 to go through lo<ks. When attached to Ihe hull they 
 give a total widtli of 27i feet. The hoisting-engines 
 have two cylindei-s, each 11 inches bore and 18 inches 
 stroke. The boiler is of locomotive pattern, with a 
 donkey-pump to feed it. The supply- and exhaust- 
 pipes are made wit li expansion-joints. The sides of 
 the hull have wooden trasses of the IIowc pattern to 
 give strength and stiffness. The dipper is made of 
 steel and has a capacity of 46 cubic leet. It is made 
 with a patent double door. The outer door, instead 
 of being hung at the lower edge of the dipper, is hung 
 about the middle, .so that in opening it hangs down 
 about half the distance it would if hung in the usual 
 way. This diminishes by so much the height to 
 which it is ncccssjiry to raise the dipper in order to 
 dump it. The other and smaller door opens inward 
 
 " trailing" one. This keeps the machine in line when 
 the forward spuds are raised and the machine is 
 moved ahead. The main hoisting-<Irums are worked 
 by a novel hydraulic from which satisfactorv results 
 have been obtained. The friction can be iiLstantly 
 applied and laUcn olT. Tlie power for this is Ihe com- 
 bined force <jf steam and water pressure. This fric- 
 tion is easily applied, and is one of the Ijest feaUires 
 of the machine. By means of it much of the fatigue 
 to the operator incident to the style of " V'and other 
 frictions is avoided. This is no inconsiderable item 
 in the working of a machine during ten consecutive 
 hours. It is an admirable laborsjiving appliance. 
 See JiiMiin-drcdgr, Cmiu-dnilt/e, and Excaviitor. 
 
 DKESS. — 1. A word of command for alignment of 
 troops ; also a term expressing the alignment itself. 
 2. The clothing termed regimentals issued to .soldiers. 
 The dress should be light and easv, not encumljering 
 the arms or legs in any way, but "leaving the soldier 
 
 Frisbie Hoisting-engine. 
 
 and allows the dipper, as it strikes the water, to fill 
 from the bottom, thus taking away much of the shock 
 ordinarily experienced with the old style of dipper 
 when striking the water. The old style'of dipper fills 
 from the top. The dipiXT-liandle has neither rack 
 nor pinion, but is worked by friction applied throuu'h 
 a hand-wheel on the turn-table. The capacity of this 
 machine is two dippers per minute. The hoisting 
 chain is a single one and is made of li-inch .steel. 
 The " A" frame and the boom are made of angle-iron, 
 riveted together, and are so arranged that they can be 
 raised or lowered by steam-power, .so as to permit the 
 dreilge to go imder bridges without being taken apart. 
 The raising and lowering are performed by chains 
 attached to independent drums, which are operated 
 by the main engines. The spuds are raised by 
 .steam-power, by means of chains attached to friction - 
 drums. These drums are also operated by the main 
 engines. The spuds are kept in place after being 
 lowered bj- patent eccentric binders, which hold 
 the spuds firmly and without any .slipping. The 
 spuds go down in wells through the boat, the wells 
 being absolutely watertight. The after-spud is a 
 
 free to shoot and walk. The dress, moreover, should 
 be adapted to the climate of Ihe country in which the 
 soldier serves. The driHs iinifimit is Ihe dress pre- 
 scrilu'd for occasions of ceremony. See I'liifunn. 
 
 DRESS-COAT. — A part of the" full-dress uniform. 
 In tlie I'niled Stales army all otTiccrs wear a double- 
 breasted fmrk coal of liaik blue cloth, llie skirt ex- 
 lending from one half to three fourths the distance 
 from the hip- joint to the bend of the knee. For a 
 GeniraL—Two rows of l)Ultons on the breast, twelve 
 in each row ; placed by fours ; the distance I>etween 
 each row live and one half inches at top and three 
 and one half inches at bottom; stand-up collar, not less 
 than one nor more than two inches in lieight, to hook 
 in front at Ihe bottom and slojie thence u]) and back- 
 ward at an angle of tliirly degrees on each side, cor- 
 ners rounded ; cuffs three inches deep, to go around 
 the sleeves parallel with the lower edge, and with 
 three small buttons at the under seam; pockets in the 
 folds of the skirts, with two buttons at the hip and 
 one at the lower end of each side edge, making four 
 buttons on the l)ack and skirt of the coat ; collar and 
 cuffs to lie of dark blue velvet ; lining of the coat
 
 I)££S6-FAIIAI>£. 
 
 504 
 
 SBEBS-FABASE. 
 
 bliick. For a Lieutenant General. — The same as for 
 a GfOfral, except that there are teu buttons in each 
 row on the breast, the upper and lower grouiis t>y 
 threes, and the middle groups by fours. Fur a Major 
 (it lit rat. — The same as for a General, except that 
 there are nine buttons in each row on the breast, 
 placed bv threes. Fur a Brigadur General. — The 
 sjime as for a Genend, except thai thcR' are ei^ht but- 
 tons in each row on the breast, jilaced by ])airs. Fur a 
 Columl, Luiitenant Culoiul, and Miyor. — The same as 
 for a General, except that there are nine buttons in eaeli 
 row on the breast, placed at equal distances ; collar 
 and culls of the same color and material as the coat. 
 For a Caplain, First Lieutenant, Second Lieutenant, 
 and Additional lyrond Lieutenant. — The same as for 
 a Colonel, except that there are seven buttons in each 
 row on the breast. For all Storekeepers. — The simie 
 as prescrilx'd for officers of the s;ime rank in the 
 Quartermaster's, Medical, and Ordnance Departments. 
 This coat is worn on all dress occasions, such xs re- 
 news, inspections, dress-parades, guards, and courts- 
 martial. It is habitually worn at battalion drills, 
 except in hot weather, or when otherwise directed by 
 the Commanding Officer. It may also be worn with 
 shoulder-straps when not on armed duty. 
 
 /'"/• Enlisted Men of Inj)inlri/. — The dress-coat is 
 sin de-breasted, dark blue bastiue, according to pat- 
 tern deposited in the Quartermaster General's Office, 
 piped with sky-blue ; collar sime height a.s for offi- 
 cers' coat, faced with sky-blue cloth four inches back 
 on each side, cut square to hook up close in front ; 
 numlRT of regiment or badge of corjis in yellow metal 
 in middle of sky-blue facing of collar on each side : 
 skirt of coat on each side of opening behind to be 
 faced with sky-blue cloth, ornamented with four but- 
 tons, as per pattern. Two straps of dark blue cloth, 
 piped with the same color as the facings, let into the 
 waist-seam on each side the coat and buttoning above 
 the hip to sustain the waist-belt ; shoulder-straps of 
 cloth the color of the facings let into the shoulder- 
 seam and to button over the shoulder-belts at the col- 
 lar-scam with one button; shoulder-straps for Engi- 
 neer .soldiers to be sciirlet, piped with white. For 
 Enlinted Men of Artilltry, Engineers, and Ordnance. — 
 Same as for Infantry, except that the facings shall be 
 scarlet for Artillery, scarlet and white for Engineers, 
 and crimson for Ordnance. For Enlisted Men of 
 Cariilrji anil Light Artilleri/. — Same as for Infantry, 
 excepting that it is shorter in the skirt, and the facing 
 upon the skirt put on ditT(-rently, according to pattern 
 in the Quartermaster General's Ollicc ; facings for 
 Cavalry yellow, and for Light Artillery red. For 
 Musicians. — Ornamented on the breast with braid 
 .same color as the facings, running from the button as 
 now worn, the outer extremities terminating in "her- 
 ring-bones" and the braid returning back to the but- 
 tons. For Hospital Steirards. — Same as for Infantry, 
 except the facings to be of emerald green. For Ord- 
 nance Sergeants. — Same as for enlisted men of Ord- 
 nance. For Comuiissary Sergeants. — The same as for 
 Infantry, except that the facings will be cadet gray. 
 For Enlisted Men of the Signal Serrice. — Same as for 
 Cavalry, except that the trimmings and facings will 
 be orange. Whenever the dress-coat is worn by en- 
 listed men, it is invariably buttoned up and hooked 
 at the collar. See Bl^/u-ie and Uniform. 
 
 DEE88 PARADE.— A daily parade of troops in the 
 Vnited States army at tnxip or retreat, as the Com- 
 manding Officer niay direct, and which is never dis- 
 pensed with excei)t on urgent occasions. All Field 
 Officers and men are present, unless specially excuse(l, 
 or on duly incompatible with such aitendaiice. The 
 ceremonies of dress-parade are conducted as preseril)ed 
 in the authorized Tactics, and are as follows for a regi- 
 ment*: 
 
 At the second fdgnal for dres,s-parade, the compa- 
 nies as.semble under anus on their respective parade- 
 LTonnds, and arc inspcclcd by their Captains; the in- 
 spection being completed, adjutants' call is sounded, 
 at which the line is formed on the battalion parade- 
 
 .ground, bayonets fixed. The Commanding Officer 
 takes his post at a ccaivenient distance in front of the 
 center, facing the line. The Adjutant, having com- 
 manded guides jxtats, directs the lirst Captain to brii.g 
 his company to jiarade rest. The Captains, commenc- 
 ing on the" right, successiveh' face about and com- 
 mand: 1. (Su('h)coin]sin!/,2. (furry, 'i. Aii.MS, 4. Order, 
 5. Arms, (5. Parade, 7. Rest, resume their front, 
 and take position of parade rest; the Adjutant then 
 takes his post, commands, Sound off, and takes the 
 position of parade rest. The band, commencing 
 on the right, plays in quick time, passing in front of 
 the Field OIBccrs, or Company Officers if there l)e no 
 Field Officers, to the left of the line, and back to its 
 post on the right; at evening parade, after the strain 
 is linished, retreat is sounded by the trumpeters or 
 field music. The Adjutant then steps two yards to 
 the front, faces to the left, and commands: 1. Battal- 
 ion, 2. Attention, :i. Curri/, 4. Aums, .5. liearojien 
 order. Having aligned the guides for the rear rank, 
 the Adjutant steps three yarils to the frout of the front 
 rank, faces to the left, and commands: 6. M.\i{ch. 
 At which the ranks are opened. The Adjutant, hav- 
 ing verified the alignment of the officers, the ranks, 
 and the file-closers, returns to the right of the front 
 rank, faces to the left, commauiis, Fkont, and then 
 l)a.s.ses in rear of the line of Company Officers to the 
 center of the battalion, turns to the right, and marches 
 to a point nudway between the line of Field Officers 
 and the Commanding Officer, when he halts, faces 
 about, and commands: 1, Present, 2. Aums. At the 
 second command, the officers and men present arms. 
 The Adjutant then faces about, salutes the Command- 
 ing Officer, and reports: " Sir.' the parade informed." 
 The Commanding Officer returns the .sdute with the 
 right hand, and directs the Adjutant: " Take t/ou r post, 
 Sir." The Adjutant takes his post three yards to the 
 left and one to the rear of the Commaniliug Officer, 
 passing by his right and rear. The Commanding 
 Officer, while the "band is playing, stands at parade 
 rest, with his arms folded, in which i)osition he con- 
 tinues till arms are about to be presented, when 
 he comes to attention. The Adjutant having taken 
 his post, the Commanding Officer <lraws his sword, 
 commands: 1. Carry, 3. An>ts; and adds such exer- 
 cises in the Maimal of Arms as he may desire, con- 
 cluding with order arms. He then directs the Adju- 
 tant to receive the reports, and returns his sword. 
 The Adjutant iiasses by the right of the Commanding 
 Officer, advances toward the line, halts midway be- 
 tween him and the line of Field Officers, and com- 
 mands: 1. First Sergeants, 3. To tlu; front and center, 
 3. M.\RCH (or, double time, M.\rch). At the first com- 
 mand, the First Sergeants carry arms; at the second 
 command, they step two yards" to the front and face 
 toward the center: the Drum Major at the same time 
 faces to the left; at the third command, the First Ser- 
 geants and the Dnun Major march to the center, and 
 successively face to the front; the Adjutant then com- 
 mands, Beixirt. At this command, the Drum Major 
 and the First Sergeants, commencing on the right, 
 successively salute and report: the Drum Major, Band 
 and trumpeters, or field-music, present, or accounted 
 for, or (so many) musicians, or trumpeters, absent; the 
 Sergeants, Company (A, etc.) present, or accounted for, 
 or (so many) sergeants, corj>itrals, or prirates absent. 
 The reports being made, the Adjutant commands: 
 1. First Sergeants. 2. To your jwks, 'A. IMarch (or, 
 dmible time, March). At the command march, the 
 First Sergeants and Drum Major face outward, and 
 resume their places; the First Sergeants pass through 
 their intervals a yard to the rear, face about, .step 
 into the front rank, and then order arms. The Adju- 
 tant now faces about, sjdutes the Commanding Officer, 
 and reports: Sir! All are present or accounted for; 
 or Sir: (so n\a.ny) officers or enlisted men are absent. 
 The Commanding Officer acknowledges his salute, 
 and directs: Publish the orders. Sir, when the Adju- 
 tant faces about and commands: Attention to orders. 
 He then reads tlie orders, after which he faces about.
 
 DBEYSE NEEDLE GUN. 
 
 505 
 
 DBILLINO-KACHINE. 
 
 salutes the Commanding Officer, and reports: Sit f 
 The orders are jmblished. The Commander acknow- 
 ledges the salute, and then directs : Distititu (he 
 parade, Sir! at which the Adjutant faces about 
 and commands : Parade is dimidmed. At this com- 
 mand, all the officers return their swords, and face 
 toward the center; the officers then step off at the same 
 time with the Adjutant, close upon the center, and 
 successively face to the front, the Field Officers on 
 the flanlis; the two officers nearest the center preserve 
 an interval for the Adjutant, who passes through the 
 interval a yard to the rear, when he halts, and faces 
 about; all the officers having faced to the front, the 
 Adjutant steps into his place and commands: 1. For- 
 ward, 3. Guide center, 3. JL\Rcn. At the tliird com- 
 mand, they march to the front, dressing on the center, 
 the band playing; on approaching tlie Commanding 
 Officer, the AtljuTant commands: 1. Officers, 2. Halt. 
 At the command halt, given at six yards from tlie Cora- 
 mandins Officer, tlie music ceases, and the officers 
 halt, and sahite with the right hand. The hands re- 
 main at the visiir till the salute is acknowledged, and 
 drop at the same time with the hand of the Command- 
 ing Officer. The Commanding Officer then gives 
 such instructions as he may deem necessary, which 
 concludes the ceremony. As the officers disperse, the 
 music is resumed; the First Sergeants step to the front 
 and close the ranlvs of their respective companies; the 
 Third Sergeant of each company places himself on 
 the right of the front rank, the First Sergeants then 
 march their companies to the companj- parade-grounds, 
 where they are dismissed, the band continuing to play 
 till the conipanies clear the battalion parade-ground. 
 When the line at parade is verj- short, tlie band may 
 play in common time; or it maj' play to the left in 
 common time, ceasing during the countermarch, upon 
 the completion of which, without halting, it strikes 
 up in quick time. See Erening Parade, Morning 
 Paradf, and Undress Parnde. 
 
 DKEYSE NEEDLE GUN.— A brecch-loadlng small- 
 arm having a fixed chamber closed by a movable 
 breech-block which slides in the line of the barrel by 
 direct action. It is opened by raising the handle of 
 the breech-tK)lt to a vertical position, and then with- 
 drawing it to the extent pennitted by the form of a 
 slot in the receiver in which it slides. In turning up 
 the handle, the needle-lx)lt is forced back against the 
 pressure of the mainspring which surrounds its stem, 
 by means of a spiral shoulder near its head, which 
 rides over a corresponding helical surface on tlie stem 
 of the recoil-block. The needle-bolt is compelled to 
 turn with the breech-bolt by means of a projection on 
 its head which slides to and fro in a longitudinal 
 groove in the bore of the breech-lwlt; and the recoil- 
 block is prevented from turning with the brecch-liolt 
 by a similar projection sliding in a corresponding 
 groove in the receiver. When fully forced back and 
 the pressure of the hand removed, the needle-boll is 
 kept from being thrown forward by the main spring 
 by means of a square portion of its face coming 
 against a corresponding part of the back surface of 
 the recoil-block. Supported in this way, the needle- 
 bolt moves back^ntli the other parts duriug the open- 
 ing of the piece. When the breech is closed by the 
 usual means the needle-bolt catches against the nose 
 of the sear, and is retained by it. 
 
 By the act of turning down the handle into place, 
 the "square end of the needle-bolt is rotated off its 
 bearing on the stem of the recoil-block, leaving the 
 needle'bolt and the needle free to Ije driven fonvard 
 by the mainspring, when the sear is pulled out of its 
 ■way by the trigger, as in the Pruanitni needle-mn. 
 It is also locked' m the same manner as this gun. The 
 arm may be cocked without opening it, if so desired, 
 by drawmg back the needle-bolt by means of a thumb- 
 piece, until the nose of the scar catches against a tillet 
 on the needle-lx)lt as before described. By then press 
 ing forward the thumb-piece till a stud on its upper 
 surface engages in the transverse arm of an L-shaped 
 slot in the breech-bolt, the mainspring is compressed, 
 
 and may be released as above described. The thumb- 
 piece and necdle-liolt are connected together by the 
 neeille, which passes through a small hole in the base 
 of the thumb-iiiece, and is screwed into the rear end 
 of the needle-bolt. 
 
 DRIFT. — 1. A round piece of steel, made slightly 
 tapering, and used for enlarging a hole in a metallic 
 plate liy being driven through it. The drift may have 
 a cutting edge merely uixin its advance-face, or it 
 may have spirally-cut grooves which give the sides of 
 the drift a capacity for cutting. 
 
 2. A pas.sage iu a mine, horizontal or very nearly so. 
 forming a drain for carrying off the water. The name 
 is derived from its being driren in. Driring is hori- 
 zontal work; sinking and rising refer to the direction 
 of work either in shafts or in following the course of 
 a vein. 
 
 3. A gun-implcnicnt made of steel; it is used for 
 clearing the vent when choked. In using it. a ham 
 mcr must be applied to the head of the drift to drive 
 it through the vent. There arc also wooden drifts, 
 which are used in inserting the jwpier-irtdchi- wad in 
 common shells for riUcd guns. 
 
 4. A deviation peculiar to all oblong rifle-projectiles. 
 See Projectilis. 
 
 DRILLING - MACHINE. — A machine carrying a 
 rotating tool and a means for chucking the object to 
 
 Three-spiiKlI.' Drillinp-machine. 
 
 be bored. These machines differ greatly in size and 
 appearance, in the moile of presenting the tool and 
 chucking the work. The larsrer machines are known 
 as boring-machines. The drawing represents a three- 
 spindle drill, handv for work on a vanety of small 
 parts of fire-arms. "The sjiindles of all the gjing-dnlls 
 run in gun-metol boxes, split, anil furnished with a 
 nut to compensate for wear. They may Ix- run at the
 
 DRILL-FRES&ES. 
 
 506 
 
 DBILLS. 
 
 bigbect speed of wbieh the machine is capable, wilh- 
 oul ilangiT of bindiug in the boxes, the longitvulinnl 
 expansion not lieing checki-d by a tixed collet, but 
 being allowLtl frit-doin without impairing the accu- 
 raev of the machine. The machine has an adjustable 
 haiiil-lever, a foot-lever, a counterbalanced table, ad- 
 justable stop, and f.niUire for determinine the depth of 
 the hole to be drilleil." The spindles are of steel— in 
 the smaller machine |S inch diameter, and in the 
 laririT machine 1,V inch diameter. The first drills 
 holes up to I'i inch diameter, and the latter up to A 
 inch diameter. For heavier work the spindles may 
 lie geared. Both sizes are made with two, four, and 
 six spindles. Distance between table and end of spin- 
 dle in the machines, 5 to 18 inches and 6 to 20 inches 
 re.-.ipectively. Weight, with countershaft, 625 pounds 
 and 1)75 po'\mds. Speed of coimtershaft, with 8 by 4 
 inch tight and loose pulleys, 310 revolutions per niin- 
 iite. Sec Boriitfi-nutrhinf', C/iiiekiiig-macfiine, Flejcihk 
 Shaft. MitltipU Dnll, Purtable Drill, Radial Drill, 
 and \'ertioi> Drill. 
 
 DBILL-FBESSES. — Under this head are clas-sed all 
 machines used for boring in which the cutters revolve 
 
 and the work remains stationarj-. Some of the 
 machines classed under the head of drill-presses are 
 known as boring-machines, the word "bore" being 
 commonly a|>plie(i to holes of a size requiring the vise 
 of indi-ixndent cutters inserted in a " boring-bar." 
 A |w)wer-feed is e.ssential to all machines for cutting 
 metal. The drill-press is no exception to this; yet 
 it is almost the only machine-tool which has com- 
 monly iK-en built with a hand-feed only. The con- 
 ditions of cut and variations in the size and strength 
 of the cutting tool make the application of an auto- 
 matic feed to a drill-pre-is a niore difficult matter 
 than to a lathe or a planing-machine, in which a 
 given-sized cutting tool of snificlent strengtli to do the 
 work is pos.sible. In a <lrill-press, the smaller and 
 more delicate the drill the finer and more exact or 
 uniform must Ix; the feed. The requirements of n 
 good feed-motion for a drill-press are, that it may 
 
 he quickly adjusted to the required amount; that it 
 shall l>e positive in its action when at work; that its 
 range .shall be so great, and so fine a fee<l possible, as 
 not to endanger the smallest drill, while at the .same 
 time it shall be capable of giving the utmost amount 
 of feed a large drill or a boring-bar will stand; that 
 it shall l)e so quickly and readily applied as to make 
 its usi- mori' convenient than the hand-feed; and that 
 it shall not in any way interfere with the quick opera- 
 
 . tion of the machine by hand. William Sellers <& Co. 
 have recently introduced an improved feed-motion, 
 which fully satisfies all the reipiirementa of a feed 
 for drilling-machines. In their drill-presses, disks 
 of metal are employed to transmit motion by friction, 
 which, being adjustable as to diameter of drivuig and 
 driven wheels, admits of an Infinite variation of feeds 
 between its extreme limits of greatest and least mo- 
 tion. This peculiar feetl-motiou is applied to those 
 drill-presses in which nmge is desirable; but in 
 machines for special work, such as for drilling steel 
 plates, the feed is constant at what has been found 
 to work the best, as the size of the drill used in siich 
 machines is in a measure constant also. In vertical 
 drill-presses the spindle should be counterbalanced. 
 
 I This is of great value, as the drill held up by the 
 balance-weight will not drop into holes or caWties in 
 the metal, and is much less liable to break. 
 
 The drawing shows a four-spindle drill-press, as 
 made by Garvin & Co., for use in government armo- 
 ries. The machine is verj- heavj-, and designed for 
 drilling holes ranging frotn i to | inch diameter, also 
 for counterboring, reaming, face-milling, or auj' work 
 that is convenient to be done on an upright drilling- 
 machine. The spindles are made of steel, 1 (\ inch 
 diameter and 20 inches long, iuul are held down by 
 adjustable hardened steel steps at top of frame. The 
 lower end has a taper hole to receive the shanks of 
 tools, -J inch diameter and 4 inches deep, with mortise 
 for drift-key to remove the tools from the spindle. 
 The spindles run in composition-metal boxes fitted 
 up in a vcrj' substantial manner, with ample means 
 of adjustment for wear. The head which holds the 
 spindles, drum, and cone-pulley is lucaled centrally 
 over the u;>riglit column, giving a well-balanced 
 apiX'arancc ami sufficient distance between the drum 
 and spindles to insA-e long belts of great power and 
 durability. The table on which the work is placed 
 has hand and foot levers connected by a milled rack 
 and gear to elevate and lower the table, in connec- 
 tion with adjustable stops to limit the exact motion 
 required. The hand-lever can be placed in any posi 
 tion recpiired by loosenino; the nut outside the friction 
 binder on the pinion-shaft, and should be screwed up 
 firmly ag-aiii when adjusted. The table guide-frame 
 i planed to fit the front of the column by tongue-and- 
 _ n lovc guides, so that the whole table ana frame, 
 with all the attachments, can be raised or lowered 
 up or down the column by means of a wire cable 
 with a worm and gear, and can be held in a true 
 position at all points. The advantage of this arrange 
 meni is that we may have a press with a very long 
 distance from the sp"indle to the table, or a very short 
 one, simply by loosening fovir nuts and locating the 
 table-frame where it is most convenient, and tighten- 
 ing the nuts again. The countershaft has ailjustable 
 self-oiling bangers. The weight of the press, with 
 co\mtershaft, is about 1200 pounds. See Drilling- 
 nuirhiiii and Virtical Drill. 
 
 DRILLS.— A general name for the exercises through 
 which soldiers are passed, to qualify them for their 
 duties. It is subject to numerous varieties, according 
 to the number and organization of the men drilled at 
 one time, and the kind of weapon to which the exer- 
 cises relate. The infantry, the cjivalry, and the artil- 
 lery, all have different kinds of drill. The militia 
 and the volunlcirs ditlcr from the regulars, if not in 
 the kind of drill, at least in the circumstances under 
 which it is carried on; the squad-drill, company-drill, 
 and battalion-drill vary both in the numbers con- 
 cerned and in the routine of exercises. And so like-
 
 DBILL-SEBOEANT. 
 
 507 
 
 DROP CHBONOGBAFH. 
 
 wise in the navy, the drilling of seamen varies in kind, 
 according to the duties likely to be required. It is 
 generally considered that four months' drill is re- 
 quired to tit an infantry recruit for service. The pro- 
 fress depends greatly on the intelligence of the men. 
 t is on this ground that the Rifle Volunteers, enrolled 
 in England in such large numbers in IHtiO, have been 
 so advantageously placed; composed almost entirely 
 of young men, whose intelligence has been developed 
 by a moderately good education, the Corps have ad- 
 vanced to a degree of proticiency which has attracted 
 the marked attention of military officers. 
 
 DBILL-SERGEANT. — A non-commissioned officer 
 whose olHce is to instruct soldiers as to their duties, 
 and to train them to military evolutions. In the 
 English service the name is given to a non-com- 
 missioned officer whose duty it is, under the orders 
 of the Adjutant, to attend to the drill-instruction of 
 young otlicers and soldiers 
 
 DBIVER CORPS.— A Corps formerly consisting of 
 a few subaltern officers, with non-commissioned offi- 
 cers, artiticers, drivers, and horses. It was divided 
 into troops, and provided the means of converting a 
 company of foot-artillery into a field-brigade, besides 
 affording small detachments to troops of horse-artil- 
 lery. 
 
 DRIVERS.— Men attached to a battery of artillery 
 to drive the horses. They do not work 
 the guns, but, when they can be spared , 
 are taught the gun-diill. The men en- 
 listed as drivers are of shorter stature 
 than gunners, as height and weight are 
 not required. When men are enlisted 
 as gunners, if they do not fulfill the con- 
 ditions as to age and standard , they may 
 be entertained as drivers, if likely to be- 
 come good drivers, but special applica- 
 tion must be made to the Adjutant General. In the 
 early djiys of artillery, both in the English and tJonli- 
 nent;vl armies, regularly enlisted drivers were unknown 
 The horses attached tognns were driven by civilian dri- 
 vers, who were in the habit of running away on the first 
 available opportunity, and in doing so at the battle of 
 Falkirk, lost the guns. But notwithstanding this 
 catastrophe, it took half a century aud upwards 
 before matters in any way righted themselves, and 
 even then, though a vast improvement had taken 
 place upon the old system of disnumntcd civilians, 
 great confusion in the organization existed. The 
 drivers were enlisted in a corps totally distinct from 
 the regiment, and commanded by their own officers; 
 the drivers were thus separated by a wide gulf from 
 the gunners; this want of connection between the 
 field artillery and its means of draught led to discord, 
 confusion, and waste of time. In 1817 the drivers 
 were first placed under the command of the artillery 
 officers, and in 1833 men were enlisted into the regi- 
 ment as gunners and drivers. 
 
 DRIVING.— In its usual sense, driving is the act of 
 impelling or directing draught-cattle; it is seen in the 
 act of a driver urging or impelling his horses on. 
 The term is also commonly used in the management 
 of an engine attached to" a railway train. In the 
 laboratory the word is applied to the mode formerly, 
 ;uid to some extent at the present day. of tilling fuses, 
 port-fires, and rockets with composition. The term 
 is also used in mining, when constructing a gallery. 
 And, frequently, the word is used to express the rfrtc- 
 iitfjguh' of the grooves of a rifled gun, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the loadinrj-akle. 
 
 DROMEDARY.— A name sometimes given, probably 
 at first throuirh mistake, to the Arabian or one- 
 humped camel (Camehu ilrnmedoriuii), but properlv 
 belonu:ing to a varietv of that sjiecies, distinguished 
 by slendernes,s of lim'bs and symmctrj- of form, and 
 by extraordinarj- fleetness. It has been well descrilicd 
 as " bearing much the same relation to the ordinary 
 camel as a race-horse or hunter does t« a cart-horse. " 
 The jwce of the dromedary is a trot, which it can main- 
 tain witliout intermission" for a prodigious length of 
 
 time, often at the rate of nine miles an hour for many 
 hours together; whilst a journey of upwards of six hun- 
 dred miles is performed at a somewhat slower rate in 
 five days. Even its more rapid pace can be main- 
 tained for twenty-four hours at a stretch, without 
 sign of weariness and without stopping to bait; and if 
 then it is allowed a little refreshment, of a ball of 
 paste made of barley and powdered dates and a little 
 water or camel's milk, it will resume its journey, and 
 go on with undiminished speed for twenty-four hours 
 more. The jolting to the rider is terrible. The gal- 
 lop is a pace very unsuitable to the dromedary, and at 
 which it very soon fails. Dromedaries are sometimes 
 trained to run races. While dromedaries are par- 
 ticularly prizeil in some portions of the East. See 
 Cdiiiil and Draiifjhl-uiiiiiiala. 
 
 , DROOPING.— In artillery, a term applied to the 
 wearing away of the muzzle of smooth-bore guns, 
 especially bronze guns, after long firing. Drooping 
 occurs from the gim having nuich windage, tuid not 
 alone from the cause hitherto given, viz., quick firing 
 and consequent heating of the piece. This defect is 
 not likely to happen to ritied guns, as they have little 
 or no windage; moreover, the barrel of rifled gims, 
 being of steel, is not so liable to wear awaj' its gun- 
 metal. There is a method now of condensing the 
 bores of bronze ordnance. 
 
 Drop of a Gun. 
 
 DROP.— 1. The distance of the butt of a gun below 
 the prolongation of the rib. It varies from two to 
 three inches. To measure the droji, get a straight- 
 edire narrow enough to lay along the rib of the gun, 
 and long enough to reach "from the sight of the gun 
 over and beyond the butt. After Iieing particular 
 that the straight-edge lies along the rib and touches it 
 at the nuizzle and breech, take the measurements 
 from 1 to 2 and 3 to 4, which will give the drop. 2. 
 In fortification, that part of the ditch sunk deeper 
 than the rest, at the sides of a caponiere or in front 
 of an embrasure. 
 
 DROP CHRONOGRAPH.— In the course of the trials 
 made on the working of the apparatus for measuring 
 ))ressures, called accelerographs, the construction of a 
 tarage apparatus was suggested, founded on the law 
 of the falling of bodies aiid presenting arrangement.s 
 borrowed from the two droivchronograplis which Mr. 
 Le Houx has described in his studies on the mea.sure- 
 ment of the velocity of the transmission of sound 
 through pipes. Th"e addition to this ajiparatus of 
 electric organs, and especially of .Marcel-Deprez regis- 
 ters, has converted it into a very convenient chrono- 
 graph, adapted with advantage to measurements in 
 which as great precision is sought as that which may 
 be reiLsonal)ly reqinred with the tuning-fork chrono- 
 graph. This drop- chronograph has, therefore, been 
 frequently used in the trials made at the Sevran 
 powder mill for the study of the different phenomena 
 connected with the firing of guns and the working of 
 Ciirriagos. It affords, for example, a means of study- 
 ing thc' retardation of inflammation of the charge, of 
 determining the precise moment of the first displace- 
 ment of the projectile or of the beginning of the re- 
 coil, and the moment when the carriage attains its 
 maximum of velocilv: it also affords means of meas- 
 uring the velocity of" projectiles with a precision little 
 inferior to that of the Le Boulenge chronograph, and 
 sives besides the means of noting their pas.sage 
 through a series of successive frame-targets; finally, 
 it affords a means also of noting the instants of the 
 pas.sage of a projectile in different points of the bore 
 by means of special interrupUr organs. We will
 
 SBOF-CHBONOGSAFH. 
 
 508 
 
 DKOP CHKONOGBAPH. 
 
 thorcforp describe this apparatus here, whieb, for the 
 simplicity of its constriuiion and nianagemcnt, and 
 the multiplicitv of applications to which ill is adapted, 
 deserves a place in all imicticegrounds, and could, 
 with e<iunl advantage, be introduced in many scien- 
 tific liilH)mtories. We will notice incidentally some 
 of the exiHTimental adaptabilities realized with this 
 appanitus. in order the Ix'lter to apprehend the various 
 applications of which it is susceptible. 
 
 The drop-chronoirniph, which was constructed by 
 the works of .Mr. Bianchi, of Paris, is represented in 
 Figs. 1 and 2. It is com|X)sed essentially of a weight 
 which falls frcelv between two vertical guide-posts, 
 and which sometimes receives on its ovm surface the 
 traces left bv the apjiaratus whose movement is the 
 cibjecl of studv, and sometimes draws with it the 
 electric registers, which leave on the guide-post* 
 traces of the signals which it is desired to obtain. 
 The apparatus is arranged for receiving on one of its 
 faces the organs designed for the first mode of work- 
 ing, and on'its other face the organs of electric regis- 
 tration; there is then on one side a mechanical regis- 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 tering chronograph, and on the other an electric 
 chronograph. The mechanical registering chrono- 
 graph has iK'cn especially used, in the researches in 
 which we are engaged, for tarage operations of the 
 aceessorv orgims of the ballistic apparatus, accelero- 
 graph-slides, forks, and vibrating plates. The two 
 verticjjl "iiidc-posts of the apjiaratus are formed of 
 double T-iron, aliout 2 meters (6.562 feet) high, and 
 connected at their upper and lower end by cross- 
 pieces, to which they are fastened with .screws in 
 such a manner that the distance between them can be 
 slightly varied. In the inside there are two copper 
 rods, perfectly upright, willi a V-shaped gi-oove; they 
 serve as guides for the projecting cars of the movable 
 weight. The mounting ought to lie adjusted so that 
 the space between these giiides is a little less above 
 than at the bottom, so that the weight may have very 
 lilllc play at the upper part, while it is left absolutelj- 
 free in its fall if the system is placed exactly perpen- 
 dicular. The whole apparatus rests on a circular 
 base provided with three adjusting-screws, by which 
 the vcrticalnesscan be established, and a thread, with 
 a cylinilrical plummet fixed on the side, passes 
 through an eye of the same form a little larger in 
 diameter, by which this condition is verified every 
 instant. The weight, of parallelopipedic form and 
 
 weighing about 10 kilograms (22.046 pounds), is sus- 
 pended l)v a hook from a movable cross-piece; this 
 is secured by a clamp-screw at any height on the 
 guide-posts. 
 
 The suspension-hook forms part of the lever, the 
 other arm of which bends round horizontally; l)car- 
 iiig down on this arm suffices to liberate tlie weight, 
 and the form of the hook is contrived in such a nian- 
 ner that this operation is elTecled without producing 
 an oblique action, and without modifying the initial 
 height of the weight until the moment when it is set 
 free. This result is obtained by shaping the iimerface 
 of thehook according toan arc of a circle whose center 
 coincides with Ihe center of rotation of the lever, and 
 by placing the edge of the counter-hook, which holds 
 the weight, on the same axis. The ^^cight has, on 
 its front vertical face, two checks, whicli serve as 
 supports for a horizontal shaft, set with strong fric- 
 tion. This shaft extends, on each side, beyond the.se 
 checks, so as to forai two cyliudrical supports on the 
 opposite jwsts of the apparatus, and on which Marcel- 
 Deprez registers can be mounted side by side. These 
 registers may be five in number on each side, but 
 generally oiily the number 
 strictly "neee.ssary, according 
 to the nature of the e.vperi- 
 ment in view, is used. The 
 electric wires connecting with 
 each register are of very tine 
 copper covered with silk; they 
 are collected, on each side, 
 into a cluster spirally arranged 
 and sustained by a support at- 
 tache<l to the upper part of the 
 apparatus; the whole is ar- 
 ranged in such a manner as 
 to permit the movement of the 
 weight, through the whole 
 extent of its course, without 
 encountering any sensible re- 
 sistance. On each support 
 the wires connect with small 
 terminals mounted on wood, 
 and which permits each regis- 
 ter to be easily secured to the 
 ordinary conductors. On the 
 front faces of the guide-posts 
 are fixed two nickel rules, 
 which may be covered \\'ith 
 lamp-black, and on the surface 
 of which the pens of the regis- 
 ters rest , which , during the fall 
 of the weight, trace each a 
 very fine vertical path which is clearly defined on the 
 lanip-black. The i)ens are so fine and flexible that the 
 pressure exerted by their points cannot sensibly affect 
 the movement of the weight in its fall. In order to 
 facilitate the regulation of this support, and, in ease 
 of need, to release all the pens at the .same time, the 
 shaft is furnished with a handle by which it is turned 
 in its bearings, and a screw which regulates its move- 
 ment by bearing against the outer face of the weight. 
 The registers also ]iossess each an individual move- 
 ment of rotation on the shaft which sustains them, 
 because each of them is mounted on a divided ring- 
 brace forming a clasp at the lower part; this brace is 
 clasped on the shaft, and can be tightened or loosened 
 at will by means of a mill-headed screw which imites 
 the two branches of the clasp. It remains to show 
 how it happens, in the application of Ibis apparatus 
 to ballistic experiments, that the phenomenon to be 
 observed, which results from the inflammation of a 
 charge of powder, is produced during the fall of the 
 weight. It is easy to pro<luce ignition of the charge 
 by electricity, and to close the current which ])roduces 
 ignition by a single passage of the weight in front of 
 a special arrangement which can be i>laced at any 
 desired height upon one of the guide-posts. Fig. 1 
 shows this organ. It is composed of an in.sulating 
 plate mountcu on a metallic guide, which can be 
 
 Fio.
 
 DKOP CHSONOGEAFH. 
 
 509 
 
 DBOP-CHBONOOBAFE. 
 
 moved along a guide on the left guide-post of the ap- 
 paratus, and can be firmly secured at any height by 
 means of two clamp-screws. The insulating plate 
 has a brass spring plate, bent round vertically, which 
 rests firmly, w'hen it is left free, against the extremity 
 of a contact-screw. It is the contact of this plate and 
 screw which establishes the cuiTent of the tiring-bat- 
 tery; the two contact-pieces are for this purpose put 
 in communication with two terminals which receive 
 the extremities of the wire for communicating lire. 
 In order to interrupt this current a light steel lever is 
 used, pivotingin a vertical plane, and forming a hook 
 which catches under a notch made on one of the 
 edges of the conductor-spring, and thus keeps it at 
 a distance from the contact-screw. This lever is ex- 
 tended in front so as to meet the extremity of the 
 axis which supports the registers when the weight 
 falls. It is then carried down and sets free the 
 spring which abuts against its stop, and thus estab 
 lishes the ignition-current. It is evident that if we 
 know approximately the retardation of ignition, that 
 is to say, the time that elapses between the precise 
 instant when the current is closed and that when the 
 charge t;ikes tire, and if the time also is known ap- 
 proxunately that elapses between this latter moment 
 and that when the phenomenon to be observed is 
 produced, we can, by mo\Tng the organ for commu- 
 nicating fire along the guide-post, obtain the inscrip- 
 tion of the signals in that part of the course of the 
 movable weight which seems most proper, and, con- 
 sequently, when this weight shall have taken a velo- 
 city sufficient to assure the precision of the readings. 
 This same organ for communicating fire has been 
 completed by a simple arrangement which gives the 
 means of measuring, in the course of each experi- 
 ment, the ret;irdation of disconnection of the registers 
 mounted on the chronograph. This arrangement 
 consists in the addition of a mass of brass fixed at the 
 extremity of a light spring, and which rests against 
 the front face of the spring for communicating fire. 
 This mass, impelled by the movement of this latter 
 spring, when it is set free remains in contact with it 
 during its movement; but as soon as it is arrested by 
 the screw it separates from it, continuing its force by- 
 virtue of its inertia, while the spring which urged it 
 so far suddenly- becomes stationary. Thus a rupture 
 of contiict is obtained at the very moment when, on 
 the other hand, the contact of the detent-spring is cs 
 tablished with the stop-screw. At the enel of a little 
 time the inert mass resumes its place under the influ- 
 ence of a very weak spring, of which it forms a part. 
 This spring ends at a special terminal, to which a 
 conductor-wire is fixed. 
 
 When it is desired to obtain more precision with 
 the drop-chronograph, a vibrating fork can be mount- 
 ed on the shaft designed to supjiort the registers; one 
 of it,s branches is furnished with a pen which traces 
 on the lamp-black and produces a sinusoidal tracing 
 whose succcssivi; undidations each represent the 
 course of the weight during a unit of time cjual to 
 the vibration of the fork. It may be admitted that 
 the movement is approximately uniform during the 
 continuanoe of each of these vibrations, and supposed 
 that in passing from one to the other it siiddenly 
 tiikes the increase of velocity which the force of gravity 
 communicates and which measures precisely the aug- 
 mentation in length of the undulatory tracings; by sim- 
 ply counting the vibrations which separate the .signals, 
 the con-esponding durations can be directly estimated 
 by the entire number of \-ibrations, and determined, 
 with the aid of a microscope, by a simple ])roporlional 
 calculation like the supplem<"ntary durations which 
 correspond to fractions of vibration with the fork- 
 chronograph with revolving cylinder. The fork, 
 mounted thus oi> the movable weight, may be sus- 
 tained electricallv. But considering the short total 
 duration of the fall of the weight whose movement is 
 to be regi.stered, and if it is proptised to estimate, as is 
 usually the ca.sc, only the durations comprehended 
 between the successive signals, it is more simple to 
 
 employ an ordinary fork mounted by means of a split 
 band forming a vise on the suijport of the re^sters 
 and whose vibratory movement is provoked simply 
 by the sudden removal of a small metallic wedge, of 
 suitable dimensions, introduced by force beforehand 
 between its branches. This wedge can be fixed sim- 
 ply to the extremity of a wire fastened at the other 
 end to the upper part of the eilge of the apparatus, 
 and whose length must be calculated so as not to 
 withdraw the wedge till the weight has acquired suf- 
 ficient velocity to produce a sudden impetus. Thua 
 it can only be set in motion a few instants before the 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 moment wiicn the registers are required to work, so 
 that the vibrations have a greater amplitude in the 
 part where the readings are to be made; but some- 
 times it is expedient to cause this disconnection a cer- 
 tain time in advance (the tenth of a second, for ex- 
 ample) in order to leave unemployed the first vibra- 
 tions, which are subject to some irregularities owing 
 to the position of forced equilibrium which the intro- 
 duction of the wedge between the extremities of the 
 branches gives to the apparatus. It is well under- 
 stood, besides, that the wedge mu*t be entered a very 
 little distance and shaped aJso in such a manner as to
 
 DBOF-HAMILEB. 
 
 510 
 
 DBOFHAMMEB. 
 
 require but a very feeble effort to withdraw it, so as 
 In affect the movement of the weight as little as pos- 
 sible; but it is to lie ivmarked that the very prineiple 
 of the employment of the fork ilocs away with all 
 error tliat might proceed from this fact, as the tracing 
 left by the JH'U has the advantage of making known 
 the velocity aiiiuired by the weight at each instant, 
 whiitevcr may be its value. In making use of a 
 vibniting fork, supixirted electrically and set in ope- 
 ration in place before the fall of the weight, the 
 movement of this weight may be studied along the 
 whole extent of its fall when ilhas been unobstructed, 
 and it may be ascertained if this movement is acc-ord- 
 ing to the law of gnivitalion, or, in the contrary case, 
 it "may l)e determined liow much it deviates from it. 
 In combining the employment of a fork of this kind 
 and an oniiuary fork disconnected mechanically by 
 withdrawing the wedge, as was sjiid before, the per- 
 turbation that the withdrawing of this wedge gives to 
 the movement may be studied. If, on the contrary, 
 it is admitteil that the drop movement of the weight 
 is known, by preserWug only this latter arrangement 
 this experiment may be used for determining the 
 number of \-ibrations given by a fork. The drop- 
 chronograph has Ix-en fi^'quently utilized for meas- 
 tirements of this kind. See Accekrugiajifm, Chrono- 
 graph, and Marrd-Deprez lieffister. 
 
 DBOP HAHUEB. — A hammer in which the weight 
 is rais<-d by some dexice and then released, so :ls to 
 drop upon the object below, which rests upon the 
 anvil. It is used in all Government armories, in 
 swaging, die-work, striking up sheet-metal, etc. In 
 early times the machine was so constructed that the 
 hammer could be raised by means of a hammer-strap, 
 which was drawn upwards by two pulleys, brought 
 together so as to compress the strap between them. 
 One of these, the driving-pulley, was fast upon its 
 axle and turned in fixed bearings, while the other 
 turned loosely upi>n an eccentrically journaled axis, 
 arranged also in lixed bearings, but so as to be inca- 
 pable of turning therein except as force wa.s applied 
 to it to effect that object. To one end of the latter 
 shaft there was attached a horizontal arm, the outer 
 end of which was connected to a hand-lever or 
 a treadle by a connecting-rod. By means of these 
 appliances the eccentrically journaled shaft could be 
 turned at will, so as to remove its roller from contact 
 with the strap, and allow the hammer to fall through 
 any length of space desired, within the limits of the 
 machine. The drawing. Fig. 1 , on the preceding page 
 shows an efficient drop-hammer, made by the Pnitt 
 and Whitney Company, U. S. A. The drop is raised 
 by means of a llat-surfaced strip of tough wood, 
 which engages with the faces of finished cast-iron 
 rolls, driven by gears at the ends. One of these rolls 
 runs in fixed bearings, and the other has its bearings 
 in a yoLe suspended on journals which allow it to be 
 moved towards its fellow, to engage with the surface 
 of the lifliiig-lward. This yoke has a central portion 
 projecting downward and eng-aging by a connecting- 
 bar with a cam operated by a vertical starting-bar 
 through the medium of a crank-lever. By this 
 combination a niueh greater force is exerted, iiislan- 
 tjineously, in jilacing and retaining the roll in contact 
 with tlie lifting-board, than is possible when the 
 starting-bar is connectcnl directly with the roll-bear- 
 ings. The two rolls, with their" gears, and tlie cam 
 movement, are all parts of the head-piece, which may 
 be removed as a whole, or the rolls may be removeil 
 separately. The gears are made very strong, and 
 have a iieculiar form of tooth, specially adajited to 
 the work they perform. There are two to CJich roll. 
 An automatic and adjustable slop holds the drop sus- 
 I>ended at any height desired. An automatic trip 
 may l)e attached, which will secure a series of blows 
 of uniform force, at the will of llie operator, who 
 can. however, instantly change it from the fidl im- 
 pact of the drop falling from the extri'me height of 
 the lift to the simple pressure of the weight of the 
 mass without motion. -This absolute control and 
 
 instant adjustment of the force of the blow is appre- 
 ciated by all practical forgers. The workman has 
 the free "use of his hands in oix-ratiug the machine, as 
 its action is governed entirely by his foot. Experts 
 in the use of the hammer do not attach much value 
 to llie automatic trip as hanng any advantage over 
 the foot-motion, while the latter has many over the 
 former. With each machine is a wrought-iron die- 
 bed secured by a key. This die-bed saves the trouble 
 and expense of dressing the main bed by chisel and 
 file, or by planer, in case of damage, and also adds 
 to the strength of the machine by increasing its resist- 
 ance to the shock of the blow. The weight of beds 
 may be increased at will. 
 
 f'or all heavy work the steam drop-hammer is now 
 employed. The following drawings show two varie- 
 ties of double-frame steam drop-hammers, maniifac- 
 
 tuFed by the celebrated machine-tool works of 
 Frederick B. Miles, Pliiladelphia. Fig. 2 is designed 
 for stam])ing the work in formei-s. The frames are 
 keyed and iKilted to a solid anvil-base, in which is 
 planed the seat for the lower die. Tlie ram carrying 
 the upper die plays between guide-plates, fitted with 
 Uiper shoes by which they can be accurately adjusted, 
 for the purpose of taking up wear and for matching 
 the dies, which are thus held in the relation to each 
 other necessary for stamping work in molds or 
 formers with aceunicv, also for swedgini; journals or 
 other round work. In this hammer the weight of 
 drop is IpO, 400, or 800 pounds; the diameter of cy-
 
 DBOP OF PEOJECTILE. 
 
 511 
 
 DSUH MAJOB. 
 
 Under is 4}, 0, or 6* inches; and the length of stroke 
 10, 14, or 29 niches respectively. Fig. 3 is designed 
 for axles, truck-bars, and heavy dropforgings, and is 
 both hand-acting and self-acting. Single blows or a 
 succession of automatic blows can be produced at 
 will, and of any required degree of force. The 
 weight of drop is 1500 or 3000 pounds; the diameter 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 of cylinder is lOJ or 15 inches; and the length of 
 stroke is 30 or 36 inches respectively. These ham- 
 mers are noted for their adjustable guides and the 
 bumpers made of steel spiral springs. The glands 
 are made in halves for facility of repairs, and brass 
 bushings are introduced in all the principal bearings. 
 See Sleam-/iaii>mir. 
 
 DBOP OF PBOJECTILE. — When seeking protection 
 from the tire of an enemy, either by natural or artifi- 
 cial cover, the drop of the projectile must be taken 
 into account. This depends upon the range, kind of 
 piece used, and nature of fire employed. 
 
 The following table, showing the drop of projec- 
 tiles at various ranges, indicates the importance of 
 this factor in actual warfare. 
 
 Range. 
 
 Rifle-musket. 
 
 Veloc- 
 ity. 
 
 8-inch 
 Rifle. 
 
 100-pdr. Parrott. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Drop. 
 
 Sec'ds. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Drop. 
 
 Drop. 
 
 
 200 
 
 85 
 
 0.5 
 
 1120 
 
 
 
 oS 
 
 400 
 
 50 
 
 1 
 
 915 
 
 
 57.3 
 
 ?il 
 
 600 
 
 80 
 
 1.75 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 67.8 
 
 38.6 
 
 «=s 
 
 800 
 
 20 
 
 2.5 
 
 700 
 
 
 
 E w > 
 
 1000 
 
 14 
 
 3.75 
 
 625 
 
 
 
 1100 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 |2° 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 558 
 
 28.6 
 
 
 "Z's 
 
 HOO 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 14.3 
 
 ^"Si 
 
 1500 
 
 
 
 606 
 
 
 
 -So 
 
 1600 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 -li 
 
 ITOO 
 1900 
 
 
 
 
 
 11.4 
 8.1 
 
 |M 
 
 2000 
 
 
 
 412 
 
 14 3 
 
 
 Pf 
 
 2500 
 
 
 
 
 11.4 
 
 7.1 
 
 3000 
 
 
 
 
 8.1 
 
 6.8 
 
 
 3500 
 
 
 
 
 6.3 
 
 
 4000 
 
 
 
 
 6.1 
 
 
 4600 
 
 
 
 
 4.1 
 
 
 ■§3 
 
 When the distance to the object can X>e determined 
 and the range is such as to require considerable eleva- 
 tion, it is by no means neces-sjiry that flie object 
 should be seen from the gun, provided range-points 
 can be accurately established, as in mortar-firing. In 
 many cases it will be a great advantage to locate guns 
 in this manner, for the reason that the enemy will 
 probabl}- not be able to ascertain their position with 
 suflicicnt accuracy to do them much damage. 
 
 Should the distance behind which cover can be 
 obtained be quite short, the charges for guns may 
 be reduced .so as to allow the necessarj- elevation 
 to be given to carry the projectile over the cover, 
 and at the same time drop them into the enemy's 
 works. A few trial-shots will enable the artillerist to 
 accomplish this w itli certainty. Siege-howitzers are 
 used ad\antageously in this way. See Prtgeetiks. 
 
 DEOP-SIGHT. — A variety of trunnion-sight, con- 
 sisting of a socket, collar, pillar, and leaf. The 
 socket fits into the gun, the collar locks into the socket, 
 and the jnllar, at the top of which the leaf in screwed, 
 fits into the collar. The arrangement for securing the 
 sight is a kind of bayonet joint; by lifting the collar, 
 and making a quarter-turn from left to right with the 
 pillar, the collar and pillar are drawn out; but with- 
 out raising the collar, the pillar is immovable in any 
 direction, and must be exactly in its place. 
 The jiillar cannot be separated from the 
 collar w hile the leaf is fixed. See Siglii. 
 
 DBOSS. — The xctim, scoria, slag, or rec- 
 rement resulting from the melting of metals 
 coml)ineil with extraneous matters. 
 
 DRUG - CARRIAGE.— The truck-carnage 
 used for moxing heavy guns in positions 
 where the size of the platform would be 
 inconvenient. There are several sizes of 
 dings. The laigcst is constructed to carrj- 
 heavy gims of the present day, and is fitted 
 with two pairs of frame shafts and outrig- 
 gers for the swingle-trees for four horses 
 abreast. The small and medium drugs are 
 fitted f<ir man-draught. 
 
 DRUM. — A hollow cylinder of wood or 
 metal ha\iug skin (parchment) stretched 
 across one or both ends, upon which the 
 drummer beats with an instniment of wood or 
 metal called a dnimstiH: The dnmi is used as 
 an instrument of music along with other instru- 
 ments in bands, and particularly for military pur- 
 poses. The military drum serves for giving vari- 
 ous signals as well "as for music. There are three 
 kinds of drum — the .»»(()•(' dnmi, the donblt or base 
 drum, and the httkiXnim. Since 1858 the British 
 infantry are supplied with brass snare-drums, 3 lbs. 
 lighterthan those formerly in use, and tuned with 
 screws instead of straps "and ropes. The cavalry- 
 dnmi is a copper or bra.ss hemisphere, thus resem- 
 bling a kettk, with a parchment lid. The base-drum 
 has both ends covered with parchment. The ancient 
 Romans used small A'»?(rf-drums— some resembling 
 tambourines, others /v/ft -drums— in their religious 
 dances; and the Partliians are said to have used them 
 in war to give signals. They are l)elieved to have 
 been first brought into western Europe by the Cru- 
 saders See Base-dram, Kttlhdrum, and Ifiiaredniin. 
 DEUM-HEAD COURT MABTIAL.—A Court Martial 
 called suddenly by the Commanding Officer to try 
 offenses committed on the line of march, and which 
 demand an immediate example. This method is not 
 resorted to in lime of peace. 
 
 DRUM MAJOR.— The introduction of the Drum 
 Major at the head of a band is comparatively of re- 
 cent date— that is to sjiv, with the ordinary band. 
 Outside of the larger and more pretentious militarj' 
 and professional organizations, his duties and impor- 
 tance have been but little known imlil within the last 
 few years. It is safe to say that when bands once 
 understand the great improvement in appearance and 
 deiMirtment a few weeks' drill under an officer of this 
 kind will give them, they will consider him a neces-
 
 SEDM HAJOB GEKEBAL. 
 
 513 
 
 DBUM MAJOB OEHEBAL. 
 
 8ary appendage to their organization. Anv person 
 li!i\inj; onliniiry ability, willi practice and a little 
 study, cati muster the' more important i)oints in a 
 viTV short lime, lu.d take his position at the head of 
 thcband with credit to himself and associates. We 
 append the direclioiLS for the jdving, and how to e.v- 
 ecuto, the most imjK>rtiint signals. We cannot, of 
 course, within the limits of this work, go into the de- 
 tails for cliiborate drill; but what is given is sufficient 
 for an t>n.linary street-parade, and, when thoroughly 
 ma-steretl, there ran he e;isily added such fancy move- 
 mcnLs as the star, the crosis, the triangle, the hollow 
 stjuare, etc., as may be desired. 
 
 The person selected for Drum Major should be of 
 good mililarj- form, and, where jwssible, one who has 
 had cxpi'rieiice in military drill. He should have 
 goo<l time, though he nee^ not necessjirily be a mu- 
 sician. From the time the band leaves the band- 
 room until return and dismis,sal, he is the ranking 
 ollicer. and has full charge of the movements of the 
 l)and. The leader selects the pieces he desires played, 
 but awaits the proper signal from the Drum Jlajor 
 
 Bear-skin of Drum Major. 
 
 "to play" and "to cease playing." As soon as one 
 piece is finished the leader should immediately decide 
 upon the next, and so inform the band, though it may 
 not be re<[uired that it should be played for an hour; 
 then, without confusion or unnecessary- delay, all are 
 in readiness when the signal " play" is given. Con- 
 versation in the ranks should be especially avoided, 
 as it detracts attention from the Major, and soon 
 leads to carelessness, which means crooked files, bad 
 "wheels," and general deterioration. 
 
 The Drum Jfajor's uniform should, if expedient, 
 contrast somewhat with that of the band. The bear- 
 skin hat of while or black, shown in the drawing, is 
 the conventional emblem, after which the dre-ss can 
 be plain or elaliorate, as the wearer may determine. 
 
 The position of the Dnim >Iajor is three yards in 
 front of the band, opposite the center. The staff is 
 lield in the right hand below the chin, the back of 
 the hand to the front, the head of the staff near the 
 hand, the ferrule iwinting upward and to the right. 
 After each signal, unless keeping time for the band, 
 the staff should l>e restored to its original position. 
 
 The following signals of the Drum ilajor must be 
 
 promptly observed and obeyed:— 7y pUiy: Face to- 
 ward the music, and extend the right arm to its full 
 length in the direction of the staff. Tn <•»</*. plai/iiig: 
 Extend the right arm to its full length in the direc- 
 tion of the staff. I'o iiuirch: Turn the wri.st and 
 brine the stjiff to the front, the ferrule pointing up- 
 wartl and to the front; extenil the arm to its full 
 length in the direction of the staff. 7'w halt: Reverse 
 the staff and bold it horizontally above the head with 
 both hands, the arms exiendeil; lower the staff with 
 both hanils to a horizontal position at the height of 
 the hips. To countermarch: Face to the band and 
 give the signal to march. The countermarch Ls exe- 
 cuted by the tile-leaders to the right of the Drum 
 Major w"heeling indiWdually about to the right; those 
 to the left, to the left; the other men of each file fol- 
 low their tile leaders. The Drum JIajor pa.sses through 
 tlic center. Tu Mique: Bring the staff to a horizon- 
 tal position, the head opposite the neck, the ferrule 
 pointing in the direction the oblique is to be made; 
 extend the arm to its full length in the direction of 
 the staff. T<i inarch by the ri'ghl flank: Kxtend the 
 arm to the right, the staff vertical, the ferrule up- 
 ward, the back of the hand to the rear. To march by 
 the lift flank: Extend the arm to the left, the staff 
 vertical, the ferrule upward, the back of the hand to 
 the front. To diminmh front : Let the ferrule fall 
 into the left hand at the height of the eyes, the right 
 hand at the height of the hip. To increase front: Let 
 the ferrule fall into the left hand at the height of the 
 hip, the right hand at the height of the neck. The 
 ginercU: Bring the staff to a vertical position, the 
 hand opiwsitethe neck, the back of the hand to the 
 front, the ferrule pointing upward. Ttie assenibly: 
 Bring the staff to a horizontal position, the hand op- 
 posite the neck, the back of the hand down, the fer- 
 rule ])ointing to the front. To the colvr: Bring the 
 staff to a horizontal position at the height of the 
 neck, the back of the hand to the rear, the ferrule 
 pointing to the left. 
 
 In inarching, the Drum Major beats the time Avith 
 his staff and supports the left "hand at the hip, fingers 
 in front, thumb to the rear. The Drum Major, be- 
 fore makinj£ his report at parade, .salutes by bring- 
 ing his staff to a vertical position, the head of the 
 staff up and opposite the left shoulder. The Drum 
 Major marching in re\iew passes the staff between 
 the right arm and the body, the head to the front, 
 and then Siilules with the "left hand. In executing 
 rear open order, each rank of the band takes the dis- 
 tance of three yards from the rank next in front. 
 When the field -music is by itself, the fifers are placed 
 in front; in the field-music of a company, the tifer is 
 on the right of the drummer. 
 
 The Drum Major, when sjduting, passes the staff 
 between the right arm and the Ixxly, the head of the 
 .staff to the front; then bringing the left hand up 
 smartly, ixiinliiig in the same direction as the left 
 foot, the iialm of the hand down, the thumb close to 
 the forefinger, the ann horizontal; bringing the hand 
 round till the side of the forefinger touches the lower 
 edge of the cap over the left eye, at the same time 
 turning the head a little to the right, looking toward 
 the person to Ix- siduted, and retaining the position 
 till the salute is acknowledged; tlien bringing the 
 hand back to the horizont;d position, at the .same time 
 casting the eyes to the front; then dropping the hand 
 quickly to the hip. See Band. 
 
 DBUM MAJOB GENEEAL.— The Drum Major, as 
 a compoiuiit mcinlicr of a regiment, was not much 
 known in the English army till the time of Charles 
 I. There was in earlier times an officer in the Royal 
 Household called the Drum ifajor General, without 
 whose licen.se no one except Royal troops might use 
 a drum; but this office fell into disuse. The Drum 
 Major, when regularly established, received orders 
 from the Major of the battalion concerning the neces- 
 sary iK'als or signals, and conununicated them to the 
 dnunmers. The management of the big drum, and 
 the teaching and control of the drummers generally,
 
 DSUUKEB. 
 
 513 
 
 DBTINO-KACHINES. 
 
 still devolve upon the Drum ^lujor. The "heats" 
 at present adopted by the British infantry were com- 
 posed by Drum Major Potter of the "Coldstream 
 Guards. See Dntm Mij&r. 
 
 DRUMMER.— The soldier who plays a drum. The 
 majority of drummers are boj's, generally the sons of 
 soldiers. The drummer is a component member of 
 every British rejximent. His position is slightly s\i- 
 perior to that of the private soldier, but still he is 
 reckoned as one of the rank and tile. Besides his or- 
 dinary' duties, the drummer performs the drumming 
 out when a soldier is discharged with ignominv. To 
 the drummers is also intrusted the repulsive duty of 
 flogging, when that sentence is passerl upon soldiers. 
 A Dru Ill-head Court-Martial (not now much ado]>ted) 
 has no particular connection with the drummers, but 
 is a hasty Council or Court-Martial hel<i in the tield 
 around tlie big drum. 
 
 DRUMMING OUT. — The ceremony of ignomini- 
 oiLsly discharging a soldier from the service. The 
 culprit is marched out of the garrison at the point of 
 the bayonet, the drummers or musiciims playing the 
 "Rogue's JInrch." 
 
 DRUMMOND LIGHT.— The heat given out during 
 the combustion of a mixture of hydrogen and oxjgen 
 ga.scs, or of coal-gas and oxygen, is very intense; and 
 when the mixture is directed on an infusible sub- 
 stance, such as lime, a most brilliant light is evolved. 
 Captain Drummond, R.E., originally proposed the 
 emplojTTient of this light in the trigonometrical sur- 
 vey of Great Britain, ami constructed ai)paratus for 
 its production. The most convenient form of the 
 apparatus is represented 
 in the figure, where the 
 mixed gases escaping by 
 the jet a, being set tire 
 to and made to impinge 
 upon the cylinder, A, of 
 lime, raise Ihe surface of 
 the latter nearest the jet 
 to a white heat, accom- 
 panied by a very dazzling 
 light. As minute por- 
 tions of liine become de- 
 tached and are volatil- 
 ized from the spot on the 
 lime on which the jet of 
 burning ga.ses strikes, it 
 is necessarj' to ex]iose a 
 new surface of lime to 
 the ga.ses, and for this 
 purpose the screw, C, may 
 be turned by the hand or by clockwork. The hydro- 
 gen and oxygen ought to lie contined in separate .gas- 
 holders or bags, and to be brought l)y different tubes, 
 H and O, provided with separate stop-cocks, to with- 
 in a short distance of the exit-jet. The common tube 
 through which the mingled gases pass to the jet is 
 
 is to prevent the return of the tlame, which might lead 
 to a disastrous explosion. When the rays from this 
 light are concentrated by a paralx)lic rellector, it can 
 lie seen at immense distances. Thus on the 31st Dc- 
 cernlwr, 1845, at half past 3 P.M. (daylight), the light 
 was exhibited on the lop of Slieve Donard, in County 
 Down, and was seen from the top of Snowdon, a dis- 
 tjince of 108 miles; and in other instances the Drum- 
 mond light has been seen at distances up to 113 
 miles, 'fhe employment of coal-giis instead of hy- 
 drogen has greatly increa.sed the applications of the 
 Drummond light, anil it is now often used in magic- 
 lanterns and other apparatus where great brilliancy 
 and penetration of light are required. It has been 
 used lately on tlie Continent with great elTect in illu- 
 minations. Great caution should at all times be ex- 
 ercised in the preparation, storing, and emploj-ment 
 of the gases, as many dangerous explosions have oc- 
 curred. Little heat Is evolved from the Drummond 
 light, nor does it vitiate the surrounding air or con- 
 sume its oxygen. See Electric Litjht. 
 
 DRUMSTICK.— A stick with which a drum is heat- 
 en, or one shaped for the purpose of beating a drum. 
 
 DRUNK ON DUTY.— A crime severely and sum- 
 marily punished in all services. In the United States, 
 the Articles of War provide that any officer who is 
 found drunk on his guard, party, or other duty shall 
 be dismissed from the service. Any soldier who so 
 offends shall suffer such (a/rporal) pimishment as a 
 Court JIartial may direct. No Court-Martial shall 
 sentence any soldier to be branded, marked, or tat- 
 tooed. 
 
 DRY CAMP. — Troops on the march are said to make 
 II (tri/ ramp w hen they are compelled by exhaustion 
 or other causes to carbp at a place where there is no 
 water. For such camps water is usually transported 
 with the troops. 
 
 DRYING-MACHINES.— The ordinary processes of 
 drying by exposure in the open air have been found 
 too tedious for large establishments, and hot-air 
 chambers ha^e lieen extensively used; but a great im- 
 provement has been lately made by using the princi- 
 ple of centrifugid force to throw off the greater part 
 of the moisture. The drjing-machine commonly 
 used in arsenals and launilries consists of two drimis 
 or cylhidersopen at the top; the inner one, into which 
 the goods are packed, is pert'orated at its sides, and 
 made to revolve with great velocity either by steam, 
 water, or hand power. The action of the drying- 
 machine is precisely the same in principle as that wit- 
 nessed when the housemaid is trundling a mop, or of 
 the dog when he shakes himself on coming out of the 
 water. The use of the outer cylinder is merely to 
 catch the drops of water thrown out, and prevent the 
 inconvenience that would result from its distribution 
 through the apartment. A pipe connected with this 
 outer drum carries the water away. The drying is 
 not, however, quite completed by such machines: a 
 
 Drying-machioe. 
 
 about six inches long by two thirds of an inch in di- 
 ameter; and in Mr. Heiiiming's construction the tube 
 is very closely packed full of verj' fine brass wire, 
 which is aftei-ivards wedged in by a stout wire being 
 driven down the center. ^The object of the fine wires 
 
 very sli.ght degree of moisture, just perceptible to the 
 touch if the goods are pressed against the cheek, still 
 remains. This is expelled by open-air or hot-cham- 
 ber drying. These drjMng-machines are commonly 
 called " extractors." A" simpler and cheaper drying-
 
 DRYING8T0VE. 
 
 514 
 
 DRY PBOCESS. 
 
 niarbino hits bwn lately Introduced for domestic use. 
 It ct:>nsists of two rollers mounted piiriillel, iind one 
 above the oilier, with iiu adjustment to varv the dis- 
 tanees l>et\virn them. One end of the article to l)e 
 driiti is inserted between the rollers, which are then 
 brought as eK>se as pt>ssiblc together, and one roller is 
 turiie«l by a handle; the other, lieiug free to revolve, 
 turns lUso as ihe clothes pass Ix'tween them — the 
 moisture in this case being extracted by pressure, as 
 in the common process of " wringing." 
 
 For articles in bulk, .such as wool, cotton, etc., the 
 amingement for drying shown in the drawing, has a 
 numlKT of advanuiges over others in use. The 
 method for suppl.\iug and heating the air is simple 
 and inexpensive, as cora))arcd with some others in 
 which the heater is arranged on the plan of a tubular 
 boiler with inside flues. The steam for heating is 
 let into this boiler, and the air to be heated pa.s.st's 
 through the insideof the tubes. The heatermust have 
 the strength of a boiler, and the tubes secured in the 
 same way. to Insir the pressure of the steam. This is 
 necessjirily e.\iX'nsive; and the air passing through 
 the inside of the tubes is brought in contact with only 
 a small heating-surface. In the plan illustrated, a 
 Roots' Positive Blower furnishes the blast, and the 
 outside c-ise or air-conductor needs only to be made 
 of No. 18 galvanized iron. The air pa.sscs through 
 this conductor, and is heated by steam passing through 
 return-coils of ordinary gas-piping. This arrange- 
 ment can be made at a small cost, as compared with 
 the plan spoken of above, and is much better, as the 
 air is brought in contact with from twenty-five to fifty 
 per cent more heating surface by psissing on the out- 
 side of the pipes instead of the inside. When, as in 
 the former case, the air is forced through the inside 
 of the pipes, considerable force or pressure is required 
 to overcome the friction, which is only effected at Ihe 
 expense of considerable power; whUe, in the plan 
 shown above, a large and ample space is given for 
 the passage of Ihe air. 
 
 DEYING-8T0VE.— An apparatus employed in the 
 maniifactuie of gunpowder. It is simply a clo.se 
 chamber heated to a high temperature by sfeajn; the 
 dfMirs and windows of the building are double, so iis 
 to prevent the loss of heat, and the interior is fitted 
 up with an open framework of wood, supporting 
 trays uix>n which the powder is spread out to dry. 
 A series of cast-iron sleaiu-pi[x»s consisting of twenty- 
 two lengths, each about 11 feet long, with an es- 
 
 l»i'\ini.' -stove. 
 temal diameter of 7 J inches, are laid a few inches 
 above the tloor; these pipes are aiTamicd horizontally, 
 •with an inclination or fall of 1 incli in 11 feet from 
 the end where they are connected to the main steam 
 supply-pipe, which pijie is in direct communication 
 with the steamlH>iler, the quantily and supply of 
 steam being regulated by means of a slop-valve on 
 the boiler. As the sleam condenses — which it will 
 do to some extent in the large pipes— the water nins 
 off through a small wrouglil-iron pipe atlaclied to the 
 ends of the large ones; tliisc drain-pipes arc Iwnt in 
 such a form as to allow for the cxjiansion and con- 
 traction of I he large pipes, each lenglh of which is 
 supported on four rollers lilleil inlocasl-iron brackets, 
 for allowing a fn'cdom of motion laterally. The 
 small wToughl-iron pipes conduct the distilled water 
 formed by the condens<'(l steam into a main cast-iron 
 pipe which conveys it into a close tank, whence it is 
 ptimpcd into casks and taken to the incorporating- 
 
 mills, where it is of much value for damping the 
 charges. The drying-stove is about 32 fwt in length 
 by 3t) feet in width, and from 10 feet to 11 feet in 
 height, and affords about 10 cubic feet of space to 
 every sijuare foot of heating surface. A wooden 
 staging is erected imniediatc'ly over the pities, for 
 supiiorting the trays; these tmys consist of wooden 
 frames with canvas Iwttoms, each being 3 feel in 
 length by 2 feet 6 inches in width, and alK)Ut H inch 
 
 ' deep, aiid upon each of these from (5 ix)unds to 
 8 pounds of gun|X)wdcr are spread out evenly upon 
 the canvas bottom. The stove contains '2^i^ trays, 
 consequently from 30 to 40 barrels of powder can be 
 dried at one time. It requires about four hours to 
 heat the drving-stove up to a temperature of 130' F., 
 to which liciit the powder is subjected. The tcm- 
 peratvire can always be ascertained bj' Ihe attendant 
 without opening or enteriuj' Ihe drj-ing-stove, as a 
 large thermometer is placeil inside the building, at 
 the window, with its face outwards. After the pow- 
 der has been subjected to the full heat for a period of 
 from sixteen to eighteen hours, the steam stop-valve 
 on the Iwiler is closed, and the chamber allowed to 
 cool down. In from two to three hours the temper- 
 ature is sufficiently reduced to admit of the attendant 
 entering for the purpose of removing the trays. It will 
 therefore be seen that by this means one stove is cap- 
 able of drying a full charge every twenty-four hours; 
 but where the factory is large the better plan is to 
 liave two such stoves, with the steam-boiler placed 
 between them, and to work each one alternately. It 
 is of the utmost importance that Ihe heat be applied 
 slowly, otherwise the te.vture or shape of the grain 
 is apt to change by being cracked or burst into pieces, 
 and conscfiuently spoiled. If the moisture is not car- 
 ried away as it arises it will settle on the [xiwder, and 
 thereby injure the surface of the grain; to ob\-iate 
 
 I this the roof and also the bottom of the drying-stove 
 are provided with ventilators, and through these all 
 the moist air escapes. These ventilators can, if neces- 
 
 I sary, be opened from the outside. When no more 
 vapor arises the ventilators are closed, and the powder 
 subjected to the full effect of the hot dry air for some 
 few hours before the doors of the stove are opened. 
 The action of the heat in drv'ing the powder produces 
 a small quantity of dust, consequently the powder has 
 to be taken back to the dusting liousc, and there 
 passed through a dusting-reel. The large-grain pow- 
 der is put into a horizontal reel, covered with canvas 
 haWng twenty -four meshes to tlie inch, and reeled for 
 half an hour, which effectually cleans it, removing 
 all Ihe dust and giving to the powder a fine finished 
 gloss. The line-gniin powder is nin through a slope- 
 reel, covered with canvas haWng twenty-eight meshes 
 to the inch, and reeled tor about two hours, after 
 which it — as well as the large-grain powder — is put 
 into casks provided with copper or a.sh hoops, and 
 when elcsed the heads of the casks are branded 
 according to the size and nature of the powder con- 
 tained in them. This completes the manufacturi', 
 and the gunpowder is now ready for use or storage 
 as may be required. In a given quantity of '•mill- 
 cake" Ihe proportions obtained arc as follows: alMiut 
 seven tenths large-grain, two tenths fine-grain, and one 
 tenth dust; in damp weather, however, these pro- 
 portions are somewhat altered, the dust during such 
 
 1 weather being considerably increased. See &un- 
 pr>irdrr. 
 
 DRY PROCESS.— The coUodionizcd glass plate, on 
 being withdrawn from Ihe bath, pie\-ious to and dur- 
 ing exposure in the camera, has mechanically adher- 
 ing to its surface a quantity of solution of free nil rate 
 of silver, and it is partly upon the presence of this sjtlt 
 that the exirenie sensitiveness of wet collodion plates 
 depends. This, however, is not Ihe .sole cause of sensi- 
 bility to actinic rays; carefully conducted experiments 
 fairly lead to Iheassumption that Ihe molecular ar- 
 rangement of the ultimate iiaiticlcs of iodide of silver, 
 and of the pyroxyline, fonning. as it were, the net- 
 work of the film while wet, materially affect this nee-
 
 SUALINE. 
 
 515 
 
 DUEL. 
 
 fssary condition; and it is the oljjcct of what is termed 
 a ilry prorfnn to preserve this molecular arrangement 
 as far as possible unaltered, notwithstanding the dis- 
 turl)ing influences which would necessarily be exerted 
 by the desiccation of the tilm. This desirable end for 
 military photography is accomplishi'd with more or 
 less certainty by the employment of solutions of vari- 
 ous substances, which are poured over the film after 
 the adhering nitrate of silver has been removed by 
 copious washing with water. The heterogeneous 
 character of the substances so used goes far to prove 
 that their action is principally mecJianiral, Ihey being 
 selected from the animal, vegetable, and mineral 
 kingdoms. Among the first may be mentioned honey, 
 gelatine, glycerine, milk, and albumen; among the 
 second, syrups, gum, wine, beer, balsams, and resins 
 added to the collodion, and linseed tea; and among 
 the third, chloride of calcium, nitmte of zinc, and 
 nitrate of magnesia. The plate, on its removal from 
 the sensitizing bath, being well washed with water, 
 liny one of these sul)stances is dissolved in water in 
 suitable proportion, and applied to the surface of the 
 plate by pouring on and off several times. It is then 
 set up to drain and dry on folds of bibulous paper in 
 a dark closet or box. The plate is then ready for use. 
 The pictures obtained on plates so jirepared do not 
 suffer by comparison with those taken by the wet col- 
 lodion process; the only drawback to their use being 
 a slight diminution in the degree of sensibility to 
 light. See Pliotngraplii/. 
 
 DUAIINE. — An explosive composition of nitro-gly- 
 cerinc, tine sawdust, and nitrate of polas.sa (in pro- 
 portion of 50, 30, and 20 jiarts), intended to diminish 
 the danger in the transportation and storage of nitro- 
 glycerine. Compared with dynamite, it is— 1. More 
 sensitive tolieat, and also to mechanical disturbances, 
 especially when frozen, when it may even be exploded 
 by friction; 2. The sawdust in it" has little affinity 
 for the nitro-glycerine, and at liest will hold but 40 to 
 50 per cent of nitroglycerine, and on this accoimt 
 very strong wrappers are needed for the cartridges; 
 3. Its specitic gravity is 1.02, whicb is ,50 per cent 
 \em than that of dynamite, and as nitroglycerine has 
 the same explosive power in each, its explosive power 
 is 50 per cent less than that of dynamite; 4. The gases 
 from explosions, in consequence of the dualine con- 
 taining an excess of carbon, contain cartmnic oxide 
 and other noxious gases. Lithofractcur and diialine, 
 however, can be exploded, when frozen, by means of 
 an ordinary fulminating-cap, which is not the ca.se 
 with dynamite. Dualine was invented soon after 
 dynamite. The patent describes it as consisting of 
 " cellulose, nitrocellulose, nitro-starch, nitro-niannite, 
 and nitro-glycerine, mixed in different combinations, 
 depending on the tlegree of strength desired in adapt- 
 ing its use to various purposes." A sjimple supplied 
 by the inventor, Carl Dittmar. for trial at the Hoosac 
 Tunnel, was found by analysis to consist of 60 per cent 
 of nitro-glycerine and 40 per cent of washed .sjiw- 
 dust, not treated with nitric and sulphuric acids. 
 The best variety now manufactured is believed to be 
 cellulose derived from poplar ])ulp, treated with ni- 
 tric and sulphuric acids, and saturated with nitro- 
 glycerine. When soaked in water it can beexploded 
 only by a \iolent detonation, exceeding that of the 
 ordinary fuse, and even then it losesmore than half its 
 power. It congeals at about 45 Fahrenheit, and in 
 this state readily explodes, becoming so sensitive to 
 friction as to make it dangerous to use in cold weather. 
 In other respects its properties resemble those of dy- 
 namite. See Ut/namite, Ei'plosire Agent», and Nitro- 
 gli/ctrinr. 
 
 DUCENAEITJS.— The title of an oflicer in the Roman 
 armies who conunnndcd two Centuries. 
 
 DUCTILIMETER.— An instrument invented by if. 
 Regnier for ascertaining the relative ductility of met- 
 als. The metal to be tested is subjected to the action 
 of blows from a mass of iron of given weight attached 
 to a lever, and the effect produced is shown upon a 
 graduated arc. 
 
 DUEL. — A combat between two persons, at a time 
 and place indicated in the challenge, cartel, or defi- 
 ance Itorne by one parly to the other. A duel gener- 
 ally takes place in the" presence of witnesses, called 
 .seconds, who regulate the mode of fighting, place the 
 weajjons in the hands of the combatants, and enforce 
 compliance with the ndes which they have laid down. 
 
 No trace of the duel, as an institution, is to be fotmd 
 in die history of the cla.s,sical nations of antiquity, 
 the Latin word from which oure is derived having 
 been used to signify a war between two nations. So 
 long as men continued to l)e barbarians their personal 
 quarrels were no douirt decided in the ancient, as 
 national quarrels still are in the modern world, by an 
 appeal to physical force. But though w-ar has fieen 
 in all times the practical solution of strife, it was not 
 till the Jliddle Ages that it came to lie regarded as a 
 means, in any sense judicial, of settling disputes. 
 Hitherto it had detenniiied who was able to prevail, 
 justice being set aside, but it was a new view that it 
 would determine who ought to prevail on the princi- 
 ples of justice. The rationale of the judicial romhat 
 or wager of battle was probably twofold. On the 
 one hand, and generally ;miongst the people, it de- 
 pended on a belief that God would interfere directly 
 and miraculously in the conflict to protect the inno- 
 cent and to punish the guilty, and that thus the weak- 
 est combatant who had CJod on his side woidd prove 
 more than a match for the strongest when destitute 
 of his aid. But there was a view of the matter which 
 was not so directly superstitious, and which rested 
 rather on a confusion between the principle of the 
 original constitiition and Ihc principle of the trans- 
 mission of rights. All Inunan rights originate in the 
 powers and faculties which God has given to man, 
 anil it was supposed that as the right originated in 
 power, its continued existence in the individual could 
 be ascertaineil by ascertaining whether the power slill 
 existed in him. The error consisted, as wc have sjiid, 
 in confounding the )irinciple of the constitution with 
 the principle of tlic iiansmission of rights. If a field 
 which was claimed by two coinpelilors had as yet 
 been appropriated to nobody, or had been abandoned, 
 and was, as lawyers say, reti nulliun, the fact which 
 of the two claimants ought to become the posse.s.sor 
 might be ascertained l>v judicial combat. But if it 
 was already the iiroperty of one of them on a title 
 which was to be held sacred, and the i)uestion was 
 which of the two had this sacred title, that fact could 
 never be detenniiied by a.scertaining which would 
 have been in a condition to constitute it for the first 
 time, had it been non-existent. The principle of the 
 private duel, in so far as it had any principle at all, 
 and was not merely a piece of barbarous and irra- 
 tional foppery, was precisely the same as that of the 
 judicial combat. But the latter had lieen applied to 
 a <'lass of ca.ses which ailmitted of legal investigation 
 and decision, and it was consequentTy abandoned in 
 the days of Queen Elizabeth; whereas the former was 
 supposed to lie a means of redre.s.sing wrongs which 
 hardly can come within the cognizimce of a human 
 tribunal, and the consequence was that it continued 
 in green observance in England until recently, and is 
 still in \igor in many Continental countries. 
 
 Like liie other peculiarities of media'val life, the 
 duel probably originated with the Gcnnanic nations. 
 It is said to liave been introduced into legal proceed- 
 ings in lieu of an oath by Gundebald. King of the 
 Bvirgundians, in 501. Loiiis le Detonnaire was the 
 first of the French kings who permitted litigants to 
 appeal to arms. The practice was prohiliitcd bv 
 Henry II., in consequence of a noted duel which took 
 place" in his presence between his friend Francis de 
 la Chastaignerie and Guy Chabot de Jarnac, in which 
 the latter was slain. The royal edict, however, wa.s 
 totally InefTectual, and the practice of private duel- 
 ing has generally prevailed more extensively in France 
 than in any oilier country. Francis I iiatronized it 
 by declaring that a lie co"uld be borne without Siitis- 
 faction only by a base-born churl, and still more by
 
 DUFFASAB. 
 
 516 
 
 DUKE. 
 
 the example which he set in challeupnc his own 
 LTi'iit rival Cliarli-.s V. In 1599 thi' Parliainent of 
 Paris ikflariil all jK-rsons who were either piineipals 
 or seconds in duels to lie R'Ik-Is to the King. But its 
 efforts were unavailing; and it is sjiid thai durini; the 
 tirst IH years of Henry IV. no fewer than 40(10 sen- 
 llenien "|HTished in this foolish manner. In l(i09 
 Henry added to the existing lienallies, introducing 
 even 'punishment by death in extreme Civscs. But 
 these regtdations were forcetl u|>on him ijy popular 
 feeling; lie had himself no aversion tt) the practice, 
 unci when he gave permission to Cretjui to tight Don 
 Philip of Savoy, he added: " If I were not the king, 
 I woidd be yoiir second." The conscfiucnce of this 
 feeling was "that he readily granted pardons to those 
 who had violated the laws which he had l>een forced 
 to enact, and these laws not unnaturally produced an 
 effect the very reverse of their ostensible object. 
 I)uelling acqufretl the charm of what the Frenrh aiU 
 " forl)idden fruit," and thus became a fashionable 
 and favorite vice. In the reign of Louis XIII. the 
 rustom was so prevalent that Lord .Herbert, the Eng- 
 lish Anibassiulor. wrote home to his Court that there 
 was scarcely a Frenchman worth looking on who had 
 not killed his man. It would not seem, however, 
 that it was from negligence in enforcing the royal 
 edicts that duelling then reached to so alarming a 
 height; for it was during this reign that two noble- 
 men, the greatest duelists of the "day, the Count de 
 Koutleville and the Marquis de Beiiron, were tried 
 and beheaded for pcr>isting to tight. In the com- 
 mencement of the reign of Louis XIV., duels with 
 four or live a side bcgim to be fought; and two very 
 SiUiguinary affairs oif this description having taken 
 place, in which several jx^rsons of the highest rank 
 were slain, the King determined to put an end to l!ie 
 practice, lie published an edict in lOTi) forbidding 
 it luider the highest penalties, which, unlike most of 
 his predecessors, be had the lirmuess to inflict; and 
 this mciisure, together with a solemn agreement which 
 was entered into amongst the nobility themselves, led 
 at that time to its almost total abolition. 
 
 The duel does not seem to have existed in Eni^land 
 in Anglo Saxon times, and was probably introduced 
 at the Coni|Uest. In its judicial form it was not 
 lotallv obsolete in the reign of Queen Elizabeth; and 
 Sir llenry Spelman gives an account of a Trial by 
 Battle, which terminated, however, without actual 
 combat, in the year 1571. Private dueling was com- 
 mon, however, both in Elizabeth's reign and in that 
 of her successor', by whom a severe statute against 
 it was cnacte<l in Scotland. During the civil wars 
 men's minds were too much occupied with questiims 
 of grave importance to leave time for questions of 
 etiquette, and the duel consecjuently declined; but it 
 became exceedingly prevalent during the dissolute 
 reign of Charles ll. Some attempts were made to 
 suppress it in the reign of William III., Ixith in 
 Enghuxl and Scotland, and in 17r2 the subject was 
 roconunendeil to the altenlion of T^irliament in the 
 Queen's speech. But the bill which wiis brought in 
 by the Government was thrown out, and the practice 
 continued to prevail. When the custom of wearing 
 the sword wius abandoned, the number of d\iels di- 
 minished, though it was then that their irrational 
 character may l>e sjiid to have attained its maximum. 
 The pistol wa-s sulistituled for the sword, and the doc- 
 trine of chance — which was reduced to an absurdity 
 by the medical duel of a couple of ijills, one com- 
 posed of bread and the other of |X)ison — was inaugu- 
 rated. Since this period the practice bits fallen into 
 disrepute, by the gradual opi'ration of public opinion, 
 and in Great Britain it may probably be now regarde(l 
 as tinally abolished. The duels of the students at 
 the German universities, of which so much has been 
 said and written in this country, are nothing more 
 than fencing-matfhes with sliarp weapons. They 
 are foolish but not deailly affairs, as the seconds, 
 who are al.«o anned, always interfere to prevent seri- 
 ous bloo<]sbcd. 
 
 ! In the southern portion of the United States the 
 cu-stom of dueling, though of late years falling into 
 disuse, is a recognized institution of societv. Half a 
 century ago the pistol anil the bowie-knife were as 
 much ii part of a man's equipage as his bat or his 
 boot.s. A gentleman of gooel social position who had 
 not fought at least one duel was often l(H)kwl ui)on as 
 deficient in the qualities proper to his station. Sud- 
 den affrays in the streets, steidthy a-s^iissiuations, and 
 bitter family feuds, were the con.scqucnces. These 
 feuds rivaled in duration and ferocity the Venetian 
 vendett;!. The land was full o.' swaggering bullies 
 who had, metaphorically, in one hand a pack of cards 
 and in the other a pistol. Modern civilization, and 
 more especially the War of the lli'belllon, in which 
 the Southern States suffered so terribly, have greatly 
 mo<iificd this fire-eating.spirit. Other influences have 
 assisted. Not uiply is the general voice against the 
 practice, but in a large number of the States laws 
 have been enacted which itronounce the killing of a 
 fellow-being in a duel to be murder, and in still more 
 States the mere sending of a challenge is a felony. 
 A person in the military or naval service implicated 
 in a duel, either as jirincipal or second, may be sum- 
 marily ca-shiered. In some of the Stjites the killing 
 of a man in a duel is punishable with death; in others 
 by imprisonment and forfeiture of political right.s. 
 In some States certain officers are required to swear 
 that they have not been, within a certain period, and 
 will not be. engaged in a duel. See Artirh'^ of ^^'ar, 
 aO, •27, and 28; Challenge, 2; and Wugcr nf Battle. 
 
 DUFFADAR.— In the native Ea-st Indian cavalry, a 
 non-commissioned officer corresponding with the rank 
 of Sergeant. 
 
 DUFFADAR MAJOR.— A rank in the Indian cav- 
 alry corresjionding with the Sergeant Major of a 
 European regiment of cavalrv. See Kot Duffadar. 
 
 DUFOUR BASTION SYSTEM. — The enceinte is 
 traced as in the modern system; the ditch is 30 yards 
 wide at the salient of the bastion, and the counter- 
 scarp is ilirected on the. shoulder-angle. A eartiUer, 
 or boimet, 24 feet high, is erected at the salient of the 
 ravelin. The parapet of the cavalier is only 4 yards 
 ; thick, and is su|iposed to be sufficiently strong to re- 
 ■ sist ricochet; there is no rampart; the banquette is 
 destined for musketry, .and its slojies descend to the 
 terre plein of the ravelin. The ravelin is 22 yards 
 wide, with ramps 3 yards wide and slope ',". The 
 reiliiit of rareliii is separated from the ravelin by a 
 ditch 10 yards wide and 6 yards deep, its bottom 
 being 6 feet above that of ravelin and 12 feet above 
 the main ditch. The reduit has a command of 6 feet 
 over the ravelin at the salient and U feet at the rear, 
 so that its plane of defilade passes above the lodgment 
 of the cavalier. The covered-way is 10 yards wide, 
 and ha-s four traverses. This system possesses many 
 advantages, with but few serious faults. The cavalier 
 prevents the defenders from placing artillery al the 
 sjilicnt of the ravelin, where its preseircc is so impor- 
 tant, and the reduit of the ravelin has no room for 
 guns. See Furtifieatinn. 
 
 DUKE.— A term applied originally to any military 
 leader. Gibbon informs us that the title came tirst 
 into use when Constantine separated the civil and the 
 military commands in the Provinces, which had l)ecn 
 exercised in common by such men as Agricola. From 
 that time forth, the Military Governors of Provinces 
 were cither Counts or Dukes. But these titles origi- 
 nally stood to each other in an opposite relation to 
 that which they afterwards assumed. " It should be 
 recollected," says Gibbon, "that the second of these 
 appellations — tliat of Duke — is only a corruption of 
 the Latin word which was indiscriminately applied 
 to any MililJiiy Chief. All Provincial Generals were 
 therefore Dnhx. but no more than ten among them 
 were dignilie<l with the rank of ('omits, or Com- 
 panions, a title of honor, or rather of favor, which 
 had been recently invented in the Court of Constan- 
 tine." " A gold belt," continues Gibbon, "was the 
 ensign which distinguished the office of the Counts
 
 DUKE OF YORK S SCHOOL. 
 
 517 
 
 DUPONT DE NEMOURS DENSIMETER. 
 
 and Dukes; and, besides their pay, they received a 
 liberal allowance, sufficient to maintain 190 servants 
 and lOH horses. They were strictly prohil)itcd from 
 interferinii in any matter which related to the admin- 
 istration of justice or the revenue; and the command 
 which they exercised over the troops of their depart- 
 ment was independent of the authority of the Magi.s- 
 trates." When the Goths, and Franks, and other 
 barbarians successfully invaded the Pro\inces of the 
 Empire, they preserved the titles of Count and Duke, 
 if they had not already borrowed them from the 
 Romans, But amongst races who owed their suprem- 
 acy to the sword no dignity could prevail over that 
 of the Commander of an Army; imd the Dukes, as 
 Military Chiefs, acquired a marked pre-eminence 
 over the Coimts, whose lofty functions under the 
 Empire had been partly of a civil and partly of a 
 military natin'e. The only exception under the first 
 Merovingians was in the case of the Count of the 
 Palace. In the hierarchy observed by the Franks 
 and other Teutonic races, the ordinary Count became 
 the Lieutenant of the Duke, aiv^l the government of 
 the latter extended to .several Provinces; whereas that 
 of the former was confined to one Province, or even 
 to a single locality. The power of the Dukes grew 
 so rapidly, in consequence of the dis.sensions of the 
 Merovingians, that, towards the end of the sixth cen- 
 tury (582), they arrogated to themselves the right to 
 dispose of the Crown. Amongst the causes which 
 tended to raise the power of the Dukes was the im- 
 mense wealth which had been acquired by the great 
 provincial families. The Chiefs who had attached 
 themselves to the fortunes of Clovis had been richly 
 endowed with conquered lands. After the close of 
 the seventh century they overshadowed the Crown, 
 and the title of Prince and Chief (C'«/) began to be 
 attributed to them. It has been said that the Diies- 
 inairen of the Palace sometimes a.ssumed the title of 
 Archduke. Under the Second Dynasty the title of 
 Duke retained all its dignity and importance, and it 
 was to the successive invasions of local upon central 
 power that feudalitv owed its origin. 
 
 DUKE OF YORK'S SCHOOL.— the popular designa- 
 tion fnr tlie Riiyal MilHiirii Astyliiiii at C'helsea. In 
 the French army there have long been Kiifaiia dc 
 lyoiipr borne on the liooks of eacli company or bat- 
 talion of soldiers; that is, children of decea.sed sol- 
 diers, unprovided with other homes. In England 
 no such system prevails. The late Duke of York, in 
 the year i8()l, u.sed his influence to obtain the forma- 
 tion of a Soldiers' Orphan A.sylum. Accommoda- 
 tion was obtained at Chelsea; and in 1803 schools 
 were opened for 700 boys and 300 girls, children of 
 deceased soldiers. The Institution has been kept up 
 ever since for the boys, of whom 500 arc now main- 
 tained, but was a failure as to the girls. The boys 
 are wholly supported as well as educated. They are 
 not bound to serve the State after they leave the Asy- 
 lum; but most of them nevertheless enter the army. 
 A soldier's son has not a riyhi of admission; a selec- 
 tion is made according as vacancies may occur. 
 When the boys leave the School, those who do not 
 enter the army are apprenticed to trades. The Asy- 
 lum is under a Board of Commissioners, who make 
 the necessary ndes and regulations. The chief offi- 
 cers are the Commandant, Secretary, Quartermaster, 
 Head-master, Chaplain, Surgeon, and Dispenser. 
 The expenses are defrayed by an annual Parliameiit- 
 arj' grant, included in the army estimates. No pro- 
 \ision is now maile by the State for the dnughtern oi 
 deceased soldiers. The girls admitted into the Asy- 
 lum in the early years of its history brought discredit 
 to it by their after-life; and this part of the system 
 was abandoned. There is oidy a Royal Patriotic 
 Fund Asylum on Wandsworth Conunon, unaided 
 by the State, for soldiers' orphan daughters; it origi- 
 nated during the Crimean War. 
 
 DUKIGI BACHI.— The Second Officer in the Turk- 
 ish artillery, who commands the Topelas, or gunners 
 and founders. 
 
 DULEDOE. — A pe^ of wood which joins the ends 
 of the felloes forming the circle of the wheel of a 
 gun-cairiage ; the joint is strengthened on the out- 
 side of the wheel by a strong plate of iron, called the 
 diiliiliii-jiliitf. 
 
 DUMMY FRICTION TUBE.— A non-ignitible tube 
 which is used for drill purjxjses. It consists of a 
 steel prong, fork, and lanyard ; the prong is entered 
 in the fork, which is inserted in the vent and pulled 
 through by the same motion which tires the service 
 friction-tube. Since the original pattern was ap- 
 proved of it ha.s been fotnid that the piongs are lia- 
 ble to fracture the "eye." In the present pattern 
 the prong is made stronger, and the split of the spring 
 is carried through its neck, instead of the latter being 
 .solid. 
 
 DUMPY LEVEL.— A leveling instrument for short 
 distances. It has a short telescope with a very largd 
 Held, and the eompa.ss is fi.xed underneath. 
 
 DUNDAS GUNS.— Smooth-bore guns of somewhat 
 similar form to those of Mr. Monk's, and introduced 
 into the English service some years ago by Colonel 
 Duiidas. R.A. They are not so conical, baring a 
 greater thickness of metal in the first and second rein- 
 forces. His 68-pdr. (95 cwt.) is used both as a land- 
 and sea-serriee gun, and his 32 jidr. of 58 cwt. has 
 been largely used in the Navy. There are other gim.s 
 still in the service hearing his name, which are used 
 for land or sea i)urposes. 
 
 DUPONT DE NEMOURS DENSIMETER.— A mer- 
 cury densimeter, adapted, liv its cunstniction, to the 
 reception of large grains, and having caiiacity for five 
 pounds of powder, which, for conveiuence, is the 
 weight of sample always em|)loyed. It differs, how- 
 ever, from the small densimeter in ordinary use by a 
 comliination of the different parts, such that the 
 reservoir for containing the powder and mercury to 
 be weighed, and the balance by means of which the 
 weighings are made, are assembled together in one 
 instrument. The balance also is so adai>ted to its 
 s|)ecial iiiniiose as to .simplify considerably the subse- 
 (lueiif ])rocessof calculation. A great saving of labor 
 and time is gained by this form of the instniment, 
 and the occun-ence of breaks and leaks, so frequent 
 in the smaller ones, is in great measure avoided. 
 Again, from the much larger samjile of powder em- 
 ployed, a fair representative residt of the siJecific 
 gravity of the entire lot is more likely to be secured. 
 
 Dupont I)e Nemours Instrument. 
 
 To describe more particularly, the instrument consists 
 of three principal parts, to wit : A beam-scale. A, a 
 reservoir, B, to contain the powder and mercury to be 
 weighed, and a bowl, C, to contain mercury alone. 
 In connection therewith, an air-pump is employed, 
 the cylinder of which h.as communication with the 
 interior of the reservoir through a rubber tube leading 
 from the nozzle of the jiump to the glass tube, a. 
 at the top of the reservoir. The balance is suspended 
 from a hook, b, firmly secured to the roof of the 
 housing, and it.s axis of suspension is a knife-edge ly- 
 ing in the same plane with the axes of suspension of 
 the rods c and rf and of the reservoir B. Platforms
 
 DU&EK SYSTEM OF FOBTIFICATION. 
 
 518 
 
 DUSTING-REELS. 
 
 are attached to the su>im nsioiirods c and rf, on which 
 to place the weiirhts. The latter consist of pounds, 
 tenths of u pound, and tivehundredths of a (lound, 
 marked in reference to the weights tliey will biilance 
 in the reservoir, and of a large unmarked weight, \V, 
 tenni-<l the " eounleriwise." This counterpoise has a 
 caxity borwl in it lengthwise; its weight is about eight 
 ]H)unds. The long arm of the beam Is also graduated, 
 and bv means of " riders," or sliding weights, the 
 weighings win be made to hundri'dtlis and thou- 
 sandths of a pound; the gniduated edge of the beam 
 is in the ssime pliuie with the knife-eilges. There are 
 two counterpoises admitting of movement on serew- 
 spindles passing through them, in directions that are 
 n>s|)ectively parallel and perj'cndicuiar to the Ijeam. 
 The former is used to adjust the anns to the same 
 weight, the latter to rejJTulate the sensibility of the 
 beam. In connection with one counterpoise a light 
 wire is sometimw u.sed along the beam to facilitate 
 the adjustment of tlic arms. *rhe beam and its ap- 
 purtenances proper are of brass. The reservoir B 
 is of cast-iron and swings on trunnions in a yoke. 
 It also admits of a horizontal angular movement 
 al)out a vertical pivot connecting the yoke with 
 a suspension-stirrup. A screwcap, titted with a 
 lejitber washer, coveis the mouth of the reservoir, 
 and when removed, for the purpose of intnwhicing 
 powder, is attached to a hook on the outside of the 
 yoke, so as to be included in the weighing. The 
 mercury is admitted or withdrawn through the stop- 
 cock s. The conical ends of the reservoir are cast 
 in separate pieces and are afterwards screwed on 
 to the cylinder, the joints being well leaded. Careful 
 workmanship is requisite to prevent the formation of 
 a leilge or recess at these joints, which might serve 
 to retain sufficient portions of the mercury to affect 
 the accuracy of the subse(iuent weighings." The dia- 
 phragms of wire and of leiithcr usually emjiloyed to 
 cover resi>ectively the upper and lower apertures of 
 the reservoir are not recjuired in this instrument. 
 The cjipacity of the reservoir is about seventy-eight 
 pounds of mercury, or forty pounds of mercury and 
 live pounds of powder. The mouth is 2i inches in 
 diameter, and the sample of powder tills the reservoir 
 to about the top of the cylindrical portion. The 
 weight of the reservoir is twenty and a half pounds. 
 The bowl C is of cast-iron, and by means of the 
 crank II can be raised or lowered vertically. An 
 outltt-|)ipe, p, at the bottom of the lx)wl, and fur- 
 nished with a stop-cock, permits of the discharge of 
 the mercury when desired. The air-i)ump is one in 
 \yhich, the cylinder rcnunning stationary, the oscilla- 
 tion takes place in the coiuiecting-rod," which com- 
 municates the motion of the handle to the piston-rod. 
 To use the in.strument, the beam is tii-st accurately 
 balanced by means of a counterpoise, when the 
 lx)wl filled with mercurv' is run up till the nozzle 
 of the reservoir is well immersed below the surface. 
 The large counterpoise W is then placed on the plat- 
 form suspended from the .shorter arm, the rubber hose 
 slipped over the top of the gla.ss tube of the reservoir, 
 the air e.xhausUd by means of the pump, and the 
 stop-cock « opened to admit the mercurv. The 
 pumping is continued during the ingress of "liie mcr 
 curv, and when the latter has risen" to a ti.xed mark, 
 indicated on the glass tube, the stop-cock is closed 
 and the rubber hose removed. Usually it is neces- 
 sary to run off a little of the mercurv and lower 
 its upiKT siu-face to the H.\ed mark. The balance 
 of the Ix-um is now restored bv dropping line shot 
 into the cavity of the counleri)oi.se \V, the weight 
 of the latter being slightly liws than the weight 
 of the lilled resc-rvoir; this done, the slop-cock /< is 
 ojjened and the reservoir emptied. The coimteriwise 
 W is then nplaccd by the ."i-pound weight, the screw- 
 cap removed and IwHiked to the yoke, and a sutlicient 
 quantity of the |M)wder to be ti'.sled inlrodiiced into 
 the reservoir to balance the S-pound weight. The 
 scrcw-a«p is then rcplacc-d. the counteriwise W added 
 to the 5-pound weight, and the reservoir lilled with i 
 
 mercury by means of the air-pump to the same heieht 
 as before. The equipoise is now restored (the rubber 
 tul)e having been removed) by placing weights on the 
 platfonn susix'uded from the longer arm of the beam, 
 and in addition by the " riders" on the beam if nec- 
 essary. The sum of these weights is the weight of 
 the mercury dlsplaci'd by the powder, or of a volume 
 of mercurv equal to the volume of the powder, and 
 the six'cific gravity of the latter results from the well- 
 establishecl principle that the specific gravities of two 
 substances are pro]X)rtional to the weights of equal 
 volumes of those substances. Denote the sum of the 
 weights on the longer arm by W, the weight of the 
 powder by le, and the six-cific gravity of die mercury 
 at the teiiiperature of the time of observation by D, 
 and we shall have for the specific gravity of the Jhjw- 
 der, denoted by d ; 
 
 rf = D 
 
 W 
 
 In the use of this form of the densimeter the 
 weighings not only aVe rapidly and accurately made, 
 but, it is to be observed, the actual weights required 
 for the computation are obtained directly bv a dis- 
 criminative process peculiar to the balance. Yo sim- 
 plify further, the weights for the longer arm are 
 marked double their actual value in reference to the 
 reservoir, so that in the computation the specific 
 gra\nty is obtained by setting the decimal-point in the 
 value "of D one place" furtlier to the right, and divid- 
 ing by the value of W , as indicated on the weights, 
 the effect being the same as multiplying by 2 both 
 
 it 
 terms of the fraction TTj:::. See Deimmeter, Impec- 
 
 tion cf Pmrder, and Mcrniri/ Densimeter. 
 
 DURER SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This forti- 
 fication consists of a wall, flanked l)y circular towers 
 or bastions, and a ditch 200 feet w iile. The towers 
 are of very different tracings, usually 70 feet high and 
 command the enceinte. The wall of the enceinte is 
 double ; the top is provided with loop-holes and is 
 covered with a roof. The great dimensions, together 
 with the immense cost of masonry, render this plan 
 practicably useless. See Fortifiea'litm. 
 
 DUSACK. — A Bohemian Siiber of a peculiar shape, 
 willioui a handle or a hilt. It was wielded with a 
 gauntlet protecting the hand. 
 
 DUSTING-REELS.— The large-grain powder, re- 
 moved from the granulating-house, is called " foul 
 grain," owing to its containing a large percentage of 
 dust that has been produced under the granulating 
 process, for, although a great deal of it is removed 
 from the powder by means of the lower long sixteen- 
 mesh screen attached to the gninulaling-machine, 
 still the powder contains a considerable ciuaiility, 
 and the object of passing it through the dusting-reels 
 is to entirely remove what remains, and at the .sjime 
 time to rub down the rough, uneven surfaces of the 
 grain, and thus pie\'ent its becoming dusty again 
 through moving it about in course of transport, for 
 dust in gunpowder is very injurious, as it ab.sortis 
 moisture from the atmosphere very readilv, and this 
 soon affects the whole nia.ss. The dust is removed 
 from large-grain powder by means of horizontal 
 reels; these are cylindrical wocHlen skeletons, su|> 
 ported upon a central shaft by radial arms, the 
 periphery of the c^ylinder being covered with canvas 
 iiaving twenty-four meshes per inch. The reel is about 
 8 feet long by 2 feet (i inches in diameter; the wooden 
 skeleton is made in halves, so thai it may be ea-sily 
 removed for recovering. The ends are closed by 
 disks, secured u])on the main central shaft, and one 
 end is so constructed thai it can be opened or drawn 
 back for the jmrpose of unloading the reel. When 
 about to be filled, the reel is turned round until the 
 charging-door is directly under the feeding-hopper; 
 into Ibis latter three barrels of foul grain are emptied, 
 and when it has all pas.sed through the hopl»r, the 
 <loor of the reel is closed and fastened, the reel set to
 
 DUST SHOT. 
 
 519 
 
 DYEB POINTING-APPARATUS. 
 
 work at from 40 to 42 revolutions per minute, and 
 kept in motion for about lialf an hour; at the end of 
 tills time it will be found that the whole of the dust 
 will have passed through the meshes of the canvas 
 covering, and will be lying at the bottom of the 
 outer woodwork casing in which the reel is inclosed, 
 in order to prevent the dust spreading over the house. 
 When a number of reels are used, they are all driven 
 from one main shaft which receives its motion from 
 the water-wheel or steam-eugiue, and each reel is 
 provided with a separate clutch, so that any one may 
 be stopped or set in motion without affecting the 
 others. When the reel has run the requisite time, it is 
 stopped and the one end lowered about 10 inches, the 
 disk at the lower end is slackened back sufliciently to 
 allow the powder to run out into barrels, whicii it 
 will do when the reel is again stt in motion; when 
 quite empty, the disk is again screwed tightly up to 
 the end, and the reel raised to its horizontal position 
 ready for refilling. By this operation the dust is 
 not only taken from the powder, but the grain— from 
 being rolled over for such a time— has its rough sur- 
 faces rubbed off, and in the case of large-gniin 
 powder a sufficient gloss is imparted without its 
 
 Dusting-reels. 
 
 having to be pa.ssed through the glazing-barrels. The 
 powder is now ready for the drying-stove. The fine- 
 grain powder used for rifles or s'mall-anns has a nmch 
 larger proportion of dust in it than the large-grain 
 powder, and is therefore dusted in what is termed a 
 " slope-reel," which consist.s — as in other reels — of a 
 skeleton frame of wood fixed by radial amis on a 
 central shaft, and lies at an incline of U inch per foot; 
 the covering of this frame is of very fine canvas hav- 
 ing forty four meshes per inch, and the reel in this case 
 has no ends; it is also much smaller than the horizon- 
 tal reel, being only 20 inches in diameter by 8 feet 
 in length, anil is driven at 38 revolutions per minute. 
 The fine-grain powder, as it leaves the granulating- 
 machine, is brought from the magazine and placed in 
 the feeding-hopper, to which is fi.xed a loo.se spout 
 for gtiiding the powder into the reel. Attached to 
 the central shaft arc three ribs or cams which— as the 
 reel revolves — come in contact with and shake the 
 loose guiding-spout, imparting to it 13.") vibrations per 
 minute, thereby effectually keeping it clear, the fine- 
 grain powder at this stage being very apt to choke 
 up the hopper and spout. As the powder pas.ses 
 through the reel when in motion it is collected in a 
 tub placed for its reception at the lower end; from 
 this it is emptied back again into the hopper, in order 
 that il may be passed through the reel a second tune, 
 and this operation is sometimes performed a third 
 time. The fine grain thus treated, being only alx)ut 
 one minute in the reel, has had no gloss imparled to 
 it : the glazing has, therefore, to be effected by passing 
 it through a glazing-barrel before it is carried to the 
 dryimrstove. See Ounpcirdir. 
 
 DUST-SHOT. -The name usually applied to small 
 shot when used for military purposes; strictly speak- 
 ing, the term implies the smallest size of shot made. 
 
 DUTCH OVEN.— A mmp-ovfii used for cooking by 
 hot coals on the hearth. A mode yet common in the 
 field, and unsurpassed in its results with skillful 
 
 cooks. The oven stands in hot embers, and more of 
 the same are piled on the dish shaped lid. 
 
 DUTY. — There is no word oftener used in military 
 parlance than this. In the technical sense it refers 
 to the various services neces.sary for the maintenance, 
 discipline, and regulation of arnnes, — a.s tiyruil duty, 
 nUiff duty, guard ditty, etc. Military duties are var- 
 iously classed as duties of detnil, which are those 
 recurring and governed by a roster, such i;s guard, 
 fatigue, etc. ; sjucial diituti, which are detennined by 
 appointment, selection, or order; extra duty, con- 
 timious special duty of enlisted men, entitling then) 
 to pay; daily duty, short terms of special serWce for 
 enlisted men. In a higher and broader sense duty 
 is that which is due one's Country. It covers all the 
 soldier's obligations, and forms his simplest and sub- 
 liniest rule of action. What is termed the " tour of 
 duty " is invariably from the staiior downwards. An 
 officei' on one duty cannot be ordered for any other 
 until he has completed the duty on which he is 
 engaged. If an officer's turn for Picket, General 
 Court-Martial, or Fatigue happens when be is upon 
 any other duty, he is not obliged to make good the.se 
 services when he is relieved, but his tour passes 
 him; however, if an officer is on the Inlying Picket, 
 he is liable to be relieved lUid plaeeil on other 
 duties. Officers cannot exchange tlieir duties with- 
 out permission of the Conini.-mding Officer. A 
 guard, detachment, or picket having once marched 
 off the place of parade is reckoned to have performed 
 a duty, though it may have been dismis.scd imme- 
 diately afterwards. Officers, on all duties under 
 arms. "are to have their swords drawn, without wait- 
 ing for any word of command for that purpose. 
 
 DUUMVIB6.— The officers among the Komans ap- 
 pointed for special services, such as Magistrates of 
 Colonies and Towns, Constructors anil Coininandcrs 
 of Fleets and Trains, and ^Municipal Censors. In the 
 Eastern Empire the people elected for one year 
 duiiiiimri ludorum, who were to provide exhibitions 
 of games at their own expense. 
 
 DWARF PLATFORM.— A frame of wro\ight-iron 
 from which heavy gims are fired when in open bat- 
 teries. The original pattern is similar in general 
 construction to the "common traversing" platform, 
 and guns mounted upon this nature of platform can 
 fire through ordinary embrasures. By lengthening 
 the legs of a platform of this kind the gun could be 
 fired over a parapet, if required. The ordinary gar- 
 rison-carriage is used with il, but has blocks instead 
 of axlefrees'upon which il rests, the part of the block 
 between Ihe cheeks being deei)er, and pa.ssing between 
 them, so as to keep the carriage in its place. In front 
 of each bracket there is a pair of eheek-plales, in 
 which a gim-metal truck works, which comes into 
 play when the rear of the carriage is hoisted up by 
 the" truck-levers. The carriage is run up by means 
 of tackles. Dwarf -platformsWere made to traverse 
 on a pivot, but "raised racers" have been substituted, 
 the platform resting on hollow solid trucks which 
 run vipon the racer. Since the introduction of heavy 
 rirted artillery a change of pattern has taken place 
 not only in this nature of platform, but in the car- 
 riage adapted to it, which is of Ihe ordinary xinyle 
 or ilniiMe jilutf pattfrii. both of which arc made of 
 wrought-iron. Casemate carriages and platforms are 
 similarly constructed, and the platforms of each only 
 differ iii the height they are raised from the ground; 
 the ca.semate-l)latform being low for use in casemates, 
 and Ihe dwarf-platfoi-m high for open batteries. 
 
 DYER POINTING APPARATUS.— This method of 
 pointiuL'. devised bv Lieutenant A. B. Dyer, United 
 Stales Army, is esp'ecially adapted for use with mor- 
 tars mounted on center-pintle carriages; it is also 
 readilv adapted for use with mortars mounted on 
 ordinary and temporarv platforms. Practically it is 
 independent of the distance from the cre-st of the 
 parapet to the platform. The method is as follows: 
 Find the point where the vertical plane containing 
 the directrix of the platform cuts the interior crest of
 
 DYEB PEOJECTILE. 
 
 520 
 
 DYNAMIC UNITS. 
 
 the piirapet. At this jwint establish a level plate 
 coiituiuiug an arc graduated both ways from the point 
 where the verlic-al plane c\as it, the" center bein^' the 
 [loint lirst established on the interior crest. An arm 
 with two verliiiil sights ivvolves about this point as a 
 center, and detenuiues, l)y means of an indicator al- 
 tfieluil to the front of the arm, the angle made l>y any 
 objei't with the vertical plime through the center, 
 called the plane of the zeros. The mortar being 
 given the .sjime luigle with the plane of the zeros, the 
 plane of fire will practically intersect the object. To 
 apply this methoil to a mortar mounted on a center- 
 pintle carriage: On the rear of the platform, with the 
 Center of the pintle ivs a center, describe an arc. Find 
 the point where the plane of the zeros cuts this arc, 
 and mark the jjoint ziro. Divide the arc both ways 
 from the pt)int into degrees and parts of degrees. An 
 indicator attached to the center of the rear transom 
 .in the verticid plane containing the axis of the piece) 
 « ill always mark the degrees to the right or left of 
 the plane of tlie zeros. 
 
 A horizontal iron plate is permanently established 
 on the parapet, the rear edge being on the crest and 
 the center in the plane of the zeros. In order that 
 the same inslriunent may be used at different places 
 in a work, or be removed when not in use, a detach- 
 able plate containing the graduation and sights is ad- 
 justed to the permanent plate. By the use of this 
 plate the index arm will always be made to move in 
 a horizontal plane. In the application of the method, 
 place the plate containing the graduated arc on its 
 bed, and level it by means of the tangent-screws; then 
 place the arm to which the sights are attached on 
 the plate. Traverse the chassis until the index on 
 the rear transom indicates the required number of 
 degrees as indicated by the instrument. If the arm 
 of the instrument be to the right of the zero, traverse 
 the chassis to tlie left; and rice rersa. For the suc- 
 cessful operation of this method with the center-pintle 
 mortar-carriage, it is essential that the guides of the 
 top<arrlage should fit true and snug to the chassis- 
 rails. Sec Paflrlix/i InterpoUdor. 
 
 DYER PEOJECTILE.— A well-known form of pro- 
 jectile which is composed of a cast- 
 ^^r?^. _„ iron body, a, shown in the cut, and a 
 ^^UiSSf' soft-metal expanding cup, b, attached 
 
 to its base. The adhesion of the cup 
 Is effected by tinning the bottom of 
 the projectile, and then casting the 
 cup on to it. The cup is comi)osed of 
 an alloy of lead, tin, and copjjer in 
 certain proportions. This projectile, 
 as imjiroved by Mr. Taylor at the 
 Wa-shington Arsenal, gi\es good re- 
 sults for even as large a calilxjr as 12 
 inches. A corrugated cap of tinned sheet - iron, c, 
 is used with ainch projectiles to catch and direct that 
 portion of the fiame of the charge which escapes 
 oyer the projectile on to the fuse to ignite it. See 
 E-rjui iiiHiiii Pri'jictilen. 
 
 DYNAMICS.— That division of mechanics which 
 contains the doctrine of the motion of bodies pro- 
 duced by forces. It is essentially a science of deduc- 
 tion from the laws of motion. The branches of dy- 
 namics capable of being treated in the present work 
 will be found di.scu.ssed under .separate heads. We 
 shall here confine oursi'lves to giving a view of the 
 main branches and their correlation. I. The first 
 branch of dynamics deals with the fundamental con- 
 ceptions of the science, their names and definitions, 
 such as velocity and the ilifferent kinds of motion) 
 and accelerated motion; force, acceler.it ing ff)rce, and 
 moving force. Under this branch .ilso falls the com- 
 piwilion of motions. II. The second main bnmch of 
 dynamics treats of the motion, free or constrained, of 
 
 points. Here two problems are solved in each case 
 
 I.e., whether the motion Ix- free or con.strained — viz., 
 a direct and an inverse problem; as, for example: 1.' 
 To riciermine the path of a point when the forces are 
 given which act upon it; 2. To determine the forces 
 
 I 
 
 or force acting on a point when its path is given. 
 This division of tlynaniical problems into direct and 
 inverse obtains in all the liranches. It may be men- 
 tioned that it was by solving the inverse pioblem that 
 Xewton and lluygt'ns effected their greatest glories 
 in connection with dynamics. The method of treat- 
 ing the case of a free point now generally employed 
 is due to Euler. See, under this head. Central 
 Forces, F.\i,lixg Bodies, and Projectiles. III. 
 The third main branch of dynamics is concerned 
 with the motion of a rigid system of pciints, or of a 
 solid iKidy. Few of the sub-bninches of this part of 
 dynamics are capable of exposition in this work, but 
 see C'E-NTER OF Gtr.\tion, Center of Oscilla- 
 tion, Center of Percussion, and Pendulum. 
 The honor belongs to D'Alembert of establishing a 
 geiicml method of treating problems in rigid dynam- 
 ics. Previous to his time, each set of such problems 
 was treated on some principle iieculiarly applicable 
 to it.self. D'Alembert iminted one (which goes by 
 his name) applicable to all such problems. IV. The 
 fourth main branch of dynamics is concerned with 
 motions of rotation. A system of rigid points maj 
 be subject to two independent kinds of motion 
 may suffer a motion of IransUiiwu in space, or a mo- 
 tion of rotation about some point or suxis within it.self, 
 or it may suffer at once a motion of translation and a 
 rotatorj'" motion. These may clearly be treated con- 
 jointly or independently; they are now uniformly 
 treated indepenilently, bj- investigating (1) the veloc- 
 ity and direction of the center of gravity of the sys- 
 tem, and (2) the direction at each instant of the 
 spontaneous axis of rotation i)assing through the cen- 
 ter of gravity, and the velocity of the rotation of the 
 system round that axis. To effect the second task, 
 Poinsot proposed his theory of couples. For the 
 conservation of living forces (ririum eirariim), and 
 the principle of least action, see Forces. See also 
 Moment. Dynamics is used by some recent writers 
 with a wider signification, as denoting the science 
 which investigates the action of force (1) in compel- 
 ling rest or preventing change of motion, and (2) in 
 producing or changing motion; the former branch 
 being called sUitien, and the latter kiniticK. 
 
 I DYNAMIC UNITS.— Units for measuring forces 
 and their effects. It is an axiom of mechanics that if 
 a body at rest be inipres.sed bv a force and meet no 
 resistance other than its own inertia, it will move in 
 a straight line with a velocity which varies as the 
 force; e.g., twice the force \yill develop twice the 
 
 i velocity. Also, if the nia.ss of the body be increased, 
 the force must be increased in like ratio to maintain 
 the same velocity; e.g., double the mass will require 
 double the force; or, if the force remain unchanged, 
 double the mass will move ■nnth half the velocity. 
 Combining the two statements, we find that the 
 velocity varies directly as the force and inversely as 
 the mass; velocity equals force divided by mass, or 
 
 P 
 « = :n^. From this we have P = Mr. The unit of 
 M 
 
 force is that force which will impart a unit of velocity 
 to a unit of mass; that is, which will cause a unit of 
 mass to move through a unit of space in a unit of 
 time. If the force considered be that of graWtation, 
 whose action in the same place is practically uniform, 
 and if we remember that the mea.sure of the force of 
 gra\itation in a body is the weight of tlie body, we 
 have W = Me. But"if the mas.s"lH? submitted to the 
 force of gravitation, that is, 'if it be permitted to fall 
 freely in a vacuum, it traverses a space of 32. 16 feet in 
 one second, at New York, approximatelv. We have 
 then, by experiment, a value for r which makes our 
 equation W = M X 32.16, whence M = W -h 32.16. 
 The English or American unit of force is one pound 
 avoirdupois; and the corresponding unit of mass is 
 1 lb. divided by 32.16. The unit of irork is the force 
 which will raise a unit of weight through a unit of 
 space. The two items arc indicated in the name foot- 
 pound, which by analogy might be exchanged in
 
 DYNAMITE. 
 
 521 
 
 STNAHITE-OTTN. 
 
 proper ratio for inch ounce, ton-mile, etc. The cor- 
 responding French unit of work k tlie kilojrram-meter. 
 3Iore generally the foot-pound is the work of a unit 
 of force acting through a unit of space. The horse- 
 power is an arbitraryiynit, being (he force required i 
 to perform 33,000 units of work in one minute. It 
 may be called the unit of the rate of irorkiiig. The 
 French eheral li tapeur is 7.1 kilogram-meters per sec- 
 ond, anil is equal to 32, .550 foot-pcunds per minute, 
 or a little less than our horse-power. The theoretical 
 horse-power is merely a conventional quantity, the 
 actual work of horses averaging about 17,000 and 
 rarely exceeding 23,000 foot-pounds per miiuite. 
 
 DYNAMITE. — Xilro-glycerine is the most powerful 
 explosive agent now known, but, unconibincd with 
 absorlx;nts, Is dangerous in manipulation, and untit 
 for long storage, from liability to spontaneous tic- 
 composition. Tliis led to experiments being made 
 with absorbents, and to the invention and introduction 
 in 1866 of " dynamite" or " giant powder." Dyna- 
 mite consists of 75 per cent of nitro-glycerine and | 
 25 per cent of a light silicious earth. Tlie best vari- I 
 ety of the latter is known as " kieselguhr," an in- [ 
 fusorial earth found in Hanover and in other coun- 
 tries; it is a tine white powder, capable of absorbing 
 from two to three times its weight of nitroglycerine 
 without becoming pa.sty. The explosive i)roperties 
 of dynamite are those of the nitroglycerine it con- 
 tains. It is less liable to accidental detonation from 
 shocks, and to spontaneous combustion, than nitro- 
 glycerine; freezes at the same temperature, and if then 
 mthe state of loose powder does not lose the pr(>i>erty 
 of exploding from the action of the visual fuse, 
 though it will act with less violence; frozen solid it 
 cannot be tired. If .saturated with water it retains 
 very nearly its full explosive power, but requires a 
 much more powerful primer to develop it; ignited in 
 small quantities by a flame and uncontined, it burns 
 quietly. It is not sensitive to friction or moderate 
 percussion. Its explosive force is not qiute so in- 
 stantaneous as that of pure nitro-glycerine. The pro- 
 cess of manufacture is simply to mix the nitro- 
 glycerine with the drj', line powder in a leaden ves,sel 
 with wooden spatiUas; when completed it has a 
 brown color, resembling moist brown sugar. Dyna- 
 mite is generally put up in paper cartridges, which 
 are ignited by a fulminating-fuse. It is extensively 
 employeil in blasting, and has lieen adopted in the 
 Torpedo Service of "the United States army. By 
 combining the ingredients of djniamile in judicious 
 percentages a certain control can be exerted over the 
 quickness of its action, and a classification similar to 
 that of the different grades of gunpowder, but much 
 more restricted in range, may Ije made. Various at- 
 tempts to improve upon dynamite, by replacing its 
 inert ba.se with different materials, liave produced 
 such compounds as gtyoriline, lithofrneteiir, and 
 dualine; none of these are improvements, as the bidk 
 is incrca.sed in them in a higher ratio than the power. 
 Glyoxiline is a mixture of gun-cotton pulp and potas- 
 sium nitrate, .saturated with nitro-glycerine; lithofrac- 
 teur is composed of ritro-glycerine, silica, and min- 
 eral bodies; and dualine Is" a conipounil of iiitro- 
 flycerine with clean sawdust and pota.s.sium nitrate, 
 'he detonating force of the preparations containing 
 nitro-glycerine in varjnng aniovmts is generally ad- 
 mitted "to be due alone to the nitro-glycerine con- 
 tained in them; yet it is far from true that their 
 economic value as explosives can l)e thvis compared. 
 The clement of time which detemunes whether a 
 blow or a push is delivered is of primarv- imjior- 
 tance, and ui>on it should lie based the selection of 
 the compound to be used. In flint-rock nothing ex- 
 ceeds the action of liquid nitroglycerine; but for 
 common earth gimpowder is far more effective. See 
 Dualine. Erphmre Agents, and yUro^iyeerine. 
 
 DYNAMITE-GUN.— Ever since the introduction of 
 what are known as high explosives, some means have 
 been sought by which they could Ije thrown from 
 guns with accuracy, and a sufficient distance to ren- 
 
 der their use practicable for purposes of war. The 
 nature of dynamite and nitro-glycerine precludes 
 their being loaded in cannon and tired in the ordinary 
 manner by gunpowder, which has been proved eoii- 
 clusively in many ways, and has almost invariably 
 led to the destruction of tlie gun in which the attempt 
 was made. Thus far the ai)plicalion of high explosives 
 has Icen principally contined to torpedoc-s. These 
 latter in their various forms have attracted a great 
 deal of attention, the different Governments spending 
 large sums in maintaining and perfecting them. The 
 various systems, while undoubtedly advantageous 
 in a great many cases, are nevertheless restricted in 
 their vcrj- nature, and this has stimulated investi- 
 gators to devise means by which high explosives, 
 such as dynamite, could be projected " overland " 
 with safety-. It is now claimed that this knottj' 
 problem has been fairly .solved, and, strange to 
 say, by a medium long since applied to the pro- 
 pulsion of projectiles, but the use of which has 
 never yet been attended with sufficient success to 
 warrant its jx-mianenl introduction. We refer to 
 the use of air and steam under high tension, and in the 
 new dynamite-gun compre.s.sed air of very high ten- 
 sion is used as tlie proiH-lling power. Tliis new gun 
 is the joint invention of a numlierof gentlemen under 
 the leadei-ship of Sir. H. D. M'insor, of New York, 
 and one form of it is now undergoing a series of tests 
 ordered bv the United States Government, which are 
 being matle under the special direction of Lieutenant 
 E. L. Zalinski. A description of the apparatus will 
 be interesting as illustrating a new departure in ap- 
 pliances of war in a direction which has heretofore 
 proved unsuccessful. The 4-inch gun now building 
 at the Delamater Iron Works, and embodying the 
 latest improvements, is repre.senled on page 522. It 
 will be seen to consist of a tube 40 feel in length and 
 i inch thick, mountetl upon a light steel girder. The 
 latter is trunnioned and is pivoted on a ca.st - iron 
 base,thus enabling it to be swung into any desired posi- 
 tion and range. To assist in the latter operation guys 
 are placed on either side of the base, and their length 
 can be altered and fixed by tumin-r the hand-wheeU 
 shown. Compressed air fe introduced to the gun 
 from below and pa-s-ses up through the center of the 
 bast', the pipe connecting with o'ne of the trunnions 
 (which are hollow); it is thence introduced into the 
 pijie shown at the side of the gtin leading into the 
 valve. This valve is a continuation of the breech of 
 the gun, to which it iscoimeeted by the short pa&sage 
 
 i shown. Aji important feature of" the system is the 
 projectile, or dart, and upon which the success of 
 the undertaking greatly depends. It consists essen- 
 tially of two parts; and while several different modi- 
 fications have been tried, the principal features are 
 alike in all of them. The forward part of the dart 
 consists of a thin brass tube into which the charge of 
 dynamite is inserted. At the rear the tube is closed 
 i)V a wo(Hlen plug, which flares out toward the rear 
 until its diameter equals that of the bore of the gun. 
 The forward end of the brass tube shows a mass of 
 some soft material, into which is inserted a pin firmly 
 held in place, the end being closed by a conical metal 
 cap. Provision has also been made to allow a certain 
 amount of air to act as a cushion for the dj-namite 
 cartridge, thus lessening the .shock due to a sudden 
 di.scharce. It is therefore claimed that, luider ordi- 
 narvcircum.stances, there is little danger of the charge 
 
 ' exiilotiing, since the pin cannot reach it and ignite the 
 fulminate at its end; but when thrown from the gun, 
 the impact asniinst a bo<ly will displace the soft mate- 
 rial and clrive the pin liome, causing an explosion. 
 Another feature of the projectile is the power which 
 
 ! it pos.sessi's to correct, to a certain extent, the deflec- 
 tion due to a side wind. It will be nottnl that with 
 the present construction the center of gm\ity of the 
 dart is some distance forivard of its center of figure. 
 A side wind would, therefore, acting uiwn the lighter 
 re'ir part, have the tendencv to deflect it so as to turn 
 the head of the dart into the wind, which action
 
 DYNAMO-ELECTKIC lONITEB. 
 
 522 
 
 DYNAMO-ELECTRIC IGNITER 
 
 would, ID a measure, tend to keep it in the line of its 
 irajeotorv. Tla- tiring of the ^un. if the expression 
 niiiy lie iistd, is uc-coniplished in the followini.' man- 
 ner: The dart is iiiserleil in the breech, and a gas- 
 check phicitl in [KKiilion; a lever then being moved, 
 the valve is oixned, and the air-pressure admittwl. 
 This nuthml of discharge will, it is thought, obviat<> 
 the daninrof shock, which had heretofore proved 
 a stumliling-blcK'k to success, and in addition the 
 vUve-conirolling mechanism is automatically arnuiged 
 lo admit the air gently at first, to overcome the in 
 ertia of the projectile," following with full pressure, 
 and finally closing at the proper tinje, as the dart 
 leaves the gun. 
 
 In this gun we note a great step in advance, and 
 are forced lo believe tiiat the day is not far disliint 
 when it will work great changes in warfare, both 
 naval and military. iU an auxiliary to coast and 
 harlHir defenses such a gun would be of great value; 
 and placed on board small Uiunclies the latter might 
 approach and hurl Iluir diadly nu'ssiles with great 
 accuracy, the absi'nci- of a loud report and of a tiash 
 of tire "giving additional security from detection. 
 Another advantage of these guns is their cheapness; 
 their cost is but a tritle compared with that of other 
 guns of iHjual power of destruction: and whereas the 
 latter require heavy special machinery and many 
 months of labor to complete them, the former can be 
 built in any well-equipped shop in a period of time 
 
 in the United States, where Uie coast-line is so ex- 
 tende<l, where good harbors are numerous, and ap- 
 propriations for harbor defen.se .so meager and so 
 often ////, and wherein fancic<l security the defeii.sele.ss 
 shores are exposed to hoslilo^iviusion; under tlie.s*- 
 circumstances does it become necessjirj' to substitute 
 cunning for might, and rely u|K)n some such nieau.s 
 as torpedoes aiul dyuamitc",guns for protection from 
 uncxiKclcd iiiid iniiiivilcd approach. 
 
 DYNAMO ELECTRIC IGNITER.— This igniter, as 
 at present ciiiploycd. consists of a hard wooden plug, 
 half an inch in knglh and about ,•',, of an inch in di- 
 ameter, having a .score cut about its center, and a 
 longitudinal groove on either side (the bottoms of 
 which are ',• of an inch apart) for the reception of 
 thecoiiper wires. There are also two cotton-covered 
 (liraidcd) copper wires, which are twisted together 
 tor alKHit an incli, and are stripped of their insula- 
 tion almost to the twist. These uncovered parts are 
 pressed firmly into the grooves in the sides of tlie plug. 
 
 Dynamite-gun. 
 
 not excwding a month, if need be. Nor does it seem 
 unlikely that the system may be applicable to the 
 use of armies in the field when engaged in siege-oper- 
 ations. Experiments made thus far have shown that 
 the apparatus can 1h- depended upon for a fair degree 
 of aceimicy and rapidity in firing. As regards the 
 range- allainable. I lie 2 inch gun now Ix'iiig tested 
 has atlained If miles with a Jinssure of 420 pounds 
 to the square inch. In the 4- and 6-inch guns which 
 are now in course of construction it is intended to 
 use pressures of 201K) pounils and over, by the use of 
 w Inch a range of time miles is hoped to be attained. 
 While this new application of eompres.scd air to the 
 l>ropulsion of <lynamite is no doubt valuable, it is 
 harilly to be ex|>ected thai it will, wilh its limited 
 range, ever lake the ])lace of heavy ordnance — a 
 jioint which its inventoi-s wis<'ly do not claim; but if 
 it shall transpire that the gun is, in it.s<-ir, a practical 
 success for much shorter distances, it will be of the 
 greatest imporlanee and a valuable accession to our 
 present appliances of war. Especially will this be so 
 
 and cut off so that they project about J of an inch 
 above the Jilug; the ends of the wires are now split 
 with a very fine saw, and the distance between the ends 
 carefully "adjusted to ,\ of an inch, after which pla- 
 tinum w ire No. 4t) is .stretched between them to fonn 
 the bridge, and securelj' soldered to the ends of the 
 split wires. A wisp of gun-colton, is next wrapped 
 around the ]ilalinum wire, and the ends of the copper 
 wire iiinchcd together suflieirnlly to take all sinun off 
 the iilalinuni wire. The jilug is now inserted in a 
 hollow woikU'ii case, two inches long, countersinking 
 it about an eighth of an inch. The resistance of the 
 wire is next found, and marked upon the ca.se; it 
 should fall between .40 and .45 ohm. 1 he upper 
 part of llu' case is filled with rittc powder, the top 
 being closed with a disk of cork, over which is (x>ured 
 some waler-proof composition, and the whole i> 
 properly coaled with shellac lo render it waler-proof. 
 T/ir (ji/iiamo-fkrlric fiint: is made by inclosing one 
 of the (lynamo-electric igniters in a stout paper ca.se 
 about six inches in length, which is filled with ritle
 
 DTRAHO-ELECTBIC HACHIN£. 
 
 523 
 
 DYNAMO ELECTBIC MACHINE. 
 
 powder to give more flame and consequently a more 
 perfect ignition of the charge than can be obtained 
 by the igniter alone. The ends of the case are prop- 
 erly closed, a wooden plug, with grooves cut in the 
 si(.lcs for the wires, being used for the bottom, and a 
 disk of cork for the top, which is coated with collo- 
 dion, and seals the cork tirmly into the case. The 
 fuse is given two coats of brown shellac. The ends 
 of the wires Ix-low the plug arc stripped of their cov- 
 ering and brightened. See Fuw. 
 
 DYNAMO -ELECTEIC MACHINE. — All known 
 methods of generating electricity can produce light 
 of greater or less steadiness and brilliancy. Cavallo, 
 in bis treatise published a century ago, refers to a 
 
 wires entering at binding-screws. The rods slide in. 
 the heads of glass pillars. The wires from the bat- 
 tery being connected, the points are made to touch, 
 and are then withdrawn a line or two, when a. 
 dazzling light appears, approaching the light of the 
 sun in purity and splendor. Its intensity prevents 
 the naked eye from examining its form, but this may 
 be ascertained by projecting the images of the ])ointK 
 on a screen, when it is no longer painful to the eyes. 
 The light is partly due to the incandescence of the 
 tips of the carbon, and partly to lui arch of incandes- 
 cent particles extending from the one to the other. 
 The positive pole is brightest and hottest, as may be 
 proved by intercepting the current, when the positive 
 
 Dynamo-electric Machine. 
 
 light, different from the electric spark, produced by 
 frictional electricity. A needle or wire presented to 
 an insulated person, at the distance of about one inch 
 from his Ixxly, while he is actur.lly rubbing the tube, 
 will, he says,"cxhibit a lucid pencil of rays, seemingly 
 issuing from the point and diverging towards the 
 person; and other like experiments are described by 
 Watson and other early writers. Light from batterj' 
 electricity was first discovered by Sir Humphry Davy 
 at the Royal Institution, London, in I.'^IO, when, on 
 the conrinuitv of a current from 2000 cells being 
 broken, a brifliixnt light was seen. To this the name 
 of the " voltaic arc" was given, and the points where 
 the current was broken were termed " elecm)des. " 
 An early and simple arrangement for producing this 
 light consisted of two carbon points fixed into hollow- 
 brass rods, which are connected with the battery by 
 
 ix)lc continues red for some time after the negative 
 pole has become dark. During the maintenance of 
 the light a visible cliauce takes place in the condition 
 of the poles, and the jxisitive ix)le becomes blunt by 
 the loss of particles of carbon. The wasting away 
 of the poles renders the distance between them too 
 wide to allow of the passage of the current, and the 
 light is thus suddenlv extinguished, until again re- 
 newed bv contact and removal. The heat of the 
 TolUtic arc is very intense. Quartz, the sapphire, 
 magnesia, lime, and other sulwtances equallv refrac- 
 tory are forced bv it into a state of fusion. The dia- 
 mond when placed in it l>ecomes white hot, swells 
 up fuses, and is reduced to a black nias.s rcsemblmg 
 coke. The electric liirht can l)e produced in a vacu- 
 un> and i)elow the surfac-e of water, oils, and other 
 non'-conductiBg liquids, and is thus quite independent
 
 STNAHOMETEB. 
 
 524 
 
 DYNAMOMETER. 
 
 of the action of the air. In 1820 Oersted proveil the 
 identity of electricitv and magnetism; but il remained 
 for Fiiraduy, in l^Sl, by his t^rvm discovery of in- 
 duceil curnMits, to ix-nder pnictieable the applicalioii 
 of eleclrielly lo Ihe production of a gixxl artiticial 
 li^hl. Il was not, however, until IS'i'i that the nui::- 
 netoH'leclric machine was actually applied to Ihe pur- 
 pose; and in 1H.>7 the tirsi great" pnictical trial took 
 place, when Faraday had the satisfacliou of seeing 
 his conception carried into effect. This trial of 
 Holmes's machine resulted in the electric lidit being 
 then introiluced into the South Foreland light-house, 
 Deci'mlH-r ^l. IS-jS, and later the light was adopted at 
 Dungenevs. The French Government adopted the 
 li::lit for two light-houses near Havre in 18(53. 
 
 The problems to be .solved in the production of elec- 
 tric ligbt are to supply a constant and equal current 
 (which the batteij' -electricity does not jield), and to 
 provide a form of electrode "which will not cause the 
 light to blink or go out by wasting away. The first 
 generating raacliiiies were " magneto-electric," revolv- 
 ing coils in front ,if permanent steel magnets (or con- 
 trariwisi', revolving magnets in front of the coils), but 
 st)me later machines are "dynamo-electric," based on 
 a discovery simultaneously made by Werner Siemens, 
 Varley, and Wheatstone, that by revolving coils in 
 front of soft iron elect ro-magnctis the residual mag- 
 netism in the iron would gradually be augmenteil, 
 dv'iiamic force being thus converted into electricity. 
 The currents created by machines of either sort are 
 alternate; but where, a.s in the case of some forms of 
 lamp, the current must proceed in one direction, the 
 alternate currents are made continuous by the use of 
 a I'ommutator. There are a large number of ma- 
 chines in use for generating current.s for producing 
 the eltHtric li"hf. The dynamo-electric machines of 
 the E.xeelsior Electric Company of New York, repie 
 seuted on page .523, are believed to be superior to 
 all others for the illumination of large areas by the 
 electric arc-light. As the dynamo requires less ix)\ver 
 than others, the machines can be run where it would 
 be found impracticable to use others, and a special 
 point in tlieir favor is that they require no more at- 
 tention than any ordinary piece of machinery. Ow- 
 ing to the peculiar construction of these machines, a 
 very powerful magnetic field is obtained with a com- 
 l)aralively small numlxT of convolutions of copjier 
 wire aroimd the inducing magnet. The inductor is 
 sectional, making it possible to equip it with wire 
 helices after they have been completely fitiished on a 
 mandrel and their iasulation thoroughly tested. The 
 commutator-bars are fastened to a stone plate and are 
 separated from each other by air spaces. If kept 
 clean, an accidental short-circuiting is impossible. 
 The current from the machine is .sent through the 
 lamps or withilrawn from them by means of a switch, 
 which doc-s not break the circuit suddenly and there- 
 by give rise to a djingerous extra current; but it 
 merely deprives the magnetic helices of the excitinij 
 current, lowering the power of the magnetic field 
 down to zero and short-circuiting; the inductor-helices. 
 
 The regulation of the lamp is effected in the fol- 
 lowing manner: The movement of the upper carbon- 
 holder is controlled by a train of wheels, carried on a 
 lever which swings on a fulcrum. The escapemen' 
 is arrested when the lever is swung so as to lift the 
 carljons apart, and set frw when tbey are caused to 
 appnjach each other. The end of the lever carries a 
 Usha|X.'d iron core, whose straight parts are sur- 
 rounded by fine wire helices fastened lo the floor of 
 the lamp-case, and has attached to il a retractile 
 .spring (»|)able of adjastment. The iron core of a 
 coarse wire helix is resting on the sjimc lever, and de- 
 prcs.-ifs it, owing to iLs weight overcoming the pull of 
 the spring. This helix forms part of Ihe light-cir- 
 cuit, an<l rai.ses its core as soon as the current is sent 
 through the lamp, thereby allowing the spring to lift 
 the carbons apart by means of the lever and gear- 
 tniin. The tine wire helix is connected with the pos 
 
 itivc and negative terminals, and forms a shunt to the 
 light-circuit. When the carlxms burn with a small 
 separation the resistance in Ihe light-circuit is low, 
 and but a small portion of the current traverses the 
 shunt-helix; but as the carbon ends are consumed by 
 Ihe current, the separation inerea.ses, and the current 
 has more resistjince lo overcome in Ihe arc. The 
 shunt will receive a constantly increasing amount of 
 curri'nt, and will draw its core and the lever attached 
 to it down till the escapement is relca-se-il from its 
 detent, and Ihe wheel-train allowed to move suffi- 
 ciently to let the carbons approach. As soon as the 
 proper length of arc hius lieen reestablished, the shunt- 
 heli.v — the current pitssing through it being dimin- 
 ished — allows its core lo be lifted a little by the re- 
 tractile spring, and Ihe escapement engages ag-ain its 
 detent. The core of the main helix remains firmlj' 
 dr.iwn up by the strong suction of the helix in the 
 light-circuit, aided by the attraction of an iron arma- 
 ture upon the helix, until the current is cut off and 
 the light tliereby extinguisheil. If a luimber of lamps 
 are burning in series, the failure of one to feed its car- 
 bon down would soon lead to the extinction of all. 
 To prevent such an occurrence, each lamp is provi- 
 ded with an automatic cut-out, which furnishes 
 another path for the current when Ihe distance be- 
 tween Ihe carbons becomes abnormally great. This 
 device consists of a light iron jilate hung in pivots 
 near the shunt-helices, and which is forced towards 
 them bj' Ihe combined attraction of the helix itself 
 anil its core when an undue amount of current flows 
 through Ihe shunt. In swinging over it makes con- 
 tact between the two ends of the helix in Ihe light- 
 circuit, depriving it of the current, and thereby caus- 
 ing its core to drop. Bui il has also put a lever at- 
 tached to it in such a position that the falling core 
 can force il against a contact, completing a short cir- 
 cuit between the terminals of the lamp. The hand- 
 switch allows the atlemlaut to re-carbon any lamp of 
 a series while the others are burning. See Electric 
 Liijht. 
 
 DYNAMOMETER.— A device for measuring the 
 force which does work in overcoming resistance and 
 producing motion. The foot-pound, as a unit of 
 work, has for its factors the force acting and the dis- 
 tance through which it acts. The larger luiit, the 
 horse-power, Iwsides these factors has a third, Ihe 
 lime during which the force is exerted. Hence, in 
 getting Ihe data from which Ihe work oi a machine 
 is lo be calculated, we are lo observe the force, the 
 distance, and Ihe lime required lo accomplish a cer- 
 tain result. Strictly speaking, Ihe dynamometer in- 
 dicates the first of these items, but it may be so ar- 
 ranged as lo show both the others. Dynamometers 
 are designed to indicate the force of traction, of 
 tlin/il, or of rotation. A traction-dynamometer may 
 be Interposed, for example, Iwtwecn a team of horses 
 and a reaper or a plow, to measure the force ex- 
 erted by the horses in drawing the machine. It is 
 usvially some .sort of sjiring balance, fitted with an in- 
 dex and a scale; the figures on the .scale show the 
 number of pounds required to bring the index to the 
 corresponding points, if the instrument were hung 
 up and weights suspended by it. A dynamometer 
 for thrust is often connected with Ihe screw -shaft of 
 a sicamshi]), lo measure Ihe force with which the 
 screw Is driving the vessel through the water. Rota- 
 ry dynamometers measure Ihe force of a null-shaft, 
 cither by showing what force is required to hold the 
 shaft in check, by absorbing Ihe motion, or what 
 force Ihe shaft tp.msmits to other machinery. Nearly 
 all forms of dynamometers are loo complex to be de- 
 scribed without the help of elal)orate drawings and 
 technical descriptions, for which Ihe reader is re- 
 ferred to special works on mechanism. The use of 
 Ihe dynamometer In skillful bauds has acquired great 
 value in exchanging the rough and usually overesti- 
 mated guesses of the efficiency of niachines for the 
 exact determiuatiou of their performance.
 
 DYNASTY. 
 
 525 
 
 EABL HABSHAL. 
 
 DYNASTY. — A line, race, series, or succession of 
 princes of the sjjnie blood who have reigned in any 
 particular country; as, the Dynasty of the Plantage- 
 nets, or Boiu-bons. 
 
 DYSODILE.— A yellow or grayish laminated bitu- 
 minous mineral, often found with lignite. It bums 
 vividly, and diffuses an odor of asafoetida. 
 
 E 
 
 £A6LE. — 1. The eagle, as a military standard, was 
 adopted by the Itomans, and even by nations preced- 
 ing them in history. The Persians in the time of 
 Cynis the Younger bore an eagle on ii spear as a 
 standard. The liomans for some time used the eagle, 
 the wolf, the boar, the horse, and the minotaur for 
 standards, but afterwards abandoned the last four and 
 confined themselves to the first. The Roman eagle, 
 sometimes of gold, but more frequently of silver, was 
 about as large as a pigeon with extended wings, and 
 was borne on the top of a spear, with a cross-bar or a 
 shield to support it. Some of the eagles were repre- 
 sented as holding thunderlx)lts in their talons, and 
 u.sually bore the name of the legion to which each 
 respectively belonged. The eagle wa.s sometimes made 
 of steel, but rarely. In modern times France. Russia, 
 Prassia, Austria, and the Unked States of America 
 have all adopted the eagle as a national military 
 symbol. The Austrian e;igle is represented d^)uble- 
 headed. — 2. The eagle is used heraldieally as an em- 
 blem of magnanimity and fortitude. It is variously 
 repre.sentetl, the best-known mode being displayed or 
 spread out, either with two beads — as in the arms of 
 the Austrian Empire, in which case it is popularly 
 known as a spread eagle — or with one head, as in the 
 arms of the German Empire. — 'i. The Order of the 
 Black Eagle was founded by the Elector of Branden- 
 burg on 17th January, 1701, the day of his coronation 
 as king of Prussia. The number of knights, in addi- 
 tion to the princes of the royal family, was originally 
 80, but it is now unlimited. They must at Iheir 
 nomination be at lea.st 
 30 years of age. They 
 must prove their noble 
 descent for four genera- 
 tions through botli par- 
 ents. A chapter is held 
 twice a year. The in- 
 signia of "the Order con- 
 sist of an octagonal cross 
 of blue enamel, and a 
 black eagle displayed 
 between each of the 
 arms of the cross. The 
 cross is suspended by a 
 broad ribbon of orange- 
 color across the left 
 shoulder, and it is accompanied by an embroidered 
 silver star, fiistened on the left breast. The '■enter of 
 the star represents a black flying eagle, holding in 
 one claw a laurel wreath, andin the other a lluuidir 
 bolt, with the legend Sinnii cniqiic. Fifty ducats 
 must be paid by every new member for the sujiport 
 of the orphan asyluni at Kimigsberg, and he then 
 receives ijratis the costume and insignia of the Order. 
 As the Black Eagle is the highest Order in Prns,sia. 
 no member of il. with the exception of foreign princes 
 and Knights of St. .John, is permitted to wear any 
 other order along with it; and as it is generally grant- 
 ed only to those who are expected to be about the 
 person" of the king, no one who holds it is iiermitted 
 to travel from the Court more than 20 German miles 
 without gi\in!j notice. Knights of the Black Eagle 
 are likewise Knights of the" Red Eagle, first cla.ss — 
 4. The Order of the Red Eagle was founded in 1734 
 by the Markgraf George Frederick diaries, as a re- 
 organization of the " (>dre de la Siuci'riti'," which 
 had been instituted in the beginning of the century 
 by the hereditarj- Prince of Anspach and Baircuth. 
 
 Star of ttie Order of the Black 
 
 Eagle. 
 
 After passing through various modifications, the Or- 
 der of the Red Eagle was raised in 1791 by Frederick 
 William II. to the rank of the second order in the 
 Monarchy, and it was then that the decoration of a 
 while enameled Maltese cross, surmounted by a royal 
 crown, with the Brandenburg eagle in the corner, 
 was adopted. All the Knights of the Black Eagle 
 were received into this new Order; and it was latterly 
 decreed that only those who had been decorated with 
 the Red Eagle, in the first instance could be received 
 into the Black. In 1810 the Order of the Itol Eagle 
 was reorganized, and two more classes were added to 
 it. In 1830 the .second class was subdivided into two, 
 one of which only was allowed to wear a stpiarc star. 
 
 EAB. — The name given to the lug or loop formerly 
 cast on mortar-shells. The term was also usually ap- 
 plied to the "dolphin" on light guns. The object 
 originally of casting mortar-shells with ears was to 
 assist in placing the shell in the mortar, but lewis- 
 holes are now adopted for that purjiose. 
 
 EAR-BED. — In gun-carriages, the front and hind 
 ear-beds connect the corresponding ends of the frame 
 sides, between which latter and parallel to them lie 
 the summers. 
 
 EABL. — The early relation which subsisted between 
 the Duke and the Count has been explained under 
 the former title. In Europe, generally, il was not till 
 the Count came to be recognized as a subordinate of- 
 ficer to the Duke, governing a district of the province 
 committed to the latter, llial the Earl a.ssiimed the 
 position of the Governor of a County, by the name of 
 which he was commonly known, t" he "title of Duke, 
 if it had ever existed, early disjippeared in England, 
 and was not revived till the time of Edward III. 
 After the Norman Con(iU(st the French term Coimt 
 was sub.stiiiited for Earl; but it held its place only for 
 a very .short time as the title of the ollicer, though it 
 has continued ever since to give a name to the district 
 over which he presided, and a title to his wife. Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror, after the Battle of Hastings, rec- 
 ompensed his chief Captains by granting to them tlie 
 lands and otlices of the Sa.xon imbles; but by making 
 the title of Earl hereditary he took, unintentionally 
 perhaps, the first step towards changing it fnjm a title 
 of office to a title of dignity, and thus depriving it of 
 .substantial power. The form of creation of an Earl 
 formerly was by the king girdingOn his sword, and 
 placing his coronet on his head and his mantle on his 
 shoulders; but Earls arc now created by letters-patent; 
 and it is not unusual for them to depart .so far 
 from the old notion of their being Territorial Offi- 
 ' cers, as to take as their titles their own names, with 
 the prefix Eari— e.g., Eari Grey, Eari Rus,sell, Earl 
 Spencer, etc. At present the number of Earls, includ- 
 ing the peerages of Scotland and Ireland, exceeds 200. 
 The Earl's coronet is a circle of gold, rising at 
 intervals into eight i\vramidal points, or spikes, on the 
 tops of which are placed as many pearls, alternated 
 with strawberry lea vc-i. See ('rintn and Dnh. 
 
 EABL MABSHAL.— An office of great antiquity, 
 and formerly of imi)ortance. There seems rejvson to 
 believe that "the Marshal of England, afterwards the 
 Earl Marshal, was a distinct officer from the Marshal 
 of the King's House, but the point is not altogether 
 clear, and there is, consequently, some difficulty in 
 determining which of the offices was held by the 
 Mareschals, Earis of Pembroke. For many genera- 
 tions the office lias been hereditary in the family of 
 the Dukes of Norfolk, though the Earls Marshal
 
 £ABN£ST OUN. 
 
 526 
 
 EAST INDIA ABHT. 
 
 having, to an unusual extent, had the fate to die either 
 childless or without heirs-male, the line of di'seeut has 
 been bv no means a direct one. The last gnmt is by 
 King Oharles II., and U-ars dale l»th October, 1673. 
 The Earl Marshal pri'sided jointly with the Constable 
 over the Court of Chivalrv. tliela.st prcx'cedinp of 
 which are said to have taken place in lt)31. He is 
 the head of the College of Arms, which has jurisdic- 
 tion in descents and pedigrees; determines all rival 
 claims to arms; and he gntnts armorial bearings, 
 through the medium of the Kings-of-Arms. to par- 
 ties not posses.sed of hereditary arms. The office of 
 the Lyon in Scotland is generally supposed to corre- 
 spond to that of the Earl Jlarsbal in England, but not 
 quite correctly. The Lyon having been subordinate 
 to the Marshid and Constable of Scotland, his office 
 was more nearly that of the Kin^-of-Arms in Eng- 
 land; with this difference, that it extended to the 
 whole kingdom. 
 
 EABNEST GUN.— A breech-loading rifle having a 
 fixed chainl)er closed by a movable breech-block, 
 which rotates about an axis parallel to the axis of the 
 barrel, and on the left side. The block is in two sec- 
 tions, the foremost of which revolves with a screw 
 motion on that in rear, which alone is fastened to the 
 hinge. They are both perforated for the tiring pin 
 and striker. The forward section is provided with a 
 liandlc by which the breech is opened and closed, 
 receding from and approaching the barrel alternately. 
 The lock is peculiar, invohing a device for causing 
 the striker to rebound after delivering ils blow upon 
 tlie liring-piii. The arm is especially designed to pre- 
 vent the escape of gas from defective cartridges. 
 
 EABTH HOUSE.— &r^A-/(rt««fi!<, rird-/iottseji, or yird- 
 hiuMK, were the names which seem to have been giv- 
 en througlioiit Scotland to the underground build- 
 ings which in some jilaces are called also " Picts' 
 houses," an<l in others, it would appear, " weems," or 
 caves. Martin, in his Dencriptioii of the Wmlem 
 Inlands, printed in 1703, w lun their use would appear 
 to have been still remembered, speaks of them as 
 " little stone houses built underground, called earth- 
 houses, which served to hide a few people and their 
 goods in time of war." The Cflrth -house, in its sim- 
 plest form, is a single, irregularly-shaped chamber, 
 from 4 to 10 feet m width, from 20 lo (!0 feet in 
 length, and from 4 to 7 feet in height, built of unhewn 
 and uncemented ston&s, roofed by unhewn flags, and 
 entered from near the top by a rude doorway, so low 
 and narrow that onlVjOne man can slide down through 
 it at a time. When the chamber is unusuiilly wide, 
 the side-walls converge, one stone overhippliig an- 
 other, until the space at the top can be s|)anncd by 
 stones of 4 or .5 feet in length. In it.s more advanced 
 form, the earlli-house shows two or more chambers, 
 communicating with one another by a narrow pa.s- 
 sage. There are instances in which one of the chnin- 
 bers has the circular shape and dome-roof to which 
 archa'ologists have given tli<' name of the " beehive- 
 house." Quite frequently as many as forty or fifty 
 earth-houses are found in the sjime spot, as in the 
 Moor of Clova, not far from Kildrununy, in Aber- 
 deenshire. They appear to have been .ilniost invari- 
 ably built in dry phices, such as gnivelly knolls, 
 sleep banks of rivers, and hillsides. They arc gen- 
 erally so near the surface of the ground thai the plow 
 strikes u|H)n Ihe flagstones of the roof, and llius leads 
 to their di.s<>overy. The object most frequently found 
 in them is a stone quern, or band mill, nol iliffering 
 from that wliieh continued to 1k' ii^ed in remote cor- 
 ners of Scotliind within the memory of living men. 
 Along with Ihe (juern are genendly found ashes, tones, 
 and deer's horns; and more rarely small ro\ind plates 
 of stone or slate, ejirthen vcs.sels, cups, and imple- 
 ments of bone, stone cells, bronze swords, gold rings, 
 and Ihe like. Occasionally the surface of the ground 
 lieside llie earth house shows vestiges of wiiat are suj)- 
 posed lo have l)een rude dwellinf'hou.s<'s, and folds 
 or indosurea for cattle. This, with other things, 
 would indicate that the earth-houses of Scotland and 
 
 Ireland (for they are found al.so in that Island) were 
 put lo the same" purpose as the caves which, as Taci- 
 tus tells us, the Germans of his day dug in the earth, 
 as storehouses for their corn, and as places of retreat 
 for Iheinsilves during winter or in lime of war. 
 
 EABTHWOBKS.— In ff)rtitication, a general name 
 for all military con.slructions, whether for attack or 
 defense, in which the material employed is chiefly 
 earth. The word tdrtliwork, however, has lately re- 
 ceived a new importance, in reference to a di-scassion 
 among Military Engineers whether earthwork defen- 
 ses generally are better or worse than those of ma- 
 sonry. Tlic subject cannot be discus.sed here, but its 
 general character inav be indicated. The fracture of 
 the Ku.ssian gnuiite fortiticalioiis at Bomarsund, and 
 the obstinate defense made within the earthen defen- 
 ses at Sebastopol, led many writei-s, about the year 
 1855, to express a preference for earthworks instead 
 of stoneworks. Mr. J. Fergusson has especially dis- 
 tinguished himself by his ailvocacy of this view. 
 The rea.soiis urged are, that mas.ses of earth can be 
 more quickly ami cheaply put up than mas.ses of ma- 
 sonry; that in most iilaces earlh is more readily ob- 
 tained than stone; that if an earthwork be knocked 
 to ruin by balls and shells, it can be repaired in a 
 very short time; and that the defenders are not ex- 
 posed to so much injury as in masonry-works, where 
 splinters of stone fly about in a jierilous way. The 
 late Sir John Burgoyne, the leading Military Engi- 
 neer in England of his day, combated these views. 
 He contended, among other things, that as a given 
 amount of cannonading will make a much larger 
 breach in earthwork than in stonework, the latter \s 
 best fitted to prevent capture by as.sault. He insisted 
 that earthworks should be regarded rather as tempo- 
 rary expedients than as piu-posed and permanent con- 
 structions; and be claimed the authority of Continental 
 Engineers in support of this opinion. See Fidd-for- 
 t i flea t ion. 
 
 ' EAST INDIA ABMY.— When the East India Com- 
 ponj' first sent factors or agents to India, an army was 
 not thought of. Militarj' forces arose out of the exi- 
 gencies of the times. Some of the first troops in the 
 Company's pay were mere adventurers; some were lib- 
 erated convicts; some deserters from European armies. 
 Gradually organization was introduced, and improved 
 arms furnished. As the power of the Company in- 
 creased, natives entered the battalions; until at length 
 most of the troops were Hindoos or Mohammedans 
 drilled by non-commissioned officers sent out from 
 England. A few regiments were raised in England; 
 a much larger number were raised in India; but all 
 alike were officered by the Company's favored English 
 officers, largely |)aid, and having many o))])orlunities 
 for making rapid fortunes. The ranks were filled by 
 enlistment; the Companj' never compelled the natives 
 to l)ecome soldiers; the pay offered was always such 
 as to induce a sufficient number of men to enter. 
 Their periods of leave of absence were liberal; and 
 after a certain number of years' service they retired 
 on a pension sufficient lo supi)ort Ihem for the re- 
 mainder of their days. 
 
 At the period immediately preceding the outbreak 
 of the revolt in 1857, the army in IhepiijL' of the Com- 
 pany comprised about '24, (MM) Hoyid troops (lent to, 
 and ]iaid for by, the Company); 18,000 European 
 troops, raised and drilled by tlie ("ompany in Eng- 
 land; 180,000 native regulai-s; and 60, (MM) native irreg- 
 ular horse — making about 280. (MM) in all. This large 
 force was irrespective of 40,000 contingents furnished 
 by dependent native princes, and of the native 
 armies belonging to the independent and semi-inde- 
 pendent princes. The Company's troops formed 
 three distinct armies, each imdiT its own Conmian- 
 der-in-Chief, and each stationed in one particular 
 Pn'sidency. In these three armies three kinds of 
 troops — Europeans, native regulars, and native irregu- 
 lars — had their own special organiziilion. In order 
 to secure unity of action when neces.sarj', it was cus- 
 tomary to give the Commander-in-Chief of the Bengal
 
 EASTMAN BBEECH-APFABATIT8. 
 
 527 
 
 ECCENTBIC CUTTEB. 
 
 army precedence over those of Madra.« and Bombay; 
 he was, in effect, Commander-in-Chief of the whole 
 of the Company's forces. There were too few Eng- 
 lish officers with the native regiments, and these, in 
 most cases, knew too little of the men under their 
 oommiind. This was not the cause of the revolt in 
 1857, but it was one of the circumstances that led to 
 the rapid spread of the revolt when once begun. 
 Speaking generally, it may be said that the armies of 
 the Madras and Bombay Presidencies remained faith- 
 ful, especially the infantry. It was in the Bengal 
 army that the disruption chiefly occurred. The ir- 
 regiilars, both cavalry and infantry, raised amongst 
 the Sikhs and Punjabees, were in almost every case 
 faithful. 
 
 In August, 1858, the Act which transferred the 
 Government of India from the Company to the Crown \ 
 received the Royal assent. The army wast raasf erred , 
 as well as the political power. As the Sikhs had be- ! 
 haved well, most of the regiments from the Punjab 
 were retained, as well as most of the native regiments 
 in the Bombay and Madras Presidencies; but it was not 
 deemed expedient to restore the native regiments of 
 Bengal proper, which had proved so treacherous. In 
 that year, at tlic suggestion of Earl Canning, a Com- 
 mission was appointed to inquire into the whole cir- ■ 
 cumstances relating to the reorganization of the arm}'. 
 The Companj' originated the inquiry, l>ut the Commis- 
 sioners did not make their rejwrl till after the transfer ' 
 of the Company's powers to the Crown. Although 
 the Commissioners' report was presented in the sum- 
 mer of 1859, very little was effected during the re- 
 mainder of that year, or in 1860, to reorganize the 
 Indian army; matters were kept together in a provi- 
 sional wa)". Meanwhile, when the European troops 
 of the Compan3-'s army were turned over to the 
 Crown, a disturbance, amounting almost to a mutiny, 
 <K-curred. The men claimed that, as they had en- 
 listed in the Company's sernce, they ought not to be 
 transferred without their own consent being asked, 
 or without receiring a bonus on re-enlisting. To pre- 
 vent a dangerous excitement, the Government allowed 
 such as chose to retire. In 1861 an Act was pa.ssed 
 reorganizing the Indian army. The Bit'tinh portion 
 of itnow forms part of the Queen's army generally, 
 with certain honorary distinctions, and takes its turn 
 at home and in the Colonies like the rest; but the ex- 
 penses are paid out of Indian, not Imperial, revenues. 
 ■The itatifi' portion is managed wholly in India; but 
 during the Eastern crisis, connected with the war be- 
 tween Russia and Turkey, a considerable force of na- 
 tive Indian troops were sent to Malta, for service in 
 Europe — in case of England being involved in war. 
 On the reorganization of the Indian army in 1861 the 
 21.st Hussars, with the 105th, 106th, 107th, 108th, and 
 109th Foot. w.?re formed from the European troops 
 previously in the service of the East India Company. 
 See Armi/ and BritUh A run/. 
 
 EASTMAN BREECH APPARATUS. — An efficient 
 apparatus for opening and closing the breedi of cer- 
 tain guns when firing rapidly, 'fhe breech-screw Ls 
 divided into six parts, in the "direction of its axis, the 
 threads being removed from every other one, Iwth 
 from the plug and from the breech of the gun. 
 When the breech is to he closed, the threaded jxir- 
 tions of the plug are presented so that they come op- 
 posite the smooth parts of the breech-hole. The plug 
 is then pushed in, when a sixth of a turn with a 
 handle brings the screw of both parts together. A 
 strong cranked lever serves to manipulate the breech- 
 plug, by turning which the threads of the screw en- 
 ter the corresponding grooves. The movement in 
 the contrary direction disengages them. The breech 
 being closed, the lever handle is prevented from mov- 
 ing back, and thus allows the plug to be unscrewed 
 by a short metal catch, working freely on a stud 
 placed in the upper part of the right sight of the 
 breech. This catch lifts as the lever-handle reaches 
 it, and allows it to pass, but drops by the action of a 
 spring when the handle has passed, a'ud thas prevents 
 
 the lever from moving to the left; a stud on the 
 breech prevents it from moving to the right. The 
 weight of the breech-plug for a 9J-inch gun is about 
 300 pounds; therefore a support, or collar, is used to 
 hold it when withdrawn. 'This is a metallic frame 
 carrying a bracket, hinged to the side of the breerh 
 near the opening. It has a kind of gutter in which 
 slides the screw portion of the plug. This support 
 being placed in a line with the bore, the hand-gripe 
 at the middle of the breech-plug is seized, and the 
 screw being disengaged, a strong pull will bring the 
 whole to the rear. 'I'he impulse given swings it open, 
 the breech-screw remaining fixed in its support, or 
 collar. A safety-catch held by a spring secures the 
 collar fair in a line with the "bore. To obviate the 
 danger resulting from a neglect to screw up the plug 
 when the breech is closed, the lock-lanyard, which 
 has a bob on it, is made to pass through the eye of a 
 piece of iron fixed to the breech. When the handle 
 is not in its place, that is, when the plug is not prop- 
 erly screwed in, a spring closes the eye and does not 
 allow the bob to pass. When the handle is in posi- 
 tion with the plug screwed up, it opens the eye and 
 allows the bob to pass, when the gun can be fired. 
 
 EBONY. — This wood, remarkable for its hardness, 
 heaviness, and deep black color, is the heart-wood of 
 different species of Vioajryros, of the natural order 
 Ebeiiaceu, the same genus which produces the date- 
 plum, kaki, and other fruits. The best ebony, ex- 
 celling in uniformitj- and intensity of color, is the 
 produce of DioHpyros ihcniim. which grows in great 
 abundance in some of the flat parts of Ceylon, and is 
 a tree of such magnitude that logs of its heart-wood 
 2 feet in diameter, imd varyin^from 10 to 15 feet in 
 length, are easily procured. Ebony is used in the 
 arsenals for handles, press-screws, etc. 
 
 EBOULEMENT.— A term applied to the crumbling 
 or falliiiLT of the walls of a fortification. 
 
 ECCENTRIC— 1. A device applied to the truck- 
 wheels of top-carriages and beds of mortars in sea- 
 coast artillery to give either rolling or sliding friction 
 at will. A similar device is attached to the chassis 
 near the pintle to enable it to be readily traversed 
 when in gair, and give it stability when out of gear. 
 — 2. In machinery, a contrivance for taking an alter- 
 nating rectilinear motion from a revolving .shaft. It 
 consists of a circular disk or pulley, fixed on a shaft 
 or axis which does nat pass through the center of the 
 disk. The disk has a groove upon its circumference 
 in which the hoop — by means of which the rod is at- 
 tached to the disk — slides. As the eccentric revolves 
 with the axis, the hoop is alternatelv raised and 
 lowered, and with it the rod which is keyed into it. 
 The extent of the rise and fall of the rod is equal to 
 twice the distance between the centers. The eccen- 
 tric is chiefly used where a subsidiary motion of small 
 power is required, as for working the force-pump 
 that supplies the boiler of a steam-engine. 
 
 ECCENTRIC CHUCK.— A chuck attached to the 
 mandrel of a lathe, and having a sliding pii'ce which 
 carries the ctnter. This jiiece is adjustable in a plane 
 at right angles to the axis of motion by means of a 
 set-screw, and carries the center to one side of the 
 axis of motion. By its means circular lines of vary- 
 ing size and eccentricity may be produced. No oval 
 or ellipse is produced thereby, but circles on the face 
 of the work, with their centers at such distance from 
 the axis of the mandrel as may be desired. 
 
 ECCENTRIC CUTTER.— A cutting tool placed upon 
 the slide-rest, and having a rotation by means of a 
 wheel and shaft, the cutter being attached to the end 
 of the latter. The rotation is obtained by an orer- 
 head motion, and the eccentricity by fixing the cutter 
 at different distances from the center by menn; of the 
 groove and screw. The action of the eccentric cutter 
 differs from that of the eccentric chuck in this: in 
 the latter the work is rotated and the tool is station- 
 ary; in the former the work is stationary and the tool 
 revolves. When the motions are used in conjunction, 
 the patterns are capable of unlimited variation.
 
 ECCENTBIC PROJECTILE. 
 
 528 
 
 ECREVISSE8. 
 
 ECCENTBIC PRO JECTILE.— A spherical projectile, 
 in which the center i)f inerlia dix-s not coincide with 
 the center of li{:urc. Such projectiles are subject to 
 irreat deviations, which can lie predicted as to direc- 
 tion by knowing the position of the center of inertia 
 of the" shot in llie liore of the gun. See I^ojictiUs. 
 
 ECCENTROMETER. — An instrument for dcterniin- 
 ing the [HKiiion of the center of gravity of a projec- 
 tile. Sec Ctiittr of Uiatity. 
 
 ECHAROE. — A term employed to signify that a 
 column of tnx)ps is struck at a verj' oblique angle. 
 Also written Fi 'i d'leliargf. 
 
 ECHAUGETTE.— In military history, a word signi- 
 fying a walchlower, or kind of sentry -Ixi.v. 
 " ECHELON. — A military term applied to such a 
 formation or arrangement of troops that, if \newed 
 from a height, they would present some analogy to 
 the successive steps of a ladder or staircase. The 
 several divisions of the force, although parallel, are 
 no two on the same alignment. Each has its front 
 clear of that in advance, so that, by marching directly 
 forward, it can form line with it. There are two 
 kinds of echelon, direct and oblique. Direct 
 ecfieUm is adapted for attack and retreat; while 
 dliliqiie echelon (oblique in reference to the ori- 
 ginal front of the line) is adapted for changing 
 ixisition, or for getting on the enemy's flank. 
 
 ECLAIREURS.— Literally, the feciers of an 
 army. They are bodies, generally of light 
 cavalry, sent to the front or the flank of an 
 army to obtain intelligence as to the move- 
 ments of the enemy. They are not used as 
 exceptional or distinct bodies, but all the light 
 cavalry is called upon to perform that duty. 
 When the tirst NaiX)Icon was Chief t'onsul 
 of Fnmee, he raised a regiment of Eclaireurs 
 for the protection of Paris In the Continen 
 lal War of 1870, Eclaireurs were employed 
 bnih by the Germans and French. 
 
 ECLOPES. — A military term to express 
 those sol<iiers wlio, though invalids, are well 
 enough to follow the army. Among these 
 may be clas.se(l dragoons or horeemen whose 
 horses become lame and cannot keep up with 
 the troo|) or stpiadron. They always march 
 in rear of the column. 
 
 ECOLE POLYTECHNIftUE.— One of the 
 most celebrated .MiHtaryAcaflemies in France. 
 In 179:1 all the public establishments in Paris 
 were in a convulsed stale, owing to the Revo 
 lution. In 1794 M. Lamblardie, Director of 
 the I'lintjt et (Hiaiiiau'iii, proposed the estab- 
 lishment of an Kcnif Cintrale des Truraiu 
 Piiblirn, to thoroughly educate young men 
 for militarj', naval, and ci\-il engineering. 
 Monge and Carnot favoring his plan, it 
 was carried out, and a School established 
 at the Palais Bourbon. The first list of Professors 
 comprised names which afterwards acquired Euro 
 pcan celebrity — including those of Legraugc, Prony, 
 Monge, Ilachctte, Ha.ssenfratz, Fourcroy. Vauqueli'n! 
 Berthollet, Chaptal, Pellcticr, Guyton-Morveau, and 
 Merimee. In 171).") the name wa.s changed to Ecole 
 Polylechnique: many alterations were made in the 
 orgiinlzation; arlillery studies were included in the 
 course; and the pupils were ordered to wear a uni- 
 form. When Napoleon went to Egj-pt. 40 pu|)ils 
 from the Ecolc Polytcchnique accompanied him, 
 inany of whom greatly distinguished themselves. 
 Napoleon made the organization of the School more 
 strictly military in 1H04, to identify it more fully 
 with the army. The School was dissolved in 1816, 
 again in 18:50, and nfjain in 18.32, on account of the 
 im|K'tuous way in which the pupils mi.xed themselves 
 up with the i)olitical disturbances of those years; but 
 iLs the School suited the militjiry genius of the French 
 Nation, it was re-established on each occjusion, after 
 the restoration of tranquillity. Candidates can be ad- 
 mitted onlv by competitive e.xaminations, which take 
 place yearly. A Proclamation from the War Oflice, 
 
 made public before the 1st of April, informs intend- 
 ing compelitoi-s of the subjects on which they are to 
 lie examined, and the time when the e.xannnations 
 iK-gin. To be eligible as a candidate, the youth must 
 be French, and must be more than sixteen and less 
 than twenty years of age before the 1st of January 
 following; but soldiers are admissible up to the age 
 of twenty-five, provided they can give proof of two 
 years of .service in the regular army. The cost of 
 board alone is 1000 francs ($200) a" year. A com- 
 plete course of instruction lasts for two years ; when 
 the pupils who have satisfactorily passed the final 
 examinations have the i)rivilege of choosing, from 
 among the various public services supplied from the 
 School, the particular branch they wish to enter, as the 
 Artillerj-, the Engineers, the StjiiT, the Department of 
 Telegraphs, or some of the other government monopo- 
 lies. The School was reorganized by a decree of the 
 l.'ith A|iril, 187:3. See United ,S/,tt<>i Mi/itun/ Academy. 
 ECONOMY.— In a military sense, this term implies 
 the minuti;e or the interior regulations of a regiment, 
 troop, or company. Hence "regimental economy." 
 
 Edging-machine. 
 
 EC0RCHEUR8.— A name given to bands of armed 
 advcnlureis who desolated France and Belgium dur- 
 ing the fifteenth century, beginninjj about 1435, and 
 who at one time numbered 100,000. They are said 
 to have stripped their victims to their shirts, and to 
 have liayed the cattle. They were favored by the 
 English Invasion anil the Civil Wars. 
 
 ECOUTES.— l.islcning-galleries. Such are known 
 to engineers and others in connection with siege- 
 works. These galleries are run out under and be- 
 yond the glacis at regular distances in the direction 
 of the besiegers' works, and enable the besieged to 
 hear and estimate how near the besiegers have earned 
 their mining ojierations. 
 
 ECRETER.— To batter or fire at the top of a wall, 
 redoubt, epaulemeut, etc., so as to dislodge or drive 
 away the men that may be stationed Ix'hind it, in 
 order to render the approach more ea.sy. Kcreti'r lei 
 jMiinliK den jmiUkhiuIik is to lilunt the sharp ends of the 
 jialisades. This ought always to be done before at- 
 tacking the covered-way, wHich is generally fenced 
 by them. 
 
 ECREVISSE8.— Armor entirely composed of imbri-
 
 xcir. 
 
 529 
 
 EFFECTS OF PROJECTILES. 
 
 cated plates, and commonly called a suit of splints in 
 England. 
 
 ECU. — A large shield which wa-s used by the 
 ancients, and carried on the left arm to ward off the 
 blows of sword or saber. This instrument of defen.se 
 was originally invented by the .Samnites. The Moors 
 had ««««, or shields, sufliciently large to cover the 
 whole of their bodies. The dipei of the Romans 
 dilfered from the eeu in shape only; the former being 
 entirely round, and the latter oval. 
 
 ZD6E. — The thin or cutting part of a sword, saber, 
 or other cutting weajwu or implement. 
 
 EDGING-MACHINE.— A machine much used in the 
 manufacture of small-arms, for milling; inside and out 
 of metal forgings aud castings of in-egular shapes 
 to an exact shape and size of pattern required. The 
 machine is shown in detail on the opposite page. 
 Power is supplied by a cone-pulley ha\-iug two speeds 
 (and two friction-pulleys on countershaft, which 
 allow four changes of speed) driving bevel gears 
 which have a direct belt-connection with the cutter- 
 epindle. This arrangement makes the working of 
 the slide very easy. The pattern, or former, is 
 secured to the sliding table, which has a forward-and- 
 back motion, operated aud controlled by the hand- 
 crank at the side of the machme. An automatic feed 
 can be substituted when desired. The top or cross 
 slide which holds the cutter-spindle, and moves at 
 right angles with the bed, is operated by the hand- 
 lever in front and has a counterbalance-spring and a 
 notch adjustment. This cross-slide also has a pin 
 which is brought to bear against the pattern, and the 
 four motions to the two slides will allow the pin to 
 follow any pattern secured to the lower talile or slid- 
 ing bed. The work to l)e cut into shape is also .se- 
 cured by suitable fastenings to the lower table, and as 
 the pin passes around the pattern, so the cuttcr-sj)in- 
 dle will pa.ss around the piece of work and describe 
 the same outRne and dimensions as the pattern used. 
 By using a cutter with teeth on the lower end, good 
 sui'f ace-mil ling is nicely and qiricklv done. The 
 machine as commonly employed in 6oveniment ar- 
 senals and represented in the drawing has the follow- 
 ing general dimensions : 
 
 Friction-clutch pulleys on coimtershaft, 8 and 12 inches by 
 3 inches face. 
 
 Countershaft runs for slow speed 150 revolutions. 
 
 ■ •• fast •• a» 
 
 Working surface of table « by 10 inches. 
 
 Movement of table 16 
 
 *' " cross slide 9 " 
 
 Distance from bed to cross-slide 49^ " 
 
 Up-and-down movement of spindle 3^ '* 
 
 >\'eiEht of machine 1100 pounds. 
 
 These dimensions are frequently varied for special 
 classes of work. See Profile-machine. 
 
 EDUCATION. — A civil branch of the English army, 
 presided over by a Director Gleneral of ^Nlilitarj* Edu- 
 cation, under whose orders are the Jlilitarv Inspec- 
 tors of Schools. All officers who are candidates for 
 the Staff College are examined under the orders of 
 the Director General. The studies carried on at the 
 College are regulated by him in concert with the 
 Commandant of that Institution. The final examina- 
 tion of officers who have passed the prescribed time 
 at the C'oUew takes place under his cognizance, and 
 a report is submitted by him to the Horse-guards of 
 the qualifications of the officers examined. His De- 
 partment supervises all Regimental Schools, Garri- 
 son Libraries, etc. In fact, on all subiccts of educa- 
 tion in the army he is the Director and Referee. The 
 following is a" list of the Government Educational 
 and Scientific Establishments in England: the Depart- 
 ment of Artillery Studies; the School of Engineer- 
 ing at Chatham"; the School of Gunnery at Shoe- 
 bvirj-ncss; the School of Instruction at Aldershott; the 
 School of Musketry at Hvthe; the Anny Medical 
 School, Netlev ; the Jlilitarj' School for >Iusic at 
 Hounslow; the Roval Militaiy Asylum at Chelsea; 
 the Royal Hibernian Military School, Dublin. See 
 ^rtilhry Sr?iool. 
 
 EFFAEE.— In Heraldry, a term which signilics that 
 
 the animal to which it refers is to be represented as 
 rearing on it.s hind-legs, as if it were frightened or en- 
 raged. Als<i written Effray,'. See Heraldry. 
 
 EFFECTIVE. — A tenn u.sed, in a military sense, to 
 denote the number of men actually borne'anil doing 
 duty on the .strength of a company or regiment, in 
 the tield or on parade. 
 
 EFFECTS.— The property of a deceased officer or 
 soldier. On the death of either, a Committee of Ad- 
 justment is formed to take charge of the property, 
 and to adjust the affairs of the deceased, as directed 
 bv law. See IhiKtsal Ojlinix diul Soldiers. 
 
 EFFECTS OF PROJECTILES.— A knowledge of the 
 destructive effects of projectiles on iron, wood, earth, 
 and ma.sonry, the materials of which covering nia.s.scs 
 are made, is of very great importance in a military 
 point of view. In geneml, these effects, and partic- 
 ularly that of penetration, depend on the nature of 
 the projectile, its initial velocity, and the distance of 
 the object. The following deductions have been 
 made from trials with annor-plates, extending over 
 several years: 1st. The best material to resist pro- 
 jectiles is soft, tough wrought-iron; and to attain 
 these qualities it should Ix; jiure— free from sidphur, 
 phosphorus, and carbon. Steely iron, commonly 
 known as homogeneous iron, puddled steel, etc., 
 when in large mas-ses, is easily cracked by shot, and 
 is not, therefore, suitable for amior-jilates. Thin 
 l)lates afford a greater comparative resistance. Soft 
 steel may be used for annor plates; but when cost is 
 taken into consideration it is doubt fvil if it possesses 
 any advantages over wrought-iron. ,2d. Rolled iron 
 does not offer quite so much resistance as lianmiered 
 iron, yet if the size of the plate admit of it, it is to be 
 preferred on the score of economy. Plates should be 
 as large as possible to reduce the number of joints, 
 which are lines of weakness. 3d. A solid plate offers, 
 for the same thickness, a greater resistance to a projec- 
 tile than a laminated one, or one made up of several 
 thinner plates; but when the surface is rounded in 
 shape and of small extent, as in the ilonitor turrets, the 
 latter may be used to gieat advantage, as great thick- 
 ness of metal may thereby be easily obtained. 4th. 
 The resistance of a plate to perforation is very nmch 
 increased by a suitable backing. Cast-iron, granite, 
 and brick in ma.s.ses, while they enable a plate to offer 
 a verj' great resistance, are soon broken up by the 
 blows of heavy projectiles, and their fragriients 
 thrown off with great force. Oak and teak arc the 
 most suitable timbers for backing plates, and are used 
 a.s such on vessels. A yielding backing is found to 
 occasion less strain on the fastenings than a very hard 
 one. 5th. Where projectiles are made of the .same 
 material and are similar in shape, their penetration 
 into unbacked plates is nearly in proportion to their 
 liviurj force, or their iceigftt multiplied by the squ4xre of 
 the relocilji of impact. The resistance which an un- 
 backed plate offers to penetration is nearly in pro- 
 portion to the square of its thich-nem, provided this 
 thickness l)e confined within ordinary limits. In the 
 case of oblique plates the penetration diminishes 
 nearly with the sine of the angle of ineideitce. 6lh. 
 The most suitable material for shells to be used 
 against iron plates is tempered steel. These projec- 
 tiles should be made of cylindrical .shape, with thick 
 sides and lx)ttoni, to direct the exiilosive effect of the 
 charge forward after penetnilion is effected. The 
 most suitable material for .solid shot is hard and 
 tough cast-iron. Round shells made of cast-iron will 
 be broken in passing through an inch i)late, and an 
 ordinarj- cast-iron shot will be broken in passing 
 through a two-inch plate. Late experience shows 
 that the pointed, or ogival, is better than the flat 
 form of head for penetration of iron plates. 7th. It 
 follows from the preceding that the most suitable 
 covering or shielfl for cannon is a conical-shaped 
 turret made of wrought-iron plates, as large as it is 
 practicable to make them, backed with oak or teak. 
 To protect the gunners from the fragments of pro- 
 jectiles, which may penetrate completely through this
 
 isizsm. 
 
 530 
 
 £000 PERCUSSION FtrSE, 
 
 covfriu!,'. there shouKl lie nn " inner skin" of thick 
 boilerplate plmcil Ixhiiul the w(xk1. 
 
 JCJ'ti-t oit H'-*;.— Tlu- ellect of ii projectile tirc<l 
 iigiiiust wood varies with the nature of the wtxid and 
 the direction of the ^Knetnition. If the projectile 
 strike iHTiH'ndiciihir lo the tilx'rs, and the tillers be 
 toiiiih and elastic, as in the case of oak, a |mrtion of 
 them are cnished. and others an.' bent imderthe press- 
 ure of the project lie, but rejjain their form as soon 
 as it Las passed by them. It is ft>und that a hole 
 make in oak bv a ball 4 inches in diameter doses up 
 ainiin. so as lo leave an opeiiiiii^scarcelv larsre enoufrb 
 to measure tiie depth of iX'netration. Yhcsize of the 
 hole and the shattering eilect increases rapidly for the 
 larger calibers. A 9-inch projectile has been fouml 
 to Irave a hole that docs not close up. and to tear 
 away large fnigments from the back jiortion of an 
 oak targtt representing the side of a ship of war, the 
 effect of which on a ve.s.sel would h:i\c been to in- 
 jure the crew stationed around, or. if the hole had 
 bi-en situated at or below the water-liue, to have en- 
 dangcre<l the vessel. If penetration take place in the 
 direction of thetiliers, the piece is almost always split, 
 even by the smallest shot, and splinters arc th^ow^l to 
 a eonsiderable distance. In consiMiuencc of the soft- 
 ness of while pine nearly all the libers struck are 
 broken, and the oritice is nearly the size of the pro- 
 jectile; for the same reason the clTects of the projec- 
 tile do not extend much beyond the oritice; pine is 
 therefore to be preferred to oak for structures that 
 are not intended to resist cannon-projectiles, as block- 
 houses, etc. 
 
 Ejt'trt on EarUi. — Earth posses.scs advantages over 
 all other materials as a covering against projectiles; it 
 is cheap and easily obtained, it offers considerable re- 
 sistance to penetration, and to a certain extent regjiins 
 its position after displacement. It is found by ex- 
 perience that a projectile has verj- little ellect on an 
 earthen paiapit unless it passes completely through 
 it, and that injury done by day can be promptly re- 
 paired at night. " Wherever iiiasonry is liable to Ik; 
 breached, it should be masked by earthworks with 
 natural slopes. The size of tlie openings fonned by 
 the passage of a projectile into earth "is about one 
 third larger than the projectile, increasing, however. 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 t 
 
 '^WM^ 
 
 1 £ji 1 
 
 
 towards the outer orifice. Rifle-projecHles are easily 
 deflected from their course in earth. They are some- 
 times found lying in a posiiion at right angles to their 
 course, and sometimes with the base to the front; 
 hence their penetration is variable. Unless a shell 
 be very large in proi^rtiou to the ma.ssof earth pene- 
 trated, its explosion will produce but little displace- 
 ment; generally a small opening is formed aroimd an 
 exploded .shell "bv the action of the gas in pressing 
 back the earth. "Exixrience at Fort AVagner showed 
 that it t(K)k one p<«ind of metal to pemianenllv dis- 
 place 3.27 lbs. of the sand of which the fort W(\s 
 made. Time-fuses, being liable to l)e extinguished 
 by the pres.sure of the earth, are inferior to ix>rcussion- 
 fuses, which produce e.vjilasion when the projectile 
 has made aliout three fourths of its proper iX'netration. 
 The pcnetnilion in earth of the oblong compared to 
 round projectiles, when tired with the service-charges, 
 and at a (ILslance of aljout 400 yards, is at least one 
 fourth greater. This diJIerenc-e," however, is less at 
 short and greater at long distances. The penetration 
 of the smallest: or 3-inch, cannon-projectile, at a dis- 
 slance of 400 yards, in a newly mafle parapet of loam 
 mixed with gravel, is about" 6 feet. The lOO-pdr. 
 projectile, under similar circumstances, ixnetnitcs 
 about Ifi feel. A penetration as great as 31* feet has 
 been obtained at the Washington Navy Yard by tiring 
 
 a 12-inch rifle-projectile into a natural clay -bank at 
 a short distance. The greatest penetration of a 15- 
 inch solid shot, tired with 00 'bs. of powder, in well- 
 rammed sand, at a distance of 400 yards, is 20 feet. 
 
 Effect on Ma»'iiry. — The effect of a projectile 
 against masonry is to form a truncated conical hole, 
 terminated by anotherof a cylindrical fonn, as shown 
 in the dr.iwing. The material in front of and around 
 the projectile is broken and shaltered, and the end 
 of the cylintlrical hole even reduced to |iowder. 
 Pieces of the ma.st)nry arc sometimes thrown .")0 or 6l> 
 yards from the wall. The elasticity developed by 
 the shock reacts upon the projectile, sometimes throw- 
 ing it back I.jO yards, .so as to be dangerous to per- 
 sons in a breachin^-biittery. The exterior ojxining 
 varies from 4 to 5 times the diameter of the projec- 
 tile, and the depth, as we have seen, varies with the 
 size and density of the projectile and its velocity. 
 AVith charges of 1, i, i, and ,1, a projectile ceases to 
 rebound from a wall of masonry when the angles 
 formed by the line of lire and the surface of the wall 
 exceed 20', 24 , 33 , 43% respectively. With these 
 angles, the angle of reflection is much greater than 
 the angle of incidence, and the velocity after impact 
 is very slight. When a projectile strikes against a 
 surface of oak, as the side of a ship, it will not stick 
 if the angle of incidence be less than 1.5°, and if it do 
 not penetrate to a <lcpth nearly equal to its diameter. 
 Solid cast-iron shot bi'eak against granite, but not 
 against freestone or brick. Shells are broken into 
 small fragments against each of these materials. 
 
 Effixl if Bulliis. — The penetration of the new 
 breech-loading rifle-musket bullet in a target made 
 of pine boards one inch thick is as follows: at 100 
 yards, 13 inches; at 5(10 yards, 9 inches. If Ijidlels 
 are hardened by the addition of a little tin or antimony 
 to the lead, their penetration is very much increa.sed. 
 From e.xperiments maile in Deiuuark, the follow- 
 ing relations were found between the penetration 
 of a bullet in pine and its effects on the Ixxly of 
 a linng horse, \\z.: 1st. When the force of the 
 bullet is sulficient to penetrate .31 inch into liine, it 
 is only sufficient to produce a slight contusion of the 
 skin; 2d. When the force of penetration is eijual to 
 .63 inch, the wouinl begins to be dangerous, but dix's 
 not disiible; 3d. When the force of penetration is 
 equal to 1.2 inch, the wotmd is very dangerous. A 
 plate of wrougbt-iron three sixteenths of an inch 
 thick is sufficient to resist a rifle-musket bullet at 
 distances varying from 20 to 200 yards. That ;i rope 
 mantlet may give full iiroteclion against rifle musket 
 bullets, it should be composed of five layers (three 
 vertical and two horizontal) of 4J-inch rope. See 
 Briitchiiiij, Projectiles, Punching, and Racking. 
 
 EFFENDI.— A title of honor among the Turks, be- 
 stowed upon civil dignitaries and persons of various 
 ranks, in contradistinction to the title of Aga, Ixirnc 
 by courtiers and military men. The word \:\ equiva- 
 lent to the English Sir or the French Monsieur, and 
 is frequently added to the name of an office. Thlis, 
 the Sultan's first Physician is termed Ilakim-Effendi; 
 the Priest in the Seraglio, Imetni-Effendi ; and the 
 Slinister i>f Foreign Affairs was formerly called Se'it- 
 Effeinii. 
 
 EFFICIENT.— A thoroughly disciplined and capable 
 soldier. It is also a term used in connection with the 
 volunteers. A volunteer is .said to be efficient when 
 he has iXTformed the apjiointed number of drills and 
 tired the regular number of rounds at the target in 
 tlie course of the year. 
 
 EOASD. — An iiiicient tribunal of Malta which de- 
 cided, by cnmmissinn, suits among the Knights. 
 
 EGGO'PEECUSSION-FUSE.— This fuse consists of 
 the stock A. upon the outer surface of the outer part 
 of which is formed a screw-thread, to enable it to be 
 screwed into the shell in the ordinary maimer. The 
 outer end of the stock A is made close, with a flange 
 to overlap the seam or joint, and with notches or holes 
 to receive the wrench for screwing it in and out of 
 the shell. The inner end of the stock A is made
 
 EIGHT-FOIL. 
 
 531 
 
 EIGHT-INCH KIFLE. 
 
 open and is closed with a screw-plug, B, which is 
 formed with holes or notches to receive the \\Tcnch 
 for screwing it in and out. C is 
 the pliuigcr, wliich is made hollow, 
 and is proviiled with a nipple, D, 
 at its outer cud to receive a cap to 
 cause the .shell to be exploded 
 when it strikes, by the forward 
 movement of the plunger C, caus- 
 ing the cap to strike against the 
 closed, outer end of the stock A. 
 The inner end of the stock A is 
 notcUeil or slotted transvei-sely, to 
 receive the ends of the hollow or 
 tubular bar E, with the center of 
 w hieh is connected the inner end 
 of the short lube F. The ends of 
 the bar E may be closed by a 
 paper patch, a slight wooden plug, 
 or other suitable means, to con- 
 fine the powder until ignited. The 
 outer end of the tube F is flattened, 
 and contains a fulminate to be ig- 
 nited by friction. The tlevice E F 
 is connected with the plunger C by 
 a wire, G, one end of which is securely attached to the 
 said Jilunger C, and its other end pas.'ies through the 
 tube F. The outer end of the wire G is tiattened and 
 roughed or barbed, so that when drawn through the 
 tube F by the forward movement of the plimger C 
 
 part-s: the msf, /, which is the 10-inch smooth-bore, 
 bored up to a diameter of 13.,") inches, and a lining- 
 tube of coiled wrought-iron. The tulw consists of two 
 Jiarts, called respectively the A and B tubes. The 
 former extends the entire length of the bore, and con- 
 tains the ritlin''; the latter, or B tube, is shrunk upon 
 the inner, or A tube, which has its exterior portion 
 cut away for that purjiose. A double tube is thus 
 fomietl, extending 32.7.) inches from the rear end. 
 The two tubes, imiled in this manner, have the same 
 exterior diameter throughout the entire length, and 
 are made to til accurately the bore of the cast-iron 
 casing. The bottom of "the tul)e is closed with a 
 wrought-iron cup shaped plug, p, screwed into the A 
 tul)e. The tube is inserted into the citsing from the 
 muzzle, and is secured from working out by a muzzle- 
 collar, #, screwed in at the face of the" piece, and 
 from turning in the casing by a steel pin, t, tapped 
 through the casing and into" the tube. A shallow 
 and narrow gas-channel is cut spirally around the ex- 
 terior of the reduced portion of the A tube, commu- 
 nicating with star-grooves cut in the end of the barrel, 
 and with the gas-e.scape. or indicator, bored obliquely 
 through the breech of the casing opposite the vent. 
 Should the inner tube siilit, under the action of firing, 
 the fact would be indicated by the escape of gas 
 through this hole, and timely warning thus be given 
 of the injury sustained by the gim. The ritling con- 
 sists of fifteen lands and grooves, each of equal width, 
 viz., .8377 inch. Depth of the grooves, .075 inch. 
 
 I — 
 
 Eight-inch Rifle. 
 
 ' Pi 
 
 Carriage tor 8-inch Rifle. 
 
 it may i^iitc the fulminate in the said tube F by fric- 
 tion, "and thus explode the shell. The screw-plug B 
 has a hole through it to receive the tulie F and protect 
 it. H is the ssifety-pin. which passes in through a 
 screw-hole in the outer, clo.sed end of the stock A in 
 such a position that its forward end may rest against 
 the end of the plunger C at the side of the cap-nipple, 
 and thus holds the said plunwr securely in place dur- 
 ing trans])(>rlation and handling, anil absolutely se- 
 cures the shell from beimr exploded by an accidental 
 blow, shock, or fall. The screw-pin 11 is removed 
 when the shell is put into the gun and ready to be 
 fired. See Fuse. 
 
 EIGHT FOIL.— A term used in Heraldry to signify 
 a grass hiivim: ei^dit leaves, as the trefoil has three. 
 Accon'.inir to Svlvanus MorgiUi. it maybe used as the 
 difference of tlii' ninth branch of a family. 
 
 EIGHT INCH HIFLE.— This piece, employed in the 
 United States service, is composed, essentially, of two 
 
 Twist uniform, one turn in 40 feet. There is no 
 chamber proper to the gun. The ritling stops at a 
 point 10 inches fnini the bottom of the bore, the di- 
 ameter of the unritle<l jKirlioii being equal to that of 
 the ritlcd [lortion across lands. The old vent of the 
 case is closed by a wrought-iron screw-plug, and 2.75 
 inches nearer the muzzle a new one is bored parallel 
 to the vertical plane through the axis of the bore, and 
 distant therefrom 2. .5 inches. The axis of the vent 
 enters the lioie at 3.5 inches from the bottom. 
 
 Lemrth of bore 117.25 inches. 
 
 Weight of piece 16,160 pounds. 
 
 Counter-preponderance 6.30 pounds. 
 
 Weiffht of projectile (average) 180 pounds. 
 
 Weitrht of charge (hexagonal powder). 35 pounds. 
 
 Initial velocity 1.430 feet. 
 
 Pressure upon s<iuare inch of tore. . . 33,000 i)Ounds, 
 Penelrationagain.starmorat 1000 yards 7.42 inches. 
 Penetration against annor at ISOOyanls 6.75 inches.
 
 EIGHT-INCH SI£0£ MOBIAS. 
 
 532 
 
 ELASTICITY. 
 
 The countcrpri'iwmlcmncc is corn>clcil by an ec- 
 centric rins; of bronze iituubttl lo cucli tnmiiion. 
 
 The ioHowiiij; table shows the ranges of this piece, 
 with a charge of 35 pounds hexagonal powder: 
 
 
 Elera- 
 
 Time of 
 
 Angle of 
 
 Remain's 
 
 Drift. 
 
 Rahoi. 
 
 UOD. 
 
 Bight. 
 
 fikll. 
 
 velocity. 
 
 YartU. 
 
 ' 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 e ' 
 
 J!K. sec. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 100 
 
 06 
 
 .21 
 
 08 
 
 1,438 
 
 .01 
 
 SOO 
 
 16 
 
 .43 
 
 16 
 
 1,406 
 
 .03 
 
 aoo 
 
 24 
 
 .63 
 
 25 
 
 1,885 
 
 .07 
 
 400 
 
 dS 
 
 .85 
 
 34 
 
 1,364 
 
 .12 
 
 BOO 
 
 41 
 
 1.07 
 
 43 
 
 1,343 
 
 .19 
 
 800 
 
 50 
 
 l.'J9 
 
 58 
 
 1,323 
 
 .28 
 
 TOO 
 
 59 
 
 1.52 
 
 1 03 
 
 1,304 
 
 .38 
 
 709 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 55 
 
 1 03 
 
 1,3(K 
 
 .40 
 
 800 
 
 I 08 
 
 1.75 
 
 1 14 
 
 1,285 
 
 .51 
 
 900 
 
 1 18 
 
 1.99 
 
 1 35 
 
 1,366 
 
 .65 
 
 1.000 
 
 1 28 
 
 2.83 
 
 1 36 
 
 1,348 
 
 .82 
 
 1,100 
 
 1 38 
 
 2.47 
 
 1 47 
 
 1,230 
 
 1,00 
 
 1.300 
 
 1 48 
 
 2.72 
 
 200 
 
 1,213 
 
 1.21 
 
 1.300 
 
 1 58 
 
 2.97 
 
 2 13 
 
 1,197 
 
 1.43 
 
 1,311 
 
 200 
 
 8.00 
 
 2 14 
 
 1,195 
 
 1.4G 
 
 1.400 
 
 209 
 
 3.22 
 
 2 26 
 
 1,181 
 
 1.B8 
 
 1,500 
 
 2 20 
 
 3 48 
 
 2 41 
 
 1,165 
 
 1.95 
 
 1,600 
 
 2 31 
 
 3.74 
 
 2 56 
 
 1,149 
 
 2.25 
 
 1,700 
 
 2 42 
 
 4.00 
 
 3 11 
 
 1,134 
 
 2 .W 
 
 1,800 
 
 25S 
 
 4.27 
 
 S2« 
 
 1.130 
 
 3.90 
 
 1,863 
 
 SOO 
 
 4.44 
 
 333 
 
 1,111 
 
 3 12 
 
 1.900 
 
 304 
 
 4.54 
 
 3 41 
 
 1,106 
 
 3 35 
 
 S,000 
 
 3 16 
 
 4.81 
 
 356 
 
 1,098 
 
 8 05 
 
 a, 100 
 
 828 
 
 6.09 
 
 4 13 
 
 1.080 
 
 4.00 
 
 S,30O 
 
 3 40 
 
 5.37 
 
 4 30 
 
 1,067 
 
 4.50 
 
 S.300 
 
 352 
 
 S.e.'i 
 
 4 47 
 
 1,056 
 
 4,96 
 
 S.365 
 
 400 
 
 5.83 
 
 4 67 
 
 1,049 
 
 5.28 
 
 2,400 
 
 404 
 
 5 »i 
 
 504 
 
 1,045 
 
 5.45 
 
 2,500 
 
 4 16 
 
 6.23 
 
 21 
 
 1,035 
 
 5.95 
 
 2.600 
 
 430 
 
 6.52 
 
 5 40 
 
 1,025 
 
 O.'iS 
 
 2,700 
 
 4 44 
 
 6 81 
 
 5 59 
 
 1,016 
 
 7.13 
 
 S,800 
 
 458 
 
 7.11 
 
 6 18 
 
 1.008 
 
 7.76 
 
 2,817 
 
 500 
 
 7.06 
 
 6 21 
 
 1.007 
 
 7.86 
 
 2,900 
 
 5 13 
 
 7.41 
 
 6 37 
 
 1.000 
 
 8.41 
 
 3,000 
 
 526 
 
 7.71 
 
 6 56 
 
 993 
 
 9.09 
 
 3.100 
 
 5 40 
 
 8.01 
 
 7 17 
 
 985 
 
 980 
 
 3.200 
 
 555 
 
 8 S3 
 
 738 
 
 978 
 
 10.56 
 
 8,243 
 
 600 
 
 8.51 
 
 7 46 
 
 974 
 
 10.85 
 
 3.300 
 
 6 10 
 
 8.63 
 
 7 59 
 
 971 
 
 11.35 
 
 3.400 
 
 6S5 
 
 8.94 
 
 8 20 
 
 964 
 
 12.16 
 
 3.500 
 
 6 40 
 
 9.25 
 
 8 41 
 
 957 
 
 13.01 
 
 3.600 
 
 655 
 
 9.56 
 
 9 02 
 
 951 
 
 13.88 
 
 3.643 
 
 700 
 
 9.70 
 
 9 11 
 
 W8 
 
 14.21 
 
 3.700 
 
 7 10 
 
 9.88 
 
 9 23 
 
 944 
 
 14.78 
 
 3.800 
 
 726 
 
 10.30 
 
 9 46 
 
 938 
 
 15.74 
 
 3.900 
 
 74S 
 
 10.52 
 
 10 09 
 
 933 
 
 16.73 
 
 4.000 
 
 758 
 
 10.84 
 
 10 S3 
 
 936 
 
 17.75 
 
 4.017 
 
 800 
 
 10.90 
 
 10 36 
 
 925 
 
 17.90 
 
 4,100 
 
 8 14 
 
 n.16 
 
 10 55 
 
 920 
 
 18.80 
 
 4.300 
 
 830 
 
 11.49 
 
 11 13 
 
 914 
 
 19.87 
 
 4.300 
 
 8 46 
 
 11.83 
 
 11 41 
 
 909 
 
 20.96 
 
 4,377 
 
 900 
 
 12 08 
 
 13 01 
 
 904 
 
 21.93 
 
 4.400 
 
 90) 
 
 13 15 
 
 13 04 
 
 903 
 
 22.20 
 
 4.500 
 
 9 22 
 
 12.48 
 
 13 29 
 
 898 
 
 23.44 
 
 4.600 
 
 9 40 
 
 12.83 
 
 12 54 
 
 892 
 
 at. 73 
 
 4.700 
 
 958 
 
 18.16 
 
 13 19 
 
 887 
 
 26.04 
 
 4,723 
 
 10 00 
 
 IS. 28 
 
 13 26 
 
 885 
 
 36.25 
 
 It has been found that the 10-inch carriage, upon 
 which this ]Mece is mounted, is not sufflcieiitly .stout 
 to stand niiiny discharires willi a charge of 3.5 pounds. 
 Charges of i'l poimds will penetrate any wooden slii|) 
 at ordinary ranges, but are of no olTect against iron- 
 clads. The carriages will st^uid this charge without 
 serious daina,iie. 
 
 The four varieties of carriages upon which these 
 pieces are mounted are those altered from the 10-ineh 
 ImrlK-lte-gun carriage, and llius far are only e.xperi- 
 mental. Carriages Xos. 1 and i have fricHon-bars 
 for checking recoil. Nos. 3 and 4 have hydraulic 
 cylinders for the same objwt. Xos. 3 and -i have a 
 geared windla.ss, with cranks and handles, attached 
 to the rear part of the cliiussis. Nos. 1 and 3 arc with- 
 out windhuss. No. 1 is disiinguishe<l from Xo. 3 l)y 
 the absence of the ratchc't-|)Ost. and liy having, in- 
 stead, for clevaling, a circular looUied" arc operated 
 by a hand-wheel and pinions ujion the left cheek of 
 the carriage. No. 2 has the nitehet-post. but not a 
 toothed arc. Carriagi' No. 3 is disiinguislied from 
 No. 4 l)y having a wedge-shaped incline bolted to the 
 lop of each rail of the chiuwis. near the rear end, and 
 by liavinga band-lever on the outside of each cha.s.sis- 
 ndl, for the purpast of uncoupling the top-carriage 
 from the chassis. See Converted Oiins. 
 
 EIGHT-INCH SIEGE-MOETAK.— This mortar, used 
 in the I'nited States servke, is made of cast-iron, has 
 a smooth bore, and is without chamber. The follow- 
 ing tables show the weights, dimensions, and ranges 
 pertaining to the piece: 
 
 Desionation. 
 
 Caliber 
 
 Weiglit 
 
 Preponderance 
 
 Leugtli of niece 
 
 Lengtii of bore (calibers) 
 
 ■Windage 
 
 Charge imaximum). mortar-powder 
 
 WeiRbt of shell (empty) 
 
 Charge to till shell, musket-powder 
 
 CharRe to hlow out fuse-plug 
 
 Weight of carriage 
 
 Weight of carriage, mortar, and imple- 
 ments 
 
 (One mortar-wagon will carry three 
 
 mortars, with their carriages.) 
 
 No. ' Lbs. 
 
 1010 
 00 
 
 2.25 
 46 
 
 2.5 
 .25 
 
 900 
 
 1965 
 
 Inch. 
 
 .12 
 
 RANGES. 
 
 Charge. 
 
 Eleva- 
 tion. 
 
 Range, yards. 
 
 Time of flight, 
 Seconds. 
 
 Ounces. 
 8 
 12 
 10 
 14 
 
 Degi-ees. 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 
 Shell ,93 lbs 
 399 
 717 
 955 
 1365 
 
 Shen,M lbs 
 4.33 
 727 
 1039 
 1275 
 
 Sbell,53 lbs 
 9.50 
 12.45 
 14.85 
 16.50 
 
 SheU,M lbs 
 9.65 
 12.50 
 IS 
 16.80 
 
 EIGHTY-TON GUN.— A large Woolwich gun de- 
 signed as an armament for the " Inflexible." When 
 first made it weighed 81 tons, having a caliber of 14i 
 inches. It was bored during tbe'progress of the 
 experiments to 16 inches, and was given an enlarged 
 chamber. The experiments were conducted by the 
 well-known and celebrated "Committee on Explo- 
 sion." See Ordnanre. 
 
 EISENHUT.— An iron hat or helmet, without vizor 
 or ueck^guard, but supplied with a rim. It was lirst 
 worn inthe twelfth century, and remained in tise 
 until the seventeenth century. 
 
 EJECTOR.— The device commonly used in breech- 
 loading small-arms to throw out the metallic car- 
 tridge-<-a.si> after it is tired. The ejector-spring operates 
 the ejector. See SpriiigfieM Hiji>;. 
 
 ELASTICITY.— When an external force act.s upon 
 a solid body, it ]>roduees at tirst slight alterations in 
 the relative positions of the particles; and if before 
 these alterations exceed a certain limit the force 
 ceases to act, the particles return to their foniier |xjsi- 
 tion and the distigurement dissippears. This power 
 or property of recovering their ]irevious form after 
 alteration is called lUiKticUy; and we are justitied in 
 ascribing it to all bodies, though in very different 
 degrees. It was once believed that there were definite 
 limits within which changes of form produced by 
 pressure or other forces disapjieared completely. It 
 was thought, for instance, that when a weight of no 
 great magnitude is suspended from a metallic wire, 
 the slight increase of length which the wire is observed 
 to undergo is completely lost when the weight is 
 removed: and the limit to which the win.' might thus 
 be stretched and si ill sulTer no permanent increase 
 of length was called the limit of its elasticity. But 
 recent more accurate experiments have shown that 
 no such limits exist, at least in the ca.se of metals; or, 
 which is the same thing, that permanent lengthening 
 results, however slightly the wire be loaded — it never 
 contracts again quite so far a? it was stretched. It is 
 nece&sary, therefore, to tix the limit arbitrarily; and 
 this is done by agreeing that it shall be held to begin 
 when the mcfal in question sutlers a permanent elon- 
 gation of .001X15 of its length. To get the elastic 
 extensibility of a wire, then, we must compare its 
 length suspended with its length when the weight 
 is removed. In this way it is found that the exten- 
 sions pro<luced are proportional to the extending
 
 ELASTIC FBESSTTBE. 
 
 533 
 
 ELECTBIC CABLES. 
 
 forces or weights. From this hiw, then, we can cal- 
 culate what weight it would require to stretch a wire 
 or rod of a square inch in section to double its own 
 length; supposing it possible to proceed so far without 
 breaking it, and that the law of elasticity continued 
 up to this point unaltered. This weight, which is 
 different for every metal or kind of wood, is called 
 the coefficient or iimdnbig of eMsticit;/ of the particular 
 substance ; and is used in mechanics in calculating 
 how far a given weight will extend a wire or rod of 
 given diameter. This coefficient is not constant for 
 the same metal; for all circumstances that increase 
 the density of the metal increase the modulus of 
 elasticity. Bodies manifest elasticity not only when 
 extended in length, but also when comjires-sed, when 
 bent, or when twisted. If an Ivor)' ball be drojjped 
 from a height upon a marble slab smeared with fat 
 and lamp-black, when caught after the rebound, it is 
 seen to have touched the marble, not in a point, but 
 in a circle of several lines in diameter, and must 
 therefore have lost for a time its spherical shape over 
 that extent. In the same way the mark of a well-hit 
 golf-ball is pretty broadly sho^-n upon the face of a 
 club after the stroke. The elasticity shown by wires 
 and threads of glass when twisted has been turned 
 to account in the torsion-balance used for measuring 
 other weak forces. Steel, ivory, caoutchouc, etc., 
 are well known for their elastic properties, to which 
 thev owe much of their utility. 
 
 ELASTIC PEESSUKE. — Cannon are subjected by 
 the pressure of powder to the following strains: /<i7i- 
 gential, lowjitudinal, transverse, and strains of com- 
 pression. If p be the pressure on a luiit of surface 
 of the bore, and s the tensile strength of the metal, it 
 can be shown by analysis that the tendency to rupture, 
 or the pressure on a unit of length of the bore, divided 
 by the resistance which the sidles are capable of offer- 
 ing to rupture, for a piece of one caliber thickness of 
 metal, will be as follows, viz.: 
 
 Tangential, 
 
 3p. 
 
 2«' 
 
 or, rupture will take place when three times the pres- 
 sure is greater than twice the tensile strength. 
 
 Longitudinal, 
 
 2«' 
 
 or, rupture will take place in the direction of the 
 length when the pressure is greater than twice the 
 tensile strength. 
 
 9i 
 
 Transverse 
 
 3« 
 
 or, rupture will take place when twice the pressure is 
 greater than three times the tensile strength. From 
 the above it appears that the tendency to rupture is 
 greater from the action of the t.angential force than 
 for any other; and for lengths above two or perhaps 
 three caliliers the tangential resistance may be said 
 to act alone, as the aid derived from the transverse 
 resistance will be but trifling for greater lengths of 
 bore or stave; but for lengths of bore less than two 
 calilKTS this resistance will be aided by both the 
 transverse and the longitudinal resistance. Every 
 piece should, therefore, "have sufficient thickness of 
 breech to cause niptiu-e to take place laterally, if at 
 all, instead of splitting through the breech. 
 
 The most obvious ineans of enabling any vessel to 
 sustiiin a greater elastic pressure is to simply thicken 
 its sides, thus increasing the area of subst:mce to be 
 torn asunder. But to obtain much greater strength 
 by casting guns heavier is impossible, because in cast 
 giins the outside helps but ver>- little in restraining 
 the exi)losive force of the powder tending to burst 
 the gun, the strain not being commimicated to it Iiy 
 the intervening metal. The cunsequence is that, in 
 large guns, the inside is split, while the outside is 
 scarcely strained. This split rapidly increases, and 
 the guii ultimately bursts. If we make equidistjmt , 
 
 circular marks on the end of an India-rubber cylinder 
 and stretch it, we can see plainly how much more 
 the inside is strained than the outside, or even the in- 
 termediate parts. The spaces between the marks will 
 become thinner, each space becoming less thin thiui 
 that inside of it, but the inner space much thinner 
 than the others, showing that when the inside is 
 strained almost to breaking, the intermediate parts are 
 doing much less work, and those far removed almost 
 none. It is well known that in cylinders of metal the 
 pnrer ej'ertetl by different jxirts varies inversely as the 
 squares of the distances of the parts from the axis. 
 Thus, in a 10-inch ^n, when th(' inside, which is 'i 
 inches from the axis, is fully strained, the metal 3 
 inches from the inside, or 7 inches from the axis, can 
 only exert a force jg, or little more than half, as 
 much. We cannot, therefore, l)e astonished that it 
 has been found in practice that cylinders for hydrau 
 lie presses, with a thickness equal to about one half 
 the diameter of the piston, are almost as strong as if 
 ten times as thick. Hence there is a certain limit be- 
 yond wliicli it seems useless toincrea.se the thickness 
 of the metal, and this is when the force exerted on 
 the surface of the bore would be sufficient to rupture 
 the interior portions of the metal before the strain 
 acted to any extent upon the exterior parts. Any 
 arrangement of the parts by which the explosive 
 strain is distributed equally over the entire thickness 
 of the piece necessarily brings a greater amount of 
 resistance into play. In order to obtain the requisite 
 resistance, and with a moderate thickness of metal, it 
 is desiralile to equalize as far as possible the strain 
 upon every portion of the metal. There are two 
 methods of accomplishing this, <lepending upon the 
 pi-inciples of initial tension and varying elasticity. 
 Some gun-makers use the one, .some the other, and 
 some a combination of the two. See Initial Tension 
 and Viiri/iiif/ Elasticity. 
 
 ELBOW-GAUNTLET.— An ancient piece of armor, 
 a gauntlet of plate reaching to the elbow, adopted 
 from the Asiatics in the sixteenth century. 
 
 ELBOW PIECES.— The metal plates used to cover 
 the junction of the rere-bracc anil vanl-bracc, by 
 which the upper and lower half of the arm were 
 covered. They increased to im enormous size, as in 
 the effigy of Sir Thomas Peyton, in Lsleham Church, 
 but agiiin decreased to their normal size. Also writ- 
 ten Condiires. See Armor. 
 
 ELECTRIC BOMB-LANCE.— An application of the 
 electric force to the exjilosion of a bursting-charge in 
 a haipoon or bomb lance. A copjK'r wire is oirried 
 through the line, and, when a circuit is established 
 by the gimner, a resistance section in the fuse of the 
 bomb lance ignites the charge. 
 
 ELECTRIC CABLES. — Electric cables for military 
 use must pos.sess the following qnalilications: 1. Ca- 
 pacity to sustain a certain amount of strain without 
 breaking. 2. G'jod insulation, composed of such a 
 substani-e that it may lie readily stored and kept for 
 a considerable lime wilboul l>eing injured. This is 
 essential, as the lines will only be submerged while 
 actiially in use in time of war, for which purpose 
 they must consequently Ix' kept in store, and always 
 really in sufficient quantities. 3. For situations 
 where there is a rocky or shingly bottom, they must 
 be provided with an external covering capable of 
 protecting the insulation from destruclion. Special 
 precaulians must, of course, lie taken to .si'cure the 
 cables at jwints where they may lie necc.s.s;irily cx- 
 posi'd to a considerable wsish of the scji, such as the 
 places where they may be led into a fort, etc.; but as 
 there are others where no such six'Cial precautions can 
 l)e applied, an external protecting covering over the 
 insulation must be provided. 4. Pliability, so that 
 it mav be wound or paid out from a moderately 
 sizeil drum without injury. The conducting wire is 
 either soft iron or cojiper. The best substance for 
 covering it to effect insulation is vulcanized India- 
 rubber, as it can stand any degree of heat I i kely to occur 
 to a cable, and does not harden and crack as does
 
 ELECTEIC CLZPSYDEA. 
 
 534 
 
 ELECTRIC CLEFSTDBA, 
 
 gutta-percha. The conductor should, however, be 
 galvaniziil and covcreti with a thin coating of raw- 
 India nibbor, to prtJti-ct it from the action of the sul- 
 phur of the vulcanized rubher. India-rubtx'r insula- 
 tion possi'sses one defect as coniiiarcd willi jiulta- 
 percha; \-iz., that it dix'S not adhere to the nielallic 
 conductor, and thai, consequently, if the India-rubber 
 is once cut through, auv stram on the cable has a 
 tendency to pull the conductor away and incrcjise the 
 fault. This docs not occur with guttaixrcha, which 
 .seems to clirii: to it and prevent such a result. Gutta 
 percha cracks and perishes unless considerable care is 
 e.verciscd in preserving it, which is best done by 
 keeping it under water. " ludiarubber possesses higher 
 dielectric pro|>erties than gutta-percha. 
 
 The Bishop gutta-iiercha cables and insulated 
 wires, manufactured under the Simpson patent by 
 Messrs. L. G. Tillolson it Co., United States, are iu 
 most cases used for submarine mines. The dmwings 
 
 fall increases with the time in very rapid proportiona. 
 One can, it is true, transform the vertical fall into a 
 movement of rt)talion, whether continuous, such as 
 that of revoUing cylinders, or alternate, such ivs that 
 of pendulums; i)ut"in both cases the great advantage 
 of a constant chronometric movement is lost; account 
 must then be tjikeu of friction, and this nuiy be varied 
 bv causes which escajie the observation, and certainty 
 aiid reliability in the result no longer exist. In order 
 to avoid this inherent inconvenience in the employment 
 of such a mechanical instrument, we may employ as 
 a chionometer the tlow of a liquid, and determine the 
 time by means of the weight run out during the in- 
 terval "to be n)easurcti. For this jiurpose mercury 
 presents itself naturally to the mind; this metal, very 
 fluid and homogeneous, has great specific weight, its 
 evai>oration is insensible, and, not moistening the in- 
 closing surfaces, its use is extremely clean and con- 
 venient. This has been done by Major Le Boulenge 
 
 Qutta-percha JIultiple Cables. 
 
 show sections of one, two, three, four, five, six, and 
 seven conductors. These multiple cables are in many 
 cases found convenient where it is required to carry a 
 large number of wires in a compact form into a 
 fort. They may be composed of any suitable num- 
 ber of distinct cores, each of which consists of a 
 strand of copper or iron wire insulated with rubber 
 or guttapercha. Where there is any strain, or any 
 chance for abrasion against rocks or gravelly bot- 
 tom, an exterior covering is neces.sary for protec- 
 tion. Friclional electricity must not be used with 
 the cjibles, as it would be nearly certain that every 
 mine atlaeliecl ti) the cable would explode by induc- 
 tion. See (liilriiii'iiiiiti r :\m\ Submarine JUines. 
 
 ELECTRIC CLEPSYDRA.— Generally, with chrono- 
 metric instruments, the lime is deduced from the 
 space |)!Ls.si-d over during tli-.; interval to be measured 
 by a body which moves according to a delennined 
 law. This moving body, which we call " ehronom- 
 cter," is the important |>urt of the aiipartitus; the 
 other fittings are but acce.s.sories serving to put the 
 clironomeler in operation; that is to Siiy, to render it 
 capable of marking the commeneenieni and the end 
 of the lime lo 1h' measured. The choice of chronom- 
 eter, then, is of first importance. A weight fallini: 
 freely coiislilules, ineonlcstably, the most simple and 
 most exact chrononuMer; regulated by an immutable 
 law of nature, its motion is accomiilishcd withf)ut the 
 aid of any intermediary force; neither use niir lime 
 can alter its rale; it is al)solutely invariable. Unfor- 
 tunately this chronometer is only applicable to the 
 measure of times relatively short, for the extent of 
 
 of the Belgian Artillery in an instrument to which he 
 has given the name of ileetrlc clepsiidra. 
 
 The instrument, rei)reseiited in section in the draw- 
 ing, is composed of a circular reservoir, A, of 0"'.20 
 diameter by 0"'.03 high, containing mercury, and 
 supported by a hollow central column, B, of 0°'.20 
 height, terminating in a tripod fitted with leveling- 
 screws, X. This ves.sel, of cast-iron, rests on a circu- 
 lar plate, C, of the same metal, which is fitted with a 
 rim to catch the mercurj' which may through inad- 
 vertence flow out of the receiver, T). A disk of cast- 
 iron, E, covere the reservoir ami bears the electrical 
 fillings of the apparatus. The hollow column, which 
 makes a ]iart of the receiver, terminates at the lower 
 end in a fine orifice, above which is fitted a conical 
 valve which prevents the merciuy from nuniing out. 
 The face of the orifice, the body "of the valve, K, and 
 its seat, F, are of steel. A rigid stem, G, connected 
 by a swivel-joint to the body of the valve, rises, fol- 
 lowing the axis of the receiver, traverses a central 
 opening in the upper disk, and then connects above 
 this latter to a horizontal lever. II, which is called 
 the valve-lever. If the arm of this lever opposite to 
 the connection of I he stem be pressed down, the valve 
 is opened and flow is produced. If the effort be dis- 
 continue<l, the valve falls back upon its seat and the 
 flow is arrested instantaneously. The opening and 
 (losing of the valve are performed by the aclion of 
 two levers, I and J, which fall successively, and of 
 which the heavier extreinilies, filled with armatures 
 of soft iron, K and L, are held in the state of " readv" 
 (shown iu the figure) by electro-magnets, 51 and K.
 
 XIECTBIC CLOCK. 
 
 535 
 
 ELECTBIC CLOCK. 
 
 The lever for closing is formed of two parallel arms, 
 united at one end by the armature, at the other bv a 
 cross-piece used to raise the lever, K; this disposition 
 permits it to move without touching the valve-lever. 
 If the current which actuates the electro-mafrnet, M, 
 be broken, the opening lever falls upon the end of the 
 valve-lever, opens the valve permanently, and the 
 mercury Hows into the receiver, D, placed imme- 
 diately under the orifice. We call the lever K, open- 
 ing-lever; its magnet current and circuit will be called 
 by the name of electro-magnet current and circuit of 
 opening, to distinguish them from similar tittings 
 which operate the dosing. If the second current 
 be broken, the closing-lever falls in turn, raises the 
 opening-lever to its original jwsition; then the lever 
 of the valve being freed, this latter falls back into its 
 seat and the flow is arrested. A catch, T, prevents 
 vibration of the closing-lever after its fall. This sim- 
 ple combination of three levers fultil Is perfectly the 
 mechanical conditions imposed, for the valve opens 
 suddenly by a shock, while it closes freely by its own 
 action. In actual practice the two currents are bro- 
 
 ken successively by the projectile; a weight, P , of 
 mercury flows mto the receiver, and it is required to 
 ■deduce from it the period which has separated the 
 two ruptures. 
 
 Let us suppose for a moment that the apparatus 
 furnishes a constant flow, and let P be the flow of the 
 orifice, that is, the weight of mercury which flows ]>er 
 second; by dividing P' liy P the time is obtained 
 which ha.s elaiisod between the instant of opening 
 and that of closing the value, 
 p 
 
 The relation g- will also give the time which has 
 
 elapsed between the rupture of two currents, if tlic 
 valve has opened and closeil at the jirccise instant of 
 the rupture of the corrcsi)onding current. But this 
 is not the ca.se; when the first current is broken, a cer- 
 tain time is neces.S)iry in order that the magnet may 
 arrive at such a state of demagnetization as to release 
 the armature, then a certain time for the fall of the 
 lever, and finally an additional time for the complete 
 raising of the valve. Analogous periods transpire 
 between the rupture of the closing current and the 
 arrest of the flow. The detenninarton of these short 
 periods is obviated by applying to the instrument the 
 
 meUiod of simultaneous disjunction, the important 
 feature of which has been devised by Major Xavez. 
 To this end the fall of the levers is regulated in such 
 a way that the oi^ening-lever occupies less time than 
 the other from the commencement of its fall to its 
 action on the valve. Thus, when by means of a dis- 
 jvmctor both currents are cut at the same time, the 
 first lever opens the valve a certain time before the 
 second closes it; the weight, P, of mercurj' run out 
 in this way is the precise quantity to be deducted 
 from P' in order to ascertain from the expression 
 P — p 
 
 — p-^ the time which has elapsed between the rup- 
 ture of the two currents. 
 
 This method of procedure takes into account both 
 tlie time lost in the working of the mechanism and 
 that of demagnetization, which varies with the respec- 
 tive force of the two currents. See Chronoseopc. 
 
 ELECTRIC CLOCK.— A dial with hands and going- 
 train impelled by recurrent impulses from an electro- 
 magnet. The regularity of any clock depends, as is 
 well known, on the action of the pendulum, which Ls 
 isochronous — that is, has the jiroperty, within certain 
 limits, of describing long and short arcs in the same 
 time. The pendulum, however, left to itself, would, 
 in con.sequence of the resistance of the air, and of the 
 spring on which it hangs, .soon come to rest. An 
 impulse must therefore be given it occasionally to 
 keep it going. This impulse need not necessarily be 
 exactly the same, for though it might cause the pen- 
 dulum to make a longer swing at one time than at 
 another, the time of oscillation would not differ. In 
 ordinary clocks these imptilses are given by a hea%T 
 weight, and are transmitted to the pendulum through 
 the wheel-work of the clock. >'o mo\ing power can 
 be more steadv than gravity, or less likely to tax the 
 isochronism of the pendulinn, but its action on the 
 clock is limited by the clistaiice through which the 
 weight descends, so that the weight must lie periodi- 
 cally wound up to preserve gravity in play. The 
 trouble of winding, though small, still leaves "room for 
 the wish that a clock might lie constructed going for 
 long periods without external help. Such an instru 
 meut the electric clock professes to be; but an inde- 
 pendent electric clock is not trustworthy as a time- 
 keejicr, and all that electric clocks are used for is to 
 copy the time of a good gravity clock. This work 
 theelcctric clock does to perfection. The electric 
 clock was invented by Bain, an Edinburgh clock- 
 maker, in 1840, and his ideas, though improved and 
 modified, still form the basis of electric-clock-making. 
 In the ordinary clock it is the clock that moves the 
 penduhuu; in "Bain's clock it is the pendulum 4hat 
 moves the clock. As the conslruclion of the pen- 
 didum is the only part of it coimeeted with elec- 
 tricity, we shall confine our notice to a general 
 desci-ii'tion of the pendulum action. To the lower 
 part of the pendulum a bob is attached, consisting 
 of a hollow bobbin of insulated copper wire. Wires 
 from both ends ascend the pen<Iulum-rod, and are' 
 in metallic connection respectively with the t\W) 
 • springs from which the iiendulum hangs. Two 
 niairiiets, or bundles of magnetic rods, are fixed at 
 cither side of the bob, and are of such dimensions 
 that the hollow Ixib in its oscillation can pass a certiiin 
 way over each without touching. The magnets have 
 their like poles turned towards each other. The two 
 springs of the iKnduluni-rod are in connection with 
 the two poles of a galvanic battery. The wire con- 
 necting one of them is made to pass round by a break, 
 worked by the peudidum-rod. When the pendulum 
 is made to move, si\y towarils the right, it shifts a 
 slider, so as to complete the connection iK-tween the 
 poles of the batter\-. The current thereupon desceniis 
 one of the wires of the pendulum, passes through the 
 coil of wire fonning the bob, and ascends by the other. 
 So domg it converts the boli into a temi)orar.- magnet, 
 the S pole towards the right and the N. jwle towards 
 the left. In this wav the S. pole of the Iwb Is repelled 
 by the S. iwle of the right-hand magnet, and ite N.
 
 ELECTBIC FUSES. 
 
 530 
 
 ELECTRIC FUSES. 
 
 pole is attracletl by the S. pole of the left-hand 
 magnet, so tlml fit>m this dovilile i-epulsion and nttrae- 
 tion. both iiclin;; in the sjimo diiiction, the 1h)1( re 
 ceive.s an inipidsc towards the lelt. Partly, therefore, 
 from this impulse, and partly from it.s own weijrht, 
 the iK'nduhnn deserilKw its left oscillation; and when 
 it n-aehes the end of it, it mo%es the slider so as to cut 
 off the battery enrrent, and then returns towards the 
 right, uiuler the action simply of its own weight. On 
 riTiehing the extreme right, "as Itefore, it receives a 
 fresh impulse, and tlivis, under the electric force ex- 
 cried durini; its left oscillation, the motion of the pen- 
 dulum is liiaintaiMed. So long as the electrieitv is 
 supplietl will the pendulum continue to move. The 
 current required is exceedingly weak, and Bain con- 
 sidered that it could he sullieiently excited liy a plate 
 of eopiHT anil a plate of zinc sunk into the ground 
 and acted upon hv the moisture usually found there. 
 This carth-battcry, as he called it, was expected to 
 act steadily for years; but the result proved far other- 
 wise, for the soil not unfrequently dried uji, leaving 
 no trace of electrical action. The imiierfection of the 
 batterv has led to a strong prejudice against these 
 clocks— stronger, certainly, than they merit. Practice 
 has, however, established that a clock driven by an 
 electric pendulum, vmdir no control, is not to l)e 
 trusted, and clocks of this kind, so far at least as this 
 eoimtry is concerned, are entirely ab.ondoueil. The 
 next important step in perfecting the electric clock 
 was made by Lewis Jones (patented IS.jT). All his 
 clocks are ordinary gmWty clocks. The standard 
 clock is not an electric clock at all, but its pendulum 
 makes and breaks contact in the battery-circuit which 
 controls the copying clocks. These last, though 
 driven by weights, have Bain's pendulums, and the 
 currents transmitted by the standard clock keep them 
 oscillating in exact accordance with it, so that the 
 standanl clock and copying clocks have their pen- 
 dulums always at exactly the same point in their 
 oscillations. The copying clocks are adjusted to keep 
 nearly the lime of the priniaiy, and the margin of 
 error is whuliy removed by electric control. 
 
 ELECTRIC FUSES. — In" most blasting or mining 
 operations the use of galvanic batteries or electrical 
 machines, together with proper exploders, has almost 
 entirely superseded that of the various forms of run- 
 ning fuse. Among the advantages offered bj' the ap- 
 plication of electricity to this purpose may be men- 
 tioned: greater ease of application, more complete 
 control, and greater safety; the power to obtain a 
 piactically simultaneous explosion of a number of 
 charges, and the al)ilily to work at greater distances, 
 as jii torpedo operations. Electric fuses may con- 
 veniently be divided into two cla.sscs: 1st. Tho.se in 
 which explosion is obtained by disrujitive discharge 
 lielween two |i<>ints in the circuit. 2d. Those in 
 which the explosion is determined by the healing of a 
 conductor of comparatively high resistance introduced 
 into the circuit. 
 
 The first class can be used with the Leydcn-jar in- 
 duction-coil, or anv frictional electrical machine, such 
 as Smith's or Von tbner's, and are known -.vifrirliiiiial 
 fiiKix. Fuses of this kind are made in a variety of 
 forms, but in all es.seiitial features are alike. All that 
 is necessary is that there shall be a break in a circuit 
 not greater than a spark can easily be made to pass 
 over Cirenendly from -'j to j",, inch), and that between 
 the points of this break shall be placed some composi- 
 tion that will be ignited by the pas,s)ige of the sjiark. 
 Gunpowder can be used, "but does not ignit<^ readily, 
 and for this reason some more sensitive composition 
 is generally emidoyed. The objections to this class 
 of fuse are: 1st. The highly sensitive comjiosilions 
 used render them dangerous. " 2d. Perfect insulation 
 of all leading wires \i.sed in connection with them is 
 necessjiry, Jiarlicularly when working under water or 
 in damp places. 3d". The frictional machines used 
 with these fuses rc'iuirc great care to keep them in 
 working order, and arc much affected by atmosi)heric 
 can.ses. 
 
 The second class of electric fuses may be further 
 divided into two sub-classes: 1st. Mmjneto-eUclric 
 ftintx, or those in which the introduced or scconiUiry 
 conductor is a substance of high specific resistance, 
 such as plund)ago, copper sulphide, or Abel's compo- 
 sition. 2d. Dy lui mo elect rie /(/«'», or those in which 
 the secondary conductor has a comparatively low re- 
 sistance, sucli as fine platinum, iron, or German-silver 
 wire. 
 
 The magneto-electric fu.ses are used with Wheat- 
 stone's, Beardslee's, and similar machines. The fuse 
 con.sists essentially of a break in a circuit which is 
 bridged by a layer of plumbago or composition, 
 which, when heated by the pa.ssagc of the current, 
 burns and ignites the charge of the fuse. These fuses 
 are always of high resistance, but are, however, safe, 
 owing to the fact that no very .seiLsilive composition is 
 used in their construction; but those of the same 
 mamifacture vary greatly, both in rcsistmice and the 
 strength of current required to fire them. The prin- 
 cipal objections to this cla.ss of fuse are: 1st. The 
 gi'eat resistance of the fuse makes perfect insulation 
 of all leading wires used in connection with them 
 necessary, for any defect of insulation, particularly 
 when working under water, would probably olfer less 
 resistance to the passage of the current than the fuse 
 itself, and the greater part of the current would thus 
 be diverted from the fuse. 2d. Their unavoidable 
 lack of uniformity in resistimce and strength of cur- 
 rent required to fire them. iid. Their liability to be 
 rendered worlhle-ss by the displacement of the plum- 
 bag<i, from handling or other e;iuses. 
 
 The essential feature in the construction of all fuses 
 of this cla.ss is the introduction in a circuit of a fine 
 nutallic wire, which, when heated by the passjige of 
 a current, fires the priming material, or in some in- 
 stances the charge of the fuse itself, placed in contact 
 with it. These fuses are generally of low resLstance 
 and re(piire a moderately strong current to fire them; 
 and by care in construction great uniformity in re- 
 sistance can be obtained, and much greater ri'gularity 
 in the strength of current required to fire them than 
 with the other classes. The principal advantages of 
 this class of fuse are: 1st. Unifonnity. 2d. Safety. 
 3d. Owing to their low resistance, moderate defects 
 of ins\dation will not prevent the firing of the fuse. 
 4th. The condition of the fuse (even after it has been 
 placed in the charge) can always be safely tested by 
 the passage of a weak current, and the certainty of 
 firing be thus demonstrated. .5th. The fuse is not 
 likely to be damaged by handling, storage, or trans- 
 portation. Gth. The machines used in connection 
 with them require but little care and are not likely 
 to get out of order. 
 
 Platinum may be disjiensed with by bringing the 
 ends of the conducting wires so close together as 
 barely to be apart, thus forming a break or interval 
 in the conductor. The ends of the wire arc held in 
 exact position, usvially by being passed through a 
 short plug of wood. Around this plug is wrapped 
 jiaper, which, projecting at the end where the con- 
 ductor is broken, forms an envelope for the prinung. 
 This wrapping or cap is afterwards coven'd with a 
 strong shellac varnisb. When rcuularly manufac- 
 tured fuses cannot lie obtained, it may become neces- 
 sary to improvise them. This may be done in several 
 ways, one of which is to take a small cylinder of hard 
 wood about an inch in diameter and half an inch long; 
 this is provided with a groove around its circumfer- 
 ence, in which is ticil the paper envelope before men- 
 tioned. Two holes about a (piarter of an inch ap.irt 
 and of suitable size to receive two moderately line 
 pieces of copper wire arc made lengthwise through 
 the cyliialer. One extremity of both of these wires is 
 sharpened with a file, and about a (piarter of an inch 
 of the wire bent over at right angles, and slightly 
 Hatlened with a hammer, the extreme point being 
 bent over in the form of a hook. The straight ends 
 of the wire are then passed through the holes in the 
 cylinder, and the flattened heads are fi.xcd in the wood
 
 bj- Kolva..iL- ciM-r^ni U>. Galvai.io i..c,i.idesceiic^. 11, 12. Galvanic l.^^ht. '^- ' ^,j, -- 
 16. Oereted'HfunOumenlul experiment. 19. Tangent-bussole. 30. Mulnplier. ' '^^^^..j, 
 Moreu or Qraliam alphabet ; 2fJ. key; 27. circuit coiupletw; s, key; m. souDder; . ^ ^, 
 mugnetlsiii. 34. Electro-dynamic attraction. 35,30. Thermo-electric elemenw. ■ 
 trie ubal«r. 43. Qround iuductor. 44, 45. BiamasDetiBm. 
 V— 388. 
 
 C.'UP'* or cells. H. Uunsen's coltiinn. 0. Generation of heat 
 ■' ^ "itftmeter. 16. Electrolysis of suiline soluiiooa. IT, Oalvano-plaatic. 
 '*Be<:i'n 7 '' ""' '^'' ^''''^'"*-''"^"ets. 85 to 27. Electric telegraph (25. sounder and strip with 
 *Qec.rJnm" !''"''***'■■ **■ ^>^'^''-''-^y'"imic test. 31. Solenoid, 33. 33. Amp.Vre-slheoiyof 
 oeneiic machine. 40. Induction apparatus. «. RumkorffB spark inductor. 4a. Elec-
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 537 
 
 ELECTEICITT. 
 
 by driving tbe pointed extremities into the Intter. In 
 this way the broad, thin melal surfaces whieli form 
 the poles of the fuse are tixed in a parallel position on 
 the surface of the wood, and should tie as close to- 
 gether as possible without actually touching. Be- 
 fore, however, the wires are thus jilaced in i^osition, 
 the surface of the cylinder, tipon which the poles are 
 to be tixed, is brushed over lightly with a solution 
 of ordmary photographic collodion. When the poles 
 have been fixed into the cylinder thus prepared, the 
 small surface of wood which intervenes between them 
 is coated with graphite by ilrawing a pointed l)lack 
 lead pencil across it two or three limes. A cap of 
 paper is then tied round the cylinder so as to inclose 
 the poles of the fuse; this cylinder is tilled compactly 
 with tine gimpowdcr, and the open end is then choked. 
 The prolrudiug wires of the fuse, which .serve lo con- 
 nect it with the conducting wires, are coatetl to within 
 a short distance of their extremities by molding ordi- 
 nary beeswax arounil them with the tingcrs, and then 
 tightly wrapping the wax with thin strijis of tape or 
 rag, which is .secured to the ends with thread. The 
 entire fuse, except the bare ends of the wires, is then 
 coated with shellac or lacquer. This fuse may be 
 fired by means of a constant battery of sufficient 
 power, or by a magnetic exploder, the former of 
 which generates a continuous current, and the latter 
 a rapid succession of short currents. C.'urrents of this 
 character are required to produce the healing power 
 over the plumbago bridge necessary to ignite the 
 priming. See Bynamo-tleclricIgniUr, Fiisc, and (fal- 
 ■Vftnintt.. < 
 
 ELECTRICITY.— The name used with reference to 
 an extensive and important class of phenomena, and 
 usually denoting either the unknown cause of the 
 phenomena or the science that treats of them. Most 
 of the jihenomena m question fall under the three 
 chief heads of frictional electricity, galvanism, and 
 magneto-electricity. The present article is contincd 
 to the first. Thales, about 600 n.c, refers in his 
 writings to the fact that amber, when rubbeil, attracts 
 light and dry bodies. This was the only electric fact 
 known to the ancients. The science of electricity 
 dates properly from the 3'ear 1600 a.t>., when Gilbert 
 of Colchester published a book, entitled De Artf M<ig- 
 iieticn, in which he gives a list of substances which 
 he found to possess the .same property as amber, and 
 speculates on magnetic and electric forces. lie is the 
 inventor of the word electricity, which he derived 
 from the Greek word eketron, amber. Otto von 
 Guericke, Burgomaster of JIagdeburg, in his work 
 E.rperiinentti Xora Maodeburgicn (1672). describes, 
 among his other inventions, the first electric machine 
 ever made, which consisted of a globe of sidphur 
 turned by a handle, and rulilied by a cloth jiressed 
 against it l)y the hand. Ilawksbee (1700) constructed 
 ainachine in which a glass cylinder. rublie<l by the 
 drv hand, rciilaeed Guericke's sulphur glolie. Grey 
 and Wehler (172!)) were the first to transmit electricity 
 from one (loint to another, and to distinguish bodies 
 into conductors and non-conductoi-s. Dufay (1733- 
 45) showed the identity of electrics anil noncon- 
 ductors. and of non-electrics and conductors, and 
 was tlie first to discover the two kinds of electricity, 
 and the fundamental principle which regulates their 
 acti(;n. Between the years 1733 and 17-H much at- 
 tention was given in Germany to the construction of 
 electric machines. Up to this time, notwithstanding 
 the inventions of Guericke and Hawksliee. the glass 
 tube rubbed by a piece of cloth which Gilbert first 
 introduced was used in all cx|ienment<. Bozc, a 
 Profe.s.sor at Wittenberg, taking the hirl from Hawks- 
 bee's maclune, employed a srlobe of glass for his ma- 
 chine, and furnished it with a prime conductor. 
 Winkler, a Professor at Leipsic, was the first to use a 
 fixed cushion in the machine. The Lcyden jar was 
 (1746) discovered accitlentally at Leydcn by Musch- 
 enbroek: but the honor of the discovery has been 
 contested also in favor of Cuneus, a rich liiu-gess of 
 that town, and Kleist, Canon of the Cathedral of 
 
 Camin, in Pomerania. PVanklin (1747) showed the 
 electric conditions of the Leyden jar, and (1752) 
 proved the identity of lightning and electricity by his 
 famous kite experiment. The last was performed with 
 the same object about the same time, and quite inde- 
 pendently, by Romas of the town of Nerac, in FS-ance. 
 In 1760 Franklin made the first lightning-conductor. 
 Canton, Wilke, and ^Epiuus il753-.59) examined the 
 nature of induction. Hamsilen (1768) was the first to 
 construct a plate-machine, and Nairn (17^0) a two- 
 I fluid cylinder-machine. The electrophorus was in- 
 I vented by Volta in 1775, and the condenser bv the 
 I .same electrician in 1782. In 1786 Galvani made the 
 discovery which led to the addition of the new brancli 
 to the science which bears his name, and which now 
 , far exceeds the older branch in extent and iiraclical 
 value. In 1787 Coulomli, by means of his torsion- 
 balance, investigated the laws of electric attraction 
 and repulsion. In 1837 Faraday published the first 
 of his researches on induction. Armstrong, iu 1840,. 
 designed his hydro-electric machine. 
 
 Under the head Conductous it Is stated that bodies 
 which do not conduct electricity, or non-conductors, 
 are callable of electrical excitation from friction, and 
 are in consequence termed electrics, and that con- 
 ductors not so affected are called non-electrics. The 
 fumlainental principles of electricity are illustrated by 
 the electric pendnbim. A glass tube bent at riglit 
 angles, so as to project horizontally, is jilaced on a 
 convenient stand. On the hook in which its upper 
 end terminates, a cocoon thread is hung, to the end 
 of which a pith-ball is attached. The ball is thus 
 doubly insulated by the glass and the silk thread. If 
 a tube of gla.ss be rublieil by a dry silk handkerchief, 
 and brought near the ball, the ball is at first briskly 
 attracted, and then as briskly repelled; and if the 
 tube lie then moved towards it, it moves olT, keeping 
 at the same distance from it. The ball being so af- 
 fected, or charged, as it is called, a rod of shellac or 
 of sealing-wax, after being rubbed with llamiel, at- 
 tracts it, if possible, more briskly than before, and 
 again sends it off exactly as the glass had done. If 
 tile glass tube be now again taken up and rublxjd a 
 second time, if necessary, the ball will act towards 
 it as it did towards the sealing-wax. The sjime series 
 of attractions and rei)ulsions would have taken place 
 if we had begun with the sealing-wax instead of the 
 glass tube. We interpret this experiment in the fol- 
 lowing way: A\hen glass is rublied with silk, and 
 the silk rc'moved, it is charged with what is called 
 positive electricity. The ball is attracted by it, and 
 becomes on contact also charged with positive elec- 
 tricitv, and is then repelled. When sealing wax is 
 rubbed with flannel, and the flannel removed, it be- 
 comes charged with negative electricity, which is the 
 counterpart of positive electricity, for it attracts the 
 positively charged ball, and. communicating its own 
 eleetricilV to it^ finally repels it. From such an ex- 
 periment as this we conclude ihut bodies electrified 
 either pnxitirely or negatirely attract ueittrnl bodies and 
 bodies affected irith electricitj/ of an opposite name to- 
 their own, but repel those affected trith ikctrieity of the 
 same name; and that electricity can /«• communicated 
 from one body to another by contnct. For positive and 
 "neirativc (written also -f and — ), the temis vitreous 
 and resinous arc also employed, as glass and resin are 
 the t\-pical substances from which they may be ob- 
 tained. Contact is not the only way in which elec- 
 tricity is communicated. We find, when we deal 
 with "larger bodies than the pith-ball of the experi- 
 ment, and sometimes even with it, that the pas-sjige 
 of a «;OTrA- between two bo<lies without contact com- 
 municates the electricitv of the one to the other. 
 The part plaved bv the rubbers in the above experi- 
 ment must not be overlooked. The silk handker- 
 chief employed to rub the glass a.-wumes the resinous 
 or — electrical state, and the flannel rubber of the scal- 
 inir-wax the vitreous or -|-. This cannot, however, 
 be clearly shown as the experiment \r. pcrfoniied, 
 for the rubbers are in each case tigliHy embraced by
 
 ILECTBICITT. 
 
 5SS 
 
 ELECTEICITT, 
 
 the bond, which neutralizes their peculiar electricitj'. 
 We ciui perform our finiilainentjil experiment in a 
 way clearly to show tliis. Let us take for our rub- 
 biiiV auil rubbi-il surfaces two Imliarubbcr balkxius 
 intlatwl with air (such as chililreu plav witli). and 
 hold Ihem tightly one in each hand. They may be 
 in all respwts perfectly alike. Let lis then rub them 
 briskly on each other, and then hold the rublKil sides 
 clo.sely together. On bringinjr the two in contact 
 near the i>illi-ball, it remains indifferent to them: but 
 if we pull thcni a|)art, and put one on each side of 
 the pilhball. the l)all plays actively between them, 
 iK-ing attracted and re|>elled by each in turn. The 
 fact of no attraction occurring when the balloon.s are 
 together shows that in the rubbing both electricities 
 are generated in equal quantities, for they neutralize 
 caeli other when brought near; and the fact that llie 
 balloons must be .separateil proves that all electric 
 phenomena take place in an electric field, with posi- 
 tive electricity at its one termination, and negative 
 electricity at its other. The non-conducting nature 
 of the India-rubber prevents the electricities finally 
 neutralizing in contact, and disappearing by the 
 hands when apart. It is also instructive that as force 
 is everted and work is done in pulling them apart, we 
 have the c(iuivalent of that work in the form of an 
 electric field capable of doing work. The motion of 
 the pith-ball, and the heating caused by the tiny 
 .sparks which charge it, are evidences of the truth of 
 the statement. It is agsiin worthy of note that both 
 balloons appear exactly- alike, and yet they assume 
 op]>osite electricities. That there must be some dif- 
 ference may be readily seen from what follows. In 
 most cases of friction, the nature of the rubbing and 
 nibbed surfaces determines the kind of electricity 
 which each assumes. Thus, if glass Ixi rubbed by "a 
 cat's fur instead of silk, its electricity is — instead of 
 -|-. In the following list, each body, when ruljbed 
 by any one preceding it, is negatively electrified; by 
 any one succeeding it, positively: cat's fur, smooth 
 glass, linen, feathers, wood, paper, silk, shellac, 
 ground gl:iss. When two pieces of the same mate- 
 rial arc rubl)ed together, the colder or smoother be- 
 comes positively excited. Jletal filings rubl)ing 
 against a plate of the same metal deternune — elec- 
 tricity in themselves, and + electricity in the plate. 
 When a white silk ribbon is rubbed by a black one 
 of the same texture, the white one becomes -(-. A 
 plate of glass becomes + when a stream of air is di- 
 rected against it from a pair of bellows. The friction 
 caased by steam of high tension issuing from a nar- 
 row piiic develops electricities in the steam and pipe 
 which depend on the material of the latter. This 
 fact has been turned to advantage by Armstrong in 
 the construction of a boiler electricjd" machine of im- 
 mense power. 
 
 Free electricity has the power of inducing the 
 l)odics in its neighborhood to assume a peculiar elec- | 
 trical condition; this is exhibited in the following 
 simple way: A brass cylinder, roundid at both ends, 
 is insulatttl on a gla.ss pillar. Two pith-balls, hung 
 hv cotton threads, are attached at eitlier extremity. 
 When a glass tube is brisklv rubbed, and placed 
 within a few inches of the eiul of the evliniler, the 
 balls at each end diverge, showing tb;il each jiair is 
 charged with similar electricities. When the glass 
 tul)e Is withdrawn, the balls hang down as before, so 
 that the electrical excitement of the cylinder is merely 
 temporary', and dependent on the proximity of the 
 excited tube. If, while the balls are ai)art, a proof 
 plaiif, coasisting of a small disk of gilt paper in- 
 sulateil at the end of a glass rod, be mude to touch 
 the end next the tulK>, and then transferred to an elec- 
 trometer, the electricity is found to be — ; if the same 
 be done at the other ciid, it is -|-. The nearer end of 
 the cvlinder is thus induced by the + electricity of 
 the giii-ss to assume the negative" electric state; and as 
 no — electricity can be excited without as nnieh -f 
 jlcctrieity. we find the other end posiiively electrified 
 to the Siime extent. It appears, besides", from the 
 
 positions taken up by them, that both eUctritilks 
 ufm-rre the mm< attmetioiig iinil npiihitmg as the boditt 
 iijt'trlxl III/ Hum. This action of the electricity of the 
 tube inducing in the cvlinder this peculiar electrical 
 condition is called induction ; and the cylinder in 
 this slate is sjiid to be jiolarized — that is, to have its 
 poles or ends like a magnet, each having its similar, 
 but relatively opposite, force. If the hand touch the 
 cylinder, the balls next the tube diverge furthir than 
 l>ef(>re, and the other two cease to Ik' affected. In 
 this ca.se, electrically sjx'akiug, the cylinder is a iwr- 
 tion of the ground, for the hand an<l body are con- 
 ductors; the ground is thus brought nearer, moi^ — 
 electricity appears, and the + electricity is lost in the 
 sjiark \\ ilh the hand. The — electricity is kept fixed 
 in the pari of the cylinder opposite the tube by the + 
 electricity of the lattfr; and when the hand is fii-st 
 removed, and then the tulie, it causes the balls at 
 both ends to diverge permanently. We thus see that 
 electricity can be produced and insulated in conduc- 
 tors by the action of free electricity on them. The 
 -f- electricity of the further half of the cylinder is as 
 free anil insulated as if no — electricity existed within 
 it. This is shown by i>lacing a cylinder near the 
 first, forming a continuation of it, as it were, without 
 touching, when the second cylinder, under the in- 
 duction of the + electricity of the first, is thrown into 
 the same state as the first. This second can induce 
 the same state in a third, and so on. As the excited 
 tube is withdrawn, the whole series return to their 
 natural condition without being in any way i>erma- 
 ncntly alTeclcd. The moment, however, it is again 
 lirouglit near, there is manifested at the further ter- 
 mination of the last a + electricity, which e.xerts the 
 s;ime influence there as if a portion of the electricity 
 of the lube had been actually communicated or trans- 
 ferred to it. The air intervening between tlie tube 
 and the cylinder is termed the duhrtrif, for it is 
 through it "that the electric action is propagated. In 
 i proof of this, we have only to place :i cake of shellac 
 between the tulje and cylinder, when the polarity of 
 the cylinder will rise higher than before, as would be 
 shown by the furlher divergence of the balls; and if 
 this or a similar experiment be conducted with suffi- 
 cient care, we find that the inductive action vaiics in 
 amount for each non-conductor. Induction, there- 
 fore, we have reason to conclude, is not the direct ac- 
 tion of one body on another, but an action transmitted 
 through, or possibly residing in. the medium between 
 them. In further proof of this, Faraihiy, who was 
 the first to examine the function of Ibe dielectric in 
 induction, has .shown that the action takes place 
 through air in curved as well as in straight lines, 
 which implies the action of an intervening niediiun. 
 The relative powers of different substances in facili- 
 tating induction are termed by this ])liilosophcr tlieir 
 upecifir imliiftire ciipiiritii'x. The following table by 
 Sir W. S. Harris gives the s|)ecitic imluctive capacir 
 ties of the more important non-couilucting substances, 
 taking that of air as unity; Air, 1.00; resin, 1.77; 
 pitch, 1.80; beeswax, 1.86; "glass, 1.90; sulphur, 1.93; 
 shellac, 1.95; India rubber, 'i.8. All gases, whether 
 simple or compound, have the same inductive capac- 
 ity, and this is not atTected by temperature or den- 
 sity. If a large jilate of metal be placed between the 
 glass lube and the cylinder, the polarization of the 
 cylinder instantly vanishes, for the induction is di- 
 verted by it into the ground. 
 
 Some idea of the meaning of the word }>otfn(ial' 
 may be gol from the following comparison. Sup- 
 pose we have a sup|ily of water with a cciiain head, 
 to fill an elastic b;ig: when the water is admilled. the 
 bag will swell lill the elasticity of the bag is eijual to 
 the lie.-id of water, and then the flow will ee:ise. The 
 potential is the head of water or elaslicily of the bag, 
 so many feet high, or so many pounds per square 
 inch. The capacity of the bag is usually the amount 
 it holds, but capacity in an elastic bag is a shifting 
 quantity, and we must use the term in this way if we 
 wish to compare the ea]>acity of two elastic bags —
 
 3LECTEICITT. 
 
 539 
 
 ELECTRICirr. 
 
 viz., the ratio of the water it holds to the head that 
 filled it. Thus, a bag holding 10 gallons with a head 
 1 foot would have a ten times greater capacity than a 
 bag holding 10 gallons with a head 10 feet; for if the 
 first were pressed hj a head of 10 feet, it would hold 
 100 gallons, the resistance of the hag being supposed 
 to increase with its contents. Now, let us take a 
 somewhat similar electric problem. An insulated 
 ball is connected with a magazine of energy, ready to 
 make electricity flow when occasion offers, such as a I 
 galvanic batterj'. Let the + pole of a gigantic bat- 
 tery be connected with the hall, and the other pole 
 with the ground: electricity will flow to the ball till 
 the air between the ball and the ground presents an 
 electric reaction equal to the iwtential of the battery. 
 The charge of the ball taken with reference to this 
 potential gives the capacity of the ball. So much, 
 then, for a popular \iew of these two words. The 
 potential of a body, or anj- point in the field, is de- 
 fined thus, %iz. : t/ie amount of icork that itouUl he ex- 
 pended in bringing a small quantity, a unit of-\- elec- 
 tricity, from an infinite distance Ui the body or point. 
 If the body is positive, the work would be expended; 
 if negative, the work would be done on the lx)dy and 
 the potential — . The siiid unit of + electricity will 
 always move from a point where the potential is 
 highto one where it is lower; in other words, elec 
 tricity will always flow between two points where 
 there is a difference of potential, and will cea.se to 
 flow when that difference cea.ses. If E be the charge, 
 V the potential. C the capacity, then C = E -j- V. 
 From the definition of potential just given, what we 
 have called the potential of the battery in the pre- 
 ceding illustration is in reality its electro-motice force, 
 or the difference of j)otentials of its poles. As these 
 are alike in ]X)wer bin different in sign, and as the 
 difference of two quantities of unlike sign is their 
 .sum, the electro-motive force is twice the ])otential of 
 one pole. If the chargin<f-liiie be withdrawn, the ball 
 will Iw in all ros]iccts as if charged by an electric 
 machine. The battery having, .so long as it acts, an 
 unlimited supply of electricily, its electro-motive 
 force remains the sjinie; but when balls charge one 
 another, the potential falls just as when a limited sup- 
 ply of water has its head reduced when made to run 
 into another ves.sel. Potential, then, must be esti- 
 mated by the resistance of the field, or the work value 
 of the unit of charge. The charge being the same, 
 the potential rises with the smallness of the IxkIv or 
 the thickness of the dielectric. Density is the quan- 
 tity of electricity on a unit of surface, and tenmon is 
 the strain which Faraday supposes to exist in the 
 molecules of a dielectric when charged. Tension is 
 ■commonly used in this country and abroad for poten- 
 tial, though our best writers never use it now in this 
 sense. 
 
 We might take it almost as a self-evident truth, 
 that the greater the surface over which electricity is 
 diffused, the less is its electric potential at any par- 
 ticular point, and so we are taught by exjx'riment. 
 When two equal balls are insulated, aud a charge is 
 given to one of them, and then communicated to the 
 other by contact with the first, it is found that both 
 equally divide the charge, but that the jwlential of 
 the electricity of each is one half of that of the origi- 
 nally charged ball. When a watch guard-chain is 
 charged and laid on the plate of an electroscope by 
 means of a gla.ss rod, the gold leaves diverge most 
 •when the chain lies in a heap on the plate; and as it 
 is lifted up, the leaves approach each other, showing 
 that as the exposed surface of the chain increases, the 
 electric potential of each jiart diminishes. The rea- 
 son of this is obvious. Let us begin with one ball 
 with a certain charge, then tiike another equal ball 
 and impart half the charge to it by making the two 
 touch. A sjiark will be seen at the charge of the sec- 
 ond biUl. The quantity in both is still the same, but 
 energy has been lost by the sjiark, and the heat gen- 
 erated by the spark is the measure of the loss. If we 
 continue to add ball afU^r ball until we have a verj- 
 
 large surface, the quantity is the same as at first, but 
 energj- has been squandered in the sparks of each 
 additional ball, and so the potential is lowered. E.\- 
 periment teaches us that electricity is exhibited onlj- 
 on the surfaces of conductors. A brass ball is sus- 
 pended by a sUk thread, and covered with two hemi- 
 phercs, which can be held by insulating handles, 
 and w liich exactly fit it. A charge is then comniuni- 
 Ciited to the ball so compounded. When the hemi- 
 spheres are withdrawn, Uiey are found to tiUie away 
 all the electricity w ilh them, not the slightest charge 
 being left in the ball. The same fact is'exhibited by 
 a hollow ball placed on a gla.ss pillar, with a hole in 
 the top large enough to admit a proof-plane to the 
 inside. AN hen charged, not the faintest evidence of 
 electricity is found on the inner siiiface, however thin 
 the material of the ball may be. The thinnest metal 
 plate, when under induction, shows opiwsite electrici- 
 ties on its two faces. We learn from these and nu- 
 merous other experiments that electricity it only found 
 OH the outer surfaces of conductors in an encehipe of 
 inappreciable thickness. This fact is quite in keeping 
 with Faraday's theorj- of the action of dielectrics. 
 Within a conducting Ixjdy we cannot expect electricity, 
 for the moment it appeal's in it the jiarticles com- 
 municate their electricities to each other, and the 
 electric state ceases. In a dielectric they cannot com- 
 municate, and the charge remains. Hence the charge 
 at the conductor onlj- appears at the junction of a 
 conductor and dielectric. We are also taught by ex- 
 ]ieriment that the distribution of electricity oil the 
 surface of insulated conductors is influenced materially 
 by their form. An electrified ball, for example, ex- 
 hibits the siime density all round, for the resistance is 
 sensibly the same on all sides of it. When, however, a 
 conducting body is made to approach near enough to 
 it, the density of the electricity is found to be greater 
 on the side on which the approach is made. This 
 is iiroved by the aid of a proof-plane iuid an elec- 
 trometer. When work is done in drawing away the 
 prcof-planes from the charged body, its jKitential, as 
 tested by the electrometer, is pro|)orlional to the 
 density (if the charge at the point where it touched. 
 The reason of this unequal distribution is obvious 
 from the fact that the potential of the ball must be 
 the same at every point. If, therefore, the resistance 
 at one side be less than at another, the density there 
 must be greater to maintain equality of ]X)lcntial. 
 The disturljance of equal distribution here spoken of 
 liolcLs true only for short distances; the disturbing 
 liody, for instance, in the case under consideration, 
 has to be brought verj- near before any inequality in 
 the distribution of electricity on the" ball becomes 
 manifest. It is to this concentration of electricity on 
 the side of the approaching conductor that we- owe 
 the electric spark; and it is as we near the striking or 
 sparking distance that this disturbance is revealed. 
 The concentration or fixing of electricity on the side 
 of the thinnest and best dielectric is pirllcularly illus- 
 trated in the condenser and Leyden jar, whose action 
 depends upon it; but in these the dielectric must be 
 very thin to .secure decided effect. When a conduc- 
 tor "somewhat in the form of a prolate spheroid is 
 charged, and the electric density of the several parts 
 tested by the proof-plane, it is found to be least at the 
 thickest" part, and to increase towards either end; and 
 the difference is found to be all the greater as each 
 end becomes more and more pointed. It is found 
 likewise that the electric density on a point is so 
 great w ith a considerable charge as to ilcstroy the di- 
 electric condition of the air, the particles of which In- 
 come electrified, and carry by convection the charge 
 of the point to surrounding conductors. We there- 
 fore learn that electricity concentrates on jxiinls and 
 projections. A similar reasoning with n>gard to the 
 relations of potential resistance and consequent den- 
 sity bciirs here as in the previous ca.«e. It may l)e 
 he"re remarke<l that the density of charge at any jxiint 
 resrulates the amount of tension at that iioinl on the 
 molecules of the dielectric. The constraint which
 
 ILICTRICITY. 
 
 540 
 
 ELECTKICITT. 
 
 they experience in being charged, and which Fam- 
 day.calls tension, cjin oiilv be carried to a certain 
 limit. When that is reacheil, the molecules are forced 
 to Ih' conducting, and the tension ceases. 
 
 The words electrometers and electroscopes are gen- 
 erally taken as .synonymous; electroscopes, however, 
 should be applied to the instruments which give evi- 
 dence of eliftrical |K)lential without giving the e.\act 
 measure of it; and electrometers lu such as show 
 both. Of late years immense progress has been 
 made in the construction of delicate electrometers, 
 chiefly to meet the demands for such in the working 
 or testing of submarine cables. Sir William Thom- 
 son's quadrant electrometer and his abs'ilule electrom- 
 eter in point of exactness and delicacy are a hun- 
 dredft>ld in advance of previous instruments. The 
 ffold-kaf dertr'iit-djH' is a handy instrument for esti- 
 mating roughly medium jiotcntials. In one of the 
 best of its forms a glass ball, about 4 inches in diame- 
 ter, rests on a bra.ss tripod, ami its neck, about 1 inch 
 in diameter, is inclosed by a brass collar li.xed with 
 shellac. A brass plate, with a hole of J of an inch 
 in diameter in the middle of it, can be screwed air- 
 tight into the collar. Before it is so fitted, a bra.ss 
 rod, \ of an inch in diameter, is fixed by shellac or 
 sealing-wax into the hole in llie middle, .so as to be 
 jjerfectly insulated from it. The upper eiiil of the 
 rod terminates in a brass ball, and the lower end is 
 filled on each side, to allow of two strips of gold-leaf, 
 1 inch long, being attached to it. Before the plate 
 and leaves are finally fixed, the interior of the ball is 
 thoroughly dried by passing hot dry air into it, so 
 that the ball eonlaius no moisture to carry away the 
 charge of the leaves. When the plate is screwed to 
 the collar, there is no comnmnication between the in- 
 cluded and external air. The insulation of the leaves 
 is complete; and they keep their charge in dry 
 weather for hours together. When the instrument is 
 used, it may Ix; charged directly, by contact being 
 established with the ball and the body whose elec- 
 tricity we would examine, or a charge may be carried 
 to it by the proof-jilane, when the leaves "diverge ac- 
 cording to the charge communiealeil. 
 
 Coulomb's Tor»ioii-lxtl<inr( has phiyed an imiiortant 
 part in examining the laws of electi"ic forces. A glass 
 canister (Fig. 1) is jilaced on a wooden frame, and is 
 covered above by a |)late of glass or wood; in tlie mid- 
 dle of this plate a round hole is cut, over which is fi.xed, 
 by wooden fittings, a long glass tube having the gradu- 
 ated rim of a circle attaclied at its upper end. A cir 
 cular plate, resting on this rim, closes the ujiper end 
 of the tube; and when it is turned round, a mark 
 upon it tells the number of degrees through which it 
 has been moved. A co- 
 coon thread or very fine 
 wire is tied to a hook in 
 the center of the lower 
 side of this plate, and 
 thence descends to the 
 body of thecanister. It 
 carries below a collar of 
 paper or other light ma- 
 terial, in which a needle 
 of shellac is adjusted 
 having a disk of gilt pa- 
 per placed vertically, or 
 a gilt pith-ball at it.sone 
 end and a counterpoise 
 at its other. When tlie 
 plate above is moved 
 through any niimber of 
 degrees, the needle be 
 low, iniiiell(<l by the tor- 
 sion of the thread, comes 
 to rest at the same num- 
 ber on the scale below. 
 This last consists of a 
 strip of pajier dixnded 
 into degrees, pa.sled round the eyliniUr at the sjmie 
 height as the needle. In the cover of the canister there 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 is another opening, for the admision of a ball insulated 
 ' at the end of a rod of shellac, and which, when sup- 
 ported l>y the cover, is on a level with the paper disk of 
 the needle. AVhen adjusted for ob.si'rvation, the mark 
 on the ujiper plate and the paper disk stand each at 
 the zero-points of their resiiective scales, there being 
 of course no torsion in the thread. The ball is re- 
 moved to receive a charge from the bo<ly under in- 
 vestigation, and is then placed in the cylinder, when 
 the disk is first attracted, then repelled. Sujipose 
 that the disk be driven -40 , as shown by the lower 
 scale, trom the ball, and that the tipper plate has to 
 be moved in the opposite direction, through 160' of 
 the upper scale, to bring it back to 10°; the total de- 
 gree of torsion is Kid + 40= 200 . If the ball and 
 disk be now discharged, and another charge be given 
 to the ball, which reipiires 250 of torsion to place the 
 disk at 10 , we have the relation 200 to 250 as that 
 of the repulsive forces of the two charges, for the 
 amount of torsion in degrees is itrojiortional to the 
 twisting force. Without entering further into detail, 
 we may state the two laws that toulomb established 
 by this instruineiit: The iiiten«ilim of the mutual re- 
 jiulai/tn or attniction of tito inrarUibU quantities of 
 electricity of the mute or different names are in the 
 inverse ratio of the xquares of the distances at irhtch 
 t/tese act. The intensities of the total repulsiee or at- 
 tractire a/:tion of two electrified bodies placed at an in- 
 variable distance are projmriional to the products of 
 their electric charges. 
 
 In the tube of glass and silk rubber of which we 
 have made frequent mention we have the embryo 
 of the electric machine, viz., a body which when 
 rubbed is positively electrified, and its rubber nega- 
 tively. The first requisite we should e.vpect in a ma- 
 chine of this nature is a large surface, to give a great 
 amount of electricity. But there is another alrcadj' 
 casually referred to: glass being a non- conductor, the 
 electricity formed on its surface has not a combined 
 action, so that some arrangement is neces.sary to col- 
 lect it and render it available — to act, in fact, as its 
 conducting reservoir. This portion of the machine is 
 denominated the prime citidiictor. The rubl)ed sur- 
 face of the electric machines is either a cylinder or 
 plate of glass; hence we distinguish them into cylin- 
 der-machines and plate machines. The former, from 
 I their more compact form, are the more manageable; 
 and the latter, from both sides of the glass plate being 
 rubbed, are the more powerful forms of the instru- 
 ment. In friclional machines there are two ways ia 
 which energy is expended — in friction, and in draw- 
 ing away the two excited and attracting surfaces. 
 Much of the force expended in friction results in heat, 
 and only a fraction (sometimes a small one) in elec- 
 j trieity. Of that spent in drawing away, which is the 
 less consideralile, the whole results in increased po- 
 tential. Machines arc therefore very desirable where, 
 with a small initial charge, a constant supplv of elec- 
 tricity may be got by the latter method. I'he elec- 
 trophorus is a machine of this kind, and has been 
 known since 1 776, and Nicholson's doubler, another, 
 since 1788. But the action of these has only been on 
 a small scale. Lately, however, induction-machines 
 of great power have iVcii made, the powers of which 
 quite eclijjse the older frictional macliines. The best 
 known of thesi' is Hollz's machine (invented 1865). 
 which will sufiiee to show the general construction of 
 such. Fig. 2 shows Queen's Toepler-IIoltz electri- 
 cal machine, which is destined to be the machine of 
 the future. Omitting a description of the machine, 
 the details of which are clearly set forth in the draw- 
 ing, we will notice the manner of its operation. Sup- 
 pose we wish to work the machine, whose plate is 
 two feet in diameler, tin- tisual size. We first put the 
 two poles in contact and see that the revolving plate 
 passes an opening before coming to the row of teeth. 
 Wc next take a sheet of vulcanite about the breadth 
 of an armature, and rub it with cat's skin (making 
 it — ), hold it close to the armature, and then make 
 the plate revolve. We at once know If the machine
 
 ELECTEICITY. 
 
 541 
 
 ELECTEICITY. 
 
 is working by a rushing sound. We now gradually 
 withdraw the two balls at the poles, and a rush of 
 straight, bright, but not vay dense sparks leap across 
 between the two for the tirst 2 inches or so. When 
 the distance becomes greater than tliat, brushes pro- 
 ceed from each end, and there is a fine purple glow in 
 the central sjiace. If we withdraw the poles to 5 or 
 6 inches,* two well defined brushes are seen, one at 
 each pole. If now the hand be placed on one pole 
 and the other hand presented to the other, sparks of 
 2 inches are got which produce a most painful sting- 
 ing sensjition on tlic hand, but cause lui twitching at 
 the joints of the ami. When the poles are at a dis- 
 tance of half an inch, paper and other combustible 
 substances may be kindled by the spark. On exami- 
 nation it is found that the armature tirst touched by 
 the excited vulcanite is — , and that tlie other is -\-. 
 The plate is + below; that is, after passing the nega- 
 tive armature; and — above, after passing the -{-ar- 
 mature. If the motion of the plate be reversed, the 
 electricity of the poles changes sign or ceases alto- 
 
 f ether, when the machine must be excited anew. If 
 ept moving in the same direction, and allowed to 
 rest only for short intervals, it may be kept in action 
 for hours together without renewed excitement. In 
 order to get long dense sparks, a small Leyden jar is 
 
 the mortar to drive the ball to some distance off. 
 When the discharge is made through gunpowde^, it 
 tosses the grains violentl)' about, but causes no igni- 
 tion; when, however, it is retarded by introtlucing 
 an imperfect conductor, such as a wet string, into the 
 circuit, the guniwwder is fired. When the discharge 
 is made through glass by two points pressing against 
 its opiwsite surfaces, a small hole is drilled into the 
 glass. 
 
 The velocity of electricity is found to vary with 
 the nature of the circuit to the extent, indeed, of its 
 inductive embarra.s.sment. Thus, in air-lines of tele- 
 grapli it is greater than in sea-caliles. Wheatstone 
 was the first to determine the velocity of electricity 
 in an insulated copper wire stretched in air. He did 
 this by the deWce of a revolving minor. Any one 
 who takes a mirror in his hand and makes it revolve 
 sees that objects are apparently displaced by it, and 
 that the retiected image descril)es an angle the double 
 of that of the mirror. If, while the small mirror ro- 
 tates at 50 turns a second, the image of a spark should 
 show a displacement of 90 , we know that the mirror 
 has moved through 45', and the time during which 
 this tjikes place is jVir of jV = :|,U of a second. If the 
 duration of the spark, then, had been jjj, of a sec- 
 ond, we should have seen its image move through 
 
 Fio. 
 
 hung on the rods with their outer coatings in metallic 
 contact. With these condensers a splendid series of 
 long, intensely brilliant sparks of six inches in length 
 are got, each accompanied with a snap painfully 
 loud, quite eclipsing anything sliown l)y friction-ma 
 chines. The condensed" sjiark does not kindle paper, 
 btit gives a very ])owerful shock. We have not space 
 to enter into the theory of Holtz's machine. Indeed 
 it may be ciuestioncd if, in all points, its action has 
 been "fvdly accounted for. We w,)uld only say that 
 reciprocal action of the armatures on eacli other is 
 common to all induction-machines, and Is quite simi- 
 lar to Siemens and Wlieatstones i>rinciple for raag- 
 neto-electricitv. 
 
 By diseliarging the Le^-den jar or electric battery- 
 throush particular channels, we obtain some beauti- 
 ful illustrations of the power of electricity. When 
 the discharge is effected through thin wires of golil 
 or platinum, the heat accompan.\ing its pas.sage is so 
 great as to dissipate them in vapor. The expansion 
 of the air caused by the s))ark is shown by the ekrinr 
 mortar. This is a wooden mortjir with two wires 
 entering air-tiirht at the ojiposite sides of the breach, 
 with a small wooden ball fitting closely in the muz- 
 zle. The spark passing between these wires in dis- 
 charge causes a sulBcient expansion of the air within 
 
 90'. The eye, however, during this time would not 
 have been able to discern any difference between the 
 iM'irinninL: and the end of the .spark, .so that the 90° 
 would have appeared as one arc of light. Examined 
 in this way, however, the s])ark of a machine and of 
 a Leyilen jar were seen as if the minor had been at 
 rest. He arranged a Lej'den jar circuit of half a 
 mile with three breaks in it, two near the coatings 
 and one in the middle of the half-mile, and had these 
 breaks placed nearly side by side, .so that the sparks 
 at them, when discharge took place, could be seen 
 tofrethcr in the revohnng mirror. He found that all 
 three sparks bad a duration of ,j},nn of a second, and 
 that the middle s]iark occurred so far behind the 
 other two as to indicate a velocity of 194,000 miles 
 per second in the wire. 
 
 There are two theories which have played an im- 
 jiorfanf part in the historr of the science— the two- 
 fluid theorv of Diifav, and the one-flidd theorj- of 
 Franklin. "According to the former, matter is per- 
 vaded with two highly elastic imponderalile electric 
 ll,ii,ls_one, the \ntTebus; the other, the resinous. 
 These are supposed to repel themselves but attract 
 each other. Neutral bodies give no evidence of their 
 presence, for thev are there neutralized the one by 
 the other; but when by friction or other operation
 
 £L£CTBIC LAHFS. 
 
 542 
 
 ELECTEIC LAMPS. 
 
 the fluiils are scpiiratcd, each body obson-cs the nt- 
 iniclions aud icpulsidiis of the fluid it bap]K'us to 
 have. According to the latter, there is only oue elec- 
 tric rtui<l which ri'pcls itself but attracts matter. 
 Friction determines a gain of the fluid to the positive, 
 and a loss lo the nespilive, body. Faraday's theory of 
 electric induction by contiguous molecules appears to 
 be gaining groiuid. It explains satisfactorily how 
 conductors and non-conductors are alike in kind; 
 how the charge on the conductor can only reside at 
 the boundary of the conductor and non-conductor, 
 or — which is the sjime thing — the surface of the con- 
 ductor: how the charge resides in the dielectric; how 
 the ixilarity of the galvanic circint is effected; how a 
 battery current originates in and effects chemical de- 
 composition; and" how the velocity of discharge is 
 tieiiendent on the conformation of the circuit. Prof. 
 Clerk Ma.xwell's classical work, Kkctriclly and }f(t;j- 
 Mtimn (1873) gives to Faraday's ^^ews a mathematical 
 significance and comprehensiveness hardly contem- 
 plated by the great philosopher himself. See Gal- 
 ranisiii and Miri/nitiyin. 
 
 ELECTRIC LAMPS.— The more recent inventions of 
 electrodes pniducing light are those of JabloclikofT, 
 Lodyguine, Kohn, Sawyer, and Edison. The first of 
 thesi- produces the light by the electric arc; the others 
 by the incandescence of some refraclorv substance, 
 as carbon or platinum. The princijial iliffcrence 1x3- 
 Iwecn the JablochkolT light and the ordinary ar- 
 rangement with carbon points is in a provision by 
 which the current is reversed from time to time so that 
 the more mpid consumption of the positive electrode is 
 made to talie place with one and the other point alter- 
 nately. When the apparatus is started, there is also 
 ft slight bridge of carbon between the two points 
 through which the current pas.ses before the arc is 
 established. Thccarbdn rods are placed parallel and 
 near together, so that a iniiform distance may be main- 
 tained during their consumption. A pair of carbon 
 points constitutes a "candle," and four candles are 
 usually placed in a globe of opalescent glass. Each 
 candle burns aliout one hour and a half, so that the 
 set of fotir will give light about six hours, the change 
 of electiic action from one candle to another being 
 accomplished by an automatic switch. The motive 
 power reipiired in the Jablochkoff lamj) is about one 
 horse-power applied to a magneto-electric machine for 
 each candle, and each such candle is said to have a 
 light-value of 700 standard candles; but this, from the 
 absorption of light by the opalescent glass, is reduced 
 to that of 300 candles. In 1873, M. Lodyguine, a 
 Russian as well as Jablochkoff, invented a lanij) which 
 gjive light by rendering carbon incandescent liy tlie 
 electric current. A portion of the eonducting-rod of 
 cjirbou was made much thinner than the rest, so that 
 the increased electricid resistance in that iiart would 
 cau.se it to iK'Come intensely incandescent. The car- 
 bon rod was inclosed in a glass vacuum-chamber, but 
 the apparatus was not practically successful, as the 
 carlmn wasted too rapidly, and required too frequent 
 replacement within the vaeinun-chamber. In 1875 M. 
 Kohn of St. Petersl)urg patented an arrangement in- 
 tended toob\iale thisdillkulty bya device having the 
 same object as that in the JiiblochkolT lamp, viz., to 
 supply the place of the consumed carbon with a new 
 piece. This lamp has U'en used with considerable 
 .success. Tlie Sawyer lamp has the following char- 
 acteristics: It emi)loys the resistance of a small piece of 
 carbon, placed in an airtight glasscyliiuler tilled with 
 pure nitrogen, which, being a non-.s'upporter of com 
 bastion, protects the carbon in a manner like that of a 
 vacuum, the advantage claimed being that it is ea.sier to 
 keep a vessel full of pure nitrogen than lomainlahi a 
 vacuum, becaitse of the equalil v of the inward aiKl out- 
 ward pres,sure. The heat produced is priviiiled from 
 reaching the mechanism at the l)asf of the ai>paratus 
 by haWug the copper standards present a great radiat- 
 ing surface. Dia|)hragms are al.so placed so as to cut 
 oft much of the downward heat-rays, and a switch 
 device is employed to prevent the too sudden turning 
 
 on of the current, and thereby prevent crumbling by 
 too sudden beating. The e.vperiments of Mr. Edison 
 on the electric light have been in progress several 
 years, in which time he has used various substances 
 ^or the incandescent material. He commenced with 
 platinum, and eiuploved a device by which the galvanic 
 current would be reduced when the metal approached 
 the melting-point. This device consisted chiefly in 
 placing within the fine platinum spiral a roil of the 
 .same metal which would be moved, on the principle 
 of the pyrometer, one way or the other by a lever, and 
 thus cool by its presence the incandescent spiral when 
 it became too hot. But this device did not prove 
 successful. Another arrangement employed heated 
 air acting upon a diaphragm as the regulating power. 
 The various metals which he used soon became o.xid- 
 ized and rendered useless. He then gave his attention 
 to perfecting the vacuum employed i)y Lodyguine in 
 1873. Edison's platimuu lamp as perfected consists 
 
 Klectrfc Light Regulator. 
 
 of a long coil of platinum coated with calcined mag- 
 nesia, supported by a platinum rod within a glass 
 vacuum-tul)c, whicii rests upon a metal frame contain- 
 ing the regulating apparatus. It is claimed that Edison 
 has produced a vacinim more perfect than any other, 
 so that only one millionth of an afmosidiere remains. 
 His attention was called from the use of iilatiiium to 
 that of snuill threads of carbon, made by ch:ining cot- 
 ton thread in a vacuum with the electric current. Light 
 of great intensity was obtained in this way. He ex- 
 perimented with various forms of woixly fiber, but 
 finally found that nothing gave more satisfactory re- 
 sults than ch;irred imjier. Bristol card-board is cut in 
 the shape of a horseshoe, the strips being about two 
 inches long, and an eighth of an inch wide, and laid 
 upon one auotlier in an iron mold, being separated by 
 tissue-paper. When the mold is packed, it is placed
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 543 
 
 EL£CTBIC LIGHT. 
 
 in an oven and gradually heated to, 600'; afterwards 
 in a furnace to a white heat. The carbonized product 
 is then carefully removed and placed in a small glass 
 globe, and made the resisting portion of the galvanic 
 circuit ; the globe is then exhausted and sealed air-tight. 
 The drawing represents the most approved elcetric- 
 light regulator, with double clockwork, after Fou- 
 cault's arrangement. See Electric Light. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT.— Powerful electric lights have 
 become exceedingly important as engines of war, and 
 the soKlier and siulor \ie with each other in the de- 
 velopment of apparatus suited to their special needs. 
 Enormous increase in the power of single lights has 
 been obtained iluriugtlie past few years by the great 
 improvements which have attendetl the introduction 
 of electricity as au illuminating agent. This has 
 benefited the defense more than the attack, whether 
 the operations be on land or .sea; for, usually, the 
 main functions of a powerful light are to guard 
 against surprise, to give the defenders a timely warn- 
 ing, and thus enable them to aim at the atlvaiicing 
 forces. The defense can, moreover, emi>loy the 
 most powerful lights, the machinery for which is 
 ponderous and not suited to the mobility re(iuircd by 
 the attack. Nevertheless the use of a powerful light 
 may frequently aid the attacking forces very materi- 
 ally. Thus at the attack on Charleston, during the 
 War of Secession, the Southerners were preventid 
 from repairing the breach in Fort Sumter by night 
 on account of a deadly shrapnel tire which was 
 directed upon the breach by the aid of a lime-light, 
 which is .so inferior to the light now obtainable by 
 means of the electric arc. Again, in an advance over 
 obstacles, it has been found that the attacking jiarty 
 will often receive great assistance even from llie elec- 
 tric lights of the defense. As before stated, however, 
 the bahmee of advantage appears to be considerably 
 on the side of the defenders. In all descriptions of 
 siege-operations the employment of the electric light 
 has become a matter of considerable importance, 
 many operations which it has hitherto been custom- 
 ary to perform under the cover of darkness being no 
 longer possible, and other operations, such as the 
 bridging of rivers, which formerly could only be car- 
 ried on during daylight, being now possible on the 
 darkest night. 
 
 The two important war-scr\-ices for which power- 
 ful electric lights have been provided, in England, 
 are; 1. As search-lights for the vessels of the Royal 
 Navj-. 2. As search-lights to act in unison with the 
 artillery and submarine mining defenses of ports and 
 harbors. In the one case the machinery is carried on 
 board the large men-of-war, and in the other case is 
 erected inside the forts. In each of these positions 
 the machinery can be placed practically out of reach 
 of an enemy's shot and shell; but the" protection of 
 the projector, and of the men who manipulate it, can 
 never be so satisfactorily pro\'ided for, and the sub 
 ject has consequently received a good deal of atten- 
 tion, both in the aitny and navy. The sulo'ect has 
 especially been worked at by the Royal Engineers, 
 and haslieen attacked in two ways: i. By attempts 
 to place the projector and manipulatoi out of the 
 direct tire of an enemy, and to use a mirror for the 
 final projection of the ray of light in his direction, 
 such mirror lieing exposed to the tire, but being ar- 
 ranged so that it can be easily and quickly replaced. 
 2. By attempts to greatly decrea.se the cost of the pro- 
 jector, and to arrange the optical portions so that they 
 can be expeditiously replaced if broken. The pro- 
 jectors at first used were large metallic reflectors, 
 either spherical or parabolic; but a lighter, smaller, 
 and equally powerful arrangement was found in the 
 Fresnel leiis, now called a spherical holophote. It 
 consists of a central lens, generally in three elements, 
 with a focal distance of .1.5 meter, and which re- 
 ceives dioptrically the light-rays in a cone of about 60 
 degrees. The ealadioptric portion is composed of five 
 or six annular rings so placed that the principal focus 
 of each ring coincides with that of the dioptric por- 
 
 tion. There is also sometimes added a small spheri- 
 cal metallic mirror, placed behied the focus, so as to 
 catch and throw forward again the rays from the 
 back of the are-light. Owing to the short focal dis- 
 tance, it is very difficult to focus the light properly 
 in these costly projectors, and the glass rings are fre- 
 quently cracked by the tlame and radiation from the 
 electric arc. For short ranges, however, they are 
 efficient. 
 
 These projectors have given place to a most effec- 
 tive arrangement designed by Colonel Mangin, of the 
 Corps du Genie (French army), and which consists 
 of a retiecting lens ground on the inner side to a 
 spherical surface of somewhat shorter radius than the 
 outer spherical surface, the gla.ss of the retlcetor being, 
 therefore, thicker at the sides than at the center. In 
 fact, the projector is a spherical catojitric ajiparatus, 
 the divergence of which is rectified dioptricidly. 
 The drawmg represents a smaller Mangin projector. 
 
 Mangin Projector. 
 
 .60 meter in diameter, which differs in a few of the 
 mechanical details from the larger sizes. It is fitted 
 with two bars, and can thus be moved alx)ut by two 
 men, the lattice-work stand being moved separately. 
 All these projectors are costly, and to place them so 
 as to look over the parapets of our forts f)r the bul- 
 warks of our ships is to invite their speedy destruc- 
 tion by an enemy's fire. To meet this dillicully 
 arrangements were made and tried at Chatham in ac- 
 cordance with suggestions made by Major Sale, H. E., 
 C.M.G., in 1876-"?, then Secretary- R. E. Conuniltee, 
 to place the projector in a splinter-pnmf pit, and 
 direct the beam of li.sht on to a |ilane mirror placed 
 a short distance off, and alone exposed to the enemy's 
 fire. The results were enco\iragiiig. but difficidlies 
 were encoimtcred in the fixing and manipulation of 
 the mirrors, the apparatus tried being .so weak that 
 the wind moved the mirror unduly. In these de- 
 signs the prt)jector and the mirror or nurrors were 
 placed nearly in the same horizontal plane, and there 
 was a loss of light when the minor was aj'proaching 
 at extreme angles of training. Moreover, ihe range 
 was limited, and unless two mirrors were used (m 
 some situations not convenient, and in others not pos- 
 sible) on opposite sides of the light, the portion of the 
 whole circle illuminated was Ifiiiited. And in some 
 situations the length of parapet required could not be 
 spared.
 
 £L£CTBIC FSI1I£B. 
 
 544 
 
 ELECTBOLYSIS. 
 
 In April, 1880, Captain Bucknill, R. E., proposed 
 the following arnu)>:cmcnl: 1. To work the my of 
 light to ihf zc'uilb, I'ithtT diiectly or by means of a 
 niirrtir. 2. To iletlecl this ray by an "upper mirror 
 carrinl in a fniniework or funnel. 3. To carry the 
 funnel or tube that supixirts the upper mirror upon 
 a ring, and this agjiin uiHin rollers and another ring 
 clamiK'd or tixed to the inner wall or walls of a fort. 
 A slow-motion serew, a worm, etc., would then move 
 the funnel in azinmth at pleasure, and consequently 
 the niy of light from the mirror. 4. To move the 
 up|)er niirror by a slow-motion screw actuated by a 
 light grip-whei'l on the axle of such screw, which 
 wheel can be turned by an endless cord from below, 
 by a man w ho would take his orders through a speak- 
 iiigtube from an observer in the tiring station. The 
 only commands reqvuri'd would be "Up," "Down," 
 " liight," " Left," " Fast," " Slow," " Stop." Such 
 a tube could l>e taken down at daybreak and put up 
 ag!UU in the evening in a few seconds by an arrange- 
 ment like that used in raising and lowering Thames 
 steamboat funnels. It is difficult to work a light-ray 
 direct to the zenilb, especially with a JIangiu pro- 
 jector, as the burnt pieces of hot carbon fall on the 
 glass of the projeclor at the thinnest part (the center) 
 and perhaps crack it. The vertical ray can, however, 
 bi- readily obtauieil by means of a lower mirror. It 
 should Ix.' noted that this arrangement provides for 
 reflection at alxiut 4.5 degrees, a verj- smsUl angular 
 movement of the ujiper plane niirror producing a 
 large vertical motion of the ray of light. Sec I>y- 
 nauto-ihi-tric yinchiiie and Electrie Lamps. 
 
 ELECTKIC PRIMER.— This primer consists of the 
 long tube of the service friction-primer, split at one 
 end to receive a large piece of brass tube, to which it 
 is soUlered. The larger tube incloses a cylindrical 
 piece of hard wood, slotted midway of its length, and 
 perforated at each end to receive short pieces of cop- 
 per wire, which arc connected across the slot by a 
 coiled piece of tine platinum wire. The outer ends of 
 the copjier wires project a few inches to connect the 
 ■wires of the primer with the terminal wires of the 
 battery. When thus connected, the battery -cuiTent, 
 bj" reason of the resistance met with in pa.ssing 
 through the platinum wire, heats this wire sutficiently 
 to ignite a small piece of loose gun-cotton which, tii- 
 gether with the platinum wire, occupies the slotted por- 
 tion of the wooden cylinder. The ignited gun-cotton 
 commmunicales its Haine to the powder in the long 
 tube. The open ends of the large tube are turned 
 down on the wooden plug to prevent blowing out. 
 These and the open ends of the small tube are closed 
 and dipped in varnish, as described for the friction- 
 primers. The platinum wire is coiled to increase its 
 length iK'twecn the copper ends. By this means the 
 absorpiion of heat by the latter is overcome. The 
 coil is also less liable to be broken by any slight dis- 
 placement of the copper wires. With the standard 
 lenirth of one inch and thickness .003 inch for the 
 platinum wire, tlie resistance of this primer is about 
 7 olim cold and 1.3 ohin at explosion. Fulminate of 
 mercury may be used instead of gun-cotton. The 
 latter is preferred, however, as being equally service- 
 able and less <laM^'iTi)us. See Fricti'm-primers. 
 
 ELECTRO BALLISTIC MACHINES.— The accurate 
 determination of the nhciti/ of a projectile at any 
 point of its trajectory has been one of the most diffi- 
 cult problems in the science of gimnery. It has ex- 
 ercised the talents and ingenuity of the "best .scientific 
 minds of the age, and hits given rise lo much interest- 
 ing discussion and many valuable experiments. The 
 wondrous mechanical skill of the day, and our mas- 
 tcrj- over the powers of electricity," have, however, 
 recently given us instruments whicli, in their results, 
 wore than realize the brightest ilrcams of the experi- 
 menters of a century' ago. Their bidky, unwieldy, 
 and expensive mac limes have given i>lace lo the neat 
 and compact chronoscope, which, with its pencil of 
 electric light, now notes with unerring cej-ljiintv in- 
 llDitcsimal iuten'als of time. Besides the electro-bal- 
 
 listic machines, a great variety of instruments have 
 been invented to determine directly the initial velocity 
 of a projectile, the most reliable of which are the <7«h- 
 jjtiuliiliim and the ballintic /Hiiilulum. In the tirst 
 the velocity of the projeitile is tletermincd by sus- 
 pending tli'e i>iece as a pendulum, and measuring the 
 recoil impre.s.seii on it by the discharge; the expres- 
 sion for the velocity is ileduced from the fact that the 
 quantity of motion communicated to the pendulum is 
 equal to that communicated to the i)rojectile, charge 
 of i>owder, and the air. The second apparatus is a 
 pendulum the bob of which is made strong and 
 heavy, to receive the impact of the jirojectile; and 
 the expression for the velocity of the i)rojectile is de- 
 duced from the fact that the (luantity of motion of 
 the projectile before impact is cfpial to that of the 
 pendulum and projectile after impact. These ma- 
 chines have been carried to great perfection both in 
 this country and France, anil very accurate and im- 
 portant results have been obtained by them; but they 
 are very expensive and cannot be easily adapted to 
 the various wants of the service. 
 
 The employment of electricity to determine the ve- 
 locit)' of projectiles was lirst suggested by ^^'heat- 
 stone in 1840. The application flcpcnds on the very- 
 great velocity of electricity, which for minute dis- 
 tances may be considered instantaneous. The gen- 
 eral method of applying Uiis agent is by means of 
 galvanic currents, or wires, supported on target-frames 
 placed in the path of the projectile, and communicat- 
 ing with a delicate time-keeper. The successive rup- 
 tures of the wires mark on the timekeeper the instant 
 that the projectile passes each wire, and knowing the 
 distance of the wires apart, the mean velocities, or 
 velocities at the middle points, can be obtained by the 
 
 relation, velocity = 51^£?. The various plans in use 
 
 time 
 differ only in the manner of recording and keeping 
 the time of flight; one of the simplest and most com- 
 mon instruments employed is the pendulum. The 
 ballistic machine of Captain Navez, of the Belgian 
 service, has been tried in this country, but has been 
 found too ilelicate and complicated for general pur- 
 poses. See ClirDnmmpe and EleHric (lepsydra. 
 
 ELECTRO-CHRONOGRAPH. — An instrument used 
 for recording time and occurrences in the instant and 
 order of their time, as in noting transits in obsirvato- 
 ries. A paper marked for seconds is jilaced on the 
 surface of a revolving drum, over which is a stylus 
 operated by electro-magnetic action when the circuit 
 is closed by the telegraph-key in the hand of the oi)e- 
 rator, who is also the observer at the transit instru- 
 ment. A mark is thus made on the linie-])aix'r at the 
 instant of the occurrence of the transit. See Chrono- 
 graph. 
 
 ELECTROLYSIS.— That division of the science of 
 galvanism which treats of the laws and conditions of 
 elcctro-chcinical decomposition. As this decomposi- 
 tion is generally attended by electro-chemical combi- 
 nation, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish electro- 
 lysis from the more gener.-d subject of elect ri>-rhrmu- 
 Iri/, which embraces all cheinical changes resulting 
 in or fr(mi the galvanic current. In one ca.si', how- 
 ever, the application (if the term is strictly correct — 
 viz., where decompositions are effected by electrodes 
 wiiich are not attacked by the elements of the electro- 
 lyte (the substance decomixiscd) discharged at them. 
 No substance is decomjioscd by the current so long 
 as it is in a solid or ga.seous state, and it must first be 
 brought to a liquid state, either by solution or fusion, 
 before the current acts on it. The de<omposition of 
 water by platinum iilates is always taken as the t}-pe 
 of electrolytic action. In a very convenient appa- 
 ratus for the purpose, a glass basin is made so as to 
 admit a cork below, through which two wires pass 
 having slips of iilatinum iilale soldered to them 
 above. Two glass tubes, open below, are hung over 
 the plates, to hooks projecting from :m ii)irighl sup- 
 port. The bowl is filled with acidulated water; 
 and the tubes, after being filled with the same, aie
 
 ELECTBOUETEB. 
 
 545 
 
 ELECTBOFHOHE. 
 
 Decomposing 
 Apparatus. 
 
 inverted, and hung ■with their lower ends inclosing 
 the plates. When the wires projecting downwara 
 from the cork arc connected 
 with the poles of the batter}-, 
 hydrogen rises from the nega- 
 tive, and oxj-gcn from the posi- 
 tive electroile, to till each its 
 separate tube. As the decom- 
 position proceeds, twice as 
 much hj'drogen is liberated as 
 osj-gen. When the tubes are 
 tilled, they may l)e removed 
 and examined. The oxygen 
 tbus obtaiucil smells strongly 
 "f ozone. Hydrogen is here 
 the type of the metals or otlier 
 electro-jX)sitivc substances (ca- 
 tions), which, during electroly- 
 sis, are always disengaged at the 
 negative electrode; and oxygen 
 of the salt radicals, chlci'rine, 
 iodine, sulphur, etc. , which, be- 
 ing electro-negali ve (anions), al- 
 ways appearatthepositive pole. 
 Moreover, the proportions of 
 the volumes of the two ga.ses 
 being that of their chemical 
 combining volumes, reminds 
 us that, when a body isdecom- 
 posed, its components are always separated in the 
 proportions in which they were linited, viz., those of 
 their chemical equivalents. If the tubes of this 
 apparatus were graduated, il would serve for a volta- 
 meter. If, instead of one such voltameter included 
 in the circuit, we had several, we should find that, 
 whatever amount of gas was lilierated in one of these 
 'would be liberated in all, and that independent of the 
 size of the plates and amoimt of acid in each. We 
 learn, therefore, that the chemical power of the cur- 
 rent is the same at eveiy point of the circuit where 
 it is manifested. From numerous experiments it has 
 been concluded that electrolytes are resolved under 
 the action of the ciurent into anions and cations 
 which appear at their respective electrodes in the 
 proportion of their atomic weight, or multiples of their 
 atomic weights. It is not only in cells exterior to the 
 battery that this law holds, but in the cells of the 
 battery itself. If the battery which effected the above 
 deconiposition consisted of six cells, for the equiva- 
 lent atoms of hydrogen, tin, and lead separated with- 
 out the battery, equivalent atoms of zinc in each cell 
 would have been dissolved, and an equivalent dis- 
 engagement of atoms of hydrogen at each of the cop- 
 per plates, if the cells were one fluid. The above law 
 holds not only for compounds whose elements enter 
 into combination with ibeir usual atomicity, but for 
 those in which theelements, through the Siimc, change 
 their atomic equivalents. Thus, if the same current 
 pass through two decomposing cells, one containing 
 a solution of the cuprous chloride (CuCl), and the 
 other of the cupric chloride (CuC'U), the same quan- 
 tity of chlorine will be disengaged in both, l)Ut twice 
 as much copper Ls deposited in the first as in the 
 second. Here the copper alone changes its atom- 
 icity, hence the change in the amount of il in the 
 consecutive cells. The accuracy of the electrolytic 
 law is somewhat compromised by the fact that liquids 
 possess, to a certain extent, the power of conducting, 
 physically, electricity without electrolytic action, so 
 that all that passes in this way is chemically lost. 
 Fortunately the error thus introduced is very small, 
 and can be therefore practically disregarded. The 
 drawing represents an improved water decomposing 
 apparatus, consisting of a glass goblet, with binding- 
 screws, platinum electrodes, and finely graduated bell- 
 tubes for the irases. See Galranism. 
 
 ELECTEOMETEB.— An instiument to measure the 
 amount of electrical force. In Coulomb's torsion- 
 electrometer, shown in the drawing, the force opjiosed 
 to that of electricity is the resistance to twisting offered 
 
 by an elastic thread. In Henly 's quadrant-electrome- 
 ter the electric force is measured by the amoimt of 
 repulsion which it pro- 
 duces upon a pith-ball 
 attached to a silk fiber 
 suspended from the 
 center of a graduat- 
 ed arc. Sir William 
 Thomson's and Var- 
 ley's electrometers are 
 the most delicate of 
 all, and are used in 
 reading the insulating 
 power of telegraph- 
 cables. The quadrant- 
 electrometer consists 
 of a conducting-rod, 
 generally of box-wood 
 or brass, with a gra- 
 duated semicircle at- 
 tached above, in the 
 center of which is a 
 pivot for the rotation 
 of a straw earning a 
 pith ball at its" outer 
 end. It is used for a 
 charge of high poten- 
 tial, "such as that of Coulomb Electrometer, 
 the electric machine. When placed on the prime con- 
 ductor of the machine, the whole becomes charged 
 with -t- electricity, and the ball is repelled first by 
 the electricity of the rod, and then by that of the 
 prime conductor, the height to which "it rises iKing 
 seen on the semicircle. This is not an electrometer 
 in the strict sense of the word, for although it tells us, 
 by the straw rising and falling, when one i)Olentinl is 
 greater or less than another, it does not tell us by how 
 much, the conditions of its repulsion being too com- 
 plicated for smiple mathematical expression. It can 
 show us, however, by the indicator standing at the 
 same point, when the electric potential of the ma- 
 chine is the same at one time as at another. The 
 strength of the electric force excited by the rub- 
 bing of glass, sulphur, amber, was, resin, etc., was 
 measured by Gilbert by means of an iron needle 
 mo\ing freely on a point, lersorium dectritum; very 
 similar to the apparatus employed by Haily and 
 Brewster in trying the electricity excited in different 
 minerals bv warmth and friction. Sec Khctrkity. 
 
 ELECTEOPHONE.— An instrument devised by Dr. 
 Strethill Wright for producing sound by electric cur- 
 rents of high tension. In its simplest form the elec- 
 trophone consists of two metallic plates separate<l by 
 a sheet of cartridge-paper, the whole being closely 
 pres.«ed together by a hcavj- weight or screw. Such 
 an instrument, when its plates are connected with the 
 terminals of a small indvict ion-coil, forms a sonorous 
 condenser, the note of which varies with the rapidity 
 of action in the electrotonie, or contact-breaker. The 
 more complicated electrophone comnuinicated to the 
 Royal Scottish Society of Arts, 25th April, 1864. by 
 Dr. Wright, is composed of four curved plates of the 
 thinnest sheet-zinc, each 2 by 4 feet, and each sepa- 
 rated from its neighbor by a double laver of imita- 
 tion silvered paper, the silvered sides being in apposi- 
 tion to the zinc. The first and third, and second and 
 fourth plates are connected by fine wires, which also 
 connect the instrument with the induction<-oil. When 
 this instrument is connected with a small coil, the ter- 
 minals of which afford a spark almost inaudible, it 
 becomes charged and discharged with each imindsc 
 of current, each charge being attended by a sonorous 
 tap given out by the whole mass of metal thrown into 
 vibration, and the rapid succession of taps pro<lucing 
 a prolonged trumpet-note, the power of which mav be 
 increased by adding batteiT-power to tlie coil. The 
 electrophone has been recommended by its author for 
 use as a telegraphic relay capable of giWng two or 
 four signs with a single w'ire. with the advantage over 
 other relays that jxTrfectiou of contact is not ncces-
 
 ELZCTBOSCOPE. 
 
 546 
 
 ELEVATED BATTEEIES. 
 
 "Lie • 
 
 #2= 
 
 F:g. 1. 
 
 saty to its working. Fig. 1 shows the mode of work- 
 ing the electrophone ns a double relay with four sig- 
 nals nnil the gjilvnnomeler of Thorn- 
 sou ; A represents the needle of the 
 giilvauonuter, B and C" the wires 
 coiuinunieatiug with an electrophone. 
 When the needle is detlected to the 
 right, it falls on the points IS and C, 
 and sovuids the electrophone through 
 B, A, C. The signals are produced 
 by long and short contacts, as in the 
 code of Jliirse. The si'cond set of 
 signals are produced by the reversal 
 of the line-current, which throws the 
 needle on the points of the arrange- 
 ment D connected with a second elec- 
 trophone of different tone. The elec- 
 trophone has been employed as a lec- 
 ture-table instrument to report to a large audience re- 
 sults of processes which can only be rcnderetl sensible 
 by the most delicate galvanometric apparatus. Fig. 
 Sshows the adaptation of the electrophone to the gal- 
 vanometer. AB represents the needle of the galvan- 
 ometer suspended by a silk fiber, C; D is a small 
 vessel of mercury communicating bv a fine wire with 
 the center of the needle; while a similar wire, attached 
 to the end of the needle B, dips into the curved trough 
 EF, containing distilled water. The wires inserted 
 into D antl F connect the coil with the electrophone, 
 the current pjissing through F, E, B, D. When the 
 needle is detlected, the tract of water between E and 
 F is shortenetl, and the electrophone gives forth a gra- 
 dually increa-sing sound. By a delicate system of 
 levers attached to the wrist, as in the sphygmograph, 
 A 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 the rhythm and character of the human pulse, and its 
 variation in disea.se, may be indicated to the class by 
 the physician. Further, the electrophone may be 
 adapted to the telephone by making the telephone- 
 membrane act the part of a make-and-break for the 
 current circulating in the primary wire of induction- 
 coil. This can easily l)e done by leading the current 
 through the membrane, and through a spring carry- 
 ing a platinum point, which presses lightly against a 
 piece of platinum attached to the center of the mem- 
 brane. If the sounds uttered into the telephone be 
 sufficiently strong to make the membrane so to vibrate 
 as to caase actual separation between the platinum 
 surfaces, they will Ix- reproduced with great loudness 
 in the electrophone; but if, as in the ca-se of speaking, 
 they lie merely able to cause variations of pressure at 
 the surfaces, they will be but imperfectly heard. 
 Hence the electrophone succeeds best with singing, 
 and a song gently sung in one place may l)e repeated 
 in trumpet-tones in another hundreds of yardsdistant 
 EIECTK08C0PE. — An instrument for detecting 
 electrical excitation. In its usual form it consists of 
 a gla-ss jar with a wooden bottom, a bra.ss wire pa.s,sing 
 through the cork and surmounted liv a ball of the 
 same metal; to the lower end of the wire are gummed 
 two dependingstripsof gold leaf. The gold-leaf elec- 
 troscope is a handy in.strument for estimating rousihly 
 medium potentials. One of its best forms has a glass 
 ball, about 4 inches in diameter, resting on a brass 
 tripiKl, and its neck, alwut an inch in diameter, is in- 
 closed by a bra.ss collar Ii.\e<l with shellac. A bra.ss 
 plate, with a hole i inch in diameter in the middle 
 
 of it, can be screwed air-tight into the collar. Before 
 it is so fitted, a brass rod, i inch in diameter, is fixed 
 by shellac or sealing-wax into the hole in the middle, 
 so as to be perfectly insulated from it. The upper 
 end of the rod ends in a brass ball, anil the lower end 
 is filed on each side, to allow of two strips of gold- 
 leaf, an inch in length, being attached to it. Before 
 tlie plate and leaves are finally ti.xed, the interior of 
 the ball is thoroughly dried, by passing hot dry air 
 into it, so that the ball contains no moisture to carry 
 away the charge of the leaves. When the plate is 
 screwed to the collar, there Is no communication be- 
 tween the included and external air. The insulation 
 of the leaves is complete; and they keep their charge, 
 in dry weather, for hours together. When the instru- 
 mentis used, it may be charged directly, by contact 
 iK'ing established with the ball and the body whose 
 electiicity we woidd examine, or a charge may be 
 carried to it by the proof-plane, w hen the leaves di- 
 verge according to the charge communicated. When 
 we would ascertain simply the kind of electricity with 
 which a body is charged, we proceed in the following 
 way: A glass tube is rubbed, and brought into the 
 neighborhood of the bra.ss knob; the leaves diverge 
 by "induction, and, when so diverged, the knob is 
 touched with the finger, and the leaves fall to their 
 original position, for they are then out of the line 
 of action. In this stale, — electricity is fixed bv the 
 action of the + electricity of the tube on the si3e of 
 the knob next it, and the corresponding -|- electricity 
 is lost in the ground. When the finger is removed, 
 the + electricity is cut off, while the — electricity 
 remains in the knob; and its presence is manifested 
 by the leaves diverging permanently after the removal 
 of the tube. If, now, a positively electrified body l)e 
 brought near the knob, it draws away the — elec- 
 tricity from the leaves, and they consequently fall in; 
 but if a negatively electrified body be brought near, 
 it sends the — electricity more to the leaves, so that 
 they diverge further. We arc thus enabled to dis- 
 tinguish between a -\- and a — charge. See Blec- 
 triiiiuii r. 
 
 ELEMENTS. — In a military sense, the first princi- 
 ples of tactics, fortification, and giuinery. 
 
 ELEPHANT.— The ancient Carthaginians and other 
 nations employed elephants in war, not only as beasts 
 of burden, but as combatants. These animals formed 
 Iiart of the armv which Hannibal led across the Alps, 
 and they are said to have decided the \ictory at the 
 battle of Trebia. For a long time the elephant was 
 as important an ann of war as the artillery of modern 
 nations, and first became known in Europe from its 
 employment in the wars of the East. They have 
 been taught to cut and thrust with a kind of scimitar 
 carried in the trunk, and it was formerly usual for 
 them to be sent into battle, covered with armor, and 
 bearing towers on their backs, which contained war- 
 riors. But the imncipal use of the elephant in war 
 is for earrjing baggage and for dragging guns. An 
 elephant will apply his foreheail to a cannon, and 
 urge it through a bog through wiiich it would be al- 
 most impossible for men and cattle to drag it; or he 
 will wind his tnmk round it and lift it up, whilst 
 horses or cattle drag it forwards. They are exten- 
 sively used, in India, for the draught of siege-trains, 
 and m mountainous eoimtries to carrj' mountain-guns 
 on their backs. They are more sure-footed and ser- 
 viceable than either horses or mules, in ditticult moun- 
 tain-roads. On the verj' steepest declivities an ele- 
 phant works his way down pretty rapidly, even with 
 a hmrthih and its occupants upon his back, his chest 
 and belly on the ground, and each fore-foot employed 
 in making a hole for itself, into w hich the hind-foot 
 afterwards follows it, and to which the weight may 
 be tnisted, that another step mav be ventured with 
 safety. The load for steady work varies from 1700 
 to 2200 pounds, and the pace is from 3 to 3i miles per 
 hour. See Pucka nhimU. 
 
 ELEVATED BATTEBIE8.— Batteries in which the 
 platforms of the guns are on the natural surface of
 
 ELEVATING AEC. 
 
 547 
 
 ELEVATOR. 
 
 the ground, or above it. These batteries are more 
 simple in construction than any of the other kinds, 
 because the arming of the batteries can l)e made inde- 
 pendent of the execution of the parapet. Entilading- 
 batteries should have their crests as nearly as possible 
 perpendicular to the prolongation of Die line to be 
 swept by their tire; counter-batteries should have their 
 crests nearly parallel to the Ihie subjected to their tire. 
 These conditions, when fullilled, will save a gi'eat 
 deal of labor in the construction of embrasures. Em- 
 brasure-batteries are to be preferred to barbette, but 
 the embrasures must be hidden, if possible. Various 
 devices are given by means of which the embrasures 
 are concealed, and the gunners screened from the fire 
 directed upon them. The general principles govern- 
 ing the construction of tield-works and trenches apply 
 to the construction of batteries. It is to be remem- 
 bered that artillery -tire ditiws artillerj--firc; hence a 
 greater thickness is requisite for parapets and epaule- 
 ments sheltering artillery than is required for the 
 simpler works. The batteries forming the first artil- 
 lery position may have weaker profiles than those of 
 the second position. See Batteritn. 
 
 ELEVATING-AEC— The elevating-arc is used for 
 such guns as the 10-inch and 15-inch. This consists 
 of a strip of bra.ss attached to the base of the breech 
 parallel to the ratchets. It is graduated into degrees 
 and parts of degrees, and a pointer, attached to the 
 ratchet-post, indicates the elevation or depression of 
 the piece. When the pointer is at zero, the axis of 
 the piece is horizontal. Besides the graduation on 
 the arc, the ranges in yards for the ordinary charges 
 for shot and shell are given. In batteries for garrison 
 and sea-coast defense, where the platforms are fixed, 
 the line of metal maybe considered as permanent; 
 but with siege-guns, mounted on traveling-carriages, 
 tie wheels are liable to vary in position from uneven- 
 ness of ground oi; unequal .settling in newly-con- 
 structed platforms. This line is constantly chaiiging, 
 and approximates the higher wheel in proportion to 
 the difference of level between the wheels; hence, to 
 secure accuracy of fire, allowance must be made by 
 observing where the shots strike and correcting the 
 aim accordingly. Deviation from this cause is always 
 towards the side of the lower wheel. All range- 
 tables are made out with reference to the horizontal 
 plane pa.ssing through the a.xis of the trunnions; when 
 the object to be tired at is situated on a jilane lower 
 than this, an allowance must be made for this differ- 
 ence of level by deducting from the elevation laid 
 down in the table of ranges. 
 
 The following table is calculated for oa.ses in which 
 the piece is abore the object; it will also serve with 
 sufficient degree of appro.ximation for cases in which 
 the piece is behit the object, by simply reversing the 
 method of application; i.e., by adding, instead of 
 subtracting, the quantity due to the height and dis- 
 tance: 
 
 i% 
 
 
 
 
 Height. 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 IFt. 
 
 2 Ft. 
 
 4 Ft. 
 
 8 Ft. 
 
 16 Ft. 
 
 32 Ft. 
 
 64 Ft. 
 
 96 Ft. 
 
 Yds. 
 
 • / 
 
 ' 
 
 ■ / 
 
 O / 
 
 o / 
 
 
 o ' 
 
 o 1 
 
 1,000.. 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.3 
 
 4.6 
 
 92 
 
 18.3 
 
 36.7 
 
 1 IS 3 
 
 1 50 
 
 1,100.. 
 
 1 
 
 2.1 
 
 4.2 
 
 8.3 
 
 16.7 
 
 SS.3 
 
 1 6.7 
 
 1 40 
 
 1.800.. 
 
 .9 
 
 1.9 
 
 3.8 
 
 7.6 
 
 15.3 
 
 30.6 
 
 1 1.1 
 
 1 31.7 
 
 1,300.. 
 
 .9 
 
 1.8 
 
 8.5 
 
 7 
 
 14.1 
 
 28.8 
 
 56.4 
 
 1 24.6 
 
 ],-IOO.. 
 
 .8 
 
 1.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 6.5 
 
 13.1 
 
 26.2 
 
 52.4 
 
 1 18.6 
 
 1.500.. 
 
 .8 
 
 1.5 
 
 3 
 
 6.1 
 
 12.8 
 
 24 4 
 
 48.9 
 
 1 13.3 
 
 1.600.. 
 
 .7 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.9 
 
 57 
 
 11.4 
 
 22.9 
 
 45.8 
 
 1 8.7 
 
 1,700.. 
 
 .7 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.7 
 
 5.4 
 
 10.8 
 
 21 6 
 
 43 1 
 
 1 4.7 
 
 1,800.. 
 
 .6 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.5 
 
 5.1 
 
 10.2 
 
 SO. 4 
 
 40.7 
 
 1 1.1 
 
 1,900.. 
 
 .6 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 9.6 
 
 19.3 
 
 38 6 
 
 57.9 
 
 2,000.. 
 
 .6 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.3 
 
 4.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 18.3 
 
 36.7 
 
 55 
 
 2,100.. 
 
 .5 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.2 
 
 4.3 
 
 8.7 
 
 17 5 
 
 34.9 
 
 58.4 
 
 2.200.. 
 
 .5 
 
 1 
 
 2.1 
 
 4.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 16.7 
 
 33.3 
 
 50 
 
 2,300.. 
 
 .5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7.9 
 
 15.9 
 
 31.9 
 
 47.8 
 
 2.400.. 
 
 .5 
 
 1 
 
 1.9 
 
 3.8 
 
 7.6 
 
 15.3 
 
 306 
 
 45 8 
 
 2,500.. 
 
 .4 
 
 .9 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.6 
 
 7.3 
 
 14.7 
 
 293 
 
 44 
 
 8,000.. 
 
 .4 
 
 .8 
 
 1.5 
 
 3 
 
 6.1 
 
 12.2 
 
 24.4 
 
 86.7 
 
 3.500.. 
 
 .3 
 
 .7 
 
 1.3 
 
 2.6 
 
 5.2 
 
 10.4 
 
 21 
 
 31.4 
 
 4.000.. 
 
 .8 
 
 .6 
 
 1.1 
 
 2.3 
 
 4.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 18 3 
 
 27.5 
 
 4.500.. 
 
 .8 
 
 .5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4.1 
 
 8.1 
 
 16.3 
 
 24.4 
 
 5,000.. 
 
 .2 
 
 .5 
 
 .9 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.7 
 
 7.3 
 
 14.7 
 
 22 
 
 When the height of the piece above the water or 
 horizontal plane is known, the angle of depression for 
 different distances can be found thus: Find the angle 
 for any height not given in the tal)le, as follows: di- 
 vide the given height into parts, which are found in 
 the table, using the largest numbers possible; and add 
 the angles corresponding to those parts, for the re- 
 quired ilistance. See Pointing. 
 
 ELEVATING-BAE.— A stout bar of iron with one 
 end squared and made to fit into the ratchets on the 
 breech of the piece for the puqwse of giving eleva- 
 tion. It is operated as a lever, the fulcrum- being the 
 ratchet-jiosts of the carriage. 
 
 ELEVATIKG-EYE.— To facilitate the elevation and 
 depression of the Armstrong land-service guns, an eU- 
 r<jting-ei/e is screwed into the under side of the breech, 
 at a suitable distance from the trunnions, for the ad- 
 justment of the gun, by means of an elevating-screw; 
 the 40-pounder, however, has a somewhat dilTercnt 
 arrangement, having an elevating screw and quoin. 
 
 ELEVATING-GEAE.— Gearing variously contrived 
 for elevating the breech of a gun. In the Galling 
 gun it consists of a screw whose lower part rests 
 upon the trail of the gun, and whose upper part ends 
 in a ball, working in a socket, on the under side 
 of a brass casting. On the upper surface of the 
 casting is a rib which works in a corresponding slot; 
 in a square brass plate screwed to the under side of 
 the breech-casinff. See Tmrmiiig-gear. 
 
 ELEVATING-SCEEW.— A screw ijeneath the breech 
 of a i>iece of orilnance to give the elevation or verti- 
 cal direction to the piece. In field-pieces it is bedded 
 in the stock immediately under the base-ring of the 
 gun , which rests on the top of the sere w. The screw 
 is turned by four handles. The elevating-screw at- 
 tached to the new iron carriages in England is known 
 as the Whitworth pattern. Heavy gvm-carriages, 
 such as the wrought-iron standing or rear chock car- 
 riages, have the "ratchet-head and lever," with a 
 modification in the chock-carriages, which have an 
 oscillating instead of a fixed nut. In theodolites and 
 other geodetical and astronomical instruments a 
 similar contrivance is used for leveling the instru- 
 ment. 
 
 ELEVATING-SIGHT.— The back sight of a gun or 
 rirte which is raised, when it is found necessary, to 
 elevate the piece. 
 
 ELEVATION. — In gimnerj", the raising of the axis 
 of the piece sulBciently high to enable the shot to 
 range the required distance. In firing at a given ob- 
 ject, the a.xis of the gun must neces.siirily be directed 
 ujion a point at a sufficiently vertical distance above 
 the ol)ject to allow for the action of gra\ity, which 
 causes the ball continually to descend after leaving 
 the bore of the piece. The elevation of the axis of a 
 gun is generally regidated by means of a tangent- 
 scale, which is graduated in such a manner that the 
 divisions on it conespond with the various ranges re- 
 quired from the gun. In geometrical and fortifica- 
 tion drawing, tleration is the projection of the face of 
 a work on a vertical plane bv horizontal rays. It 
 shows the height or depth of a work, and also its 
 Icni.'th, when the plane of projection is parallel to its 
 face. 
 
 ELEVATOR. — Freight-elevators are now regarded 
 as a business necessity by all manufacturers using 
 several floors. They tiouble the value of the upi>er 
 stories for storage and other purposes, enable them 
 to handle goods with much less help and in less time, 
 and reduce the cost of manufacturing in the same 
 proportion. These advantages are so self-evident 
 that their use has become the rule in commercial cen- 
 ters. As a matter of safety, in all elevators, whether 
 geared, screw, or hydraulic, all the es.sential parts, 
 winding-machine connections and platform, should 
 be stronger than the driving power, so that if the 
 platform or its carelessly loaded fn-ight should come 
 in contact with a fioor, or any unyielding obstruction, 
 nothing will break, but thc'belts will slip or run off 
 and do no harm; ii a hydraulic elevator, the piston
 
 ELSVATOS. 
 
 548 
 
 ELEVATOR. 
 
 will stop in the cvUuder. The power for hoisting 
 may be obtainctl "from various sources. As most 
 foundries imd const ruction- works are supplied witli 
 an abuudiuice of steam or other power, they employ 
 steel screw iumcIuiics of sufficient lifting capacities. 
 
 again and filled with dirt and accumulations to 
 grind out the parts. The drive-shaft and screw are 
 made from a solid aiststeel forging, cut and finished 
 1)V special tools. The screw is ruu above (not under, 
 as usual) the worm-gear, and thus concentrates all 
 
 A recent and much improved screw winding-ma- 
 chine is commonly used in the United States. It is 
 secured to the ceiling overhead in its working posi- 
 tion. This machine must not Im! confounded with 
 the '' worm-gear" machine, running in oil u-sed over 
 
 the strain in the strongest portion of the frame and 
 enrries the belts and pulleys high otit of the way. 
 The screw gears are made of copper and tin, propor- 
 tioned for the hardest antifriction metal. They are 
 bulled direct to the winding-drum, taking no chances
 
 ELF-ABBOW-HEADS. 
 
 549 
 
 ELF-AEE0W-HZAD8. 
 
 on the breakage of the shaft, or keys or set-screws 
 getting loose. They are also fitted with an auto- 
 matic stop-motion, which is adjusted to the height of 
 the building, and prevents the ninding-druni from 
 making more than the number of revolutions required 
 for the platform or car to travel from bottom to top, 
 where it is stopped automaticallv, without any con 
 nection with the shifting-ropes. ^Vith the belt-shifter 
 one belt only is moved at a time, which is much 
 easier to operate and with less wear upon the belts 
 than where both belts are shipped across wide pul- 
 leys, as is usually the ease. The loose pulleys have 
 long bearings lined with composition sleeves, and 
 have large self-oiling chambers. 
 
 In a locality supplied with a system of water-works 
 at a sutiicient pressure, the hydraulic elevator presents 
 many advantages over any other. The lirst cost is 
 much less when compared with that of jnuting in 
 steam-boiler and engine; the cost of running is much 
 less than the cost of fuel and the ser\ices of an 
 engineer; the objections to steam-boilers are avoided; 
 the elevator is always ready, night and day; there is 
 no waiting to get up steam, nor noise from fa.st- 
 running engines, belting, or machineiy. The hy- 
 draulic engine is very simple, strong, and dmable, 
 slow and noiseless in its movements, and requires 
 little attention or repair. In localities not supplied 
 with water -works an independent water - pressure 
 may be provided on what is known as the "tank 
 system." A water-tank of suitable size, made of 
 tank-iron or cedar, is placed ujjon the roof of the 
 building. Another of similar size is placed in the 
 basement. Water from the upper tank is conducted 
 by wrought-iron pipes direct to the hjdraulic valve 
 and engine below, the pressure of which supplies the 
 power to raise the car. When the car descends, the 
 water is discharged into the tank below. Here the 
 problem of power comes in: to return the water 
 again to the upper tank, u.sing the same water over 
 and over again. This is usually done by a steam- 
 pump, working perfectly automatic, the steam being 
 admitted and shut off according to the requirements 
 of the elevator by the height of the water in the 
 lower tank. In this system (as the pressure is invari- 
 ably due to the height) buildings of four stories or 
 more high will give the most satisfactory results. 
 
 The drawing shows what is known as the "gravity 
 safety," a counter-weight provided for elevators sub- 
 jected to heavy loads. Its principle consists in 
 making the weight, used to balance the car, serve the 
 purpose of safety also, by attaching it directly to the 
 safetj'-pawls, ready to throw them out to engage the 
 safety-ratchets, if the lifting rope or ropes should 
 break. A A, Fig. 1, are two lifting-ropes. B is the 
 rope attached to the weight. P. CC are two 
 wrought-iron crank-levers, which swing on pivots 
 and c'ngage the two safety-pawls, DD. EE are the 
 two guide-shoes, which run on the safety guide-ways, 
 H. G is the guide-post. 
 
 It will be seen that, as the two lifting-ropes are 
 attached to extremes of the crank-levers, C C, and the 
 weight-rope to the other extremes (connected by the 
 cross - lever), so long as the lifting-ropes maintain 
 their hold they will keep the levers and pawls in the 
 position shown in the drawinjr by the superior weight 
 of the car; but should one or boih of the lifting-ropes 
 break or lose hold upon the weight-rope, always 
 ready to act, it would instantly throw out the pawls 
 to engage the safety-ratchets on the guide-posts, and 
 lock the car. 
 
 Fig. 2 is an enlarged view of a section of the s;ifety 
 ratcheted guide-wav, shown also at H, Fig. 1, with a 
 portion of the wood casing cut away to show the iron 
 ratchets. The object of this invention is to provide 
 a smooth, even, noLseless guide or track for the plat- 
 form or car while moving up and down; also to 
 retain and hold the Hanged iron safety -ratchets with 
 increased strength and Siifety. 3y incasing the iron 
 ratchets in or between the hard wood by the iron 
 flanges as shown, and the wood screwed or bolted 
 
 to the guide-posts, it forms the noiseless guide-way, 
 and so holds, strengthens, and retains the latter that 
 should it be broken it could not separate from the 
 wood, but would still ser\e the purpose of safety- 
 stops for the car. It might be found desirable to 
 fonn the casing in two or more strips, united awl 
 placed, with relation to the ratchet sections, in any 
 convenient or suitable manner. 
 
 The shaft to receive an elevator should always be 
 constructed from four to six inches wider upon each 
 side than the bottom of the car. This gives ample 
 room for guide-ways, cables, counter-weights, etc. 
 The shaft should extend through the roof and be 
 lighted from the top, especially in pa.s.senger-elevators. 
 All projections (in the shape of door-sills or pipes) into 
 the shaft should be avoided; thej' are always ele- 
 ments of danger. The inside of the shaft should be 
 as plumb and smooth as possible. Whenever the 
 shaft is built of wood, the studding should be 2x6 
 feet, if possible, and 12 inches from centers, well and 
 firmly bridged, and corners well tied together. The 
 door-openings to the shaft, upon each Hoor, should 
 be the width of inside of the car. This is necessary 
 in freight-elevators to give ample access to car or 
 platform. In pas.senger-elevators this space should 
 be occupied by one stationary and one sliding door, 
 with the upper panels of doors furnished with plate 
 glass or wire screens. This gives a prominence to 
 the elevator-entrance, and a much more plea.sant ap- 
 pearance from without or within the car. The doors 
 should slide as nearly flush with the inside of the car 
 as possible, and be opened only from the inside by 
 the attendant in the car. 
 
 In planning the position of an elevator, it is always 
 advisiible to enter the car from the same side on each 
 floor, having but one door opening into the car, if 
 possible. Cars with two door-openings, at right an- 
 gles, calling for corner guide-posts, are more expen- 
 sive, not so strong, and more liable to accidents. 
 
 ELF-AEEOW-HEADS.— A name popularlj; given in 
 the British Islands to the arrow-heads of flint which 
 w ere in use at an early period among the barbarous 
 trilies of Europe generall}', as thev are still in use 
 among the American Indians, the fisquimaux of the 
 arctic regions, and the inhabitants of some of the 
 Islands in the Pacific Ocean. It was believed that 
 elves or fairies, hovering in the air, 
 shot these barbs of flint at cattle, and 
 occasionally even at men. Thus, 
 Robert Gordon, of Straloch, an ac- 
 complished country gentleman of 
 Scotland, writing in 16.'J4, tells how 
 one of his friends, traveling on horse- 
 back. :ound an elf arrow-head in the 
 top of his boot, and how a gentlewo- 
 man of his acquaintance, when out 
 riding, discovered one in the breast 
 of her habit. He remarks that, al- 
 though they are got by chance in the 
 fields and on the highways," one who goes to look for 
 tliem on purpose will search in vain. He adds that 
 they are most commonly met with after showers — a 
 circumstance which probably hel]ied them in Ger- 
 many to their names of " thunder-bolts" and " thun- 
 der-stones," and is easily enough explained. The 
 rain, by washing away the earth in which they have 
 been imbedded, makes them more readily perceptible 
 to the eye, especially if the sunshine hapiieiis to fall 
 upf]n them. Cattle "dying suddenly in the fields were 
 Ix'lieved to have been struck by elf -arrows — a belief 
 which vet lingers in Ireland, and perhaps in some 
 secluded parts of Scotland. The elf-arrow-head was 
 occa.sionally set in silver, so as to be worn on the per- 
 son as a talisman, or had a hole drilled through it, so 
 that it might be dipped in water, which, being thus 
 endowed with healing \-irtuc. was used sometimes as 
 a wash, more commonly a« a draught. As a talisman, 
 the elf-arrow -liead was believed to be most eflicacious 
 as a prcser\'ative from poi.son and witchcraft. The 
 ascription of the flint arrow-head to the elves or fairies 
 
 Elf-arrow-head.
 
 ELLIOT CABTKISOE-BOX. 
 
 550 
 
 ELLIPSE. 
 
 Is but one of several instances of the disposition 
 of a people to elevate or degrade the earlier nices 
 whom they vanquished or dispossessed into mythical 
 beings, belter or worse than mankind. Tlius, in 
 Greece and Italy the remains of the rude strongholds 
 built by the Pchisiri came to he regjirded as works of 
 Uie fabled Cyclops, or one-eyed giants. So also, in 
 Scothind, the sepulchral mounds of the aboriginal iu- 
 habilanls were C!ille<l " elfhillo<'ks;" and the vestiges 
 of ancient plowshares which may be tniced on heaths 
 and hill-tops were calleil "elfln-furrows." E.xamples 
 of elf-arrow heads may be seen iu most Museums of 
 Antiquities. They fiill to be more particularly de- 
 scribeil in a following jiage, under the head of Flint 
 Implements .\nd AVE.\roNs. 
 
 ELLIOT CARTRIDGE-BOX.— This bo.t consists of 
 two metallic i>lates mounted side by side on a com- 
 mon pivot, by which thev are secured in a skeleton 
 metallic frame covered with leather. They are fluted 
 radially for the reception of twenty-four musket-car- 
 tridges, caliber .4.'). These flutings are so arranged 
 that the heads of the cartridges may lie in an almost 
 continuous row, while the points overlap each other 
 iu such a manner that the cartridges are mutually 
 supported by the ends of tlieir cases, the weight being 
 thus taken off the point of the ball, and rcmoring its 
 liability to be driven into the cartridge by the repeated 
 shaking of transportation. The box when used is to 
 be worn over the left breast. When charged, it is 
 rotated for tiring by bringing witli the lingers each 
 cartridge in succession to an open notch in the periph- 
 ery of the frame, beyond which it is kept from going 
 by the interposition "of the end of the rim, which is 
 here turned down into a Hap and serves to stop its 
 further motion in this direction. Its return is pre- 
 vented by a spring-pawl on the under side of a slide 
 on the circumference of the frame. This slide, when 
 pulled out, keeps the cartridge Iwneath it from acci- 
 dentally falling out, and yet allows it to be u.sed as a 
 means of rotating the box, as soon as the cartridge 
 next preceding hasl>een picked out through the space 
 left for its ready removal. 
 
 ELLIOT GUN. — A breech-loading small-arm having 
 a fixed chamber closed by a movable breech-block, 
 which rotates about a horizontal axis at 9tV to the 
 axis of the barrel, lying above the axis of the baiTcl 
 and in rear, being moved from above. By cocking 
 the hammer, it operates as a lever on the breech-block 
 pawl, and at each movement alternately pushes and 
 pulls against the lower arm of the breech-block and 
 opens and closes the piece. After opening the ])icce 
 the hammer falls forward, and resting upon the pawl 
 prevents any motion of the block until the piece is 
 closed, which is done by again bringing the hamnier 
 to the full-cock, where it is held by the rear end of 
 the trigger. The piece is locked by the i)osition of 
 the breech-block and by its friction against the head 
 of the cartridge when tiring. It is also braced by the 
 hammer falling behind a shoulder on the pawl, to 
 prevent its movement as in opening. It is tired by 
 the usual center-lock and a tiring-pin in two sections, 
 one of which moves with the block and the other 
 remains in the frame. Extraction is accomplished 
 by a lever pivoted Ik-Iow the chamber and worked 
 through the intervening extRictor-link by the move- 
 ment of the hamnier on the pawl. Ejection isetlected 
 by an auxiliary spring playing on a "friction-roller ec- 
 centrically placed in the 'extractor. The guard is 
 hinged at its rear end so as to alTord a ready means 
 of inspecting or cleaning the meclianisni, and the 
 l(K-k is so coastructed that the hamiiur cannot lie let 
 down slowly upon the tiring-pin with the thumb. 
 
 This arm has iH'en UKxlilied so that extraction may 
 be caus*-*! by a iM'iit lever of the usual form, and ope- 
 rated by the descent of the breech-block. In this 
 modilication the brecch-blo<-k pawl is single and 
 works within the cheeks nf a slit hamnier. 
 
 ELLIOT MAOAZINE-OUN.— This ami is pronded 
 ■with a recipnHalinL; and rotating Iwll for closing and 
 locking the cartridge chamber by means of a handle 
 
 in the usual way. It is also pronded with a double 
 tubular magazine, locateil in the butt-stock, the tubu- 
 lar chamtK-rs being aiTaiigeil one over the other, and 
 each provided w ith independent cartridge-propelling 
 devices. The upper end of the revolving pawl is bent 
 inward and works in a longitudinal groove cut in the 
 side of the bolt: and where the bolt is rotated in lock- 
 ing and unlocking the arm it gives a vertical move- 
 ment to the revolving pawl, which, being actuated by 
 a suitable spring, causes the disk or ratchet to revolve 
 one notch. On the face of the disk anti over each al- 
 ternate ralchet-tooth there is a cam. These cams and 
 the free ends of a double feed-pawl are so arranged in 
 relation to each other that the cams pa.ss under and 
 raise the ends of the feed-pawl alternately. Each 
 time one of the ends of the feed-pawl is raised the 
 line of cartridges under it is pennitted to move for- 
 ward until the ball of the first cartridge lodges in the 
 recess between the carrier and bolt. In this position 
 of parts the head of the first cartridge remains a little 
 way in the mouth of the magazine, and the second 
 one has not yet engaged the point of the feed-pawl. 
 ^\Tien the bolt is drawn back after firing, the maga- 
 zine-sprin"; forces the whole column of cartridges for- 
 ward until the feed-pawl eiigjiges the head of the 
 second one, and the first one is landed upon the car- 
 rier. When Uie backward movement of the lx)lt is 
 completed the first cartridge is raised into the receiv- 
 ing-chamber b3' the carrier-spring. By this arrange- 
 ment of parts the shock of arresting the forward 
 movement of the column of cartridges is taken upon 
 the carrier and bolt. In addition to the ordinary 
 spiral magazine-spring tliere is an au.viliary spring in 
 the bottom of each tubular space, the object of which 
 is to cushion the blow of the column of cartridges 
 upon the bottom of the magazine in c;ise of heavy re- 
 coil or jolting when the magazine is full or nearly so, 
 and thus ])rcvent accidentaf explosions. The tubular 
 spaces are pro\-ided with projections or shoulders on 
 each side. These projections are so arranged that 
 the cartridge-heads strike them alternately on each 
 side, which causes the heads to \ibrate latenlly and 
 prevents the cartridges from moving, from any cause, 
 with dangerous rapidity, whereby accidental explo- 
 sion is avoided. The butt-stock and tip-slock are 
 made in separate pieces, being siqiported at their 
 inner ends by cheek-pieces, under which they |)roject. 
 The handle of the bolt is attached to the rear end 
 and has six curves, as follows: Backward and down- 
 ward, which carry the handle back within reach of 
 the thumb, while the index-finger is on the trigger; 
 also curves downwaril, outward, and upward, to 
 form a bed for the tluimb to rest in. The end of 
 the handle has also a downwaril cun-e over the side 
 of the hand. During the manipulation of the arm 
 the haniUe is grasped between the thumb and the 
 side of the hand alKive the index-finger, from which 
 it is not at any time released. At the moment of fir- 
 ing the bolt is held in the locked position by the 
 thumb on the handle. In withdrawing the bolt the 
 thumb is bent down a little forward of the lower end 
 of the handle, and the act of returning and locking 
 the bolt carries the index- finger back to the trigger, 
 and the other three fingers to the wrist of the arm. 
 See Magazine-fftin. 
 
 ELLIPSE. — The name of a figure in geon.errr im- 
 portant from its lK>ing the appro.vimate shape of the 
 planitary orbits, aiul frequently aiipcaring in the 
 problems of guinicry. It is a curve of the second 
 order, and is a conic section, formed by cutting a right 
 cone by a plane [massing oljliipiely through its ojiiJO- 
 
 I site sides. It may Ik- defined asa curve the sum of 
 the distances of every point in which from two fixed 
 points within the curve is always the same. These 
 two fixed points are called the foci; and the <liameter 
 drawn tlirmigh them is the major axis: the minor axis 
 
 j bisects the major at riirlit angles. Tlic distance of 
 
 ! either focus from the middle of the major axis is the 
 tfceiitricUit. The less the eccentricity is compared 
 
 I with the axis, the nearer the figure approaches to a
 
 SLONOATEI) PB0JECTIL£8. 
 
 551 
 
 ELSWICK GUN-WOEKS. 
 
 circle; and a circle may be considered as an ellipse in 
 which the foci coincide. 
 
 There are various contrivances for describing an 
 ellipse, called ellipsagraphs or elliptic compasneii. The 
 simplest method of description is to fix on a plane the 
 two ends of a thread with pins in the foci, and make 
 a pencil move on the plane, keeping the thread con- 
 stantly stretched. The end of tlic pencil will trace 
 an ellipse whose major axis is equal to the length of 
 the thread. 
 
 The equation to an ellipse, referred to its center as 
 origin, and to its major and minor axes as rectangular 
 
 axes, is .,+ .3 = 1, where a and b arc the semi-major 
 
 and semi-minor axes respectively. From this equa- 
 tion it may be shown by the integral calculus that the 
 area of an ellipse is equal to nab, or is got by mulliplv- 
 ing the product of the semi-major and semi-minor a.xis 
 by 3. 1416. It may also be shown that the length of the 
 circumference of an ellipse is got by multiplying the 
 major axis by the quantity 
 
 '( 
 
 1 
 
 ■where d = - 
 
 
 
 2».4-.5» ' 
 
 • etc 
 
 ). 
 
 4a' 
 
 ELONGATED PHOJECTILES.— The gi;eat improve- 
 ments wliich have been made of late, in the accur- 
 acy and range of cannon, consist simply in the use 
 of the elongated instead of the spherical form of 
 projectile. To attain accuracy of flight and increase 
 of range with an elongated projectile, it is necessary 
 that it should move through the air in the direction 
 of its length. Experienee" seems to show that the 
 only sure method of effecting this is to give it a rapid 
 rotary motion around its long axis by the grooves of 
 the rifles. The length necessarily varies m the dif- 
 ferent descriptions of projectiles for the same gun, 
 inasmuch as it is to some extent subonlinate to the 
 consideration of bringing them all, with certain ex- I 
 ceptions, to the Siime weight; but experiments go to 
 prove that a length of two calibers at least is necessary 
 for very accurate firing, and it is desirable for gooil 
 «« vira, or destructive effect on impact at any but 
 very short ranges, to have the weight great in pro- 
 portion to the caliber, or, in fact, to the surface of | 
 resistance, and of course this is favored by an in- 
 creased length of projectile. As a rule, the best 
 length for accurate tiring with any ordinary twist 
 has been found to be froiii two to three calibers. 
 
 The form of head is governed by two considera- 
 tions, /i'jr/ti and /w'n<'<rah<«!. The latter gives differ- 
 ent forms in different instances. The question of 
 flight affects all equally, and on this many experi- 
 ments have been made, which have resulted in the 
 general adoption of what is termed an ogiml head, or 
 figure generated by the revolution of an ogival or 
 pointed arch alx)ut its axis. It has been found that 
 the total pres.siu-e on a nine-incli spherical projectile, 
 moving with a velocitv of 1150 t'eet per second, is 
 about 555 lbs. ANBM representing the spherical 
 nine-inch projectile, and the total pressure on a hemi- 
 
 spherical-headed, elongated projectile of the same 
 diameter represented by ACDBM, and mo\ing with 
 the same velocity, is 487 lbs., thus showinir a differ- 
 ence of 68 lbs. total pressure. Now supposing the 
 elongated projectile to move steadilv, point first, the 
 pres.sure on the respective heads, A,"M, Cmust l>e the 
 same; therelore the difference of the total jiressure, 
 
 viz., 68 lbs., must be due to the difference of minus 
 presnure on the bases ANB, ACDB respectively, thus 
 showing that the form of base of a projectile' mate- 
 rially influences the total pres.sure which it meets wiiU 
 ■ when mo\ing through the air at a high velocity. 
 j The total pressure on an ordinary ogival-headed pro- 
 ! jectile of 9 inches diameter, represented bv ACDBM , 
 IS only 389 lbs., thvLS showing the great (lifference of 
 pre.s-sure, viz., 106 lbs., on an elongated ogilval-heuded 
 I projectile and a spheriod projectile of the same diame- 
 ter when moving at the same velocity through the air. 
 I Another great advantage which the elongated projec- 
 ' tile possesses over the spherical is that, for the .same 
 caliber, the momentum of the former is much greater, 
 varj-ing, of course, in proportion to their respective 
 weights, which would l)e nearly three to one, depend- 
 ing on the length of the elongated projectile. Piobert 
 says that the figure e.xjieriencing the least resistance 
 from the air has a length five times its greatest diame- 
 ter, with its largest section placed j of the length 
 from the hind part. The shapes of some of the 
 Whifworth projectiles approach more nearly to this 
 form than those of any elongated projectiles' hitherto 
 used. See Pi'ojecliles. 
 
 ELSWICK COMPRESSOB. — An arrangement for 
 compressing friction-plates used to take up the recoil 
 of gun-carriages iipon their slides. ' The seven friction- 
 plates arranged longitudinally under the carriage and 
 attached to its lowest part have alternating Ijetween 
 them six long flat bars attached at their ends to the 
 slide by bolts passing through them, but allowing 
 them a side motion. "The plates anil bars are tightly 
 clamped by short rocking levers, the lower ends of 
 which act on the outside plates. The levers are 
 worked by collars on a threaded shaft, which catch 
 their upper ends. The shaft is called the compressor- 
 shaft, and has a handle or crank on the outside of 
 each cheek or bracket; one is called the adjusting- 
 lever, the other the compressor-lerer. The first is used 
 to give an initial compression to suit the charge, the 
 other is operated by the recoil Ijeing forced down by 
 a tripper on the slide. 
 
 ELSWICK GUN-WOEKS.— The Elswick Works of 
 Sir William Armstrong, at Xewcastle-upon-Tyne, 
 have produced the largest constructions in England 
 of their well known type, ami from wliich sprang the 
 modified form known as the Woolwich gim. We 
 cannot here attempt to give a deieriplion of the Works 
 in any general sense, but merely to notice a few 
 features such as characterize them, or should be 
 noticed by visitors to Elswick, especially engineers. 
 We supix)se the works to Ix? traversed in the order 
 adopted, as far as we understand, on the last Public 
 Day. 
 
 Commencing at the northeast corner of the Works, 
 the first objects of interest are the 6 inch and 40-ton 
 breech-loading gun mounted in barl)ette. It is well 
 to observe the sy.stem in action and the cover afforded 
 to the detachment. Close to these guns is a shrink- 
 ing-pit for ordnance from the lOOton gun downwards, 
 also nineteen gsis-producers for furnaces. The shops 
 then may be taken in the following order- 
 
 Cmliitff. — The largest section of bar has been 12 
 by 10 inches; length of coiling fiuiiace, ISO feet; gas- 
 furnace for healing barrels, also for teniix'ring, with 
 an oil-well 50 feet deep, over which stands a hydraulic 
 hoist. 
 
 Forge. — The large hammer here, made by Thwaitcs 
 & Carbutt. Bradford, has a 48-inch cyliiu'ler and 13 
 feet stroke; weight of piston and hammer-head, oo 
 tons. Blast smelting-furnaces, one furnace building, 
 two in work, and running from 9(K» to IIMXI tons a 
 week, chiefiy No. 1, 2, and 3 pig, made from Sjianish 
 and Elba ori\s, most of it sold for steel-making. The 
 blast is at present heated by horseshoe pipes, but 
 Cowper's heating-stoves are "in course of erection; 
 temperature of blast, from 750 to 800'— about the 
 meIting-i>oint of zinc. The engine for the furnaces 
 is made bv the firm. 
 
 Carriages/ied.— There are band-saws cutting iron
 
 XHBAB. 
 
 552 
 
 EHBABKATIOir. 
 
 which may be noticed, nnd Albini canfiage on short 
 recoil andV'If-nmning-iii) sysloin. 
 
 Prcjertile-nt'in. — Couluiuiug the finished projectiles. 
 These are cbietiy made with bands only up to full 
 diameter, which" saves work, and leaves to the pro- 
 jectile the strength of the uninjured skin of the cast- 
 ing. The PallisiT chillitl orojectiles will be generally 
 found with sharp-pointed heads struck with two 
 diameters ogival. 
 
 Fbumlry. — Containini; the ten cupola-furnaces, of 
 which foiir are geneniTly in work. Forty tons is 
 about the maximum weight of casting made in the 
 foundry — a much larger one, such as the bed of tlie 
 steam-hammer, weighing 137 tons, Ix-iug cast on its 
 own ground. The system of hydraulic cnmes should 
 be mil iced. Tliey are tixed so as to work in pairs, or 
 three together, for heaN-y work. 
 
 Engiius. — Near this arc the engines for the East 
 Works, and also thase for the West Urdnance-works. 
 Horizontal double Corliss engines are employed, with 
 four boilers; three working at a time. Juke's bars 
 and system of stoking is apjilied to all. The Jetty 
 mav "probably be conveniently visited next, near 
 which are more horizontal engines, 100 liorse-power, 
 working on the accumulators; the water-pressure 
 maintained is about 700 pounds per square inch. 
 Five or six locomotives are generally employed in 
 the works. On the cast end of the jetty are two tixed 
 hydraulic cranes for lifting 5 tons and 30 hundred- 
 weight; and between them large hydraulic shears, 
 made by Day «.t Summers, worked by a direct-acting 
 hydraulic cylinder, 40 feet stroke, lifting 120 tons. 
 The bag-leg moves so as to bring the lifting-cylinder 
 about 30 feet out, 15 feet inboard of a ves.ser. The 
 foot is moved l)y a screw 50 feet long, with h3'draulic 
 engine and gear", with three different powers. Along 
 the jetty run pipes with hydrants from 18 to 36 feet 
 apart, on which work five movable cranes, eacli lift- 
 ing aliout 30 hundredweight, being placed in position 
 to suit the holds of the ve.ssels by means of telescope- 
 tubes attached to the nearest hydrants. 
 
 The fnis/iiiif/s/iop may be taken next in order. 
 The proportions of new-type guns should be noticed 
 also; the l)reech-loading tittings, and apparatus for 
 firing by electricity and also mechanically. One 
 sho]) is for small machine-work, completing Gatling 
 machine-guns, hydraulic valves, etc. Another con 
 tains planing-inachines, etc. Others are constnicted 
 for turninff, tinishing, and boring work, commencing 
 on the solid ingot. At the east end guns are bored 
 vertically in a pit 23 feet deep. The tinest lathe is 
 one of Whilworth's for tin-ning, boring, screw-cut- 
 ting, and ritiins, taking a job 44 feet in length, 36- 
 inch centers. There is also a convenient one made by 
 Fairliairn, Kennedy & Naylor, nKiditicd at Elswick, 
 taking a chuck job 20 feet in diameter, 4 feet 6 
 inches long, or a job 34 feet long and 8 feet in 
 diameter. It is fitted with slide-rests on imlependent 
 beds. There are also cliamliering and riliing ma- 
 chines. In another shop, crank-shafi and gun work, 
 coil-welding, etc., are performed. The steam-ham- 
 mers, from 24 tons to 15 hundredweight, are ehietiy 
 Morrison's make. There is a jrrcat variety of small 
 machinery, for turning and boring out short coils; 
 also a large endless band-siiw, IJ inch wide, which 
 cuts directly through iron cylindrical work about 16 
 inches in diameter. Its speed is from 76 feet to 129 
 feet |ier minute. 
 
 Il will he st'cn that the facilities of these works are 
 ample in every respect for ordnance-constructions; 
 and when we come to consider the decidedly advanced 
 progress in the adaptation of steel in its strongest form 
 — rihlxjned— in gun-constructions of liirht weight 
 combined with great power, il must be ailmittcd that 
 in the pure question of the ImildinL' up of guns to 
 resist the draff.s upon them, espcriaily bv tangential 
 strains, far l)eyond standard liniils in lingland. Sir 
 William Armstrong & Co. are farthest advanced as 
 the pioneers in Great Britain of a system destined, 
 probably, to solve in the most satisfactory manner 
 
 the problemn of all heavy gun-construction, in the 
 present state of the art," in producing the metals 
 deemed most suitjible for making sound and reliable 
 ordnance. See AriMtrviiy Gun and Orditiince. 
 
 EMBAS. — The command, in heavy-arlillerv prac- 
 tice, directing that the handspikes be placed in posi- 
 tions for moving the piece and the carriage; as, for 
 cxam|de, when it is wished to move a mortar in 
 battery, the four caimoncers face towards the epaule- 
 mentand Embau: Nos. 1 and 2 under the front 
 maneuvering-bolts, and Nos. 3 and 4 under those in 
 rear, engaging the butts of their handspikes about 
 three inches; Nos. 1 and 3 hold the small end of 
 their handspikes in the left hand, Nos. 2 and 4 theirs 
 in their right. All being reaily, the gunner com- 
 mands. Heave, and repeats it as often as may be 
 neces.sary. As soon as the piece is on the middle of 
 the platform, he commands, Halt: all unbar, and 
 resume their posts. 
 
 EMBARGO. — A temporary order to prevent the 
 arrix al or departure of ships. It may apply to ves- 
 sels and goods, or to specified goods only; it may be 
 general or special; it may apply to the entering only, 
 to the departure only, or" to both entering and depart- 
 ure of ships from particular ports; and lastly, although 
 issued by the Admiralty in England, it would be 
 equally an embargo if issued bj- any other competent 
 authority. Such embargoes are generally connected 
 in some way or other with a state of war between two 
 countries. 
 
 EMBARKATION.— In loading ves,sels with stores for 
 a military ex-pedition, the cargo of each should be 
 composed of an assortment of such stores as may bo 
 available for service in case of the non-arrival of 
 others; and they should be placed on board in such a 
 manner that they may be easily reached in the order 
 in which they are required for service. Each store- 
 ship should be marked, at the bow and stern, on both 
 sides, in large characters, with a distinctive letter and 
 number. A list is to be made of the stores on board 
 of each vessel, and of the place where they are to be 
 found in il; a copy of this list to be sent to the chief 
 officer of the proper department in the expedition, or 
 at the place of destination. If the disembarkation is 
 to be performed in front of the enemy, some of the 
 field pieces should be so placed that they can be dis- 
 embarked immediately with their carriages, imple- 
 ments, and ammunition; also the tools and materials 
 for throwing up temporary intrenchments on land- 
 ing. .Some vessels, distinguished by particular signal, 
 should be laden solely with such powder and am- 
 munition as may not be required for the immediate 
 service of the pieces. Boats of proper cajiacity must 
 be provided for the di.sembarkation, according to the 
 clreumstaiices in each case It may be necessiiry to 
 establish temporary wharves on trestles, and to erect 
 shears, cranes, or derricks. On a smooth sandy 
 beach heavy pieces, etc., may be landed by rolling 
 them overlKiard as soon as the boats ground, and 
 hauling Hum up with sling-carts. When the em- 
 barkation lakes place from a wharf, and the vessel is 
 not loo high, it is lie.st to use gang-planks and lead 
 the horses on boanl. The gang-jilank leading up 
 from the wharf to the gunwale should be about 20 
 feet long liy 10 feet wide, and be made very strong. 
 This width admits of its being used for gun-carriages. 
 It should be provided with ropes at the corners, roll- 
 ers, side-rails, and boards u|M)n the sides to prevent 
 the hoi-ses from getting their feet over the edges. 
 Another similar ganjj-plaiik, but not so long, leads 
 from the gunwale to the deck, the two being securely 
 fastened together by their ropes. These gang-jilanks 
 should be carrietl by the vessel, ready for disemliark- 
 ing. Every provision for this latter operation should 
 be thorougidy looked after before starting on the voy- 
 age. When it is not practicable to use gang-planks, 
 the horses are hoisted im board liy means of a sling 
 and liftins-t.ickle. Five men are required to sling a 
 horse quickly and well. One man holds the head- 
 guy, which is attached to a neck-collar; two men, one
 
 EMBATERION. 
 
 553 
 
 EHBOSSINO. 
 
 on each side of the horse, pass the sling under his 
 belly; both then hold up the ends over his back, pass- 
 ing the long loop through the shorter one and hook- 
 ing on the eye of the former to the lifting-tackle, con- 
 tinuing to hold up the sling until the horse's legs leave 
 the ground; another man stands at the breast and fast- 
 ens the breast-rope, while the fifth stjinds at his rump 
 and fastens the breech rope. The officer superintend- 
 ing commands," Hoist away." The first man .slacks 
 away at the guy-rope, holding it just sufficiently taut 
 to keep the horse's head steady, ^^■hen hoisting, no 
 delay should be permitted ; it should be done in the 
 shortest time compatible with sjtfety. At the com- ' 
 mencement, after a certainty that all is right, it 
 should be done rapidly, to raise the horse off his feet 
 and free him from surroimiling objects before he has 
 time to do any injur}' by kicking. After attaining 
 the necessary height, he is carefully and steadily 
 lowered to the deck. Care should be" taken to have 
 two or three careful and active men stationed to seize 
 the horse and prevent his phmging until the slings 
 are remove<l. While one holds him by the head-stall, 
 another rapidly urdiooks the tackle-purchase, and two 
 others let loose the breech and breast bands or roi»s. 
 When the horses are to be lowered through a hatch 
 to a deck below, the combings of the hatch, as well 
 as stanchions about it, should be well padded. As 
 an additional precaution, a head-collar should be pro- 
 vided, with a large pad on top to prevent injury 
 shoidd the horse strike his head against the deck- 
 beams when lighting on his feet. Everything being 
 in readiness and skillfully managed, an average lot 
 of one hundred horses can be hoisted on board in 
 from two to three hours. Hatches for horses must 
 be at least 10 by 10 feet. 
 
 Allowing 1100 pounds as the average weight of 
 artillery-horses and 150 pounds as that of men, and 
 estimating for ten days' supply of food, water, and for- 
 age, the total weight of a field-battery of six pieces, fully 
 equipped and provided for riehl service, and including 
 two baggage-wagons loaded with camp-equipage ana 
 baggage, will be 329,000 pounds, or about 165Aineri- 
 cantons. Horses embarked without stalls require 
 each a space e(jual to 3.5 tons, marine measurement; 
 therefore about 550 tons will be required for the horses 
 alone. It is thus seen that the actual weight of a bat- 
 tery forms but a small proportion of the shipping 
 tonnage required for it. The class of seagoing 
 steamers usually chartered for transportation service 
 are those that ply betiveen points along the seaboard. 
 They are generally propellers, and varj- in tonnage 
 froni one to two thousand tons. Omng to the fact 
 that a considerable part of their room is usually tiiken 
 up with passenger accommodations, the}- are seldom 
 able to carr}- more than one full battery. A steamer 
 of 2000 ton.s burden, with a free spar aid main deck, 
 is capable of carrying two complete batteries. See 
 .Trtinsi^jHu. 
 
 EMBATERION. — A war-song of the Spartans, ac- 
 companied by flutes, which they sung marching in 
 time, and rushing on the enemy. The origin of the 
 emhakriiiii is k)st in antiquity. 
 EMBATTLE.— To amuigein onlerof the battle; to 
 draw up in array, as troops for bat- 
 tle; to furnish with battlements. 
 
 Y.VaKTT'LED. — Emhntil(d, or iiii- 
 biittUil (called also ^rendh'), is one of 
 the i)artition-lines in Hcraldrj-, traced 
 in the form of the battlements of a 
 castle or tower. A bordure embat- 
 tled is often given as a difference to 
 anv memlx'r of a family who is, or 
 has been, a soldier. Set' HeraMry. 
 EMBEZZLEMENT.— Any i«?rson in the milit^ir}- 
 service of the I'niled States who makes or causes to 
 be made anv claim against the United States, or any 
 officer thereof, knowing such claim to be false or 
 fraudulent; or who presents or causes to l>e presented 
 to any person in the ci^-il or military service thereof, 
 for approval or payment, any claim against the United 
 
 Embattled. 
 
 States or any officer thereof, knowing such claim to 
 be false or fraudulent; or who enters into any agree- 
 ment or conspiracy to defraud the United States by 
 obtaining, or aiding others to obtain, the allowance 
 or payment of any false or fraudulent claim; or who, 
 for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding others to ob- 
 tain, the approval, allowance, or pajonent of any 
 claim against the United States or against any officer 
 thereof, makes or use.s, or procures or advises the 
 making or use of, any writing, or other paper, know- 
 ing the same to contain any false or fraudulent state- 
 ment; or who, for the purpose of obtaining, or aid- 
 ing others to obtain, the approval, allowance, or pay- 
 ment of any claim against the United States or any 
 officer thereof, makes, or procures or ad\-i.ses the mak- 
 ing of, any oath to any fact or to any writing or other 
 paper, knowing such oath to Ix; fal.se; or who, for 
 the purpose of obtaining, or aiding others to obtain, 
 the approval, allowance, or payment of any claim 
 agauist the United States or any officer thereof, forges 
 or counterfeits, or procures or advises the forging or 
 counterfeiting of, any signature upon any writing or 
 other paper, or uses, or procures or ad%ises the use of, 
 any such signature, knowing the same to be forged or 
 counterfeited; or who, having charge, possession, 
 custody, or control of any money or other property of 
 the United States, furnished or intended for the 
 military service thereof, knowingly ilelivers, or causes 
 to be delivered, to any persons having authority to re- 
 ceive the same, any amount thereof less than that for 
 which he receives a certiticate or receipt; or who, 
 being authorized to make or deliver any paper certify- 
 ing the receipt of any property of the United States,, 
 furnished or Intended for tlie military ser\-ice thereof, 
 makes, or delivers to any person, such writing, with- 
 out having full knowledge of the truth of the state- 
 ments therein contained, and with intent to defraud 
 the United States; or who steals, embezzles, know- 
 ingly and willfully misappropriates, applies to his 
 own use or benefit, or wrongfully or knowingly sells 
 or disposes of any ordnance, arms, equipnienUs, am- 
 munition, clothing, subsistence stores, money, or other 
 property of the United States, furnished of intended 
 for the" military service thereof; or who knowingly 
 purchases, or receives in pledge for any obligation or 
 indebtedness, from any soldier, officer, or other per- 
 son who is a part of or employed in siiid forces or 
 service, any ordnance, arms, equipments, ammunition, 
 clothing, subsistence stores, or other property of the 
 United States, such soldier, officer, or other person 
 not haring lawful right to sell or pledge the same, 
 shall, on conviction thereof, be punished by fine or 
 imprisonment, or by such other punishment as a 
 Court- JIartial may adjudge. And if any person, 
 being guilty of any of the offenses aforesaid, while in 
 the tnilitar}- ser\ice of the United States, receives his 
 discharge, or is dismissed from tue sen-ice, he shall 
 continue to be liable to be arrested and held for trial 
 and sentence by a Court-Martial, in the same man- 
 ner and to the siinic extent as if he had not received 
 such discharge nor txjcn dismi.s.scd. 
 
 EMBLEE.— A prompt, sudden, and \-igorous at- 
 tack which is made ag-ainst the covered-way and out- 
 works fif a fortified place. 
 
 EMBOSSING.— The art of producing raised figures 
 upon various substances, such a.s paper, leather, wood, 
 metids, etc. This is usually effected by pressing the 
 substance into a die, the kind of die and nuxle of ap- 
 plj-ing the pressure being motlified according to the 
 nature of the design and the properties of the sub- 
 stance to be embossed. Sheet-metal is embosserl by 
 stamping it between a pair of steel dies, one in relief, 
 the other in intaglio. See Die-sixkiso. AV hen the 
 pattern is a deep one, several pairs of dies are usjxl, 
 and several blows civen with each, the metal lieing 
 occasionally annealed. The first stamping produces 
 a crude resi^niblance to the final design, of motlerate 
 depth; successive stampings bringing iii) more of the 
 details, and giving increa.xed depth. The upyieT die 
 is usually raised bv a ro|>e attached over a pulley to-
 
 £MBOWED. 
 
 554 
 
 EHBBASUSE. 
 
 A stirrup, in which the workman places his foot; he 
 draws bis fiH)t ilown to niist- tlu' heavy die to the re- 
 quinil heiirlit, iinii then suddenly releases the press- 
 ure of his fool from the slirriip, when the die de- 
 seeiiiN bv its own weight. 'While thus raising the 
 die with his foot, he ailjusts the work in its place 
 with his hands. Smaller work is enibosstni with a 
 screw-i)ress, the lever of which Ls turneil with one 
 hand, while the work is placed under the dies and 
 ri'moved l>y the other. Paper and card arc embossed 
 in a similar manner, but the dies are frequently of 
 brass, sometimes of copper electro-deposits, suitablv 
 backed. The counter-tlie is conunouly made of soft 
 metal, card- or mill-lward, pressed into the metal in- 
 taglio die until a sliarp impression is produced. The 
 pajxT or card is well damped, and a fly-press is gen- 
 erally ustni. 
 
 EMBOWED. — The heraldic term ased for anything 
 which is bent like a bow. A sinister arm couped at 
 
 Era bowed. 
 
 Counter-embowed. 
 
 the shoulder is emlxnced. Trhen the arm is turned 
 the reverse wav it is said to be eounter-tmboired. 
 
 EMBRASSEUK.— A piece of iron which grasps the 
 tniiiniims of a piece of ordnance when it is raised 
 upim IIk- borinir-machine to widen its caliber. 
 
 EMBEASUEE.— The embrasure is an opening 
 made in the parapet for a gun to tire through. The 
 bottom of the embrasure, termed the mJe, is 2 feet 9 
 inches, or from 4 to 6 feet above the ground, on 
 which the wheels of the carriage rest, according to 
 the size of the gun and the kind of carriage.^ It 
 usually slopes outward to allow the gun to be fired at 
 a depression. The base of this slope should never be 
 less than six times the altitude. In most cases it may 
 he horizontal, or even have a slight slope to the rear. 
 The interior opening, termed the iniinth, is from 18 
 to ;{6 inches wide, according to the caliber of the a:uM, 
 and is of a rectangular or trapezoidal form. The 
 line which bisects the sole in the direction of the line 
 of fire is cjilled the di'rectrij: The sides of the em- 
 bra.sure are termed the cheeks; these widen out to- 
 wards the exterior, which widening is termed the 
 KpUiy, the inclination upon each side from the dircc- 
 itrix being one upon ten. They furthermore have an 
 
 FlQ. 1. 
 
 inclination outwards from the vertical; this inclina- 
 tion, at the line of the exterior crest, is three upon 
 one. When the directrix is lierpcndicular to the in- 
 terior crest, tlie embrasure is termed (linH; when 
 r)blifiue, the embrasure is termed ohlifpie. Fig. 1. In 
 order that the part of the embra.sure which is next to 
 the muzzle of the gun nuiy 1k' nearlv of the siune 
 width in both Die direct and oblique embrasures the 
 mouth of the latter is wider in proportion to the ol) 
 liquity. Kmbrasures are revetted with the .same inatc- 
 Tial and in the same manner as the interior slope. 
 
 If the exact position for the embrasure i> kunwn, 
 it is iK'St to lay it out and make it while llie parapet 
 is being constructed. As soon as the latter is l)uill up 
 to the sill of the future embrasure, a light stake is 
 planted in line with the interior slope on each side of 
 the directrix, in such position as to represent the sides 
 of the mouth of the embrasure; a strip is nailed across 
 at the i)roper height to repa'sent the sill, and another 
 above on the line of the interior crest. The earth 
 beingsmoothed oil to give the desired slope to the sole, 
 the directrix is marked out on it by means of a cord; 
 the splay of the cheeks is oblaiucd by giving the 
 sides an inclination of one tenth with the directrix. 
 These lines being laid oil on the sole, the revetment 
 is placed alolig them and is given an inclination 
 corresponding with the two profile stakes at the 
 mouth, and three upon one at the exterior crest. 
 Should gabions be used for revetting the cheeks, 
 fijscines are first partly imbedded along the edges of 
 the sole, and the gabions placed on them in such 
 manner as to ol)taiu the proper flare. The gabions 
 are held in position by bein^ anchored ■with telegraph- 
 wire to a beam of timber mibedded in the parapet 
 parallel to and about 8 feet from the cheeks of the 
 embrasure. The beams are held by securing stakes. 
 Revetments made of other material are secured in a 
 similar manner. This preciiution should be tho: 
 oughly looked after in the first instance, l>ecause 
 wlien the revetment is broken by the blast of the gun 
 or the shots of the enemy it is difficult to repair it, 
 and the necessity for repairing would probably coma 
 at a time when it could not be done. If the em- 
 brasure is to be cut out after the parapet is com- 
 pleted, the mouth is marked off with stakes and 
 strips as before; the earth is removed so as to obtain 
 
 Fra. S. 
 
 Isometricaf view of wrouglit-iron casing for throat of em- 
 brasure and door or mantelet of same. A. sole-piece re- 
 vetted to elieek-pieces. B. ut the angles; C. front-pieces; 
 D, door liung on horizontal angle at top: E, Liever with 
 cord attached to pull up the door; F, slot in the door for 
 rammer. 
 
 approximately Ihe sole, which is then laid off and the 
 work completed as just described. 
 
 The sole of the embrasure should be secured from 
 being worn awjty by Ihe blast with boards, poles, or 
 some similar malerial running lengthwise with the 
 embrasure. Kaw-hides will greatly a.ssist in pre- 
 serving the rcvclinculs of the checks" from Ihe etTccts 
 of alirasidii produced liy tiring. For this jiurpose 
 the hide, while green, is stretched, with the flesh side 
 outward, over tjie part to be luotceled, and is there 
 confined by slakes ilriven through it into Ihe i)arapet. 
 The best method, however, for .securing the mouth 
 of the embrasure, and the sole and sides for .I or (i 
 feet from the moulh, is a lining made of J-inch boiler- 
 iron. Fig. 2. The jilales are cut to the proper form 
 to fit the sole and cheeks, and are fastened together 
 with angle- irons and rivets. Wings, about a foot 
 wide, extend out on each side against the interior 
 slope to iireveiit the lining from being moved to the 
 , front by the blast. A round bar of iron ])asses across 
 , the loi> about 18 inches from the throat; to this a
 
 £HBBOCH££. 
 
 555 
 
 EICEBT, 
 
 door of sheet-iron is suspended, formini; a mantlet 
 against rausketrj-. In the center of this door is a cwt 
 or slot, about a foot high and (! inclies wide, for 
 the double purpose of allowing the rammer to pass 
 through while loading the piece, and for sighting it. 
 A vertical lever of wood or iron is fastened to one 
 side of the door; to this a rope is attached, so that by 
 pulling on it the door is thrown up to allow the piece 
 to be tired. 
 
 The advantages of embrasures Is that the men and 
 guns are less exposed than in a barbette-battery. 
 Their principal defects are: they have a very lim- 
 ited field of tire; they wealvcn the parai)et, and pre- 
 sent openings througli which the enemy may pene- 
 trate in an a.ssault. Owing to their limited field 
 of fire, they are generally used for the protection of 
 particular points, as to tlnnk a ditch, protect a sali- 
 ent, enfilade a road, etc. The most suitable position 
 for them in a work is on the tlauks. See Direct Em- 
 bnimirf and Oblique Embninu re. 
 
 EMBROCHEE. — A common and vulgar term used 
 among French soldiers to signify the act of running 
 a man through the body; literally, tf> spit him. 
 
 EMERY.— A variety of corundum, or of the same 
 mineral species of which corundum and sapphire 
 
 grces of fineness by the method of elutiiation. A 
 number of copper cylinders of graduated capacities 
 are iilaced in a row, and filled with water; the emerj-, 
 churned up with an abundance of water, is admitted 
 by a pipe into the smallest, it then passes to the ne.\t 
 in size, and finally tiows from the largest; and thus, 
 as a given quantity of water with emeiy su.spended in 
 it pa.sses in equal times through vcs.sels of varying 
 capacities, the amount of agitation will obviously Ix' 
 greatest in Uic smallest vessel, least in the largest, and 
 in like proportion with the intermediate; the largest 
 particles, therefore, sink in the smaller vessel, and so 
 on till only the very finest will reach the largest ves- 
 sel. In this manner an}- number of gradations of fine- 
 ness may be obtained, according to the ninnlK'r anil 
 sizes of the ves.sels. Elutriation in oil or gum-water 
 is sometimes u.sed on a smaller scale, the emery being 
 stirred up in the liquid, and portions poured oiT at 
 different intervals of time, the finest being, of course, 
 the last to settle. The ase of the oil or gum is to 
 make the subsidence take place more slowly. Emery 
 thus prepared is used for a great many important pur- 
 poses in the arts. Being ne.xt in hardness to diamond- 
 dust and crystalline conindum, the lapidarj- uses it 
 for cutting and polishing many kinds of stone. Glass 
 
 |-inch Face. 
 
 {-inch Face. 
 
 1-inch Face. 
 
 l-i>ch Face. 
 
 Faces of Tanite Wlieels. 
 
 '{with oriental ruby, etc.) are also varieties. It agrees 
 with them very perfectly in composition, hardness, 
 and specific gra\-ity ; but "is dull, oi)a(iue, and not crys- 
 tallized, sometimes" of a grayish bhuk and .sometimes 
 of a blue color. It occurs "both massive and ilissemi- 
 nated. Its masses, although very compact, have a 
 somewhat granular structure. It is found in several 
 parts of Europe, in Asia Jlinor, Greenland, etc., 
 generally in masses scattered through aqueous depos- 
 its, but in one locality in Saxony in beds of steatite 
 in a schistose rock. The emery of commerce is 
 chiefly obtained from the Island of Naxos. Being 
 very "hard, it is much used for grinding glass and 
 polishing metals and other hard substances. It is 
 found in lumjis, having a granular structure. It is 
 composed of alumina, oxide of iron, and silica, with 
 a little lime, in proportions varying considerablv with 
 different specimens. The following may be taken as 
 an average: alumina, 82; oxide of iron, 10; silica, 6; 
 lime, 11. 
 
 It is prepared for use by first breaking it into lumps 
 about the size of a hen's" esg, then crushing these to 
 powder by stampers. It is then sifted to various de- 
 grees of fineness, which are numbered according to 
 the meshes of the sieve. Plate-glass manufacturers 
 and others separate emery -powder into different de- 
 
 stoppers of all kinds are ground into their fittinjp 
 with it. Plate-glass is ground flat by its means; it is 
 also used in glass-cutting, and in grinding some kinds 
 of metallic fittings. ^Vhen employed for the polishing 
 of metals it has to be spread on .some kind of surface 
 to fonn a sort of fine file. Emery-paper, emery-civth, 
 emern-KtiekK. emiry-eake, and emery-stone are various 
 contrivances for such purposes. 
 
 Emery-paper is made by sifting emery over paper 
 which has been covered w"ith a coating of glue. It is 
 used either by wrajiping it round a fine file or a stick, 
 or in the hand, according to the form of the work. 
 Emery cloth is made like emerj-paper, with coarse 
 calico" substituted for paper. The emery does not ad- 
 here so well as to paper, and it is therefore not used 
 by metal-workers, who work emery-paper till smooth 
 w"ith wear, but is chiefly used for purposes where the 
 hand alone is used anti paper would tear. Emerj'- 
 sticks are used for the same purpose's as emery-paper 
 I wrapped romid files; they are made of deal sticks 
 shaped like files, then clued over, and dipped once or 
 twice in a heap of emery. Emery -cake is a comiwund 
 of beeswax, suet, and emer)-, melted and well worked 
 tosether. It is applied to buttiug- wheels, etc. Emery- 
 stone is a kind of earthenware mixed with emerj-, 
 fonned by pressing a mixture of clay and eiuerj- into
 
 £HEBYOBIND£B. 
 
 556 
 
 EMERY TE«TING-MACHINE. 
 
 suitable molds, and then flrinsr like common e-arthcn- 
 ware. It is moUKtl into wheels, laps, etc. Its hard 
 ness and cuttiuj; power are very considerable. Sec 
 
 EHERY-GBINDEE.— Au emery-wheel mounted m 
 a stand, to Ik- uxd as a griadsto"ne. It inav be con- 
 sideretlassuch, iiuii-ed. The mineral conuidum with 
 a matrix of gum-resin, slue, vulcanite, etc. The 
 Tanite emerN'-griiidiiisr machinery is stixndard in the 
 I'nitwl States and Canada. The French, Belirian, 
 Kussitui, and Australian Governments have also U'en 
 large consumers, and even in the works of the 
 Chinese atid Japanese Governments Tanite eincrv- 
 ■wheels and srrinilins-machines are largely employed. 
 
 The drawins: shows a single-wheel emery -grinder 
 much usetl in^arsenals. Hitherto, among the great 
 variety of such machines, very few have l)een built 
 to carry exclusively one large wheel. In machines 
 ■which "carry two wheels there is a certain amount of 
 dilliculty iii providing solid and convenient rests at 
 
 of these rests are accurately faced witli a Tanite 
 wheel ruiming on an emery-planer. The back of the 
 machine stands 5 inches higher than the front, and 
 i.n the brace rod, I), which connects the upper back 
 cdrners of the side fmmes, swings the rest, B, de- 
 pending for its rear support on the brace-rod, D, and 
 resting in front by a fiK)t on the rest, C. It bridges 
 over the side Hange of the emen'-wheel, and bein.g a 
 wide, long, substantial rest, allows of work being 
 conveniently helil and ground on the flat side of the 
 emerv-wheel. Owing to the weight of this rest. B, 
 it reinains tirmly in position without lx;ing held by 
 nuts or set-screws, and as it swings loosely on the 
 brace-rod, D, it ain in a moment's time be moved 
 out of the way and be left hanging down at the back 
 of the machine, or lifted up and placed in position. 
 The spindle of the machine is of steel, and is IJ inch 
 in diameter at the eye on the mindrel-hole of the 
 wlieel. The bearings are long, and are lined with 
 Babbitt-metal. By far the larger proportion of Tan- 
 
 Emery-grinier. 
 
 the Rides of the wheel. This is due to the fact that 
 the emer\- - wheels overhang the bearings. The 
 special object in designing the machine here illustra- 
 ted, the manufacturers declare, was to make it 
 equally convenient to us(- the wlieel on the face and 
 on the side. In machines pre\-iously built the side 
 rests were attached to rest-sockets, and several nuts 
 had to be carefully adjusted before the rests could be 
 secured in their proper position. This grinder is de- 
 signed to carrv an emery-wheel of 20 inches diameter, 
 and of any desired thickness from 1 to 4 inches; 
 20 by 2t or 3 inches is the most suitable size. The 
 front of the machine stands at such a height that the 
 rest, C, when laid upon it, brings the metal which is 
 to be workwl exactly at the center of llie emeri|-- 
 wheel, which is the proper point of contact when the 
 face of the wheel is ased as the cutting agent. The 
 rest, C, is of cast-iron, and is 20 inejies long by 8 
 wide. It is shown in the drawing as being faced 
 with a steel plate (saw-steel), which was the original 
 method of making these rests; but more recently all 
 
 ite wheels are square (or plane) faced. As a rule, the- 
 wider- faced ones are used for surface-work, and the 
 narrower for edge work. ATe give a few diagrams, 
 on page 5")5, of shapes most frequently used in the 
 arsenal. Of course wheels of any desired face can 
 be macle any diameter; but wheels so thin as finch 
 face sho\dd not be more than 12 inches in diameter, 
 nor wheels of i-inch face more than 8 inches diam- 
 eter. It is diflieult to get wheels so thin of even tem- 
 per if of a larger diameter; moreover, they are liable 
 to warp, and to he broken by hea\-y side prcssm-e. 
 These shapes are easily obtained by turning square- 
 faced wheels with diainond tools. " See Brass-fitting 
 ifiii'hiiie. Exltnimttr. Griiidinf/ iiutefiiiie, Gi(miner,imd 
 P"ii V Pl(i III r. 
 
 EMEBY TESTING-MACHINE.— This machine, the 
 like of which for capacity, accuracy, dur.d)ility, and 
 general perfection of details is not known, is inpos.ses- 
 sion of the United States Government, and is )ilaced at 
 the Walerlown Arsenal in Mas.sjichuselts. The engrav- 
 ing on t he opposite page shows a perspective view of the.
 
 XMEET TESTINO-MACHIinE. 
 
 557 
 
 EMEET TESTINGMACHINE. 
 
 machine, and will aid iu givinc an exact understand- 
 ing of its construction and tlac manner of operation. 
 The problem before the inventor of lliis famous machine 
 ■was one of no small difficulty. Briefly stated, it was- 
 
 show the strain required to break specimens no 
 stronger than a single horse hiur. 2. That the ma- 
 chine should have the capacity of seizing and gi\-ing 
 the necessary strams to the specimens, from the m^ 
 
 1. To construct a machine with the capacity of tasting 
 specimens for tension or compression up to a break- 
 ingstrain of 800,000 lbs., while at tlie s:inie time the 
 machine should Ix; of such deliaiey us to accurately 
 
 nutest to the greatest, without the construction of a 
 multitude of special appliances to suit the numerous 
 changes of form and size in which materials to be 
 tested :ue presented. 0. That the machine should be
 
 £1I£BT TESTING-MACHINE. 
 
 558 
 
 EMERY TESTING-MACHINE. 
 
 able to give these strains and receive the shocks of 
 Kcoi] produced bv tlie rupture of the specimen 
 without injurv-. I'he dilliculty of this requirement 
 niav Ih? appn-eiiitiil by considering that when a test 
 to the full capacity of the machine is made, the scale, 
 upon the breukinj} of the specimen, receives bv recoil 
 an iii»tiiiitam'<i>ifi liMid </ 800.000 pounds. The ma- 
 chine and scale must be' so constructed as to bear this 
 load placeil upon it instantaneously, and bear it so per- 
 fectly that the next moment it will correctly show a 
 load" of a iwund without any adjustment whatever. 
 4. That the machine should be so constructed that the 
 specimen, while undergouig strain, may be readily 
 accessible for the purpose of observing minutely the 
 
 care being used in general throughout the whole ma- 
 chine. 
 
 In the article AVEiGniNO-M.\cniXE will be noticed 
 the means which Mr. Emer>' employed in indicating 
 loatls or strains of all desi-riptions with an accuracy 
 hitherto unknown. In this article we will see how a 
 system of diaphragms can be applied to the weighing 
 of the work of a testing-machine, and also notice 
 what means the designer lias adopted to obtain a ma- 
 chine entirely free from back-lash when the specimen 
 breaks. The apparatus consists of two parts. The 
 first is the machinery for imtting strain upon the 
 specimen, whether of compression or tension. In its 
 essential features this consists of two screws carrjing 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 changes taking place with the changes of the strains 
 or loads applied to the specimen, .'j. That the ma- 
 chine should be so constructed as to be readily ope 
 rated without exces,sive cost. The machine," after 
 lieing erected, had applied to it a test-load of one 
 million jwunds, which it seeme<l to Ix'ar with the ut- 
 most ease. Before describing the machine, it is well 
 to remark that all the working i>arls in genend were 
 at their working l)earings, titled tog-auges to within less 
 than one tUouwmlth of an inch. For instance, the 
 main screws, which are 48 feet long, were dressed to 
 gauges throughout their whole length, and then the 
 threads on them cut to gimges, the threails in the 
 nuts being carefully gauged to match them, the same 
 
 a straining-beam, to which a hydraulic cylinder is at- 
 tached. This cylinder furnishes the power for com- 
 pression or extension. These screws are attached to 
 a frame in which a pair of lieams are placed to fur- 
 nish the abutments for resisting the power. Whether 
 the strain is tensile or compressive, it results in com- 
 jircssing the licpiid in the hydraulic support between 
 these beams, wliich constitute alternately the platform 
 and bed of tlie scale. Tlie second part of the appa- 
 ratus of the weigliing mechanism comprises a system 
 of levers and a scale-beam with suitable weights, and 
 a pressure-column with its diaphragms, to which 
 the pressure exerted in the testing-machine is trans- 
 ferred by a suitable tube. The liquid in the support
 
 EMEEY TESTING-MACHINE. 
 
 559 
 
 EBEBY TESTING-MACHINE. 
 
 between the beams, being compressed, is forced 
 against the pressure-diaphragm of the pressure-col- 
 umn. The amoimt of force e.xerted here is then 
 weighed, and the indication read from the scale-beam 
 and the pointer which is atached to it. The reader ! 
 should bear in mind carefully the distinction lx,-tween 
 the two pieces of apparatus. One is in and of itself es- 
 sentially for testing. It gives no indications of the 
 amount of strain ajiplied, and is a perfectly indepen- 
 dent and disconnected apparatus. The otlier is an 
 indicating mechanism, and might be adjusted to a 
 platform-scale, a weighing-lock, a traek-scide, or, in 
 fact, to a thou.sand and one other uses if necessary, its 
 office being solely to register or indicate the amoimt of 
 force exerted upon the system of levers which it con- 
 tains. Although resemblmg to a certain extent the ordi- 
 nary scale-beam, it differs not only in the nature of its 
 connections, but also in the method of jiutling on and 
 taking off its weights. This feature alone is entirely i 
 different from anything of which we have any ac- 
 count, antl adds very materially to the ease and speed 
 of weighing. One of the features which, not only in 
 chemical but also in large balances, is inherent in ">[r. 
 Emery's system of weighing, is the fact that the 
 motion of the load is so small, anil the eon.sequent 
 momentum .so insignificant, that the beam or pointer 
 can come to rest quickly without a long series of vi- 
 brations on each side of the zero. 
 
 The construction of the apparatus will be better 
 understood by a reference to Fig. 1, showing the base 
 of the machine and framework, with portions broken ( 
 away to show the more important features. Bearing 
 in mind that whether the strains be those of tension 
 or compression — that is, whether in an upward or 
 do\vnward direction — they must result in compressing 
 the licpiid in the pressure-support, the reader is pre- 
 pared to understand the method of operation. The 
 resistance, or the final abutment, is foimd in the 
 frame, F, which is of cast-iron and very heavy. This 
 frame surrounds the two beams, E E, which consti- 
 tute the bed and platform of the scale, and between 
 which is placed the hydraulic pressure support. When 
 the strain takes an upward direction these pieces are 
 forced against the upper member of the frame. When 
 the pressure is downward they rest on the lower por- 
 tion of this frame. They have between them, in the 
 pressure-support, a pair of diaphragms inclosing a 
 quantity of fluid, which, by means of the slender 
 tube, /, commimicateS with the pressure column ol 
 the weighing apparatus. These pieces, E E, are sur- 
 rounded by a yoke, B D C D, in which they are per- 
 fectly free and with which they have no rigid con- 
 nection. The strain of the loaJ is taken by this out- 
 side yoke entirely, and through it communicated to 
 the abutment pieces, E E. These two pieces, with 
 the diaphragm between them and its inclosing rings, 
 are finished to such a thickness that they just fill the 
 space between the tno members of the frame to 
 within, say, y/„ff inch. This is the maximum amount 
 of motion which is permitted. Having this arrange- 
 ment of yoke and abutment-pieces, it becomes neces- 
 sary to hold it in position and prevent it from any 
 lateral motion, and at the same time allow it perfect 
 freedom in a vertical direction. This is accomplished 
 by a most ingenious modification of the tlexiblc plate 
 or metal fulcrums. For example, the upiier beam, 
 E, is held and supported in position and prevented 
 from side motion by the thin bars, b h. The vertical 
 motion is so small that the elasticity of these spring- 
 bars, h b, allows it to rise and fall with practically no 
 friction. 
 
 Similar flexible bars, c e, support and fix in position 
 the lower scale-beam, E. against horizontal motion 
 and allow freedom of motion vertically. The yoke is 
 in like manner firmly fixed against horizontal motion 
 at its top and bottorn by foui- pairs of spring plates, 
 two of which, a a and a' a', at the top, are attiiched 
 at right angles to each other to the upper beam, A B, 
 of the yoke and to the frame, F, while the other two 
 pairs at the bottom, e e and e e', also at right angles 
 
 to each other, are fixed to the lower beam, C, of the 
 yoke, and to tlie frame, F. They allow perfect freedom 
 m a vertical direction, while compelling the whole 
 movable portion to work in a vertical line. A beam, 
 G, is bolted to the bottom, beam, C, of the yoke, and 
 has its two ends extended between two pairs of initial 
 load springs, marked d d. The yoke, B C D D, and 
 its contained scale-beams, E E, being suspended in 
 the air by the six pairs of fixing-springs, as lx.'forc 
 mentioned, is now carried firmly against the beams, 
 E E, by the fidl pressure of the load-springs, rf d, by 
 means of two pairs of screws not here shown, one 
 pair of screws acting to apply the load of these 
 springs, d d, in an upward direction, and the other 
 in a downward direction. When these springs arc 
 made to bear upward against G, the yoke is resting 
 airainst the lower .scale-beam, E, transmitting the load 
 of the springs, d d, through the pressure-supitort to 
 the upper beam, E, which now becomes the bed of 
 the scale, with its outer ends resting against the 
 frame, F, at the top, while the lower beam, E, aet.s 
 as a free platform, and the scale is then balanced 
 ready for use with strains of tension. If strains of 
 compression or transverse loads are desired, the load- 
 springs, d d, arc made to act downward on the 
 beam, G, the upper lieam, E, now acting as the free 
 platform, and the lower beam, E, as the bed of the 
 scale. The acting area of the diaphragm in this ap- 
 paratus, where a strain of 75 tons is to Ix' exerted, is 
 13.6 inches in diameter. 
 
 The testing-machine is arranged for transverse 
 strains by putting a heavy bar across the top of 
 the table. A, which carries at its two ends suit- 
 able supports with hemispherical bearings on which 
 the specimen rests. The outer ends of these bars 
 are supported by braces, the lower ends of which 
 enter the slot shown near the ba.se of 1) in Fig. 1. 
 Immediately under the ram is shown a gauge for 
 reading the deflection. The cross-head which carries 
 the hydraulic ram is arranged in a very neat but some- 
 what peculiar manner. It is carried by two screws, 
 the nuts of which have, both above and below, a pair 
 of gear-wheels. A pair of intermediate gears tran.smit 
 the motion from one to the other, and the whole is 
 moved up and down by means of a crank at the left 
 hand of the machine. This crank, through a pair of 
 bevel-gears, works the vertical shaft on the left-hand 
 side with its two pinions, thus revolving the nuts. 
 The shaft is provided witli the usual slot and feather. 
 This makes the matter of adjustment for different 
 lengths of specimens comparatively e^i.sy, and, at the 
 same time, simple. The cylinder is a double-acting 
 one, and is connected with the force-pump by means 
 of two telescopic tubes, shown at the right-hand side, 
 and connecting ^vith the cylinder itself by small bent 
 copper pipes. These telescopic tubes are arranged in 
 such a way that no changes in the connections are 
 needed in any part of the stroke. For extension a 
 peculiar form of jaw screws into the bottom of the 
 piston-rod or ram, and also into a hole in the beam A B. 
 The weighing mechanism itself consists of a weight- 
 beam, somewhat similar to that shown in Fig. .5 in 
 the article WEloniNG-M.^CHtNE, with its indicator-rod 
 and a series of susisension-rods for carrying weights. 
 This beam in the scale shown is not connected di- 
 rectly to a pressure-column, but is moved by a large 
 steel beam 2.5 inches deep by 10 inches in width, 
 pivoted with plate fulcrums and moved by a pressure- 
 column. Just above the block is the case containing 
 the small pressure-chamber which is connected with 
 that in the support between the sealelieams. The 
 method by which weights are put on and taken off is 
 in this case so entirely novel and different from any- 
 thing that has been employed in ordinary weighing- 
 machines that we give it in detail. Fig. 2, on a large 
 scale, shows the weights with their. rt^. The rod 
 D carries on its front side a number of lugs, and is 
 supporteil by a plate from the beam, the suspension- 
 spring being shown at the point marked I). The 
 rods A and B also carry on their faces a number of
 
 ZKINENCE. 
 
 560 
 
 £MF£ROB. 
 
 lugs, and arc supporteil by the cross-head, C, attached 
 to one end of a rod which is openited liy a lever be- 
 low; (I. b, c. . . . A- are the weishts. The problem is 
 to successively throw these weiijhts upon the beam. 
 This is luciiniplished by a downward movement of 
 the rods A and B. The "lugs not being evenly spaced, 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 tois downward motion brinjfs the top weight, a, 
 in contact with the uppermost lug on the rod D. If 
 the motion is continued, b is next dropped on the 
 rod, and c follows. In the engraving <i, b, e have al- 
 ready been left by the downward motion of A B on 
 the rod D. The" weight d is bearing not only on 
 the center, but also on the side rods, and any further 
 downward motion of A B would allow it to "rest vipon 
 p. The otlier weights would be in succession depos- 
 ited on the central rod by a conlinuauce of the do«Ti- 
 ward motion. On the front of the beam there are 
 three sets of the.se rods, each one of tliem carrying a 
 carefully adjusted set of weights, 10 in numfer. 
 When all of one set are upon the beam the ne.\t set is 
 added, and so on, grailuallj- increasing tlie weights 
 until tlie limit of capacity is reached. The weisbts 
 are arranged to add tens", hundreds, and thousimcls 
 of pounds to tlie balancing-load. At the outward end 
 of the toim. however, it is desirable to put on still 
 greater weights, and Fig. 3 shows how these large 
 weights are arranged. As in the previous ease, there 
 are 10 of them, but they are carried by two sets of 
 rods fastened to the cro"ss-head, C. The rod D has 
 
 arms projecting from it. One pair of these arms is 
 shown at it.s bottom just below the weights i and k. 
 By the lowering of A B. the weight a is tii-st picked 
 up by the rod 1), then h follows, and so on, until all 
 are carried by U. When the cross-head, C, is raised 
 the weights 'are lifted from U in a reverse order. 
 In the front of the casi' which covers the beam four 
 handles are seen. These handles, by motion up and 
 down, move, by means of levers, the weight-frames, 
 and put on or fake off the weights. At the same 
 time they raise or lower a series of ]iointers, and thus 
 intlicate just how many weights have l)eeu placed on 
 the beam. In starting to weigh, all the handles are 
 moved so as bring the pointers to zero. See Testing- 
 nuifhines and \\'ti!/huif/-muc/iiiie. 
 
 EMINENCE. — A high or rising ground which 
 overlooks and commands the low places about it. 
 Such places within cannon-shot of any fortified place 
 are a great disadvantage if the besiegers become 
 masters of them. 
 
 EMIR. — An Arabic word, equivalent to " Ruler;" it 
 is a title given in the East, and in the North of Africa, 
 to all independent Chieftains, and also to all the actual 
 or supposed descendants of Mohanimed through his 
 daugliier Fatima. The latter :ire very numerous 
 throughout the Turkish dominions; but although en- 
 titled by birth to be classed among the first four 
 orders of society, they enjoy no ])articular privileges 
 or consiileration; on the contrary, they are foimd en- 
 gaged in all sorts of occupations, and are to Ite meli 
 with among beggars, and the lowest of the populace, 
 as frequently as among the Mollahs. Their privileges 
 are contined to a few unimportant matters, chietiy to 
 the exclusive right to wear turbans of a green color, 
 that having been the favorite color of the Proi^het. 
 They are placed under the super\ision of the Emir- 
 Beshir. In former times the title of Emir was Ijorne 
 bj' the leaders in the religious wars of the Moham- 
 medans, as well as Ijy several ruling families, such as 
 the Tbaherides and Samanides in Pei-sia, the Tulu- 
 nides in Egypt, the first seven Onmiaiades in Spain. 
 The title Emir, in connection with other words, like- 
 wise designates (.lifferent offices. Eiiiir-dl-Minnoiin, 
 " Prince of the Faithful," is the title as.sumed by the 
 Caliphs themselves; Eiinr-iil-Mnalemiii, signifying the 
 same thing, was the title of the Almoravides. Emir- 
 ol-Omrah, "Prince of Princes," was the title of the 
 lirst Minister, under the Caliphs and the East Indian 
 Moguls, who united in his own ijerson the highest 
 civil and military dignities. It is now the title of 
 the Governors of ditlerent Provinces. The Turkish 
 Master of the Horse is styled Einir-Achur; the Stand- 
 ard-bearer, Emir-Alem; and the leader of the cara- 
 vans of pilgrims to Mecca, Emir-Hiulji. Ameer or 
 Aim !■<• is another spelling of the same word. 
 
 EMISSARY. — A spy, a scout. In a military sense, 
 one who during war-time personates the dress, lan- 
 guage, and character of the power or nation he is sent 
 amongst for the purpose of obtaining information, or 
 for the purpose of creating disaffection in the ranks 
 of the enemy. 
 
 EMOLUMENT.— The profit arising from otlice or 
 employ nieiil; that which is received as a compensa- 
 tion for ser\ices, or which is annexed to the pos.sessiou 
 of otlice, as salary, fees, and pen|Viisitcs. See Puf/. 
 
 EMOUSSER.— To blunt, to dull. In a military 
 sense, the word signifies, to take off the four eimiers 
 of a battalion which has formed a square, and to 
 give it, by tliose ineans, an octagonal figure; from 
 the different obtuse angles of which it may fire in all 
 direclions. 
 
 EMPEROR.— The original signification of this, 
 which in the modern world has" become the highest 
 title of sovereignty, can be understood only when if 
 is taken in conjinietion with imjuriiiiii, which in the 
 Roman pfililical system had a peculiar and somewhat 
 technical meaning. The impirium of a Magistrate, 
 be he King or Consul, was the power which be pos- 
 sessed of bringing i)liysical force into o]ieration for 
 the fulfillment of his "behests. This power was con-
 
 EMFILEHENT. 
 
 561 
 
 ENCEINTE. 
 
 ferreil by a Lej- Ctirialft, and it rcfuiirod tlii." authori- 
 zation to entitle a Consul to aet as the Commander of 
 an Army. In the case of the Kin"-K also, the impe- 
 rium was not implied in their election, but was con- 
 ferred separately, by a separate act of the national 
 will. " C)u the death of King Pompilius," savs 
 Cicero, "the jyipulun in the eomitui cnrkihi elected 
 TuUus Ilostilius Kinir, upon the rogation of an inter- 
 rei; and the King, following the example of Pom- 
 piliu.s, took the votes of the pojmUiH, according to 
 their euruf, on tli£ quftthn of hin impcrium." Now, 
 it was in \irtue of this imperium that the title Imper- 
 ator was ^iven to its possessor. Far front being i\n 
 Emperor in the modern sense, he might be a Consul 
 or a Proconsul; and there were, in fact, many Im- 
 perators, even after the title had been assumed as a 
 prenomen by Julius Ca?sar. It was this assumption 
 which gradually gave to the title its modern signili- 
 cation. In republican times it had followed the 
 mime, and indicated simply that its possessor was an 
 Imperator, or one possessed of the imperium; now it 
 preceded it, and signified that he who arrogated it to 
 himself was the Emperor. In this form it appears on 
 the coins of the successors of Jvdius. After the times 
 of the Antonines the title ^ew into iLse as expressing 
 the possessor of the .sovereignty of the Roman world, 
 in which sense Princeps also was frequently em- 
 ployed. In the introduction to the IiiKtitittes, Ju-stin- 
 ian uses both, in speaking of himself, in the same 
 paragraph. From the Emperors of the West the 
 title pa.s.sed to Charlemagne, the founder of the Ger- 
 man Empire. When the Carloviugian family ex])ired 
 in the German branch, the Imperial crown became 
 elective, and continued to be so till it ceaseil — Francis 
 II., who in 1804 had declared himself hereditary Em- 
 peror of Austria, having laid it down in 1806. In 
 addition to the Emperor of Austria, there are now in 
 Europe the Emperor of Russia and Emperor of Ger- 
 many, the latter of whom was, on Januarj' 18, 1871, 
 proclaimed under this title within the Hall of Mirrors, 
 in the Palace of the French Kings al Versailles, in the 
 presence of the German Princes, and the standards of 
 the German army which was beleaguering Paris. In 
 1876 the Queen of England assumed the title of Em- 
 press of India, in addition to those which she bore 
 previouslv. 
 
 EMPILEMENT.— The act of disposing shot and 
 shell in the most secure and convenient manner. 
 This is always done in arsenals and citadels. 
 
 EMPKISE. — A hazardous attempt upon the enemy. 
 See Ell fans Pirdim and Forlorn Hiype. 
 
 EMPTY BASTION.— When the rampart, following 
 the outline of the crest of the bastion, has in its center 
 an interior space on the level of the ground, the bas- 
 tion is called I'nijily or holtoie. 
 
 encampment'.— A lodgment or home for soldiers 
 in the field. There are intrenched camps, where an 
 army is intended to be kept some time, protected 
 agiiinst the enemy; flying camps, for brief occupa- 
 tion; camps of ;)««Ywre, bearing relation to the strat- 
 egy of the Commander; and camps of inKtruction, to 
 habituate the troops to the duties and fatigues of war. 
 Under Camp has been given an account of the man- 
 ner in which Roman camps were constructed. It is 
 probable that the .same general plan was adhered to 
 until the invention of gunpowder. When cannon 
 came to be used, however, a new arrangement of 
 camp became necessary, to shield the army from 
 long-range projectiles. Everything, in(lee<l, relating 
 to attack and defense, especially to the latter, is taken 
 into account in chosing the locality of a camp. A 
 healthy site, good water, security from floods, and 
 plenty of fuel and forage, are the chief reipiisites in a 
 good encampment. The British army, whin in the 
 field, usually encamps by brig-ades or divisions, roads 
 and paths being arranged before the troops arrive. 
 The infantry, cavalry, and artillery are .so placed as 
 to defend each other in the event of a sudden attack. 
 There is a chain of guards all round the spot; and the 
 park of artillery is placed behind the troops. The 
 
 sutlers and .servants are in the rear of the camp, but 
 not beyond the limits of the rearguard. The tents of 
 the infant rj- are ranged in rmvs per])endicular tc the 
 front, each row containing the tents for one company. 
 The circular tents, now much used, accommodate 
 fifteen men each. The cavalry are in like manner en- 
 camped in rows; but each circular tent accommodates 
 only twelve men. There are streets or roads b<'tween 
 the rows of tents, of regulated width; and the oflicers' 
 tents are at a given distance behind thos<.' of the men: 
 the .subalterns' tents being nearest to those of the com- 
 panies to which they respectively belong. As a gen- 
 eral rule, the line of the whole encampment is made 
 to correspond as nearly as practicable with that in 
 which the troops are intended to engage the enemy 
 when fighting is renewed; to which end the tents of 
 each battalion are not allowed to occupv a greater 
 .space in front than the battalion itself would cover 
 when in order of battle. Under most circumslances, 
 in modern warfare, an encampment is not defended 
 by artificial constructions; the Commander seeks se- 
 curity for his troops in streams, marshes, ditlicult 
 surface of country, and numerous advanced posts. 
 Sometimes, however, more extensive defense-works 
 are necessjiry; and then we have an example of an 
 intrcnr/ied camp, which becomes a fortified inclosure. 
 The chief iLses of such a cam]) are, to secure an army 
 while covering a siege, or, in winter (luarters, to ac- 
 commodate a Corps of Observation while the active 
 army is engaged elsewhere; or to defend a position 
 near a fortified place. Care is taken that the site is 
 not commanded by neighboring hills. All villages 
 are occupied, and all obstacles removed, within a dis- 
 tance of half a mile or a mile. The area of ground 
 selected is large enough to contain the necessary store 
 of anils, ammunition, food, fuel, forage, and water, 
 and to enable the troops to maneuver. The junction 
 of two rivers is often selected as a favoralile spot. 
 Various defense-works are constructed around or near 
 the spot, such as contmuous earthworks, redoubts, 
 fieches, etc. The position held liy the Allies outside 
 Sebaslopol, during the long intervals when the can- 
 nonading was suspended, had manj- of the character- 
 istics of an intrenched camp. Cafnps of iiiKtrucliun 
 may be cither temporarj- or permanent. i)i the for- 
 mer kind was the camp formed at Chobham in Surrey 
 in 1853, merely for the .summer months, to exercise cer- 
 tain regiments in evolutions. Another was formed at 
 ShornclitTe in Kent in IS').^, at fii-st to receive troops 
 of the Foreign Legion; but it has since been improved 
 to the condition of a peniianent camp. The great 
 establishment at Aldcrshott has been, by an ungrudg- 
 ing outlay of public funds, improved m all particu- 
 lars, and the .small agiicultural village of Aldershott 
 has grown Into an important commercial town, with 
 railway-stations, hotels, market-houses, handsome 
 shops, etc. A large permanent camp has also been 
 established in Ireland, on a plain called the Curiagh 
 of Kildare, and there is a smaller one at Colchester. 
 See C'dnip, Castmmelation, and yieMtterrire. 
 
 ENCEINTE. — The best mode of arranging the ele- 
 ments of a defense requires that the work should be 
 so planneil that every point exterior to the defenses 
 within cannon-range should be thoroughly swept by 
 their tire. Owing to the form and ht'ight of the par- 
 apet, its fire can take elTect only at .some distance be- 
 yond it. The enemy having reached the ditch will 
 iiot be exposed to fire unless some arrangement has 
 lieeii made to sweep the ditch. Any place where he 
 can find shelter, where the missiles of the defense 
 pa.ss so high above him as to inflict no injury, is called 
 a dead-angle or dead-itptiee. To remove this defect, 
 the main work may be so arranged as to sweep by its 
 fire every point exterior to it, or auxiliar\- works 
 tcrined caponieres, scaqi and counterscarp galleries, 
 etc., may be used. In the former case parts of the 
 work must be thrown forward towards the enemy 
 ami other portions retired. Thc.«e advanced parts are 
 called /(«•«'.«; the retired pints, flankn; and the parts 
 connecting the flanks, curtains. The outline of such
 
 £NCOHBK£R. 
 
 562 
 
 ENDURANCE OF GUNS. 
 
 a plan must be anjrular. The angular points towards 
 the enemy are called »alientii. The anirle formed by 
 two retin/d parts, a n-enterinii angle. The line bisect- 
 ing a salient angle is called the eapital. In firing 
 over a parapet, a soldier usually aims directly to the 
 front, s<.> that the line of fire and the parapet make 
 nearly a riirht ang'e with each other. There is then 
 an angular space in front of the salient (equal to the 
 supplement of the salient angle) which receives no 
 protection by direct fire from it. This space is 
 termed a mefor irithoiit fire. The continuous line of 
 fortification inclosing a lX)sition is calleil the enceinte, 
 the body of the phice or the main inclosiire. The 
 generalOutline of the enceinte may be nirviUnear, or 
 a polygoiiiil figure of any character. Whatever sys- 
 tem may be" adojited for the enceinte, tliere are some 
 conditions which it must satisfy to render it effective: 
 1. It .should have a steep revetted scarp; unbroken on 
 all sides except for the necessary openings for com- 
 munications; thoroughly flanked throughout by can- 
 non and small-arms; and of sufficient height to pre- 
 vent all ordinary attempts at escalade. 2. The scarp 
 should be .so covered by earthen or other masks that 
 it cannot be reached by the projectiles of an assailant 
 from any position exterior to these masks. 3. The 
 parapet and interior covered shelters should be proof 
 against solid and hollow loaded projectiles. 4. The 
 parapet should command all the site and outworks 
 exterior to the enceinte and within range of its guns, 
 and sweep them with fiank and cro.ss fires. .5. As 
 far as practicable, the principal lines of the parapet 
 should receive such directions that the assailant can- 
 not take up positions to enfilade them. If the posi- 
 tion thus inclosed be an inhabited one, as a city, 
 town, etc., or an important point that requires the 
 presence of other persons than those necessary for its 
 defense, it receives the name of fiirlnxn. or fortified 
 plate. If it is destined to receive no other inhabitants 
 but the troops for its defense, it is called a fort; and 
 the defenders are termed the garrison. 
 
 ENCOMBRER.— In fortification, to fill up any hol- 
 low place, such as a stagnant lake, etc., with rubbish. 
 
 ENCOUNTER.— Literally, a combat or fight between 
 two persons. It is not unfrc(iuerilly used to describe 
 a Ijattlc or attack by large or small bodies of troops. 
 
 ENDORSE. — In Ileraldry, an ordinary containing 
 the fourth part of a pale. Endorsed, again, or in- 
 domed, signifies that objects are placed on the shield 
 back to back. See Ileraldry. 
 
 ENDURANCE OF GUNS. — The principal injuries 
 caused by ser\ice arc Internal, arising from the sepa- 
 rate action of the powder and the projectile. They 
 increase in extent with the caliber, whatever may be 
 the nature of the gun, but are modified by the mate- 
 rial of which it is made. The injuries from the pow- 
 der generally occur in rear of the projectile. They 
 are : 1st. Enlargement of that portion of the bore 
 ■which contains the powder, arising from the com- 
 pression of the metal. This injury is more marked 
 when a sabot or wad is ])lacefl between tlic powder 
 and the projectile, and is greatest in a vertical! direc- 
 tion. 2d. Cavities produced by the melting away of 
 a portion of the metal by the heat of combustion of 
 the charge. 3d. Cracks arising from the tearing 
 a-sunder of the particles of the metal at the surface of 
 the bore. At first a crack of this kind is .scarcely 
 perceptible, hut it is increased tiy continued firing 
 until it extends completely through the side of the 
 piece. It generally commences at the junction of the 
 cliamber with the bore, as this portion is less sup- 
 p<jrted than the others. 4th, Furrows or scoring pro- 
 duced by the erosive action of the inflamed gases. 
 This injury is most apparent where tbe current of the 
 gas is most rapid, or at the interior orifice of the vent, 
 and on the surface of the bore, immeiliately ovi'r the 
 seat of the projectile. Scoring commences very early 
 in large gims ; at first it is only a mere roughness, 
 which gradvially increa.ses in depth and forms lines 
 along the Iwre ; but it is not until a gun has been 
 fired very considerably that it becomes of importance. 
 
 The impressions of deep scoring resemble the bark 
 of an old elm-tree, the metal bemg eaten away into 
 irregular furrows and ridges. ETven when it haa 
 reached this extreme case, however, scoring has not 
 caused the destruction of the gun, though in some 
 instances, acting like a wedge, it has split the bore at 
 that part. Some experimental guns, excessively 
 scored on the upper side of the bore, have been turned 
 over, vented and sighted on the under side, but this 
 has not been found necessary until the gun has Ix-en 
 used more than is probable" under ordinary circum- 
 stances. 
 
 The injuries arising from the action of the projec- 
 tile occur around the projectile and in front of it. 
 They are : 1st. Indentation in the lower side of the 
 Dore, produced by the pressure on the projectile by 
 the escape of gas through the windage, before the 
 ball has moved from its seal. The elasticity of the 
 metal, and the burr, or crowding up of the metal in 
 front of the projectile, cause it to relxiund, and, being 
 carried forward by the force of the charge, to strike 
 against the upper side of the bore, a short distance 
 in front of the trunnions. From this it is reflected 
 against the bottom, and again reflected against the 
 top of the bore, and so on imtil it leaves the piece. 
 The first is called "indentation," and the others are 
 called " enlargements." In pieces of ordinary length 
 there are generally three enlargements wlien this 
 injury first makes its appearance, but their number is 
 increased as the "indentation" is depressed and the 
 angle of incidence incresised. The effect of this 
 bounding motion is alternately to raise and depress 
 the piece in its trunnion holes, and to diminish the 
 accuracj- of fire, until finallj' the piece becomes unfit 
 for serWce. It is principally from this injury that 
 bronze guns become unserviceable. Mortars and 
 howitzers are not much affected by it. The princi 
 pal means used to prevent this injury are to wrap the 
 projectile with cloth or paper, and to shift the seat of 
 the projectile. The latter may be done by a wad or 
 lengthened sabot, or liy reducing the diameter and in 
 creasing the length of the cartridge. The last of 
 these methods is considered the more practical as well 
 as the more effective ; and it has the additional ad- 
 vantage of decreasing the strain on the bore, by in- 
 creasing the space in which the charge expands before 
 the ball is moved. 2d. Scratches or furrows made 
 upon the surface of the bore b}' rough projectiles, or 
 by case-shot. 3d. Cuts made by the fragments of 
 projectiles which break in the bore. 4tb. Wearing 
 away of the lands of rifled cannon, especially at the 
 dri\ing-edges. A little rubbing of the side of the 
 grooves from the friction of hard bearings is of little 
 importance. 5th. Enlargement of the muzzle, aris- 
 ing from the forcing outward of the metal by the 
 striking of the projectile against the side of the bore 
 as it leaves the piece. By this action the shape of 
 the muzzle is elongated in a vertical direction. 6th. 
 Cracks on the exterior. These are formed by the 
 compression of the metal within, generally at the 
 chase, where the metal is thinnest. This portion of a 
 bronze gun is the first to give way by long firing, 
 whereas cast-iron guns usually burst in rear of the 
 trunnions, and the fracture passes through the vent, 
 if it l)e nuich enlarged. 
 
 The endurance of a .smooth-bore gun with ser^nce- 
 charges may be surely predicted by observation of 
 the progressive wear of the interior orifice of the vent. 
 There are certain general forms in which this enlarge- 
 ment takes place. They may be classed as triangular, 
 lozenge, (piadrilateral, star, circular, and elliptic. 
 With the lateral vent of the Dahlgren system it usu- 
 ally takes the lozenge form, the cracks extending 
 from the opposite angles lengthwise of the tiore. 
 With those rifled cannon in which the vent is bouched, 
 the cracks appear around thcbouching, and although 
 the bouching pre-icrves the vent, yet tlie fonnation of 
 fissures around the enlarged orifice, when once com- 
 menced, causes a greater tendency to rupture. With 
 the vent not bouched, the wear in rifled cannon is
 
 ENEMY. 
 
 563 
 
 ENFANS FEBDUS. 
 
 about double that of the smooth-bore. So long as the 
 wear of the vent is regular and without cracks, a 
 mere enlargement is not indicative of danger; but 
 when it reaches a diameter of four tenths of an inch, 
 the vent should be closed and a new one opened. A. 
 gun of large caliber should not in service be expected 
 to stand more than 4()0 or .lOO rounds before it will 
 Ije necessary to open the new vent, which, however, 
 will be of no advantage miless the old one Ix? closed 
 at its interior orifice, on which the gases otherwise 
 would continue to act as a wedge. Tlie first distinct 
 appearance of the cnicks, as shown by the button, is 
 the proper limit. After the gmi bursts, a sketch or 
 draught is made showing the lines of fracture, and 
 specimens are reserved for trial of density and tensile 
 strength; and, if practicable, a photograph is taken. 
 See Cannon and Ordnance. 
 
 ENEMY. — An enemy, according to the ci\-il law, is 
 one who has publicly declared war against us, or we 
 against him; all others are thieves or robbers. Iluates 
 hi sunt qui nobis, ant qiiibus nos, publii-v bellitm de- 
 creHnint ; f/ptfri Intronen ant pripdonoi sunt. Thus, 
 in order to constitute an enemy, there must 1h' a pub- 
 lic declaration of war. This declaration must also be 
 made by a dvdy organized Stjite or Kingdom, for a 
 declaration of war by an}' turbulent IxKly of men is 
 not sufficient; and a hostile act committed by private 
 citizens will not justify a war, unless that act be 
 sanctioned by the Government. The purpose for 
 which this public declaration is required is stated bj' 
 Grotius to be that it may Ix' clearly known that the 
 war is undertaken not as a venture, but by the will 
 of the two people. Hostilities having been fomiallj' 
 declared, every subject of the hostile nations becomes 
 an enemy of the opposing State, as do likewise those 
 independent nations which attach themselves to the 
 interests of either party. According to ancient usage, 
 the utmost violence and cruelty was lawful towards 
 those who were enemies of the State; but by the 
 humane principles which prevail in modern times, 
 warfare is to be carried on subject to certjjin gcnend 
 rules, which are intended as much as may be to 
 les.sen the calamities of war, and to protect the rights 
 of individuals. Thus, an army invading an enemy's 
 country is bound to suffer, as far as possible, the 
 peaceable inhaljitants to remain unmolested. Unnec- 
 essiiry devastation of the country and the seizure of 
 property are also contrary to the laws of civilized 
 war; and Grotius lays it down that the use of poi 
 soned weapons, and of assas-sination, and violence to 
 women, are to be reprobated. On the other hand. 
 indi\iduals taking up arms, without the siinclion of 
 the State, in order to aiuioy an invading enemy, are 
 regarded a-s lawless marauders. The result of this 
 distinction is that such persons are not treated as 
 prisoners of war, btit are subject to be summarily 
 dealt with by the Commander of the Invading Anny. 
 It appears to be a recognized principle of international 
 law that the property of an alien enemy residing in 
 either of the hostile States may be eonfiscaiert. The 
 Americans, during the war with England, a.sserted 
 this right in regard to British property found in their 
 territory. But the u.sage of ci\-ilized nations for a 
 long period has much modified the stern rule of law. 
 It is provided by Magna Cbarta, Cap. 30, that if mer- 
 chants " be of a land making war with us, and be 
 found in our realm at the Ix-ginningof the wars, they 
 shall be attached without any harm of body or goods, 
 until it be known to us, or our Chief -Justice, how our 
 merchants be inlrcated there in the land making war 
 agiiinst us; and if our merchants be well intreated 
 there, theirs shall be likewise with us. " Mcrchantsof a 
 Foreign State at war with England were allowed forty 
 days, after proclamation of hostilities, wherein to re- 
 move from the Kingdom themselves and their goods; 
 and if that space of time were not stitficient, Jorty 
 days more were to be conceded to them. Vattel 
 denies that the right to confiscate the goo<ls of an 
 alien enemy is a right inherent in a State by the law 
 of nations, insisting that a Sovereign having permit- 
 
 ted foreigners to enter the State, and to continue 
 there, had tacitly promised them full liberty and 
 security for their return. Whatever Ix; the principle, 
 there is no doubt that the almost universjil practice of 
 moilern nations has been to respect the projierty of 
 individuals at the outbreak of hostilities. Provisions 
 are frequently inserted into commercial treaties 
 stipulating that, in ease of war, the subjects of the 
 enemy shall have time to depart, and even that they 
 should be allowed to remain and carrj' on a peaceable 
 trade. The right to confiscate the debts of the sul)- 
 jects of a hostde nation appears to rest on the same 
 basis as that of the confisc-alion of other property. 
 Trade between the subjects of two hostile powers is 
 absolutely suspended during Iiostilities, unless per- 
 mitted by express .sanction; and the importation of 
 articles particularly useful in war is contraband. All 
 such articles, whether supplied by the subjects of the 
 enenw or of another State, are seized and confiscated. 
 See Contraband of War, Prisoners of War, and Prize. 
 ENEBGY. — When a projectile is in motion it is 
 Siiid to have energy, i.e., it is capidjle of doing work 
 or overcoming resistance. The amount of energ)' is 
 measured bj- the product of Vie ireiyht of the projtctiU 
 into the height due to rf* velocity, and is expressed in 
 the same units as those of work done. Thus, if W 
 be the weight of the projectile in pounds, A the height 
 it would acquire in vacuo to attain a velocity t in 
 feet per second, then the energy of the projectile is 
 
 irA = /- — foot-pounds, where h = — If V be the 
 
 I muzzle-velocity of the projectile, its energy at the 
 
 WV^ 
 muzzle of the gun is ; and since the energy of 
 
 2i7 
 
 the projectile is equivalent to the work done on it, 
 
 WV- 
 E = , where E represents the energy at the muz- 
 
 3.7 
 zle. It will therefore be seen that the energy of the 
 projectile at the muzzle is equal to the work done by 
 the pressure of the powder-gas in the bore of the gim. 
 See Work: In order to estimate the comparative 
 power of guns for piercing iron plates, it is usual to 
 express the energy of a projectile in terms of the 
 number of inches in its circumference. Thus, en- 
 
 ergj- per inch of circumference = -- 
 
 foot- 
 
 4480.7 X nd 
 
 tons, where d is the diameter of the projectile in 
 inches. Also, onergv per inch of circumference at 
 c' W'V^ 
 
 muzzle = — = ; thus, muzzle-energy per 
 
 Tid 4480^ X T 
 inch of circumference of 10-inch Palli.ser shell 
 
 5160 
 
 = 165.6 foot-tons. 
 
 3.1416 X 9.92 
 In addition to this energy (due to the velocity of 
 translation), there is energy due to the velocity of ro- 
 tjition. This, however, being small as compared to 
 that due to translation, is usually neglected. See 
 ProjecliliK. 
 
 ENEBGY OF BECOIL. — An expression for the work 
 done in the recoil of a gun when fired. It may be 
 reduced by decreasing the weight of the projectile, 
 by decrea.sing the muzzle-velocity, or by increasing 
 tiie weight of the gim and carriage. 
 
 ENEBGY OF BOTATION.— The power of a rotat- 
 ing body to preserve its axis in the original direction 
 
 depends upon its energy of rotation, or —\ -' , where 
 
 TTis the weight, k is the radius of gj-ration, and a is 
 the angular velocity. We thus see that a shell pos- 
 sesses ihore " energy" than a shot of the .sjime weight 
 rotating at the same speed,— since its nidius of gj-ra- 
 tion is srreater. 
 
 It will be found that the initial velocity of rotation 
 depends directlv on the imizzle-velocity of translation; 
 but the two do "not decrea.sc together in flight, the ro- 
 tation Ix-inL' verj' slightly decreas«>d even at long range, 
 as has been found bv noting scorings on graze.. 
 
 ENFANS PEEDUS. — Forlorn hope; in military his-
 
 £NFI£LI) B£££CH LOADING K£VOLT£B. 
 
 564 
 
 ENFILADING BATTEBT. 
 
 tory, the soldiers detache<l from several regiments, or 
 Dtlierwise iippoinlrd, lo j;ivc the lirst onset in battle, 
 or in un attack viiKin the counliTsearp, or tlie lireaih 
 of a place besif);e<l: so called (liv the French) because 
 of (he imminent dancer lo whicli thev an' exposi'd. 
 
 ENFIELD BREECH-LOADING KEVOLVER— This 
 revolver ditVei-s from the pattc riis usually met with 
 in having a reboundiiiir lock, and in lis method of 
 extniclnii: the empty eartridirecases. Tlie principal 
 parts are tlic barrel, tlie cylinder, and the body. The 
 barrel is 5j inches in lenfrlh, and the diameter of bore 
 and the form anil twist of the ritiing are the same as 
 in the ritlc. The barrel Is attached to the body by 
 means of a screw pa.ssing through a knuckle-joint in 
 an arm which projects l)elow the breech-end. It is 
 held in the tiring jiosition by a spring-catch in front 
 of the hammer. The " axis pin" of the cylinder is 
 screwed into the body, its point resting in a recess in 
 the joint-arm of the barrel. A iirojcetion or boss on 
 the cylinder eng-ages in the same recess. By this ar- 
 rangement, when the catch holding the top bar is 
 relea-sed and the barrel depressed, the cylinder is 
 drawn along its axis, and thi^ bases of the cartridges 
 in the chambers Ix'ing held by a radial extractor, 
 which is free to move only a short distance along the 
 "axis-pin," the cartridge cases arc drawn from the 
 chambers to such a distance that those which are 
 empty are free to fall away, while filled cartridges 
 are held by the bullets remaining in the chambers. 
 The cylinder contains six chambers, and the pistol is 
 loaded in the ordinary way. The lock consists of 
 seven components, viz. : hammer, axis-screw, trig.ger, 
 trigger axis-screw, pawl, lever, and main-spring. 
 The main-spring governs the movement of each 
 comi>onent. The act of pulling the trigger cocks the 
 pistol and tires it, and upon the release of the trigger 
 the hammer relx)unds to half-cock. The stock is"^of 
 walnut, and the remaining part.s are of steel. The 
 system of manufacture is similar to that of the rifle. 
 ■\Veiu'hl of pistol. 2 lbs. Si oz. See lityiil Siiiall-arms. 
 
 ENFIELD RIFLE.— This arm Wits "at one time in 
 use in the British army. It takes its name from the 
 small-arm factory at Enfield, a Government establish- 
 ment for the manufacture and supply of small-arms 
 of every description lo the amiy. It was originally a 
 muzzle-loading arm, but was subsequently converted 
 into a bree<-h-loader; it is now known as "the Snidcr- 
 Enfield. There are two patterns, that of 18,")3 having 
 3 grooves, and that of 1800, 5 grooves. The length 
 of the barrel of tlie iiattcrn musket of 18o;i is h-i inches 
 without the bayonet; having one spiral turn in 78 ! 
 inches. Weight with bayonet, 9 lbs. la oz. The ' 
 short rifle-musket pattern (1860) is 48} inches in length 
 without the bayonet, having one spiral turn in 78 
 inches. Weight with liayonef, 10 lbs. 4* oz. Some 
 of the native regiments iii India are ainied with the 
 Enfield rifle, and some with the Snider-Enfleld. ' 
 
 ENFIELD SIGHT.— With the exception of the Prus- 
 sian infantry .sight, the rear sights of nearly all the 
 modern European small-arms are similar in construc- 
 tion to that of the English Enfleld rifle-musket. The 
 only e.xceiitioii seems to 1k' the Swiss sight, which 
 operates on th(^ general principle of the gunner's 
 quadnint. The common features of the Enlield cla.ss 
 of rear sight.sare t4ie long base, which is attached in 
 various ways to thi; barrel, the leaf with its .slides, 
 and the strong flat spring attached to the base to keep 
 the leaf in ]K)sitioii, either standing up or lying down. 
 
 A iieculiar feature of this cla.ss of sights" is that the 
 elevations corresponding to the shorter ranges are ob- 
 tained by resting the leaf in certain ofl'.sefs made in 
 the projecting sides of the liase. Great attention hius 
 bc-en paiil in England toward improving the sight of ! 
 the Martini Henry rifle. The sightnojch for short ' 
 distances is made very open. The slide for long dis- 
 tances has a very faint notch in the middle, and two 
 white lines, one on each siile of the centra] notcli, and 
 alMjuf a tenth of an inch from it. The object of these 
 lines is to assist the marksman in making allowance { 
 for drift and wind. Sec Brovn Sight. 
 
 The following table gives the length of the stock 
 and iM)sition of the rear sight for the princii)al Euro- 
 pean guns. These dimensions are considered to have 
 an important elfect on the recoil of the gun and the 
 accuracy with which it can be aimed: 
 
 Name op Ocn. 
 
 Martini-Henry (British). 
 
 ciiassepot I l-'renohl 
 
 Werder t Bavarian) 
 
 Mauser (l*rus.sian) 
 
 Vetterlin (Swiss* 
 
 Russian ( Berdan) 
 
 Werndl (Austrian) 
 
 Cuuil)iain (Bt'ti^ian) 
 
 Distance from Distance from 
 centerof t>utt-| center of butt- 
 plate to trig-' plate to line of 
 Ker. 1 rear sight. 
 
 Inches. 
 14 and 14>^ 
 
 13 
 14 
 13 
 13^ 
 
 Inches. 
 21 
 
 ENFILADE. — A military term applied to a fire of 
 miLsketry or artillery made in the direction of the 
 length of a line of troops or a line of rampart. A be- 
 sieging battery so placed as to send its shot along any 
 part of the line of a fortiflcation, and inside the para- 
 pet, does great execution in dismounting the guns, 
 which thus present the largest surface to the balls. 
 Hence the lines of ramparts shoidtl be planned that 
 their jirolongations may fall in situations inaccessible 
 I to the enemy. Where this is not pos.sible, the lines 
 are either broken, or are protected by lionnets, or by 
 traverses or blindages. In the siege of a fortress the 
 trenches of apjiroach are cut in a zigzag to prevent 
 the defenders eiifllading them from the walls. 
 I ENFILADING BATTERY.— Enfllading and counter 
 ( batteries are used for destroying the artillery and tra- 
 verses, and silencing the fire of the defenses. Posi- 
 tions are chosi-n for the enfi lading-batteries from 
 which the terrc-pleins of the faces, and other lines 
 that bear upon the ground on which the parallels and 
 approaches are lai<l out, can be swept throughout; 
 the counter batteries are so placed that they can bring 
 a direct or a slant fire against the embrasures of the 
 points to be silenced. The shot from the former is 
 thrown with small charges, under small angles of 
 elevation, .so as to ricochet along the ferre-pleins, tak- 
 ing the guns of the defenses in flank; the latter fire 
 with full charges directly against the point to be at- 
 tained. As the eflccfs of Ixjth ilirect and enfilading 
 fire vary greatly with the range, positiotis should be 
 cho.sen for these batteries as near the defenses as they 
 can be thrown up without too great a sacrifice of 
 life. Positions which will give ranges between 300 
 and 700 yards are the best forsmoothboregims; near- 
 er than 300 yards the workmen would be exposed both 
 to the fire of musketry antl case-shot; beyond 700 
 yards the fire upon the defenses becomes very uncer- 
 tain. 
 
 The greater range of rifled gims gives to the besieg- 
 ers a greatly enlarged zone in the choii'C of positions 
 for enfilading and counter batteries over that for the 
 ordinary siege-traiu of smooth-bore guns. This greater 
 range and the greater certainty of the tire of rifled 
 guns arc more favorable to counter-batteries than to 
 those intended for enfilading; as the great angles of 
 elevation under which the guns are tired, to attain the 
 desired ranges, give to the projectile, in the descend- 
 ing blanch of its trajectory, a great plunge, which, 
 although more favorable to attaining objects covered 
 by traverses than if the plunge were smaller, is less 
 favorable to the ricochet of the projectile from which 
 the chief advantage of enfilading with round shot is 
 derived. Besides this, the elongated projectiles used 
 in rifled gtiiis from the form given to their point are 
 readily deflected from their course by vitv slight ob- 
 stacles, as a fascine even, whi;-h also adds to the un- 
 certainty of their elTecls. At the siege of Fort Wag- 
 ner if was observed that the lieavy projectiles of the 
 smooth-bore navy guns were landed with more accu- 
 racy within the enemy's works, and were more de- 
 stnictive in their ricochet, than the projectiles from the 
 armv rifled guns.
 
 ENGAGE. 
 
 )65 
 
 ENOINEEBING. 
 
 The judgment and experience of the officer must 
 in these cases be left full play in the selection of the 
 position of the batteries of these two classes of jjuns 
 and in their armament ; bearing always in mind two 
 verj' important considerations: tirst.that with long 
 ranges and high angles of elevation the projectiles will 
 clear all the trenches in front up to a near approach 
 of the besieged work without danger to them, excspt 
 from unforeseen accidents; and second, that to secure 
 any decided or certain effect from either class of these 
 batteries there must be nothing to obstruct the view 
 of the object to be attained. The batteries may Ik- 
 placed either within the parallels, in advance of, or in 
 rear of them. The positions usually selected are 
 from 20 to 30 yards in front of the i)arallels; because, 
 if placed within them, there might be mutual inter- 
 ference between the service of the batteries and that 
 of the parallels, which is often a ver^- serious cause of 
 delay to both the service of the batteries and the pass 
 age of troops ; and, unless placed some distance in 
 the rear of it, the parapet of the parallel might ob- 
 struct the shot of the battery, and the troops in the 
 trench be annoyed by the tire. 
 
 The most effective positions for batteries of smooth- 
 bore gims are in front of the second parallel of from 
 300 to 400 yards from the point to be reached; and 
 unless the tire of the defenses is very destructive, it 
 will be Ix'St to place them there. If placed in front 
 of the first parallel it may be necessary to shift the 
 most of them to the front of the second parallel soon 
 ■after the latter is thrown up; for the third parallel 
 and the approaches leading to it from the second par- 
 allel run the risk of being attained by shot from bat- 
 teries at so great a distance in their "rear as the first 
 panillel. See Butteries and C'fjunter-battery. 
 
 ENGAGE. — A movement in fencing and bayonet- 
 exercise executed as follows; Being in the ])ositlon of 
 the r/'iiird, the Instructor commands : 1. Engage, 2. 
 TiEiiCE. At the command tierce, numbers one and 
 two cro.ss their bayonets, about 6 inches from the 
 points, the bayonets touching on the right. Engage 
 in qiitirte is similarly executed, the bayonets touching 
 on the left. Each man seeks to cover himself on the 
 side engaged, so as not to be reached by a direct lunge 
 from his advei'Siiry. 
 
 Being engaged in titree, if numljer two be too quick 
 to be reached by disengaging, the Instnictor com- 
 mands: One, Two, Litnge. At the command one, 
 number one pas-ses his bayonet quickly under the bay- 
 onet of number two, from tierce to qiiarte; at the 
 command tiro, he returns quickly from quarte to 
 tierce; and at the third command, lunges as explained 
 for the lunge in tierce. At the command one. lunnber 
 two executes qiuirte, prime, or butt jiarry; and at the 
 command tiro, executes the tierce or neconde parry, and 
 then thrusts or mnges at command. If engaged in 
 qutirte, the feint from quarte to tierce, the return to 
 quarte, and the Inngc are executed by the same com- 
 mands, the lunge being in quiirte. At the command 
 one, number "..vo parries in tinrc or neeonde; at the 
 command tirn, he executes the quarte, prime, or buit 
 JKirri/, and then thrusts or lunges. Number two is 
 taught the feints in the same manner, and number 
 one executes the double parries. See Bayonet-exer- 
 cise, Disengage, and Fencing. 
 
 ENGAGEMENT.— A militarj- engagement considered 
 as a contlict bit ween two armies or hostile forces can- 
 not be described within limits suitable for this work. 
 Almost everj- term applicable to armies in the field 
 bears relation, in some way or other, to a hostile en- 
 gagement, and those terrns will Ix; found briefly 
 noticed under their proper headings. A naval en- 
 gagement admits of more preciscand terse illustration 
 than a military engagement, because each ship of war 
 is a unit in itslir, bounded by a clearly marked watery 
 maririn from all the other sliips of a fleet. See Battle. 
 
 ENGINEER BATTALION.— A component part of 
 the Corps of Engineers, consisting of five companies of 
 Engineers, one Sergeant Major, and one Quartermaster 
 Sergeant, who is also Commissary Sergeant. Each 
 
 company of Engineer soldiers consists of ten Scrgejinls, 
 ten Corporals, two Musicians, and as many Privates of 
 the first class, not exceeding sixty -four, and as many 
 Privates of the second class, not exceeding sixtv-four, 
 as the President may direct, and is recruited" in the 
 Siinie manner, and with the .same liniilalion, and is 
 entitled to the .same provisions, allowances, and bene- 
 fits, in ever)- respect, as are allowed to other troops 
 constituting the present military peace establishment. 
 A Battalion Adjutant, a Battalion Quartermaster, and 
 appropriate otticers to command the companies and 
 Battalion of Engineer soldiers, are detailed from the 
 Corps of Engineers. The enlisted men of the Engineer 
 Battjilion are instructed in and perfonn the duties 
 of Slippers, miners, and pontoniers, and aid in giving 
 practical instruction in those brandies at the Militarv 
 Academy. They may Ix; detailed by the Chief (If 
 Engineers to oversee and aid laborers upon fortifica- 
 tions and other works in charge of the Engineer Cor])s, 
 and, as fort-keepers, to protect and repair finished 
 fortifications. See Orrps of Engineers. 
 
 ENGINEEE COLORS.— In the United States army 
 the national color, tis described for the gtirrison-fiair, 
 with the words "U. S. Engineers" embroidered in 
 silver on the center stripe. The battalion color Is of 
 scarlet, of the same dimensions as alxjve, Ix-aring in 
 the center a castle, with the letters U. S. alxjve and 
 the word Engineers below, in sUver; fringe while. 
 The size of each color, and the length of pike, are the 
 same as described for artillery and infantry colors. 
 Cords and tassels are formed of red and white silk in- 
 termixed. See Colors. 
 
 ENGINEER CORPS.— In modem nations the neces- 
 sity for a Corps of Staff-officers, trained to arrahgc 
 for and overcome the embarrassments of the move- 
 ments of an army in the field, has Ix-en tlioroughly 
 demonstrated, and hence in most European armies a 
 trained Staff of Officers is organized for this purpose. 
 In the United States a force of about three hundred 
 officers and enlisted men are engaged in these duties. 
 See Corps of Engineers, Engineer Battalion, and Boy- 
 al Corps of Engineers. 
 
 ENGINEERING.- Engineering, the business of the 
 Engineer, is the art of desisning and superintending 
 the execution of works of a constructive character, 
 such as roads, railways, bridges, canals, harbors, 
 docks, works for supplying water to towns, drainace 
 and sewerage works, mining machinery, and the 
 working of metals. It may be disided into two 
 kinds — Ci\il and Military. The Militarj- Engineer is 
 an officer in the service of Goveniment, whose duties 
 are principally to constnicl fi)rlifications, to malfe 
 surveys for warlike purposes, to facilitate the passage 
 of an iirmy by the construction of roads and bridges; 
 in short, to execute all engineering works of a mili- 
 tary nature; but he is also, especially in this country, 
 called upon to undertake many works which more 
 properly Ixlong to the business of the Civil Engineer, 
 such as the survey of the country, the inspection of 
 public works, and, in short, all the duties of a Gov- 
 ernment Engineer. The Civil Engineering (irofes- 
 sion is subdi\ided into several sections according to 
 the special nature of the employment of its members. 
 The Hallway Engineer projects and superintends the 
 execution of railways and all the works in connection 
 with them, such as the alteration of roads and streiins, 
 the construction of viaducts, bridges, cuttings, and 
 embankments. The Hydriiullc Engineer eonstmcLs 
 the works connected with the supply of water to 
 towns, the filtering of water, its collection in reser- 
 voirs, and Its distribution through a town or district; 
 the irrigjition and drainage of tracts of country; the 
 protection of low lands from inuiulalion. and the use 
 of water as a motive power. The Dock and llarlxir 
 Engineer has the management of all works connected 
 with the sea or navigable waters, such as the con- 
 struction {f{ piers, brL-akwatcrs. docks, harliors. and 
 light-houses. The Mechanical Encineer is princi- 
 pally concerned In the manufacture of machlner)', 
 the working of metals, the construction of ships,
 
 £NGIN££S8. 
 
 566 
 
 EKOINEEES. 
 
 steamens. cannon, and all the various structures in 
 which the nu'tals bear n itroniincnt part. Then there 
 is the Mininc: Eiijjiiieer, who discovers miueriils and 
 manatfes mines; then' are Enjrineers who are specially 
 eugageil in llie (iniinajie of towns, and many other 
 less pronjinent divisions of the profession. 
 
 The enjrineering works of antiquity are I)olh nu- 
 merous and prominent, many of tliem reniainins; 
 while all other traces of their constructors have been 
 swept away. The most notable of the works belong- 
 ing to very remote antiquity are the harbors of the 
 Pha>nieians, the palaces ancl sewerage of Nimroud, 
 and the pvramids of Egypt; next in order come the 
 hartors of ancient Greece, the bridge of boats across 
 the Dartlanclles, made by Xerxes to transport his 
 immense army into Europe, and his canal across the 
 isthmus of the peninsula of Mount Athos. The 
 buildings of ancient Kome next claim attention — its 
 theaters, temples, baths, and its aqueilucts, some of 
 which Ciirried water from distances of more than 
 fifty miles into Rome; its roads, bridges, and drain- 
 age-works vie in extent and magnificence with the 
 most celebrated works of modern times. From that 
 perioil down to the commencement of the eighteenth 
 century the most extensive works executed are the 
 canals," cmUinkment-s, and other hydraulic construc- 
 tions used by the Dutch for the purposes of inland 
 navig-.ilion, and to protect their low lands from the 
 sea; the canals of North Italy, the cathedrals and 
 fortificatioiLS of mediitval Europe. Ci\il Engineer- 
 ing, as a distinct profexnim), may be said to have orig- 
 inate<l in England about the middle of the last cen- 
 tury; since that time the improvements in the steam- 
 engine by James Watt, its subsequent application to 
 the railway system by George Stephenson, and its use 
 in navigation, have given a great impvilse to com- 
 merce and civiliziition; which in their turn have cre- 
 ated the necessity for the numerous and magnificent 
 engineering works of modern times, such as the in- 
 numerable railways, roads, and canals that intersect 
 this and foreign countries; the l>ridges, waterworks, 
 docks, harbors, and vessels that facilitate our com- 
 merce and increa.«e our comfort and prosperity. 
 Among the most remarkable of these works may 
 be mentioned the tubular bridges of the St. Lawrcnc"e 
 and Menai Strait, the Niagara Railway Suspension 
 Bridge, the New York and Brooklyn Suspension 
 Bridge, and the electric telegraph system, whirli cov- 
 ers this country and the .seas and countries of Europe, 
 and may at some future lime connect us ^^^th the 
 continents of Australia and India. The education of 
 tho.se who would ri.sc to eminence in the profession 
 must embrace a fair knowledge of pure mathematics 
 and of the mixed sciences of natural philosophy, such 
 as mechanics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, and optics. 
 They should acquire a knowlet^ge of the principles of 
 projections, and should aim at being good draughts- 
 men and rapid and accurate arithmeticians. In con- 
 clusion, it may be said that every day opens fresh 
 fields of Engineering Science and" lab(")r; and that as 
 the first beginnings of the art are lost in the obscurity 
 of remote antiquity, so we see no termination to its 
 u.sefulne.ss and necessity. 
 
 ENGINEERS.— The introdtiction of modem wea- 
 pons has caused the development of tactics to take a 
 peculiar direction, and has produced changes in the 
 action of the various anus of \\w service, liut nowhere 
 are the changes more nuirked than in the art of the 
 Engineer. 
 
 Looking at the subject generally, we find that one 
 of the first consequences of the development of fire- 
 arms at the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the 
 seventeenth centuries was a large increase of the 
 offensive power of arms, a reduction of defensive ar- 
 mor; and following from this a large increase of 
 field-works, A history of war at this ])eriod would 
 1)C the historj' of intrenchments, one army seizing a 
 jx)silion, intrenching and holding it, the other watch- 
 ing it and afraid to attack. 
 
 The increase in roads, the opening up of the coim- 
 
 trv, and the greatly increased size of armies under 
 Napoleon, united to his peculiar strategj', the sudden- 
 ness of action with which he sought to overcome an 
 enemy, and the great development which the offen- 
 sive received, all tended to the disuse of field-works 
 and intrenchments. Although the rapidity of Napo- 
 leon's marches tended to develoji other branches of 
 the Engineer's art, that of bridging and that of the 
 pioneer, to a far greater extent than had previous- 
 ly been known, yet Napoleon was clearly alive to 
 tiie evils produced by the neglect of field-works. 
 The history of this century shows that field-fortifica- 
 tion, when it has l)een judiciously used, has invari- 
 ably produced the greatest results, and these results 
 were produced by the application of the same ideas, 
 viz., the use of field-works to cover the front of a 
 large extended position, one considerably larger than 
 the troops could hold in line of battle, the flanks be- 
 ing protected and the communications for supplies 
 being open to llie rear. The celebnUed lines of Tor- 
 res Vedras are an instance of this. The English 
 I army, with its flanks resting on the Tagusand the sea, 
 1 occupied with about fiftj- thousand men a line of some 
 I twenty-five miles in length; it had its internal com- 
 munications perfectly open, its supplies were brought 
 up by the sea, and the French General could do noth- 
 ing; he was unable to outflank the lines, turn or at- 
 tack them. They were so strong that any attack in 
 front would have failed; the defenders could not be 
 starved out, and unless they were regularly attacked 
 by siege-works there was no means of dealing with 
 them. From these lines the tide of conquest of the 
 French armies first began to recede. Many years 
 later tlie same thing happened at Sebastopol. The 
 Russians, holding a long straight line of weak field- 
 works with their cotnmunications o])en, actually ad- 
 vanced from their works, threw up fresh trenches and 
 works, and almost besieged the Allies in their posi- 
 tions. Both these cases were brilliant examples of 
 what field works properly adapted to tactics can pro- 
 duce. There were great opportunities in the block- 
 ades of Paris and Metz for the tactics displayed by 
 the Russians to be repeated; and it is no exaggeration 
 to say that hail the garrison of Paris been composed 
 of good troops it might reallj' have dug itself out of 
 Paris and through the German lines. 
 
 It apjjears that at the present day the necessity of 
 making Hank attacks has given a fresh importjince to 
 field-works. When speaking of this subject pre- 
 viously, the ease with which an army haN-ing its flank 
 threatened can change front and attack was pointed 
 out, and it was further pointed out that to prevent 
 such a change of front an attack in front as well as 
 on the flank was neeileil. Now. is it not possible to 
 check any attemi)te(l change of front by the construc- 
 tion of field works? Tlie Americans in the Civil 
 War made a very extensive use of intrenchments for 
 this purpose; they covered their front, and then 
 moved round to a "flank. As soon as it was definitely 
 learned with what severe losses front attacks, even 
 when succes.sful, must be imifoindy accompanied, 
 and as soon as the true value of temiiorary field-works 
 on the field of battle was perceived, the further mili- 
 tary history til the Civil War is but a narrative of 
 maneuvers whose object was to gain the flanks of the 
 enemy's position, and force him to abandon it by 
 threatening his communiciitions. The system of tem- 
 porary works on the field of battle was carried to a 
 greater extent during our Civil War than during any 
 war before or since. The troops on tach ■;!(!(• soon 
 learned to cover themselves at every op|jortunity, and 
 this was the first duty i)erformed when a halt tar any 
 length of time was liiade by armies in aet\ial contact; 
 in fact, on many occasions breast-works were con- 
 structed to cover the army as it advanced. The 
 whole spirit of modern war is to reduce everything 
 to^calculation, to leave nothing to chance, to pro\-ide 
 for and foresee all possible combinations, whether 
 arising from moral causes, such as panics amongst 
 the men, or from actual physical causes, such as the
 
 ENGINEEES TRANSIT. 
 
 567 
 
 ENGINEER'S TRANSIT. 
 
 enemy's Are, or the configuration of the ground; what- 
 ever then increases the securit_v of certain places or 
 their defensive power is of the hijrhcst importance. 
 
 The duties of the Engineers in the tield may be di- 
 vided into two classes: 1. The iluties of making, re- 
 pairing, or destroying comnuinications, including, in 
 the word communication, roads, bridges, railways, 
 and telegraphs. These may be classed togetheras 
 pioneer duties. 2. The preparation of positions for 
 attack or defense, which is the higher duty of the 
 Military Engineer, and where the art of fcjrtitication 
 must be considered entirely in a tactical point of 
 view. With reference to the first class of duties, the 
 men and means must be invariably present when re- 
 quired. The Engineers should march with the ad- 
 vanced-guard, and must be sufficiently supplied with 
 tools and materials. It is the second class of duties, 
 or those of the Military Engineer as distinguished 
 from the Pioneer, where the tacticiil relation of field- 
 works to the other arms is fully developed. 'The 
 mere fact of field-works being constructed is far 
 too often considered as limiting the action of the 
 troops to a strict defensive; viewed in such a light, 
 intrenchments are useless, if not hurtful, and hence 
 arises the absolute necessity of viewing all such works 
 in their tactical relation to troops. In almost every 
 case in war six or seven hours may lie calculated oh 
 to put a position in a state of defense, and if the En- 
 gineers and tools are where they should be, this period 
 is ample: in si.\ hours works of a very powerful 
 nature may be constructed which will effectually sup- 
 port an army. It is generally allowed that an in- 
 trenchment occupied by two hundred men offers as 
 much resistance as a battalion not so covered, and 
 that the labor of one thousand men six hours on the 
 position occupied liy a dirision is equivalent to the 
 reinforcement of a brigade. The pioneer duties of 
 the Prussian army were admirably performed, and 
 the true spirit of field-engineering was in many cases 
 seized; one remarkable instance was at Mars-la-Tour. 
 Early in the day the Prussians gained possession of 
 Vionville, on tlie Verdun Road; the instant the in- 
 fantry got in, two companies of Engineers supplied 
 with six wagons of tools were pushed on; they weic 
 charged by a regiment of French Hussars and lost 
 some of tlie wagons and a section of one of the com- 
 panies, but the remainder got into the village, and so 
 strengthened it that all the attempts to retake it failed. 
 And although at the close of the day the Prussian 
 right and left wings were forced back by the French, 
 vet the village of Vionville, forming llie apex of the 
 IPrussian position, was never lost, and effectually 
 barred the road to Verdun. Here forlitication was 
 used correctly; it contirraed and established the suc- 
 cess of the infantry, and secured the object for which 
 the Prussians stru^irled so hard. See Eni/ineering. 
 
 ENGINEER'S "TRANSIT.— A portable' instrument 
 of tlu' theodolite kind, designed for measuring both 
 horizontal and vertical angles. The essential parts 
 of the instrument, as shown in Fig. 5, are the Meneeipe 
 including its axis and two supports, the cirnilar plal^a. 
 with their attachments, tlie mcketx upon which the 
 plates revolve, the levelinff-fitad, and the tripod on 
 which the whole instrument stands. 
 
 The telescope is from ten to eleven inches long, 
 firmly .secured to an a.vis ha\'ing its bearings nicely 
 fitted in the standards, and thus enabling the tele-scope 
 to be moved in either direction, or turned completely 
 around if desired. The different parts of the tele- 
 scope are shown in Fig. 1. The object-glass, com- 
 posed of two lenses, so as to show objects without 
 color or distortion, is placed at the end of a slide hav- 
 ing two bearings, one at the end of the outer tulie, 
 the other in the ring C C suspended within the lube 
 by four screws, only two of which are shown in the 
 cut. The object-glass is carried out or in by a pmion 
 working in a rack attached to the slide, and thus ad- 
 justed to objects either near or remote as desired. 
 "The eye-piece is made up of four plano-convex lenses, 
 which', beginning at the eye-end, are cjilled respec- 
 
 tively the eye, the field, the amplifying, and the ob- 
 ject lenses, the whole forming a compound micro- 
 scope having its focus in the plane of the cross-wire 
 ring BI3. Sometimes, especially in English instru- 
 ments, an eye-piece of two lenses is employed; but 
 this, while it gives more light, inverts the object seen, 
 and so has been discarded by American cngmeers. 
 
 Where it is desired to 
 take greater vertical an- 
 gles than is possible witji 
 the ordinarj' eye -piece, 
 the little cap on the end 
 of the eye-piece is un- 
 screwed and replaced by 
 one containing a small 
 prism, as shown in Fig. 
 2, which reflects the im- 
 age of the object at right 
 anglcs,and brings it to the 
 eye of an observer from 
 above; when used on the 
 sun, a colored glass or 
 darkener is interjjoscd be- 
 tween the eye and prism. 
 This aiTangement con- 
 sists merely of a diagonal 
 prism attached to the cap 
 of the eye-piece, by which 
 the object is reflected to 
 the eye, placed at right 
 angles to the telescope ; 
 when directed to the sun, 
 the little slide or darkener 
 containing colored gla.ss 
 is moved over the open- 
 ing. The circular plate 
 with which the prism is 
 connected is made to turn 
 in the cap sf) that when 
 it is substituted for the 
 ordinary cap of the eye- 
 piece, the opening over 
 the prism can be easily 
 adjusted to the position 
 of the eye. 
 
 The object-glass receiv- 
 ing the rays of the light 
 which proceed from all 
 the points of a visible ob- I 
 ject, converges them to a 
 focus at the cross-wires, 
 smd there forms a minute. 
 
 
 FlO. 2. 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 inverted, and very bright image, which majr be seen 
 1 by placing a piece of ground gla-ss to receive it at that 
 ' point. The eye-piece acting as a compound micro- 
 scojie magnifies this image, restores it to its natural 
 position, and conveys it to the eye. The visual angle 
 which the image there subtends is as many times 
 greater than that which would be formed without the 
 use of the telescope as the number which expresses 
 its magnifying power. Thus, a telescope which mag 
 nifics iwciitv times increa-scs the %isual angle just as 
 much, and therefore diminishes the apparent distance 
 of the object twenty times; or in other words, it will 
 show an object two hundred feet distant with the 
 siune distinctness as if it were distant only ten feet 
 from the naked eye. 
 , It might be supposed that the greater the power of
 
 ENGINEEKS TRAHSIT. 
 
 56S 
 
 ENGINEER'S TRANSIT. 
 
 a telescope, tbe better; but in practice, beyond a cer- 
 t<iin iHiiul, this is found to be incorrect. In the first 
 place, as onlv a given amount of lijrbt can enter tlie 
 objcct-gl!i.s.<, "the more the object is niagnitied the less 
 clear and briiihl will i' appear; and again, the higher 
 the power tlie more difticult will it be to precisely 
 focus the leles<^'ope and to complete its adjustment. 
 We have found that a power of from twenty to 
 twenty-four diameters in the telescopes of transits 
 gives "the best results and is amplj' sufficient for all 
 oniinarv pmctice. 
 
 The iJellner eye piece, the main feature of which 
 is the use of a compound amplifying-lcns, as shown 
 in Fig. 1, in place of the single "one heretofore em- 
 ployed, has sensibly increased the brilliancy of the 
 obj"ect and secured a better field. This is now applied 
 to all transil-telcscopes. The ej'e-piece is brought to 
 its proper focus usually by twusting its milled end, 
 the spiral movement within carrying the eye-tube out 
 or in as desired; sometimes a pinion, like that which 
 focuses the object-glass, is employed for the same 
 purpose. 
 
 The cross-wires, shown in Fig. 3. are two fibers of 
 spider-web or very fine platinum wire, cemented into 
 the cuts on the surface of a metal ring, at right angles 
 to eacb other, so as to divide the open space 
 in the center into quadrants. To remove 
 the cross-wire ring, take out the eyepiece 
 tube, together with the little ring by which 
 it is centered, and having removed two op- 
 posite cross-wire screws, with the others 
 turn the ring until one of the screw-boles 
 is brought into view from the open end of 
 
 optical axis of the telescope, and enables the surveyor 
 to fix it upon an object with the greatest iirecision. 
 The imaginary line passing through the optical a.vis 
 of the telescope is termed the " line of collimation," 
 and the operation of l>ringing the inlersietion of tbe 
 wires into the optical axis is called the "adjustment 
 of the line of collimation." This will be described 
 further on. The openings in the tele.scope-tube are 
 made considerably larger than the screws, so that, 
 when these are loosened, the whole ring can be turned 
 around for a short distance in either direction. The 
 object of this will be seen more plainly when we de- 
 scribe the means by which the wire is made trnly ver- 
 licjil. The sectional view of the telescope. Fig. 1, 
 also .shows two movable rings, one placed at A A, the 
 other at CC, which arc respectively used to effect 
 the centering of the eye-piece and the ailjustment of 
 the object-gla.ss slide. The centering of the eye-tube 
 is performed after the wires have been adjusted, and 
 is cfTected bj' moving the ring, by means of the screws 
 shown on tlie outside of the tube, until the intersec- 
 tion of the wires is brought into the center of the field 
 of view. 
 
 The adjustment of the object-slide, which will be 
 hereafter described, secui'es the movement of the ob- 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 FiQ. 4. 
 
 the telescope-lube; in this thrust a pointed splinter of 
 wood or a small wire, so as to hold the ring when the 
 remaining screws are withdrawn; the ring is then 
 taken out. It may be replaced by returning it to its 
 position in the tube, and either pair of .screws being 
 inserted, the splinter or wire is removed, and the ring 
 is turned imtil the other screws can be replaced. Care 
 must also be taken that the same side of the ring is 
 turned to the eye-piece as before it was removed. 
 When this has been done, the eye-tube is inserted, 
 and its centering ring brought into such a position 
 that the screws in it can be replaced, and then by 
 screwing on the end of the telescope the little cove"r 
 into which the eye-tube is fixed the operation will be 
 completed. 
 
 The advantage of platinum for the cross-wires of 
 telescopes has long been conceded, but the difllculty 
 of pro<-uring it of sutBcient fineness has prevented its 
 gener.il adoption. Platinum wires are now drawn of 
 a fineness of from one eiglil-thous:uullh to one twelve- 
 thousandth of an inch, and are used in tlie telescopes 
 of all the best instruments, unless spider-lines are 
 specially desired. These wires are perfectly opaque, 
 and of course entirely unaffected by moisiure, and 
 arc universally preferred to the spider-web heretofore 
 u.s<;d. 
 
 The intersection of the vnren forms a very minute 
 point, which, when they are adjusted, determines the 
 
 ject-glass in a straight line, and thus keeps the line of 
 collimation in adjustment through the whole range of 
 the slide, preventing at the same time what is termed 
 the "traveling" of the wires. This adjustment is 
 always made in the process of const i-uction, and, need- 
 ing no further attention at the hands of the engineer, 
 is concealed within the ring neiir the ball of the tele- 
 scope-axis. 
 
 In Fig. 5 the telescope is represented as plain, or 
 without any attachments, such as verticjal circle, level, 
 etc.; but many if not most engineers prefer to have 
 two or more of these accessories, and it will be well 
 to briefiy describe the same in this connection. 
 
 The standards of the transit are firmly attached by 
 their expandwi ba.ses to the upiwr plate, one of them 
 having near the top, as shown in the drawing, a little 
 movable box, actuated by a .screw underneath, by 
 which the telescope-axis is made truly horizontal, as 
 will be hereafter described 
 
 The circular plates, with their accompanying sock- 
 ets, are shown in section in Fig. 4; the ujiper plate, 
 A A, currying the conipa.ss-cirele, etc., is screwed fast 
 to file flange of the interior s])indlc; the lower plate 
 or divided limb, 15 H, is fastened to the exterior socket 
 C, which again is tilted to and turns in Ihe hollow 
 socket of the levcling-head. The compass-bo.x, con- 
 taining flic needle, etc., is covered by a glass to ex- 
 clude the moisture and air; the circle" is silvered, and
 
 ENGINEER'S TRANSIT. 
 
 569 
 
 ENGINEERS TRANSIT. 
 
 is divided on its upper surface or rim into degrees 
 and half-degrees, the degree-marks being also cut 
 ilown on its inner edge, and tigured from to 90 on 
 eacli side of the center or line of zero. 
 
 The magnetic needle is four to live inches long in 
 the different sizes of transits, its brass cap having in- 
 serted in it a little socket or center of hardened steel, 
 perfectly polished, and this, resting upon the hardenetl 
 and polished point of the center-pin, allows the needle 
 to play freely in a horizontal direction and thus take 
 its direction in the magnetic meridian. The needle 
 has its north end designated by a scallop or other 
 mark, and on its south end a small coil of tine brass 
 wire, easily moved, so as to liring both ends of the 
 needle to the same level. The needle is lifted from 
 the pin by a concealed spring underneath the upper 
 
 plate, actuated by a screw shown alwve, thus raising 
 the button so as to check the vibrations of the needle, 
 or bring it up against the gla.s.s when not in use, to 
 avoid the tmnecessitry wear of the pivot. The forms 
 of the needle arc almost intinitely varied, nrrording 
 to the taste or fancy of the maker or surveyor, but 
 maj' be resolved into two general classes, one having 
 the greatest breadth in a hoiizontal. the other in a 
 vertical, direction. The test of tlie delicacy of a mag- 
 netic needle is the number of horizontal vibrations 
 which it will make in a certain arc before coming to 
 rest: besides this most surveyors jirefer also to see a 
 sort of quivering motion in a vertical direction. This 
 quality, which is manifested more in a horizontal than 
 in a vertical needle, and depends upon the near coin- 
 cidence of the point of suspension with the center of 
 gravity of the needle, serves to show merely that the 
 cap below is unobstnicted. 
 
 The clamp and tangent movement, shown in Fig. 
 5, on the upper plate, ser\-es to fasten the two plates 
 together, so that by the tangent .screw thev can be 
 slowly moved around each other in either direction, 
 or loosened at will and moved by the hand, thus 
 enabling one to direct the telescope rapidly and ac- 
 curately to the point of sight. The opening for the 
 
 clamp in the upper plate is covered by a plate or a 
 washer, as shown, to exclude the dust and moisture. 
 The clamping-piece into which the clamp-.screw enters 
 is shown at I), Fig. 4. 
 
 The two levels are sho^\-n placed at right angles to 
 each other so as to level the plate in all directions, and 
 adjusted by turning the capst;in-head screws at their 
 ends by a small steel adjusting-pin. The glass viaU 
 used in the levels of this transit are groimd on their 
 upper interior surface, so as to make the bubble move 
 evenly and with great sensitiveness. 
 
 The lower plale or limb, BB, Fig. 4, is divide<l on 
 its ujiper surfaci'— usually into degrees and half-de- 
 grees — and ligured in two rows, viz., from to ;!6(), 
 and from to 90 each way; sometimes but a single 
 series is used, and then the "figures run from to 3(iO, 
 or from to 180 on each side". The tiguring is varied 
 according to the wish of the engineer, the double 
 series bemg alwavs used unless otherwi.se desired. 
 The two verniers, V V, are attached to the upper plate 
 diametrically opposite to each other, and serve to read 
 the limb around which they revolve. 
 
 The verniers are double, having on each side of the 
 zero mark thirty equal divisions corresponding pre- 
 cisely with twenty-nine half-degrees of the limb; they 
 thus read to single minutes, and the nimilxT pas.sea 
 over is counted m the same direction in which the 
 vernier is moved. The use of two opposite verniers 
 in this and other instruments gives the means of 
 "cross-questioning" the graduations, the perfection 
 with which thej' are centered, and the dependence 
 which can be placed upon the accuracy of the angles 
 indicated. Sometimes a finer reading than minutes 
 is desired, and then the divisions of the lind) and 
 vernier are both made smaller, so as to give readings 
 to 30, 20, or even 10 seconds of arc, if required. Tlie 
 \ernier-openings are covered witli glass, carefully 
 cemented to exclude the moisture and dust. Reflect- 
 ors of silver or celluloid, as in the mountain-transit, 
 are often used to throw more light upon the divisions, 
 and, more rarely, shades of groimd glass are employed 
 to give a clear Imt more subdued light. 
 
 The graduations are made commonlj- on the brass 
 surface of the limb, afterwartls filled with black wax, 
 and tl^-n finished and silvered. Many instruments, 
 however, have a solid silver plate put over the brass 
 and the graduations made on the silver itself. The 
 last is more costly, but insures a finer graduation, 
 with less liability "to tarnish or change color. 
 
 The sockets of the transit, as shown in Fig. 4, are 
 compomid: the interior spiniUe attached to the ver- 
 nier plate turning in the exterior socket, C, when an 
 angle is taken on the limb, but when the plates are 
 clamped together the exterior socket it.self, and with 
 it the whole instinment, revolves in the socket of the 
 leveling-head. The sockets are made with the great- 
 est care, the surfaces Iieing tndy concentric with <ach 
 other, and the bell metal or composition of which 
 they are composed of different degrees of hardness, 
 so lis to cause them to move upon each other easily 
 and with the least possilile wear. 
 
 The leveling-head, also shown in Fig. 4, consists of 
 two plates connected together by a socket having at 
 its end a hemispherical nut fitting into a correspond 
 ing cavity in the lower plate. The pla'es are inclined 
 to each other or made parallel at will by four leveling- 
 screws, of which only two are shown in the section. 
 The screws are of bronze or hard composition metal 
 and fitted to long nuts of brass, screwed into the 
 upper parallel plate; and, as will 1h' noticed, have 
 threads only on the upper ends, the lower part of 
 their stemsturniug closelv in the lower unthreaded 
 part of the nuts. "" Bv this arrangement dust is ex- 
 cluded from the lowe"r enil of the screw s, while thi- 
 brass cover above equally protects the other end. 
 The screws rest in little cups or sockets, which are 
 secured to their ends and in which they turn without 
 marring the surface of the lower plate, the cups also 
 permitting the screws to be shifted from side to side, 
 or turned aroimd in either direction on the lower plate.
 
 EN0INEEK8 TRANSIT. 
 
 570 
 
 ENGINEER S TRANSIT. 
 
 The clamp nnd lanjicnt movement of the Icveling- 
 hend, partiiilly shown in Fig. 5, serves to turn the 
 whole iuslninuMit upon its sockets, .so as to li.K the 
 telesfOiK" with jirecision upon any piveu point, and 
 ■when undainpiil allowing it to be airectcd appro.xi- 
 mately by hand. The "tangent-screws, as will Ijc 
 seen, "press on opposite sides of the clamp-piece, and 
 thus insure a very tine and solid movement of the in- 
 strument. 
 
 The lower levelinij-plate is made in two pieces — 
 the up|>er one, which Is screwed fa.«t to the top of the 
 tripod, having a large oiH'ning in it.s center, in which 
 the smaller lower one is shifted from side to side or 
 turned completely aroimd. By this simple arrange- 
 ment, termed a •'shifting center," the instrunuiU is 
 ea.sily moved over the upjx'r iilale, and the ]>luniniet 
 ■which hangs from the center, P, Fig. 4, set precisely 
 over a point, without moving the trijiod. 
 
 The tripod, the top of which is shown in Fig. .'5, 
 has three maliogjiny legs, the upper ends of which 
 are presssed firmly on each side of a strong tenon on 
 the solid bronze hea<l by a bolt and nut on opposite 
 sides of the leg; the nut can also be screwed up at 
 will by a wrench furnished for the purpose, and thus 
 kept firm. The lower end of the leg has a brass shoe 
 with an iron point, securely fastened and riveted to 
 the wood. 
 
 Every instrument should leave the hands of the 
 maker in com|)lele adjustment; but all are so liable to 
 derangement by accident or careless use that we 
 deem it neces.sarj' to describe particularly those which 
 are most likely to need attention. The principal ad- 
 justments of the transit are: 1. The levels; 2. The 
 line of coUimation; 3. The standards. 
 
 To adjust the levels, set up the instrument upon its 
 tripod as nearly level as may be, and having un- 
 damped the plates, brin^ the two levels above and on 
 a line with the two pairs of leveling-screws; then 
 with the thumb and first finger of each hand clasp 
 the heads of two, opposite; and, turning botli thumbs 
 in or out, as may he needed, bring the bubble of the 
 level directly over the screws, exactly to the center of 
 the opening. Without moving the instrument pro- 
 ceed in the same manner to bring the other bubble to 
 its center; after doing this, the level first corrected 
 may be thrown a little out; brins; it in again; and 
 when both are in ])lace, turn the instrument half-way 
 around; if the bubbles both come to the center, they 
 would need no correction, but if not, with tlie adjust- 
 ing-pin turn the small .screws at the end of the levels 
 until the bubbles are moved over half the error; then 
 bring the bubbles again into the center liy the level 
 ing-screws, and repeat the operation until the bubbles 
 will remain in the center during a complete revolu- 
 tion of the instrument, and the adjustment will be 
 complete. It should be remarked ihat in this as in 
 most transits the level on the standards has a move- 
 ment only at one end, the adjustment being made by 
 abutting screws, which are loosened and tightened iii 
 turn, in moving the level. 
 
 To adjust the line of coUimation,— i.e., to bring 
 the intersection of the wires into the optical axis of 
 the telescope, so that the instrument when placed in 
 the middle of u straight line will, by the revolution of 
 the telescope, cut its extremities — proceed as follows: 
 Set the instrument firmly on the grounci and level it 
 carefully; and then having brought the wires into the 
 focus of the eyi -piece, adjust tht'^oljjeet-glass on some 
 well-defined point, as the edge of a chimney or other 
 object, at a distance of from two hundred tii five hun- 
 dred feet; deterniine if the vertical wire is plumb, by 
 clamping the inslrunieiil liriidy and applying the wire 
 to the vertical edge of a building, or observing if it 
 will move parallel to a jioint taken a little to one .side; 
 should any deviation be manifested, loosen the cros.s- 
 wire screws, and, by the pressure of the hand on the 
 head outside the tulx', move the rimr around until the 
 error is corrected. The wires being thus made re- 
 spectively horizontal and vertical, fix their point of 
 intersection on the object selected; clamp the instru- 
 
 ment to the spindle, and having revolved the tele- 
 sc<ipe, find or place sonu' good object in the opposite 
 direction, and at about the same distance from the 
 instrument as the lii-st object assumed. Great care 
 should always be taken, in turning the telescope, that 
 the po.sition of the instrument upon the spindle is not 
 in the slightest degree disturbed. Now, having found 
 or placed an object whiih the vertical wire bisects, 
 unclamp the instrument, turn it half-wa}' around, 
 and direct the telescope to the first object selected; 
 having bisected this with the wires, again clamp the 
 instrument, revolve the telescope, and note if the ver- 
 tical wire bisects the second object observed. Should 
 this happen, it will indicate that the wires are in ad- 
 justment, and the points bisected are, with that of the 
 center of the instrument, in the same straight line. If 
 not, however, the space which separates the wires 
 from the .second point observed will be double the 
 dc\iation of that point from a true straight line, 
 which may be conceived as drawn through the first 
 point arwl the center of the instrument, since the error 
 is the result of two observations, made with the wires 
 when they are out of the optical axis of the telescope. 
 
 In order that the wires may trace a vertical line as 
 the telescope is moved up or down, it is necessarj' 
 that both the standards of the telescope should l)e of 
 precisely the same height. To a.scertain this and 
 make tlie correction when needed, proceed as follows: 
 Having the line of coUimation pre\iously adjusted, 
 set up the instrument in a position where points of 
 observation, such as the point and base of a lofty 
 spire, can be selected, giving a long range in a ver- 
 tical direction. Level the instrument, fi.x the wires 
 on the top of the object and clamp to the spindle; 
 then bring the telescope down until the wires bisect 
 some good point, either found or marked at the base; 
 turn the instrument half around, fix the wires on the 
 lower point, clamp to the spindle, and raise the tele- 
 scope to the highest object. If the wires bisect it, 
 the vertical adjustment is effected; if they arc thrown 
 to either side, this would prove that the standard op- 
 posite that side was the highest, the ajiparent error 
 being double that actually due to this cause. To 
 coiTect it. one of the bearings of the axis is made 
 movable, so that by turning a screw underneath this 
 sliding piece, as well as the screws which hold on the 
 cap of the standard, the adjustment is made with the 
 utmost precision. This arrangement, which is com- 
 mon to all the best telescope-instruments, is verj' sub- 
 stantial and easily managed. 
 
 Besides the three adjustments already described — 
 which arc all that the surveyor will ordinarily have to 
 make — there are those of the needle and tlie object- 
 (jla.ss slide, which may sometimes lie required. The 
 first is given with the description of the compass. To 
 adjust the object-glass slide: Having set up and lev- 
 eled the instrument, the line of coUimation being also 
 adjusted for objects from three hundred to five hun- 
 dred feet distant, clamp the plates securely, and fix 
 the vertical cross-wire upon an object as distant as 
 may be distinctly seen; then, without disturbing the 
 instrument, throw out the object-glass, so as to bring 
 the vertical wire upon an object as near as the range of 
 the telescope will allow. Havingthis clearly in mind, 
 unclamp the limb, turn the instnimi-nl half-way 
 around, rever.se tlie eye-end of the telescupe, clamp 
 the limb, and w lib the tangent-screw bring the verti- 
 cal wire again upon the near object; then draw in the 
 object-gla.ss slide until the distant object first sighted 
 upon is brought into distinct \ision. If the vertical - 
 wire strikes the siuue line as at first, the slide is cor- 
 rect for both near and remote objects: and, being it- 
 self straight, for all distances. But if there be an 
 error, proceed as follows: First, with the thumb and 
 forefinger, twist off the thin brass tube that covers the 
 screws, CC, shown in Fig. 1. Next, with the screw- 
 driver, turn the two screws, ("C, on the opposite «Vfe» 
 of the telescope, loosening one and tightening the 
 other, so as apparently to increase the error, making, 
 by estimation, one half of the correction required.
 
 ^ 
 
 .dib
 
 ENGINE-LATHE. 
 
 571 
 
 ENGLEHAEDT GUNCAEEIAGE 
 
 Then go over the usual adjustment of the line of col- 
 limation, and having it completed, repeat the opera- 
 tion above deseribed; first sicrhling upon the distant 
 object, then tiniling a near one in line, and then re- 
 versing, making correction, etc., until the adjustment 
 is complete. This adjustment is pecidiar to the 
 transits made by Messrs. W. and L. E. Gurley, of 
 Troy, N. Y., and furnishes the only way in \vhich 
 the line of collimation can Ix; made correct for all dis- 
 tances. 
 
 When using the transit, care should be taken to 
 have it set up firmly, the tiipod-Iegs being pressed 
 into the ground, so as to bring the plates as nearly 
 level as convenient; the plates should then be care- 
 fully leveled and properly clamped, the zeros of the 
 verniers and limb brought into line by the ujiper tan- 
 gent-screw, and the telescope directed to the object 
 by the tangent-.screws of leveling-head. The angles 
 taken are then read off upon the liml), without sub- 
 tracting from those given by the verniers, in any other 
 position. Before an observation is made with the 
 
 spindle for face-plate 1| inch diameter, 8 pitch. The 
 cone, largest diameter 9 inches, is driven by a Ixjlt 3 
 inches wide. The hole through the si)indle"is ,»„ inch 
 diameter. The small feed - gears are of wrought- 
 iron. With the usual set of gears, screws may be cut 
 with threads of 4 to 64 to the inch. Stationarj- and 
 follow rests, coimtershaft, and wrenches accompany 
 the lathe. Speed by countershaft, 9 by 3 inch fric- 
 tion-pulleys, 140 revolutions per minute. Lathe with 
 4-foot be<l receives 1 foot 8 inches between centers, and 
 weighs 1100 pounds. Beds 4 to 6 feet long. 
 
 A larger size of the same pattern swings 16 inches 
 over the bed and 8 inches over the carriage. The 
 front bearing of the live-spindle is 4* inches long by 
 2i inches diameter. The cone, largest diameter 12J 
 inches, is driven by a belt 2* inches wide. The hole 
 through the spindle is ,"5 inch diameter: screw-thread 
 on spindle for face-plate, 2i inches ilianietcr, 6 pitch. 
 With the usual set of gears, screws of from U to 48 
 threads to the inch may be cut. Speed of counter- 
 shaft, 10 by 3 inch friction-pulleys, 120 revolutions 
 
 EnRine-Iathe. 
 
 telescope, the eye-piece .should be moved in or out, 
 until the wires appear distinct to the eye of the opera- 
 tor; the object-glass is then adjusted "by turning the 
 pinion-head until the object is seen clear and well 
 defined, and the wires appear as if fastened to its 
 surfaci'. The intersection of the wires, being the 
 means by which the optical axis of the telescope is 
 detined, should be brought precisely upon the center 
 of the object to which the instrument is directed. 
 The needle is used, as in the rompa.ss, to give the bear- 
 ings of lines, and as a rough check upon the .nngles 
 obtained by the verniers and limb; but its employ- 
 ment is only subsidiary to the general piirfioses of the 
 transit. Tlie instrument as described is numufactured 
 by the Messrs. Gurlev, United Slates. See Mountain- 
 transit, Prismatic Tranmt, Sextant, Solar Attafhment, 
 Solar Compass, Theodolite, Tranni-iMtrument, and 
 T-lerel. ,. ^ , 
 
 ENGINE LATHE.— A lathe of the larger kmd, hav- 
 imr a capacilv for all the principal turning work of 
 the armor)'. "That shown in the drawing is alS-inHi 
 weighted engine-lathe, with screw and back gears. It 
 swings 13 inches over the bed and inches over ttie 
 carriage. The front bearing of the head-stock spindle 
 is 1 1 inch diameter and 3S inches long, in Ciwt-iron 
 boxes lined with Babbittmetal. Screw-thresid on 
 
 per minute. This size of lathe is made, also, with 
 gibbed carriage and cross-feed. It swings 10* inches 
 over the carriage. Lathe with 5-fwt bed receives 2 
 feet between centers, and weighs 1475 pounds. Beds 
 .') to H feet lone. See iMthf. 
 
 ENGLEHARDT GUN-CABKIAGE.— The great strain 
 brouirht on the carriage by tiring the large charges 
 that are used in the new artillery renders the construc- 
 tion of the carriage a difficult iiroblem, to be sure of 
 the required strenirth without exceeding the limits of 
 the weiffht hitherto deemed admissible, w hich caimot 
 lie exceeded without encountering grave objections in 
 (he service of the piece. Already many attempts 
 have been made to les.sen the .shock on the carriage 
 by the introduction of sprinips of dilTcrent forms, in- 
 tended to give a certain elasticity and avoid breakage. 
 A carriage of this kind was exhibited at Vienna by 
 the Bocimm Company. The desired elasticity was 
 obtained bv the use of aBrown's spiral .sprinir, arranged 
 somewhat" in the Siimc manner as in Colonel Engle- 
 hardt's carriage, iletallic springs are, at best, frail, 
 subject to accidents, and otherwise objectionable: con- 
 sequently this carriase does not seem to have found 
 favor. "Colonel Endehardl. of the artillery of the 
 Imperial Guard, has^x-perimented in Russia on a car- 
 riage of this kind, which, it appears from the expert-
 
 EKGLISH FBICTION PRIMER. 
 
 572 
 
 ENLISTMENT. 
 
 ments mado, has ffiven liiajhly satisfactory re.sults. 
 The carriage is ilislinguisht'ill l)y it.s simplicity of con- 
 slructioii. anil is c(>iii|xiseil csscutlall.v of two parts, 
 the carriage propir, ami the slide and wheels. The 
 carriage is formed of two cheeks of sheet-iron, the 
 eilges forine<l up and joined together by a lunette and 
 four tnuisonis, two of which, 64, cr, are between the 
 chi'cks, and two, (Id, ff, are in the trail; these la.st 
 also form the ends of "the trail-chest, in which the 
 ela-stie cushion is placed. The different details of the 
 c<inst ruction are given in the ligure, in which the 
 elevating-apparatus is not shown; only the stays, ;;, and 
 the journals for its trunnions arc represented. It will 
 be sufficient to ix)int out in the drawing the iron plate 
 /, a khid of spade, riveted and bolted to the end of 
 the trail, intemled to penetrate the ground when the 
 carriage is in battery, and to check the recoil. The 
 part which the inventor designates by the term slide 
 embraces the axle. A, with the wheels; it is joined by 
 two rods, not shown in the drawing, to a strong cross- 
 head, g. The a.\le-understraps, as well as the nole in 
 
 Engletiardt Gun-carriage. 
 
 the trail for the cross-head, are sufficiently long to 
 allow the pieces which work in them considerable 
 play, so that the slide may njove without imparting 
 motion to the carriage. Under all other circumstances 
 except Wolent shocks, ])roduced by tiruig or by similar 
 causes, the carriage and slide arc united in an unallcr 
 able maimer by means of an clastic cushion. This 
 is composed of five strong sheets of cork, h, pressed 
 between the transom rf and a movable i>late, m. The 
 two strong bolts / pass through the whole and arc sc- 
 eurcii to the cross-head, r/. By turning the nuts on 
 the ends of the bolls (' any desirable initial compres- 
 sion- may be brought on the sheets of cork. When 
 the gim is ilischarged. the carriage, on accoimt of the 
 inertia of the .slide, begins to slip, the resistance to 
 which at the first moment brings into play the elasticity 
 of the cork cushion. The inventor hopes that as the 
 carriage proper alone receives the shock of the dis- 
 charge, the whole system will suffer less fatigue. See 
 Fifld-ra rruiqis. 
 
 ENGLISH FRICTION-PRIMER.— The tube is a quill; 
 but as the material lias not sufficient .strength or firm- 
 ness to resist the force of the pull necessary to with- 
 draw the friction- wire, a loop of leather is attached to 
 the (luill which passes over a knob or projection cast 
 on the gim just forward of the vent. The iiuDl is 
 destroyed by the combustion of the charge, and all 
 accidents from the Hying of the tube are obviated. 
 The leather loop, however, is perishable and dws not 
 last for liny great Icnglli of lime. See Frictionprimfr. 
 
 ENGLISH FUSE.— The common name for the Moor- 
 mm filar. It is very complicated in its construction, 
 but a great importance is attached to it in England. 
 See MtufVivntt Kiiiu\ 
 
 ENGLISH SYSTEM OF RIFLING.— A modification 
 of the Freiicli system, consisting of deep and broad 
 grooves, each of which receives two soft-metal circu- 
 lar studs attached to the projectile. The grooves are 
 three or more in mmiber, according to the caliber of 
 the piece; they are 1.0.') inch wiilc, and .18 of an 
 inch deep, with curved edges, both the loaiUng and 
 driving edges Ixing struck with the same radius. 
 The Ixjttom of the grooves is eccentric to the bore, 
 being struck with a radius of three inches; thcj' are 
 of the Rjune width for all natures of heavy guns, but 
 are a little deeper for tlie lOinrli giiii :ind u])wards; 
 the grooves are also widened at tlie nuiz/.lc in the 
 larger guns, in order to facilitate loading by i ulting 
 
 away the loading-side slightly for two inches from 
 the nmzzle. Tins system embraces uniform and 
 increasing twists, the latter l)cing preferred. Hotli 
 the direction and twist are given by the bearing of 
 the studs on the grooves, the body of the projectile 
 never being intended to come into contact with the 
 bore. The windage is .8 of an inch in all calitjcrs. 
 The projectiles have two studs for each groove in all 
 instances; both studs in the case of the tmifonn twist, 
 and the rear one where the twist is increasing, are 
 nearly of the size of the groove, with their faces cor- 
 responding to the curved bot^om of the groove. In 
 the large projectiles an intermediate row luis been in- 
 troduceil, making three rows in all, and a soft-metal 
 gas-check has been applied to the base of the projec- 
 tile. The rear stud is four inches from the bottom of 
 the projectile, and the studs of each gi-oovc are equi- 
 distant from the center of gravity. The particulars 
 of rifling are as follows: The 12-i'nch gun, 9 grooves; 
 twist increasing from 1 in 100 to 1 in ">0 calibers at 
 muzzle. ThelO inch gun, 7 grooves; twist increasing 
 from 1 in 100 to 1 in 40 calilx-rs at muzzle. 
 The 9-inch gun, 6 grooves; twist increasing 
 from to 1 in 4.5 calibers at muzzle. The 8-inch 
 gun, 4 grooves; twi.st increasing from to 1 
 in 40 calibers at muzzle. The 7-inch gun, 3 
 grooves; twist uniform, 1 in 3.5 calibers. The 
 7 inch gun has a uniform twist because, at the 
 time of its introduction, the uniform was pre- 
 ferred to the increasing spiral. See System of 
 Jiijtiny and WooUtirh Gun. 
 ENGRAILED.— In Heraldry, the line com- 
 posed of a series of little half-moons, or semicircles, 
 supposed to have been made in it by hail. Engrailed 
 is the ojiposite of inrertiil. See IJiraldrij. 
 
 ENGUICHE.— A hunting-horn, the rim around the 
 i mouth of which is of a different color from the horn 
 I itself, is said heraldically to be engiikh', of the color 
 in question. See Heraldry. 
 
 EN L'AIR. — Literally, in the air, unsupported. It 
 is said that a division is en I'air when it is unsup- 
 )iorte(i or too far from the army either to render a-s- 
 sistance or to receive support. For instance, at the 
 beginning of the war of 1870-71 General Douai was 
 at Bell fort, JlacMahon in the east of the Vosgcs, 
 I)e Failly, en I'air, between Prossard and the Duke 
 of Magenta. 
 
 ENLARGEMENT.— The act of going or being al- 
 lowed to go lievond the iirescribed limits; as the ex- 
 tending the boundaries of an arrest, when the officer 
 is Siiid to be enlarged, or under arrest at large. En- 
 largements of the bore and vent are injuries suffered 
 by all cannon that are subjected to ra])iil and constant 
 tiring and erosion. When it becomes considerable, 
 the vent is reboucbcd. 
 
 ENLISTMENT.— The mode by which the English 
 army is supplied with troops, as distinguished ?rom 
 the conscription prevailing in many other coun- 
 tries. Enlistiiiiiit was in private hands until the 
 year 1802, mi<ldlemen procuring recruits, and receiv- 
 ing a iirotit or commission for their trouble. This 
 system being subject to much abuse, the matter was 
 taken into the hands of the Government in the above- 
 named year, and is now managed by the Adjutant 
 General. Formerly a soldier enlisted for life, and 
 could never look forward to a pciiod of freedom; or, 
 at best, he could not retire on a iiension while still 
 ])Os.se.ssed of a fair share of healtli and strength. 
 This system was changed in 1847 by an Act relating 
 to liiniled eidistmcnt ; which provided that a man 
 should enlist for 10 years for the infantry, or for 13 
 for the cavalry or artilleiy. At the cxi)iration of this 
 period he could cither quit the army, without pen- 
 sion; or re-enlist for the remainder of 21 vears for the 
 infantry, tir 24 years for cavaliy or artillery. This 
 second peiiod of service entitled the .soldier to a pen- 
 sion for life, after his discharge: and in 1868 two- 
 Iiencc a day was added to the pay of every soldier 
 who re-enlisted (or re-engaged). Yhis system of en- 
 listment provided soldiers: but did nothing for the
 
 ENNISKILLEN DRAGOONS. 
 
 573 
 
 ENSIGN. 
 
 growth of trained reserves, with wliich to bring the 
 army to fiehling strength in the event ot war. The 
 "Army Enlistment Act" of 1870 seeks to remedy 
 this defect, by allowing men to enlist for 12 years, 
 ■with the understanding that 6 years or less shall be 
 passed with the Colors, and the remainder with the 
 Reserve. This is known as " short service." If ap- 
 prentices enlist, the master may recover them under 
 certain conditions detailed in the Mutiny Act (which 
 is passed everj' year). The Mutiny Act also provides 
 that servants enlisting before the term of their engage- 
 ment arc validly enlisted, and are entitled to wages 
 up to the date of enlistment. Periods of imprison- 
 ment are not reckoned as part of the time of limited 
 enlistment. A recruit enlists into either one of the 
 70 sub-district brigades, each of which comprises 
 either a two-battalion regiment or two single-battalion 
 regiments, or 'le enlists for general service in any 
 regiment to which the Adjutant General may post 
 him; but artificers, as armorers, etc., are usually en- 
 listed for general serrtce, so that their scr\-ices may 
 be made available where most required. The Army 
 Discipline and Regulation Act of 1879 made several 
 important alterations in regard to enlistment. The 
 recruit had always to appear before a JIagistrale, but 
 formerly could not refuse to take the oath without 
 paying a tine of 20». Xow he Is not enlisted until he 
 appear before the Magistrate, who causes to be read 
 to him a series of authorized questions, and sjitisties 
 himselif that the man is not under the influence of 
 liquor, and voluntarily agrees to enlist. The recruit 
 then signs the declaration, takes the oath, and is at- 
 tested by the Magistrate. If the recruit does not so 
 appear, or appearing does not assent, no further pro- 
 ceedings are taken. If within three months of his 
 attestation a recruit pays a sum not exceeding £10, 
 he is now entitled to be discharged. 
 
 Enlistment in the United States army is superin- 
 tended by the Bureau of the Recruiting Service, the 
 Chief Otiiccr of which is stationed in New York City. 
 There are quarters or branches in nearly all tlie large 
 cities of the Union, and two Depots to which recruits 
 are sent — Fort Columbus, New York Harbor, and 
 the Barracks at Newport, Ky. Men are enlisted for 
 five years, and ma}' be assigned to any branch of the 
 serrice. 
 
 The following is a list of the various " calls" for 
 troops by the I nited States Government during the 
 War of the Rebellion: 
 
 Date of Call. 
 
 April 15, 1862 
 
 May to June S5, 1862, 
 
 Julys, 1862 
 
 Augrust 4. 1862 
 
 October 17. 1868 
 
 Febnmry 1. 1864 .... 
 
 March 14, 1864 
 
 July 18,1864 
 
 December 19, 1861. . 
 
 Number 
 of Men. 
 
 75,000 
 530.000 
 300.000 
 300,000 
 300,000 
 200.000 
 200.000 
 500,000 
 300,000 
 
 Term of 
 Service. 
 
 3 months 
 3 years 
 3 years 
 9 months 
 3 years I 
 3 years ) 
 3 years 
 1-2-3 years 
 1-2-3 "years 
 
 Number 
 obtained. 
 
 I 
 
 93..328 
 714.213 
 431. 9.M 
 
 87,oai 
 
 374,807 
 
 2(M.021 
 384,882 
 2l>4,668 
 
 There were other calls for 30 and 100 days' men. 
 The whole number called for was 2,7.")9,049; total ob- 
 tained, 2,6o6,.").')3. Bv Act of Congress March 3, 
 1863, called the " Con.scription Act," the President 
 was authorized to draft troops. The Act provided 
 for an enrollment, a draft, the reception of substi- 
 tutes, and arrest of deserters. About 3,000,000 men 
 Ijctwecn the ages of 20 and 45 were enrolled. The 
 calls from October 17, 1863, were oixiers for drafts. 
 But probably not more than .50,000 drafted men per- 
 formed p<-rs()nal senice. Substitutes were obtained. 
 The "Substitute Fund" of the Government, consist- 
 ing of money paid in as a release from service, and 
 which was used as a " bounty fund" for volunteers, 
 amount.'d to $2.5.902.029. 
 
 ENNISKILLEN DRAGOONS.— A British regiment 
 of horse; it was tirst instituted irom the brave de- 
 fenders of Enaiskillen, in 1689. 
 
 ENROLL. — To place a man's name on the roll or 
 
 nominnl list of a Ixxly of -soldiers. See Eiilittment. 
 
 ENSCONCE. — A term generally signifying, in a 
 mililarv <ense, to cover as with a fort. 
 
 ENSEIGNE.— The Colors. The French designate 
 all warlike s\Tnlx)ls under the term enseigne; but they 
 again distinguish that word bj- the appellations of 
 Drapeaujr, Colors, and Etendaith, Standards. Dra- 
 peaux or Colors are particularly characteristic of the 
 infsmtry ; EttndarcUi or Standards belong to the cav- 
 aln.-. 
 
 ENSEMBLE.— Together: the exact execution of the 
 same movements performed in the same manner and 
 by the same motions. It is the union of all the men 
 who compose a battalion, or several battalions or com- 
 panies of infantry and cavalrj', who are to act as if 
 put in motion bv the same spring. See Cadencf. 
 
 ENSIGN.— 1. "Until 1871 Ensign was the title of 
 the lowest combatant rank of Commissioned OOicers 
 in the British army, and is derived from their Iwing 
 charged with the duty of carrying the Regimental 
 Colors or Ensign. In the hand-io-hand mPlees of the 
 Sliddle Ages, the preservation of the Colors or Stand- 
 ard, as the rallying-point of those fighting under the 
 same leader, was a matter of vital importance, and 
 was only intrusted to the bravest and most trustwor- 
 thy. The Colors were committed to him with impos- 
 ing ceremony in presence of the assembled regiment, 
 and he had to take an oath to defend them with life 
 and limb, and if need were, to wrap himself in them 
 as a shroud, and devote himself to death. The man 
 who undertook this perilous post received sometimes 
 as much as sixfold the usual pay. It was doubtless 
 in this waj' that the point of honor arose rcsix'Cting 
 the Colors. History records repeated instances where 
 the oath was kept to the letter. In the modern sys- 
 tem of warfare the Regimental Colors are seldom 
 exposed to such danger, and the office of Ensign is 
 of less accoimt. In the infantry there were two 
 kinds of Subalterns below the Captain, viz., the Lieu- 
 tenant and tlie Ensign. In the cavalry and the artil- 
 lery the duties of Ensign were taken by officers who 
 had the titles of Cornet or Second Lieutenant. When 
 a gentleman entered the army he began as an Ensign 
 (if in the infantry), and from this rank he rose by 
 purcha.se or seniority. The pay was .5«. 'id. per day, 
 and the half-pay Is.'lOrf. to 3s. ;" although it was most 
 unusual for an "Ensign to be on half-pay. An Ensign 
 in the Foot-guards nmked as a Lieutenant in the anny, 
 and, on transferring his services to an infantrj' or 
 cavalry regiment, exchanged with an officer of that 
 grade. 
 
 The rank of Ensign having been abolished in the 
 British army, the number of Lieutenants has been 
 proportionately increa.sed ; but for three years the 
 officer only receives the same pay as the Ensign for- 
 merly had. The officer enters in the probalionarj' 
 grade of Sub-lieutenant, which is converted to Lieu- 
 tensmt as soon as he proves himself qualified to com- 
 mand soldiers and perform the other duties of the of- 
 fice. In the late East Intlia Company's armv, a Cadet 
 became an Ensign in rank and pay directly he landed 
 in India. 
 
 2. In the United States navy an Ensign is the Na- 
 tional Flag. It is also used \x\ the merchant-service 
 to dc-signate the countrj- to which the vessel belongs. 
 There "is an officer in the navy called Ensign who 
 ranks Inflow Master and above Midshipman. In the 
 army and the militia an Ensign is assigiiwl to each 
 company, his dutv being to carry the flag or standani 
 of the company. " Sometimes the duty falls *o a Ser- 
 geant. 
 
 Ensisn is also the name of one of the flags Ijelong- 
 ing to the British fleet; and, under that or some other 
 name, to most other fleeUs. It is a large flag or ban- 
 ner hoisted on an Ensign staff, a long ix)le erected 
 over the iXK)p, or at the gaff when the ship is under 
 sail. Its chief purjwse is to denote the nation to 
 which the ship belomrs. The English Ensign has for 
 a groundwork one of three colors— red, white, or
 
 £NTANGL£1I£NTS. 
 
 574 
 
 EPEE SE FAS80T. 
 
 blue — and bears the union double cross of St. Gcorjrc 
 and St. Andit'W, or Union Jack, in the upix-r corner 
 next the mast (dexter-cliicn. Tlie ithiU' Ensign i.s al.so 
 divided into four <iuarters by a red cro.s.s of St. George, 
 and i.s limited to sliips-of-wur. ilerchant-ves.-*'l< arc 
 only allow wl to carry the lilut Ensign; but yachts, if 
 of "clubs acknowledged by the Adniinilty, colonial 
 armed vesiicls, ships connected with Government De- 
 partments, and merchant-vessels conunaudcd by otti- 
 cersof the Naval Reserve, arc permitted to use the ;<</ 
 Ensign. Formerly the English Admirals required 
 ships of all other nations to dip their Ensigns to the 
 English flag; the refu-sid of the Dutch to comply -with 
 this custom was the signal for one of Blake's bloodiest 
 encounters with Van Tromp. See Fhtys and Standard. 
 ENTANGLEMENTS.— Everj- approach which an 
 enemy might use to reach .i work should be so ob- 
 structed as to keep him as long as possible under a 
 close tire of musketrv. The best thing for this pur- 
 pose is wire entanglement, made by planting stout 
 stakes, about 3* feet long, 2 feet in the ground and 7 
 feet apart, in quincunx order and in three or four 
 
 lines, as shown in the 
 drawing. Around the 
 tops of these stakes, at 
 from 12 to 18 inches 
 from the groimd, in 
 notches prepared for 
 the purpose, telegraph 
 or other strong wire 
 is very securely wound, extending from one stake to 
 another. This obstacle is rapidly made, is difficult 
 to remove, and can be injured but little by the tire 
 of the enemy. A kind of abatis formed of trees, 
 with the trunks cut half through, forms a very se- 
 rious ol)staele to the advance of an assailant. 
 
 ENTERPSISER.— An officer who undertakes or en- 
 g-.iges ill any important and hazardous design. 
 
 ENTIRE. — A line of men in one continued row by 
 the side of e;ich other. When formed behind each 
 other tliey are said to be in file. The usual expres- 
 sion is rank entire. 
 
 ENTONNOIR.— The cavity or hole which remains 
 after the explosion of a mine. It likewise means the 
 tin-case nr port-fire which is used to convey the 
 priniiiiL' powder into the vent of acannon. See Crater. 
 ENTRENCH.— To construct hastily thrown-up field- 
 works for the purpose of strengthening any force in 
 position. When the ground is undulating, rocky, or 
 ■woody, it is easy to avoiil the enemy's siglit and fire; 
 but w"hen it is bare and level, the art of entrenching 
 is of first importance. Tlie history of all liattles of 
 late years has shown the expediency of making use 
 of natural shelter or constructing fielil-intrenchments. 
 Not only is such artificial sliclter necessary in action, 
 but it is frequently invaluable for the purpose of con- 
 cealing the troops before the fire has opened. A very 
 sligiit i)anipet of newly excavated earth is sufflcieiit 
 to protect men from the effects of rifle-balls. Ex- 
 periment shows that the penetration of the ball (ser- 
 vicc-riHe) at a range of 10 yards is 20 inches, and only 
 10 inches at 200 yards. After a little pra(!tice, each 
 soldier will ascertain the fonn of pit that best suits 
 and protex-ts him. The depth need not be uniform, 
 hut should be at least 10 inches where tlie liody rests, 
 and (i inches elsewhere. With a view to lessening the 
 effect of the enemy's fire, the soldier should lie down 
 well under and behind the cover. The soldier should 
 never Ih' separated from an intrenching-tool of some 
 description. Many are the instances recorded where 
 it was impossible to forward the intrenching-tools to 
 the front until after the exigency for their use had 
 pa.ised, and the men were compelled to use tin plat<;s, 
 tin cans, fragmenls of canteens, knives, sticks, etc., 
 in order to get temporary shelter from the enemy's 
 most galling fire. See Iiitreuchuicut. 
 
 ENTREPOT.— An intermediate depot for the recep- 
 tion of stores and arms in a garrison town where there 
 is no ars<-nal or magazine. 
 ENVELOPE.— The name applied to the continuous 
 
 enceinte formed when the counter-guards of the bas- 
 tions are joined to those of the ravelins. 
 
 ENVIRON. — In a military sense, to inclose or sur- 
 round in a hostile manner; to hem in; to besiege. 
 
 EPARCH. — The Governor of a Province in ancient 
 Greice, or Prefect of a region under the rule of liome. 
 In modern GR'Cce a Province of the Kingdom is 
 called a Monarchy, and a sulxlivision of a Jlonarchy 
 an Eparchy. In Russia the tenii denotes the Diocese 
 or Archdiocese of a Bishop or Archbishop. 
 
 EPAULE. — In fortification, the shoulder of a bas- 
 tion, or the place where its face and flank meet and 
 form the angle, called the angle of the shoulder. 
 
 EPAULEMENT.— hi fortification, a ]iortion of a 
 battery or earthwork. The siege-batteries are gene- 
 rally shielded, at one end at least, by epaulcmcnts, 
 forming an obtuse angle with the main line of the 
 battery. The object is to protect the guns and gun- 
 ners from i. flanking fire. The name is often given 
 erroneously to the parajiet of the batter}' itself, but it 
 applies properly to the flanking return onlj'. Some- 
 times the whole of a small or secondary earthwork, 
 including the batterj- and its fianks, is called an 
 epaulement; and soiiietimes the name is given to an 
 i.solated breastwork intended to shield the cavalry 
 employed in defending a body of besiegers. An 
 epaule is the shoulder of a bastion, where one of 
 the faces and one of the flanks meet: and this points 
 to the proper meaning of epaulement, as a shoulder or 
 flanking work. The following distinctions are usually 
 observed: "When the covering mass is so constructed as 
 to afford the assailed a view and fire over the assjiil- 
 ant's line of approach, it is termed a parapet; when 
 intended simply as a screen or cover from the fire of 
 theeneni}-, it is termed an epaulement ; and when used 
 to cover troops or guns from an enfilading fire on the 
 flank or in the rear, it is known as a traverse. See 
 Parapet and Trarcrse. 
 
 EPAULETS— EPAULETTES.— Shoidder-knots worn 
 by militarj- and naval officers, as the marks of distinc- 
 tion, and as ornaments. In the British navy the of- 
 ficers of and above the rank of Lieutenant wear epau- 
 lets of gold lace, one on each shoulder. Sub-lieu- 
 tenants wearing one only. The ranks and degrees 
 are marked in a very systematic way by means of 
 crowns, anchors, and stars worked in silver on the 
 cpaidct, and also by the size of the cords of the 
 epaulets itself. This decoration was formerly uni- 
 versal in the British army, officers wearing those of 
 gold, men of worsted; but they were aboli.shed during 
 the Russian war, in consequence of the dangers to 
 which officers thus ea.sily marked out were exposed. 
 It is retained by the French army alone of the armies 
 of the great Powers. Epaulets are worn by General 
 Officers in ♦be United States service, as also by the 
 officers of most militia organizations. The following 
 patterns are prescribed for General Officers: — thr the 
 General of the Army: Of gold, with solid crescent; 
 device — two silver embroidered stars, with five rays 
 each, \h inch in diameter, and the "Arms of the 
 United States " embroidered in gold jdaccd between 
 them. For a Lkntenatit General: Of gold, with solid 
 crescent; device — three silver embroidered stars of five 
 rayseach, respectively 1*, 1}, and li incli in diameter. 
 The largest placed in the center of the crescent; the 
 others placed longitudinally on the strap and equidis- 
 tant, ranging in order of size from the crescent. Fiyr 
 a Major General: Same as for Lieutenant General, 
 omitting smallest star, and the smaller of the two 
 remaining stars placed in the center of the strap. 
 For a Hrit/adkr General: Same as for Lieutenant 
 General, omitting everything but the largest star. See 
 Shiy}ililer-kniit,<. 
 
 EPAULIERE.— A thick strap of leather employed 
 in ancient times. It passed over the shoulder and 
 sustiiined the cuirass, composed of two pieces, breast- 
 aiid liack-iilatc. Sec Cuirass. 
 
 EPEE DE PA8S0T.— A very short sword of Italian 
 origin, used in the fifteenth century, and very much 
 like the anelace.
 
 £FHEBI. 
 
 575 
 
 EQUATION OF DEFENSE. 
 
 EPHEBI. — In Grecian antiquity, the name given to 
 the Attic youth from tlie age of eighteen till they 
 entered upon their twentieth year. During thi.s pcriotl 
 they served a .sort of apprenticeship in arm.s, and 
 were frequently sent, under the name of peripoli, to 
 «)me of the frontier towns of Attica to keep watch 
 against foreisn invasion. 
 
 EFIBAT£. — lu Grecian antiquity, the name given 
 to soldiers whase duty it was to tight on board ship. 
 They corresponded almost exactly to the Marines of 
 modem naval warfare. The term is sometimes 
 found in Roman authors to denote the same class of 
 soldiers, hut the general plira.se adopted by them is 
 iiiifites rhimdrii, or sneii iiaiales. 
 
 EFIGNASE. — A small variety of ordnance which 
 does not exceed one pound in caliber. 
 
 EPIGONI. — A term which signilies the " heirs" or 
 "descendants." It was applied to the Sons of the 
 Seven Chiefs who conducted an expedition against 
 Thebes to restore Pohiiices, and who were all killed 
 except Adrastus. Ten years later, the Epigoni — 
 namely, Alcmieon, Thersander, Diomedes, ^gialeus, 
 Promachus, Sthenelus, and Euryalus — renewed the 
 enterprise and took Thebes. The War of the Epigoni 
 was celebrated by several ancient epic and dramatic 
 poets. 
 
 EPINGLETTE.— A large iron needle with which the 
 cartridge of any large piece of ordnance is pierced 
 before it is primed. 
 
 EPINIKIAN. — Pertaining to or celebrating victory; 
 as. an epiuikian ode. 
 
 EPIXAGUA. — All the elementary tacticjil combina- 
 tions, OT foniidtioiis, of the Greeks were methodical, 
 but yet very simple. An army corps was conipo.sed 
 of a tetrap/iala ngarc/iid , also termed a grand pha- 
 lanx, consisting of 16,.3.>4 oplitai. An epitaf/m<i, of 
 8192 psiloi; and an epitagma of cavalry of 4096 men. 
 The heavy-armed or infantry of the line bore to the 
 light infantry and cavalry the ratio of the numbers 
 2, 4, and 1. The epitagraa of cavalry was divided 
 into two equal parts, each composed alike, termed 
 tetea. One was placed on each wing of the line of 
 battle. The telos was subdivided into .5 divisions; 
 the strength of each subdivision l>eing the half of the 
 one next in order above it The lowest, termed i/a, 
 of 64 horsemen, corresponding to the modem squad- 
 ron, was drawn up on a front of 16 with 4 files, and 
 was commanded bv an officer to whom was given the 
 title of //-(/•'■;,. 
 
 E PLURIBUS UNUM.— " One out of many." A 
 motto adopted by the United States since the " Dec- 
 laration of Independence," in 1776. 
 
 EPOUVANTE.— A sudden panic with which troops 
 are seized, and under which they retreat without any 
 actual necessity for so doing. 
 
 EPEOUVETTE. — A machine for proving or testing 
 the strength of gunpowder. It was invented or 
 suggested in the last century by Robins, but was 
 greatly improved by Dr. Hutton. The gun-eprou- 
 vette determines the strength of gunpowder by the 
 amount of recoil produced. A .small gun, usually a 
 " half-pounder," is fi.xed to the lower end of an iron 
 rod. its base being adjustwl to an arm projecting 
 from the rod; or else it is suspended from an iron 
 frame. A horizontal steel axis is fixed to the rod or 
 frame about which the gun may vibrate. A pointed 
 iron rod or style projects downwards from the lower 
 side of the gun, and touches a groove filled with soft 
 wax; the groove is so shaped that, when the gun re- 
 coils, the point cuts a path for it.self along this wax; 
 and the length of this path deteraiines the amount of 
 recoil. Sometimes a brass graduated arc with au in- 
 dex is used instead of the pointed style and the wa.xed 
 groove; but the principle of action is just the same. 
 On the arc the recoil should vary from 26 for new 
 fine-grain powder to 20° 5' for old powder of coarse 
 grain. This system of proof is resorted to annually 
 at minor and foreign stations for the proof of all pow- 
 der in store, to a.scertain the amount of deterioration; 
 five rounds constitute the minimum proof. Before 
 
 the eprouvette is resorted to, the powder must pass 
 the test of specific gravity, by weighing not less than 
 oH lbs. to the cubic foot. The mortar-eprouvctte de- 
 termines the strength of gunpowder by the distance 
 to which a ball is projected, instead of the distance 
 to which the piece recoils. It is generally a mortar of 
 
 Eprouvette. 
 
 8-inch bore, in which 2 to 4 ounces of powder is em- 
 ployed to propel an accurately turned iron shot to a 
 distance of about 120 yards. Other things being 
 equal, the strongest gunpowder sends the shot to the 
 greatest distance; and this is the usual mode adopted 
 in testing gunpowder supplied to the Government by 
 various contractors. The ordinarj' eprouvette is an 
 instrument shaped like a small pistol without a bar- 
 rel, and having its breech-chamber closed by a flat 
 plate connected with a strong spring. On the ex- 
 plosion of the powder against the plate, it is driven 
 back to a dis'tance indexed according to the strength 
 of the powder, and is retaine*! at its extreme state of 
 propulsion bv a ratchet-wheel. 
 
 EPEOTJVETTE-BED.— This consists of a block of 
 wood, on to|) of which is countersunk and bolted the 
 bed-plate, which is a heavy circular plate of cast-iron, 
 having a rectangular recess, with sloping sides, so as 
 to make it longest at the bottom. Into this recess 
 the sole of the mortar slides. The wooden block is 
 bolted to a stone block of the same size, which is 
 firmly placed in the ground on a masonry founda- 
 tion. The bed is 22 inches long by 22 inches wide, 
 and weighs 280 pounds. See Pkttform. 
 
 EQUALIZE.— To render the distribution of any 
 nimiber of men equal as to the comijonent parts. To 
 equalize a battalion is to tell off a certain number of 
 companies, usually eight, in such a manner that the 
 several component parts shall con.sist of the same 
 number of men. 
 
 EQUATION OF DEFENSE.— Let A B C D represent 
 the line of an interior crest; a b c d, that of the 
 foot of the banquette slope; F, the outlet through the 
 parapet; and E, the inferior traverse. Representing 
 by X the numlx'r of yards in 
 the side A B, the side .\ B will 
 be equal to r diminished by 
 twice the di.sfance t)ctween 
 A B and a b, which distance 
 may be taken on an average 
 at nine yards; the area of the 
 s(iuare n c, or of the tcrre- 
 plcin, will tlien be represented 
 l>y(j- — »)'. Let the follow- 
 ing notation be adopted: y, 
 the number of the garrison; 
 r, the reserS'C taken from the 
 parri.son; n, the number of ranks on the banquette 
 for the defense; «, the area of the terre-plein occu- 
 pied by a barbette in the salient; k' , the area occu- 
 pied on the terre-plein by the powder-magazine; k' , 
 the area occupied by the traverec, and the pa.s.siige in 
 its rear; /, the number of yards on the interior crest 
 for a barbette in the salient; V, the width of the out- 
 let F in yards. Now, as the area allowed for each 
 man is one and a half square yards, we shall obtain 
 the following equation, to represent the relation be- 
 tween the terre-plein, the garrison, etc.: 
 
 (J- -9y = 1..50ir-f » + »+«' ... (1) 
 This isUtua^A the equation of the interior space. As
 
 EQUATION OF TIME. 
 
 576 
 
 EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF PROJECTILES. 
 
 each man occupies one liocal yard along the interior 
 crest, we obtain also 
 
 4j = 
 
 y-r 
 
 ■l + i; 
 
 (2) 
 
 which is termed tfie equation of tl<fen»e, as it expresses 
 the relation bclwecn the development of the interior 
 crest, the remainder of the gjirrison after taking out 
 the reserve, the number of ninks for the defense, and 
 the lenfrtli of the interior crest required for the can- 
 non in bartjette, and for the outlet. To show the ap- 
 plication of the equations (1) and ('2), lei it be re- 
 quiR-d to find the side of a redoubt, and the number 
 of its garrison, which shall be defended by two ranks 
 on the Ixmquette, after taking out a reserve of one 
 tliird of the whole number, and have a barbette in 
 each salient. By a calculation, easily made, it can be 
 shown that each barbette will occupy alwut seventy- 
 five square yards of the terre-plein; a powder-mag- 
 azine for four guns, twenty sijuare yarils; a traverse 
 of earth, with the pa.s.siige between it and the foot of 
 the ban(iuette, about 180 yards; or, if of timber, about 
 fifty square yards; the portion of the interior crest for 
 each barbette will be nearly cighteenlineal yards, and 
 that for the pas-sage about four lineal yards. Taking 
 equation (i). and making the substitutions required 
 by the conditions of the problem, we obtain 
 
 4r: 
 
 .y-\y 
 
 + 4 + 73; 
 
 and from it. 
 
 y = l%x- 228. 
 
 Substituting this value of .v in equation (1), and placing 
 for «, »', «', their values, we have 
 
 (? - 9)» = l&r - 342 + 300 + 20 + 180, 
 or (x-9)» = iar+158; 
 
 from which, by solving the equation, 
 « = 38 yards; 
 
 consequently 
 and 
 
 y = 228 men, 
 r = 76 men. 
 
 EQUATION OF TIME.— It is well known that the 
 earth's motion in the ecliptic— or what is the same 
 thing, the sun's apparent motion in longitude — is not 
 uniform. This want of uniformity would of it.self 
 ol)\iously cause an irregidarity in" the time of the 
 sun's coming to the meridian on successive days; b\it 
 bi'sidcs this want of uniformity in the sun's apparent 
 motion in the ecliptic, there is another cause of in- 
 equality in the time of its coming on the meridian, 
 \nz., the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equinoctial. 
 Even if the sun moved in the equinoctial, there would 
 be an inequality in this respect, owing to its want 
 of uniform motion; and even if it moved uniformly 
 in the ecliptic, there would be such an incqualitv, 
 owing to the obliquity of its orbit to the equinoctial! 
 These two independent cjuises conjointly produce the 
 inequality in the time of its appearance on the merid- 
 ian, the correction for which is the E(iuation of Time. 
 
 When the sun's center comes to the meridian, it is 
 apparent noon; and if it moved \Hiifomily on the 
 equinoctial, this would always coincide with mean 
 mmii, or 12 o'clock on a good solar clock. But from 
 the causes above e.\-plained, mean and apparent noon 
 differ, the latter taking place sometimes as much as 
 Ifii minutes before the former, and at others as much 
 as 14* minutes after. The ditTerence for any dav 
 called, as we have sjiid, the Equation of Time, is to 
 be found inserted in ephemerides for everj' dav of 
 the year. It is nothing or zero at fourdifTerent times 
 in the yejir, at which the whole nii an and unequal 
 motions exactly agree; viz., atxiut the l.'ilh of April 
 the l.'ith of .lune, the 31st of August, and the 24th of 
 December. At all other times the .sun is either too 
 fast or too slow for clo<'k-time. In the ephemerides 
 above referred to, the sign + or — is prefixe<l to the 
 e(piation of time, according as it is to 1k' added to 
 or subtracted from the apparent time to give the mean 
 time. See Time. 
 
 EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF PROJECTILES.- In 
 the article Th.v.ikotouv, the following relation be- 
 tween the co-ordinates of a point of the trajectoiy, 
 the angle of projection, and the height due to the 
 velocitv is found to exist, viz.. 
 
 ' = j: . tan ,4 — 
 
 4A . cos* A' 
 
 (1) 
 
 F being the initial velocity, it is teadily seen that 
 
 y= VtsinA-igt^; .... (2) 
 also, x= FCcos^, (8) 
 
 X 
 
 and 
 
 < = v. 
 
 V cos A' 
 
 (4) 
 
 To detennine the vertical ascent and horizontal 
 range of the projectile, differentiate equation (1), and 
 
 place the value of 
 
 dy 
 dx 
 
 : 0; whence we obtain 
 
 (5) 
 
 X= 4A sin 4 cos4 = ih sin 2A 
 
 ^X being the abscissa of the highest point, 
 
 r=;isin*^ (6) 
 
 The first value of X shows that the range can be ob- 
 tained with two angles of projection, provided they 
 be complements of each other ; the second value 
 shows that the greatest range corresponds to an angle 
 of 4.5 , and that this nrnge is equal to twice the height 
 due to the velocity; and also that variations in the 
 angle of fire produce less variations in range as the 
 angle of fire approaches 45°. 
 
 If two projectiles be thrown under the same angle, 
 with different initial velocities, Fand F , the ranges 
 being X and X', we have 
 
 V 
 X=r2Asm24 = — sin 2^, and X' — — sin 2^ 
 9 
 
 and from these we have 
 
 F_ VX 
 
 F ~ ^/x" 
 
 Therefore, under the same angle of fire, the ranges 
 
 are proportional to the squares of the velocities; and 
 
 reciprocally, the velocities are proportional to the 
 
 square roots of the ranges. 
 
 ds 
 The velocity at any stated point is equal to v.. or 
 
 9 
 
 (7) 
 
 d f + rfj' 
 
 de ■ 
 
 dt' 
 Substituting the values of dy and dx 
 
 obtained by differentiating equations (2) and (3), we 
 have J)« = F — 2F<7?sin ,4 +;?'<'-. Substituting for 
 — 2 Vgt sin A -\- g-t- its value — 2gy derived from 
 equation (2), we have c' = V — 2gy. Replace V'' by 
 '2g/i, and reduoing, the expression becomes 
 
 ''= \'2glh^), .... (8) 
 
 This shows that the velocity of a projectile at anj' 
 point depends on its height above the muzzle of the 
 piece, and that it is equal to that which is attained in 
 fidling through the height (h — y). It also shows 
 that the velocity is least when y is greatest, or at the 
 sunimit of the trajectory; and that the velocities at 
 the two points in which the trajectory cuts the hori- 
 zontal plane are e(iual. 
 
 Till' total time of llight may be determined by sub- 
 stituting the value of X= 4/( sin .4 cos J, equation 
 (5), in equation (4), which becomes 
 
 __ 4A sin.4 _ Fsin J. ... 
 
 If ^ =r 45°, sin A = i'J, and 
 the time of flight, we have 
 
 r=VgX. CaUing T, 
 
 y i{i V 16.07 *^^-
 
 EftTTATORIAL. 
 
 577 
 
 EQUATOSIAL. 
 
 Hence the time of flight for an angle of 45' is equal 
 to the square root of the quotient of the range di%ided 
 by one half of the force of gravitj-; or, it is approxi- 
 mately equal to one fourth of the square root of the 
 range expressed in feet. 
 The tangent of the angle made by a tangent line at 
 
 any point of the trajectory is equal to ---, which is ob- 
 tained by differentiating equation (1) ; calling this 
 angle 0, we have 
 
 tan 'i — tan A ■ 
 
 Ih cos* A 
 
 (10) 
 
 Substitute the value of X = 4A sin .-1 cos^l, the angle 
 of fall on horizontal ground is tan 'i— — tan A; that 
 is to say, the angle of fall is equal to the angle of pro- 
 jection, measured in an opposite direction. 
 
 The position of a point Ijeing given, to find the ini- 
 tial velocity necessary to attain'it. Let a and h \ni the 
 horizontal and vertical co-ordinates of this point of 
 the cur\'e, and i its angle of elevation. Substituting 
 these quantities in equation (1), and recollecting that 
 
 tan £ = — , we have 
 a 
 
 , _ a cos « 
 
 ~ 4sinC.l — £).cos^' 
 
 or 
 
 r 2sinU 
 
 ag cos £ 
 
 £) . cos A 
 
 (11) 
 
 The position of a point being given, to find the 
 angle of fire neces.sary to attain it. Substituting a 
 and h for x and y in equation (1) we have 
 
 h = a tan J. ■ 
 
 4A cos' A 
 
 from which to determine A. Making tan ^ = a, we 
 have cos' A = — - — -: which being substituted in the 
 above equation gives 
 
 a = tan^ 
 
 ^\k 
 
 %h ± ^'W - Ub ■ 
 
 -J 
 
 o.- 
 
 Hang 
 aogl 
 
 es at 
 es of 
 
 Times of flight. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "a'i 
 
 ■5s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «t 
 
 -°'8 
 
 45» 
 
 30» 
 
 Ob- 
 
 Calcu- 
 
 Ob- 
 
 Calcu- 
 
 a 
 
 5= 
 
 
 
 served 
 
 lated. 
 
 served 
 
 lated. 
 
 
 Kilog. 
 
 Met'rs 
 
 Mefrs 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 
 0.234 
 
 MS 
 
 290 
 
 9.8 
 
 8.4 
 
 6.8 
 
 5.8 
 
 8-inch.. 
 
 0.851 
 
 629 
 
 561 
 
 12.9 
 
 11. S 
 
 10.0 
 
 8.1 
 
 
 0.585 
 
 1146 
 
 1011 
 
 16.0 
 
 15.3 
 
 12.3 
 
 10. « 
 
 
 0.9SM 
 
 1798 
 
 169U 
 
 20.8 
 
 19.2 
 
 16.9 
 
 14.1 
 
 f 
 
 0.468 
 
 457 
 
 dd 
 
 11. 
 
 9.7 
 
 7.5 
 
 6.8 
 
 
 0.693 
 
 784 
 
 6.37 
 
 14 
 
 12.2 
 
 10.0 
 
 8.7 
 
 lO-inch. 
 
 1.054 
 
 nsa 
 
 980 
 
 17.0 
 
 15.2 
 
 12.0 
 
 10.2 
 
 
 1.405 
 
 1&.55 
 
 1355 
 
 20.0 
 
 17.8 
 
 14.0 
 
 12.6 
 
 , 
 
 1.639 
 
 1757 
 
 1516 
 
 23 
 
 18 9 
 
 15.0 
 
 13.4 
 
 45° elevation, for the above projectiles, the initial ve- 
 locities being the same for each projectile. 
 
 Ranges of 10-in. Mortar-shells. 
 
 *45° ele- 
 vation. 
 
 30« 
 elevation. 
 
 Ob- 
 served. 
 
 Ob- Calcu- 
 served lated. 
 
 Differ- 
 ence. 
 
 ■a'Y (12) 
 
 The two values of tan A show that the point may be 
 attained by two angles of projection; and the radical 
 shows the solution of the problem is possible when 
 the quantity under it is positive: or, 4A* > ihb + a'. 
 
 The preceding formulae will only be found to 
 answer in practice for projectiles which experience 
 slight resistance from the air, or for heavy projectiles 
 mo\ing with low velocities, as is commonly the ca.se 
 with those of mortars and howitzers. The following 
 table gives the difference between the observed and 
 calculated times of flight of the French 8- and 10-inch 
 mortar-shells, weighing 64 and 119 pounds respec- 
 tively. The initial velocities being unkno^vn, the 
 times are calculated from the observed ranges. The 
 observed times are invariably greater than the cal- 
 culated times, as might be exi^ected from the resist- 
 ance of the air, which retards the motion of projec- 
 tiles. 
 
 The next table shows the observed and calcnlaited 
 ranges for 30" elevation, and the observed ranges for 
 
 Ranges of 8-ln. Mortar-shells. 
 
 45* ele- 
 vation. 
 
 30° 
 elevation. 
 
 Ob- Ob- Calcu- Differ- 
 ser\ed. served lated. | ence. 
 
 Meters. Met'rs Met'rs Met'rs Meters. 
 
 467 
 7»4 
 1132 
 1555 
 1757 
 
 383 
 
 e.17 
 
 980 
 1355 
 1516 I 
 
 -H3 
 6.37 
 
 9S2 ! -(- 2 ' 
 1350 ! — 5 
 1522 '4-6 
 
 243 
 629 
 1146 
 1792 
 
 Met'rs 
 •J90 
 561 
 1011 
 
 Met'rs Met'rs 
 298 , -f 8 
 .V15 —16 
 993 I —18 
 1552 1 — 138 
 
 It appears from the foregoing tables that the 
 RUiges of mortars with different degrees of elevation 
 can be calculated up to about 14(X) yards from equa- 
 tion (5), or X= 2^ sin 2.4; and the" times fromequa- 
 X 
 
 tion(4); or r=-=: -.. See Diction's Formulas, 
 
 Fcos A 
 Hefristance of the Air. and Trajeftory. 
 
 EQUATORIAL. — An imiwitant astronomical instru- 
 ment, l)y which a celestial IxKly mav he obscr^-ed at 
 any point of its diurnal course. It consists of a 
 telescope attached to a graduated circle, called the 
 declination - circle, whose axis penetrates at right 
 angles that of another graduated circle called the 
 hour-circle, and is wholly supported by it. The 
 pierced axis, which is called the principal axis of the 
 instrument, turns on fixed supports; it is pointed to 
 the pole of the heavens, and the hour-circle is of 
 course parallel to the equinoctial. In this position 
 it is easy to see that a great circle of the heavens, cor- 
 responding to the declination-circle, pa.sscs through 
 the pole, and is an hour-circle of the heavens. The 
 telescope is capable of being moved in the plane of 
 the declination-circle. If, now, the instrument Ix- so 
 adjusted that the index of the declination-circle must 
 point to zero when an equatorial sUir is in the center 
 of the field of view of tlie telescope, and tlie index of 
 the hour-circle must point to zero when the telescope 
 is in the meridian of the place, it is clear that when 
 the telescope is directed to any star, the index of the 
 declination-circle will mark "the declination of the 
 star, and that on the other circle its right ascension. 
 If the telescope be damped when directed on a star, 
 it is clciir that, should the instrument be made to ro- 
 tate on its i^rincipal axis with entire uniformity with 
 the diurnal motion of the heavens, the star would 
 always appear in the field of view. This motion of 
 rotation is communicatetl to the instrument by clock- 
 work. The drawing shows the uistrument as made 
 by Fauth and Company, United States. The tele- 
 scope can he moved in right ascension without slop- 
 ping the clock or disengaging the worm. When 
 moved sufficiently the clock ads agsiin with the regu- 
 lar rate, without pre\ious clamping. If desired, an 
 additional right-ascension circle is provided, driven 
 by an auxiliarj' clockwork, which is kept running. 
 An index shows the right ascension of the point to 
 which the telescope is then directed. The rate of the 
 driving-clock is readily changed from sidereal to 
 lunar. The instrument is provided with a number 
 of micrometrical and astronomical eye-pieces: transit 
 eyepieces and sun-shades; improved jMsition mi- 
 c"rometcr, with parallactic eye-piece movement, fine 
 movement for si)iderline, and rapid movement for 
 entire micrometer to traverse the field. The microm- 
 eter-head is di\ided on silver; the whole revolutions 
 are read off on a separate dial, which, in our opinion, 
 is the prettiest device for recording whole rums. 
 The iiasition-circle is divided on silver, ri'iiding by 
 opposing verniers and microscopes to minutes or 
 hundreilths of a degree. Large declination and hour 
 circles are divided on silver and read with two ver- 
 niers and microscopes to five seconds of arc and 
 single seconds of time respectively. A coarse gradu-
 
 £QU£BBT. 
 
 578 
 
 EQTTIFAOE. 
 
 atioD, with pointer, for convenience in setting, is put 
 on Uie edge. The driving-clock with ii conical pen- 
 dulum is connected with the polar iixis iind can be 
 thrown in and out of gear from the cye-eud of the 
 telesco^K'; adilitiomd langent-screw motion in right 
 ascension anil declination is given by means of rod:^ 
 and himilles. Ilhuuinaling lamps are attached to the 
 end of the declination-axis, bee I'raMit-instrument 
 
 Equatorial. 
 
 EQUEBEY,— At the British Court, a subordinate of- 
 ficer under the Master of the Horsi', who is usually a 
 military man. There is a Chief Equerry, also four 
 Equerries in ordinary, and an Equerry of the Crown 
 Stables. Each member of the royal family has one 
 or more Equerries. 
 
 EQUESTEIAN.— A man who rides on horseback. 
 E'/iiin ivinituK is a term in Heraldry for a knight. 
 
 EftUESTEIAN ORDEE. — This body originallv 
 formed the cavalry of the Koman army, and is siiiil 
 to have been instituted bv Romulus, "who selected 
 from the three principal lV)man trilx^s ;)00 Equitcs. 
 This number was afterward gradually inerea.sed to 
 3600, who were partly of patrician and partly of 
 plebeian rank, and required to posscs.s a certain amount 
 of property. Each of these Equites received a horse 
 from the State; but alwiit 40a n.c. a new boeiy of 
 Equitcs began to make their appearance, who were 
 obliged to furnish a horw; at their own expense. 
 These were probably wealthy noti homine*, men of 
 
 equestrian fortune, but not descended from the old 
 Equites (for it shoidd be observed that the equestrian 
 dignity was hereditary). Until Vi'.i «.c. the K(iuites 
 were exclusively a military body; but in that year 
 Caius Gracchus carried a measure by which all the 
 Ju(lk<K had to Ik- selected from ihem. 
 Then, for the first time, they became a 
 distinct order or chuss in the Slate, and 
 were called Ortht E<iueiitri». In 70 B.C. 
 Sulla deprived them of this privilege; but 
 their power did not then decrease, as the 
 forming of the pid)lic revenues appears 
 to have fallen into their hands. After 
 the conspiracy of Catiline, the Equestrian 
 Order, which on that memorable occa- 
 sion had yigorously supported the Consul 
 Cicero, began to be looked upon as a third 
 estate in the Republic; and to the title of 
 SetiaUis popiilusque Uomanns was added 
 et e(fue«tri« ordo. But, even in the be- 
 ginning of the Empire, the honor, like 
 many others, was so indiscriminately and 
 profusely conferreil that it fell into con- 
 tempt, and the body gradually became 
 extinct. As early as the later wars of 
 the Republic, the Equites had ceased to 
 constitute the common soldiers of the Ro- 
 man cavalrv, and tiLrured onlv as ollicers. 
 EQUESTRIAK STATUE.— The repre- 
 sentation of a man on lioiseback. Eques- 
 trian statues were awarded as a high 
 honor to >lilitary Commanders and per- 
 sons of distinction in Rome, and latterly 
 were, for the most part, restricted to the 
 Emperors, the most famous in existence 
 being that of the Emperor Marcus Aure 
 lius, which now stands iu the Piazza of 
 the Capitol at Rome. It is the oidy an- 
 cient equestrian statue in bronze that has 
 been preserved; an exemption which it 
 probably owed to the fact that for cen- 
 turies it was supposed to be a statue of 
 Constantine. The action of the liorse is 
 so tine, and the air of motion so success- 
 fully given to it, that Jlichael Angelo is 
 said to have called out to it " Caminina!" 
 (Go on, then I). It was originally gilt, and 
 traces of the gilding are still visible ou 
 the horse's head. So highly is this statue 
 prized, not only for its artistic but its his- 
 torical value, that an otlicer used regu- 
 larly to be appoinlf<l by the Roman Gov- 
 ernment to take care of it, under the 
 designation of the Custode del Cavallo. 
 On the occasion of the rejoicings by 
 which Rienzi's elevation to the Tril>une- 
 ship was celejirated in 1347, wine was 
 made to run out of one nostril and water 
 out of the other of this famous lior,se. 
 The statue then stood in front of the 
 Church of St. John Lateran, near to which it was 
 found, and a bunch tif tlowers has always been pre- 
 sented annually to the chapter of that basilica, in ac- 
 knowledgment of ownership, since it was removed to 
 its present site on the Capitol. All European capitals 
 are adorned, or distigvued, by numerous equestrian 
 statues, London belonging preeminently to the latter 
 category. 
 
 EQUIP. — To furnish an individual, a corps, or an 
 army with everything that is reipiisite for military 
 service, such as arms, accoutemieiils. uniforms, etc. 
 
 EQUIPAGE.— In military matters, the name given 
 to certain of the necessjir(es for oHicers and soldiers. 
 During the Crimean War many officers applied for 
 and obtained money as compensation for the loss or 
 injurv of their eipiipage, comprising horses, horse- 
 appointinents, baggage, saddlery, anil accouterments. 
 Equipments issued to private soldiers are expected to 
 last a cerljun number of years, and small deductions 
 from their pay are made iu the event of the articles.
 
 ^ 
 
 EfjutPiiSNT AND Accoutrements. Flags, staDdarUs, sabres, muskets, pikes, biiyonets, helmets, caps, sliakot' i, plumes, cuiiusoeti. k»up»acks. can.ridge-bells, Imversucks tuippiiig and mining tools, etc., of varlouH Eui-opeuii 
 countries. Rmaian: 1—1.4.12,27; a— I; 3—1,2,7,10; 4— 2, 3, S; O-a. 15, Ifl. ./JiMfriati ; ll— 5, 0, 15. 21, 22. L>T. 33. aT. 89. 13, JJ ; 3—1.9.10.12,22; U-O. 11. 18; 5-0. PttiMian: 1—0.13,11,10,29,84. 
 W,3S,38.45, «; 2-C, 11. 13, 14, 10, 17, 18, 10, 20; 3—4,5,9.18,14; 4—7,8,10; O-ia, 18, ». Sa:ci>Mv; 1— 2, 3, 7, 18, 20. 30; 5-4.8. JVciic/i: 1-10.20.28,40; »-«; 3--IS; 4-12. Wurtemberg: l-U, 
 16. Bavarian: 1—17; 4—1, 11. Danigh: 1—28; 3—7; 4r-a; 5— T Brawntchweig : 1—25, 81. <&■ 3—2. G; 5—5. Hanover: 3—21. Swedith: a-3, a EngUnh: -X-fli B— 13. Portui/ttei 5-1. Spafi- 
 
 V— *9e. 
 
 Uh: 5- 
 
 «
 
 EQUIPMENT-FUND. 
 
 579 
 
 EBHIN. 
 
 not lasting the proper time. In those cases (in the 
 English army) where a non-commissioned olficer 
 receives a commission on the ground of meritorious 
 scr%ice, an allowance of £100, if in the infantry, or 
 £1.50, if in the cavalry, is made to him to proWde 
 an equipment. The equipage of a private soldier is 
 often used as a name for the whole of his clothes, 
 arms, and accouterments collectively. The (qui- 
 jHige of an army is of two kinds: it includes all the 
 furnitiu-e of the camp, such as tents and utensils, 
 imder the name of camp-tqulpage ; -Khile fcUI-equi- 
 payr comprises the saddle-horses, baggage-horses, and 
 bagL'ase-watrons. 
 
 EQUIPMENT FUND.— A fund for the benefit of 
 ' Cadets graihialing at the United States Military Acad- 
 emy, t'our dollars per month is deposited with the 
 Treasurer from the pay of each Cadet, to be applied, 
 at the time of his promotion, to the purchase of a 
 unifonu and i(£uipnients. See Cackt. 
 
 EQUIPMENTS. — A general term signifying the 
 arms and accouterment.s and all such articles as are 
 worn or carried by the soldier; ILcy ai'i supplied by 
 certiiin Departmeiits charged with their administra- 
 tion. In the artillery service the term eg'iifment 
 includes the ordnance and carriages, the supply of 
 ammunition and stores. In the cavaln,-, all articles 
 of .saddler)', and such as the horse carries, are in- 
 cluded under tliis head. Cannoneers' equipnunt* 
 include the liauimi-p'/ueh, eartridge-pouchen, primer- 
 poucltes, and t/> n inb-staU , used in the field-service. 
 The equipments for a field-piece are the Unupion and 
 strap, tent-cortr, and tarpaulin. Other things used 
 in the ser\ice of cannon are called implements. In 
 the mounted service horxe-eqnipments comprise the 
 bridle, halter, irat^riitg-bridle, mdlle, saddle-bags, s<id- 
 dle-blankft, noxe-bag, lariat, currycomb, bnuli, etc. 
 Infantry equipnunU comprise the personal outfit of 
 the soldier, excluding the arms proper and clothing. 
 A set of equipments is called a kit. The standard 
 kit includes the knapsack, biits and plates, cartridge- 
 box, bayonet-scabbard, Jiacersack, and canteen. The 
 knapsack, haversack, imd canteen are only used when 
 marching. In future wars it is probable that an in- 
 trenching-tool will be added to the soldier's equip- 
 ment. Signal equipments comprise the flags, stJtffs, 
 flying-torches, J'mt-titrches, finuie-shddes, haversacks, 
 telescopes, etc. In the United States the term equip- 
 ments is most commonly applied to im officer's out- 
 fit, including especially those articles made of gold 
 lace and cord. The supplying of equipments to the 
 Army, Xavy, and National Guard has developed into 
 a trade of magnificent proportions. In this line the 
 house of Horstmanu Brothers & Co. take the lead. 
 It was founded in 181.5 by William. H. Ilorstmann, 
 of Cassel, Germany, who had previously learned Uie 
 art of silk-wea\ing in France. He was the first to 
 introduce the Jacquard machine into this country, 
 and applied power to the production of gold lace and 
 other narrow textile fabrics several years before the 
 attempt was made in Europe. After the death of the 
 elder Mr. Ilorstmaim, the business was continued by 
 his sons, William .1. and Sigmund Ilorstmaim, who 
 in ia53 built their factory in Philadelphia. The 
 present owners of the business represent the third 
 generation. In the factorv* are produced narrow te.\ 
 tile fabrics of all kinds, military and society g(X)ds 
 and trimmings, including swords, metal-work, leather- 
 work, gold and silver embroidery, and a great variely 
 of minor and miscellaneous articles. The Jlcssrs. 
 Horstmanu have paid special littenlion to a very fine 
 cla.ss of goods for the equipment of officers, and their 
 experience of over sixty years in the production of 
 their specialties has enabled them to bring the goods 
 to a degree of perfection in finish which challenges 
 comparison with any of foreign manufacture. Ad- 
 joining the factory are the oftices and .salesrooms of 
 the firm, who give employment to over .500 ])ersons. 
 Independent of the facilities for manufacturing all 
 articles needed for the Army, Navy, and National 
 Guard, they also import direct from tlie best sources 
 
 such materials (the production of which has not yet 
 been attempted in this country) as arc required in the 
 manufacture of the various" articles in the Ime of 
 equipment. See Accoutrements. 
 
 EQUITATION.— The art of riding. Militarv equi- 
 tation—the principles of which are the Siiine'for all 
 clas.ses of cavalry, a uniform system existmg through- 
 out the country— is described as consisting iii the skill- 
 ful and ready application of the aids with which the 
 rider guides and controls his horse in all his paces, 
 and in a settled balance of the body which enables 
 him to preserve a firm seat in everj- variety of move- 
 ment. The aids in horsemanship are the motions 
 and proper application of the bridle-hand and legs to 
 direct and iletermlne the turnings and paces of the 
 horse. Military equitation may be diviiled into three 
 parts: 1st. The complete instruction of the recruit 
 upon a trained horse, from the earliest to the last les- 
 sons. 2(1. The training of the horse by skillful and 
 experienced men. 3d. The practice of the recruit 
 and remount horse at close files in the elementary 
 parts of field-exercise to prepare them for instruction 
 in the troop or squadron. This science is indis|)ensa- 
 bly requisite for the militarj- horseman, in order that, 
 being able to govern his horse by the aiil of his legs 
 and bridle-hand, he may have the right hand at full 
 liberty for the use of his weapon, and be capable on 
 all occasions, whether acting singly or in squadron, 
 of performing his various iluties with care. WiUi 
 this \iew, both men and horses should be constantly 
 practiced in the exercise of such Ics-sons as will en- 
 able them either to move in a compact bo<ly or to act 
 singly or independently. The system of "equitation 
 now taught in the English army is that practiced at 
 the riding establishment at Canterbury-; and with 
 the view of maintaining one .system throughout the 
 country. Commanding Officers of regiments are called 
 upon from time to time to select non-commi.ssioned 
 officers and soldiers, and to send them to the riding 
 depot at Canterbury for the puqjose, as stated in the 
 Queen's Regulations, of being practiced in the equita- 
 tion exercises, and trained as riding instructors in 
 their corps. See Horsemanship. 
 
 EQUITES. — The first of the three classes of soldiers 
 in the Roman army who formed the cavalry. See 
 Equestrian Order. 
 
 ERASED. — Erased or eradicated, in Heraldry signi- 
 fies that an object is plucked or torn off, and show- 
 ing a ragged edge; as opposed to 
 coupr or coupy, cut, which shows a 
 smooth edge. A tree plucked up by 
 the roots is said to be eradicated. 
 
 ERICIUS. — In Roman anti(iuity, a 
 military eugine, so named from its 
 resemblance to a hedgehog. It was 
 a kind of ehevaux-de-frise, placed as 
 a defense at the gate of the camp. 
 
 ERICSSON GUN.— A gun with a solid wrouglit-irOD 
 barrel, (orged from a very superior iron, and rein- 
 forced with a series of thin washers, forced on with 
 accurately determined tension by hydrostatic pressure. 
 Upon the end of the breech is" fo'rged a solid fiange, 
 against which the washers abut. The wa.shers are cut 
 out of 5-inch boiler-plate, and extend forw.ard to the 
 middle of the chase, where a nut, embracing and 
 screwed upon the chase, pres-ses them against the solid 
 flange, and into close contact with each other. The 
 following are the particulars of this gun: 
 
 Total length 153 inches. 
 
 Length of reinforce of washers. . . 9(J " 
 Length of maximum diameter. . . 42 " 
 
 Ma.ximum diameter 47 
 
 Diameter t>f nuizzle 23 
 
 Diameter of bore 13 
 
 Diameter of barrel under reinforce 28i " 
 Thickness of hoops or w;i.-;hers. . . | " 
 ToUd thickness of wall of gun.... 17 " 
 
 Weisjht 47,000 pounds. 
 
 ERMIN.— An order of knights instituted in 1450 
 by Francis I., Duke of Bretagne, and which formerly 
 
 Erased.
 
 £SHINE. 
 
 580 
 
 ESCALADE. 
 
 subsisted in France. The collar of this order was of 
 gold, and comiK>sed of ears of corn in .'<jiltirt', at the 
 end of whicli huni: the ermine, with the inscription 
 ,1 mil (•/<•. The order expired when the Dukedom of 
 Urelasriie wa.s annexed to France. 
 
 ERMINE.— A white fur with Waek spots ; the re- 
 vcrsi- of which, or a black fur with 
 •white spiels, also uwd in Ilenildrv, 
 is called outre ermine. Ermine is 
 commonly used to difference the 
 arms of any member of a famUv 
 ■who is coimected with the law. A 
 cross composed of four ermine spots 
 is saitl to be a cross ermine. 
 
 ERRARD DE BAR-LE DUC SYS- ^-rmine. 
 
 TEM OF FORTIFICATION.— This .sy.stem limits the 
 minimum of tlie sjilicnt angles at 60 , adopts 290 
 yards as the maxinuuu of tlie line of defense, and 
 fortifies on the exterior polygon. This system is in- 
 ferior to the Italian, although it stands at the head of 
 the Freuch school. See Forlifiedlitin. 
 
 ESCADRON. — A term more ancient than the word 
 batUiliiin, tirst employed by the French writer Frois- 
 sart to signify a troop of horse drawn out in order oi 
 battle. 
 
 ESCALADE. — In siege operations, escalading is a 
 mode of gaining admi.ssion within the enemy's works. 
 It consists in advancing over the glacis and covered- 
 way, descending, if neces.s;iry, into the ditch by means 
 of ladders, and ascending to the parapet of the curtain 
 and bastions by the same ladders differently placed. 
 
 tions are made for the counterscarp-ladders, which 
 are placed in line from 100 to l.")0 yanls in rear of the 
 others. At a given signal the whole arc to move for- 
 ward, covered by an advanced liringparty to keep 
 down the tire of the work, and followed l)y a reserve. 
 The scarp-ladders are let down into the ditch, the 
 men descend, carry them across it, plant them against 
 the scarp, and mount to the top. The top of the 
 parapet gained, the men are to group themselves 
 rai)idly in ruUyingt-oluinns, and procceil to clear the 
 parapet by charging the a.s.siuled in flank. The sup- 
 liiirl and reserve, in the mean time, are to follow on 
 wilhoul loss of time to take their share in the action. 
 
 Troojis properly exercised in //.yw «<(»</« are capable 
 of mounting high walls with arms and aeeouterments, 
 and without the use of ladtlers. .Most armies have 
 realized the necessity of gj-mnastic training, and have 
 ad(Jl)led definite systems. The drawing shows a few- 
 combinations which might after a little practice !is.sist 
 recruits or poor climbers in mounting walls and enter- 
 ing the upper windows of houses. In all such attempts 
 the light weights should be selected for the highest 
 story, and the basement -storv should consist of a suffi- 
 cient number of men to reniler the support strong and 
 the climbing easy. Precipitous rocks may be escaladed 
 by grasping bushes and roots, or by planting the bay- 
 onet in the cre\ices of the rocks, in order to reach the 
 top. Such escaUules are very dangerous when an 
 enemy defends the height, as heavj- stones may be 
 rolled down upon the assitilants; but activity and in- 
 genuity accomplish very much, as was shown by the 
 
 The ladders are either procured on the spot, or are 
 sent out with the siege-armv. A convenient form is 
 in pieces of twelve feet length, fitting end to end bv 
 means of sockets. A firing party is'usuallv told off 
 to keep down the fire of the enemy upon the escaladers, 
 especially a flank fire lengthwise of the ditch, which 
 might sweep them off with terrible rapidity. The 
 following is the outline of the method of escalade 
 proposed by Colonel .lebb of the Roval Eneineers: 
 Ladders of sintable length for the enterprise are to 
 be provided for scaling the scarp; the one proposed is 
 three feet longer than the height of the scarp, so that 
 the foot of the ladder being planted a jiacc or two 
 from the bottom of the wall, the top may project far 
 enough above the wall to enable the men'to step from 
 the ladder with ease in an upright position. An allow- 
 ance of one ladder is made for every five feet of the 
 face to be scaled; one hundred feet," for example re- 
 quiring twenty ladders. To each ladder from four 
 to six men are as,signeil, accordins to its length. The 
 ladders are home in the usual manner on the shoulders 
 of the men, two or lliree being placeil on each side 
 for this purpos<'. The ladders for sealing the scarp 
 are a.s.signed to the advance. A second set of less di- 
 mensions, for descending into the ditch only, are as- 
 signed to the support, the scarji lailders are l)laced 
 <m the ground in line at some suitable point, with the 
 I'roper intervals between them; the men to cariv Ihcm, 
 properiy "told off," are drawn up in rear of themi 
 and at the proper commands are marclied to their 
 places at tlie sides of the ladders, and rinse them 
 ready for the forward movement. Similar disposi- 
 
 French in the attack upon Fort Scharnitz near Inns- 
 pruek. They tied their haversacks round tlieir heads, 
 and, protected by this buckler, they scrambled up the 
 rocks, despite the stones precipitated upon them. And 
 still later the difficidt ascent at Alma was scaled by 
 French troops in the face of Russian artillery and iii- 
 fantry. 
 
 The most favorable time for a surprise is that of a 
 winter night, when there is no moon. A long march 
 may then Ijc made without discovery, and the troops 
 may arrive an /;»«/• b(fi>re dni/. This is tlie projji- 
 lious moment for the execution of the design. It is 
 then thai men sleep most profoundly; and it is at that 
 hour the attacking force may begin in the dark and 
 end the work by daylight; such favorable circum- 
 stances are much increased by heavy wind and rain 
 during the night, as the clanking of arms and other 
 inevitable noises made by tli<' troops cannot be heard 
 by the garrison, and the latter besides' are more dis- 
 ])osed to negligence. It is exfremely imiiortanl for 
 the men to be able to recognize each other in the 
 darkness, and the simjilest means of doing .so is to 
 put the shirt outside the dress, or to tie a white band 
 around the arm. The party must be furnished w ith 
 petards, axes, and levers, to force ojien doors; with 
 beams and ladders, to overthrow and scale walls. 1 lur- 
 dles and fascines are necessary to cross muddy dilches, 
 or broad planks m,-iy be used as a substitute for hur- 
 dles. With fa.seines small ditches and imols are filled 
 U]). All these articles should be carried by the men 
 from the last halting-place. Wagons and animals 
 would lead to discovery, and are therefore left at a
 
 ESCALADING LADDERS. 
 
 581 
 
 ESCORT OF THE COLOB. 
 
 safe distance, while every precaution is taken to main- 
 tain silence in the assailinjr iiaity. Tlie soldiers should 
 also not light their |iipes, as the tire can he seen from 
 a long distance in llie dark. Barking dogs must be 
 disposed of or quieted without the use of fire-arms, 
 and every one mast be on the alert. 
 
 The dispositions made for the alt;K-k will varj- with 
 circumstances, liut in general it is well to divide the 
 force into three parts: the lirsl to i)enetiale into the 
 city; the .second to remain without and protect, if 
 neees,sary, the retreat of the lirst; and the third to take 
 such position as is most likely to ])nvent aid from 
 reaching the enenij-. When the tiivt division has 
 penetrated the city by escalade or otherwise, it sur- 
 rounds at once some of the adjacent tjuarters, and 
 holds the outlets of the principal streets, whilst detach- 
 ments quickly open the gates to the troojis outside, 
 after having taken or killed the guards. As soon as 
 the gates are opened, and sufficient numbers are at 
 hand, the troops spread them.selves in the city, after 
 leaving good reserves upon which to retreat in ca.se of 
 check. The house of the Commanilant, barracks, 
 arsenal, and the guards of the interior are at once 
 sought to prevent, if possible, any reunion of the de- 
 fenders, and to paralyze all their ellorts by the seizure 
 of the Commanding Officer. If time and means of 
 recovering from his stupor and concentrating his force 
 in the interior of the city lie left to the enemy, great 
 risk will be nin of being driven out, as the attacking 
 force is neces.sarily everj^vhere weak, from the great 
 number of points occupied. The famous example of 
 Cremona, where Prince Eugene, after having made 
 himself master of a great part of the city, and after 
 having seized Marshal Villeroi, who commanded 
 there, was nevertheless then driven out by the defend- 
 ers, .shows that all is not lost to the defenders when 
 the enemy has seized the exterior posts. Another ex- 
 ample may be cited in the surprise of Bergen-op-Zoom 
 in 1814, by General Graham, where, although the s\u-- 
 prise was successful, yet the assailants in the end were 
 obliged by the garrison to surrender after very con 
 siderable loss. 
 
 ESCALABING LADDERS.— Frames of wood, similar 
 to the common ladiler, consisting of two side pieces. 
 connected by rfumds or steps, and sometimes by rope. 
 The length of the ladders should be relative to that 
 of the works or the walls to be escaladed. They are 
 sometimes made in two or three parts, so that they 
 may be more conveniently carried. There are two 
 kinds of escalading ladders; those in lengths i)rovided 
 by Government with other engineers' stores, and those 
 of an impromptu kind, made" for the occasion. The 
 first description consists of ladilers about 12 feet in 
 length, which tit into one another, so that each joint 
 will give an effective lemcth of 10 feet. The second 
 description of ladder is in one length, which is diffi- 
 cult of carriage. In India, escalading ladders are 
 made of two "longitudinal pieces of bamlioo, the 
 transverse pieces of wood being let into the bamboo, 
 and boimd roimd it with strong rope. They are of 
 two sizes. 26 feet and 14 feet long. See EsniUide. 
 
 ESCALE.— A machine used in ancient times to pry 
 the petard. Now obsolete. See Pitm-d. 
 
 ESCALOP-SHELLS.— These are often used in Her- 
 aldry to sisnifv that the bearer has made many long 
 vovages bv sea. As the I'ilgrim's 
 eniblem, tiiey «cre commonly given 
 to tho.se who had been to the Cru- 
 sades; they came to be regarded as 
 indicating" either that the bearer or 
 his ancestor had been a Crusjider. 
 The escalop-shell was the emblem of 
 St. James the Great, and is ireiierally 
 Escalop-shells. j,j^,, ^^.j,], ;„ chnnhcs dedicated to 
 him. The more ordinary form of the name is scallop- 
 she!!. See IlniMri/. 
 
 ESCARP.— In fortification, the surface of the difcn 
 next the rampart, the surface next the enemy being 
 termed the muntersearp. See Scarp. 
 ESCARPMENT.— Ground cut away nearly vertically 
 
 \" 
 
 about a position, in order to render it inaccessible to 
 
 the enemy. See Ditch and i'xarp. 
 
 ESCOPETTE. — A carbine, an improvement on the 
 early haiid-culverins or Kclopus. 
 
 ESCORT. — A body of troops attending an individual 
 as a ''uard. The term is also applied to a guard 
 placed over prisoners on a march, to prevent their 
 escape, and to the guard of a convoj' of stores. 
 
 ESCORT OF HONOR.— Escorts of honor are detailed 
 for the inirpose of reeeinng and escorting personages 
 of high rank, civil or milit'ary. The troops for this 
 purpose are selected for their soldierly appeariince 
 and superior discipline. The escort forms in line, 
 bayonets fixed, the center opposite the place where 
 the personage presents himself, with an interval 
 between the wings to receive him and his staff, the 
 band on the tlauk of the escort toward which it will 
 march. On the appearance of the personage, he is 
 received with the honors due to his rank. When he 
 has taken his place in the line, the escort is formed 
 into column of companies, platoons, or fours, and 
 takes up the march. On leaving, the escort line is 
 formed, and the same honors are paid as before. 
 When the position of the escort is at a considerable 
 distance from the point where the person is to be 
 received, as, for instance, where a cotirt-yard or wharf 
 intervenes, a double line of sentinels is posted from 
 that point to the e.scort. facing inward; the sentinels 
 successively salute as he passes, and are then relieved 
 and join the escort. An officer is appointed to attend 
 him, to bear sxich communications as he may have to 
 make to the Commander of the escort. See Funeral 
 lloiwi'S, 
 
 ESCORT OF THE COLOR.— The militarj- ceremony 
 of sending for and receiving the colors of a battalion. 
 The baltaliou being in line, the Colonel after bringing 
 the battalion to carry arms details a company, other 
 than the color-company, to receive and escort the 
 colors to their iilace in line. The escort is fonned in 
 column of plat(xins; the band in front, the Color- 
 bearer between the platoons. Tlie escort is then put 
 in march, without music, arms at a riyht shotiUkr. 
 On ai)proaching the Colonel's (juarters. the escort is 
 halted and formed in line facing towards them, the 
 band on the right, the Color-bearer in the line of file- 
 closers. The moment the escort is in line, the Color- 
 bearer, preceded by the First Lieutenant and followed 
 by a Sergeant of the escort, goes to receive the color. 
 When the Color-bearer comes out, followed by the 
 Lieutenant and Sergeant, he halts before the entrance; 
 the escort presents arms, and the trumpeters, or 
 field-music, sound to t/ic color. The Captain then 
 causes the arms to lie carried; the Lieutenant and 
 Sergeant return to their posts, and the Captain breaks 
 the company into column of platoons; the Color- 
 bearer iilaces himself between the platoons. The 
 e.scort marches back to the battalion to the sound of 
 music, in quick time, and in the .same order asalmvc, 
 the guide to the left. The march is so conducted 
 that, when the escort arrives at fifty yards in front of 
 the right of the battalion, the direction of the march 
 mav be parallel to its front; when the color arrives 
 opposite its place in line, the Captain forms line to 
 the left and halts; the Color-beanr, passing between 
 the platoons, advances and halts twelve yards in front 
 of the Colonel. The Color-bearer having haltt-d, the 
 Colonel, who posts himself twelve yards in front of 
 the center of his battalion, faces about, commands, 
 1. Present, 2. Arms, resumes his front and sjdutes; 
 the trumpeters, or field-music, sound to tlie color, and 
 the Color-sergeant returns the color-.sidute. The 
 Colonel then faces about, brings the battalion to a 
 earn/, after which the Color-bearer takes his place in 
 the color-guard. The e.scort presentJt and carries arms 
 with the battalion at the eonunand of the Colonel, 
 after which the Captain forms it ag:iin in column, 
 and marches it to its place in line, pa.ssing around the 
 left flank of the battalion. The color is escorted from 
 the parade-ground of the color-company to the 
 Colonel's quarters, by the color-guard.
 
 £SC0T7ADE. 
 
 582 
 
 £SQUIBE. 
 
 The ceremony of escorting the standard is as fol- , 
 lows: The regiment being in line, the Colonel, after 
 bringing the Vegiintnt to carry mbtr, details a com- 
 pany, otlier than the color-company, to receive and 
 escort the standard to iL-i place in line. The escort 
 is fonncd in eohmm of platoons; the band in front, 
 the Standard-bearer iK'tween the platoons. The escort 
 is then put in march, without music. On approach- 
 ing the Colonel '.s quarters, the escort is halted and 
 formed in line facing toward them, the band on the 
 risht, the Standard-lx-arer in the line of tile-closers. 
 The escort being in line, the First Lieutenant, Stjuidard- 
 bcarer, and the Right Principal Guide di.smouiil in 
 front of the Colonel's quarters, their horses being 
 held bv a trumpeter; the Standard-ljearer, preceded 
 by the First Lieutenant and followed by a Sergeant of j 
 the e-scort, then goes to receive the standard. AVhen [ 
 the Stau(iard-l>earcr comes out, followed by the 
 Lieutenant and Sergeant, they halt before the entr;ince 
 and mount, the Lieutenant on the right. Sergeant on 
 the left; the trumpeter returns to his post; the Captain 
 then commands, 1. Pnseiit, 2. Saber; the escort 
 presents saber, and the trumpeters sound to the 
 standard. The Captain then causes the saber to be 
 earrUd ; the Lieutenant and Sergeant return to their 
 posts, and the Captain breaks the company into 
 colunm of platoons; the Standard-bearer places him- 
 self Ix'tween the platoons. The escort marches back 
 to the regiment to the sound of music, and in the 
 same order as above, the guide to the left. The 
 march is so conducted that, when the escort arrives 
 at fifty yards in front of the right of the regiment, 
 the direction of the march may be parallel to its 
 front; when the standard arrives opposite its place in 
 lini , the Captain forms line to the left and halts; the 
 Standard-bearer, passing between the platoons, ad- 
 vances and halts twelve yards in front of the Colonel. 
 The Standard-bearer having halted, the Colonel, who, 
 posts himself twelve yards in front of the center of 
 his regiment, faces about, commands, 1. Present, 2 
 S.\BEU, resumes his front and salutes; the trumpeters 
 sound tn the Sliint/iinl, and the Standard-bearer returns 
 the ssdute of the standard. The Colonel then faces 
 about, brings the regiment to a earri/, after which the 
 Standard bearer, pas.sing through the interval to the 
 left of his company, wheels to the left about, and 
 takes his place in the guard of the standard. The 
 escort prexeiiin i\n(\ curries sabers ^xith the regiment 
 at the command of the Colonel, after which the Cap- 
 tain forms it again in column, and marches it to its 
 place in line, pa.ssing around the left flank of the 
 regiment. ! 
 
 ESCOUADE.— A term which signified, in the old ' 
 French service, the third part of a company of foot 
 or a detachment. Companies were divided in this 
 manner for the purpose of more conveniently keeping 
 the tour of duty among the men. Wc have cortupted 
 tlie tenii and call it a squad. 
 
 ESC0UA6E. — An ancient feudal tenure by which 
 the tenant w;i.s liound to follow his lord to war or to 
 defend his castle. The term is also used for the com- 
 mutation of personal service into a money payment, 
 such lis is ol)scrved in the case of a substitute where 
 coinpidsdiv service is eiuieted. 
 
 ESCUTCHEON OF PEETENSE. — A sm.ill shield 
 pla(<'il in the center of tlie larger one, and covering a 
 portion of the charges on the latter, in which a man 
 carries the arms of his wife when slic is the heiress of 
 her family. It is sjiid to be carried ■•<>irti>>it, or over- 
 all. Sometimes also a shield f)ver-all is given as a re- 
 ward of honor; thus, the Earl of Stirling did bear 
 two coats quarterly, and over all an ineseutcheon of 
 Nova Sentia. Ixcause he was the first planter of it. 
 Usually written [iiesctitchenn. 
 
 E8PAD0N.— In old militarj- works, a kind of two- 
 handed sword, having two edges, of a great lemrlh 
 and breadth; fonnerly vised by the Spanish. Recently 
 the term has been applied to all aouble-edged wea- 
 pons. 
 
 E8PAULIEEE.— A defense for the shoulder, com- 
 
 posed of flexible, overlajiinng jilates of metal, used in 
 tlie fifteenth century; the origin of the modem epau- 
 I, lie. 
 
 ESFINGAKD. — An ancient name for a verj' small 
 gun under a 1 -pounder, and in u.se as early as the 
 fourteenth century. Also written Kpingare. 
 
 ESPINGOLE.—" A kind of blunderbu.ss which, in 
 early times, was loaded with several balls; the charges 
 were separated from each other by tampions in which 
 holes were made, and thus the bails were tired in sue- 
 cessiiin. SiH' lihinderbnss. 
 
 ESPLANADE. — In fortification, the o|)en space in- 
 tentionally left lietweeii the houses of a city and the 
 glacis of "its citadel. It requires to be at "least 800 
 paces broad, that the enemy, in ca.sc of his getting' 
 possession of the town, may not be able to assail the 
 citadel under cover of the nearest houses. For this 
 purpose the citadel must command the esplanade, and 
 lie able to send a direct fire into the streets opening 
 upon it. In old works on fortification the term is 
 often applied to the glacis of the counterscarp, or the 
 slope of the parapet of the covered-way towards the 
 country. See Forti'ticalwii. 
 
 ESPONTOON.— A'.sorf of half-pike, about 3 feet in 
 length, used in the seventeenth century. The Colonels 
 of ("orps, as well as the Captains of Companies, always 
 used them in action. This weapon was also used by 
 officers in the British army. 
 
 ESPEINGAL. — In the liiilitary engineering of the 
 days before the introduction of gunpowder in Euro- 
 pean warfare, a machine for throwing missiles. These 
 missiles were either large darts called niuchettes. or 
 arrows T\inged with bi;i.ss, and called riretons from 
 their whirling motion when shot forth. Also wTitten 
 Spriiiiitil. 
 
 ESPKIT DE CORPS. — A term generally used among 
 military men. It may not imjiroperly be defined a 
 huulalile spirit of ambition which produces a peculiar 
 attachment to any particular cori)s, company, or ser- 
 vice. (Officers, witliou' descending to mean and piti- 
 ful sensations of selfish en\y, under the influence of 
 a true esprit dc corps rise into an emulous thirst after 
 military glory. The good are excited to peculiar 
 feats of valor by (he sentiments it engenders, and the 
 bad are deterred from ever hazarding a disgraceful 
 action by a secret consciousness of the duties it pre- 
 scribes. 
 
 ESQUIBE.— The Escjuire in Chivalry was the Shield- 
 bearer or Armor-beirer to the Knight, and hence was 
 called Arwii/ir in Latin. He was a candidate for the 
 honor of knighthood, and thus stood to die Knight 
 in tlie relation of a novice or apiirentice, pretty much 
 as the i)age did to him. In this capacity he was 
 spoken of as a Bachelor, just as the Knight Bachelor 
 came latterly to be distinguished from him who had 
 already attained to the higher honors of Cliivalry. 
 ■\\'lien" fully equippeil, each" Knight was attended by 
 two Es((uires. The Esquire w;u< a gentleman, and 
 had the right of hearing arms on his own shield or 
 csculclieon, which is surmounted by a helmet placed 
 siclewavs, with its visor closed, to dLstingnish him 
 from a" Kniglit or Nobleman. He had also the sword, 
 the embleni of Chivalry, though he was not girded 
 with tlie knightly tx'lt. ' His spurs were silver.fo dis- 
 tinguish them friim the golden spurs of the Knight; 
 and when the King created Esquires of old. it w;is 
 liypultiniT silver spurs on their heels, and collars of 
 S'S round their necks. Those who received this 
 honor directly from the Sovereign were in general 
 the Esquires for the King's body.'or those whose duty 
 it was to attend him in his cajiacify of a Knight; an 
 office now nearly obsolete. Teniints of the Crown 
 who held by Knight's Service were a class of Feudal 
 E-iipiires generally -iupjiosed to correspond to the 
 simple Hitlers or" Knights of Gennany, as opposed 
 to the Hitters who were r/eschlat/en or dubbed, inas- 
 much as these EnL'lish Esquires were entitled to claim 
 the nink of knightli(K)d. Though the titleof Es(iuire 
 has now come to be given without discrimination to 
 all persons above the rank of a tradesman or shop-
 
 S88EBASII. 
 
 583 
 
 ESTIMATION OF DISTANCE. 
 
 ieeper, the following seem to be those whose claim 
 to it stands on the ground either of legal right or of 
 long-established courtesy: 1. All the untitled sous 
 of Xoblemen; 2. The eldest sons of Knights and 
 Baronets; 3. The sons of the yoimger sons of Dukes 
 «nd Marquises, and their eldest sons. All these are 
 Esquires by birth. Then there are Esquires bj' pro- 
 fession, wliose rank does not descend to their chil- 
 dren; iind Esquires by oftict — e.g.. Justices of the 
 Peace — who enjoy the title only during their tenure 
 of office. To the former cla.ss belong Utlicers in the 
 Army and Navy, Barristers, and Doctors of Law, and 
 Doctors of iledicine, but not Surgeons. 
 
 ESSEDAEII. — In Horaan antiquity, gladiators who 
 fought in a heavj- kind of chariot called enualn or 
 emedum. The esscda differed from the currns in 
 being open before instead of behind, and in this way 
 the owner was enabled to run along the pole, from 
 the extremity of which, or even from the top of the 
 yoke, he discharged his missiles with surprising dex- 
 teiity. 
 
 ESTABLISH.— A technical phrase to express the 
 quartering of any considerable body of troops in a 
 country. Thus it is common to say the army took up 
 a position in the neighborhood of , and estab- 
 lished the headcjuartei-s at . The term is also used 
 
 in the sense of jiosting guides, markers, etc. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT.— The extent, maU'riel, and jxr- 
 ionnel allowed to an army in peace or war time; in 
 the latter case it is regulated according to the exigen- 
 cies of the service, which being much greater during 
 ■war than peace has given rise to the distinction of a 
 war and a pmce tutdblixhiiieiit. 
 
 ESTACADE. — A dike constructed of piles in the sea, 
 a river, or a morass, frequently used to check the ap- 
 proach of an enemy. 
 
 ESTAFETTE. — A militaiT courier who is sent ex- 
 press from one part of an army for a given time. 
 
 ESTIMATE.— A comimtalion of the probable ex- 
 pense of any project or charges to be incurred, framed 
 on any recognized data, derived from previous experi- 
 ence, such as the yearly militarj' and other estimates 
 of the country. 
 
 ESTIMATION OF DISTANCE.— In all circumstances 
 "where ordnanci- is emplnycd, whether in the field or 
 on the water, a knowledge of the distance is the es- 
 sential element of correct practice. When consider- 
 able, it is usually estimated verj' vaguely; but the 
 necessity of knowing it as correctly as possible at 
 long ranges is greater than when the trajectory is 
 nearly flat as in short ranges, elevation being given 
 according to the distance, and inaccuracy increasing 
 with length of range. At considerable distances, 
 also, there is more leisure and opportunity, as well 
 as greater necessity, for determining those distances 
 with precision, while in closer acli(jn all that is re- 
 quired is to be certain that the enemy is within range 
 at level. Distances may be estimated by six<Tal 
 methods: 1st. By sight. "2d. By means of topograph 
 ical maps. 'id. By the aid of special instnnnents for 
 measuringangles. " 4lli. By the propagation of sound. 
 As in the excitement of action the employment of 
 instruments is very difficult, it is desirable that every 
 officer and soldier shoidd be able to judge of dis- 
 tances by the eye. Under conditions favorable to 
 observation, long practice enables an observer to esti- 
 mate immediately ami quite closely the iwsition of 
 an object within (he distance of .500 yards. Beyond 
 this limit, the variable condition of the almosphere, 
 as well as the form and nature of the gro\ind, lead 
 the most practiced observer into considerable error. 
 A knowledge of the parts of objects \isible at certain 
 distances is necessary: but as this will vary with the 
 power of the eye, each must, by comijarison and re- 
 flection, establish a standard of ids own. In ordinary 
 weather, good sisrht adnuts of— Isl. Countintr the win- 
 dows of a house at 4800 yards; 2d. Perceiving men 
 and horses at 221X) yards; "Sd. Distinguishing clearly 
 infantry from cavalrj- at 1300 yards; 4lh. Seeing the 
 movements of men at 800 yard's; 5th. Distinguishing 
 
 the head and hat of a man at 550 yards; 6th. Seeing 
 faces and principal parts of uniform at 300 yards. 
 Objects always appciir too near when seen distinctly 
 outlined or agamst a bright background, as when the 
 observer has the sun at liis back, or when the air is 
 particularly clear, as after a rain. Distances are 
 underestimated also when the ground is uniform 
 and offers no prominent points for reference. On the 
 contrary, objects appear too reomte when obscure and 
 indistinct. This occurs if the sun be in one's face, 
 and if the weather be cloudy or foggy. Distances 
 are also overestimated when the ground is undu- 
 lating, cut by ravines, or covered with trces or dwell- 
 ings. 
 
 Distances are most frequentlj' estimated by special 
 instruments. The simplest of these instnim"ents are 
 stadias and thread-micrometer or double-image tele- 
 scopes, which give the unknown distance by observa- 
 tion of the apparent height of a man on foot or on 
 horseback, placed near the distant point. None of 
 these allow the estimation of distances greater than 
 1600 yards, and the results of observation are always 
 uncertain. The gtadUi consists of a piece of sheet- 
 metal with an isosceles triangle cut out of it, the sides 
 of which are graduated parallel to its base; a slide 
 moves along the length of the Jilale. The base of the 
 opening is perpendicular to the Mili-s of the instru- 
 ment, and reijresenis the a]i])arenl height of a man at 
 a certain distance. The graduations may be deter- 
 mined by observation or by calcvdation, a.ssuming a 
 given height for the infantry or cavalry soldier. 
 
 Instruments constructed on the principal of the 
 thread-telescope have been tried, but with little suc- 
 cess for actual scr\ace, and especially have not been 
 found sufficient for artillerj' tiring. During tha>last 
 twenty j'ears many instruments for measuring dis- 
 tiuices have Ijeen devised. Nearly all are concerned 
 with the rapid solution of a triangle, one of whose 
 sitles is the distance to be determined, and another is a 
 base of known length. The instruments of Goulier 
 and Gautier, used in France, and that of Nolan, in 
 England, are good examples. Of these, Gautier'shas 
 been experimented with in the I'liited States. Gau- 
 ticr's telemeter is simple and portable, consisting of a 
 tube, similar to one barrel of a field-gla.ss, containing 
 lenses and two mirrors placed at an imgle of about 45 
 degrees with each other; but it requires an accurate 
 ba.se and delicate management. With practice, how- 
 ever, an observer can estimate with more than ordi- 
 nary promptitude and precision the distance to be 
 obtained. Nolan's range-finder consists of two instru- 
 ments for measuring angles; they are mounted on 
 tripods and are placed at the extremities of a meas- 
 ureil base line, which is perpendicidar to the range. 
 With the data thus obtained, recourse is had to a 
 rirhiiiin;i-ci/li)nJiT, from which the distance is read. 
 A ba.se of from 30 to 40 yards will be used for ranges 
 of 3000 yards and over." The Weldon range-tiiKler, 
 lately introduced, will, it is thought, prove a useful 
 instriuuent for open ground. In this system are used 
 a base, proportional to the sides of the triangle which 
 converge on the object from the extremities of the 
 ba.se, and two simple plate-gla.s.s prisms, the angles of 
 which are constructed accurately to have certain fixed 
 values, and whose backs are silvered to act as mir- 
 rors. Two observers, each with a prism, place them- 
 selves on a line, the general direction of which is per- 
 pendicular to that of the object from them. Each 
 then moves along this line till he brings the reflection 
 of the object in the prism and the eye of the other 
 obscrMjr, seen direct, in the siime vertical line; the 
 distiince between the observers at this instant, multi- 
 plied by a certain factor, which dei)ends on the an- 
 gles of the prism, gives the distance of the ol>jectfrom 
 either observer. 
 
 To estimate distances by the velocity with which 
 sound is transmitted in the'air, it is ncccs.s!iry to note 
 the instant at which the flash of a gun or the explo- 
 sion of a shell is seen, and the instant at which the 
 reixjrt of the same is heard at the i)oint of observation.
 
 £SXOC. 
 
 584 
 
 ETOUPILLE. 
 
 This is a simple and rapid method, but is not always 
 uccimilo. A watch, or anv inslruniunt constructt-d 
 to RKXinl tiiiu', can be ciiiiiloycd. The Le Bniikngt' 
 tftfmettr is such iiu instriiiueiit. It consists of a glass 
 tube, tilled with a non-freezing, transparent li(iui(l; 
 witliin this is a metal index, which, when the tube is 
 vertical, descends with a slow, uniform motion. The 
 tube is placed in a brass case, to which a scale is at- 
 tache<l. The scale shows the distance, in yards, 
 throuirh which sound will travel in air duriiiir the 
 lime required for the inde.\ to descend to any di\i- 
 sion. The elTcvt of temperature on tlic liquid and 
 index is such that the velocity of the index is iiiliu- 
 encecl in the same proportion as tlie velocity of sound, 
 the instrument thus iK'ing self-adjusting. For pieces 
 used in the siege and sea-coast siTvices tlie ranges 
 do not have to be determined under the same circum- 
 stances as in the field. The position of siege-batteries 
 can be found at leisure, either from maps or by the 
 instruments used ordinarily by surveyors. In the 
 sea-coast service, tlie distance of a vessel cim be deter- 
 mined by its ix)sition relative to known points on 
 land, or to buoys that have been carefully located for 
 that purpose. "A simple instrument for taking hori- 
 zontal angles, or any of lliose that are applied in the 
 tield, can \k employed. The pUine-Uihle may be used 
 advantageously for recording the striking-point of a 
 shot or the position of a vessel. The tables are 
 placed at each end of a base-line, so tiiken that the 
 tables shall have a cleiir view of the object, of each 
 other, and of the gun; the lines joining thom with 
 the object should intersect at as near a right angle as 
 possibie. The gun may be at anv point of the base- 
 line. Or entirely without it. The distance can be 
 calculated from the data obtained, or the object may 
 be plotted and the distance measured by a scale. 
 
 Any of the following methods may be employed 
 to estnnatc the breadth of a river, or any impassable 
 distance, without instruments: 1st. Assume dc in any 
 direction, and make 6c = bd (ab l)eing as nearly jier- 
 pendicular to the banlvs as practicable); then, locating 
 e on rtc produced, make bf = 6c; join / and d and 
 prolong fd to ah al g; then bf/ = ab. 2d. Produce be 
 until tiie angle bra = 45 ; then be — ab. 3d. With- 
 out reference to ligiire, the following methods may 
 1m; used according to the location of the distance to 
 be measured with respect to the surrounding country. 
 ('() Let AHe(iual tlicilistanccto l)eincasure(L Produce 
 AB to any point, I), and l)iscct IJl) in C. Through 
 I) draw Via. making an angle willi DA, and take 
 Dc and D6 =:DC and DB respectively. .Join Br, CA, 
 and A6. Through K, the intersection of Be and CV;, 
 draw DEF, meeting A6 in F. .loin BF, which being 
 prixbiced will meet Dk in a; then ah = AB. (A) 
 From any point, (", draw any line rC and bisect it in 
 D; lake any point, E, in tlie prolongation of AC and 
 draw tlie line E(, making Di = DE. In like man- 
 ner take any jxiint, F, \n the jirolongation of BC, and 
 make D/ = DF. Produce AD and ir till thev meet 
 in 6; then A6 = AB. (r) At any point, E, in AB 
 drop a perpendicular and on it make YJi — .Id feet, 
 and EF = (ID fe<l. Trace a line through F perj)en- 
 dicular to EF. Then plant pickets at M and N, so 
 that M, Q, and B will b« in (he same right line; as 
 
 also the points N, O, and A. Measure the distance 
 (rf) between M and N, then the distance required 
 equals 15rf. 
 
 ESTOC. — The long narrow sword intended for 
 thrusting rather than cutting. The expression /m/)- 
 ;«r d'lxtiic ct de UiiUe can only apply to the long 
 broad-hladed sword, inasmuch as the blade of the 
 rapier was suitable only for thnists. The rapiers of 
 the cstoc shape were not in use lieforc the reign of 
 Charles V., in whose time the modern art of fencing 
 seems to have originated. The estoc in Elizabcthaa 
 times was generally called a tucke. 
 
 ESTOILE.— In lieraldry, a term differing from the 
 mtillet by having six waved points; the mullet con- 
 sisting of tivc |)lain point.s. See llira/dri/. 
 
 ESTRADIOTS.— Grecian and Albanian' hor.semen, 
 some of whcmi were employed in the Italian wars by 
 Charles VIII.; their favorite weapon was the zagaic. 
 Besides this they had a broad-sword and club slung 
 on the bow of the saddle, with sleeves and gauntlet* 
 of mail. Also written Stradiots. 
 
 ESTRAMACON.— A sort of two-edged sword used 
 in ancient times. The term also expresses a blow 
 with the edge of a sword. 
 
 ETAPPEN.— A Department which originated in the 
 Prussian Military Railway Organization, and which 
 was tirst formed in l!S67, and revised in 1W)9; subse- 
 quently certain changes were made during the war of 
 1870-71. The object of this Department is to relieve 
 the Commander-in-Chief and Field Army of all respon- 
 sibility for their communications in the rear. Etap- 
 pen Commissions a reappointed to each loading aiid 
 unloading station, to which a Field Ofticer as Com- 
 mandant, an Adjutant, Control Officer, Railway Offi- 
 cials, and Civil Government Officials, are attached. 
 These officers supervise all local arrangements for 
 loading or unloading, forwarding, feeding, billetin};, 
 etc. One of the officers originally appointed to this 
 Department was an Inspector of Etappen; he was sup- 
 posed to be a march in rear of headquarters, superin- 
 tending all necessary arrangements, but lie had no 
 atithority over the Civil Deparlinents with which he 
 came into contact. In 1870 the Inspector was found 
 to have too much to do, and a considerable amount 
 of friction ensued. The Commissariat Officer attacheil 
 received orders from an Inspectcn- and from his own 
 Chief. The Railway Subordinate was liable to some 
 ten different Chiefs, and the whole railway arrange- 
 ments were half military, half civil. New regulations 
 were subsequently introduceil which extended the 
 powers of the Inspector of Etappen. The official title 
 is " Inspector of Etappen and Railways." lie is pre- 
 sent with headquarters, and under biin are ])laced the 
 Medical Department, Commissariat, Post-office, and 
 Telegraphs, under responsible heads. The general 
 ]irinci])lcor idea is this: Aline is imagined to be drawn 
 through the lieailquarlers. All In front belongs to the 
 active army, all in rear to the Etappen Inspector. The 
 Quartermaster General's Dciiartment has to do with 
 both. To take in the whole of the Prussian Railway 
 Control ,it would be necessary to describe in full the 
 svstem pursued, which space will not admit. An 
 l5ta]ipen Department has been raised in the French 
 aniiy after Ilic Prussian system. 
 
 ETAT MAJOK.— The Staff of an army, including 
 all officers above the rank of Colonel; also, all Adju- 
 tants, Inspectors, Quartermasters, Commissaries, En- , 
 gincers. Ordnance Officers, Paymasters, Surgeons, 
 Signal Officers, .Judge Advocates; also, the non-com- 
 missioned a.ssislants of the above officers. 
 
 ET0ILE8.— Small icdoulits which are constructed 
 by means of angles rentrant and angles sortant, and 
 hiive from .") to 8 .siilicnt jioints. This species of fortifi- 
 cation has fallen into disuse, and is superseded by 
 square redoubts, which are sooner Imilt and arc ap- 
 plicable to the same purpo.se of defense. 
 
 ETOUPILLE.— An intlaminable match, composed 
 of tliric threads of very tine cotton, which is well 
 steeped in brandy mixed with the best priming glut 
 powder.
 
 ETTFHOBBIA TIBtTCALLI. 
 
 585 
 
 EVOCATIOir. 
 
 EUPHORBIA TIRUCALLI. — This plant is much 
 usfd in making licdgis in India. It is an evergreen. 
 The wood makes very fair cliarcoal for gunpowder 
 purposes, but il is not e(iual to tliat derived from the 
 urhur or dhall-lmsh. In Bengali il is called lunkaty, 
 and in Hindustani. kiihIIi. 
 
 EUREKA PRO JECTILE.— A projectile consisting of 
 a cast-iron liody in one |>iece, with a bras-s sid)ot; the 
 sabot is an annular disk intended to move on the frus- 
 tiun of a cone with the expanding cup in rear to take 
 the groo\'('s. See Pnytrlilia. 
 
 EUTHYTONE.— A very ancient machine of war, de- 
 scribed by Heron, Philon, and Vitrmius. It was a va- 
 riety of tlie catapult. 
 
 EVACUATE.— To witlidraw from a town or fortress, 
 in conse(|uence either of a treaty or a capitulation, or 
 of superior orders. 
 
 EVAGINATION. — A common expression for the un- 
 sheatliiuir or drawing out of a sheath or scabbard. 
 
 EVANS MAGAZINE-RIFLE.— A novel ritle of some 
 merit, but no longer manufactured. Itililfcred from 
 most magazine-guns in having no spiral spring for 
 the pvirpose of feeding tlie cartridges through and 
 fi'om the magazine to the lineihinechanisni, and in 
 having its magazine located in the stock of the arm. 
 The magazine consisted of a cylinder of forged iron, 
 running from the breech to the butt plate; around the 
 inner circle of this cylinder was affl.xed, in the fonn 
 of a spiral, a Hat wire of the proper conformation. 
 Into this cylinder with its tixed spiral was introduced 
 a shaft of lluted or grooved iron, this shaft being re- 
 volved by movement of the lever in the breech-me- 
 chanism. The cartridges were introduced into the 
 magazine throtigh the butt-plate; with the introduc- 
 tion of each cartridge the breech-mechanism was 
 moved, thus carrying forward the cartridges until the 
 magazine was tilled. The cartridges in the magazine 
 were in separate cells, and could not come in contact 
 with each other, thus precluding any possibility of 
 discharge; while in all spiral-spring magazine-guns 
 the cartridges press one against the other, thus ren- 
 dering a premature discharge possible. 
 
 The system of feed in this gun strongly resembled 
 the Archimedean screw. The magazine carried 26 
 roimds (.f cartridges of 2 inches in length, and could 
 be loaded in one half of a minute, and the entire 
 magazine of 26 roimils discharged at will, in from 
 15 to 20 seconds, thus embracing a very great repeat- 
 ing capacity. This arm couhl be tired 20 rounds 
 per miiuite," while used as a single-loader, introducing 
 the carlritlges into an aperture at the side of the re- 
 ceiver at tile breech; or it could be tired 20 rounds 
 per minuti', holding the magazine full and in reserve, 
 by introducing cartridges into the magazine at the 
 butt, as each cartridge was discharged. The weight 
 of the gim was 9i "pounds, and length of barrel 30 
 inches. The carbine weighed bi pounds, and had a 
 barrel 22 inches in length. See Mag(aine-guri. 
 
 EVENING PAEADE— The daily parade at or about 
 sun.set. SVhen troops are encamped, the signal for 
 evening parade is given from the park of artillery, by 
 the discharge of a piece of ordnance, called the eixn- 
 inji or rrlrmt yiin. Sei' />(v.w I'urade. 
 
 EVIDENCE. — All that which makes clear, demon- 
 strates, or ascertains the truth of the very fact or 
 point in issue. Evidence may be considered with re- 
 ference to (1) the luitiire of the evidence; (2) the oh- 
 jert of the evidence; (3) the inntrnments of evidence; 
 and (4) the I'ffict of evidence. As to its mttitrv, 
 evidence may be considered with reference to its 
 being (1) the primarj' endence; (2) secondary evi- 
 dence; (3) i)ositive; (4) presumptive; (5) hearsay; and 
 (6) admissions. 1. PriiiKiry eridenee. The law gen- 
 erally requires that the best evidence the CJtse admits 
 of shall be produced. 2. Secondary erid'iu-e is that 
 species of proof which may be admis.sible on the loss 
 of primary evidence. Be"fore it is admitted, proof 
 nmst be made of the loss or impossibility of obtain- 
 ing the iirimarv evidence. 3. Ptmtire eridenee is 
 that which, if believed, establishes the truth of a fact 
 
 in i.ssuc, and does not arise from any presumption. 
 Evidence is positive when the very facts in dis- 
 pute are commimicated by those who have actual 
 knowledge of them by means of their senses. 4. 
 Premimptire eridenee is that which is not direct, 
 but where, on the contrarj', a fact which is not 
 positively known is presumed from one or more 
 other facts or circumstances which arc known. 5. 
 Heanay is the evidence of those who relate not 
 what they know themselves, but what they have 
 heard from others. As a general rule, hearsay en- 
 dence of a fact is not admi.ssi!)le. But evidence given 
 on a former trial by a person since dead is admissible, 
 as is also the dying declaration of a person who hsw 
 received a mortal injurj-. 6. Adiiiimion^. which are 
 the tleclaralions made by a party for him.self or those 
 acting under his authority. "These admissions are 
 generally evidence of facts declared, but the admis- 
 sions theniselve.s must be proved. 
 
 The ohjert of evidence is to ascertain the truth be- 
 tween the parties. Experience shows that this is best 
 done by the following rules, which are now binding 
 in the law: 1. The evidence nuist be confined to the 
 point in issue; 2. The substance of the issue must 
 be proved, but only the substance is required to be 
 proved; 3. The affirmative of the i.ssue must be 
 proved. A witness, on being admitted in Court, is 
 tirst subjected to the examination of the party in 
 who.se behalf he is called. This is termed the ej-ami- 
 miti'tn ill rliiif. The principal rule to t)e observed by 
 the party examining is that leading nue.st ions are not 
 to be asked. The witness is then cross-examined h^ 
 the other (larty. The object of cross-examination is 
 twofold: to weaken the evidence given by the wit- 
 ness as to the fact in question, either by eliciting con- 
 tradictions or n(^w explanatory facts; or, .secondly, to 
 invalidate the general credit of the witness. In the 
 latter case it is'a general rule that a witness ntay re- 
 fuse to answer any question if his answer will ex- 
 pose him to criminal liability. The general prac- 
 tice of English Courts also seems to authorize his re- 
 fusal to answer any question which will ilisgrace 
 him. The credit of a witness may likewise l>e im- 
 peached by the general endence of others as to his 
 character; but in this Ciuse no evidence can be given 
 of ]iarticular facts which militate against his general 
 credit. \V'itne.s.ses are excluded from giving endence 
 by: 1. Want of reason or understanding; 2. Want of 
 belief in God and a future state; 3. Infancy; 4. In- 
 terest. Besides witncs.ses, records and private writings 
 are al.so iiuttrtiinents of evidence. 
 
 Records, in all cases where the issue is rrnl tiel renrd, 
 are to be proved by an exemplification didy authen- 
 ticated; that is, an attestation made by a projH'r offi- 
 cer, by which he certifies that a record is in due form 
 of law, and that the person who certifies it is the offi- 
 cer apiiointed bv law to do so. In other ca.ses an ex- 
 amined copy, duly proved, will in general be en- 
 dence. Private writings are proved by |iroducing the 
 attesting witness, or, in case of his absence, death, or 
 other legal inability to testify, as if, after attesting the 
 paper, he becomes infamous, his handwriting may l)e 
 proved. When there is no witness to the instniment, 
 it may be proved by evidence of the handwriting of 
 the party, by a person who has seen him write, or in 
 a course of correspondence has become acquainted 
 with his hand. Parol evidence is admissible to de- 
 feat a written instrument on the grovmd of fnuid, 
 mistake, etc., or to apply it to its proper subject mat- 
 ter, or, in some instances, as ancillary to such np- 
 l)lication, to explain the meaning of doubtful terms, 
 or reb\U pre.sinnptions arising extrinsical ly. But in 
 all cases the parol evidence does not usurj' t'"' place 
 or arrogate the authority of the written instrument. 
 
 EVOCATI.— A class of soldiers among iiie Romans 
 who, after having served their full time in the army, 
 entered as volunteers to accompany some favorite 
 Geiierid. Hence they were likewise allied Einereti 
 anil Hi iielinirii. 
 
 EVOCATION. — An old religious ceremony com-
 
 EVOLUTIONS. 
 
 586 
 
 EVOLUTIONS. 
 
 monly ol)s<>rvi'<l among the Romans at the comnicnco 
 nicnl'of a siugc, wherein they solemnly cnlleil upon 
 the gods and gixldessi's of the place to "forsjike it aud 
 come over to them. When any place surrendered, 
 they always took it for granted that their prayer had 
 been lieanl. 
 
 EVOLUTIONS. — The movemcnt.s of troops in order 
 to change [wsition. The object may be to maintain 
 or sustain a post, to o<'cupy a new post, to improve 
 an attack, or to improve a defense. All such move- 
 ments as marching, counter-marching, route-march- 
 ing, changing front, forming line, facing, wheeling, 
 making column or line, making echelon or stjuare, 
 detiling, deploying, etc., come under the general head- 
 ing <>f evolutions. The word maneurer signifies also 
 movements of troops or entire corps in war executed 
 with general \iews; aud by some writers it is confined 
 to that signification, and the word ewliilwn is made 
 to designate the particular means, or the elements of 
 maneuvers. Maneuvei-s, according to Bardin, are 
 operations in war, whether really before an enemy or 
 simulate<l on a field of exerci.se. Their precision and 
 aptness dei>end uiion the skill of the General; the iiilel- 
 ligence of his Aides-de-Camj); upon the Chiefs of Bat- 
 talions and their Adjutants, and the General Guides. 
 Evolutions and maneuvers are, however, often applied 
 in the same sense, and indeed it may well be ques- 
 tioned whether there be any propriety in retaining in 
 iKwks of instruction evolutions which are not used as 
 maneuvers against an enemy. The vicious idea that 
 tactical evolutions are not used in war is by no means 
 uncommon, and has frequently caused the loss of 
 battles. It is true that the number of maneuvers 
 used in combats is limited, and that those which are 
 needed can only be judiciously applied by keejiing in 
 view moral and ])hysieal requirements. The judi- 
 cious tactician will, "therefore, in war eschew deploy- 
 ments, which cause the solilier to turn his back to- 
 wards an enemy: counter-marches; forming a battal- 
 ion on the right or left l)v file into line, and some 
 other movements suited only to parades, t)ne of the 
 most hazardous maneuvers is the fomiation of col- 
 umns of great depth and deploying those columns 
 when too near the enemy. 
 
 The mill mil in an nnlfr of march and maneuver, 
 rarely an order of battle. When beyond the range of 
 canfton, and at a distance from the line of battle to be 
 occupied, if the enemy approach and time permits, 
 it is neces-sary to close in mass, in order to hold the 
 troops in hand for all possiljle dispositions. So, in 
 marches near the enemy the columns should march 
 at half-<listance, when roads permit, in order that 
 they may be less elongated and all the troops In; 
 ready to act promptly. If surprised in this order by 
 the nece.s.sity of forming immediately forward into 
 line of battle, or, if without being under this pressing 
 necessity, there is between us and the enemy ground 
 admitting an easy march in line of battle, the column 
 ought to execute forward into line, according to the 
 principles of the tactics. This movement is more 
 prompt and greatly better than closing column in 
 ma.ss in order to deploy afterward. In the first case 
 troops only pa.ss over one side of the triangle, whilst 
 by massing the column to deploy afterward they 
 must pass over two sides by a complicated maneuver, 
 which is dangerous from the Ix'ginning. In general, 
 it is neces,sary to shun as much as possible the deploy- 
 ment of great massed columns, for this movement "is 
 badly executed even in exercises. It can only be 
 performed far from the enemy, and it is even "there 
 inconvenient. It should be renounced in all forma- 
 tions whose object is to take the enemy in flank or re- 
 verse, if he be sufliciently near to take measures to 
 prevent success. In that" case the formation of the 
 close <'ohimns in mass upon the right or left into line 
 of battle is a neces.s;iry manoiver. This movement, 
 as Marslial Bugeaud sviggests, is most important in 
 war. It would have an influence upon battles by 
 the simplicity and rapidity of its execution, and acci- 
 dents of ground would often be found to conceal the 
 
 movement from the enemy. It admits of an attack 
 in echelons of battalions against an enemy being com- 
 menced as soon as one battalion or the half of a bat- 
 talion hits formed on the right or on the left of the 
 line of the enemy. It also offers the advantage of 
 giving to the line, with the greatest facility, every 
 form that may be wished, and i)rotecting the succes- 
 sive formalions by a ma.ss that may 1m' disposed of at 
 pleasure, whether at the extremity of the line to form 
 .square agjiinst cavalry, or to occupy in advance upon 
 the right or left a commanding position, protecting 
 the tianks of our line. When circumstances, then, 
 comju'l a march in heavy mass, it is better to present 
 to the enemy a flank of columns, in order to de])loy 
 them by formations on the light or on the left into 
 line of battle. When a line has to pa.ss over a great 
 distance, it is commonly fornietl into columns of 
 attack. The formation by comiiany in column, in 
 rear of the Grenadiers of each battalion, is ])referred 
 by JIarshal Bugeaud, because it is thus easier to make 
 good dis]Kisitions against cavalry. The Grenadiers of 
 
 I each battalion make a half-wheel, and each battalion, 
 after being closed in mass, forms sciuare. But neither 
 the column by companies nordi\isions should be used 
 within range of cannon, whenever there is a possibil- 
 ity of marchiug in line of battle. It is time that the 
 
 j fact should be admitted that although the moral 
 
 ' effect of the column may be considerable, yet this 
 
 ' may be paralyzed by a little maneuvering on the 
 part of the enemy's line, which would neces.sarily ob- 
 
 ' tain great advantage from the superiority of its fire. 
 Small columns, at distances of three battalions from 
 
 I each other marching under cover of the line, may 
 render great ser\-ices. They would be ready promptly 
 to fill the holes made in the line of battle, and the 
 best means of doing this would be to take the enemy 
 in flank who had pierced them, whenever they could. 
 It is desirable that these columns should each not ex- 
 ceed a half-battalion, and that they should be com- 
 manded by energetic oflicei's. 
 
 77ie depth of the column adds nothiiiij to the strength 
 of the first battalion composing it, and dirninishfs that 
 of the mass. It is, then, vicious to employ more than 
 one battalion, except in the small number of cases 
 where it is necessary to tight in ma.-w, as in carrying a 
 bridge, a defile, an intrenchment, a breach, etc. The 
 other battalions ought to follow at such a distance 
 
 I that they may sustain the attacking battalion without 
 sharing in its dis:ister or rout, if such should take 
 place. With an interval the Chiefs of Battalions have 
 time to prepare their troops and make neces-sary dis- 
 )iositions ; with a single mass the disorder at the head 
 of the column is communicated to the rear almost as 
 readily as an electric spark. Flank marches, in i>res- 
 ence of the enemy, ought always to be made in open 
 column. In this order we are always ready to tight 
 by a simple wheel of each subdivision of the column. 
 Nothing is deranged in the order of battle, whatever 
 may be the strength and number of the lines. With- 
 out derangement an excellent disjiosition may also be 
 made against cavalry. The column will be halted, 
 and eacli battalion will be dosed in mass upon its 
 Grenadiers, who make a half-wheel. The Field-olli 
 cers, Statf. and the officers of Grenadiers will be pre- 
 viously warned. Each battalion will jcirm then Mar- 
 shal IJugeaud's s((uare. The fii-st order will be re- 
 sumed i)y taking distances by the head of each bat- 
 talion; the Grenadiers retaking their dire<tion at once. 
 If deep columns are condemned as an order of attack, 
 those barbarous columns employed in some of the 
 last battles of Xapoleon, and iiarticularly at Water- 
 loo, ought to be condeunied still more. That column, 
 which apixaied to annouece the decline of art, con- 
 .sisted in emi)loying all the battalions of a division 
 one behind the other, and thus inarching towards the 
 enemy. Every column has for its object to pa.ss 
 rapidly, and Avithoul confusion, into the order of 
 battle, to iia.ss over lightly a given space, and to 
 make proni])t dispositions against cavalry. The col- 
 lunn against which these remarks are made does noth-
 
 EZABCH. 
 
 587 
 
 EXAUCTOBATIO. 
 
 ing of that kind, and if it be attacked upon its tianks, 
 whether by cavalry or infantry, it cannot fail to be 
 destroyed. The line of battle is the true order of 
 battle. It is also the best order of march when in 
 range of cannon and not exposed to cavalry. It is 
 only in this order that infantry can make use of its 
 lire' If battalions consist of 800 men they will, in a 
 formation of two ranks, be too much extended for 
 most Chiefs of Battalions. Two companies of each 
 battalion ought then to be formed as cohmins of 
 reserve. The order in two ranks is beyond question 
 best suited, in oblique attacks, for that part of the 
 line not to be engaged; and with rifle-muskets now 
 u.sed the two-rank formation will be found better for 
 that part of the line which is. to strike also. Even 
 with old maskets the two-rank formation was used by 
 the British very successfully at Waterloo in squares 
 ■ against cavalry. The tire in two-rank formation is 
 made with more order, more easily, and is better 
 aimed. The march in line of battle ought to be em- j 
 ployed whenever the ground permits it, within 1000 
 yards of the enemy. We lo.se then fewer men by [ 
 cannon; and even if it be desirable to approach the ! 
 enemy in column (which is verj' rare, and should j 
 even then be in columns of single battalions), the 
 march ought still to be in line of battle until within ' 
 two hundred yards, and then the column of attack | 
 ought to be formed while marching. Troops cannot [ 
 be too much exercised in marching in line of battle. 
 This march is no more difficult than the march of 
 many heads of columns upon the s:ime line, perhaps 
 even less so, for it is difficult to maintain between the 
 columns the intervals neces.sary for deployments. | 
 
 Cfiangrg of front very near the enemy are rarely 
 perpendicular. The new front nearly always forms 
 with the line of battle an acute angle. In "this case 
 it is necessary to guard against breaking the battalions 
 into column. It is better to use the changes of direc- 
 tion for the line of battle prescribed by the tactics. 
 The two pivot battalions may be thrown upon the 
 new line by companies half-faced to the right or left. [ 
 The other battalions ought to be directed upon the , 
 new line by chinges of direction which would least 
 expose them to artillery. If, however, we have to 
 guard against cavalry during the execution of the 
 movement, it will be better to break into column the 
 battalions of the leading wing. They will thus form 
 the stem of the battery, and would rapidly make good 
 dispositions against lavalry, as they woidd only be 
 ■obliged to close in mass upon the Grenadiers and form 
 square. Changes of front forward are possible imtler | 
 fire, but changes of front to the rear are not so. I 
 believe, says JIarshal Bugcatid, that the loss of one 
 of our battles in Spain may, in great part, be attribu- 
 ted to a change of front in rear of the left wing, 
 which was attempted at a moment when warmly en- 
 giiged. The movement rapidly degenerated into a 
 rout; aud it could ilot be otherwise. There are no 
 troops with sufficient sniig-froid and self-possession to 
 make thai movement under the tire of ball and grape. 
 To make the movement it is necessary first to stop the 
 enemy, and the means of doing that vary with cir- 
 cumstances and the resources within our command. \ 
 Charges of cavalrj'— above all if the}' threaten the 
 flanks of the enemy's line — would cover the change of 
 front to the rear. If cavalry be not at hand, there is 
 no l)etter means than to advance the .second line to 
 the position that it is desired that the front should oc- 
 cupy after its change of front, and withdraw the tirst 
 line at a run, directing it to form the second line, 
 passing through the intervals of the battalions, now 
 become the tirst line. If a line is about coming up 
 with the enemy at the moment of receiving the order 
 to change front, it would be better to finish the charge, 
 by putting the first line of the enemy in rout before 
 executing the movement to the rear. This last prin- 
 ciple is applicable to retrejits generally: it is often 
 neces.sary to overthrow an enemy who is too nigli be- 
 fore retiring. Kunning movements may. in many 
 .cases, save us from destruction. It is ncces-sary, then, 
 
 I to exercise troops in such movements, and make them 
 
 I rim in disorder, and re-fonn at some given point. 
 
 I The order in lehdons is the maneuver of oblique at- 
 tacks. By that means we approximate these troops 
 
 , only who are to fight. The remainder are at once 
 threatening and defensive. They hold in check one 
 or many parts of the order of battle of the enemy, 
 and present the best possible protection to the attack- 
 ing portion. Some echelons to the right and left of 
 that which attacks arc greiitly lietter than any other 
 support. They render, if not impossil)le, at least 
 verj- difficult aii attack upon the flank of the attack- 
 
 j ing portion, as that cannot be assailed without the 
 enemy in turn l)eing taken in flank l)y echelons. And 
 
 1 the latter cannot be turned except by strong move- 
 ments, which must weaken the army executing them, 
 and also afford neces.sarv time to guard against them. 
 Instead of placing flank brigades in advance of the 
 
 ' front of the colunuis or lines that they protect, it is 
 
 j better to place them in rear. Besides the physical 
 advantages of this disposition, there are moral advan- 
 
 I tages, inasmuch as the latter position enables the 
 
 ! echelons to a.s.sail, whereas if thev were immediately 
 
 j on the flank of the attack they might l)e assailed. In 
 theory, echelons are placed at regular distances. In 
 
 ' practice, the distance is determined by circumstances, 
 
 I and above all by the formation of the ground. The 
 
 [ regularity of echelons can, therefore, only exist in 
 broad plains. The greater or less distance between 
 echelons depends upon the number of troops, the dis- 
 tances betn-een those of the enemy, and the ulterior 
 views of the General-in-Chief; but in general they 
 
 I ought to be within mutual succor, and if cavalry is to 
 be repulsed, they ought to cross fire at about 1.50 
 paces after ha\ing formed square. The different 
 movements of echelons, the changes of front in each 
 echelon, with the same angle, aie very useful in war ; 
 it is necessary, therefore, t1iat troops" should be exer- 
 cised in such movements. See Ma m n nm. 
 EXARCH.— The title fii-st conferred by .Justinian on 
 
 j his Commander-in Chief and the Vicegerent in I'aly. 
 
 I The conquest of Italy by tlie Goths in the early part 
 of the sixth century was a severe blow to the Byzan- 
 tine pride; and Justinian determined to wipe out the 
 disgrace and recover the imixrial territories. The 
 execution of this project was intrusted at first to 
 Belisarius, and afterwards to Narses, by whom the 
 reconquest of Italy was effected. The latter was the 
 first who l)ore the title of Exarch; and the district 
 over which he ruled was called the Exarchate. The 
 
 I .seat of the Exarchs was Rjivenna, the different towns 
 and territories belonging to them being governed bj' 
 subordinate rulers, styled Duces or Dukes. The ex- 
 tent of the Exarchate, however, wjis by degrees di- 
 miiiished. until it embraced only the country about 
 Ravenna, llie present Komagna, and the coasts of 
 Rimini as far as Ancona. This was brought about 
 partly by the conquests of the Longobanls, partly by 
 the Dukes of Venice and Naples making themselves 
 independent. In the year Ti.Seven this small portion 
 fell, for a short time." into the hands of the Longo- 
 bards. In ~,'fi Astulf. or Astolphus. Kingof the Lon- 
 
 \ gobards. put an end to the Byzantine rule at Ravenna; 
 but in T.").'5 he was comjielled" to resign the Exarchate 
 to Pepin the Less, King of the Franks, who gave it 
 over to the Bishop of Rome, Stejihanus II. — In the 
 Christian Church Exarch was originally a title of the 
 Bishops, afterward of a Bishop who pres"ided over seve- 
 ral others — a Primate. It was Iwrnc by the Bishops 
 of Alexandria. Antioch. Ephesus, Ciesjirea. and Con- 
 stantinople, till it was tinally exchanged for the title 
 of Patriarch. A Superior over several monasteries 
 was also called in ancient times an Exarch. The 
 same title is also borne, in the modern Greek Church, 
 bv the person who "visits" oflicially. as a sort of 
 L"e,g!ite of the Patriarch, the clergy and churches in 
 a Province. 
 
 EXAUCTORATIO. — In the Roman military disci- 
 pline, this differed from the mixiio, which was a full 
 discharge, iuid occurred after soldiers had served in
 
 EXCAVATOE. 
 
 588 
 
 EXCAVATOB. 
 
 the amiv 20 years; whereas the eJ-a>ictoratio was only 
 a partial discharge; they lost their pay, indeed, biit 
 
 still kept under their covers or vexilla, tliouch not 
 under the acjuilla or eagle, which was the standard of 
 
 the Legion; whence, instead of Lcgionarii, they were 
 called Hubgignarii, and were retained until they had 
 either served their full tinie or 
 had lands assigned them. The 
 cxauctoratio took place after they 
 had served 17 years. 
 
 EXCAVATOE.— A machine for 
 digging earth anil removing the 
 same from holes. It is usually 
 mounted on a carriage which tra- 
 verses on a temporary track. At 
 one end of the frame is a crane, 
 which has a circular adjustment 
 on its axial post. To the end of 
 the chain-lackle is suspended a 
 scoop made of lioiler iron, w hose 
 lip is a .xteel etige with lingers. 
 Direction is given to the scoop by 
 means of a bciim which may be 
 called the .sct)op handle, and when 
 the scoop has been thrust by its 
 weight into the earth, the beam 
 iiffords a fulcrum on which the 
 scoop rotiites when the tackle- 
 chain is wound uji on the drum 
 by the action of llie steam-engine. 
 The excavated earth along some 
 parts of the line of the Suez Canal 
 was transported by means of a 
 pump. By the aid of a steam- 
 pump water was tnixed with the 
 earth l)iought up by the dredge, 
 and the mud so formed was spout- 
 ed out upon both banks of the 
 canal to such distance and in such 
 quantities as to form high compact 
 ramparts against the sand-showers 
 blowing in from the desert. Nine- 
 ty-six million cubic yards of earth 
 liave been thus taken out. The 
 accompanying detailed drawings 
 show the side and end elevations 
 of a land-excavator such as is used 
 by the Panama Canal Company, 
 now engiiged in carrying out M. 
 de Lesseps' bold undertaking of 
 constructing a canal across the 
 Isthmus of Panama. This ma- 
 chine is built by the Osgood Dredge 
 Company, Albany, N. Y., and is 
 destined not only to revolutionize 
 the past systems of excavating, but 
 in consequence of its adaptjibility 
 and etTecti\enc.ss will |ilay an im- 
 portant )iart in the construction of 
 tield ;in(l hasty fortitications. An 
 examination of the drawing will 
 show that the superiority of the 
 design lies in the admirable dis- 
 tribution of the working strains, 
 i\ ly'l' ^ ''-^ which most of them are sent 
 
 \ It 5 directly to the groiuid through 
 
 I "^ I y ■= '^'^ A-frame and jack-screws; in 
 (f l7-y IIhI S "'c l>lacing of a spring in the 
 l)oom-cliain. thereby diminishing 
 
 DT7\ nirt, the shocks which would otherwise 
 
 1/ \ tIII f""** unimpeded to the A-frame, 
 
 >( -^ f' thus prolonging the life of the ma- 
 
 ^" chine. The A-frame and boom are 
 
 hinged, and can be lowered l)y 
 sleiiiu -power on a platfonn-car, in 
 front of 1 he excavator; the machin- 
 ery biing mounted on a car of 
 standiinl gauge, the excavator can 
 then lie ])iit in any freight-train. 
 The machines can also be used as 
 wrecking or derrick cars. They are 
 self-propelling. The dippers are 
 made of plate-stal with Knli,l >,/,', I l,-, t/i reaching nearly 
 to the bottom of the dipper. The teeth are bolted on,
 
 EXCHANGE OF PRISONERS. 
 
 589 
 
 EXECUTION OF LAWS. 
 
 and can readily be removed in order to have them 
 sharpened. The sheave-shaft.s, .stay-rod pins, etc., are 
 of Hied. The booms and A - frames are made of 
 angle-iron, strongly braced, stayed, and riveted to- 
 gether. By means of the boom-chain, the boom can 
 be adjusted to high or low lifts. A light iron frame- 
 work with corrugated iron roof, or a wooden house, 
 as may be preferred, shelters the engineer and fireman. 
 Attached to the car is an iron tank for supplying the 
 boiler with water. This is placed under the car and 
 contains alx)ut .loO gallons. The fact that the ma- 
 chineiy is mounted on a car having spring trucks is 
 of great advantage to the life of the machine. The.se 
 trucks give great elasticity and offer a favorable contrast 
 to the rigidity of many of the ordinary steam-shovels. 
 Agiiin, the fact that the car has eif/ht wheels gives to the 
 machine a much larger bearing surface and gives less 
 trouble in settling on the track, while it is at work, 
 than does the ordinary steam-shovel. This i>oint will 
 be appreciated as one of great importance by any 
 one who has had experience in the practical work- 
 ing of excavators. This is considered the best way to 
 mount an excavator. In operation the weight is taken 
 off the fonvaril trucks by means of the jack-screws. 
 Each jack screw is supplied with a ratchet-wrench. 
 The hoisting, the swinging, and the working of the 
 dipper-handle areall accomplished throvigh theagency 
 of friction. There is no rack-and-pinion arrange- 
 ment. The manner of construction — entirely differ- 
 ent from that of the ordinary crane-machine — permits 
 the use of a much larger power than could be put in 
 a crane-escavator. The boom arrangement permits 
 digging farther in advance of the machine than is pos- 
 sible with the crane excavator. While this machine 
 can make moves ahead of eight feet, the move ahead 
 of the ordinary steam-shovel is only four feet. This 
 excavator thus saves one half of the time occupied in 
 moving. The speed of the machine in sand or gravel is 
 three dippers per minute. In hard mdtvrial it ha.s 
 a great superiority over crane-excavators, because of 
 the great power and its being much more efticiently 
 applied. For use in hard-panthe dipper is especially 
 designed. The excavator has two independent pairs 
 of engines. The main engines are for pulling the 
 dipper through the bank and for swinging the turn- 
 table, which latter is accomplished by means of the 
 independent friction-drums. On the turn-table is 
 a pair of coupled engines which revolve with the turn- 
 table. They operate a drum around which winds a 
 chain and, the chain being properly attached to the 
 dipper-handle, run the handle out and in with great 
 rapidity and case. They hold the dipper to its work 
 while the main engines" are pulling it through the 
 bank. These engines are supplied with steam t hrough 
 a universid joint, thus doing away with ^cr/Afc ;«;«», 
 which are liable to Imrst, to cause delay, and to scald 
 the cranesman. The boilers are upright ones, of 
 sufficient capacity for the work to be performed, and 
 are made so that "the cones and stacks can be taken 
 off to enable the excavator to go under bridges. See 
 Drei}'fui (j-iii«ch iiw. 
 
 EXCHANGE OF PRISONERS.— Exchanges of pris- 
 oners take jilace, number for number, rank for rank, 
 wounded for wounded, with added condition for 
 added condition, such, for instance, as not to serve 
 for a certain period. 
 
 In exchangins prisoners of war, such numlK?rs of 
 persons of inferior rank may 1» substituted as an 
 equivalent for one of superior rank as may be agreed 
 upon by cartel, which requires either the sanction of 
 the Goveniment or of the Commander of the Array in 
 the field. 
 
 A prisoner of war is in honor bound truly to state 
 to the captor his rank; and he is not lo assume a lower 
 rank than belongs to him in order to cause a more 
 advantageous exchange, nor a higher rank for the 
 purjiose of obtaining better treatment. OtTenses to 
 the contrary have been justly pimishcd by the Com- 
 manders of released prisoners, and may be good cause 
 for refusing to release such prisoners. 
 
 The surplus number of prisoners of war remaining 
 after an exchange hsis taken place is sometimes re- 
 leased either for the payment of a stipulated sum of 
 money, or, in urgent ca.ses, of provisions, clothing, or 
 other necessaries. Such arrangement, however, re- 
 quires the sanction of the highest authority. 
 
 The exchange of prisoners of war is an act of con- 
 venience to both belligerents. If no general cartel 
 has been concluded, it cannot be demanded by either 
 of them. No belligerent is obliged to exchange pris- 
 oners of war. 
 
 No exchange of prisoners should be made except 
 after complete capture, and after an accurate account 
 of them and a list of the captured officers lias been 
 taken. See Oirttl, Parole, and Pri»<)nrri! of ]Var. 
 
 EXCHANGES. — Certain arrangements made between 
 officers of tlic English army. An officer may exchange, 
 or change places, in the Guards or Line, with another 
 of equal rank in any regiment of the above Cor])s by 
 mutual consent, and sul)jccl to the approval of the 
 Minister of War, and on payment of a sum agreed 
 upon between the officers. On the abolition of the sys- 
 tem of purchasing commissions in 1871, the sum paid 
 in effecting an exchange was limited to the actual cost 
 thrown upon the officer exchanging. In view, how- 
 ever, of the general wish of the army, a bill was in- 
 troduced into Parliament in 1874(but"was Avitlidrawn 
 as regards that session) to render again legal the pay- 
 ment of money as a bonus for exchanges. In the fol- 
 lowing year (187.5) the bill, having been again brought 
 forward, was passed. As each of the exchan^g of- 
 ficci J enters his new Corps at the bottom of his nmk, 
 exchange benefits officers who stick to their regiment 
 by advancing them towards the top of the list, and 
 therefore nearer to promotion. An officer on full |)ay 
 may exchange with another on half pay, proWded a 
 yoiinger life be not thereby added to the half-pay list, 
 iuid subject always to the "consent of the Secretary for 
 War. Exchanges are ordinarily arranged by the Ar- 
 my Agents. Sec Transfer. 
 
 EXCUBia;. — In ancient warfare, the watches and 
 guards kept in the day by the Roman .soldiers. They 
 diffend from the cig'ilue, which were always kept in 
 the niu'ht. 
 
 EXECUTION.— Military execution is the pillaging 
 or plundering of a country by the enemy's army. It 
 also means every kind of" punishment inflicted in the 
 army bv the sentence of a Court-.Martial. which is of 
 vari"ous" kinds, includmg putting a soldier to death by 
 shooting him, which is the ordinary punishment of 
 deserters to the enemy, mutineers, etc. This form of 
 death is considered less disgraceful than hanging by 
 the neck. In some rare instances blowing from the 
 mouth of a gun has been resorted to. 
 
 EXECUTION OF LAWS.— On all occa.sions when 
 the tnwips are employed in restoring or maintaining 
 public order among "their fellow-citizens, the use of 
 amis, and pai-ticularly fire-arms, is obviously attended 
 with loss of life or limb to iirivate individuals; and 
 for these consequences a military man may be called 
 to stand at the bar of a Cruninal Court. A private 
 soldier also may occasionally be detached on special 
 duty, with the necessity of e"xercising discretion as to 
 the "use of his arms; and in such ca.ses he is rt>s|X)n- 
 sible, like an officer, for the right use or exercisi- of 
 such discretion. One of the earliest reiwrted cases 
 on this subject occurred in 173.5, when Thomas Jlac- 
 adam, a Private Sentinel, and James Long, a Coqwral, 
 were tried before the Admiralty Court of Scotland, 
 upon a charire of murder under the following circum- 
 stances: They were ordered to attend some custom- 
 house officers, fort heir protection in making a leg-al 
 s(>izure; and beins in a boat with the officers in quest 
 of the contraband coods, one Frazer and his compan- 
 ions came up with them, leaped into the boat, and 
 endeavored to distirm the soldiers. In the scuffle the 
 prisoners stablwd Frazer with their bayonets, and 
 threw him into the sea. For this homicide the pris- 
 oners were tried and con\-icted of murder by a juir; 
 and the Judge Admiral sentenced them to death.
 
 EXECUTION OF LAWS. 
 
 590 
 
 EXECUTION OF LAWS. 
 
 But the High Court of Justiciary reversed this judg- 
 nu'iit. on the irroimd that the homicide in (|Ucstion 
 was iiccessiirv for sicuriiisr the execution of the Irusl 
 coniinitted t<> llie prisonci-s. The report of this case 
 fonluius the fi)lU(\ving remarks upon it l)y Jlr. 
 Forbes, afterwards Lord President of the Court of 
 Session of Seotlaiitl: and they appear to be of jrreat 
 importance to military men: '• Wiierc a man has by 
 Uiir \veai>ons put into his hands, to be employed not 
 only in defensi" of his life when attacked, but in sup- 
 port of the cxe<-ulion of the laws, and in defense of 
 the properly of the Crown, and the liberty of any 
 sutijecl, heiloiditless may use those weapons, not only 
 whiii his own life is put so far in danger that he can- 
 not jirobably escape without making use of them, but 
 also when there is imminent danger that lie may by 
 violence be disabled to execute his trust, without re- 
 sorting to the use of those weapons; but when the life 
 of the officer is exposed to no danger, when his duly 
 does not necessjirily call upon him for the execution 
 of his trust, or for the preservation of the properly of 
 the Crown, or the preservation of the properly or lib- 
 erly of the subjecl, to make use of mortal weapons, 
 which may destroy His JIajesty's subjects, especially 
 numbers of them who may be innocent, it is imijossi- 
 ble from the resolution of the Court of Justiciary to 
 expect any countenance to, or shelter for, the inhu- 
 man act." This fiuotalion, in the latter part of it, 
 has a direct bearing on the case of the unfortunate 
 Captain Porteus, whose trial took place in the follow- 
 ing year, and whose melancholj- fate is the ground- 
 work of Sir Walter Seotl's Heitit of Mid-Lothiun. 
 In the year 17;JG the Collector of Customs on the 
 coasi of Fife made a seizure of contraband goods of 
 considerable value, which were condemned and sold. 
 Two of the proprietors of these goods took an oppor 
 ttuiity of robbing the Collector of just so much money 
 as these goods had sold for. They regarded this as 
 merely a fair rcpri-sal and no robbery; but they were 
 nevertheless taken up, tried, and condemned to death 
 for the fact. Willi the exception of some smuggling 
 transactions, in which lliey had been concerned, the 
 prisoners were men of fair character; and the mob 
 cxpre.s.sed much dis.s;itisfaction with their sentence 
 and the prospect of their execution. On the Sunday 
 preceding the day appointed for the execution, the 
 prisoners were taken to a church near the jail, at- 
 tended by only three or four of the City Guards, to 
 hear divine service. None of the congregation had 
 assembled, and the guards being feeble old men, one 
 of the prisoners made a spring over the pew where 
 they sat, while the other, whose name was Wilson, in 
 order to facilitate his companion's escape, caught 
 hold of two of the guards with his hands, and seized 
 another with his teeth, and thus enabled his compan- 
 ion to join the mob outside, who bore him off to a 
 place of siifety. Wilson then composedly resumed 
 his own seat, without making any alleiii])! to recover 
 his own lilicrty. This generous conduct of Wilson 
 created a strong public feeling in his favor; and the 
 Magistrates of Edinburgh soon learned that an at- 
 tempt would Ix" made by the mob to rescue him at 
 the place of execution. They therefore procured 
 some of the regular forces on duty in the suburbs to 
 be posted at a coiivenieiil distance from the spot, so 
 as to support the City Guard, in case they .should be 
 vigorously attacked. The ofticer whose turn it was 
 to do diity as Captain of the City Guard Ijeing 
 deemed mitit for the crilical duties of the day, Cap- 
 tiiin Porteus, iinforluiiately for himself, w'as ap- 
 pointed to the command on the occasion. His men 
 were served with liall <iirlridge; and, by order of Ihe 
 Magistrates, they lo.ided llieir pieces when Ihey went 
 upon duty. The execution look place wilhout any 
 disturbance until the lime arrived for cutting down 
 the body, when the mob severely ])elted Ihe execu- 
 tioner will) stones, which hit the guards as they sur- 
 rounded Ihe scafToM, and ])ro\oked Ihem to tire upon 
 the crowd. Some iiei'sons at a distance from Ihe 
 place of execution were thus killed. As soon as the 
 
 body was removed. Captain Porteus withdrew his 
 nu'ii, and marched up the A\'esl IJow, which is a nar- 
 row winding passage. The mob, having recovered 
 from llie fright occasioned liy the previous tiring, fol- 
 lowed the guard up this pa.s.sage, and pelted the rear 
 with stones, which the guards returned with some 
 dropping shot, whereby some were killed and others 
 woundeil. On reaching the guaidliouse Ihey de- 
 posited their arms in Ihe usual form, and Cajilain 
 Porteus went with his piece in his liand lo Ihe Siuead 
 KagU' Tavern, w here the Magislrates were a.ssenibled. 
 On his arrival lliere, he was charged with the muriler 
 of the persons who had been slain by the City Guards, 
 on the allegation that he had comnianded the guards 
 to lire. The mob was very riotous, and calleil for 
 justice upon him; and the Magislrales, after adjoum- 
 uig lo Ihe Council Chamber, comniilled him to the 
 Tolboolh lor trial. The strongest feeling existed 
 against him on the part of the mob, unlil Ihe hour of 
 his trial before Ihe High Court of Justiciary arrived, 
 when, to their great satisfaction, he was found guilty, 
 and condemned lo be hanged. The higher classes of 
 society, however, unaffected by the popular jireju- 
 dicc against Ihe unfortunate prisoner, exerted Ihem- 
 selves strenuously iu his behalf, and succeeded in 
 obtaining a reprieve. This created the grcalesi dis- 
 conlcnt among the lower orders, who, on the night 
 before the day originally ap|)ointed for the execution, 
 broke ojicn the jail, dragged Ihe unhappy Captain 
 Porteus downstairs by the heels, carried him to the 
 common place of execution, and there, throwing a 
 rope over a dyer's pole, executed him wilh many 
 marks of Ijarbaritj'. The perpetrators of this outrage 
 were never discovered, and the subject gave ri.se to 
 very warm debates in Parliament, jiarlicularly in the 
 House of Lords, with respect to the conduct of the 
 City JIagistrates and Officers. It was (juite clear, 
 however, with reference to the criminality of Cajitain 
 Porteus, that he had ordered his men lo tire wilhout 
 sufficient cause or justification; and, under such cir- 
 cumstances, he was in point of the law justly fouml 
 guilty of murder. 
 
 Ensigii Hugh JIa.vwell, of the Lanarkshire Militia, 
 was tried in 1807, before the High Court of Justiciary 
 of Scotland, for the murder of Charles Cottier, a 
 French prisoner of war at Greenlaw, by improiicrly 
 ordering John Gow, a Private Sentinel, to tire into Ihe 
 room where Cottier and other prisoners were confined, 
 and so causing him to be morlally wounded. It ap- 
 peared that Ensign Maxwell had been appointed to 
 the military guard over 300 prisoners of war, chiefly 
 taken from French privateers. The building in 
 which they were confined was of no great strength, 
 and alforded some possibililies of escape. The pris- 
 oners were of a very, turbulent character, and to pre- 
 vent their escape during the long winter nights an 
 order was given that all lights in the jirison should be 
 put out by nine o'clock, and thai if this was not done 
 at the second call the guard were to tire upon the 
 prisoners, who were often warned that Ihis would be 
 Ihe consequence of disobedience wilh regard to the 
 lights. ( )n the night in question there was a tumult 
 in Ihe prison, but of no great importance; and En- 
 sign Maxwell's attention liaving lieen on that account 
 drawn lo the prisoners, he observed a light Inirning 
 lieyond the appointed hour, and twice ordered it to 
 be i)ut out. 'This order not being obcycil, he ordered 
 the sentry to tire, liul the musket merely snapped. 
 He repeated the order; the sentinel tired again, and 
 Cottier received his mortal wound. Al Ihis time 
 there was no .symptom of disorder in the iirison, and 
 the prisonei's were all in bed. The general inslruc- 
 tions issued from the AdjulanI General's Office in 
 Edinburgh, for llie conduct of Ihe troops guarding 
 the prison, contained no such onU'ras that which En- 
 sign Maxwell had acted ujwn; and il appeared that 
 the f)rder in (juestion was a mere verbal one, w Inch 
 had from lime lo lime, in Ihe hearing of Ihe olliccrs, 
 been repealed by Ihe Corporal lo the .senlries, on 
 mounling guard, and had never been counlermiinded
 
 EXECUTION OF LAWS. 
 
 591 
 
 EXECUTION OF LAWS. 
 
 by those officers, who were also senior to Ensign 
 Maxwell. The Lord Justice Clerk described the case 
 to tlie jury as altogether the most distressing that any 
 Court had ever been called upon to consider, and laid 
 it down most distinctly that Ensign Maxwell could 
 only defend himself by proving specific orders, which 
 he w!»s bound to obey without discretion; or by show- 
 ing that in the general discharge of his duty" he was 
 placed in circumstances which gave him discretion 
 and called upon him to do what he did. His Lord- 
 ship was of <)[)inion that both these grounds of de- 
 fense failed in the present case; and the jury having 
 found Ensign Ma.xwell guilty of the minor offense of 
 culpiible hoiiiifide, with a recommendation to mercy, 
 the Court sentenced him to nine months' imprison- 
 ment. Ensign Maxwell's conduct certainly exhibited 
 none of those gross features which characterize mur- 
 der; but at the same time he was guilty of a rash and 
 inconsiderate act. which, if he had not been engaged 
 at the time in military duly, though he was mistaken 
 in the exercise of it, would probably have been held 
 to amount to nnirder. In Maxwell's case, the soldier 
 who fired the shot was not prosecuted for the act, nor 
 was he lialile to such prosecution. 
 
 It is laid down that if a ship's sentinel shoot a 
 man because he persists in approaching the ship 
 when he has been ordered not to do so, it will be 
 murder, unless such an act was necessary for the 
 ship's safety. And it will be murder, though the 
 sentinel had orders to prevent the approach of any 
 boats, bad ammunition given to him when he was 
 put on guard, and acted on the mistaken impression 
 tliat it was his duty. In Hex r. Thomas, the prisoner 
 was sentinel on board II. M.S. Aehille when she was 
 pajing off. The orders to him from the preceding 
 sentinel were to kee]) off all boats, unless they had 
 officers in unifonn in them, or unless the officer on 
 deck allowed them to approach; and he received a 
 musket, three blank cartridges, and three Ijalls. The 
 boats pressed, ujjon which he repeatedly called to 
 them to keep off; but one of them persisted, and 
 came close under the ship, and he then fired at a man 
 in the boat and killed him. It was put to the jury 
 to find whether the sentinel did not fire under the 
 mistaken impression that it was his duty; and they 
 found that he did. But ttie ca.se being reserved for 
 the opinion of the Judges, their Lordships were unani- 
 mous that it was murder. They thought it, however, 
 a. proper ea.se for a pardon; and further, they were of 
 opinion that if the act had been necessary for the 
 preservation of the sliip, as if the decea-sed had been 
 mutinous, the sentinel would have been justified. 
 
 The several ca.ses already cited turned upon the im- 
 proper exercise of discretion by the officers concerned. 
 But in the following case, tliough not attended with 
 actual consequences involving a criminal charge, the 
 discretion in the ase of arms was wisely exercised, 
 and indicated great presence of mind and correctness 
 of judgment. Some years ago the public journals 
 of London recorded the meritorious behaWor of a 
 Private Sentr)% upon the occasion of a riotous mob a.s- 
 sembled at the entrance of Downing Street, with the 
 intention of attacking the Government Offices in that 
 quarter of the town! This man standing alone pre- 
 sented his musket, and threatened to fire upon the 
 crowd if the slightest attempt were made to approach 
 tlie particular office for the defense of which he was 
 placed on duty, and succeeded by the terror thus 
 created, though at a great risk of consequences to 
 himself, in keeping the rioters at bay until a larger 
 force arrived to assist him. The soldier's conduct 
 was put)licly much approved. It was also cU«rly 
 legal accorrling to Macadam's case; and if after the 
 announcement of his intentions the mob had pressed 
 forward to execute their purpose, he would have been 
 held justified at law in firing at the rioters uix>n his 
 own responsibility. The Duke of Wellington, as 
 Constable of the ^Tower. testified his marked appro- 
 bation of this man's conduct, by promoting him at 
 once to a 'W'ardership at that fortress. During the 
 
 Irish insurrection of 1&48 Smith O'Brien was arrested 
 at the railway station of Thurles, on a charge of higti 
 treason. A public pas.senger-tniin was on the point 
 of starting for Dublin, and the engineer was mounted 
 on the engine, with the steam up, and everything in 
 readiness for the immediate prosecution of the jour- 
 ney. The scene of the aiTCSt lay in the disturbed 
 district, which was in the occupation of the lrooi)s 
 em])loj"ed to suppress the insurrection and prevent its 
 extension. General Macdonald's Aide-de-Canip, hav- 
 ing fieen apprised of the arrest, proceeded instantly 
 to the station, and there commanded the engineer to 
 dismount from the engine and to stop the train; it 
 being of the utmost importance to the public siifety 
 and service that the news of the arrest should not be 
 carried along the line of railway, as the country peo- 
 ple might assemble m great numbers and destroy the 
 rails, and rescue the priw^ner, or otherwise impeilc 
 the conveyance of the prisoner to Dublin. Such in- 
 terference would obviously have occitsioned great 
 loss of life, besides the danger to the public service 
 at such a season. The engineer at first refased to 
 obey the Aide-de-Camp's orders, whereupon the offi- 
 cer presented his pistol at the engineer, and threatened 
 him with instant death if he persisted in his refusjil. 
 Tile man then dismounted; l)ut it is conceived that 
 the officer pursued a correct line of conduct, and ex- 
 ercised upon the occasion a sound discretion, which 
 would have l)een a good legal defense to him if he 
 had ultimately proceeded to execute his threat iqwn 
 the engineer." "Power in law" (savs Sir Edward 
 Coke) " means power with force." 'the right of offi- 
 cers or soldiers to interfere in quelling ii fclimioua riot, 
 whether with or without superior mililaiT ordeis, or 
 the direction of a Civil Magislnitc, is (juite clear and 
 beyond the possiliility of mistake. This suljject, 
 however, was formerly little un<lerstood; and mili- 
 tarj- men failed in their public duty through excess 
 of caution. 
 
 George III. and his Attorney General (Wedder- 
 burn) both deservedly acquired high credit for their 
 energy in the crisis of the riots of 1780. When the 
 King heard that the troops which had been marched 
 in from all quarters were of no avail in restoring 
 order, on account of a scruple that they could not Ije 
 ordered to fire till an hour after the Riot Act had 
 been read, he called a Cal)inet Coimcil, at which he 
 himself presided, and proiJounded for their considera- 
 tion the legality of this opinion. There was nmcli 
 hesitation among the Councilors, as they remembered 
 the outcry that had been made l>y rea.s<m of some 
 deaths from the interference of the military in Wilke's 
 riots, and the eagerness with which Grand-juries had 
 found indictments for murder a^piinst those who had 
 acted under the command of their superiors. At last 
 the question was put to the Attorney General, who 
 attended as Assessor, and he gave a clear, unhesitat- 
 ing, and unqualified answer to the effect, that if the 
 mot) were committing a felony, as by burning down 
 dwelling-houses, and could not fie prevented from 
 (loing so by other means, the militan,-, according to 
 the law of fengland, might and ought to be ordered to 
 fire upon them; the reading of the Riot Act Ix-ing 
 wholly unncecssfiry and nugatory under such circum- 
 stances. The exact words used" liy him on this o<ca- 
 .sion are not known; but they mus't have iK'en nearly 
 the same which he employed when he shortly after- 
 wards expounded from the judgment-scat the tnie 
 doctrine upon the subject. The requisite orders were 
 is,sued to the troops, the confiagrations were stopped, 
 and tranquillity was speedily restored. This eminent 
 lawyer having" become Chief Justice of the Court of 
 Coinmon Pleas, with the title of Lord Loughlwrough, 
 delivered a charge to the Grand-jury on the special 
 eommi.ssion for the trial of the rioters of 1780, m the 
 following terms: " I lake this public opportunity of 
 mentioning a fatal mistake into which many persons 
 have fallen. It has been iinainncd. because the law 
 allows an hour for the dispersion of a moti to whom 
 the Riot Act has been read by the Magistrate, the
 
 IXEMPT. 
 
 592 
 
 EXEMPT. 
 
 better to support the eivil authority, that during that 
 time the civil power aiul the Mainstracy are ilisiirmed, 
 and the Kinir's subjects, whose duty it is at all times 
 to suppress riots, an' to remain quiet and passive. 
 Xo such meaning was within Wew of the Legislature, 
 nor diM-'S the oixTntion of the Act wamint such etTect. 
 The Civil Magistrates are left in jwssession of all those 
 powers which the law had given them before. If the 
 mob collectively, or a part of it, or any indi\idual 
 within or before" the expiration of that hour, attempts, 
 or Ix'gins to perix-trate, an outrage aniounting to fel- 
 ony, to pull down a liou.se, or by any other act to 
 vic'ilale the law, it is the duty of all jtreivnt, of what- 
 ever description they may be, to endeavor to stop the 
 mi.schicf, and to apprehend the offender." " A riot" 
 (says ilr. Justice Gasclee)" is not the Icssa riot, nor an 
 Illegal meeting, liecause the prochimation of the Riot 
 Act has not been read; the etfect of that proclamation 
 being to make the parlies guilty of a capital offense 
 if they do not tlispcrse witliin an hour; but if that 
 proclamation be not read, the common-law offense 
 remains, and it is a misdemeanor; and all Magistrates, 
 Constables,' and even private indi\-iduals are justified 
 in dispersing the offenders; and if they cannot other- 
 wise succeed in doing so, they may use force." 
 After the suppression ot the great riots of London in 
 1780 t)y the aid of the troops, as already mentioned, 
 the Govermnent was acrimoniously attacked both in 
 and out of Parliament, on the ground that the em- 
 plojTnent of a mililarj" force, to (jue!! riots by tiring on 
 the" people, could only be justified, if at all, by martial 
 law proclaimed under a special exercise of the royal 
 prerogative; and it was thence argued that the nation 
 was living under martial law. But Lord Mansfield , the 
 Chief .Justice of the King's Bench, addres.scd the House 
 of Lords on this subject, and placed it in its true light. 
 " I hold " (siud bis Lordship) " that His JLijesty, in the 
 orders he issued by the advice of his Ministers, acted 
 perfectly and strictly according to the common law 
 of the land and the principles of the Constitution. 
 .... Every individual in his private capacity may 
 lawfully interfere to suppress a riot, much more to 
 prevent acts of felony, treason, and rebellion. Not 
 only is he authorized to interfere for such a purpose, 
 but it is his duty to ilo so; and if called upon by a 
 Magistrate, he is pvun'shable in case of refusal. What 
 any single individual may lawfully do for the pre 
 vention of crime and preservation of the public peace 
 may be done by any number a.ssembled to perform 
 their duty as good citizens. It is the peculiar basi- 
 ness of all Constaljlcs to apprehend rioters, to en- 
 deavor to disperse all unlawful a.sscmblies, and, in 
 ca.se of resistance, to attack, wound, nay, kill those 
 who continue to resist; talking care not to commit 
 unnecesiijirj' \iolence, or to abuse the power legally 
 vested in them. Everv' one is justified in doing what 
 is necessjiry for the failhfid diseliarge of the duties 
 annexed to his otfiee, although he is doubly culp:djlc 
 if he wantonly commits an illegal act under the color 
 or pretext of law. The persons who assisted in the 
 suppression of those tunudts are to be considered 
 mere private individuals acting as duty rc(i\iired. 
 My Lords, we have not been living under martial law, 
 but under that law which it has long been my sacred 
 function to administer. For any violation "of that 
 law the offenders arc ameiialile toour ordinary Courts 
 of .lustiee, and may be tried before a jury of their 
 countrymen. Supposing a soldier or any other mili- 
 tary person who acted in the course of the late riots 
 had exceeded the power with which he was invested, 
 I have not a single doubt that he may be ])imished, 
 not by a Courl-Marlial, but uivm an indictment to be 
 found by the Grand Inquest of the City of [..ondoii 
 or the County of Miildlesex, and disposed of bifore 
 the ermined .Judges silting in .Justice Ilall at the 
 Old Bailcj'. Con.sequently the itlea is fal.se that we 
 are living under a military government, or that, since 
 the commencement of the riots, any part of the laws 
 or of the Constitution has been suspended or dis- 
 pensed with. I believe that much mischief has arisen 
 
 from a misconception of the Riot Act, which enacts 
 
 that after proclamation made persons present at a riot- 
 ous assembly shall dejiart to their homes; tho.se who 
 remain there al)ove an hour afterwards shall be guilty 
 of felony and liable to suffer death. From tLis it 
 has been" imagined that the military caimot act, what- 
 ever crimes may lie committed in their sight, till an 
 hour after such proclamation has been maile, or, as 
 it is termed, ' the Riot Act is read.' But the Riot Act 
 only introduces a new offense — remaining an hour 
 after the proclamation — without qualifying any pre- 
 existing law, or abridging the means which before 
 existed for preventing or punishing crimes." 
 
 It may, perhaps, be u.sef ul to subjoin a General Or- 
 der issued to the Commander-in-Chief at Madras, in 
 April, Wi'h during the government of Sir Thomas 
 Munro, shortly after a melancholy affair at Kiltoor, 
 in which one or two ci^il servants of the East India 
 Company lost their lives under circumstances which, 
 in the opinion of the public authorities, indicated, 
 both in the civil and military functionaries, a want 
 of general knowledge respecting the subject of the 
 order: "The Honorable the Governor in Council 
 deems it neces,sary to lay down the follo\\iug rulej 
 relative to the exercise of the authority with which 
 Ci\il Slagistrates, and other ofticers acting in a similar 
 capacity, are vested, for calling out military force to 
 preserve the peace of the country: 1. The first and 
 most important rule is, that no Ci\il Officer shall call 
 out troops until he is con\-inced, by mature considera- 
 tion of all the circumstances, that such a measure is 
 necessary. 3. When the Civil Officer is satisfied of 
 the necessity of the measure, he should, before carry- 
 ing it into execution, receive the sanction of Govern- 
 ment, unless the ilelay requisite for that purpose is 
 likely to prove detrimental to the public interests. In 
 that case, also, he should fully report the circumstan- 
 ces to Gfovernment. 3. When the Civil Officer may 
 not deem it .s;ife to wait for the orders of Government, 
 he should address his requisition for troops, not to 
 any subordinate military officer, but to the officer 
 commanding the division, to wliom he should com- 
 mimicatc his object in making it, and all the infor- 
 mation he may possess regarding the strength and de- 
 signs of those by whom the public peace is menaced 
 or disturbed. His duty is confined to these points. 
 lie has DO atithoriti/ in dmrtiiig milttiry operations. 4. 
 The officer commanding the troops has alone author- 
 ity to determine the number and nature of those to be 
 employed, the time and manner of making the at- 
 tack, and every other operation for the reduction of 
 the enemy. .5. Whetiever the officer commaniling 
 the di\-ision may think the troops at his disposal in 
 adequate to the enteiprise, he should call upon the 
 officer commanding the neighboring division for aid, 
 and report to Government and to the Commander-in- 
 Chief. 6. No Assistant or Subordinate JIagistrate is 
 authorized to call out troops. When any such officer 
 thinks military aid necc.s.saiy, he must refer to his 
 Sujicrior, the Principal Magistrate of the district. 
 The foregoing rules are to be observed when it can 
 be done without danger to the public siifety. Should 
 any cxtraordinarj' ca.se occur, which admits of no 
 delay. ci\'il and military officers must then act ac- 
 cording to the emergency and the Ix'st of their judg- 
 ment. Such cases, however, can rarely occur, tiidess 
 when an enemy hecomes the a.ssailaut; and therefore 
 occasion can hardly ever arise for departing from the 
 regular course of calling out troops, only by the re- 
 quisition of the principal Ci\-il Magistrates of the 
 Pro\incc, to the officer commanding the divisioix 
 Ordered, that the foregoing resolutions Ix; published 
 in General Orders to the ;inny,and be communicated 
 for the information and giudance of such Civil Offi- 
 cers as they concern." See Posse C'omitatiis. 
 
 EXEMPT.— A term variously applied in military 
 matters. Men of certain age are exempt from .serv- 
 ing in the militia. An Aide-de-Camp and Brigade 
 ^lajor are exempt from all regimental duties whUe 
 sernng in those capacities. Officers on Courts- Mar-
 
 EXEBCISE. 
 
 593 
 
 EXPANSIVE SYSTEM OF RIFLING. 
 
 tial are sometimes exempt from nil other duties until 
 the Courts arc dissolved. 
 
 EXERCISE, — Maneuvering liodics of men together. 
 Tile drill of a mounted battery of artillery is termed 
 exercise. All such use as the soldier is instructed in 
 in the knowledge of his weapon is termed exercise, 
 such as bayonet-exercise, tiring-exercise, lancc-excr- 
 cise, manual, pistol, and sword exercise. See Gi/m- 
 iiaxticfi. 
 
 EXHAUSTER. — \n ajiparatus used in connection 
 with the emery -grinder and similar machines to 
 carry off the emery-d\ist, shavuigs, etc. The value of 
 this excellent machine is highly ajipreciated by those 
 who have much work to perform at the emery-wheel. 
 Emery-dust set free in a workshoj) is an intolerable 
 nuisance, and destructive to line machinery, even 
 though this be sittiated in an adjoining room. It ha.s 
 caused serious inconvenience to the eyes as well as 
 fatal injurj' to the lungs of the opexator. In conse- 
 quence these valuable, and now almost indispensable, 
 assi,stant.s to the iron-worker are rejected by many 
 who, if it were not so, would be glad to introduce 
 them at once. To tlie grinder is attached a small 
 
 but extra powerful exhauster, which takes its driving 
 power direct from the mandrel of the grinder, thus 
 combining the two tools in one — a saving in tiret cost 
 of construction to the consumer of at least tifty per 
 cent, as the usual countershaft, puUe^-s, belts, etc., 
 arc dispensed with, without taking into account the 
 economy of space, which in itself is a desideratum. 
 
 The simple construction of this nuichine makes it 
 possible to be set up in any part of the arsenal con- 
 venient to the driving-power. The icfusc dust may 
 be deposited into a small tank of water immediately 
 in front of the tal)le, or it may be conveyed out of 
 the building, either at a window or through an ordi- 
 nary chinmey-tlxie. As every particle of dust is car- 
 ried from the stone as fast as made, the eyes and ro- 
 Bi)iratory organs of the workman will need no artificial 
 protection. See Eriurunrimler. 
 
 EXON.— In England, an ofDcor of the Yoomen of 
 the Koyal Guard fan exempt. 
 
 EXOSTRE.— The bridge of the helepole, or movable 
 tower of the ancients, by which they passed upon a 
 wall during a siege. . 
 
 EXPANDING PROJECTILES.— Projectiles of this 
 rla.ss are forced to lake the grooves by the action of 
 the charge of powder, and require no other precau- 
 
 tion in loading than spin ri( al shell. It is cs.sential, 
 however, that the basi-ring of every rifle-projectile, 
 especially theParrott, shall be greaseil iK'fore entering 
 it into the gun, to prevent the formation of a hard 
 deixjsit in the grooves. Parrott's projectile is com- 
 posed of a cast-iron body and brass ring cast into a 
 rabbet formed around its base. The ring is from 1 
 inch to li inch in width, and about 1 inch in maxi- 
 mum depth. The gas ])res.'^es against the bottom of 
 the ring and underneath it, so as to cx-pand it into the 
 grooves of the gun. To prevent the rinjj from turn- 
 ing in the rabbet, the latter is rcces.sed at several 
 points of its circumference, like the teeth of gearing. 
 The (liamelcr of the rabbet is gieatest at the extreme 
 rear of the shot, so that the brass ring cannot tly off 
 without breaking. The entire projectile is slightly 
 smaller than the bore, so as to be easily rammed home. 
 The projectile has a .slight groove turneil out of the 
 iron of the ba.se to permit the powder giises to enter 
 and expand the ring. The use of a little grease or 
 other lubricating material on the 
 ba.sc of the projectile, before tiring, 
 is advantageous. Parrott's .shot for 
 iron-clad lighting, as shown in the 
 drawing, is entirely of east-iron, but 
 is reduced and chilled at the end, which prevents its 
 mashing like strong soft cast-iron. 
 
 The new Parrott projectile differs from that just 
 ilescribed in that the ba.se is separated from the ex- 
 panding ring by a cannelure which renders its taking 
 the grooves more certain. Those for the 60-poiinder 
 and under have one hole for the core-stem, which be- 
 comes the fuse-hole. The larger iirojeetiles have a 
 hole in each end in consequence of the necessity of 
 using two core-stems to steady the core. The batter- 
 ing-shell have but one hole in rear which serves as a 
 loading-hole; the hole in rear is cIo.sed by a screw- 
 l)lug. The ilotehkiss projcclile is comijoscd of three 
 parts: the body, the expanding ring of lead, and the 
 cast-iron cup. The action of the charge is to crowd 
 the cup against the soft-metal ring, thereby expand- 
 ing it into the rifling of the gun. The tinie-fu.se pro- 
 jectile has tleep longitudinal grooves cut on its sides 
 to allow the flame to pa.ss over and i'^nite the fii.se. 
 The last rifle-projectile submitted bj' Mr. Ilotehkiss 
 has an expanding cup of brass attached to its ba.se in 
 a very peculiar manner. The cup is divided into four 
 jiarts by thin projections on the base of the ])rojecliIe. 
 This nirangemcnt is intended to facilitate the expan- 
 sion of the cup and to allow the flame to pa.ss over to 
 ignite the fuse. 
 
 The Butler shell also belongs to this class, and dif- 
 fei-s from the mode of attaching the expanding ring 
 and in the position of the cannelure. The expanding 
 ring is screwed on to the base, in such a manner that 
 the rotary motion screws in lighter; the rear ]iarl is di- 
 vided bythe cannelure into two lips, so that the gases 
 are distnbutcd evenly and the entrance of the gas be- 
 tween the ring and the body of the iirojectile is pre- 
 vented; the grip of the inner lip on the projectile be- 
 ing also increased by the wedging action of the wis. 
 See Arrick Projectile, Blnlely' ProjertiU- , Butler Pro- 
 jectiles, Confederate Projectiles, Dana I^ojcctik, Dy- 
 er Projectile, Hutchkiss Pr<fjectHes, James Projectile, 
 Parrott Projectiles, Projectiles, Satryer Projectiles, and 
 Si-/ienkle Projectile. 
 
 EXPANSIVE SYSTEM OF RIFLING.— This .system 
 embraces all projectiles which in loading are inserted 
 in the gun without respect to the riflmg, but which 
 take the grooves bj- the action of the gases of dis- 
 charge upon a de\-ice or feature of the projectile, 
 which is readilv expanded thereby into the grooves 
 of the gun. Tliis class of projectiles has l>een so ex- 
 tensively and almost exclusively used in the United 
 States tiiat it is known as the American system. The 
 chief projectiles of this class are: 1. Those wluTe the 
 sabot is of lead or soft metal. In tlie.se the windage 
 is apt to be entirely closed. The lead may strip or 
 Ik- forced over the "proiectile, and balloting or wedg- 
 ing be induced. 2. Tho<e having sabots of cop-
 
 DZFATBIATION. 
 
 594 
 
 EXPLOSIOH. 
 
 piT or bn-.ss, cup-sbiiped on the bottom of the pro 
 ji-ctile. Thi-so seem to sutler from tlie violence of the 
 explosion wilbin the cup, wbieU is apt to be broken 
 or unevenly set up. 3. Those where n leaden jacket 
 is forced out by the action of the discbari;e upon a 
 wedge or key. " These have small capacity as shell 
 and little .slreiijith as shot, strip ca.sily, and arc open 
 to many objections. 4. Those where a concave or 
 convex "disk is flattened ajr.iinst the base of the i>ro- 
 jectile, or in addition is pro\ided with a flanjre or key 
 which is driven by the discharge upon the tajXTed 
 base of the projectile. 5. Those where the rotating 
 device consists of an annular band or ring attached 
 to the base of the projectile and intended to be ex- 
 panded into the rilling by the gases of discharge. 
 These have proved most successful in practice. See 
 
 i<l/nl< III iif Ititlim.l- 
 
 EXPATRIATION. — A voluntary transfer of resi- 
 dence and allegiance from one's native land to an- 
 othercountry and government. Despotic governments 
 have a.ssunud the right to fortnd such a change on 
 the part of their citizens, l)ut the United States recog- 
 nizes the right of the individual citizen, at his own 
 plciisure, to leave the counlrj- of his birth and make 
 his home in a foreign land. Naturalization, however, 
 is necessary to the complete transfer of allegiance. 
 The United States defends the rights and liberties of 
 natundized precisely as it does tliose of native citi- 
 zens. A naturalizerl citizen of this country, visitftig 
 his native land, is protected by the American flag as 
 though he had been born on American soil. Of 
 course this right of expatriation cannot be made a 
 cover for a previous breach of trust, or the commis- 
 sion of any crime, in the place of one's birth; but the 
 assumption that the law of his native laud requiting 
 him at a certain time of his life to do military duty 
 nullities for the time being a man's right of ex|)atria- 
 tion is not allowiii by the United States. Thousands 
 of yoinig men leave the Old World for the avowed 
 purpose of avoiding military conscription, and the 
 United States welcomes them to citizenship, with all 
 its rights and obligations. 
 
 EXPEDITION.— The organization and march of a 
 small army or body of men for hostile purposes. One 
 of the principlesof many small expeditions is surprise, 
 which, if well carried out, will insure success. To 
 the soldier, no part of his duty is so exciting and In- 
 teresting as an expedition, for it implies risk, hazard, 
 and danger, in which nature of warfare the enthusi- 
 astic and daring soklier delights. 
 
 EXPENSE-MAGAZINES.— The very small gunpow- 
 der-magazines, cunlaiiiing the made-up ammunition 
 for the service of the guns on the works, at the rate of 
 so many rounds per gun. In forlilications of the old 
 construction an expense-magazine was made in each 
 bastion and battery, though this was not always the 
 case. Kxiiense-magazines are often made imder the 
 earthen ramparts of fortificatiocs, with a passage cut 
 into them in the interior slopes. In the more modern 
 works, such as the Instruction of Ff/rtifieatimi at 
 the liuyid Milititrji Aciuhiiiy, Wimlin>/i. it is shown 
 that expense-magazines shoidd be placed as near as 
 is practicable to the gims which they have to supply, 
 and may often be conveniently constructed under the 
 traverses and below the level of the terre-plein, with 
 lifts of comnuniicalion. They can, if so situated, be 
 ea-sily secured against the enemy's fire, and l)e jiro- 
 vnded with siditernuiean communications with the 
 main magazine, which would permit them to be re- 
 plenished without risk, even during action. The first 
 suggestions made as to the size of expense-magazines 
 in fortifications of the present day gave four guns to 
 be supjilied by ejicli, but a later recommendation pro- 
 poses (iidy two g\ins, in the ease of very heavy guns. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS.- The trials (U- applications of any 
 kind of ndlilary machines in order to asccrfjdn their 
 pnu-lical (|Ualili(s and uses. 
 
 EXPIRATION OF SERVICE.— The termination of a 
 soldier's eonlract of enlistment, usually five years. 
 
 EXPLOSION.— The term explosion is rather loosely 
 
 used. Considering it as synonymous with exjilosive 
 reaction, it may be defined as a themical action cau-s- 
 ing the sudden or extremely rapid formation of a 
 very g^reat volume of highly exjianded gas. 
 
 Explosive elTect is caused by the blow or impulse 
 given by this rapid production of gas in a contined 
 space. The cxplo.sive character of the change, then, 
 depends — 1st. Upon the great change of state pro- 
 duced; that is, the formation of gas very much great- 
 er in volume than the substance from which it is 
 derived, aiul which is still more expanded by the 
 heat evolved. 2d. Upon the shortness of the lintc 
 required for the change to take place. Both these 
 causes oiterale to a greater or less extent in all 
 explosive reactions. When both are fully exerted 
 the most energetic chenucal reaction, or, in other 
 words, the most violent explosion, takes i)lace. Also, 
 the differences in explosions and exiilosive bodies 
 depend upon the differing manner and proportions 
 in which they are exerted. Thus, nitroglycerine is 
 much more powerful and violent lliau guniiowder, 
 bec;msc it generates a larger vdluine of gas in a 
 shorter time. Again, fulminating nierciu'y is not 
 more powerful than gunpowder, although the decom- 
 position goes on more quickly, since the quantity of 
 gas given off and the temperatiu'e of the reaction are 
 less. 
 
 I The kinds and quantity of gas given off in an ex- 
 plosive reaction depend upon the chemical composi- 
 
 [ tion of the explosive body and the character of the 
 
 I decomposition. The heat evolved during the reac- 
 tion adds to the effect by increasing the tension (ex- 
 panding the volume) of the gas fonned. The heat 
 given off in a reaction is an absolute (luantity, the 
 
 \ same whether the reaction goes on slowly or rapidly. 
 But the (.rjtliisive effect will evidently greatly dipeiid 
 upon the rfipiilifi/ of the formation and expansion of 
 the gas. Thus, if an explosive undergoes the same 
 change uniler all circumstances of filing, then the 
 total amount of force develojied will always be the 
 .same; but the exphsire effect will be increased as the 
 time of action is lessened. Explosions are greatly 
 affected by the circumstances attending them.- Dif- 
 ferent substances, of course, give dillereiit rcsidts, 
 from their different compositions and reactions. But 
 we also find that the same substance \\ ill exertise a 
 different explosive effect when tired under certain 
 conditions than under other--. These may affect 
 either the rajiidity or the results of the chemical 
 change. By shortening the time of the reaction the 
 explosion is rendered sharper and more violent. With 
 some explosives the decomposition is different imder 
 different circumstances. Thus, gunpowder when 
 fired under great pressure gives different products 
 than when fired unconfiued. Circinnstances of ex- 
 plosion may be generally considered under — 1st. 
 Physical or mechanical condition of the explosive 
 bofly itself. 2d. External conditions. ;id. Mode of 
 tiring. JIany instances may be given indicating the 
 influence of itsstate upon the cx])l<ision of a substance. 
 Thus, nilro-glyeeriMr at tiinperulures above 40 Fahr. 
 is a liquid, aukl in a liquid comlition may be violently 
 exii|o(led by a fuse containing l!> grains of fulminat- 
 ing mc'rcury. Below 40 it freezes and cannot Ik; so 
 fired. The advantage of dynamite over nilro-glycer- 
 ine lies allogelher in the fact that the foimer is pre- 
 sented in another mechanical condition, more con- 
 venient and safer lo use than the liipiid form. The 
 nitro-glvcerine itself is the sune {hcniically in cither 
 cjisc. 't"he sjmie nuxture of charcoal, sulphur, and 
 sidtpeter gives a very different effect if made up into 
 large grains than if made up into small ones. Gun- 
 cotton presents the most marked example of the effect 
 of mechanical slate, since it can be prepared in so 
 many ways. If flame is applied to loo.se uncom- 
 pres,sed gun-cotton it will flash off; if it is spun into 
 thri'ads or woven into webs, its rate of combustion 
 may be so nuuii reduced that it can be used in gun- 
 nery or for a ((luc k fuse; powerfully compre.s.sed and 
 damp, it burns slowly; dry gun-cotton may be ex-
 
 EXPLOSIVE AGENTS. 
 
 595 
 
 EXPLOSIVE AGENTS. 
 
 ploded by a fulminale-fuse; wet, it requires an initial 
 explosion of a small amount of tin-, etc. 
 
 Confinement is necessary to obtain the full effect of 
 all explosives. The most rapid explosion requires a 
 certain time for its accomplishment. As the time re- 
 quired is less, the amount of confinement necessary is 
 less. Then, with the sudden or \-iolent explosives, 
 the confinement required may be so small that its con- 
 sideration ma}' be practically neglected. For instance, 
 large stones or blocks of iron may be broken b\' the 
 explosion of nitroglycerine upoii their surfaces in 
 the open air. Hero the atmosphere itself acts as a 
 confining agent. The explosion of the nitro-glycerinc 
 is so sudden that the air is not at once moved. Again, 
 chloride of nitrogen is one of the most sudden and 
 violent of all ex|)Iosi\cs. In its prejianition it is pre- 
 cipitated from a watery liquid, and tbercl'on- is, when 
 used, wet or co\ered with a very thin tilni of water. 
 This thin film of water, not more than (,,'jn, of an 
 inch in thickness, is a necessary and sufficient confine- 
 ment, and if it is removed the explosive elleet is 
 mueli diminished. Gunpowder, on the other hand, 
 requires strong confinement, since its explosion is 
 comparatively slow. Thus, in firing a large charge 
 of gimpowder under water, unless the case is strong 
 enough to retain the eases until the action has become 
 general, it will be broken, and a largj- amount of the 
 powder thrown out unburned. This is often the 
 ca.se in firing large-grained powder in heavy guns. 
 The ball leaves the gun before all tlic powder has 
 burned, and grains or lumps of it are thrown out un- 
 injured. The confinement needed by the slower ex- 
 plosives may be diminished l)y igniting the charge at 
 many points, so that less time is required for its com- 
 plete explosion. 
 
 In any explosive reaction the mode of bringing 
 about the change exercises an important infinence. 
 The application of heat, directly or indirectly, is the 
 principal means of causing an explosion. Thus, in 
 gunnerj-, the flame from the percussion-cap or primer 
 directly ignites the charge; so also a fine platinum 
 wire heated by an electric current will ignite explo- 
 sive material "which is in contact with it. Friction, 
 percussion, concussion, produce the sjime effect indi- 
 rectly, by the conversion of mechanical energy into 
 heat, which is communicated to the Iwxly to be ex- 
 ploded. When one explosive bodv is used as a means 
 of firing another, it may be considered that the blow 
 delivered by the gas suddenly formed from the tiring- 
 charge acts jx-rcussively upon the mass to be ex- 
 ploded. The particles of this gas are thrown out 
 with great velocity; but meeting \Wth the resistance 
 of the mass around them, they are checked, and 
 their energy is converted into heat. It is found, how- 
 ever, that the action of explosives on one another 
 cannot be perfectly explained in this way. If the 
 action were simply the conversion of energy into 
 heat, then the most" powerful explosive would be the 
 best agent for causing explosion. But this is not the 
 case. Nitro-glyeerine is much more powerful than 
 fulminating mercur}-; but l.i grains of the latter will 
 explode gun-cotton, while TO limes as much nitro- 
 glycerine will not do it. Chloride of nitrogen is 
 much more violent than fulminating mercury, but 
 larger quantities of the former than of the laltermust 
 be used to cause other explosions. Again, nitro- 
 
 flycerine is fired with certainly by a small amount of 
 liminating mercury, while" with a much larger 
 amount of gunpowd"er the explosion is less certain 
 and feebler. In thes<> ca.ses it is evident that the ful- 
 minating mercury must have some special advantage, 
 since it produces the desired effect more easily than 
 the others. It may be«considered that the fulminat- 
 ing mercury sets up a form of motion or vibration 
 to which the other Iwdies are sinsitive. Just as a 
 vibrating tody will induce corresponding vibrations 
 in others, so the pecidiar rate of motion or wave of 
 impulse sent out bv the fulminating mercury exerts a 
 greater disturbing' influence upon the molecules of 
 some bodies than that derived from other substances. 
 
 I An explosive moleciile is unstable and verj- suscep- 
 tible to external influences. Its atoms are in a nicely 
 balanced equilibrium, which is, however, more read- 
 ilv overturned by one kind of blow than another. 
 T'he explosive molecule takes up the wave of impulse 
 of the fulminate, but the strain is too great, and its 
 own balance is destroyed. So a glass may stand a 
 strong blow; while a particular note or vibration will 
 break it. In the case mentioneil alwve, of gim-cotton 
 
 I affected by nitroglycerine or fulminate, the explosion 
 
 I of the nitroglycerine is strong enough to tear and 
 
 ! scatter the gam-cotton, but the blow, though very 
 powerful, is not one that the gun<'otton is sensitive 
 to; on the other hand, the fulminate blow, though 
 weaker, readilj- upsets the molecule of the gun-cot- 
 ton. In addition, the explosion proceeds very difTer- 
 entl)- when brought about in this way than when 
 ojused by simple inflammation. When a mass of 
 explosive is ignited by a flame, the action extends 
 gradually through it; but if it is explodwl by a blow, 
 acting in the manner'above described, it is plain that 
 the explosion will be nearlj- instantaneous through- 
 
 ! out, since the impulse will be transmitted through the 
 ma.ss with far greater rapidity than an inflammation 
 
 I proceeding from particle to particle. The explosive 
 
 ' reaction will then proceed much more rapidly, and 
 the explosive effect will be more violent. 
 
 The phenomenon of the explosion of powder may 
 be divided into three distinct parts, vi/... ignition, tn- 
 
 ' flammalion, and combustion. By ignition is under- 
 
 I stood the setting on fire of a particular point of 
 
 j the charge; by inflammation, the spread of the igni- 
 tion from one grain to another; and by combustion, 
 the burning of each grain from its surface to center. 
 
 j See C'ombuMion, Detonation, Explonce Agentg, (htn- 
 
 ! poirdei; Ignition, and Inflammation. 
 
 \ EXPLOSIVE AGENTS.— There is some question as 
 to the influence, direct or indirect, upon modern civili- 
 zation of the introduction of explosive agents for the 
 
 ' purpose of war. Some eminent authors have gf)ne so 
 far as to consider the invention of gunpowder as next 
 in import.mce, in its ultimate effects, to those of print- 
 
 ! ing .nid the application of steam-power. However 
 
 I this may be, it is well to rememlxT that explosive sub- 
 stances are now of immense utility in the arts of peace; 
 indeed, it is not too much to s;iy that without their 
 aid many of the great engineering enterprises of the 
 present day woidd either be impo-^sible, or else have 
 to be carried out at a v;ist additional expenditun^ of* 
 time and labor. The germ of all the knowledge 
 which we possess of explosive reaction undoubtedly 
 lay in the probably accidental disi-overy, many years 
 ago, of the deflagrating properties of the natund sub- 
 
 j .stance niter or s;ilti>cter (KXOs), when in contact with 
 incandescent charcoal. By distilling niter with oil 
 of vitriol the alchemists obtained a corrosive fluid 
 which thev called aqunfnrtis, now known as nitric 
 acid (IlXdj), which parts with its ox-ygen even more 
 rapidly than saltpeter; so that if the strongest nitric 
 acid lie poured upon finely powdered charcoal, the 
 latter takes fire at the ordinary temperature. Some- 
 what less than half a century "back it was discovered 
 bv some French chemists that upon treating various 
 organic substances, such as starch, the sug-ars, cotton 
 fabrics, and even paper, with concentrated nitric acid 
 under proper precautions, the chemical constitution 
 of the substances underwent a great change, and they 
 became endowed with \iolently explosive properties, 
 while remaining for the most part unaltered in exter- 
 nal characteristics. To this discovery we owe a dis- 
 tinct class of explosive compounds, tlie most power- 
 ful for practical purposes as vet known. Examining 
 into those principles of constitution and action which 
 arc more or less common to all explosive substances. 
 
 ■ we may define, for oiu- purpose, the term " explo- 
 sive" as the sudden or extremelv rajiid conversion of 
 a solid or liquid bodv of small bulk into gas or vapor, 
 ofcupvins verv many times the volume of the origi- 
 nal sul)stance,"and. fn addition, highly expande«l by 
 
 I the heat geneniteel during the trunsformalion. This
 
 EXPLOSIVE AGENTS. 
 
 596 
 
 EXPLOSIVE AGENTS. 
 
 sudden or very rapid expansion of volume is attended 
 by an exhibition of force more or less \nolcnt accord- 
 ing to the constitution of the original substance and 
 the circumslanci-s of cxjjlosion. Any s\ibstanco capa- 
 i)!e of iindiri-'oi!!!.' such a clianjje upon llic application 
 of heat or other disturbing cause is called an explo- 
 sive airent. The most explosive substances that are 
 practically the most important es.sentially contain car- 
 bon, oxygen, anil nitii)gen, the last always existing 
 in a state of feeble combination with the whole or 
 part of the oxyg<'n, and tlius creating that condition 
 of unstable chemical eciuilibrium which is necessary. 
 When explosion takes place the nitrogen parts with 
 its oxygen to the carbon, for which it has a greater 
 affiniiyr fonning carbonic acid (COj) and carbonic 
 oxide' (CO) gii.ses, the combination being accom- 
 panied with great generation of heat, and the nitro- 
 gen being set free. In most explosives there is also 
 liydrogen accompanying the cjirbon, and by its com- 
 bustion producing an extremely high temperature: 
 it combines with part of the oxygen to form water 
 in the form of greatly expanded vapor. Other sub- 
 ordinate elements are often present; in giuipowdcr, 
 for instance, tlie potassitnn binds the nitrogen and 
 oxygen loosely together in the state of sjdtpeter, and 
 there is sulphur, a second combustible whose oxida- 
 tion evolves greater heat than that of carbon. When 
 chlorate of potash is present tlie elilorinc plays the 
 part of nitrogen, and is set free in the ga.seous state. 
 Two very unstable and practically useless explosive 
 substances, the so-called chloride and iodide of nitro- 
 gen, contain neither carbon nor oxygen; but their great 
 violence is equally caused by the feeble affinities of 
 nitrogen for other elements, large volumes of gaseous 
 matter being suddenly disengaged from a very small 
 quantity of a licjuid and solid body respectively. 
 
 Explosives may be conveniently divided into two 
 distinct classes— ^1) Ex|ilcsive Mixtures, aiul (2) Ex- 
 plosive Compounds. The first class consists of those 
 explosive substances which are merely intimate me- 
 chanical mixtures of certain ingredients, and which 
 can Ix; again separated more or less completely by 
 mechanical means not invoh-ing mechanical ai tion. 
 These ingredients do not, as a rule, possess explosive 
 properties in their sei>arate condition. There are, 
 however, explosives which might also be classed in 
 both categories; for es;ample, pierk poirder is com- 
 J)0scd of ammonium picrate and saltpeter, the former 
 of which contains an explosive molecule, 1)ut is mixed 
 with the latter to supply additional oxygen and thus 
 increase the force. If a substance that will burn 
 freely in air, condjining gradually with the oxygen 
 of the atmosphere, be ignited in pure oxygen ga.s, the 
 combustion will be nuich more rapid and the amomit 
 of heat generated greater at the ordinary atmospheric 
 pressure. If it be'possible to burn the substance in a 
 very condensed atmosj^here of o.xygen, we can readily 
 imagine the combustion as very greatly accelerated, 
 and therefore increased in violence; tliis is wliat is 
 ordinarily effected by an explosive "mixture." A 
 condmstible body and a sujiportcr of combustion arc 
 brought into extremely close contact with one an- 
 other by means of intimate mechanical nii.xture; also, 
 the supporter of combustion, or oxidizing agent, is 
 present in very concentrated form, constituting what 
 may be termed a magazine of condensed oxygen, 
 solid or liquid. In the case of the explosion of a 
 detinile chemical compound, the change may be con- 
 sidered as the resolution of a complex body 'into sim- 
 pler forms. This is not, however, always the ca.se. 
 when a mechanical mixtnre is concerned; gunpowder, 
 for example, may be said to contain two elementary 
 substances, carbon and sulphur, not in cliemici'd 
 iminn. The chief explosive mixtures may be sub 
 divided into " nitrate nnxtures" and " chlorate mix- 
 tures." In the nitrates, the oxygen is held in com- 
 bination with sutlicient force to need a jiowerful 
 disturbing cause to separate it, so that mixtures 
 made from lutrates do not explode very rapidly, and 
 their action is comparatively gradual; they arc not 
 
 sensitive to friction or percussion, and hence are to a 
 great extent safe. Any of the nitrates will form ex- 
 plosive mixtures with combustible substances, but 
 nitrate of potash (KNOj) is the only one jiractically 
 employed. The nitrate of soda, called "culiical " or 
 Chili saltpeter, has l)ecn used, but absorbs moisture 
 from the air so readily as to give very inferior results. 
 Gunpowder may be taken as the reiJresentative of the 
 nitrate explosive mixtures. Picric powder, already 
 referred to, has been propo.sed by Abel for use as a 
 bursting-charge for shells, as being more powcrfid 
 than a corresjionding charge of gunpowder, equally 
 safe as regards friction or percussion, and less hygro- 
 scopic; it consists of two parts anunonium picrate 
 and three parts saltpeter, incorporated, i)res.sed, and 
 finished very much as ordinary gunjiowder. The 
 chlorates part with their oxygen far more readily than 
 the nitrates, the strong affinities of chlorine for the 
 metals coming into play, and consequently chlorate 
 mixtures are veiy sensitive to friction and percussion, 
 and explode with great \'iolence; chlorate of ]iotash 
 (KCIO) is the only one used. Very many chlorate 
 mixtures have been made, some of which are employ- 
 ed in fireworks. "White gunpowder" is a mi.xture 
 of two parts chlorate of jwtash. one of yellow prus- 
 siate of potash, and one of sug-ar; it is exjilodcd very 
 easily by friction or percus,sion. The most important 
 chlorate nnxtures are those used for igniting other 
 explosives, such as the cf)mposition for friction-tubes 
 for firing cannon, percussion-cap composition, and 
 percussion-fuses for bursting shells on impact; it is 
 sometimes mixed with sulphur, as a combustible, and 
 sometimes with black sidiihide of antimony, which 
 gives a longer flame. 
 
 In an explosive compound the elements are all in 
 chemical combination, presenting a definite explosive 
 "molecule." which contains, so to speak, both the 
 combustible and the supporter of combustion in the 
 closest jiossible union; we can therefore understand 
 its action heing much more sudden and violent than 
 that of the most intimate mechanical mixture. The 
 chief exjilosive compounds are formed from some 
 organic substance containing carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen, by introducing into it, through the action of 
 concentrated nitric acid, a certain portion of nitric 
 peroxide (NO:), in substitution for an eqtnvalent 
 amount of hydrogen. A new compound differing 
 outwardly very little, if at all, from the original 
 substance is thus formed, but in a very tmstable state 
 of chemical equilibrium, because of the feeble imion 
 of the nitrogen and oxygen in the NO: molecule. 
 A slight disturbing cause brings into play the stronger 
 affinity of the carbon and Jiydrogen for the large store 
 of oxj-gen contained in the new compound. Gun- 
 cotton and nitroglycerine are the leading members 
 of this grovip, being produced in a precisely similar 
 manner by the substitution of three molecules of NOj 
 for three atoms of hvdrogen (H). As those explosives 
 will be elsewhere described in ilelail. we give the 
 formation as a representative member of the group of 
 nitro-plienol or picric acid by treating phenol or car- 
 bolic acid with a mixture of nitric and sul]ihuric 
 acids, the latter being required to absorb the water 
 and preserve the full strength of the nitric acid: 
 
 Carbolic acid. Nitric acid. Picric acid. Water. 
 
 C.H,0 + 3HX0, = C,H3(N0,),0 + 3H.,0 
 
 The formula of the product may be empirically writ- 
 ten CuIIjNjO: ; it is, like gun cotton and nitro-glycer- 
 ine, a tri-nitro .s\d)stitution product. Only the picrates 
 or salts of picric acid formed with potassium or am- 
 monium are used in practice as possessing more force 
 than the imcombined acid. Prom starch may be ob- 
 tained, in a strictly analogous maimer, an explosive 
 called .i-i//oii/iiu, which is a hi-nitm ])roduct, two 
 molecules of nitric iHToxide being substituted for 
 two atoms of hydrogen. In the case of nilro-mannite, 
 an explosive made from mannite, one of the sugars, 
 as many as six molecules of the NOj are inserted. 
 The number of nitro-substitution products is very
 
 EXPLOSIVE AGENTS. 
 
 597 
 
 EXPLOSIVE AGENTS. 
 
 great, many of them being more or less \nolcntly 
 explosive. The fulminates are among the most vio- 
 lent of all explosive compounds, their chemiciil seii- 
 sibilit}' being very small. Sudden in action, their 
 effect is great locally; thus they are well ailapted to 
 the purpose for which alone they are practically u.sed, 
 of igniting or upsetting the equilibrium of other ex- 
 plosives. Fulminate of mercury is produced by add- 
 ing alcohol (C'lHeO), under great precautions, to a 
 solution of mercury in nitric acid; a gray crystalline 
 precipitate is obtained, vcrj- hea\T (sp. gr. 4.4), and so 
 sensitive to friction or percussion that it is kept in 
 the wet state. The results of analysis show one atom 
 of mercury and two each of carbt)n, nitrogen, and 
 oxj-gen; so that the formula may be emijirically writ 
 teii HgC^NjOi, or perhaps more correctly HgO.CjXjO; 
 the chemical factor CjNjO is called 'f>ilii<iiiic aeid, 
 but has never Iwen produced separately. Opinions 
 differ as to the precise " rational" formuheof the ful- 
 minates, some chemists considering their process of 
 formation to be similar to that of tin- nitro-substitu- 
 tion products. It will be observed that two atoms of 
 nitrogen take the place of hydrogen, being the ratio 
 of combining proportions of those elements. The 
 products of combustion arc carbonic oxide, nitrogen, 
 and metallic mercury, and the violence of action is 
 due to the sudden evolution of a volume of gas and 
 vapor very large in comparison with that of the sub- 
 stance, its density being so great. This fulminate 
 enters into the composition used for percussion-caps 
 and electric fuses; its practical value has of late years 
 been immensely increased by the discovery of its 
 power even in ven,- small quantities to procluce the 
 almost instantaneous decomposition of several ex]ilo- 
 sivc substances. Fulminate of silver is prepared in a 
 similar manner, but, being far more sensitive, is of lit- 
 tle practical value; it is used in very minute quan- 
 tities in making such toj's as detonating crackers. 
 
 ll may be generally concluded that the amoimt of 
 force exerted by an explosive substance depends upon 
 (1) the roliiiiic of ydn or riqnir produced by the trans- 
 formation compared with that of the original sub- 
 stance; and (2) the h'lripirnt'ire of eTplosioii, which 
 determines the extent to which the ga.ses are ex- 
 panded, or their tension increased; or in other words, 
 the explosive force is directly proportional to the 
 heat of combustion, and the vohmie of gas and vapor 
 calculated at 0' C. and 7.60 mm. pressure, :md in- 
 Tersely proportional to the specitic heat of the mixed 
 protiucts. It has been supposed by Bcrthelot and 
 others that the volume of gas produced may possiblj- 
 be still further increased Ijy the partial or total " dis- 
 sociation" of the compound gases at the high tem- 
 peratures concrned; for example, that the carbonic 
 acid (CO2) may be decomposed into carbonic oxide 
 (CO) and oxygen, or the aqueous vapor into oxygen 
 and hydrogen. However, Nobel and Abel demon- 
 strate that hi the former instance the loss of tempera- 
 ture conseciuent u]ion the absoi-plion of heat by tlie 
 decomposition would more than compnisale for the 
 increase of volume by dis.sociation. Il must also be 
 remembered that if "the temperature be extremely 
 high, so also is the pressure under which dis,soeiation 
 must take place. We may therefore consider that it 
 has no sensi!)le influence "upon the explosive force. 
 It is most important to distinguish lietween explosive 
 force and explosive effect, the latter in great mcjisure 
 depending upon the rapidity with which the meta- 
 morphosis takes place, while the sjime amount of 
 force may be exerted suddenly or gradually. We 
 may, therefore, consider that the explosive effect 
 varies direftly as the volume of gas produced and the 
 temperature of explosion, and inremly as the time 
 required for the transformation. But the time, and, 
 to a certain extent, the products and temperature, will 
 vary with {a) the physical state of the explosive sub- 
 stiiiice; {h) the external conditions imder which it is 
 fired; (r) the mode of firing or exploding. The physi- 
 cal or mechanical state of the e.xiMosive substance has a 
 most important bearing upon the effect obtained from 
 
 it. To prove this it is only necessarj- to point to the very 
 different results given by gunpowders made with the 
 same proiwrtions of the three ingredients, but vary- 
 ing in density, and in shape and size of gTains or piecea. 
 Gun-cotton is even more affected by variations in me- 
 chanical condition. In the fonnof loose wool, it 
 burns so rapidly that gunpowder in contact with it 
 is not intlamed;" plaitecl or twisted li^^htly, its rate of 
 combustion in air is ^.'really modified. This is due 
 to the fact that the inflammable carbonic oxide, which 
 is evolved bv the decomposition from the want of suf- 
 ficient storecl-up oxygen to oxidize completely all the 
 carbon of the gun cotton, cannot penetrate between 
 the fibers and accelerate the combustion, but burns 
 with a bright fiame away from the surface of the 
 twisted cotton; when the yarn is yet moreconii)res.sed 
 by any means, the temperature is not kept up to the 
 height necessary for the combustion of the carlninic 
 oxide, so that it escapes uncunsumed, abstracting 
 heat and yet more retarding the rate of burning. 
 For the same reason, pulped and compressed gun- 
 cotton burns comparatively .slowly in air. even when 
 dry; in the wet state it merely smouldei's away, as 
 the portion in contact with the flresucces-sively becomes 
 dried. Yet this same wet compressed gun-cotton can 
 be so used as to constitute one of the most powerful 
 explosives known. It is well known that gun|x)wder 
 behaves differently when in the open air and under 
 strong confinement; not only the rate of burning, but 
 even, to a certain extent, the products of combus. 
 tion are altered. We have discussed the effect of 
 tightly plaiting or compressing gun-cotton; but when 
 
 j confined in a strong envelope, the whole of the in- 
 flamed gas, being unable to escape outwards, is forced 
 into the interetices under immense pressure, and the 
 
 j decomposition is greatly accelerated. The amount of 
 confinement or restraint needed by any explosive de- 
 
 ! pends, however, upon the nature of the substance and 
 
 I the mode of exploding it, tx-cominn: very much le.ss 
 as the transformation is more rapid, until it may Ixi 
 said to reach the vanishing-point. For examjile, the 
 very violent explosive chkiride of nitrogen is usually 
 surroumied, when explodeil. with a thin film of water. 
 Abel slates that if this film, not exceeding y„V,n inch 
 in thickness, be removed, the explosive effect is much 
 lessened. Nitro-glycerine, again, when detonated by 
 a fulminate, is sufficiently cohfinetl by the surromul- 
 ing atmosphere. By the .same means, gun<'(,>tton may 
 e.vplode unconfincd if compressed, the mechanioil 
 cohesion affording sufficient restraint. In the case 
 of wet compressed gun-cotton, which can be deto- 
 nated with even fuller effect than dry, the mechanical 
 resistance is greater, Uie air-spaces being filleil with 
 incompressible fluid. 
 
 The manner in which the explosion is brought alwut 
 li.as a most important bearing upon the effect pro- 
 duced. This may be done by the direct application 
 of an ignited or heated body, by the use of an elec- 
 tric cuirent to heat a fine platinum wire, or by mejins 
 of jXTCussion, concussion, or friction, converting me- 
 chanical energy into heat. A small quantity of a 
 sulisidiary explosive, such as a composition sensitive 
 to friction or percussion, is often employed, for the 
 sake of convenience, to ignite the main charge, the 
 combustion spreading through the mass with more or 
 less rapidity, according to the nature of the substance. 
 A.'.thoiigh subsidiary or initiatory explosives were at 
 first usc'd merely to generate sufficient heat to ignite 
 the charge, and are often still so employed, tlicy have 
 of late years received an application of far wider im- 
 portance. 3Ir. Alfred Xobel, a Swedish engineer, 
 while endeavorinir to employ nitroglycerine for prac- 
 tical |iurposcs, found consid"erable difficulty in explod- 
 ing it \vith certainty; he at length, in lf<(i4, by using 
 a large percussion-cap, charged with fulminate of 
 mercury, obtained an exTilosion of great violence. 
 This result led to the discovery that many explosive 
 substances, when exploded by means of a small quan- 
 tity of a suitable initiatory" explosive, produce an 
 effect far exceeding anything that can be attributed
 
 HXFLOSIVX MACHINES. 
 
 598 
 
 £XPB£S8 BIFLE. 
 
 to the ordinorj' combustion, however mpid, of the 
 body in question; in fact, the whole mass of the ex- 
 plosive is converted into gas with such suddenness 
 that it may, practically, Ix" considered instantaneous. 
 This sudden transfoniiation is termed "detonation." 
 Of the substances cajiable of producing such action, 
 fulminate of mercury is the most important. Some ex- 
 plosives appear always to detonate, in whatever man- 
 ner they may lie exploded, such as chloride and iodide 
 of nitrogen;' the explosive etfect is therefore much 
 greater than that of a slower explosive substance, 
 although their explosive force may be less. Again, 
 other substances, such as gun-cottoii and nitro-giycer- 
 ine, arc detonated or not, according to the mode of 
 explosion. Indeed. Abel has proved that most explo- 
 .sives, including gunpowder, can be detonated, Jiro- 
 vided the ]>roper initiatory charge be employed. 
 Koux and Sarrau have divided explosions into two 
 clas.ses or orders — " detonations" or cxjilosions of the 
 first order, and "simple explosions" of the second 
 order. They made a series of experiments with the 
 object of determining the comparative values of vari- 
 ous explosive sulislances, deldiiated and exjilodcd in 
 the ordinary manner; the method employed was to 
 ascertain the quantity of each just sufticient to produce 
 rupture in small spherical shells of equal strength. 
 These experiments, although valuable, cannot be con- 
 sidered as affording a precise method of comparison; 
 the results would be affected, inter alia, by t(ie im- 
 po.ssibility of insuring that the shells were all of the 
 same strength — a point of great importance, consider- 
 ing the very small weights of each explosive used; 
 also, the rate of combustion, ami tlierefore tlie explo- 
 sive effect, of gunpowder is materially affected by its 
 mechanical condilion, so that difterent powders would 
 give a varying standard of comparison. However, 
 they afford" fair evidence that, when detonated, gim- 
 cotion has about six times, and ptire nitroglycerine 
 about ten times, the local cxiilosive effect of gun])OW- 
 dcr sim|)ly ignited in the onlinary manner; nitro- 
 glycerine is usually emplojed in the form of "dvna- 
 mite," mixed with .some inert alj.sorbent substance, so 
 that its power is proportionately reduced. 
 
 The rationale of detonation is not yet understood. 
 If the transformation were due merely to the mechan- 
 ical energy of tlie particles of gas, liberated from the 
 initiatory charge at a tremendous velocity, lieing con- 
 verted into heat by impact against the inass of the 
 explosive sulistanee, then it would follow that the 
 powerful exi)losive would be the best detonating 
 agent. This, however, is not the fact; for a few 
 gr.iins of fulminate of mercury in a metal tube will 
 cletonate gun-cotton, whereas nitro-glycerine, although 
 possessed of more exjilosive force, will not do so uidess 
 used in large quantities. The fact of its being possi 
 ble to detonate wet gun-cotton is also a proof that the 
 action cannot lie due to beat alone. It would rather 
 seem to be wliat Professor Bloxam terms " sympa- 
 thetic" explosion. Tlie experiments of Abel, as well 
 as those of CMiampion and Pellet in France, appear to 
 indicate a \-iliralory action of the detonating agent 
 upon the; ultim.Mte particles of the substance to Ix- ex- 
 ploded. An explosive molecule is most unstable, cer- 
 tain very dilicat<'ly Imlanced forces prescrsnng the 
 chemical and ))hysic.\l equilibrium of the compound. 
 If thesi' forces l)e rapi<lly o\erthrown in succession, we 
 have explosion; but when, l)y a lilow of a certain kind, 
 they are instantaneously destroyed, the result is deto- 
 nation. .Just as a irlass gkil)e inay withstand a strong 
 blow, but be shattered by the vibration of a particula? 
 note, so it is considered" by some aulliorilies that, in 
 the instance cited, the fiihninate of mercuiy com- 
 municates a vibration to which the gimcottoii mole- 
 cule is sensitive, and which overthrows ilse()uililirium; 
 it is not sensitive to the vibrations caused by the nitro 
 glycerine, which only tears and scatters it niechaiii- 
 cally. Although the action of detonation has lieen 
 spoken of as instantanr'ous, and niav practically be so 
 considered, yd a certain intinitesimal duration of time 
 is required for llie inetamorphosis; different substances 
 
 pos.sess, doubtless, different rates of detonation, for 
 we can scarcely conceive of a mechanical mixture, 
 such as gunpowder, being so sensitive to the action of 
 the detonating imiuilse as a delinite chemical com- 
 l>o\ind, and the rate even varies slightly, for the simie 
 ex|ilosive, with its physical state. It has been shown 
 by means of the chfouoscope that well compressed 
 irun-cotttin, when drv, is iletonated at a velocitv of 
 ifrom 17,000 to 18,000 feet a second, or about" 200 
 miles a minute; by using a small primer of dry gun- 
 cotton, the same substance in the wet state may be 
 detonated at an increased rate of from 18.000 to 21,000 
 feet a second, or about 2-10 miles a minute. The fol- 
 lowing table shows the potential energy, in foot-toPS, 
 calculated from the heat of combustion for each ex- 
 plosive, determined by Rotix and Sarrau, in the ex- 
 periments already referred to; that for gunpowder is 
 the mean given l5y five kinds: 
 
 Explosive Substances. Potential energy pejMb. 
 
 Gunpowder 480 
 
 Gun-cotton 716 
 
 Nitro-glyceruie 1139 
 
 Picrate of potash .536 
 
 Picrate of potash and saltpeter 61.5 
 
 Picrate tiiid chlorate of potash 781 
 
 Chloride of nitrogen 216 
 
 The above figures naturally direct our attention to the 
 small amount of work stored up in even the most 
 violent explosive suVislauce, conqiarid with the poten- 
 tial energy of 1 pound of coal, which is about 4980 
 foot-tons. Xobel and Abel jioint out that this great 
 difference is due not alone to the fact that the coal 
 draws its oxygen from the air, but also to the neces- 
 sity that the explosive should exiu'iid a considerable 
 amount of work in converting its condensed magazine 
 of oxygen into gas. before it can combine with the 
 carbon; further, with reference to the economical 
 value of the work done, that the oxygen used by the 
 coal costs nothing, whereas much expense is incurred 
 in condensing the oxygen into the exjilosive substance. 
 The (jraclical value of any exijlosi\e must depend 
 greatly upon the object to be attained. It is essential 
 to distinguish between explo.sive force and effect; the 
 more sudden the action tlic more local will be the 
 effect iu\)duced, and hence the very violent e.viilosive 
 substances are useless as propelling agents for heavy 
 guns or small-arms, since they woidd destroy the 
 weapon before overcoming the inertia of the piojec- 
 tile. It is true that gun-cotton, prepared in vaiious 
 forms, and mixed with other substance to moderate 
 its action, as well as a similar compound made from 
 sawdust, an inferior form of cellulose, are sometimes 
 used with small-arms; but in addition to a want of 
 uuiformily in action, the strain caused tiy such sub- 
 stances would be far too great in the large charges 
 needed for heavy guns. Again, there are cases, even 
 in mining or blasting operations, for instance, when 
 it is desired to displace large masses of earth or soft 
 rock, in which a comjiaratively slow explosive, such 
 as gunpowder, would give better results than gun- 
 cotton or dynamite. However. s])iaking generally, 
 gunpowder in some one of its forms is far the most 
 valuable as a jiropclling agent, while for destructive 
 jiurposes the lastiiam((l substances are much more 
 effective, especially when detonating. See Kxphiaion, 
 PiiliiiiDiitis. Cnn-rottiiii, G ti npoirder, Uiyh £xplo»i»ni, 
 Ifitro-r/li/rniiii\ antl I'irriitts. 
 
 EXPLOSIVE MACHINES.— Very ancient machines 
 of war em|iloyed by the Greeks. They were some- 
 what like the air-cannon or air-gun of the present day, 
 but on a more i;ii:aiitic .scale. 
 
 EXPRESS RIFLE.— A modern sporting-rifle of great 
 killing |)ower. This title takes a large charge of i)ow- 
 dcr and a li;;ht bullet, which gives a very high initial 
 velocity and a trajectory practically a right line u)) to 
 l.'iO y:iriN, lirncc the liTin i.rprmH. To increase the 
 killing jiower of the bullet, it is made of pure lead and 
 has a hollow point. Upon striking the object, tha
 
 IXPUGNABLE. 
 
 599 
 
 £XT£BIOB S£F£IIS£S. 
 
 bullet spreads outwardly, inflictini^ a fearful death- 
 wound. This ami is well adapted to meet the wants 
 of tliose who hunt large game at short range. It is a 
 modification of llie Winchester, moilel 187(i, and dif- 
 fers from it only in caliber (.50), and in the cartridge 
 to which it is adapted. This last contains 95 grains 
 of powder and a bullet weighing :W0 grains. The 
 cartridges may be loaded with hollow-pointed, solid, 
 or split-pointed bullets, as may be desired. All these 
 bullets weigl) 300 grains each, and tlieir ihooting quali- 
 ties are about equal. The primer is tlie No. 2i Win- 
 chester. The jwwder used in loading the cartridges 
 at the factory is United States Government Musket, 
 
 but any uf the approved brands of powder suitable for 
 large cartridges can be used. As has been noticed, 
 the bullet having a high initial velocity, a very Hat 
 trajectory is obtained, and no change iii sighting is 
 required "up to 150 yards, thus enabling the hunter to 
 avoid inLssing the game through error in calculating 
 distances, 'f he recoil is not greater than that of a 12- 
 gauge shotgun using ordinary charges; this model, as 
 made up for the English market with a 22-inch barrel 
 and witii full-length magazine, weighs but 8J jiounds. 
 If (lesirable, a snirdl explosive carl ridge can be tlroiiped 
 into the oa\ity in the point, making it an explosive 
 bullet. A caliber as large as .57 is niueh 
 used in England, but the .50 caliber is 
 considered suffleient in the United States. 
 See Winrhextfr Rifle. 
 
 EXPUGNABLE.— In a military sense, a 
 term for tint wliich is capable r^f being 
 t;iken liv assiull, forced, or conquered. 
 
 EXTEND. — A term peculiarly applic- 
 able to light-infantry movements when 
 the files are frequently loosened and the 
 front of the line extended for tlie l)ur- 
 poseof skinnisbiug. When thedivisions 
 of a column are made to occupy a greater 
 space of ground, they are said to extend 
 their front. See Krhiirkt) Order. 
 
 EXTENDED OKDER.— A light-infantry 
 maneuver which is freciuenlly |)raeticed. 
 It comprehends the oi)ening of files of 
 a battalion or a company standing two 
 deep, so as to have just space enough for 
 one man between each two. The battal- 
 ion or company, after it has obtained all 
 its relative distances and been halted, is 
 frontc<l, and each rear-rank man springs 
 into the vacancy when the v ord ot com- 
 mand is <.'ivcM. 
 
 EXTERIOR CREST.— In fortification, 
 the crest of the exterior slope of a parapet. 
 ieri'ir S'ope and Forlifif itini. 
 
 EXTERIOR DEFENSES.— Detached works should 
 not only receive a strong profile, but li.ive accunm 
 laled in" their front every accessory obstruction that 
 will best impede the assailant in an attempt at an 
 open assiidt, and if not flanked from the parapet be 
 provided with secure ditcli-defensi-s. The arrange- 
 ment for the armament should be of the most sulv 
 stiinlial character for heavy guns and mortars. 
 Bomb- and .■plint<r-proof shelters should be pro\-idcd 
 for the securitv and lodging of the garrison, and in 
 works open at "the gorge these should be ]ilaeed across 
 the gorge and Ix; loop-holed to meet an a.ssault in the 
 rear. If the sround in advance of these works is not 
 well swept by their fire, or that of the connecting in- 
 trenchments, the ordinary trench, now better known 
 as rifle-pits, shovdd be made for this service. Besides 
 these, good covered communications for field-gtms 
 should be arranged so that batteries may be speedily 
 
 moved from point to point, where their services mav 
 be most needed. These covered-wavs shoidd also l>e 
 arranged for the use of mtiskctry. iTIie plan of these 
 works will depend upon the eliaracter of their site 
 and the more or less exposed position of il to the 
 fire of the assailant. For the most imiwrtant, bas- 
 tioned forts will be the best; for others, the star-fort 
 redoubt; or simply lunettes or redans will suflice. 
 No specific rules can be laiil down, as everjihing 
 must depend on the judgment and skill of the engi- 
 neer charged with planning the defenses. 
 
 The drawing represents the topography of a site, 
 and the general plan of a fort for its immediate de- 
 fen.se, and in reciprocal defensive relations w ith other 
 works on its flanks. The fronts A B and A D are 
 baslioned. and .so placed that the fire from their faces 
 and curtains, armed with heavy guns, lan swei-p the 
 approaches on the collateral "works; their flanks, 
 armed with guns of smaller range, sweeping the 
 principal approach to the work and flanking the 
 ditches of the salient A. The front I) C, to suit the 
 configuration of the ground, isteiiailled,and the front 
 B C, for the sjime reason, is simply a right line, with 
 onlv sufficient relief to sweep the approaches in front 
 and be .secure from a fire of muskelry. For the bet- 
 ter flanking of the ditch of the face'at the salient B 
 and the front B C, a counterscarp-gallery is placed 
 in front of B. Rifie-pits are arranged at "F and G to 
 sweep the steep ground in advance of the fronts A B, 
 B C, and C D. As the site admitted tii some discre- 
 tion in fixing the salient A, and the direction of the 
 two fronts A B and A D, these are sup|)()si(l to have 
 been so determined as to avoid all enfilading and re- 
 
 See .Er- 
 
 Plan of Exterior Defenses of a Fort. 
 
 verse views on these two fronts. The command of 
 these two fronts from A, each way to the ojiposite 
 flanks, is supposed to be so regidated as to sweep the ap- 
 proaches on thetwo fronts and to cover all the interior 
 from ])lun.gingfire. The outlet is at F, and a bridge 
 leads from it across the ditch to the road which pa.s.s- 
 es aroimd the salient D, along the ridge in front of 
 A JI R'pK'sents the bomb-pr(X)f barrack, coveretl in 
 front by the parapet and arninged as a keep. 
 
 In the exercise of his judgment the engineer will be 
 called upon to make a particular study of and draw 
 up memoranda on the general iilan of defense for the 
 whole position to be occupie<l, in which he will liave 
 to consider its extent and its topogr.iphical and mili- 
 tary features; the side towards which it must lie 
 pai-liculariy fortified; the defensive and offensive 
 character (if the fortifications best adapted to it; its 
 most strikina tactical points both absolutely and rel- 
 atively to the general plan of defense; the number 
 of troops by which it is to Ije occupied; and the tim«
 
 IXTEBIOB FOKM OF CANNON. 
 
 600 
 
 EXTEHNAL PRESSUEE-GAUGE. 
 
 in which, with the ineausat his disposal, the fortifica- 
 tions can lie erectfd. These general points hii\ iiii: 
 been settled, the next stop will be to i-oiisider tlii' 
 naosl suitable kind of work foreacb point, takinj; inlu 
 account all natural and artilieial obstructions thai 
 will contribute to the defense, the tactical relations 
 of each work to the others, and the best distribution 
 of the troops for each one. The discus-^ion of the 
 peculiar features of each work as to its profile, defile- 
 ment, and construction will finally be fixed in accord- 
 ance with the naliu-al and artificial features of the 
 site exterior to the works, the nature of the uround 
 itself, and the disposable means that the locality it.-iclf 
 may furnish for the construction of the work. All 
 of "this demands, on the part of the engineer, a 
 thorouu'h knowledge of jreneral principles antl an 
 acquaintance with all the details and resources of his 
 art. See Fi>rtirir<iti»n. 
 
 EXTERIOR ' FORM OF CANNON. — The exterior 
 form of cannon is determinid Ijy the variable thick- 
 ness of the metal which surrounds the lioreat different 
 points of its length. In general terms, the thickness is 
 greatest at the seat of the charge, and least at or near 
 the muzzle. This arrangement is made on accoimt 
 of the variable action of the powder and projectile 
 along the bore, and the necessity of disposing the 
 metal in the safest and most economical maimer; or, 
 in other words, to proiiorliou it according to the strain 
 it is reiiuired to bear. It has Ix-en proposed to dcler- 
 niine the pressure of the powder at the different points 
 of the bore by suppo.siug all the gases evolved in the 
 tirst moment"of combustion, and, as the space behind 
 the projectile increased, applying ilariotle's law, that 
 the tension of gas is jiroportional to its densitj-, which, 
 in turn, is inversely proportional to the space it occu 
 pies. This method of determining the pressure gives 
 a very rapid taper to the exterior; and however well 
 
 bustion of any charge of powder (other things hemg- 
 e(iual), and hence the greater will be the strain on the 
 gun in which it is burned. 1 be strains to which all 
 wrcarnis are subjected are Jour in number, viz.: 1st. 
 The to.iigtiilidl stniin, which acts to split the piece 
 open longitudinally, and is similar in its action to the 
 force which bursts the hoops of a barrel. 2d. The 
 Itiiii/itudiiial strain, which acts to pidl the piece apart 
 in the direction of its length. Its action is the greatest 
 at or near the bottom of the bore, and least at the 
 muzzle, where it is nothing. These two strains in- 
 crease the volume of the metal to which they are a\y- 
 plied. 3d. A strain of wiiipnsmiiii , which acts from 
 the axis outward, to crush the truncated wedges of 
 which a unit of length of the piece may be supposed 
 to consist. This strain compresses the metal and en- 
 larges the bore. If the metal were incompressible, no 
 enlargement of the liore would result from crushing; 
 and imy enlargement of the bore caused by the action 
 of the tangential f(.)rce would be accompanied by a 
 corresponding enlargement of the exterior diameter 
 of the piece; and hence the absolute extension of the 
 metal, at the inner and outer surfaces of the gim, 
 would be inversely as the radii of these siu'faces. 
 4th. A transeerse strain, which acts to break trans- 
 versely, by bending outward the stmcK of which the 
 piece may be supposed to consist. This strain com- 
 presses the metal on the inner, and extends it on the 
 outer surface. The resistance which a bar of iron, 
 supported at its extremities, will offer to a pressure 
 uniformly distributed over it, is directly as the square 
 of its depth, anil inversely as the square of its length. 
 See CiiiuiDii and Onliiauee. 
 
 EXTERIOR SIDE.— The side of a polygon upon 
 which a front of fortitication is formed. Takins; the 
 height of parapet at 8 feet and the depth of the ditch 
 at 6 feet, the relief of 14 feet will be the least used; 
 
 External Pressure gauge. 
 
 it may answer for cast-iron cannon, is unsuitable for 
 tliose made of bronze; which are found in practice to 
 burst in the chase, in consequence of the enlargement 
 of the bore from the striking of the projectile against 
 its sides. About the year 1841 Colonel Bom ford de- 
 vised a plan for determining this pressure by direct 
 experiment. It essentially consisted in l)oi-ing a num- 
 ber of small holes through the side of a gun, at right 
 angles to its axis, the first hole being placed at the 
 seitt of the charge, and the others at intervals of one 
 calil)er. A steel ball was projected from each hole, 
 in succession, into a target or ballistic ]ienduhim liy 
 the force of the charge acting through it ; and the 
 pres,sures at the various points were deduced from the 
 velocities commimicated to the balls; it was by this 
 means that the iorm of the columbiads was iletcr- 
 mined. This plan has been lately tried in Prussia 
 with great care and success. Instead of the i>rojectile. 
 Captain Rodman uses a steel pimch which is jiressed 
 bv the force of the charge into a piece of .soft copiKr. 
 "fhe weight necessary to make an equal indentation 
 in the same piece is thei\ a.scertained by the " testing- 
 machine," or a machine employed to determine the 
 strength of cannon-materials. This instrument is 
 known as the " pressure-pLston," and is used in prov- 
 ing powder to measure the strain which is exerted on 
 the i)ore of the eprouvetti^ or gun. 
 
 In estimating the effect of any force upon a yielding 
 material to which it may be applied, the rate of appli- 
 cation, or the lime which elapses from the instant 
 when the force begins lo act until it attains its maxi- 
 mum, should not be neglecte<l; for, with ecpial ulti- 
 mate jiressures per square inch of surface, that iiowiler 
 will be most severe upon the gun which attains this 
 pressure in the shortest period of time after ignition. 
 The smaller the grain the more rapid will l)e the com- 
 
 taking the height nt 13 feet and the depth at 13, the 
 corresponding relief of 24 feet will be the greatest 
 used. Assuming the superior slope at J, the least 
 length of curtain for the least relief is 5G yards; the 
 least length for the greatest relief is 96 yarils. For a 
 curtain of .")6 yards in length, the extci-ior side must 
 be about 12.5 yards long; for the curtain of 9(i yards, 
 the exterior siile nnist be 2.50 yards long. The least 
 length of the exterior side will lluTcf'ore be between 
 12.5 and 2.50 yards, depending ui)on the relief of the 
 work. The greatest length of the exterior side de- 
 pends upon the length given to the line of defense. 
 If the weajion used to arm the flanks is the rifled 
 musket — tlie weapon now used by infantry — its close 
 and effective range determines the length of the line 
 of defense. The limit of accurate aim for the ordi- 
 n.iry soldier is aljout ;i()0 yards. A.ssuming this to be 
 the length of the line of defense, the exterior .side 
 will be alwnit 400 yards long, and will be the greatest 
 length onlinarilv used. See Fi<M-fiirtifie<itu)n. 
 
 EXTERIOR SLOPE.— In a fortificalion, the surface 
 comiecling the superior slope with the ground in front. 
 The exterior slope in the ndine (hat the nitth mitiintUii 
 asniiim'K. Any means used to make it sleeper would 
 be injurious; because such would be soon destroyed 
 by the enemy's fire, and the earth giving way, the ne- 
 cessary Ibickiicss of the parapet would be diminished. 
 Sec Fitlrl-t'iirtitiai/iiJii. 
 
 EXTERNAL PRESSURE-GAUGE.- A form of pres- 
 sure-gauge variously ein]iloyed. The drawing sliowsa 
 form for taking (iressures at the bottom or at any |)oint 
 along the surface of the bore. The length of the plug 
 in which the gsiuge is screwed is such that its lioltom 
 reaches to ami forms a part of the bore at the position 
 where the pressure is lo be taken. The plug has a 
 seclional screw lo facilitate its insertion or withdrawal.
 
 EXTORTION. 
 
 601 
 
 FABRICATION OF FIRE-ARMi 
 
 and the rim of the plug is provided with a gas-check 
 to cut off the gas from the surface of the plug. See 
 
 EXTORTION.— Under tjic modem laws of war, hon- 
 orabli' men no longer peniiit the use of any violence 
 against prisoners in order to e.xtort information or to 
 punish them fcr havinir given false information. 
 
 EXTRACTOR.— iVii instrument used in e.\tracting a 
 projectile from a muzzle-loading rilleil gun. That in- 
 troduced into the service for the various calibers of 
 projectiles is constructed to act independently of the 
 grooves of the gun. The term tj-tnirtor is given to 
 some other articles of artillery stores, such as the ex- 
 tracting implement used with "the Galling gun, and the 
 inslnunent used in extractins a fuse from a shell. 
 
 EXTRADITION.— The Federal Constitution pro- 
 viiles that " A jierson charged in any State with trea- 
 son, felony, or other crime, who shall tlee from jus- 
 tice and be found in another Slate, sliall. on demand 
 of the executive authority of the St)ite from which he 
 tied, be delivered up to be removed to the State hav- 
 ing jurisdiction of the crime." As to foreign coun- 
 tries, extradition is regulated by special treaties, and 
 the United States has such treaties with Great Brit- 
 ain, France, the Hawaiian Islands, most of the States 
 now forming the German Empire, anil with that Em- 
 pire, Austria, Sweden and Norway, Italv, Switzer- 
 land, Venezui'la, the Dominican Kciniblie, "Nicaragua, 
 Ilayti, and Mexico. These treaties |)rovide for ex- 
 tradition in cases of the higher crimes, such as mur- 
 der, assault with intent to kill, piracy, arson, robbery, 
 forgery, rape, embezzlement by i)ublie otlicers, bur- 
 glary, etc. Proceedings in cases of extradition are 
 carefully detined and giiarded by law. Political 
 offenders, even though making war upon their own 
 Government, are not suliject to extradition. There 
 are sonu' treaties made between the United States and 
 .several Indian tribes, recognized as nations or distinct 
 comnumilies, in some of which the Indians have 
 stiimlated to surrender to the Federal Authorities 
 persons accused of crimes against the laws of the 
 United Stales. 
 
 EXTRA DUTY.— Although the necessities of the 
 service may require soldiers to be ordered on work- 
 ing-parties as a duty, Commanding Offieere should 
 hear in mind that titness for military service by in- 
 struction and discipline is the object for which the 
 army is kept on foot, and that they are not to employ 
 the troops when not in the tield, and especially the 
 mounted troops, in labors that interfere with their 
 military duties and exercises, except in ease of im- 
 mediate necessity, which should lie forthwith report- 
 ed ffjr the orders of the War Department. Extra- 
 duty men should attend the weekly and monthly in- 
 spections of their companies, and, if possible, one 
 drill in eveiy week. Private soldiers employed in 
 hospitals as " cooks and nurses continuously for a 
 period exceeding ten days are paid the lowest rate of 
 extra-duty pay. by the" Paymaster, on the hospital 
 muster-rolls. " Eiilislid men of the Ordnance and 
 Engineer Deiiartments, Hospital Stewards, and Ord- 
 nance and Commissary Sergeants, do not receive 
 extra-duty pay, unless under special authority of the 
 Secretary of "iVar. The company artificers, farriers, 
 
 blacksmiths, and wagoners receive no extra pay ex- 
 cept when detailed on extra duty in the Quartermas- 
 ter's Department, wholly disconnected with their 
 companies. Soldiers detailed as Acting Superintend- 
 ents of National Cemeteries while so acting are en- 
 tilled to extra pay as Overseers. Signal Servfce men 
 do not receive extra-dutv pay unless specially direct- 
 ed by the Secretary of ^Var. The following' Signal 
 Service men are authorized to receive extra-duty pay 
 at the rate of thirty-five cents per day: Non-com- 
 mis.sioned officers in charge of sections; Coqiorals 
 and privates in charge of stations, or serving as 
 operators; and repair-men on the United States tele- 
 graph lines carrjing, or which may carrj', com- 
 mercial business. Soldiers emi>loyed as scouts are 
 not to be paid extra-duty pay, it being a military duly 
 to which they are liable. A prisoner undergoing 
 sentence does not receive extra-<luty pay. Enlisted 
 men being liable to perform guard and other nulitary 
 duty are entitled to extra pay when employed on 
 extra duty more than ten days In a month, though the 
 emiilonucnt may not have lieen continuous. Eight 
 hours constitute one day's work for all pei^sons who 
 are employed and paid" by the day, by or on iK'half 
 of the Government of the United' States. This does 
 not extend to persons who are paid regular sjdarics. 
 Watchmen, clerks, messengers, and others, whose 
 time may be necessary at any fir all hours, are not 
 considered to be emliraced within the terms of the 
 law. Men on extra-duty pay are held to such houi's 
 as may be expedient and necessary; b>it except in 
 case of urgent public necessity, as in military opera- 
 tions, when they nuist work regardless of hours, not 
 more than ten hours' laljor should be reijuired. But 
 when more than eight hoiu's' work is reipiired in any 
 one civil daj', the soldier rendering the service will be 
 paid for more than a day's labor, in pro|)ortion to 
 the time actually employed. In ordinary cases the 
 hours of work should be so regulated as to agree, as 
 far as pos,siblo, with the hours established in civil 
 work in each localitv. Sec Dull/. 
 
 EXTRAORDINARIES OF THE ARMY.- In the Bri- 
 tish service, the allowances to the troops beyond the 
 gross pay in the Pay Office. Such are the expenses 
 for barracks, marches, cncamimients. Staff, etc. 
 
 EXTRAORDINARII. — In the ancient Roman army, 
 a select l)ody of men consisting of the third part of 
 the foreign cavalrj- anda fifth oftlie infantry. These 
 were carefully separated from the other forces bor- 
 rowed from the Confederate States, in order to pre- 
 vent any treacherous coalition between them. From 
 among the Extraordinarii a more choice bodj' of men 
 were ilrawn, inidir the name of Abkcli. 
 
 EXTREME RANGE.— The distance from the piece 
 to the point at which the projectile is brought to a 
 state of rest. Oreatait ranric nfa piice \* the farthest 
 distance to which it will throw a projectile, the piece 
 Ijeing mounted on its appro))riate carriage. All 
 ranges are expressed in yards. In air, the maximum 
 range, under all ordinary circimistances, is obtained 
 from an angle not far from 34 degrees. See limine. 
 
 EYE SPLlCE.^A splice made by turning the end of 
 a rope back on itself and splicing the end to the stand- 
 ing part, leaving a loop. See Cordage. 
 
 F 
 
 FABIAN.— Delaying: dilatory; avoiding battle, in 
 imitation of (JuintusFabius Maxinms Vemicosus, a 
 Konian General who conducted militarv' oper:ilions 
 against Hannilial, Iiy declining to risk a battle in the 
 open field, but liarassing the enemy by marches, 
 eouMler-niarclies, and nmbuseades. 
 
 FABRICATION OF FIRE ARMS.— With the excep- 
 tion of swords and patent arms, all small-arms for 
 
 the United States army and militia are made at the 
 'National Armorv, now situated at Springlield. Mass. 
 This Armory is under the genend charge of the Chief 
 of Ordnanc"e, who, bv the"^authority of the War De- 
 partment, furnishes "the models and prescribes the 
 kind and (pinntity of work to lie done; the operations 
 are conducted by civilians. A principal requisite, in 
 the manufacture" of small-arms, is that similar parts-
 
 FABRICATION OF FIRE AKMS. 
 
 602 
 
 FABRICATION OF FIRE-ARMS. 
 
 of tlie same kind of arm, or model, shall be capable 
 of iiitertUaiigi'. This (lemands a hi-rher degree of 
 aecur.icv iii the workmauship than can be attained by 
 iiandlai>or, without great cost, and the consequence 
 is that niaehiiierv is iiow very generally employed in 
 this bnuK-h of nianufacture. The principal opera- 
 tions of manufacturing arms are itMimj, sirar/iiig. 
 burin;;, liiininy, drilling, tappiiKj, milling, cutting and 
 Jiling, grihding, c<i»e-hiirdining. tempi-ring, ixnd jxilixli- 
 'ing. Welding and swaging are performed by black- 
 smiths; the other operations, by armorers or tinlshers. 
 Forthe purpose- of minutely investigating the fabrica- 
 tion of lire-arms, we will notice in detail the various 
 processes and operations performed in the manufac- 
 ture of the Springtield rifle, calilx-r .45 inch. The sub- 
 ject will be more readily embraced by following the 
 work in detail through "the forging department and 
 subsiKiucnt operations. 
 
 Bulling barrels— A. Springfield gun-barrel is made 
 from a 2-inch round bar of decarbonized steel. The 
 first operation is to cut the bar into lengths of 9.2.") 
 inches each; the second is to center both ends of each 
 piece; the tliird is to drill a bole } inch diameter 
 through the entire length of the piece, forming a 
 tube, called a "barrel-mold," which, for a rifle, 
 weighs 7 iMimds, and a carbine 6 pounds. The mold 
 is heated and then drawn out between grooved rolls. 
 Each set of rolls has eight grooves, two of them cy- 
 lindrical and si.\ taper. In connection with the 
 grooves eight mandrels are iLsed, which vary in 
 diameter of knob from .7.5 to .37 inch. Four molds 
 are placeil in a reverberatory furnace and brought to 
 a red heat. A workm-n then thrusts the largest 
 mandrel through one of them, while still in the 
 furnace. He then carries it to the rolls, and placing 
 the mandrel through the frame, introduces the end of 
 the mold into the first of the cylindrical grooves. 
 The action of the rolls is to draw the mold over the 
 mandrel. The ej'linder is straightened by striking it 
 on a flat iron table, and placed in the furnace to be 
 reheated. The molds are run through the first 
 groove in succession, after which the second-sized 
 mandrel is iLsed. The cjiinders are run through the 
 second groove in the same manner. The remaining 
 grooves are maile of the same shape as the required 
 barrel. The cylinders are i>assed breech foremost 
 throtigh tbe-se, precisely as before, each cylinder being 
 reheated after passing through any one groove except 
 the last one, through which it is pa.s.scd Ihree times to 
 give the required form. A ninth groove is on the 
 rolls, but it is only used when, as rarely happens, the 
 barrel ap|K'ars to be running a little short. When 
 the first four molds have reached the third groove, 
 four a<lditional molds are placed in the furnace. 
 Thus the sujiply is constant without risk of binning 
 the metal. One hundred and fifty can be rolknl per 
 day of eight hours with one set of rolls. One roller 
 and two hel|)ers are required for each set of rolls. 
 One funiaei' can heat molds suflicient for two sets of 
 rolls. From .T to H pounds of coal are used yier bar- 
 rel. Cutting (iff — The barrel, after passing through 
 the last groove and while still hot, is cut to a li'nglh 
 of 33 inches for the rifle, and to 221 inches for the 
 carbine, by a set of two circular saws. Straighten- ! 
 ing — The ban-el is placed in the straightc-niiig- ' 
 machine, which is composed of two dies each of the 
 length and shape of the half-barrel, and winch close 
 upon <-aeli other as the workman turns the barrel 
 abo\il its ;ixis with a pair of tongs. Anneiiling — 
 Tlie barrels aie again placed in a reverberatory fur- 
 nace, brought to a n-d lu-at, taken out, and packed in 
 east-iron bo.xes in alternate layers with fine charcoal. 
 Each box contains about HO barrels. This operation - 
 renders the barrels less brittle, and also makes them 
 easier to turn, file, etc. They remain in the charcoal 
 from three to fivi- days before they an- cool enough 
 til Ix; remov(-d. Firnl ulraiglitcning — Tin- barrels are 
 tli(-n straightened jvirlly on an anvil with a common 
 ]iamni(-r and partiv imder a drop-hammer. First 
 nnd second boring — "The barrels are now " first-bored " 
 
 with two twist-augers, of .37 and .12 inch diameter 
 respectivelr, in a swift Ijoring-maehine, and "second- 
 bored " with a (luadrangtdar auger ribbed with 
 splints, to a caliber of .-t-i inch. In the first boring 
 the augers are drawn through the bore rather than 
 pushed. In the second and additional boruigs the 
 cutting is done in both directions, tint milling — 
 The rough ends left by the circular .sjtws are squared 
 up in a hand niilliug-machiue, shown in Fig. 1, the 
 spindle of which carries a cone of several grades. 
 First turning — The barrel is i>l,-iced in a lathe and a 
 iwrtion at the breech is turned down to receive a 
 " dog" (a contrivance for holding the barrel in the 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 turning-lathes'), after which a ring of Babbitt-metal is 
 cast around the middle of the barrc-l. This ring is 
 turned down smooth to give a bearing for a support 
 which ju'events the harrel fnmi springing while the 
 cutter is turninij down the rough exterior. The lathe 
 for this portion of the work is shown in Fig. 2. 
 /^■riinil turning — One half lh<- length of the barrel is 
 now turned down, after which it is taken from the 
 lathe, the ring knocked off, and the other half com- 
 pleted. During the- latter half of the turning the 
 support bears against the smooth surfac<- of the part 
 first turned off. Seroml straig/itening — The barrel is 
 now siraighleiied on the interior by the use of the 
 anvil and hammer. Tin- accuracy of thiswork is de- 
 termined by holding the barrel up to the light and 
 refiei-ting the ima-i-e of a straight-edge from the sur- 
 face of the bore. If the barrel be straight, the reflect- 
 ed image will be straight In all jiosilions of the barrel. 
 Tliird turning — The barnl is jil.ioeil in a lathe and 
 .().') iiK-h turned ofl throughnul its whole length. 
 Third boring — It is again borc-d in a manner sinular 
 to the second boring, the caliber being brought up to
 
 FABRICATION OF FIBE-ABMS. 
 
 603 
 
 FABRICATION OF FIKE-AEHS. 
 
 .4445 inch. Second milling — The muzzle is now 
 milled for a few inches to the true taper to serve as a 
 guide to the grinder. Grinding — Tlie barrel is 
 ground very nearly to its true size on a large and 
 rapidly-revolving grindstone. Proriii;/ — At this stage 
 the Ijarrels are proved. About 40 are loaded with 
 380 grains of musket-powder, a paper wad, a lead 
 .slug weighing 500 grains, and a paper wad over all. 
 Tlu; barrels are clamped down in a semicircular bed 
 and tired by a train. The operation is repeated, 
 except that the powder charge is 250 grains. After 
 each fire the letter P is stamjied by an Inspector on 
 the under side, near the breech, of all barrels which 
 endure the test. To prevent mistakes the stamping 
 is done before the barrels are removed from the ]iroof- 
 house. Miizzh-filiiiij — The mu/.zle is tiled to remove 
 the roughness left by the milling, and to bring it to 
 shape for receiving the bayonet-socket. It is done in 
 the turning-lathe. Tliinl milling— The breech end 
 is squared up smoothl\-. Siqliliiig — The barrel is 
 placed in the milling-machine, and a seat for flie 
 front sight milled out. The ends of the seat are un- 
 dercut, leaving the upper edses comparatively thin. 
 The cclgcs are turned up with a chisel and hanuner 
 and the roughly-formed sight pressed in the seat. 
 
 cally through the spindle and pushes tlie cutters out 
 more and more until the oix'ration is completed. 
 When the otoovcs are cut to the required dei)tli the 
 automatic device for feeding the rod ceases to act, a 
 pawl being lifted from a ratchet by a spring. The 
 cutters then move back and forth "until the grooves 
 are thoroughly polished. The pushing out of the 
 cutters takes place just after they have passed clear 
 through the barrel, so that the culling is done as the 
 spindh- is withdrawn. An automatic arningemcnt 
 also turns the barrel one third of a revolution about 
 its axis each time the cutters leave the breech-end of 
 the bore. The cvitters then enter different grooves. 
 By this means the grooves are made of equal widths 
 and depths, since any little variation due to the size 
 of a cutter is eliminated by the others. Each cutler 
 enters all the grooves many times before the rifling is 
 completed. Simnd miizdi -fling — ThebaiTcl is place<l 
 in a lurniiig-lathe, and the nuizzle is accurately tiled in 
 front and in rear of the sight. Finixliing iniizzh — The 
 portion of the muzzle which is prevented bv the .sight 
 from being tiled while thi; barrel is revoh-ing is filed 
 off by hand. Jigning front sightx — A jig is i)laced 
 over the sight, and the sight is then filed down to size. 
 tiixth milling — This consists in slightly rovmding ofE 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 The edges arc then driven do-mi, bearing against the 
 sight so as to hold it in po.sition. The liarrel is then 
 carried tollie brazing-room and the sight is bra/ed on. 
 Fourth millinr/—T\it' front end of the sight is milled 
 off so that lhere(iuired distnuce shall remain between 
 the sight and the muzzle. Front-sight fling— This 
 consists in tiling aroiuid the sight after the brazing. 
 Fifth nii//iiig—T\u' muzzle-end' is smoothly squared 
 up. Fimrlh boring — Reams out the barrel to a cali- 
 ber of .44(i5 inch. Ffth boring — Reams out the bar- 
 rel to a caliber of .45 inch. Firxt poli.-<hiiig—\hm\\ 5 
 inches at the breech-end are jiolished on a buff wheel. 
 Seci.nd jwlixhing—The barrel, plac'eil in a vertical 
 polishing-machine and held by the portion already 
 polished, is moved rajiidly up "and down and at the 
 same time turiu'd about its own axis between clamps, 
 the surfaces of whieh are covered with emery and oil. 
 Rifling— Thi' barrels are rifled in a machine specially 
 prepared for this i)urp()se. A hollow spindle, armed 
 with three cutters, is moved luiiformly through the 
 barrel, entering at the muzzle. The spindle has also 
 a uniform motion aboiit its axis sufficient to cause 
 one revolution in 22 inches. At the end of the stroke 
 the niolidii is reversed and the si)inille withdrawn. 
 The cutters are let in the surface of the spindle and 
 held by springs. A conical rod is moved automati- 
 
 the corners or edges at muzzle. Tnsjierlions — The 
 barrels are carefully inspected after rolling, first ai\d 
 •second borings, third turning, third boring, second 
 milling, grinding, proving, fourth and fifth borings, 
 second polishing, riff ing," second muzzle-filing, and 
 sixth milling. These inspections are for ascertaining 
 the quality of the work and material, and for gauging 
 as to size. 
 
 1 The material from which the bayonet-blade is 
 formed is a cast-steel bar, cross-section .625 inch 
 s<iuare, the lens'h of whieh is sufficient to bring up 
 the weight to "14 ounces. Cutting— Thv bar is cut 
 into suitable lengths by a large pair of shears worke<l 
 by power, and is deteiinined as follows: A tulx- con- 
 tiiinins water is capable of receiving 14 ounces of 
 steel withovil causing the water to run over. The bar 
 enters the tidje, and when the water rises to the level 
 the bar is cut off. The intention is that the sjime 
 amount of stock shall be in each bar. yecl-roii tiding 
 —Each piece thus cutoff is healed and a .small round 
 
 [ head formed at one end, under a pony-hammer. A 
 
 I neck connects the head with the bar. Rilliiig— The 
 bars arc placed in a reverberalory furnace. When 
 brouirht to a red heat a bar is taken out by a work- 
 man with a pair of tongs and inserted in the first of 
 
 i the nine grooves on the surface of the rolls. It is
 
 FABRICATION OF FIRE-AKMS. 
 
 604 
 
 FABRICATION OF FIRE-ARMS. 
 
 then inserted in each j»rcove in succession up to the 
 fourth, throudi wliiih it i< piuwcd three times. It is 
 then pii-ssed tiiruuu'h laoh of the rcmaiuii:!; grooves, 
 after which it is insiTted up to the neck in a cast-iron 
 Ih)X tillitl with tine iharcoal, where it undergoes an- j 
 uealiiig. No rchcaling is neces.siiry throughout the 
 whole oper.ition. Thetirst four grooves serve merely 
 to draw out the har. while tljc others flute the blade. 
 yti-k-/iimliiig—TUv head and neck are heated, the 
 neck iK'nt at right angles to the blade under a drop- 
 hammer, and the head upset under a trip hanmier. to 
 form a broailer surface for receiving the socket-plate. 
 The socket-plate is of wroughl-iron, forged and 
 trunmed from a piece 2.35 inches square by i iucli in 
 thickness. It is pickled in oil of \-itriol and water 
 heated by steam, before it is welded to the blade. 
 SdcAit ireldfd on — The sockct-plale and head of the 
 blade arc heati'd. the plate placed on the head, and 
 quickly welded to it by a trip-hammer. The socket 
 is reheiued, trimmed by a pair of shears, and curved ( 
 over a mandrel by a hand-hammer. iMp-ireliUng— 
 The socket is reheated, a mandrel inserted, and the 
 edges weldeil together in a die under a trip-hammer. ' 
 The socket is again heated, ))laced in a die under an- 
 other trip-hammer and brought to shape, ^eck-sicag- \ 
 ing — The socket and neck are again 
 heated and their position with re- 
 spect to the blade determined by 
 a drop-hammer forcing the differ- 
 ent parts into a die. Atnualing 
 tocket — The bayonets are placed 
 in the annealing-furnace, and the 
 blades for the greater portion of 
 their length ])assiug downward be- 
 tween the bars of a grate. Char- 
 coal is laid on the grate, over the 
 socket-necks and upper portion of 
 the blades. A tire is startetl and 
 the parts mentioned are heated to 
 a red heat. The charcoal liurns 
 away and the metal cools slowly, 
 remaining in the furnace about 48 
 hours. The lower jtortions of the 
 blades do not rcipiire annealing, as 
 they arc annealed immediately 
 after rolling. Pickled— 1l\c bayo- 
 nets are vitrioled as before ex- 
 plained. First boring— The sock- 
 ets are roughly bored nearly to 
 size. First titriting — The exterior 
 of the socket is turned otf except 
 at the bridge. Burring swket-t — 
 The tin at each end of the socket 
 is tiled off by hand. Straightiri- 
 ing Made — The blade is straight- 
 eneil on an anvil preparatory to 
 milling. Fimt J'wing—Tln: face 
 of the blade next to the neck is 
 now milled off for a distance of 
 about three inches. Mi/linr/ Made — The grooves and 
 edges are milled, bringing the blade nearfv to the re- 
 quired size. Punching jmnts— The end o"f the blade 
 is punched in a die nearly to shajU' and size. Heeling 
 anil jiointing—Thv point'of the blade and the sides at 
 the point of junction with the neck arc milled to the 
 required form. Ti m peeing— Thv blade is heated to 
 a cherry red and then iiUm|;e(l into brine. This ren- 
 ders it very hard and brittle. The blade is then 
 coated with sperm oil and heated vmtil the oil is 
 burned off, when it is left with a spring temper. It 
 is then straightened on an anvil. Buffing edge— The 
 edges are straightened and sm<K)thlv buffed oil a hori- 
 Kontal buff-wlieel. Huffing yi/<-,— The face of the 
 blade is bulled to remove tlie ronirh surface left in 
 millinj,'. Huffing Imek and ]»nnl— The three ed;;es of 
 the point are also buffed to give a smooth surface for 
 IJolishing. /'/;•*/ /)«nf/un</— The socket is placed on 
 a mandrel containing a die, and the slot is punched 
 out excejit the portion through the arch. Sicond 
 boring — The socket Ls bored up nearly to its true size. 
 
 Second turning — The exterior of the socket is turned 
 down except at the arch. First milling siM-ket—ThQ 
 ragged ends of the socket are milled off and the length 
 of the socket brought down to gauge. Third turning 
 — The exterior of the .socket is turneil off at the arch. 
 Second punching — The socket is punched through 
 the arch. Milling neck — The neck is nulled to shape 
 and nearly to size. Buffing /;«•/•— The neck is huffed 
 to remove roughness left by the niillingtt>ols. Grind- 
 ing blade —The back flutes of the blade are ground to 
 give a smooth surface for polishing. Filing sM — The 
 slot is tiled to size for the front sight, aftci which the 
 socket is milled. Second niilling-Thh operation 
 rounds the end of the socket next the blade. Block- 
 ing—The bayonet<lasp is roughly blocked from an 
 iron bar, the cross-section of which is .625 inch by 
 .;!12 inch, by means of dies and a drop-hammer. 
 First trimming — The central portion is ])unclied out, 
 and the tiu at the sides trimmed ntV in a trinuniug- 
 machine, wliich consists essentially of a die and 
 pimcli. Dropping — The clasp is reheated, placed on a 
 mandrel and swaged into a die under a droi)-liammer. 
 Seci/nd trimming — The tin around tbe arch and at the 
 opposite end is trimmed off in a trinuning n\achine. 
 Annealing — A number of clasps are placed in cast- 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 iron retorts in alternate layers with fine charcoal, and 
 covers are fastened on with brick-clay. Several re- 
 torts are placed in an annealing-furnace, charcoal is 
 packed between and over them, a tire started, and 
 the retorts brought to a red heat. The charcoal hav- 
 ing burnt away, the retorts cool graduidly, remaining 
 in the furnacealK ut 24 hours. The da'sps are then 
 soft enough to be easily turned, milled, etc. They 
 are then vitrioled. Turning — The clasp is jilaced on 
 a mandrel having an arbor or shaft by which the 
 mandrel is held in a turning-lathe. Cutters prcs.sing 
 against each side of the clasp trim off the tin around 
 it left by the die in dmiiping. Pressing — The clasp, 
 again |>iaced on a mandrel, is cold-pre.s.sed into shape 
 ami thickness to avoid milling the sides. 
 
 First cutting— \ length amjily sufficient for a ram- 
 rod is cut from a cast-steel bar. .2S inch round, by a 
 pair of heavy shears. First struighti ning — The piece 
 cut off is straightened on an anvil with a hand-ham- 
 mer. First grinding — The rod is now ground to a 
 uniform size on a grindstone. First dropping— One
 
 TABBICATION OF FIBE-ABHS. 
 
 605 
 
 FABBICATION OF FIEE-AEMS. 
 
 end having been heated, the rod is placed vertically 
 in a clamp-visc and the heated end upset to form a 
 head, by a drop-hammer, y/wrmiy— The burr fonned 
 by the edges of the vise is ground off on a grindstone. 
 Firat mnttjing — The thickened end of the rod is re- 
 heated and the head formed in a die under a pony- 
 hammer, the rod being turned slowly about its longer 
 axis, tkeond culling— The ix)d is again cut to a pre- 
 scribed length, to act as a guitle for determining the 
 position of the swell. &con(l dropping — The portion 
 near the head is heated and the rod upset in a clamp- 
 vise, at the ijroper distance from the head for the 
 swell for the ramrod-stop, tkcond sir<igi/ig — The form 
 of the swell is determined in a die un(lcr a pony -ham- 
 mer, as exi)lained for the head. J-'ii:it amualing — 
 The rod from the head to the swell is brought to a red 
 heat in melted lead and placed in wood-ashes, where it 
 undergoes annealing, after which it is\itrioled. Sec- 
 ond stvaigliii iiing — The rod is again straightened on an 
 anvil witli a hand-hammer. Fint miUing — The head 
 and about 3 inches of the body are now milled in a 
 power milling-machine, shown" in Fig. 3. Tlie ma 
 chine has automatic screw-feed, and stop motion ad- 
 justable at an_y point. Stc/nd milling — 
 The head is ne.xt milled to fonu the 
 flat. Drilling — Four small holes are 
 drilled at right angles to the tlat to form 
 the slot. Fiiiir/iing — The slot is formeil 
 by a punching-niachine, which <?asily 
 removes the metal remaining l)etween 
 the holes already drilled. /Sizing — The 
 head is now brought to size in a clamp- 
 milling machine. Third milling — The 
 swell antl boily for about 2J inches each 
 side of the swell are milled in a clamp 
 milling-machine. Fourth nulling — A- 
 boul 4 inches from the swell are now 
 milled to meet the grinding. Fifth 
 milling — Same as third milling, except 
 that it extends aliout 3A inches each side 
 of the swell. Filing slot — The slot is 
 linished by hand-fjling, which removes 
 sharp edges left by the punch and rounds 
 the corners. Srond grinding — The roil 
 is now ground to meet the tifth milling. 
 Temjiering — The rods, held in a pair of 
 tongs, are placed in a long hollow tire 
 and brought to a cherry-red heat. They 
 are then pluuged in a vat of brine, which 
 renders them very hard and brittle. 
 They are next coated with sperm-oil, 
 and heated until the oil is burned off, 
 when they are left with a spring temper. 
 Third grinding — They are regi-ound to 
 remove the roughness produced in tem- 
 pering, and to bring them more nearly 
 to true size. SiflJt milling — The small 
 end is milled off, so that the rod is of the 
 right length, fyrond unnruling — About 4 inches of \ 
 the small end are annealed precisely as Vxfore ex- 
 plained. Third utmighli ning — The rod is straight- 
 ened on an anvil after being annealed. Serenth mill- 
 ing — The grooves on the small end are formed in a 
 clamp-milling machine. Firi<i polishing — The head 
 is polished in a lathe with emery and oil. Sermd 
 polishing — The rod is polished up io the milling, near 
 the swell, in a vertical polishingmachine, in the sjune 
 manner as explained for the barrel. Third jyjli*hing 
 — The whole of the jxirtion milled, exceiJt the head, 
 is polished on a buff-wheel. The jointeil ramrod for 
 the carbine is comprised of three sections of equal 
 length of 8i inches. The tirst section has the stem, 
 head, and screw. The second and third sections have 
 the stem, sirell, and seror. The swells on the end of 
 these two sections are drilled and tapped to receive 
 the screw -ends of the first and second sections which \ 
 make the complete rod. The material of which this 1 
 Rimrod is made is cast-steel. ini>r<7/«'7— Theendof the ' 
 rod, which is round, is upset sufficientl)' to form the 
 iiead, and then drawn and rounded under a small tilt- I 
 
 hammer to the proper size and length. First-straight- 
 ened— This is done by hand, while cold, on an anvil. 
 i''(>«/-(jH«tv(/<"rf— Annealed in cast iron retorts by pack- 
 ing in charcoal-flust and heating in a funiace to"a cher- 
 p'-redheat for live or six hours, after which the furnace 
 is allowed to cool slowly. Firal-miiled—Thv tirst mill- 
 ing is done in a clamp-milling machine, which forms 
 the head and stem about 3 inches to nearly the right 
 size. Sicond-milled~The rod is then reversed and 
 the remainder of the stem is milled in another set 
 of clamp-milling dies. Third-mi/led— Thh operation 
 clamp mills the entire .section to its fini.sh-size in dies 
 that receive both the head and stem at one operation. 
 First buffed — Buff-polished on a revohing emery- 
 wheel to remove the roughness and prepare it for 
 tem]xring. Tempered — Heated to a cherry red and 
 hardened in water; then it is drawn over a blaze 
 to a spring tcmjxT, and second-straightened. .Sr*-- 
 ond-anneeiled — The point of the rod is now annealed 
 about half an inch for cutting the thread. Fourth- 
 milled — Clamp-mills aliout half an inch of the end to 
 the proix?r size for cutting the thread that screws into 
 the other section. Cm/— The thread is made in the 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 screw-cutting machine, shown in Fig. 4. Seeond- 
 *)///;<?— Polishes the head of the rod on an emery- 
 wheel. The drilling and tapping on the second and 
 third sections is done on a screw-milling machine and 
 tapping-machine which drills into the sirell about half 
 an inch, then taps the hole to receive tht screw-end of 
 the other section; the other operations are the same 
 as specified in the first section. The ramrotl-slop is 
 formed from a steel rod .57 inch in diameter. One 
 end ha\'ing been heated is drawn out to give more 
 stock at the ends of the stop in a die under a trip- 
 hanmier, after which it is relunied to the fire. Four 
 rods are us\ially worked at the same time. Each one 
 having undergone the above operation, the first one 
 is taken from the fire, transferred to a drop-hammer, 
 and the forging completed by a single blow. It is 
 then annealed, rilrioled, and trimmed. 
 
 The following oj'ierations are uecessarj- for the 
 mountings and small parts: The hutt-plnte is blocked 
 from a bar by being forced in dies by a single blow 
 from each of two "drop-hammers. ■The fin aroimd 
 the edge is trimmed off by a trimming-machine. The
 
 FABBICATION OF FIBH-ABHS. 
 
 606 
 
 FABRICATION OF FIB£.ABH8. 
 
 plate is well beatid iiiul placed under a drop-hamiiuT 
 which beuds it and at the same time swages it into 
 shape in a die. It is then annealed and ritrioUd, 
 after which it is coUI-tiropptd, that is, forced while 
 cold in a die bv a drop-hammer. Fi>r<jin;i — The 
 screws are forgcif from a rod .1)7 inch in diameter in 
 a die imder a ponv-hammer. Annealing — They are 
 then annulled and citruiUd. The rear-xight ba«e is 
 partially formed from a bar, the cros.s-seetion beuijr 
 .562 inch square, in a die under the drop hammer. 
 Annealing — It is ne.xt annealed, ritrioled, heated and 
 dropi^d: then annealed, ritrioled, and Irimnud. The 
 rear-fight base-spring is forged in a die uudir a drop- 
 hammer from a cast-steel bar .375 inch by .125 inch, 
 after which it is annealed, ritrioled, and trimmed. 
 The rear-sight leaf is partially formed from a bar. the 
 cross-.seclion of which is .4;i8 inch by .'A) inch, in a 
 die under a pony-liamnier. It is then transferred to 
 a drop-hammer, where the forging is com|)lele<l by a 
 very hea\-y blow. It is then annealed, ritrioled, and 
 trimmed. The rear-sight slide is formed from a bar 
 .31 inch square precisely as explained for the rear- 
 sight-base spring. The bar from which the front 
 sights are formed is tirst rolled to bring its cross-sec- 
 tion to the form of the cross-section of the sight. A 
 piece of sufficient length for the sight is cut from the 
 bar by a punching-machine, after which the sides 
 and bottom of the pieces are milled nearly to size. 
 Subsequent ojieralions relating to the sight are ex- 
 plained in connection with the barrel. The guard- 
 plate is partially lirought to fonn from a rod .57 inch 
 in diameter under a trip-hammer. It is then heated 
 and dropped, annealed, and ritrioled. The guard lioie 
 is blocked from a rod .48 inch in diameter; then 
 dropped, annealed, ritrioled, and trimmed in the man- 
 ner explained for the guard-plate. The giiard-boir 
 sirirel is formed from a rod .28 inch in diameter. A 
 portion sufficient for the swivel is drawn out under a 
 pony-hammer, leaving stock at lioth ends to form the 
 pads, and afterward cut from the rod. The jiiece 
 having been reheated is placed in a foot-vise and the 
 pads formed by a hand-hammer. It is then annealed 
 and ritrioled. "The hammer is made a.s follows: The 
 heated end of a bar, the cross-section of which is 1.13 
 inch by .5 inch, undergoiw a drawing out process in 
 a die, under several blows from the drop-hannner. 
 While still hot, the end thus roughly prepared is 
 placeil under another drop-hammer and forced in a 
 die by a single blow. It is now returned to the fire. 
 The workman usually has four bars in the lire at the I 
 same time, all of which undergo the above operation 
 in succession. The first one is now taken from the 
 fire, the hcateil end placed under the drop-hammer ! 
 last used, given a single blow, immediately afterward 
 placed in a trimming-machine, when the tin surround- 
 ing is cut off, i)]a,-ed imder another drop-hammer and 
 forced into a die by a single blow, which brings the 
 hammer nearly to shape and at the same time cuts it 
 from the bar. The lin or surplus metal forced out 
 by the dies is removed by the trimming-machine. 
 The hammer is reheated and dropped in a die smaller 
 than those used In-fore. It is then annealed, ritrioled, 
 seeond-trimmed, and eold-pressed. The cold-pressing 
 is for the puiT)ose of giving a smooth, compact sur^ 
 face, and to .<ave milling the body. In making the 
 toek-pUite, a Hat bar of decarbonized steel, the cioss- 
 section of which is 1.75 inch bv .22 inch, is annealed 
 in charcoal, after which the plate is punched out 
 by a punching-press. The main-spring is partially 
 formed in a die under a pony-hammer, from a east- 
 steel bar, the cross-section of which is .31 ir.ch square. 
 It is then heated and dropped, annealed, and rilriohd. 
 The main-spring sirirel is forged from a cast-steel 
 ro<l, .375 inch by .125 inch, in a die under a drop ham- 
 mer. It is then an //^(/(y/, ritrioled, i\iu\ trim nail. The 
 tumbler is roughly formed from a cast-steel bar, the 
 cross-section being 1 inch by .38 inch, in a die under 
 a trip-hammer. It is next "heated and dropped, then 
 ritrioled. The bridle is partially formed from a bar, 
 the cross-section of which is .47"iucU square, in a die- 
 
 under a drop-hammer. It is then trimmed, heated 
 and dropped, and agjun trimmed. The sear is formed 
 from a cast-steel rod, .313 inch by .25 inch, precisely 
 as explained for rear-sight base-springs. The sear- 
 spring is partially formed from a cast-steel bar, .32 
 inch by .18 inch, in a die under a drop-hammer. It is 
 then trimmed while hot and the forging completed. 
 It is in order «nH<<(/<rf, ritrioled, and trimmed. The 
 upper band Ls formed from a bar, .75 inch bj' 3.75 
 inches, in a die imder a drop-hammer. The surplus 
 stock (centnd portion and outside tin) is removed by 
 a trimming machine. The band is reheated, placed 
 on a mandrel, and forced in a die bv a ilrop-hammer. 
 It is then ((««<(//<<? and ritrioled. The hirer buiul is 
 blocked, trimmed, dropped, annealed, and ritrioled, 
 precisely as explained for the upper band. It is next 
 
 Fro. 5. 
 
 placed on a mandrel in a turning-lathe, and the fin at 
 the edges turned off, in the manner explained for the 
 bayonet-clasi>. . It is then reheated and dropped on a 
 mandrel to bring it to the right thickness, after which it 
 is edged. <jr the tin at the edges turned off. It is driven 
 while cold on a mandrel-gauge, which serves to give it 
 the required taper. It is afso stamped with the let- 
 ter U. The band-springs are formed from a cast-steel 
 rod, .108 inch .sijuare, in a die under a droivhammer. 
 They are then annealed, ritrioled, trimmed, and cold- 
 dropped. The side-srreir.s are forged from a rod, .438 
 inch diameter, in a die under a pony-hamnu-r. They 
 are then annealed and ritrioled. The side-screw iram-
 
 FABEICATION OF FISE-AEMS. 
 
 607 
 
 FABSICATIOR 07 FISE-AEXB, 
 
 ers are forged from a bar, the cross-section of which 
 is .313 inch by .563 inch, in a die tinder a. drop-ham- 
 mer. Eight or ten are forged on a single strip. They 
 are then anntaled and ritru/W. The breedi-sereir is 
 forged from a bar, .75 inch square, one end of which 
 is heated, placed under a drop-hammer and forced in 
 a die by a single blow, which partially forms the 
 screw. The tin around it is removed by a trimming- 
 machine, after which the screw is forced in a slightlj- 
 smaller die by one blow from another drop-hammer. 
 One heat suffices for the forging. It is then itnnealed 
 and r/^-wte/, after which it is tntumed in a trimming- 
 machine; that is, forced while cold through a die by 
 a piuich which removes the tin. The breech-block is 
 roughly formed from a bar. 1.30 inch by .75 inch, 
 cross-section, by being forced in dies by a single blow 
 from each of two drop-hammers. It is then ritrioM, 
 Jint-trimmed, then heated and dropped, after which it 
 is anneak'd, vitriokd, and nemnd-trimmed. The breech- 
 block cap is brought to shape in a die by a single blow 
 from a drop-hammer, after which it is annealed, 
 vitriolid, and trinmicd. The thumb-piece is roughly 
 formal from a bar, 1.31 inch by .38 inch, cross-scc- 
 tioii, iu a die under the drophammcr. It is then 
 trimmed and ritrinhd, heat<-d and dropped, after 
 which it is annealed, n'trMed, and second-trimmed. 
 The cam-leitch is formed in a die, under a pony-ham- 
 mer. It is then dropped, annealed, ritrioUd, and 
 trimmed. The extractor is forged from a cast-steel 
 rod, .31 inch square, in a die, under a drop-hammer. 
 It is in order annealed, ritrioled, and (rimmed. The 
 hinge-pins are partially formed in a die, under a pony- 
 hammer, after which the.y are tiansfeiTed to a drop- 
 hammer and the forging completed. They are made 
 from cast-steel rods, .28 inch in diameter. They arc 
 in order annealed, ritrioUd, and trimmed. The temg- 
 screics are forged from a bar .4 inch in diameter; 
 then annealed and ritriokd in the manner explained 
 for the side-screws. The rercinr is roughly formed 
 from a bar, the cross-section of which is 1.25 inch 
 square, one end of which having been heated is forced 
 into a die by a single blow of a drop-hammer. It is 
 immediate!)' transferred to another drop-hammer, 
 where it receives one blow, which completes the 
 blocking and cuts the receiver from the bar. It is 
 trimmed, then heated and dropped, ritrioled, second- 
 trimmed, and second-dropjxd. Immediately after the 
 second dropping, while still hot, the receivers are im- 
 bedded in fine charcoal in cast-iron bo.xes in the same 
 manner as explained for baiTcls. In about three days 
 they are sufficiently cool to be removed, when they 
 are also soft enough to be easily drilled, milled, etc. 
 The.y arc then ritrioled and third-trimmed. 
 
 From the forging tleparlment, the parts are taken 
 to the milling and tiling departments, and finally to 
 the assembling department. Many of the parts are 
 subjected to a variety of operations. The object of 
 drilling is to form holes for the screws, rivets, etc. 
 Fig. 5 represents a combined drill and slotter, made 
 with a double table and operated two ways, in and 
 out from the column and crosswise at the .=anie time. 
 By this arrangement pieces can be fastened to the 
 table and moved to different positions under the ope- 
 rating spindle without loosening the work from the 
 table. By having drills suited to the operating spin- 
 dle, this machine can be used for milling irregular 
 forms, such as is usually done in a regular die-sinking 
 machine. The object "of the tapping is to convert the 
 surface of the hole into a female screw. This opera- 
 tion is performed by an instrument called the tap, 
 which is formed of "a piece of steel, of a pyramidal 
 shape, and upon the edges of which are segments of 
 screw-threads. In all operations of cuttius: and drill- 
 ing wrought-iron, it is ncccssarj' to use oil or water 
 to^preserve the temper of the tools. In working cast- 
 iron, no cooling substance is required. The object 
 of turning is to give shape and smoothness to the ex- 
 terior of a body, which is accomplished in the lathe 
 (Fig. 2). The" body is generally made to revolve 
 aroimd a fixed axis, and a cutter, "which has a motion 
 
 parallel to this axis, is made to press against its sur- 
 face; the combination of these two motions cuts away 
 a s])iral chip, and leaves a new surface concentric 
 with the axis. It will Ix! easily seen that if the cutter 
 has, in addition to its motion paniUcl to the axis 
 of rotation, another perpendicular to it, the result- 
 ing figure will be no longer round, but irregular. 
 This constitutes the principle of eccentric turning, 
 and affords the means of turning an almost infinite 
 variety of shapes, simply bj' regulating the motion of 
 the cutter by a pattern, or model of hardened steel. 
 In this way gim-slocks, and other irregular figures, 
 are formed by machinerj'; the principle has even 
 been used in copying statuary. Pieces of metal 
 which are not suited io the turning-lathe may be re- 
 duced to their proper shape by milling, an operation 
 adapted to nearly all surfaces which have right-line 
 elements. It is i>erfornud by a revolving cutter, 
 anneil with saw-teetli, while the piece to be cut is 
 fastened on a carriage, which moves steadily under 
 the cutter, and along a plane director. See" Figs. 1 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 and 3; also article Mn.i.ixo. Fig. 6 represents the 
 index milling-machine, which is applicable to a great 
 variety of light work, such as milling, slabbing, gear- 
 cutting, cutter-making, and jirofiling. The eros.s-l)ar 
 is .secured to the foot of the uiirighl, below the hori- 
 zontal spindle and at a right angle with it, by a large 
 bolt which pa.s.scs through the ui>right. The index- 
 spindle, of steel, is mounte<i vertically in a long Ijear- 
 ing on the swivel-plate, which plate is also graduatctl 
 on its periphery to mark its angle on the cross-bar 
 saddle, to which it is secured by two Ik)1Is, and ha.s 
 an index-plate on its lower end, in any one of the 
 holes in which the steel iwint may be inserted to hold 
 the spindle, while cutting any piece that niav be in- 
 serted in the tapering hole in the upper end of this 
 spindle, or held in a small \ise. chuck or centers on 
 which a suitable hub is cast, bored and provided with 
 screws to secure them to the up|xr end of the spindle. 
 This machine will cut small gears (to (> inches diam- 
 eter) either spur or tx'Vel, or cutters, mill-taps and 
 reamers, straight, tajx-r, or spiral, slab-nuts, slot
 
 TABEICATION 07 PROJECTILES. 
 
 608 
 
 FABRICATION OF FROJFCTILES. 
 
 scrcw-bcails, saw, drill, or profile small parts or fix- 
 turi'S, ami steel tools ami ji^s of all kiiuls. Cutting 
 ami filiiiri are done liy the hand— the former with a 
 (■old-ehis«'l, and the latter l)_v a file. Thev are em- 
 jiloyed to finish siieh jiarts as are not well adapted to 
 niaehinery. To guide the workman in !ri\'in<; tlie 
 proiK'r form, the piece is placed in a hardened steel 
 frame, ealled ajeg. Grinding is done ^vith rapidly- 
 revoUinir grindstones, and is principally contined to 
 finishing the bayonet and the exterior of the barrel. 
 PoUfJiiiig t/if suifiKV of finished parts is done with 
 emery-wheels, which revolve witli great nipiility. 
 The "wheels are made of wood, and the circumfer- 
 ence is covered with bufT-lcather, to which is glued a 
 coating of emery. Oise-lmrdtning is the conversion 
 of the "surface of ^vrought-iron into steel, to enable it 
 to receive a polish or bear friction. Tlie process 
 consists in heating the iron to a cherry red. in a close 
 vessel, in contact with carbonaceous matter, and then 
 plunging it into cold water. Did shoes are generally 
 employed for this purpose at the annories, although 
 bones." hoofs, soot, etc., will answer. The materials 
 should be first burnt, and then pulverized. Harden- 
 ing is effected by heating the steel to a cherry red, or 
 imtil the scales of oxide are loosened on its surface, 
 and plunging it into a li(iuid, as water, oil, etc., or 
 placing il in contact with some cooling solid; tlie de- 
 gree of hardness depends on the heat and the rapid- 
 ity of cooling. Steel is thus rendered .so hard as to 
 resist the hardest file; and it becomes at the same 
 time extremely brittle. In its hardest state steel is 
 t<X) brittle for most purposes; the requisite strength 
 and elasticity are obtained by tempering, which is 
 done by heating the hardened steel to a certain de- 
 gree and plunging it into cold water. The requisite 
 heal is usually ascertained by the color which the 
 surface of the steel presents, due to the film of oxide 
 formed on it: 
 
 ''Suitable for hard instru- 
 ments, as the faces of ham- 
 mers, etc. 
 '"Gives a spring temper, or 
 one that will bend before 
 breaking: suitable for saws, 
 sword-blades, etc. 
 Shades of colors between these extremes give inter- 
 mediate decrees of hardness. If steel be heated above 
 600 , the effect of the hardening process is destroyed. 
 The parts of small-arms are tempered by dipping 
 them in oil, then heating them until the oil is biu-ned 
 off, when they arc again plunged into cold water. A. 
 blue color is given to the surface of iron or steel parts 
 by heating them till the desired shade appears, when 
 they are removed and allowed to cool gradually, by 
 which the color becomes fast. The barrel anil the 
 bayonet, to protect them from the action of the atmos- 
 phere and to prevent the surface from reflecting the 
 sunlight, are browned, or covered with a coating of 
 rust. This is accomplishrd by a mLxture of .such 
 materials as tincture of iron, spirits of mne, nitric 
 acid, etc., which being applied to the clean surfaces 
 produces a coat which is then well nibbed with a steel 
 scratrh-card until it has a metallic luster. This ope- 
 ration is repeated till the desired color is obtained. 
 See Drop-hamnur, Einen/i/rinder, Milling, Hitting, 
 linjinl Sinoll-firnm, and SuitiU-armK. 
 
 FABRICATION OF PRO JECTILES.— .S/,n? and Shells, 
 depending vipon their kind and size, should be made 
 of gray or of mottled cast-iron, of good quality. 
 Those that arc large and required to possess gi-e"at 
 strength should be of "gun-metal," melted in an 
 air-furnace For ordinar>- projectiles mottled iron is 
 used; it is obtained by melting, in a cupola-furnace, 
 a mixture of white and gray pig-irons. S/irhpne'l 
 must be made of the licst (juality of iron, and with 
 pccular care, in order that they may not be liable to 
 break in the piece, (rrape and Canister should be of 
 .soft gi'ay iron, brought to a very fiuid stjite liefore 
 casting. Vliitled shot are ca.Hl from a speciai uiixturc 
 uf irons, minted in a cupola- furnace 
 
 All projectiles should be cast in sand and not in iron 
 molds, as those from the latter are seldom uniform in 
 size or shape, are liable to contain cavities, and are 
 cracked if heated. Sand jiossi'ssing all the properties 
 to be desired for molding is seldom, if ever, found in 
 a state of nature. But, when the requisite qualities are 
 known, the materials may be selected and an artifi- 
 cial composition produced without ditlieulty. The 
 sand should l)e silieiuus, refractory, and of an angu- 
 lar grain of moderate size. The degree to which the 
 first and second qualities should be pos.sessed depends 
 j ui)on the size of the casting; the s;md nmst not be 
 fused or even softened by the heat to which it is sub- 
 jected. The angular form and large size of the par- 
 ticles increase the resistance of the mold, though 
 rendering it less compact; this last facilitates the 
 
 At 450° Fahr., a pale J 
 straw-color. 
 
 At 600' Fahr., a gray- 
 ish blue. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 evaporation of the moisture in drying, and permits 
 the escape of the gases formed in the material of the 
 mold by the heaf of the fused metal. Pit- and not 
 river-sand should be used, as the latter is not suffi- 
 ciently sharp or cohesive. 
 
 The molding composition must contain such an 
 amount of clay that, when slirfitly moistened, it will 
 i retain its .shape when pressed in the hand; it must 
 become hard when dried that it may not lose the form 
 given it, and must possess the consistence neces.sary to 
 resist the prcssme of the liquid metal. As clay con- 
 tracts by heat, an excess of it will cause cracks in the 
 mold in dr\-ing. The manner of preparing the 
 composition is usually to mix fire-sand and loam or 
 field-sand, to sift it carefully, and then to moisten it 
 with water in which clay has been stirred. The par- 
 ticular sand to be employed, and the proportion of 
 clay to be introduced, depend upon the size of the 
 casting. 
 
 Spherical Projectiles. — Case-shot, shell, and all solid 
 shot smaller than the 1.5-inch arc cast singly. Fif teen- 
 and twenty inch solid shot are usually cast in dusters 
 of five and three respectively. When cast singly the 
 pattern of a spherical projectile is composed of two hol- 
 
 FiG. : 
 
 low cast-iron hemispheres, imiting in such a manner 
 as to form a perfect siiherc; on the interior of each 
 hemisphere is a handle by which il is withdrawn 
 from the sand after molding. The llask has neither 
 top nor bottom, or has movable ones; it is usually in 
 two jiarts, joining in the .same plane as the pieces of 
 the pattern. In nuildiiig a ^/(r// (Figs. 1 and 3), the 
 pattern, P, of that half in which is silualed the fuse- 
 hole is placed with its fiat side upon the innlding- 
 boari/, li\ this is covered with its eorn-ipoiiding half 
 of \hc Jlaslc, F; the spindh ( /)). attached to the pattern, 
 passes through a hole in the cross-piece (/) of the 
 flask. Powdered charcoal or fine dry sand is sprin- 
 kled over the board and ])atlern, to prevent the fresh 
 .sand from adhering lo these surfaces. The mold 
 ing-saad is then inti'oduced gradualh- into the fiask
 
 TABBICATION OF FBOJECTILES. 
 
 609 
 
 FABRICATIOK OF PB0J£CTIL£8. 
 
 being wtll rammed as it rises up about the pattern. 
 AVlieu completed, this portion of the flask with its 
 contents is turned over on a board, the other half 
 of the pattern placed upon that already in position, 
 and the second part of the tiask laid onthc first and 
 properly fitted thereto. The pattern and the exposed 
 surface of the mold are sprinkled a.s before, and the 
 moldinu; continued, a conical stick having first l)een 
 so placed as to form the "gate," G, for the introduc- 
 tion of the molten metal. The tlask havinjr been 
 filled, the two parts are separated; each now contains 
 one half the mold with the corresponding part of the 
 pattern. The stick for the gate is withdrawn from 
 the outside, and the hemispheres are extracted from 
 the inside. A channel is cut in the plane surface 
 from to in, so that the metal, entering at G, may be 
 carried to the mold-cavity at a point where it can 
 flow into place without iiijury to the surface of the 
 sand. Any imperfections are at this time repaired. 
 The whole interior surface is then coated with a wa.sh 
 of powdered coke and clay-water, after which the 
 mold is thoroughly dried in an oven. This wash 
 gives a smooth, hard surface to the sand, which in- 
 sures a smooth ca.sting. 
 
 The core is formed about a hollow iron spindle, 
 perforated with small holes through which escape 
 the steam and gases generated by the 
 heat of the metal. The core is cen- 
 tered in the mold by means of a 
 gauge, and is supported in that po- 
 sition by the spindle which forms 
 the fuse-hole. The spindle is per- 
 forated with small holes to allow 
 the escape of steam and gas genera- 
 ted b}' the heat of the melted metiil ; 
 that part of it which forms the fuse- 
 hole is coated with sand to prevent 
 adhesion. When the ears for the 
 shell-hooks are cast in the projectile 
 the necessiiry projections for their 
 formation are placed in position be- 
 fore drjnng the mold. In pouring 
 the melted iron into the mold with 
 the ladle, care should be taken to pre- 
 vent scoria and dirt from entering 
 ■with it, and for this purpose the sur- 
 face should be skimmed with a stick 
 of wood. After the iron has become 
 sufficiently hardened the flask is removed, the sprue- 
 head is broken off, and the composition scraped from 
 the outside of the cjisting. The core is then broken 
 up and removed, and the interior surface cleaned by 
 a scraper. The projection at the gate and other ex- 
 crescences are next chipped off and the surface of the 
 projectile is smoothed in a rolling-barrel, or with a 
 file or chisel if foimd necessary. The fase-hole is 
 then reamed out to the proper size and the projectile 
 is ready for inspection. 
 
 When shot are cast in clusters, the pattern is made 
 of wood and consists of two longitudinal halves, 
 ■which are fitted with iron pins or dowels .so thai they 
 can be accurately joined together for the construction 
 of the mold. The clasler is cast with a sinking head 
 to feed the shrinkage, while the shot are made with a 
 diameter slightly in excess of the reipiired one, to 
 permit of their being turned dow n and finished. The 
 flask is also made in two equal parts or sections which 
 are united l)y bolts. The back of each section is fitted 
 ■with movable plates, to admit of the introduction of 
 the molding coTuposition. To form the mold, one half 
 of the pattern is laid upon the molding-board, together 
 ■with the pattern for one half of the channel for the 
 metal, both being held in place hy dowels. A section of 
 the flask is then placed in position over the patterns, 
 and the intervening space is filled with molding com- 
 position, which is firmly rammed down, the patterns 
 for the branches to thechannels being introduced as 
 the work progresses. The plates are then allached in 
 their places. To fonn the other .sect ion of the mold, the 
 finished one is removed from the molding-board and 
 
 turned over, the remaining halves of the patterns and 
 flask are placed in p'osition upon it, and the molding 
 composition filled in in the same manner. A layer of 
 dry sjind is first sprinkled over the surface of the fin- 
 ished section to prevent adhesion. The mold lieing 
 completed, the two sections are separated and llie pat- 
 terns withdrawn. After being thoroughly drieil in 
 an oven and recei\ing a coating of coke wash on the 
 interior surface, the sections are united and firmly 
 secured together with bolts and nuls. The mold is 
 then ready for the casting and is lowered into the 
 pit. Several clusters are usually cast with one heat 
 of metal, the number depending u])on the capacity of 
 the furnace. The casting is usually allowed to re- 
 main in the pit for twelve or fifteen" hours after the 
 pouring of the metal, when it is hoisted out and taken 
 from the flask. After it becomes cool it is freed from 
 the adliering composition and the gates are broken 
 off. 
 
 To separate the shot in the cluster, the latter is 
 placed in a lathe, shown in Fig. 3, the sinking-head 
 being secured in the chuck at the head of the ma- 
 chine, while the other end is supported by a movable 
 center which slides upon the ways. When the cluster 
 is properly centered, the necks which comiect the 
 I shot are tiu'ned down as small as it is safe to make 
 
 them without risking the breaking of the cluster In 
 the lathe. The neck nearest to the Iniltom is then 
 carefully turned down until it begins to show indica- 
 tions of breaking. The duster is then chocked up 
 by. placing blocks between it and the lathe-bed, the 
 center is slid l)ack, and the shot is broken off by blows 
 with a hammer and removed. The cluster is "then re- 
 centcred in the lathe, and the shot are successivelv 
 detached in a similar manner until all are separatcJ. 
 Care should be taken to pre.serve. as far as practi- 
 cable, a spherical form to that portion of the surface 
 where the neck is turned away. The small portions 
 of the necks which remain after the sejiaration are 
 chipiied off by hand. The shot is next tunied down 
 to the recpiired diameter and given a .smooth lUid fin- 
 ished surt'ace. The tool-rest of this lathe is attached 
 to a gejired wheel, which is pivoted in a horizontal 
 position upon an iron frame secured to the lathe-bed. 
 The motion of this wheel by means of a feed causes 
 the edge of the tool to move on the arc of a circle, its 
 distancjt! from the center of the circle meanwhile being 
 reirulated bv a screw in the base of the rest. The 
 shot is centered in the lathe by means of a square- 
 hcadeil screw in the axis of the wheel. In turning 
 the shot it is made to revolve upon that diameter 
 which coincides with the axis of the lathe, while the 
 movement of the tool-rest, a-s above described, brings 
 the tool in contact with all of the surface which is not 
 covered by the supports. In this jiosition the shot is 
 finished as far as practicable, and is then recentered 
 so that the unturned portions of the surface can be 
 brought in contact with the tool, when they are fin-
 
 FABSICATION OF SWOSDS AND SABERS. 
 
 610 
 
 FABBICATION OF SWORDS AND SABEBff. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 islicKl ill like niauiiiT. The ciii-s for the shell-books 
 an- tbeu ilrilliil in a drilling-machine and the shot 
 is ready for iuspeetion. Fifteen- and twenlvineli 
 shell are stMnetinies cast above size and finished in 
 the lathe in the s;une way as chister-shot . 
 
 EUiniinUd I'rojtetiltf.^The same principles are fol- 
 lowed in the ditferent operations attending the fabri- 
 cation of elonjraleil as of sjiherical projectiles. The 
 shape and construction of the fla.sk and pattern de- 
 pend npon the |)articular form of the projectile, the 
 system to which it belonss, and the object for which 
 it must be employed. The construction applied in 
 the fabrication of a Parrott 
 shell is shown in Fig. 4; the 
 Hask and pattern are each in 
 two parts, united along the 
 plane {J\ f ): the ring (m), of 
 luoUling -SiUid, is made in a 
 special box; and is inserted 
 ■when the mold is a.sscmbled 
 before casting, and is neces- 
 sary to give the shape pe- 
 culiar to that system of pro- 
 jectiles. The Kpindle, S, as 
 in all the large oblong shells, 
 passes entirely through the 
 core, C, and is secured at both 
 ends to the flask, or to the 
 mold. The metal is taken 
 from the cupola into the ladles, and, in the case of 
 chilled shot, usually slightly cooled by throwing in a 
 piece of scrap-iron. This" is done "to prevent the 
 chill-molds from being cracked. The metal enters 
 the mold from below, near and above the chill-mold, 
 and (from the shape of the lower branch of the 
 " feeder") in an oblique direction, to avoid disturbing 
 the core anil to give a circidar motion to the metal as 
 it rises in the mold, and so prevent the scoria frotvi 
 adhering to the sides. One workman skims the sur- 
 face of the metal with a wooden stick, as it runs from 
 the ladle, to prevent the admission of the scoria, while 
 another stirs it as it rises, with an iron rod, through 
 the "riser," to bring the impurities to the surface. 
 Before fairly cooled the flasks are removed, the .sand 
 knockeil otf, the core-stem extracted, and the shot 
 left to cool in the heated sand in which it was cast. 
 The sjuid is now carefully scraped from the cavity, 
 the sinking-head is removed, and the rough edges 
 trimmed otf with a cold-chisel. It is then examined 
 as to (juality and weight, and the amount of eccentri- 
 city roughly determiucfl. The .shot is at once con- 
 demned if there be a variati(m in any of these particu- 
 lars in excess of that allowed. It sometimes happeos, 
 too, that the chill ha.s extended so far over the surface 
 as to make it imi)ossible to finish the shot by the 
 means ordinarily employed in this country. Such 
 shot are, however, sometimes finished by the grind- 
 stone. Having pa.ssed this preliminary inspection, it 
 is put in the lathe and turned down to the true diame- 
 ter for the length of .2.5 inch. The shot is finally 
 pa.ssed through llu; finixliiii^i-jursK, and placed in "a 
 luthe w^here the base is finished; if the Butler sabot is 
 to be u.sed, a screw-thread is cut upon the base. The 
 sabot is usually formed of an alloy of 70 parts copjier 
 and 30 of zinc. It is either cast sepanitely or direct- 
 ly upon the base of the projectile; in the former case 
 it is bored and turned to thi' fini.sbed size. The shot 
 is completed by tiipi)ing a thread on the screw-plug 
 hole, fitting it "with a plug, and screwing or casting 
 on the sabot. See Coreiox, Fiimhing-press, and Projec- 
 tilrn. 
 
 FABRICATION OF SWORDS AND SABERS.— The 
 compli.'te sword consists of the */(«/<, .miM,iiril, i/ri/ie, 
 and the mountinys. The blade is made of the best 
 English ca.sl-stcel ; the skelp, which is Hj^ inches in 
 length, being cut from a sqtiare S-inch bar. The 
 principal operations in making the blade are fori:- 
 ing, milling, temi)ering, grinding, polishing, and 
 etching. The first o|>erali()n of forffinij consists in 
 drawing out the skolp to nearly the required length of 
 
 the finished blade, ami is done imder the tilt-hammer. 
 The second operation, also midcr the tilt-hammer, 
 draws it out to a little longer than its finished length 
 and shapes it, forming an arris on each side. The 
 t<nir/, of wrought-iron. is then welded on, and sha])e(l 
 under a rf/v»/y. "" After the forging the blade is straight- 
 ened by hand while cold. To reduce the tang, shoul- 
 der, aiid the ])ortion of the blade inunediately adjoin- 
 ing the shoidder to the proper shape and dimensions, 
 they art milted. Four dilTerent cuts are neccssaiy. 
 At this point the edges of the blade arc ground on a 
 revolving stone, to near their required shape, so as to 
 serve as a guide in future grinding operations. The 
 blade is set in a fixture for the purpose. The opera- 
 tion is known as first-edging. The blade after being 
 forged is soft and flexible, and it is necessary ti> give 
 it a certain degree of hardness and t'lasticity, which is 
 done by Itardening and tei/ijieriiig. The succes.s of 
 this operation depends greatly on the skill of the 
 workman and his ability to detect by the eye the tem- 
 perature best suited to the steel used. To harden the 
 iilade the workman holds it in the heat of a charcoal- 
 furnace, moving it liack an<l forth to heat the .several 
 part.s uniformly. When its color is a cherry-red it is 
 withdrawn and plunged into colli .salt-water. It is 
 now very hard and brittle, and generally warped. It 
 is therefore necessary to straighten and partially aiu- 
 ncal or temper it. T^o effect this it is again heated; 
 this time to only a blue heat. While thus heated it 
 is soft and can be straightened, which is done quickly, 
 and it is then plunged into cold water as before. This 
 jlives it the proper degree of hardness and elasticity. 
 After being tempered the blade is yr&und on rapidly 
 revolving coarse grindstones to reduce all parts to the 
 pro]>er size. Two grindings are ncces-sary: the first 
 extending to the cros.s-grinding of the whole blade, 
 except the point by which it is held in the fixture; and 
 the second on a finer grindstone, v. here the point is 
 shaped and the whole blade ground lengthwise. The 
 accurate dimensions are determined by projier gauge. 
 The tang is fitted to a gauge by the file. The final 
 grinding is that of the edges, known as second-edging, 
 by which the edges are reduced to the required accu- 
 racy. By grinding, the blade is oftentimes bent and 
 partially anneaknl. To correct these defects it is again 
 heated to a blue heat, straightened quickly, and 
 plunged into cold water, by which it is retempered. 
 The object oi jmliiiliing is to remove thcniarks of the 
 grindstone and give it a smoother finish. This opera- 
 tion, done on a buff-wheel with emery or corundum, 
 generally warps the blade, and makes a third straight- 
 ening ncces-sary. A second lighter polishing prepares 
 it for etching — the process of marking the blade with 
 ornamental devices. It is done by first painting the 
 design on the polished blade witii any varnish that 
 will resist the action of diluted nitric acid. When 
 this is dry the acid is applied with a woolen swab 
 and attacks the parisof the blade left uncovered, leav- 
 ing them in a rough or oxidized state, while the design 
 remains smooth and bright. The varnish is dissolved 
 oil by s]iirits of turpentine, and the blade is cleaned 
 with alcohol and whiting. 
 
 The fcihliiird is made of sheet-steel, thickness No; 
 1!) Providence wire-giiuge. The first oi)eralion is that 
 of .slitting or cut I ing the metal into strips of the proper 
 size. These strips are first annealed and bent through- 
 out their length into a gutter shape by means of a simple 
 hand m.ubine known as a bending-macbine. They 
 are still further curved by being placed on a mandrel, 
 clamped in a fixture on the bed of a iilancr. and pa.s.sed 
 uniler a wheel or roller attached to the loolfixture of 
 the machine. This finishes the shaping of the scab- 
 bard, which is elliptical in cro.ss-seclion. The scaly- 
 bards being very hard and brittle, to facilitate further 
 operations they are at this point reamiealed. The an- 
 nealing is done by |)a<king them in cast-iron retorts 
 with jiowdered cb.arcoal and ashes, and subjecting 
 tlicni to a red heat for five or six houi-s. They are 
 then allowed to cool slowly, which renders Ihem soft 
 and flexible and easily worked. To produce good and
 
 FABEICATION OF SWORDS AND SABERS. 
 
 611 
 
 FABRICATION OF SWORDS AND SABERS. 
 
 accurate surfaces for brazing, the open joint of each 
 is sawed through its entire length and the scal)bar(ls 
 are again rolled on the planer. After being liirhtly 
 ■wrapped with wire the scabbards are ready for braz- 
 ing, which is done by placing a piece of brass wire 
 
 without mandrel. After having the edges sawed up 
 about li inch from the small end, for the better fitting 
 of the ferrule, the scabbards are polished twice, being 
 straightened after the first or rough polishing. The 
 polishing is done on buff-wheels with emery or corun- 
 
 B 
 
 United States Regulation Swords. 
 
 over the joint on the inside and heating to the melting- 
 point of the brass. In heating them for brazing they 
 are covered by a coat of oxide, and they are a gooil 
 deal warped. To remove the black covering and re- 
 duce them to a smooth surface they are ground on 
 a revolving stone and after^vard straighleued. The 
 straightening is first done bv hand and then by being 
 rolled on the planer ; this "time on both edges and 
 
 dum. After the second polishing they are smooth 
 and bright and ready for either browning or nickel- 
 plating. The nickel-plated ones are polished a third 
 time ; this time on a brush-wheel, with crocus and 
 rouge. The scabbards are inspected after each polish- 
 ing," and again after they arc tinisbcd. The ffripe or 
 handle of the sword is turned out of black walnut, 
 with grooves for wrapping with wire. It is covered
 
 FABRICATION OF SWORDS AND SABERS. 
 
 a\-2 
 
 FABRICATION OF SWORDS AND SABERS. 
 
 with shark-skin, glued on and blacked, and is then 
 wrapped tijrhllv willi doiilile brass wire. They are 
 bored through irom oiui to end to receive tlie tan.s of 
 the blade, and tittetl witli a ferrule at each end. The 
 mountings of hard bronze arc made by casting in sand- 
 
 shops. The difftn 111 parts being thus prepared, the 
 swords are "as.soiiibled;" the mountings being accu- 
 rately tilted to the bhuies and scabbards, and the .scab- 
 bards lined on either Hat side with a thin strip of pine, 
 which e.\tends'about 1 5 inches from the mouth. They 
 
 United States Regulation Sabers. 
 
 molds. They consist, for the blade, of the guard, 
 crown-piece, and two ferrules for the gripe; and for 
 the scabbard, of the moulli-piece, ferrule, and two 
 bands, with rings for attaching to .swordbclt. The 
 guard has on the side next the wearer a hinged shell, 
 held in place by a button and spring. The mount - 
 ings are lilted in lets, gilt and biu-nished in the armory 
 
 are finally examined by the Inspector, who selects 
 the blades and scabbards suited to each other. The 
 swords are issued with two scabbards, one browned 
 and one nickel-plated, and are also supplied with 
 chamois-skin cases. 
 
 The bamnctseaM>ard is formed from sheet-steel, 
 thickness No. 19 Providence gauge. The first opera-
 
 FABRICATION OF TUBES. 
 
 613 
 
 FABEICATION OF TUBES. 
 
 tion is that of slittiog or cutting the mctnl into strips | 
 of trapczoirlal shape, 18.75 inches long, 2.53 inches 
 wide al the larger and 1.5 inches wide at the smaller 
 end. The strips are annealed by i)ackinL'' them in 
 ca.st-iron retort-s with powdered chtircoal anil ashes, 
 and subjecting them to a red heat lor 5 or liours, 
 and then allowing them to cool off slowly before e.\- I 
 posing them to the air. These strips are first bent 
 throughout their length hito a gutter shape by means 
 of a simple hand machine known as a bemling-ma- 
 chine. They are still further curved by being placed 
 on a mandrel, clamped in a ti.xture or the bed of the 
 planer, and i)a:;sed under a wheel or roller attached to 
 the lool-tixtuic of the machine. Tbis finishes the 
 shajiing of the scabbard, wbicb is elliiilical in cross- 
 section. To i)roduce a good joint f(jr bra/ing, the 
 scabbard is jilaccd in the planer and a cirt-ular saw is 
 pa.ssed through its entire length; the scabbard is again 
 rolled on the planer and the edges of the joint are 
 brought into contact; a second annealing is required 
 sometimes, if the steel appears tot) rigid and stiff to 
 remain in the position bent. The bntzinr/ is done bj' 
 first tightly wrapping the scabbard with iron wire to 
 hold the edges of the steel finnly in contact, then 
 placing a piece of brass wire on the inside over the 
 joint and heating to the melting-point for brazing in 
 the flame of a blow-pipe furnace. The operation of 
 buffgrinding consists in grinding off the wire and 
 brass which adhere to the scabbard after brazing, and 
 is done on an emery or corundum w bed of the coars- 
 est number. The scabbard is ne.xt finish polished, the 
 entire surface, with fine emery or corundum. The 
 operation of broirning is the same us for rifie-barrels. 
 The scabbard-spring is punched from sheet-sleel, No. 
 19 Prowdcnce gauge, in a power-press, to the right 
 length and width. The carcinf/ is done by heating 
 the springs separately in a hollow oven, which is kept 
 constantly tit a red heat; when cherry red the spring 
 is taken out and replaced by another, with a pair of 
 tongs, and curved in a clamp- vise to the right shape; 
 it is allowed to chill before it is removed from the 
 vise for another. The hole for the rivet is drilled in 
 an upright power-press, the scabbard being held in a 
 suitable fi.xture. The springs are packed in sheet-iron 
 pans, edgewi.se, and heated in an oven to a red heat; 
 then plunged into a tank of oil to harden tbcin; then 
 drawn to a spring temper in a sheet-iron pan by ajiply- 
 ing oil and moving the pan forward and back over 
 the blaze of a charcoal-fire until the oil blazes off en- 
 tirely, when they are thrown upon a tjible to coo! off. 
 The spring end that rides on the bayonet-blade to 
 hold it is polished to prevent it from scratching the 
 surface of the blade. The spring is rinUd to the 
 scabbard by hand with a suital>le fi.xture for the )iur- 
 pose. The scabbard and spring are finally inspected: 
 first, to see that the .scabbard is projierly browned of 
 good body and color; second, to see that the sjiring is 
 riveted firndy , and that it does not set when a bayonet- 
 blade is insei-ted into the scabbard, and that the work- 
 manship is good. 
 
 The proof and inspection of swords and sabers is 
 conducted as follows: First. The dimensions and 
 form of the blade are verified by comparing it with 
 the model and bv ai)iilying the" appropriate gauges 
 and patterns for ihe length, width, and thickness at 
 several points, and the curvature, if any. Second. 
 The blade is then proved as follows: 1. The point is 
 confined bv a staple, and the lilade is bent on each of 
 the Hat sides over a cylindrical block, tbe curvature 
 of which is that of a circle 35 inches diameter, the 
 curvature of the part next tbe tang Ix'ing reduced by 
 inserting a wedge .7 inch thick at the head iuid 14 
 inches long. 2. It is struck twice on each of tbe flat 
 sides on a block of oak wood, the curvature of which 
 is the Siime as the above. 3. It is struck twice on the 
 edge and twice on the back across an oak block 1 foot 
 in diameter. 4. The point is p'.aced on the floor and 
 the blade bent until it desciibes an arc having tbe 
 versed sine inilicated in the appropriate table. After 
 these trials the blade is examined to see that it is free 
 
 from flaws, cracks, or all other imperfections, and that 
 it is not. set — that is, it does not remain bent. 5. See 
 that a piece of iron is welded on the tang for riveting. 
 6. Observe that the ijommel is properly countersunlc 
 for riveting tang. The blade of the artillerj-sivord is 
 proved by striking each of the sides and edges twice 
 on a flat block of hard oak wood. Tbe stamp of ap- 
 proval or condemnation is placed on the side of the 
 blade below the tang. Third. The form, dimensions, 
 and workmanship of the moimtiiigii arc examined ami 
 compared with the model. After the blade is mount- 
 ed the sword is again exammed, and it is stmck four 
 times on a bard block of wood to test the strength of 
 the mountings. The (juality of the bra.ss mountings 
 may be tested by breaking a certain number, not more 
 than four in each lumdVed, which should be taken 
 from the pieces rejected for erroneous dimensions. 
 Fourth. Tbe form, workmanship, and finish of the 
 scabbards are examined and comi)ared with tbe model 
 and their fitting to the blades tested. The sewing of 
 leather scabljards and the fastem'ng of the ferrules 
 and ti|>s will be paiticuliirly examined. Steel scab- 
 bards are proved by letting fall on them from a height 
 of 18 inches an iron weight of 2 pounds, 1 inch scjuare 
 at the base: 1st. On one side just Mow the upper Imnd; 
 2d. On the same side 6 inches from the tip; 3il. (Jn the 
 opposite side just above the lower band. In this proof 
 the scabbard should not remain indented . The nature 
 of the material (whether iron orsteel)may betestc'd, if 
 there be anj' doubt, by asing nitric acid, which will 
 leave a black spot on the steel, but not on the iron. 
 See that the mouth of the .scabbard is not split or 
 swelled by driving in the mouth-piece. After sheatli- 
 ing the saber, draw it from the scabbiird nearly to its 
 full extent, and return it with considerable forc'e three 
 or four times in succession; then examine the riveting 
 of tlic tanir to tbe hilt. See Small-an/is. 
 
 FABRICATION OF TUBES.— Two plans of conver- 
 sion of our 10-inch smooth-bore cast-iron guns into 
 8-inch muzzle-loading rifles, by lining with coiled 
 wrought-irou tubes, find place in our .service; one by 
 " nuizzle," and the other by " breech" insertion. The 
 parts in general of these converted rifles are: first, 
 the old casing bored out to the exterior diameter of 
 the inserted tube; second, the rifled coiled wrought-iron 
 tube. The mode of manufacturing the iron for the 
 tubes is fully explained in the article Coiled Tubes. 
 The A or main tube is composed of four sections or 
 short tubes welded together, each section consisting 
 of two bars, which are united end to end before coil- 
 ing. The B tube and jacket for tubes, designed to 
 \)C inserted from the muzzle and from the breech re- 
 spectively, have now to be made. Their construction, 
 which forms the principal feature of distinction be- 
 tween the two plans of conversion employed, will be 
 sub-sequently described. The breech-cup is made 
 from a .soliJl forging stamped into shape under the 
 steam-hammer. The collar for securing the tube at 
 the muzzle is made of tul)e-iron. fagoted and ham- 
 mered oiu to the proper size. It is then bent over a 
 man<bcl an<l the cuds welded together. The tube 
 anil its accompanying parts have now to be transferred 
 to the finishing-sho|i and prepared for insertion. 
 The power is "distributed from the engine by Ihe 
 shafting, which consists of rotis of iron running Ihe 
 length of the work.sho]), and which, by means of at- 
 tached i)idleys, transmit the |iower used to tbe differ- 
 ent machines. The motion is transferred by means 
 of belts or bands, ordinarily of leather, pa.ssing from 
 those above mentioned to" similar pulleys. These 
 belts may nm direct to the machines themselves, but 
 more usually pass over an intermediate ]iulley at- 
 tached to Ihe courtershafting; this is placed below 
 the main shafting, iind carries pulleys of .lifferent 
 sizes, and idle pulleys, by the former of which the 
 rale of speed may lie varied, by the latter tbe ma- 
 chine brought to rest without mterfering with the 
 motion of the main shafting. It is frequcnil)- nece* 
 .sary to reverse the niotion of a machine, and this is 
 effected by using a belt v.hich is crossed between the
 
 rABBICATION OF TUBES. 
 
 GU 
 
 FABRICATION OF TUBES. 
 
 pulleys over wbich it pnsscs. While belts arc gener- 
 ally employed lo transfer rotation from one .nxle to 
 another wiiere these are at a consiiienible distance 
 apart, when they are very near each other toothed 
 wheels are used of dilTerenl form and size, aceordinjr 
 to the relative positions of the axles and the work the 
 machine is rciiuireil to perform. AVlien llic nxles are 
 pandlel, s|)ur-wheels are used, in which the teeth 
 project radially from the circumference, ^^'hen the 
 axles are not parallel, bevel-wheels are employed, in 
 which the teeth are formed on the surface of a cone. 
 Miter-wheels belong to the latter class, and are used 
 when the axles are at right angles, and frequently 
 for simply changing the direction of niolion. To 
 enable the various machines to perform the work re- 
 quired of them, the n)tary motion of the shafting 
 must be converted into rectilinear and other motion. 
 Circular motion is changed into rectilinear by means 
 of cams. Rectilinear motion is converted into cir- 
 cular by a enink.or by means of a pawl and ratchet- 
 wheel, the i)a\vl being on a jointed arm worked by a 
 cam; the former gives continuous, the latter inter- 
 mittent motion. The A tube and B tube or jacket 
 arc now bored, turned, and otherwise prepared for 
 assembling; the tube turned down for the reinforcing 
 tube and muz/le-eollar; the breech-cup turned on the 
 inside and a screw-thread cut on the outside, and the 
 muzzle-coUar bored out and a screw-thread cut on 
 
 motion to the slide-rest in screw-cutting. A series of 
 change-wheels is provided with each lathe, by a suit- 
 able combination of whicli any desired pitch can Ix! 
 given to the thread cut. The back-center can be ad- 
 justed by hand lo any position, and in many machines 
 an automatic longitudinal motion is also provided by 
 means of gearing in rear, to enable it to carry a bor- 
 ing-rod. 
 
 In boring short tubes, such as the sections of the A 
 tube, the cutter is generally pas,scd through a slot in 
 the lx)ring-bar, which passes, in an ordinary lathe, 
 from the head-stock to the back-center. The tube 
 is then attached to a saddle which has a motion of 
 translation, while llie cutler has the motion of rota- 
 tion received from the head-slock. Ordinarily, both 
 in boring and turning, the cutter has the motion of 
 translation, while the tube revolves. In boring or 
 turning cast-iron, it is not usual to use a lubricant. 
 In turning wrought-iron, a mixture of soap and water 
 is allowed to drip upon the tool, which serves lo di- 
 nnnish the f rid ion on the tool and preserves its tem- 
 per. In boring wrought-iron, no lubricant need be 
 used for the rough-cut, but oil nuist be used during 
 the finishing-cut. Pre%ious to the first turning of any 
 article, the axis must be found so as to center it tndy 
 in the lathe. This is simply done in a solid cylinder 
 liy finding centei"s at each end with a l>air of com- 
 passes; but in the case of a tube a mandrel must be 
 
 Boring and Section Latlie. 
 
 the exterior. The gun-casing is also bored to receive 
 the tube, and a recess and screw-thread cut on the 
 muzzle-collar. Much of this work, including that of 
 preparing the sections for welding, is ]ierformed in 
 the lathe shown in the drawing. I'his work requires 
 much power, and. as a consequence, low speed. The 
 power received from the main shafting is first reduced 
 by the eounlershafling, and afterwards lo a diffc renl 
 degree by the different steps of the conical pidleys 
 attached to the head-stock. The face-plate is fas- 
 tened to a mandrel, which passes through the conical 
 pulley and is independent of it. The motion of the 
 conical pulley is tiansf( rred in a reduced form lo the 
 face-plate by the gearing. When il is desired lo give 
 the face-plate the .same rale of motion as the conical 
 pulley, the two can be Imllcd together, and the inter- 
 mediate gearing thrown out of gear. The cutting- 
 tool is attached at any inclination to a holder, whicli 
 can be moved by hand on tliesli<le-resl, longitudinally 
 or transversely, l)y means of the handles shown in 
 the drawing. These motions are made anU)mati(! by 
 a connection, through gearing, with llie feed-screw. 
 An aulomalic longitudinal motion is given to Ihe base 
 of the slide-rest by means of Ihe feeding-shafi and 
 worm, while il is nioved by hand in Ihe same direc- 
 tion — when thrown out of gear with llie feeding- 
 shaft — bv means of the pinion gearing into the rack. 
 The leading-screw gives all the required longitudinal 
 
 inserted in each end in order that the axis may be 
 actually obtained. After the easing has been bored 
 out to receive the tube, careful measurements are 
 made with the star-gauge for every inch of length of 
 bore. These measurements, ploiled on jwper, are 
 the workman's guide in so finishing the tube that 
 the play between il and the casing shall not exceed 
 that prescribed. Before shrinking Ihe reiiiforeing- 
 lube upon the tidie proper, both are subjected to the 
 hydraulic test. The aiijiaratus for applying this test 
 consists of two iron cro.ss-heads fitted to tlie ends of 
 the ttdje. and which are enabled lo sustain Ihe press- 
 ure apjilicd through the medium of Ihe connecting 
 rods. Leathef washers are used lo render Ihe cross- 
 heads water-]uoof. The water is forced in by a steam- 
 pump tliro\igh one of Ihe cross-heads, and the degree 
 of Ihe pressure — wbich must reach 120 ))ounds lo Ihe 
 square inch— ^s registered by Ihe gauge. The rein- 
 foreing-tidie is now sliniidv on. and Ihe united tubes 
 returned lo the bed and finished, and then inserle<i in 
 the casing. The mu/.zle-collar is then screwed into 
 place, and the steel securing-pin is inserted through 
 the easinsr. Il is usual to rifie Ihe tube Ixfore il is 
 inserted in the easing; but as il is not unfrec|Ucnllv 
 done at this stage of the work, Ihe description of il is 
 here introduced. Only a single groove is cut at a 
 time, and that, ordinarily, as the cutter is going down 
 the bore. All the grooves in a gun are first cut out
 
 fACE. 
 
 615 
 
 FAsmo. 
 
 roughly and then finished with another cutter. The 
 •distance between the ^ooves is rej^lated by a disk 
 fixed to the breech of the foin, having its periphery 
 equally divided by as many notches jis there are to be 
 grooves. The ffun is fixed each lime by a pawl, and, 
 when a new.groove has to be cut, is turned round to 
 the next notch. Sometimes the perijihery is simply 
 sulxlividcd into the required number of equal spaces, 
 •while a stationary pointer indicates the position to 
 wh'ch the marks on the disk are to I)e successively | 
 brought. The gun is held horizontjiUy in its bed in 1 
 front of the machine, and remains stationary while 
 the head carryinji the cutter moves in and out the bore. 
 Consequently it is necessary to make the bar, to which 
 the head is attached, turn as it advances and returns. 
 Many varieties of machines are ased in this country ^ 
 for rifling guns. They differ from each other in the i 
 mechanism employed to give this motion of rotation 
 to the ctitter. In all of them, thi- gunmetal head, 
 ■which carries the cutter, tits the bore accurately by 
 means of burnishers. It is fastened to a stout, hollow 
 iron bar, termed the " ritling-bar. " This bar is fi.xed 
 to a saddle which can be moved backwards and for- 
 wards, but is capable of a motion of rotation inde- 
 pen<lent of it. During rifling the metal on the edges 
 of the grooves occasionally becomes burred. The 
 bore must therefore be smoothed, and this is accom- 
 plished by a process called "lapping." The opera- 
 tion consists in working backward and forward in the 
 iKjre a wooden head covered with lead and smeared 
 over with emery -powder and oil. The bore of the 
 gun-casing is also subjected to the same operation be- 
 fore the in.sertion of the tube. Both the tube and 
 collar now project beyond the mu/zle of the casing. 
 They are therefore cut off flush with it, and finished. 
 The hole is tapped for the vent-bushing, which is 
 then screwed into place, and its lower end tinislied off 
 flu.sh with the surface of the bore. See Coiled Tubes, 
 Conrerted Guiid, anil Ordnance. 
 
 FACE. — A term of varied application. 1. In forti- 
 fication, it is an appellation given to several parts of 
 a fortress, as tlwfuce <>f the huHi'in, which is the two 
 sides, reaching from the flanks to the salient angles. 
 The prolonged or extruded fure is that part of the line 
 of defense which is terminated by the curtain and the 
 angle of the shoulder. Strictly taken, it is the line 
 of defense niyanf. diminished by the face of the Ijas- 
 tion. 2. In tactics, //) fare is to turn on the heels, as 
 a riejhtfaee ; also the word of command for the move- 
 ment. See Fortification. 
 
 FACE COVER.— Eugmeers since the times of Cor- 
 montaignc have mostly adopted his method of placing 
 the toi> of the scarp-wall on a level wi(h the crest of 
 the glacis, or a little below this crest, to give the wall 
 cover from the assjiilant's distant batteries. But this 
 is evidentlv only a partial remedy, since the plunge 
 of projectiles fired from a distaiice is very great in 
 the descending branch of the trajectory, and with the 
 rifled guns now used these projectiles fired froni a 
 distance may pass nver the glacis-crest and strike 
 the wall quite low down, thus effecting serious dam- 
 age, particularly in the case of very wide and shal- 
 low ditches. 
 
 Various exiieclients have been proposed by engin- 
 eers to remeilv this defect. Choumara, an engineer 
 of celebritv, has proposed to form what he terras an 
 interior glacis within the ditch, the crest of which 
 shall rise so liiih above the bottom of the ditch that 
 it shall mask the scarp-wall from the plunge of the 
 distant batteries, and shall force the a.s.sailant to es- 
 tablish his hreachinir-liatteries on this interior glacis 
 to enable him to fire low enough to effect a practica- 
 ble breach in the wall. 
 
 Brialmont, a more recent writer, proposes a like 
 plan for the s:ime piuposes: and in one of our own 
 works. Fort Warren, B.)ston Harbor, a heavy earthen 
 face-Cdver masks a portion of the s(;u-i>-wall from a 
 position from which a breaching lire might have been 
 brought agiunst the part thus masked. Sec Perma- 
 nent "Forttjicatioii . 
 
 FACE OF A PIECE.— In gunnery, the terminating 
 plane perjjendicular to the axis of the bore. 
 
 FACE OF A PLACE.— In fortification, the front com- 
 prehended lx;tween the flanked angles of two neigh- 
 boring bastions, composed of a curtain, two flanks, 
 and two faces. Sometimes called the tenailU of the 
 pliirr. See Fortification. 
 
 FACE-PLATE.— A plate screwed on to the spindle 
 of a lathe, and affording the means of attaching the 
 work to be turned; or the place of attachment for a 
 pin which comes against the dog oT driver on the work 
 and imparts rotation to the latter. See Lathe. 
 
 FACES OF A SQUARE.— The sides of a battalion or 
 regiment when formed in square. 
 
 FACHON.— An iVnglo-Norman term for a sword or 
 falchion; but little used. See Fakliion. 
 
 FACING.— 1. Powder applied to the face of a mold 
 which receives the metal. The object is to give 
 a finQ smooth surface to the casting. The facing 
 consists of various materials, economy and the de- 
 scription of casting being taken into consideration. 
 The follo^\^ng are commonly used : Jleal-dust or 
 waste flour, powdered chalk, ashes of wood or Ian, 
 charcoal-dust, loam-stone powder, and rotten-stone 
 powder. An equivalent effect is pro<luced by depos- 
 iting a layer of soot upon a metallic pattern by smok- 
 ing it in a fire of cork-shavings, or of resin bunied in 
 an iron ladle, or in the flame of a link or a lamp. 
 2. The front covering of a bank by means of a wall 
 or other structure to enable it to be made steeper than 
 the natural talus of the material. 
 
 FACING-IMPLEMENTS.— Implements u.sed for fac- 
 ing or renewing thu vent and the breech-pieces of an 
 Armstrong or similar gun. 
 
 FACINGS. — 1. The cuffs and collars of military 
 coats, which are generally of a different color from 
 that of the coats. 2. The movenniits of soldiers by 
 turning on their heels to the right, left, right-about, 
 left-abdul, etc. 
 
 FACTION.— 1. In ancient history, one of the troops 
 or bodies of combatants in the games of the circus, 
 especially of the horse-races. 2. A term applied in 
 an ill sense to any party in a State that offers uncom- 
 jironiising opposition to the measures of the Govern- 
 ment, or that endeavors to excite public discontent 
 upon unreasonable grounds. 3. The duty done by a 
 private soldier when he patrols, goes the round, etc., 
 l)ut most especially when he does duty as a sentinel. 
 The French usuailv say, entrer en faction, to come 
 upon duty; I'tre en' faction, to be u|x>n duty; $ortir 
 de faction, to come off duty. 
 
 FACTIONNAIEE. — A soldier who does every species 
 of detail dutv. The terra was likewise applicable to 
 the dutv doiie by officers in the old French ser^-ice. 
 
 FAG-END. — The end of any rope. The term is 
 senendly applied to the cud of "a rope when it has be- 
 come untwisted. To fag out means to wear out the 
 end of a rope or a piece of canvas. 
 
 FAGOTS. — 1. In military histon,-, men hired to 
 muster liy otticers whose companies were not com- 
 plete; by "which means they cheated the public out 
 of the nien's pav, and deprived the country of its regu- 
 lar establishment. 2. Fa-scines of brushwood, used to 
 revet the interior of batteries, embrasures, etc. See 
 Faficinen. 
 
 FAKING.— Faking is an operation which requires 
 some care. Any person may learn to do it in a kind 
 
 of way, but it requires a man who can exercise a lit 
 tie common-sense to do it well. Careles,sness and ig- 
 norance arc the most fruitful causes of want of sue
 
 FAKING-BOXES. 
 
 616 
 
 FAKING-BOXEff. 
 
 ct'ss iu laying up the Hues by this method. Practice 
 alone can luiike a successful " faker." One man imiji 
 fake a Hue, but lia\iii^' to attend to tbrei- operatious 
 at the saiue time, does none of tbem pro|)erly. Two 
 men may i)ut up a liue, but, as before, there beini; 
 more oiH'nitions than men, they often fail. Three 
 men can fake a line well. This" work requires a cer- 
 tain degree of care and common-sense. The neces- 
 sity for thorough instruction luid frequent jiraclice is 
 nowhere so urgently called for as in the tittiug of men 
 to handle etticicntlj" the appliances for saving human 
 life. 
 
 The method sho-wn in Fig. 1 has, after various 
 trials, been found the most practical for laying the 
 roix; and placing it into compartments. A particu- 
 lar attention to this mode will never fail with a good 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 rope when the impediments are removed that might 
 otherwise obstruct its rapid flight. Its advantages 
 are that it will allow the eye rapidly (.vet correctly, 
 just bifiii-f Jin'iif/, which is ab.solutely necessiiry) to 
 pass over the different compartments, and at once dis- 
 cover if any fake has been displaced by the storm, or 
 by any other Ciisualty or accident come in contact 
 W'ith another part, which would destroy its applica- 
 tion by the rope breaking. 
 
 It may likewi.se be coiled in the manner useil in the 
 ■whaletishery, ir/nih-l<tir, as shown in Fig. 2, and in 
 the method called chain-fdkiivj, shown in Fig. 3. It 
 is, however, neccssiiry to add that great attention is 
 required in laying it agreeably to the two latter meth- 
 ods, arising not only from the arm being liable to get 
 under certain parts of the rope, and thereby dis])lace 
 it, but from the great anxiety of mind natural on i 
 these occasions, where the lives of fellow-creatures 
 are literally dependent on the correctness with which 
 the rope is lai(i. It is therefore extremely dillicult, 
 in a moment of agitation, to determine whether any 
 overlay has taken jilace, an error that would infalli- 
 blj- destroy every endeavor, and occasion even the i 
 fate of those whose lives we might be exerting our- I 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 selves to preserve. Could persons in the performance 
 of this si'rviee Ix' always collected, the two latter 
 methotls would have a decided advantage over the 
 first mo<le of faking, they being laid in a nuich less 
 space of time. As all these methods of laying the 
 rope occupy time to place it with the care nece.s,sar_v, 
 and as it has repeatedly happened that vessels ver\' 
 soon after gTOim<ling have gone to pieces, and ail 
 lian<ls perished, it was necessary to profluce a method 
 of arranging the rope so that it could l>e immediately 
 I)r<i,ieeled as soon as it arrived at the spot ; and none 
 jiroved so effectual as when broiiijhl ready in a bas- 
 ket. In this ease, the rope should l)e mosi carefully 
 laid in alleriialc tiers or fakes, no part of it overlaying, 
 and it should be well .secured down, that in traveling 
 it be not displaced; but above all, no mistake must 
 
 happen in placing the basket properly. For example, 
 that the end of the basket from which the shot hangs 
 in the above ligure shoidd be previou.sly marked, and 
 must be placed toward the sea or wreck that the 
 rt)pc be delivereil freely and without any chance of 
 entanglement. It will be scarcely neee.s.sary to add 
 there will be several tiers of the rope when laid. 
 The utmost care and attention are required in laying 
 the rope in tiers with strict regularity to prevent en- 
 tiinglement. See Lifcsaring lioctetx. 
 
 FAKING-BOXES.-^These boxes are designed for 
 placing the shot-lines in position for tiring. The 
 lines are stowed away in the boxes in a peculiar man- 
 ner, called " faking." The melhiKl is one adopted by 
 the English for the .stowage of their rocket-lines. la 
 the pattern used iu the United States, the sides and 
 ends are dovetailed together at the comers. 
 The top is nailed to the ends and sides with 
 11-inch and sixpenny finLshing-nails. The 
 cleats carrying the rope-bamlles are fa.stened 
 to the box, one at each end, by four small 
 screws. The " false bottom" has a row 
 of holes, 1.3 inch (3.05 centimeters) in di- 
 ameter, around the perimeter Along the 
 sides and ends the centers of these holes 
 are situated 1.3 inch (3.3 centimeters) from 
 the edges. The distance between the cen- 
 ters of any two consecutive holes is 2 inches (5.08 
 centimetei^i). The sides and ends of the frame 
 for the faking-pins are put together with mortises and 
 tenons. Along the sides, the centers of the screw- 
 holes for the faking-pins are placed 2.5 inches (6.35 
 centimeters) from the outer edges; the centers of 
 these holes are 3 inches (7.62 centimeters) from the 
 outer edges along the ends of the frame. The dis- 
 tance between the centers of any two conGccutive 
 screw-holes in 2 inches (5.08 centimeters). These 
 holes are bored and tapped to form a coarse-threaded 
 female .screw. There are seventeen holes on each 
 side and seven at each end of both the bottom and 
 the frame, making forty-eight holes in each. The 
 faking-pins are turned in a laihe from pieces of 
 hickoiy of the jiropcr length. The body is a frustum 
 of a cone. The upper end is slightly rounded off. A 
 coarse cylindrical screw is cut upon the lower end. 
 A metallic hasp which passes ever a button attached 
 to the end of the box is fastened to each end of the 
 frame, and serves to hold the frame and box together 
 iu transportation and handling. 
 
 The method of fastening in u.se in the United States 
 Life-saving Service prior to 1879 was simply two 
 stai>lcs and a hook. In tran.sportation the 
 hooks were liable to droji out of the engag- 
 uig-staple on the box and ]H-nnit the frame 
 carrying the faking pins and .shot-line to fall 
 to the ground and the line to become en- 
 tangled. While experimenting with life- 
 saving apparatus during the vears 1877-'78, 
 Lieutenant D. A. Lyle. Oritnance Depart- 
 ment, U. S. A., contrived a metallic has]) and 
 turn-bulton to replace the old hook and staple. 
 In his rejiort of 1878 he sjiys: " Hasps and 
 turn-buttons were tried on the experiment- 
 al boxes; these, though safe, sometimes gave 
 trouble in getting ready for the firing when in great 
 ha.stc. and the button "being placed on the lx)x. it 
 was thought to give an opportunity for the line 
 when vibrating or whipping to catch and be cut off." 
 In view of llicse disailvantages. Lieutenant Lyle de- 
 vised a fastening of three staples, a hiusp, ring, safety- 
 chain, and lever snap-hook. The lever snap hooks 
 are made of malleable iron; the two large staples and 
 has]) of wrought-iron; the I'mall slajile, ring, and safe- 
 ty-chain of brass. The whole arc tinned, to protect 
 them from rust. The only thing allaelied to the box 
 is one of the large staples; consequeiilly there is no- 
 thing on the faking-box that can interfere willi or in- 
 jure the line .«o far as tliefastening iseoncerned. The 
 other parts are all attached to the "frame," and are 
 removed with it when preparing for firing.
 
 FAEIB. 
 
 617 
 
 FAKTK. 
 
 The operation of the lever-snap is veiy simple. 
 The mere act of hooking the snap in the stjiple com- 
 presses the spring, raises the bent end of the lever, 
 allows the staple to pass within the hook when the 
 elastic force of the spring closes the snap, and locks 
 it. To remove the hook from the staiile, seize the 
 looped end with the thumb and iude.x-linger, and 
 press them tt>jrelhcr. This action will depress the 
 end of the lever on the opposite side of the fulcrum 
 from the hook and unlock the snap so that it can be 
 ■withdrawn from the staple. The.se lock-snaps were 
 intended for the use of harness-makers, and hence 
 the lengthened slot at the end opposite the hook — 
 ■which was made for the attachmenfof a strap or rein 
 of a given width. This length of slot is unnecessarj' 
 as regards the convenience of fiustening the safety- 
 chain and snap-hook together, but ser\-es a most use- 
 ful purjjose in the Life-s;iving Ser\-iee. The excess of 
 lengtli of slot necessitates a corresponding amplitude 
 of the rear end of the hook, and allows a nmch wider 
 cavity for the play of the rear end of the bent lever. 
 It also admits of this end of the lever iK'ing made 
 spatula-shaped. The size of the cavity and end of 
 lever are such that the snap may 1m' unlocked with 
 ease by the surfman, no matter how large his thumb 
 may be or how thick the gloves or mittens that he is 
 ■wearing. This is a point of great importance, as the 
 surfmen can manipulate this portion of the apparatus 
 in the coldest weather without removing their hand- 
 coverings. 
 
 The German faking-boses are ver}- similar to those 
 in use in the United States. They differ from the 
 American box in being longer, a little less in width, 
 and far more complicated in construction. The top 
 of the box has three equidistant t ransverse cleats on the 
 upper side to strengthen it. A lip at each end over- 
 hangs the end of the box. Iron straps attached to the i 
 lid and run inside of the box form the hinges. These 
 hinges are held in position and swing upon iron pins 
 5.y75 inches in length, having an eye at one end and i 
 a slot at the other. A leather thong is made ftist in j 
 the eye-hole, and is long enough to pa.ss through the | 
 slot in the other end of the pin. This pin is thrust 
 through the cylindrical heads of the hinge-straps on 
 the box and licl, and the thong is passed through the 
 slot to secure the pin in position. This arrangement 
 admits of the top or lid being removed entirely when 
 desired. Two slotted straps or hasps attaclied to the 
 front side of the lid engage the st;iples on the front 
 of the box. The body of the box is rectangular in 
 shape, open at the top" and bottom, and of sufficient , 
 depth to contain the faking-pins and line. I 
 
 It has been found that the term of .service of a 
 wooden faking-box is verj- short. The \'ibrations of ■ 
 the line, when the full chiirge of po^ivder is used, arc 
 so violent that the ends of the box are often split, and 
 sometimes the sides and top. It was for the purpose 
 of preventing this splitting that angle-pieces of cast- 
 brass were placed upon the four corners. Though 
 this method of construction has remedied the defect 
 to a certain extent, it has not fully obNiated it. To 
 secure the necessary lightness of the box. it was re- 
 quisite lliat it be Tiiade of light wood, and that the 
 material be verv thin: consequently the box is quite 
 fragile. If a material can be obtained that will pos- 
 sess a greater degree of durability than one made of 
 wood, and weigh no more than the latter, that material 
 should lie adopted, provided the cost of manufacture 
 be reasonable. See Fiikinn and Life-miriiin liochU. 
 
 FAKIR.— A word deriviil from "the Arabic /«AA<?r 
 (poor), and designating a member of an order of men- 
 dicants or penitents, chietly in India and the neigh- 
 boring countries. In Persia and Turkey the word 
 is also used for Moslem priests and der\nshes. The 
 origin of fakirisni, an institution which reaches back 
 to the most remote antiquity, is lost in myl Ideal dark- 
 ness. The common account of the son of a mighty 
 Rajah, who, expelled from his bome and country by 
 the cruelty of his father, made a vow, half in re- 
 venge and half in contrition, henceforth to roam a 
 
 beggar through the world, and to win proselytes to a 
 life of poverty and self-mortification, as the one most 
 befitting in man and most pleasing to the Deity, can 
 hardly i)e called historical. The same yearning for 
 rest, for peace and pious contemplation, for escipe 
 from the noise and turbulence of the world, which 
 has everywhere and always led still and pensive 
 minds into seclusion and solitude, must naturally 
 have teen more powerful here, in a laud which 
 yielded almost of it.self, and in abundance, all that 
 was neccs.S!irj' for the sustenance of man — in a cli- 
 mate of flower and sun.shine, where a hermit's calm 
 retreat might well rise before the wearied eye in all 
 the soft sunset hues which surround the alxjile of the 
 recluse in the Ramayana or in the Sakoontala. But 
 constant seclusion and ceaseless meditation here, as 
 elsewhere, produced in all but exceiitional minds 
 their sad results. Piety is no longer enough; sanc- 
 tity is the goal. Thus, abstinence becomes mortifica- 
 tion and a self-torture ; mental repose, mystic self- 
 absorption or frenzied exaltation. This lesming of 
 the Hindus to a life of asceticism was fostered by 
 their primeval religion, which enjoins various exer- 
 cises of penance and mortification upon the three 
 higlier castes in general, but upon the Brahmins in 
 particular. These, ha^nng pas.sed through diHerent 
 stages of regeneration, end by becoming SanyiLssis 
 ("who have left everything") and are dead to the- 
 law. The world and its usjiges have no more any 
 claim upon them; even religious ceremonies are no 
 longer neces.sary to the "united with God." They 
 go naked or in filthy rags, receive the meanest food 
 only, and that without either a demand or thanks. 
 Their ethical code consists in the observance of 
 truth, chastity, internal purity, constant repentance, 
 and contemplation of Deity. After these models 
 fakirlsm seents chiefly to have been framed, and its 
 adherents were not only pious men, but occasionally 
 saints, workers of miracles, and healers of all ills, es- 
 pecially epilepsy and .sterility. The halo which from 
 tlie first surrounded fakirism, and the ready worship 
 offered by the people, attracted to its ranks, at a very 
 early date, manj- whose motives were anything but 
 pure, and who, under a garb of humility and men- 
 dicity, collected fabulous treasures. Sirabo already 
 distinguishes these vag^abonds from the more honest 
 members of their class, and if we may trust the travel- 
 ers of our own day, the more respectable element has 
 now altogether disappeared. Their numlwr is vari- 
 ously stated. In the time of Tavernier's visit there 
 were more than 1,3(XI,000 Hindu and 800,000 :Mo- 
 hammedan Fakirs in tlie East Indies, and their pres- 
 ent number is said to exceed 3,000,000. Papi de- 
 sc'ribes the Mohammedans as guilty of the greater 
 follies. At times, especially in their return from dis- 
 tant pilgrimages, they are even dangerous, as the kill- 
 ing of an unbeliever" is supi)osed to be an infallible 
 introduction to the glories of paradise. They live 
 either separately as hermits or solitary mendicants, 
 or unite in large gangs, carrying arms and a banner, 
 beating drums, and sounding horns as they approach 
 a town or village. Their appearance is disgusting in 
 the extreme ; they go naked, Itesmeared with the 
 dung of the holy animal, the cow. Some bedeck 
 themselves with the skins of serpents, some with hu- 
 man bones; others array themselves in the garb of 
 women. Their fearful shrieks, and the hideous roll- 
 ings of their eyes, add to the disgust of their ajipear- 
 imce. Inutatiiig madmen, they generally end by 
 Ix'coming madmen. The height to which stlf-tor- 
 ture is ffequentlv carried by these wretched fanatics, 
 and of which we meet with signs even so far back as 
 the Ramayana, where a )»nitent is descrilied as per- 
 petually sittinc with upraise<l arras betv, een four 
 tires, the sun forming the filth, is .so appalling thtit 
 human nature shrinks from the mere description. 
 Some pa.ss their whole lives in iron cages, laden with 
 heavy chains; some clinch their fists till their nails 
 grow- through the hand; others hold aloft both their 
 arms till they become like withered branches; while
 
 TALAEIQUi:. 
 
 618 
 
 FALLING BODIES. 
 
 otbcrs. ngHiu. tic their hands am) feet together, and 
 roll lii-ad iiviT Iiirls for thousands of miles. Not the 
 K-iisI sad fi'aturi' in all this is thai these religious antics 
 aR' not ciinliiu-dtonieii, but that youths, and even chil- 
 ilrcM of tender :ii.'e, are initiated therein. 
 
 FALARIQUE. — Combustible darts or arrows of 
 various tliieknesses, iri'uerally alxiut 3 feet long; close 
 behind the head was loilged the combustible matter, 
 by which shipping, etc., was set on lire. The fala- 
 niiue was projwned from a Ikjw or catapult. 
 
 FALCAIB. — A soldier who was armed with afalca- 
 riiis, or short crooked sword. 
 
 FALCHION. — A ix;culiarly shaped broad-bladed 
 srwonl, ailded to the ofl'cnsive weajwus u.sed in the 
 n•l^'n of Edward I., 1272-1807. 
 
 FALCON-BEAKED.— A term applied to battle-axes 
 and the like when large and curved. 
 
 FALCONET.— A uahie used in the fifteenth and six- 
 teenth centuries for the smallest class of cannon. 
 The ball weiglR-d from 1 lb. to 3 lbs., and the gun 
 from 5 cwt. to 1.5 cwt. 
 
 FALL. — 1. In artillery material, the name given to 
 any rope which is pas.sed through blocks, so as to 
 form part of a tackle. The rope attached to a gin, 
 ■which passes over a double and triple block, the end 
 of it passing round the windUiss, is termed the fall. 
 The fall for this purpose is generally made of stroug 
 Tope, deix>nding on the weight to be lifted. — 3. The 
 surrender or capture of a place after it has been be- 
 sieged. — 3. The descent of a body by the attraction 
 of the earth. 
 
 FALL FOUL. — An expression used in the military 
 sense of making an attack or assaulting. 
 
 FALL IN. — The word of command for soldiers to 
 fonn iu ranks, as in parade, line, division, etc. 
 
 FALLING BODIES.— Owing to gravity, all terres- 
 trial IxHlies. if unsupported, /«?/, or niove towards 
 the earth's center. When a falling bod)' is absolutely 
 without support, it is sjud to fa^ll freely, as distin- 
 guished from one descending an inclined iilane or 
 curved surface. We shall here considerthe two cases 
 of free descent and of descent on inclined planes. 
 
 1. JiidUs fitUinfi freely. — The first fact of observa- 
 tion i-eg-arding falling bodies is that they fall with a 
 variable velocity; from this we infer that they are 
 acted upon by some force. Again, on observing how 
 the velocity varies, we find that its increments in 
 eqiml times are equal; from this we conclude that 
 gravity is a uniform force, which it is, at Iciust sensi- 
 ulj', for small distances above the earth's surface. 
 ■yVe have next to tind a measure for this force. By 
 exjieriment it is found that a body in 1 second falls 
 through Ifi.l feet, and that at the end of 1 second it 
 moves with such a velocity, that if it continued to 
 move unifomdy after the 1 second exjiired, it would 
 pass over 32.2 feet in the next second. Ilence 33.3 
 feet is the measure of the velocitv which has been 
 generated in 1 second, and is thei^efore the measure 
 of the accelerating force of gravity; for the inea.sure 
 of accelerating force is the velocitv which it will pro- 
 duce in a body in a second of time. The quantity 
 32.2 feet is usually lUiioicd bv the letter q; a:id it is 
 projK'r to mention here that this quantity niea-^^ures 
 the accelerating force of the earth's attraction on all 
 Imdies. Experiment shows that imder the exhausted 
 receiver of an air-pinnp all bodies fall with equal 
 nipidity, and that the dilTerence of velocities of fall- 
 ing iKxlies in air is due entirely to the action of air 
 upon them. -Vs the acceler.-iling force is uuiforni.il 
 follows that the velocity generated in anv time. I, will 
 l)e given by the formula r = gt. Since the force is 
 uniform, it must generate an n\na\ velocity every 
 second. In t seconds, therefore, it must generate a 
 velocity gt, since it produces «7 in 1 second. In 2 
 seconds, a falling body will be moving with a velocity 
 of <!4.4 feet— i.e., were the velocity to l)econie con- 
 stant for the third second, it would in that second 
 niove through 64.4 f.-el. We are now in a position to 
 inquire more partieularlv how iMidies fall, and to an- 
 swer such questions as— Fii'st: What time will a body 
 
 falling freely take to fall through a given space? 
 Second: What velocity will it gain in falling through 
 a given space'/ Thiril: How high will a lK)dy ascend 
 when projected straight up with a given velocity r etc. 
 Let A be the point from which a botiy falls, and B 
 its position at the end of the time t; and let KM = S. 
 Then we know that at B the Ixwly has the velocity gt. 
 Supi>ost', now, the body to be jirojected upwairds 
 from B towards A with this velocity j^— gravity act- 
 ing apunst it, and tending to retard its motion. Wc 
 know that at the end of a time t it will be again at A, 
 ' having exactly retrace<l its course, and lost all the 
 I velocity with which it started from B. because gra^^ty 
 will just take thei*anie time to destroy the velocity j< 
 which it took to produce it. From this consideration 
 we may obtain an expression for the space AB or S 
 in ternis of the time t. In the time t. the body rising 
 from B with a velocity = gt woidd ascend, if" not re 
 tarded, a height (gt) . t, or gP. But in the time t, 
 gravity, we know, earned it through S; it will there- 
 I tore, in the same time, by retarding it, prevent it go- 
 ing to the height gt- by a space — S. The space 
 through which it actually ascends is then represented 
 bv the (litTerence jf — S; but this space we know to 
 be AB or S. Therefore S = ^f' - S; or 28 = gC-, or 
 S = igt-. Wc may give this equation another form. 
 For V being the velocity acquired in the time t,v = gt. 
 
 t: 
 
 Hence !* 
 
 -. Then S = iff. - = 5-. 
 
 From these formulae we see that when a body falls 
 from rest under the action of granty, its velocity at 
 any time varies as the lime, and the sfjuare of its vel- 
 ocity as the space described. If the liody, instead of 
 starting from rest, has an initial velocity V; and if v, 
 as before, be the velocity at the time t, then endently 
 «■ is = the original velocity + that which is generatea 
 by gravity, or c =: V + f/i; and the space will be that 
 which would have been described by the body mov- 
 ing vnnformly with a velocity V -j- that which it 
 wouid describe under gravity alone, or S = \i -\- 
 
 —-. With regard to the last two fonnulte, it is easy 
 
 to sec that they ma.v be made to suit the case of a 
 body projected upwards with a velocitj- V, by a 
 change of .signs; thus v — V — gt, and S = \'t — 
 
 '-7,-; gravity here acting to destroy velocity and di- 
 minish the height attained. From the general for- 
 mula' in the case of an initial velocity, whether the 
 body lie projccte<l upwards or downwards, we may 
 express r in terms of S, as we did in the case of mo- 
 tion from rest. For 
 
 s- = (V ± gtf = \' ± 2g ^Yt + '^-j = V» ± 2gS. 
 
 These are all the fomiuhe applicable to the case of 
 falling bodies, and by their means all problems in this 
 branch of dynamics mav be solved. It also apjiears 
 thai the fornuda' above investigated apply to all cases 
 of rectilinear motion of bodies considered as particles 
 under the action of any uniform force. In all such 
 Ciires, if ,/' measure the accelcraling force S = iff', 
 V- — 2/S. for the case of motion from rest; and S = 
 Vt ± ifC, !ind r« = 'V' ± 3/S, for the case of an ini- 
 tial velocity. 
 
 3. BodCen descending inelinfd planes. — In this ease 
 the formula' already investigated apply with a slight 
 change. In the figure, if P be a body on the inclined 
 plane AB, descending under gravity, 
 we observe that only that resolved 
 part of gravity parallel to AB is ef- 
 fective to make it descend, the other 
 part at right angles to AH merely 
 producing pressure on the plane. 
 The angle of inclination of the plane 
 being*/, we know that the resolved 
 part of gravity parallel to the i)laiie 
 is .7 sin a. TJic body, then, m.iy be 
 conceived to be dcsccudiiig under 
 crating force g sin a. 
 
 unifonn acccl- 
 Wc obtain the forniula-, ac-
 
 PALLING BRANCH. 
 
 619 
 
 FANFAEE. 
 
 cordingly, for descent on inclined planes by substitute 
 in^ </ sin a for/ in the general fomuiliv given above. 
 ■\\e notice, however, that in descent on inclined 
 planes the velocity acquired is, as in tje ca.sc of bod- 
 ies falling freely, due solely to the vertical height 
 through which the body fall.s. By our fonnula, 
 T- = 2^ sin a . S, where S = AB, if the body falls 
 from B. This may be written »'-' = ig. S . sin u, or 
 = 'ig . AB .sina,oi = 2g . BC, since AB . sin o = BC. 
 But this is the same as the velocity acquired by a body 
 in falling freely through BC. In fact, it holds gen- 
 crallv true that the velocity acquired by a body lall- 
 . ing clown the surface of any smooth curve is that due 
 to the vertical height through which it has fiUlen; 
 which might be proved in various ways, but is suffi- 
 ciently clear from this, that any curve may be con- 
 sidered as a succession of inclined planes, iudclinitely 
 short in length and great in number; for the proposi- 
 tion being true, as above proved, for each of them, 
 will be true for all, and therefore for the curve. Sec 
 Atirood's Machine, Parallelogram of Forces, and Pro- 
 jectiles. 
 
 FALLING BRANCH.— That part of the trajectory 
 of a projectile in which it approaches the earth. See 
 TriijicViry. 
 
 FALL OUT.— To quit the rank or file in which one 
 is tirst posted. Untidy soldiers on parade are fre- 
 quently ordered to full out, and remain in the rear of 
 their comjianies. Tlic phrase is aiiplicable in a great 
 varietv of instances. 
 
 FALOIS SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— The front 
 of this sj'stem consists of two enceintes of equal com- 
 mand, so that the inner one is well covered. The 
 bastions contain cavaliers which may readily Ix; 
 transformed into retrenchments. The .second enceinte 
 consists of counterguanls and ravelitis connected by 
 liatardeau.x. A low battery forms the reduit of ravelin. 
 The ravelin, its reduit, and the counterguard are case- 
 mated for artillery. The covered-way is replaced by a 
 system of creniailleres, which possess the great defect 
 of furnishing the besieger with a parallel ready made. 
 
 FALOTS.-^Small lanterns fixed upon die end of a 
 stick or pole. Small lamps likewise used, attached 
 in the same manner, for the purpose of carrying them 
 readily about to light a camp, or besieged towns, as 
 occasion may re(iuire. 
 
 FALSE ALARMS.— Stratagems of war frequently 
 made use of to haras.s an enemy by keeping him per- 
 IHtually under arms. A vigilant otticcr will occa- 
 sionally make a false alarm to learn if his guard is on 
 the alert. A fearful or negligent sentinel will create 
 alarm by false rejiorls. 
 
 FALSE ATTACK.— An approach which is made as 
 a feint for the jnirposc of diverting an enemy from 
 the real oljject of attack. False attacks should be 
 carried out on several points of the works to be at- 
 tacked, and at the sjinie time as the real one is going 
 on. The strength of the force detailed for this dutj- 
 .should be imiiosing. See Feint. 
 
 FALSE FIRES. — Lights or tires employed for the 
 purpose of deceiving an enemy. When an army is 
 about to retire from a position, during the night false 
 fires are lighted in different parts of (he encampment 
 to impo.se upon the enemy's vigilance. 
 
 FALSE FRAMES.— Wlien the soil is very bad, the 
 miners make use of these frames. They are of the 
 usual height, but narrower, and exactly of a width 
 from outside to outside, equal to the width in the clear 
 of the ordinMTV frames. 
 
 FALSE IMPRISONMENT.— Every confinement of 
 the person is an imprisonment, whether it be in a 
 common prison or a private house, or in the stocks, 
 or even by forcibly detaining one in the public streets. 
 A man is liable for detaining the person of another, 
 not only w ithout cau.sc, but widiout Icgjil cause. Thus, 
 where a man gives another in charge for comnntling 
 an offen.se, the former is liable to an action for false 
 imprisonment if he fails to substantiate his c:iuse. 
 Police-officers, also, are liable for apprehending a man 
 without a competent warrant, or « ithout reasonable 
 
 suspicion. But where a felony has been committed, an 
 Officer is entitled to arrest on suspicion. Not only 
 Constables but private persons may arrest a man who 
 commits a felony in their presence. A person who 
 has falsely imprisoned another is liable to a criminal 
 prosecution, and also to a civil action. In the former 
 case he may be pimishcd by fine and imjirisonment; 
 in the latter, he must pay such damages as are award- 
 ed. Any one detained without sufficient cause is en- 
 titled to apply for a writ of habeas corpus to procure 
 his liljeration. In Scotland this species of offense is 
 called Wrongoas Imprisonment. 
 
 FALSE LIGHTS.— lu debarkations under cover of 
 the night, lights may be used as signals of deception, 
 when it is found expedient to attract the attention of 
 the invaded country towards one part of the coast or 
 territory, whilst a real attack is meditated against an- 
 other. See False Fires. 
 
 FALSE MUSTER.— An incorrect statement of the 
 number of effective soldiers and horses. Any officer 
 who knowingly makes a false muster of man or horse, 
 or who signs, or directs, or allows the signing of any 
 nnister roll, knowing the sjune to contain a false mus- 
 ter, shall, upon proof thereof by two witnc.s.ses, Ix'fore 
 a Court-Martial, be dismis,sed from the service, and 
 shall thereby be disabled to hold any office or employ- 
 ment in the s<rviee of the Tnited States. 
 
 FALSE RETURN.— A willful reiK)rt of the actual 
 state of a brigade, regiment, troop, or company, by 
 which the Commander-in-Chief of the War Depart- 
 ment is deceived as to the effective force of such regi- 
 ment or company. Every officer who knowingly 
 makes a false return to the Dejiartment of War, or to 
 any of his Superior Oflicers, authorized to call for such 
 returns, of the state of the regiment, troop, or com- 
 pany, or garrison under his command; or of the arm.s, 
 ammunition, clothing, or other stores thereunto l)e- 
 longing, shall, on con\iction thereof before a Court- 
 Martial, be cashiered. See False Muster. 
 
 FANARIOTS.— The general name given to the 
 Greeks inhabiting the Fanar or Fanal in Constanti- 
 nople, a cjuarter of the city which takes its name from 
 the beacon (phanarion) situated in it. They first ap- 
 pear in history after the taking of Constant iuojjle bj- 
 the Turks, and appear to have been originally de- 
 scendants of such noble Byziuitine families as escaped 
 the fury of tlie barbarians. Afterwards, however, the 
 class was recruited by emigrants from different parts 
 of the old Byzantine Ein|)ire. Subtle, insinuating, 
 intriguing, they soon took advantage of the ignorance 
 of tile Turkish Governors, and made themselves po- 
 litically indispensiible to their Kulers. They filled the 
 offices of dragomans, secretaries, bankers, etc. One 
 of them, named Pimayotaki, at a later period, was 
 appointed Dragoman fo the Divan, and his successors 
 ol)tained still greater honors. Through their influence 
 the lucrative office of Dragoman of the Fleet was 
 called intoexisiencc, which g;ive them almost unlimit- 
 ed power in the Islands of the Archipelago. Besides, 
 from them were chosen, imtil the outbreak of the 
 Revolution in lySO, the llosjiodars of Wallachia and 
 Moldavia, while, in addition, the dispos;d of most of 
 the civil aixl military posts under the Turkish Gov- 
 ernment was in their hands. In spite of their power, 
 however, the Fanariots never exhibited much iiatriot- 
 isiii; they were animated by the petty motives of a 
 caste, aiid when tlie A\'ar of Liberation broke out 
 among their countrymen, they tcx>k no part in it. In 
 the present altered stjite of affairs in Turkey, they 
 have no political influence. 
 
 FANFARE. — The French name of a short and live- 
 ly militaiT air or call, executed on brass instnnnents. 
 It was brciughl by the Arabs into Spain, whence it 
 pa.s.sed into Alexico and the Xew World. Faiifiron, 
 derived from fanfare, is the name given to a .swagger- 
 ing bully or cowardly boaster, prolmbly because of 
 the empty noise he makes when " blowing his own 
 tnnnpet," or threatening timid people, and the tenn 
 aiiplied to his idle braggadocio and vaporing vaunt* 
 is fa nfa ronnade.
 
 FAN ION. 
 
 620 
 
 FANNEB. 
 
 FANIOH. — A small flng wliich was sometimes car- 
 rii'il at the bend of \hv liuL'pi.W of " bripicie. It was 
 niatle of serge, ami resemliKil in color the unifonii- 
 livi-rv of tlu' Urijnidier, or of the Commamlant of uuy 
 parliiiilMr t'orps. 
 
 FANNER.— A madiine of great value for produc- 
 liiL' i-urrciilsof air audi-ruating blasts to melt pigiron 
 in fomulries. It is much us<.'<i in the ventilation of 
 hospitals, armories, shiiis, and mines. For the last 
 it is now eousidereil iirefcr.il)le to the plan of fiiraace- 
 ventilation, es|>ecially where there are tiery seams of 
 coid. Ill its const riiet ion the fanner is like a wheel, 
 haviiis: the arms tippe<l with vanes, instead of being 
 ioined liv a rim. ll is placed inside a chest — usually 
 in an eceeulric position — with openings on each side 
 rounil the si)iiKlle for the admission of air. The mo- 
 tion is given by steam or other power; and as it re- 
 volves, the centrifugal action sucks in air at the center, 
 
 largely augments the working pressure. In Piatt and 
 Sciiiele's silent fanner the air enters bv a central en- 
 trance at one side only, and is expelled from the case 
 at the opix)site side. The vaiiis liave a peculiar 
 .shajie, and descriljc what the inventor (Schick) calls 
 an antifriclion curve. It is .siid to lie verj- elticient, 
 and .so also is another form of noiseless fanner man- 
 ufactured by Mr. George Lloyd, London. 
 
 The (Irawing shows a form of Sturtevant's e.\haustr 
 ing fanner especially adajitcd for use in any place 
 where the blower can be placed in the ba.sement, and 
 ihe air lie useil for the ventilation of rooms aliove. In 
 such cases it can be used as an exhauster by closing up , 
 the inlet on engine side and conuec-ting a piiK' or duct 
 to the op|X)site side, bringing the air from any distjmt 
 point where it can be had fresh and pure. This man- 
 ner of discharge is also most conveiiieiil and desirable 
 when used for exhausting foul air, gases, smoke, etc.. 
 
 Sturtevant Exhausting Fanner. 
 
 draws it towards the tips of the vanes, and these impel 
 it forward through the exit-pipe. Engineers differ as 
 to the proportions which should be adopted for the 
 fanner, and as to t lie extent of spiral which the fan- case 
 should have. For foundries and smithies, where the 
 pressure of the blast reipiired is from four to five 
 oimccs per square inch, the following ha^■e been found 
 to suit very well in i)raclice: the width of the vanes, 
 lis well as their length, made one fourth of the diameter 
 of the fanner; the inlet o|ieiiings in (he sides of the fan- 
 chest one half, and the degree of ccceiitricily one 
 tenth, of this di;nneter. There is a segmental slide by 
 wliich the opening into the deliveri'-|>ipe may be in 
 crcii.st-d or iliminished. For such purposes fanners 
 vary froui three to six feel in diameter, and tliey are 
 entirely constnicted of iron. Double fanners have 
 been introduced by Mr. ('hal>lin in Engliiml, by M. 
 Perrigaull in France, and by .Mr. Stiirlevanl in .Vmer- 
 ica. In these, two simple fanners are so disposed on 
 one spindle that Ihe blast produced by one passes in its 
 compressed state through a lube to" the other, which 
 
 from mines, tunnels, or other underground apartments, 
 and it is desired to discharge it upward, out of Ihe way 
 of workmen, or above the tops of luiildings. One of 
 the hap])iesl applic.ilions of the fanner lias been to 
 draw oil and render harmless the shavings from plan- 
 ing-niaeliines and the tine steel-dust in the operation 
 of needlegriiidiiig. It .should lie reinemliered that 
 small, long branch-pipes with large openings for air 
 around the revolving cutters, or tielween them and Ihe 
 hoods, (•.•imiol be made to work unless the exhauster 
 is driven at a very high speed. Large jiipes and closc- 
 tilling hoods around Ihe cutters, fitting so closely 
 that Ihere will be no unneces.s!»y opening for the air, 
 will enable the exhauster to do its work with less 
 number of revolulion.s. The velocity of the air enter- 
 ing the hood around Ihe eulters should be about Ihe 
 same as Ihe velocity with which the outside of the 
 blast-wheel travels, sjiy one liunilred to one hundred 
 and fifty feet per second, according to Ihe kind and 
 dryness of the inalerial being planed. The full 
 power of the exhauster can only be felt at the plan-
 
 FANTA8SIN. 
 
 621 
 
 FAEEOW COMBINATION-TENT. 
 
 inp-machine by means of large pipes and closc-fltting [ 
 hoods. The hoods should tit down as closely a.s is 
 possible around the point where the sharaips are to 
 be made. See Bloirer, Iran, and Stenm-fun. 
 
 FANT ASSIN.— A foot-soldier. This term is derived 
 from the Italian /ante, a boy, the light troops in the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries being formed of 
 Ixjys who followed the armies and were formed into 
 corps with light arms; hence the origin of the word. 
 
 FAECY. — A contagious disease ainong horses, de- 
 pending ujion the same causes as glanders, which it ' 
 usually precedes and accompanies. The absorl)ent 
 glands and vcs.sels, usually of one or l)oth hind-limbs, 
 are iuHamcd. tender, swollen, hard, and knotted. The 
 ^^tiated lymph thus poured out softens, and ulcers or 
 farcy-buds ajii^ar. Unlike the ulcers of glanders 
 they are curable, but require time and care. They 
 must be scarified with the hot iron, which, to prevent 
 their spreading, may also be gently rini over the ad- 
 jacent souiul skin. Good feeding and comfortable 
 lodgings are essential, and if they do not interfere 
 with the appetite, give tonics, such as a dram each of 
 sulphate of copper and ioilinc, re])ealcd twice a daj'. 
 
 FAEBIER. — A person who shoes horses and- treats 
 their disejses. The better class of Farriers often were, 
 and indeed still are, men of great shrewdness and ob- 
 servation, sometimes possessing considerable e.\i)eri- 
 ence, and with skillful, useful hands. Their manage- 
 ment of sick horses is occasionally sensible, but gene- 
 rally altogether empirical. They have usually but 
 crude ideas of the structure, functions, or diseases of 
 
 angles. For regular troops C D = 6 feet, and for the 
 officer's tent C D = 7 feet. The shape of the canvas 
 is such as to permit its being secured about the kit so 
 as to thoroughly protect it — the triangular end-tlajis 
 being folded over before rolling; also, when foldeil 
 over from both sides along lines parallel to A C and 
 B I), and at distance.s from them a little less than one 
 fourth of C D, as in Fig. 2, to fonn an excellent bed- 
 covering for a single sleeper. When spread u|)on tlie 
 ground, the blankets are placed upon the central [wr- 
 tion of the rectangle A B I) C. In this manner a 
 ilouble layer of canvas covers all of the sleeper (his 
 feet resting along the lineAB)except his head, which 
 appears at the triangular opening D H C. When 
 used as a shelter-tent, the edges E C, D. and D F 
 rest tipon the ground. When pitched in this manner 
 the tent covers a maximum aeailuble space for a mini- 
 mum canvas, with the following advantages: Isl. 
 Quickly, easily, and securely pitched. 2d. The tent 
 is composed of but one piece of canvas — the allowance 
 of one man. 3d. Three of its faces are covered, two 
 ot which may lie raiseil for the pun'oses of ventila- 
 tion. 4th. By attaching a blanket, extra piece of can- 
 viLS, or a second tent along the upper edge, the fourth 
 face may be closed: or, by varjing its inclination, 
 more or less shade may be secured. 
 
 Two of these tents may be so combined as to form a 
 tent having a large base and a small altitude, that will 
 ^vithstand a trind »t'/rm (a component less than one half 
 of the forceof the wind tending to overturn it). In con- 
 sequence of the gradually sloping walls, there is much 
 
 Fio. 1.— JPorm of Section-covering for Bed 
 or Clottung. 
 
 FiQ. 2. — Bed-covering 
 for Single Sleeper. 
 
 Fig. 3.— Used as a Common 
 or '■ A " Tent. 
 
 animals, and pin their faith mainly on a few oirefuUy • 
 cherished recipes. To their calling as horse-doctors 
 and shoeing-smiths they usually unite those of cow- 
 leech and cutter of colts and pigs: and although still 
 met with in many of the rural districts of Enghmd 
 and Ireland, their practice is p.i-ssing into the hands 
 of regularly educated Veterinarians. In the United 
 States army one Farrier is allowed to each troop of 
 cavalr\'. 
 
 FABEIEE -MAJOR. — A person formerly employed 
 by the Colonel of a Dragoon Regiment to superintend 
 the Farriers ot troops. He has since l)een superseded 
 by a Veterinary Surgeon. In the English armv Far- 
 riers-Major and Farriers are Xoncommissioned Otli- 
 cersin the Cavalry, ArliUery, Engineers, andJIilitary 
 Train, whose duty it is to shoe the horses of the coqts, 
 and, generally, to a.ssist the Veterinary Surgeon in 
 exercising a jjroper care over the regimental animals. 
 They receive the same pay as other Sergeants (with 
 whom they rank); and, in a'ddition, certain allowances 
 proportioiiate to the immber of animals in charge. 
 The sum ueoes,s;irv to dcf rav this allowance for a year 
 is about £lO,n()(1. ■ 
 
 FAEEOW COMBINATION-TENT.— This novel com- 
 bination shelter, storm, and conmion tent, designed 
 for active field-service, consists of a peculiarly shaped 
 sheet of lishl canvasor other .suitable material, having 
 a strong cord and flaps (several inches wide) about its 
 edges and ftirnisheil with /lookn and rin;/s or ta/ies at 
 suitable intervals. The shape of the tent is descrilwd 
 as follows: A B D C, in Fig. 1, is a rectangle: B F = 
 i F D; A E = i E C ; B F D and A E C are right 
 
 available space for the pvirpo.ses of shelter and sleep- 
 ing. By subjecting the canvas to a water-proofing 
 process," it will shed the water during a niin-stonn 
 when pitched in this manner, and will not l)ecome 
 heavy by wetting. If concealment lie desirable, this 
 form" of' tent is particularly valuable. Fig. 3 shows 
 how two *lielters may lie combined so as to form the 
 common or "A" tent. Here the canva.s is reversed. 
 The edge C D is at the ridge, and the edges E A, A B, 
 and B JP rest upon the ground. The poles used for 
 the shelters are joined tiro and tiro, and form the long 
 poles re<iuiretl for the common tent. This form of tent 
 is particularly desirable during rain-storms, and is well 
 suited for ofticcrs and others, living two in a tent, who 
 arc liable to become sejtarated at any lime. It more- 
 over furnishes a covering for the kit of each, and the 
 individual will at all times have his proper allowance 
 of canvas with his own bedding, or in ca.se of forced 
 marches, etc., he may carry it on his person or Ix'hind 
 the saddle. The poles are made of stronff and li<jhl 
 trood, with plain ferrule- joints and projecting screws, 
 which sen-e to strengthen the joints and hold llie cor- 
 ners of the canvas in place. Ixing run through a 
 worked hole or ring arranged for the purpose. The 
 shelter-tent may be neatly pilchcd, without poles, 
 whenever it is" possible to .susiienil the ridge-rope 
 (formed by uniting the guy-ropes) l)etwcon trees or 
 their branches, piles of stores, sjiddles. aparejos, rocks, 
 etc. ; or it may Ix- pitched agjiinst a fence, fallen tree, 
 etc. When without poles or any facilities on the open 
 prairie, either the carbine or ramrod will make a good 
 substitute.
 
 FAEEOW KNIFETBOWEL AND TENT PEG. 
 
 622 
 
 FASCINES. 
 
 The following extract from the proceedings of a 
 Board of Oflicors convened at 'West Point, N. Y., 
 til examine and report iiyum the merits of this tent 
 will serve to point out its eapaliilities: — Dimensions 
 of Officer's Tent pitcheil : First, as a shelter-len't. 
 Base 7 feet square, 34 feet high. Second, as a storm- 
 tent, eombinini; two shelter-tents, omitting the poles 
 of one. Biuse 1 feet by 14 feet; 3i feet high. Third, 
 as a common or "A" tent. Ba.se 7 feet square; 7 
 f i-et 2 inches high. Weight, including poles, 3 pounds 
 2 ounces. The following are some of the advantjiges 
 of the tent: 1. Capable of subtlivision. 2. Maximum 
 arai/tifilc space for minimum canvas. 3. Same poles 
 for each form of tent. 4. The tent is exjiediliously 
 pitchetl. ij. As a shelter-tent it is farmori' si'curcand 
 roomy than the one now used. 6. Three faces of the 
 tent iire covered, and tiie fourth may be covered by a 
 blanket or mid piece of canvas. 7. No ridge-pole is 
 reipiired. f. The only ropes required may be used 
 to tie up the bundle. 9. It is a superior wrapix-r for 
 the bundle. 10. When not pitched it serves, on ac- 
 count of its iKTuliar form, as an excellent bed-cover- 
 ina. 11. It is the only practicable storm-tent, and to 
 this point the Board particularly invite attention. 
 12. It forms a roomy and convenient "A" or common 
 tent, and as it can be opened at both ends, it can be 
 rentiered more comfortable in warm weather than the 
 old tent. 13. Thirty-four tents (officers') or forty tents 
 (men's), with poles in suitably-construcled bags, form 
 a handy pack for a mule. The common tent is here 
 referred to. 14. If transportation is abandoned, the 
 tent is readily borne on the person. 15. It is readily 
 adapted to the wind- or rain-storm. 16. The shelter- 
 tents are ejisily put together to form a secure, storm 
 or common tent. In conclusion, the Board is of the 
 opinion that if "Farrow's Portable Combination 
 Shelter, Storm, and Common Tent " is adopted, it 
 will prove a valuable addition to the camp-equipage 
 now issued. Sec Tint. 
 
 FARROTV KNIFE-TROWEL AND TENT-PEG.— An 
 imention designed to combiue the iutrenching-tool 
 and a great many other necess;try articles for tield- 
 equipment. The scabbard (one edge sharp) is of the 
 same shape and size as the blade ot the trowel-bayo- 
 net. A knife (rasp, sjtw, or any other article required 
 by the particular man who uses it) enters the scab- 
 bard and is retained m position by means of a small 
 but strong spring. The back edge of the scabbard is 
 prepare<l so as to form a convenient wrench, screw- 
 driver, shell-extractor, etc.; while to the upper and 
 outer ed^e is attached a small neck and ring, so as to 
 convert it into a suitable tent-peg or picket-pin when 
 driven into the gro\ind. While on the march the 
 scabbard, with knife encased, is hooked to the belt 
 and worn at the side. For intrenching and chopping 
 purposes the whole is unhooked and used. To use 
 the knife it is simply drawn from the scabbaixl; and 
 after arrival into camp, the scabbard (with or without 
 the knife) is driven into the ground wherever needed, 
 as a picket-pin or tent-peg. Each soldier might be 
 provided with a knife-troirel, to be worn on the body; 
 and each cavalrvman, packer, etc., might have at- 
 tached to his sacfdle an additional trowel, containing 
 a ra.sp, saw, etc. 
 
 FASCES.— Bundles of rods usually nuide of birch, 
 but S(jmelimes of elm, with an axe jirojecting from 
 the middle of them, which were carried before the 
 Chief Magistrates of ancient Rome, as symlxjls of 
 their jwwer over life and limb. Thev were borne by 
 the Lictors, at first Ix'fore the King^i; in the time o"f 
 the Republic, before Con.suls and Pr.etors; and after- 
 wards liefore the Emperors. Their nuiulK'r varied, 
 a Consul having twelve, and a Pr.etor six; but within 
 the city only two. Valerius Publieola introduced a 
 law that within the city the axe was withdrawn, ex- 
 cept in Ihe ca.se of a I)ictator, who was preceded by 
 24 Lictors, l)earing as many fasces. Publieola also 
 made the fii.sccs l)e lowered al the assemblies of the 
 l)eop!c. as a nacknow led i!inenl of their supreme power. 
 
 FASCINE EEVETMENT.— To form a fa.scine revet- 
 
 ment, the first row of fascines is imbedded about half 
 ils thickness below the tread of the banquette, and is 
 secured by means of the anehoring-stakes, and also 
 by si'veral stakes driven through the fascine itself 
 aix)ul 12 inches into the earth. The knots of the lies 
 are laid iubide, and the earth of the parapet is well 
 
 Fascine Revetment and Palisaded Ditch. 
 
 packed behind the fascine. A second row is laid on 
 the first, so as to give the requisite interior slope; it 
 should break joints with the first row, aud Ix? con- 
 nected with it by several stakes driven through them 
 both. The other rows are laid with similar precau- 
 tions, and the parapet is usually finished at the top 
 by a course of sods. The revetment of the interior 
 slope, by using fascines, and a palisaded ditch are 
 shown in the drawing. See Reretment. 
 
 FASCINES.— Fagots for military jnirposes made of 
 young branches of trees or brushwood, and also of 
 osiers, bound together with yam or withes. They 
 are about a foot in diameter, and of various lengths, 
 averaging 12 feet, according to the object for which 
 they are intended. Fascines are >iscil in the con- 
 struction of temporary works; for filling a ditch, and 
 sometimes, in a pile, for setting tire to an ol)Stniction. 
 Before a siege, the soldiers are employed in making 
 fascines in great number; and when needed, each 
 soldier bearsone to the place, casts it on the heap, 
 and the quantity required is thus accumulated in a 
 remarkably short time. 
 
 To make a fascine, straight twigs are selected, be- 
 tween the thickness of the little "finger and thumb, 
 the longer the better; they should be stripped of the 
 smaller twigs. A support, termed ufascine-liome. is 
 put up. by driving two stout poles obliquely into the 
 ground about two feet, so as to cross each other alwut 
 i two feet above the ground, where they are firmly 
 tied together; as many of these supports as may be 
 required are put up in a straight line, about eighteen 
 inches apart; this forms the horse on which the twigs 
 
 Fascine-borse and Cboker. 
 
 are laid to be bound together. A machine, termed a 
 fajtcine-e/i/iker, is formed of two stout levers alwut 
 five feet long, connected near their extremities by a 
 chain or strong cord, which should be long enough 
 to pass once round the fascine, and be drawn tight 
 by means of the levers. The twigs are laid on the 
 horse with their large and small ends alternating; the 
 choker is applied to bring them together, and they 
 are bound by wire, or by w ithes made of tough twigs, 
 properly i>re])ared by twisting over a blaze, so as to 
 render ihem pliable. The ties are placed 12 inches 
 apart, and every third or fourth one should be made 
 with an end about three or four feet long, having a 
 loop at the extremity to receive a stake through it. 
 This slake is termed an aiichiyriiigniake, its object 
 being to secure the fascine very firmly to the parapet. 
 See Mucine Itecettnent.
 
 FASTNESS. 
 
 623 
 
 FEDEKAL OOTEENHEHT. 
 
 FASTNESS.— A well fortified place; a stronghold; a 
 fortres-s or lurt; a castle, etc. 
 
 FATIGUE-CALL.— A particular military call, sound- 
 ed oil the bugle or di-uiu, by which soldiers are called 
 upon or assembled to perform fatigue-<luties. 
 
 FATIGUE-DUTY.— The term fatigue is applied to 
 the labors of military men distinct from the use of i 
 arms. Extra pay is pro\1ded for all soldiers per 
 forming the authorized fatigue-duties. The follow- , 
 ing law was enacted as early as 1854 : That the 1 
 allowance of soldiers employetl at work on fortifica- ! 
 tions, in surveys, in cutting roads, and other const;int 
 labor, of not l&ss than ten days, authorized by an Act 
 approved March 2, 1819, entitled "An Act to" regulate 
 the pay of the anny when employed on fatigue duty," 
 be increased to twenty -live cents per day for men em- 
 ployed as laborers and teamsters, and forty cents ]K'r 
 day when employed as mechanics, at all stations east 
 of the Kocky Mountains, and to thirty-five cents and 
 fifty cents per day, respectively, when the men are 
 emploved at the stations west of those Mountains. 
 
 FATIGUE-HAT.— A military hat worn on fatigue- 
 duty and while in the field. In the United States 
 the fatigue-hat for all officers and men is of black 
 felt, according to pattern; to Ix- worn in garrison only 
 on fatigue-duty, and on marches and campaigns. In 
 
 United States Regulation Fatigue-hat. 
 extreme southern latituiles, in summer. Commanding 
 Officers are authorized to sanction, on duty, the straw- 
 hat, to be bought, out of the pay of the soldier, of the 
 local merchant or trader. Whenever straw liat-s arc 
 worn by enlisted men, the officers must in like manner 
 wear them. The wearing of the fatigue hat is gen- 
 erallv optional. The forage-cap may replace it. 
 
 FAUCHAHD.— A formidable weapon of the si.\- 
 teenth century. It resembled a very large razor-blade 
 fixed to the end of a staff. 
 
 FAUCKE.— A kind of hook which served to fix the 
 heavy lance to the cuirass. It was used in the twelfth 
 century, when tournaments became a regular practice 
 and when very hea\T lances were employeil. 
 
 FAUDES.— A species of kilt of armor, "or iron petti- 
 coat. It is known as taws in England. 
 
 FAULCON.— A very small cannon employed by the 
 ancients. See FaUonet. 
 
 FAULX. — An instrument very much resembling a 
 scythe. It was often used to defend a breach, or to 
 prevent an enemy from scaling the walls of a fortified 
 place. This weapon was first resorted to with some 
 success when Louis XIV. besieged Mons. Ou the 
 surrender of that town, large quantities of fauls, or 
 scythes, were found in the garrison. 
 
 FAUSSE-BKAIE— FAUSSE-BBA YE.— A low rampart 
 encircling the body of a place, and raiseil about three 
 feet above the level groiuid. This Avork has Ikhju 
 mostly discarded by modern engineers, e.\ce])t when 
 used in front of curtains, under the name of knaille-g. 
 The French engineers gave this title to the work, as 
 an adaptiilion from the Italian term/rt»sa brea, which 
 had its origin from the fausse-braic being commonly 
 in the ditch, in front of the main wall. The fausse- 
 braie ha<l the advantage of giving an additional tier 
 of guns for defensive purposes, but the still greater 
 disadvantage of affording facilities for the scaling of 
 the parapet, In many of the places constructed be- 
 fore Vauban's time there was a faussc-braie, envelop- 
 
 ing the enceinte and connected with it. This work 
 W!is suppressed by Vauban, who was the first to use 
 the lenaille in its place. 
 
 FAUSSTOURNIEK.— A description of tournament 
 practiced at the close of the twelfth century. 
 
 FECIAL. — Pertaining to heralds, and the denunci- 
 ation of war to an eiu-mv; as, fecial war. 
 
 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT.— A iKxly-politic com- 
 posed of the people of several different and in some 
 respects independent States, over which, in its own 
 prescribed sphere, it exerts a supreme authority; while 
 outside of that sphere the States and the people there- 
 of are sovereign within their respective jurisdictions. 
 The character of a Federal Government varies with 
 the extent of its powers. The first form of Federal 
 Government established in this countrj- was that of 
 the " Articles of Confederation," adopted during the 
 War of the Revolution, July 9, 1778. The separate 
 Colonies, finding some form of Central Government 
 indispensable to the efficient prosecution of the War 
 of Independence, gave a reluctant consent to those 
 Articles, which, while the war lasted and all felt the 
 presence of a common danger, worked tolerably, 
 though not without some embarrassing friction aris- 
 ing from notions of Colonial or Suite Sovereignty. 
 Biit after the Independence of the country was estab- 
 lished, and the pressure of a common danger no 
 longer existed, there was a disposition to exalt the 
 State, and to depreciate the National Authority, 
 which to some extent was regarded as a burden. 
 The National Government had no judicial tribunal 
 to make an authoritative exposition of its powers, and 
 no executive officers to enforce its decrees; it was 
 entirely dependent upon the volimtary action of the 
 States for means to carry on its operations; so that, 
 in the language of Washington, it was "little more 
 than a shadow without the substance," and " Con- 
 gress a nugatory body, their ordinances being little 
 attended to"" There was, in short, an utter want of 
 all coercive authority on the part of the Government 
 to carrj' into effect "its own constitutional measure-s. 
 The embarrassments growing out of this state of 
 tilings were endured till 1787, when a Convention of 
 Delegates from the several States was held in Phila- 
 delphia " for the purpose of revising the Articles of 
 Confederation and reporting to Congress and the sev- 
 eral Legislatures such alterations and provisions there- 
 in as shall, when agreed to in Congress and confirmed 
 by the States, render the Federal Constitution ade- 
 quate to the exigencies of the Government and the 
 preservation of the Union." The Convention en- 
 countered many difficulties arising from diversities 
 of opinion among its members, and from conflicting 
 local interests, but finally succeeded in framing a 
 Constitution which the pt'ople of the several States 
 finally ratified, and which, with various Amendments, 
 has continued to this day. From the time of its adoi>- 
 tion different theories of interpretation have prevailed, 
 and these conflicting theories, to a greater or less ex- 
 tent, have determined the character and aims of po- 
 litical parties. It has been contended on the one side 
 that the Union was merely a league between the sev- 
 eral States in their organized capacity, and that each 
 State had the right, at its pleasure, of withdrawing 
 therefrom. On the other side it has been held that 
 the Union, instead of being the creation of the States, 
 as such, was formed by " the people of the United 
 States," acting indeed "through their respective State 
 Organizations, lint still as citizens of a common na- 
 tionality. According to this theory no right of seces- 
 sion on" the part of a State has any existence, but it is 
 the right and the duty of tlie National Government 
 to maintain the Union by force. This question was 
 brought to an issue in the late ReU'Uion, the slave- 
 holding Stales seeking to exercise the assumed right 
 of secession for the iiroleetion of slavery, and the 
 non-slaveholdimr States taking' up arms for the de- 
 fense of the Union. The results of the war aR' gene- 
 rally reirarded as a vindication of the anti-secession 
 theory, though there are still some disputed questions
 
 F££D-DBini. 
 
 624 
 
 FENCING. 
 
 concerning the relative powers of the National anil 
 Slate (.iovcrnnicnts. Sec Conttitution. 
 
 FEED-DKUM.— Thi' contrivance by which the sup- 
 ply of carlriilires to cerlaiu machiiie-jriHis is made. 
 In the Galliuij irun it consists of a metal framing of 
 ryliiidrical shape, having twenty divisions or slots 
 around ils circumference, radiating from the center, 
 Eacli division contains twenly cartridges, placed one 
 above the other in a horizontal iwsition. A hole in 
 the center of the ilruni tits over a pin on the hop|)er- 
 plute. The carlriilges sire fed to the carrier l)elow, 
 and thence to the barrels. The cartridges pass to the 
 hopper through an aperture at the bottom of each 
 division of the drum. On the bottom face of the 
 drum is a projecting rib, which fits into a slot on the 
 hopper-plate, to steady the drum when tiring. On its 
 lower periphery the driun has a seiies of thumlvlugs 
 by which it is revolveil. A small bra.ss weight in each 
 division is caused to bear upon and slide down a groove 
 provided for it, so that it follows the cartridges as 
 they descend, and prevents their becoming choked in 
 the dinsions. 
 
 To till the feed-drum, invert it and unlock it, turn 
 the lK)ttom plate until the hole in tlie plate comes 
 directly over a division of tlie drum, then raise the 
 brass weight and till in the cartridges regularly, the 
 bullets being placed toward the center of the drum, 
 letting the weight descend slowly until the division is 
 full. Proceed in like manner with the remaining 
 di\isions; then lock the plate and place the drum 
 upright. The improved feed lately devised has not 
 only greatly increased the direct life, but is of ines- 
 timable value in enabling the gun to deliver high 
 angle or mortar lire so as to drop the balls on men 
 behind intrenched positions at all distances from 300 
 to 3.')0tl yards witli deadly effect. Tables of distances 
 and elevations have been established to obtain with 
 certainty the above rcsiUt. Experiments with the gun 
 have proved that bullets so discharged come down 
 nearly perpendicularly, and with force sufficient to 
 penetrate from 3 to 5 inches of timber. With this 
 new feed there is no possible chance of the cartridge 
 jamming, even when the gim is used by inexperienced 
 men. It is beyond doubt the most valuable improve- 
 ment at any time made in machine-guns. See Galling 
 Gmi. 
 
 FEIGNING DISEASE.— A ruse much practiced in 
 the Army and Kavy, and also by convicts and others 
 an.xious to escape from discipline or jirocure a dis- 
 charge from compulsory service. In the Army it is 
 technically called malingering. The (letection of 
 feigned di.sease, of course, necessarily belongs to the 
 highly educated Physician, find is impossible without 
 a thorough knowledge of the reality, unless, indeed, 
 the imitation he very coarse and badly studied. The 
 diseases most commoidy simulated are epileirsy, cata- 
 lepsy, convulsions, blindness, deafness, palsy, in- 
 sanity, iniligestion, neuralgia, rheumatism, palpita- 
 tion of the heart, and generally all di.sorders which 
 may exist without leading to any distinct external ap- 
 pearances. Ulcci-s of the legs, however, have often 
 been made, and kept open artificially through the 
 applicatioM of irritant substances; anil vomiting or 
 coughing up of blood is very easily simulated, if the 
 supposc'd patient can get access to" the neces-sary ma- 
 t«;rials in the slaughter-house or elsewhere. Tlie de- 
 tection of such im|x)stures is easy or not according to 
 the opportunities and knowledge and skill of the de- 
 ceiver, as comi)arcd with those brought to bear on 
 the discovery of the fraud. Many men in the iitiblic 
 services, and women altectcd w itii hysteria, have be- 
 come so expert as to deceive even men of high char- 
 acter and skill. There is one instance on record 
 in which a man submitted to .succcs.si ve amputal ions 
 of the arm upwards nearly to the shoulder, for an 
 ulcer produced and kept open at w ill by local appli- 
 cations; and a case was some time ago' recorded by 
 Dr. Murchison in the Medim-rhirurgii-nl Tniiixiirtuiui, 
 in which there is no re.'isonable doubt that a larce 
 opening into the stomach was the result of cimstic 
 
 substances delihenktely applied to the abdomen, with 
 the view of exciting sympathy. 
 
 FEINT. — 1. In military or naval matters, a mock 
 attack or assault, usually ma<le to throw an enemy 
 oti his guard against some real design upon his posi- 
 tion. 2. In fencing, a .seeming aim at one part w hen 
 another is intended to be struck. See Finring. 
 
 FELLOES. — The parts of a wheel which form its 
 circumference. The felloes fulfill the following offi- 
 ces: 1. They furnish a secure ser.ting for the head 
 of the spoke. 3. They connect spokes and tire rig- 
 idly together. 3. They support and stiffen the tire, 
 acting as a beam between each pair of contiguous 
 s])okes. The felloes are made of limber having a 
 long straight grain or fiber. Each feUoe should be 
 so restricted as to its length compared w ith its depth, 
 that the tangent to the inner arc, or 6<«<//«, at its cen- 
 tral i)oint shall not intersect tlie outer arc, or xole. 
 By this provision the interior fiber at the center of 
 the felloe spans its entire length, contributing its sup- 
 port to the weakest parts, which are at the extremi- 
 ties. The tongue-holes for the spokes must be sepa- 
 rated far enough from each other and from the ends 
 of the felloe to allow of a sufficiency of intervening 
 material to withstand all pressures and wrenches from 
 the tongues and adjoining felloes without splitting. 
 Experience has proved that the numl)er of felloes in 
 a five-fool wheel can safely be limited to «>, each of 
 which is enabled to receive two spokes without en- 
 dangering its strength. One bolt passing through 
 each felloe and the tire is sufficient to prevent side- 
 shifting. See W/itel. 
 
 FELL RAILWAY.— The railway under this name 
 was well known to travelers proceeding to or return- 
 ing fi-om India, as it was the only means of going 
 over Mont Cenis, in Italy, Ix-fore the tunnel was bored 
 through the mountain. This nature of rail has been 
 found useful during war-time, and did good siege- 
 service during the Franco-German War. The gauge 
 is 18 inches. Each truck carries three tons. Five 
 hundred unskilled workmen can lay a mile in a day. 
 
 FELTRE. — A cuirass made of strong woolen cloth, 
 much worn in early times by the Romans and others. 
 
 FENCE.— Self-defense by "the use of the sword; the 
 art and practice of fencing or sword-play. 
 
 FENCIBLE.— 1. A soldier enlisted for the defense 
 of the country, and not liable to be sent abroad. 2. 
 Capable of being defended, or of making or afford- 
 ing defense. See Ftudhhu. 
 
 FENCIBLE LIGHT DRAGOONS.— A body of caval- 
 ry raised voluntarily in various Counties of England 
 and Scotland in 1794 to serve during the war in any 
 part of Great Britain. This force was disbanded in 
 1800. 
 
 FENCIBLES. — Regiments formerly raised for local 
 defense, or at a sjiecial crisis and for a limited time. 
 The oltieers had the same rank as officers of militia, 
 according to the dates of their respective commis- 
 sions. The only English regiment now bearing this 
 title is the Royfd Malta Fencible Artillery. 
 
 FENCING.— The art of defending one's own body 
 or as.sailing another person's in fair fight by the tiid 
 of a side-weapon — i.e., by a sword, rapier, or bayo- 
 net. Technically, fencing is usually limited to the 
 second of these; an<l works on the art touch only on 
 attack and defense w ith the foil in pastime, and the 
 rapier in actual [lersonal combat. The objection 
 formerly existed that instniclion in fencing encour- 
 aged a propensity to dueling; but as that absurdest 
 of absurd customs has entirely ceased to demand its 
 annual victims, no such objection now holds. Fenc- 
 ing may therefore be sjifely learned and taught as an 
 elegant and manly aecomiVlishment, develoi)ing grace- 
 fulness and acli\ity, w Idle it imparts suiiiilencss lo the 
 limh.s, strength to the muscles, and quickness to the 
 eye. This regards fencing with the foils (the rapier 
 has disjippcared with the duels which employed it); 
 but instruction in fencing with the sword and bayo- 
 net, while conferring the .s;une advantages, has in 
 addition the recommendation of heli)iug to lit tho
 
 FENCING. 
 
 625 
 
 FENCIHQ, 
 
 student for taking an active part in any general 
 national defense that political circumstances niiplit 
 render necessary. Tlie foil is a circular or polygonal 
 bar of pliable and very highly tempered steel, mounted 
 as any other sword, and blunted at the point by a 
 " button," to prevent danger in its use. From its"na- 
 ture, the foil can only l)e employed in thrusting and 
 being edgelcss, it can be handled without liability to 
 cutting wounds. The length of the blade should be 
 proportioned to the height of the person asing it— ai 
 inches being tlie medium length for men, 'and 38 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 Fio. a. 
 
 Fro. 3. 
 
 inches from the hilt to point the maximum allowable. 
 As a protection against accidental thrusts, the face is 
 generally guarded by a \vire-niask. The two por- 
 tion.«i of the blade are known as the " forte" and the 
 "foible;" the first extending from the hilt to the cen- 
 ter, and the other from the center to the point. In 
 fencing there are three opeuiugn or entrances— the 
 imide, comprising the whole breast from shoulder to 
 shoulder; ouUkle, attackable by all the thrusts made 
 aboye the WTist on the outside of the sword ; and the 
 Um parts, embracing from the armpits to the hips. 
 For reaching and guarding these entrances there are 
 five positions of the wrist — prime, seconde, tierce, 
 carte (quarte), and quinte. The most important, 
 and those to commence with, are carte and tierce, 
 from which are derived the subordinate positions of 
 carte over the arm, low carte, and flanconnade or 
 octave. To engage is to cross swords with your ad- 
 versary, pressing against his with suflicicnt "force to 
 prevent any maneuver taking you unawares. To dis- 
 engage is to slip the point of your sword briskly under 
 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 his blade, and to elevate it again on the other side, 
 pressing in a direction opposite to that of the previous 
 case. The guard in each position is a pa.ssive obstruc- 
 tion to the o|>posing tliriist; the parade is an active 
 obstniction in which the guard is first assumed, and 
 the blade then pressed outward or inward by a turn 
 of the wrist against the advcrsiiry's sword, so that 
 when thrust a? your body it shall l>c diverted from 
 its aim and held off. The parade may therefore l)e 
 regarded as a mere extension of the guard. If the 
 parade were called the "parrj-," it would convey its 
 
 meaning more readily to English ears. Another and 
 perhaps more appropriate name for thrust is the 
 "lunge" or "longe," as the thrust is almost always 
 accompanied by a lunge forward of the ri-ht foot, to 
 give at once greater force and longer command to the 
 blow. 
 
 The fundamental princijile of fencing eonsiste in 
 the execution of the right ann, the longe, the recov- 
 ery ; advancing and retreating quickly; and lastly 
 not Icjist, a good opposition, which is one of the most 
 essential thmgs, as you are guarded at least on one 
 
 Fio. S. 
 
 side. This will also give the advantage of knowing 
 what your adversary intends doing, which you must 
 endeavor to discover by the feel of his foil. 
 
 First Pnsition of the Body.— P\ace the right heel 
 against the left ankle, so as to form a right angle 
 with both heels, the foil to be held in the left hand 
 under the hilt with the thumb and lingers, the right 
 hand straight on the outside of the right thigh, shoul- 
 ders square and pressed rather backward, eyes turned 
 towanl the adversary, showing the right breast to the 
 front, without constraint. (Fig. 1.) 
 
 Serirnd PoKition. — Bend the right arm as high as 
 the elbow, and at the same time bring it aerc&s the 
 body; take hold of the foil, thumb stretched along 
 the convex. In this movement the body must l5 
 kept quite steady, shoulders square, eyes front, head 
 up without appearing stiff, knees perfectly straight, 
 waist in. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 Third Position. — Raise both hands above the head, 
 holding the button of the foil with the thumb and 
 first finger of the left hand, turn your eyes to the right, 
 so as to see your opponent full in the face. (Fig. 3.) 
 
 Manner of Holding the Foil in Hand. — Let the con- 
 cave of the handle rest in the palm of the hand, the 
 thumb stretched along the convex, the first finger 
 about half an inch in advance of the thumb; the foil 
 should only he held firm in the hand when pan-ying 
 or thrusting, otherwise the fingers and thumb will 
 get stiff from grasping it too long. 
 
 On Guard in Carte. — Bend Ixjih knees together 
 until they are in a perpendiculirr line with the toes; 
 step out with right foot in a direct line from the left 
 ankle, about twenly-two inches or more, according to
 
 FEMCING. 
 
 626 
 
 FENCING. 
 
 the length of the legs; keep the left arm up and bent, 
 so as to form a half-circle as high as llie head, palm 
 of the biuul turned toward the left face; keep the 
 body upright, the weight to Ix' kept ecjually on hoth 
 legs"; bring the pt)int of the foil down to the lieight 
 of your adversary's left eye. This is the engage of 
 carle; arm t>ent and the elbow drawn inwanl, the 
 hand as high as the center of the chest. (Fig. 4.) 
 The Ilalf-longe. — 1. Straighten the right arm with- 
 
 Fio. 7. 
 
 out moving the body, point of the foil as high as the 
 chest of the opponent, hand as high as your face. 
 2. Throw the left band backwanl, at the same time 
 press the shoulder well back, palm of left hand to the 
 front, about four inches from the thigh. 3. Straighten 
 the left knee and incline the weight of the body for- 
 ward on the right, without moving the foot from 
 the ground. 7o Secorer. — 1. Bend the left knee. 
 
 2. Throw the left arm upward to tlie position of the 
 guard, bear the weight of the body again equally on 
 both knees, right arm bent, elbow turned inward; 
 stand lirm on guard without appearing stiff; head 
 held easy and upright. 
 
 The Longe. — 1. Extend the right arm, direct the 
 point of your foil to the height of your chest, longe 
 in carte, looking over the right arm, the hand as high 
 as your face. 2. Throw tlie left hand backward to 
 within four inches of the left thigh, palm of the 
 hand to the front ; press the shoulders well back. 
 
 3. Straighten the left knee and keep the foot flat 
 on the ground. 4. Longe forward in a direct line 
 from the left ankle about forty inches or more, ac- 
 cording to the length of the limbs, until the right 
 
 Fio. 8. 
 
 knee is in a vertical line with the instep, toes turned 
 out. (Fig. 5.) These four motions should be repealed 
 often, so as to give freedom of action to all the joints. 
 To Recoter.—i. Bend the left knee back. 2. throw 
 the left hand upward to Wu- position of the guard, 
 palm of tlie hand turned inward toward the kit face, 
 arm bent. 3. Bring the right foot up to the guard, 
 svipporling the weight of the body equally on both 
 knees. 4. Bend the right arm, nails upw'anl, point 
 opposite the face, hanil as high as the chest, elbow 
 rather inward, head kept up. 
 
 To Adrance and Retire, — Being on the guard, to ad- 
 
 rnnce, take one step for^vard with the right foot, 
 about twelve inches, bring up the left foot directly, 
 keejiing the same distance between both feet, as if 
 making one movement with both; the knees equally 
 bent, the body held upright, eyes tixed on the oppo- 
 nent or object in front. To retire, take one pace 
 back with the left f(K)t, bringing the right foot up 
 immediately, at the siuue time beat once with the flat 
 of the right foot tirmly on the groimd. The distance 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 in walking backward should be longer than the ad- 
 \ancing by two or three inches, taking care that the 
 weight of the body is kept equally on both feet; the 
 left breast should be turned slightly toward the ad- 
 versary. Haring practiced these movements fre- 
 quently, finish by beating twice with the right foot, 
 bringing up the left foot, and right hand under the 
 chin, lastly straightening the right arm on the right 
 side. 
 
 The Engage of Carte— Inside Guard High. — Being 
 engaged in carte with an adversary, turn the nails 
 upward, cross foils about nine inches from the but- 
 ton : this half of the foil is called the foible, from bein^ 
 the next part to the end ; the other half is termed 
 the forte, or part next the hilt. Oppose the oppo- 
 nent's foil sufficiently to prevent him from touching 
 you in the engage, keep the right arm bent inward, 
 point of youi foil opjiosite your adversary's face, right 
 arm as high as your chest. (Fig. G.) If your oppo- 
 nent does not cover himself in the engage, straighten 
 your arm, lower the point to his chest, longe in 
 carte, looking over the right arm, hand as high as the 
 face, recover and engage in carte, crossing foils as 
 before. 
 
 Fio. 10. 
 
 The Engage of Tierce — Outside Onard High. — This 
 being the opposite guard to carte, it only differs from 
 it in the position of the hand, nails of which are 
 turned downward. Engaged in tierce, join foils as 
 in carte; if your adversary is not well covered in the 
 engage, straighten your right arm by lowering the point 
 to his chest, longe in tierce, looking inside the arm, 
 shoulders pressed well back, left foot lirm on the 
 ground, left knee straight, the body not thrown for- 
 ward but rather upriirbt; recover in tierce. (Fig. 7.) 
 
 The Guard of llalf-eirele— Inside Guard Ix»c.— 
 The half-circle guard is generally used agstinst the
 
 FENCING. 
 
 627 
 
 FENCING. 
 
 thrust of seconde and low carte. The guard is gener- 
 ally taken in the following manner: Riiise the hand 
 as high as the left shoulder, nails upward, the elbow 
 turned well in toward the body, the foil to be held 
 firm in hand and opposed to your adversary, the point 
 as low as your opponent's waist. If an opening should 
 occur, raise the point and return carle. (Fig. 8.) The 
 guard of octave is the opjjositc guard to the half- 
 circle, and is used against the thrust of octave; it 
 also prevents the ailversary from counter disengaging. 
 
 Fio. 11. 
 
 Haise the band as high as the chest, keeping the point 
 as high as the lower part of your opponent's chest. 
 This is a very useful parry in returning the thrust of 
 low carte. 
 
 The Disengage from Carte. — If yoiir adversary 
 presses your foil, lower your point to within about 
 two or three inches of his hilt, at the same time pa.ss- 
 ing it to tierce, straighten the right arm, and longe; 
 recover in carte. (Fig. 9.) 
 
 The Feint of Ont\ Tiro. — Being engaged in carte, 
 if your opponent takes the guard of tierce when you 
 disengage on him, return back to carte and longe, 
 making the movement quickly from the fingers, not 
 from the shoulder ; right arm quite straight, nails 
 upward, look over the right arm; recover in carte. 
 (Fig. 10.) 7'he Feint of One, Tiro, Three: — Engage in 
 carte as before, disengage to tierce, again in carte. In 
 both cases raise the ])oint of your foil as high as your 
 opponent's face, arm kept straight, return again to 
 tierce, point to the chest of yourailvcrsjiry, and longe 
 in tierce, looking inside your arm, shoulders pressed 
 well back, body upright; recover in carle. (Fig. 11.) 
 
 The Disengage from Tierce. — Engage in tierce. As 
 
 Fio. 12. 
 
 soon as j-our opponent presses your foil, lower your 
 point, straightening the arm, at I lie same lime pa.ssyour 
 foil to carte, longewith the knuckles turned upward, 
 taking care that the left foot does not (piil the ground; 
 recover in tierce. The Feint if One, Tim. — Engage 
 in tierce. Di.sengage to carte, poinling to the face of 
 your adversary, arm straight, the body kept steady; 
 the moment your opponent takes the simjile guard of 
 carte, return "to tierce, longe, looking inside the right 
 arm ; recover in tierce. The Feint of One, Tiro, 
 Three. — Being engaged in tierce, disengage to carte, 
 again to tierce, extending the arm in the first disen- 
 
 gage ; finding that he takes the simple guards each 
 time, return to the carte, longe, looking over Ihe arm, 
 left knee always being kept straight in the longe; re- 
 cover in carte. 
 
 Wri»t Practice.— Asi. excellent practice for the wrisl 
 is for two persons to practice the counters of carte 
 and tierce. This is done in the following manner: 
 Being engaged in carte, your advei-saiy disengages on 
 you, take the counter of carte, and di.sengage on him 
 without touching, unless, by mutual agreement, he 
 
 Fio. 13. 
 
 takes the counter of your disengage; keep repeating 
 this for some time; then engage in tierce, the oppo- 
 nent disengages, take the counter of tierce, disengage 
 on him; continue this also for some lime, and change 
 again to counter-carte. These i>ractices will .soon 
 make the wrist supple and strong— the two essential 
 things for fencing. 
 
 Tlie Parade (f Prime. — Being engaged in tierce, 
 your adversary tries to get in by main force; bend 
 your arm and wrist, turning the nails downward at 
 Ihe same time, raise the hand as high as your cliin, 
 drawing Ihc arm inward as you raise I In- band, Ihe 
 point of your foil directed toward tbe lower jiart of 
 the chest of your adversary; parry and longe ia 
 seconde. recover quickly in tierce. (Fig. 12.) 
 
 Thrimt of Si.rte. — After having i)airied prime, 
 should your opponent keep his hand low in trj-ing to 
 get in by force in tierce, turn the knuckles upward 
 quickly, bring the point over his aim, lluusl .sixte 
 over tile arm by binding his foible w ilh your forte: 
 tiiis must be done by a quick tura of die wrist. 
 
 The Parade of Seconde. — Engaged in tierce, if vour 
 adversary should drop his point, parry the seconde by 
 
 Fio. 14. 
 
 giving a dry beat on the foible of his foil with the 
 forte of yours, nails downward, band opposed, so as 
 to ])reveiit him touching you in the longe. point to the 
 lower jiiirt of his waist, holding llie bead well up, the 
 body not to be thrown too iiiucli forward, other- 
 wist- you cannot recover quickly ; recover in sixte. 
 (Fig. 13.) 
 
 Ttie Feint of Semnde. — Being engaged in tierce, 
 drop your point under the hilt of your opixment , prio- 
 cipallv with tbe fingers, nails downward, but without 
 lowering the hand, retuni directly back again, longe 
 by turning the nails ujiward in sixte, over the arm, or
 
 F£NCINO. 
 
 628 
 
 FENCING. 
 
 return back to s<Tonde ainiin, longe and recover in 
 tiercf. This is called the feint of secondc and tierce. 
 
 Tlw Pariidf of Qiiiiitf. — This parade is used in the 
 siinie side as carle inside {Tuaril, and taken in the fol- 
 lowing manner: The lianii as hii;h as the breast, nails 
 turned downward, ]iiiiry and longe in seeonde or 
 carle over the arm. The jiarry is mostly taken when 
 the advcrs;iry thrusts low. It is also a very quick re- 
 turn thrust when your advcrsjirj- keeps his hand too 
 low, or drops the jwint to feint for the lower part of 
 your body. 
 
 The Parade of Sixle. — This parade only differs 
 from tierce in the nails being turned upward instead 
 of downward. The hand must be kept as high as the 
 shoulder; point as high as your adversarj's face if 
 your opponent is not well covered, straighten the 
 arm, longe with the nails upward, recover ; if he 
 presses, disengage in carte. The feint of one, two, 
 and one, two, three, is generally made from this posi- 
 tion. 
 
 The Parade of Counter-carte. — Having joined foils 
 in carte, nails upward, as soon as your adversary dis- 
 engages, follow his foil by making a small circle 
 until you meet it again in carte; if he disengages a 
 second time, take the simple guard of tierce. This 
 is one of the best and safest parries in fencing, as it 
 stops most of the feints. Being engaged in tierce, if 
 the opponent feints one, two, take the counter of 
 carte in the sjime manner as before; should he disen- 
 gage a third lime, tixke the guard of tierce; if he low- 
 
 I^G. 15. 
 
 ers the point, take the half-circle, returning again to 
 carte. tFig. 14.) When your advei-sary stretches 
 his arm to thrust, give a beat on the foit)le of his foil 
 with the forte of yours, so as to make an opening for 
 your thrust. This may also be done in the counter 
 of cjirte, when your opponent is not too close. 
 
 The Parade of (Miuter-ikrce. — This parade is per- 
 formed similar!}' to the counter of carte, but the nails 
 must be downward. Being engaged in tierce, if your 
 adversary disengages, follow Ids foil in a circular 
 manner until you meet it ag-ain in tierce; if he disen- 
 »gages a second time, take the simple guard of carte. 
 Should he make the feint of one, two, w ilhout stop- 
 ping, take the counter of tierce, as before, but be 
 careful not to be too near, as the guard is only safely 
 tjiken when out of distance; If he disengages after 
 having feinted one, two, take the simple guard of 
 carte. To paijy tierce, turn the nails downward, 
 keeping the foil tirm in hand, to prevent being dis- 
 armed. When your opponent stretches his arm to 
 thrust, give a dry beat on the foible of his foil with 
 your forte, so as to throw it out of the line. Direct 
 your point to hLs chest, longe either in tierce or in 
 .seeonde. 
 
 Half circle Parade. — The half-circle is generally 
 used after having parried tierce against the thrust of 
 seeonde or low carle. For this jjurposc raise the 
 hand as high as the shoulder, Und the arm, nails 
 tiirned well upward, elbow drawn inward, parry and 
 point rather low, longe in carle. To perforiii the 
 counter of half-circle; — having crossed foils in half- 
 
 circle, which is only done in making an assault, your 
 oi)l)onent pa.sst'S his foil over yours; follow by mak- 
 ing a circle till you meet him again in half<-ircle; if 
 he di.sengages again, take the guard of octave or 
 seeonde, longe and recover in tierce. Sometimes the 
 circle may be made twice with success by keeping 
 the hand "well up, holding the foil tirmly. (Fig. 14.) 
 
 7' he Paradt of Octtirc. — The octave parade is the 
 op|M)site guard to half-circle, and is tiiken to prevent 
 the opponent from getting in by force in the lower 
 part of the body in octave or .seeonde. Keep the 
 hand as high as the center of j'our body, straighten the 
 arm slightly so as to oppose your adversarj*, [Mint of 
 the foil rather low, parry and longe in tierce or octave. 
 To perform the counter of octave, having opjxjsed 
 your adversary in octave, he may disengage over your 
 foil; therefore follow his foil, immediately describing 
 a circle until you meet his foil again iu octave, taking 
 care to keep the hand well up. If he passes over a 
 second time, take the guard of lialf-circle or quinte, 
 longe in low carte, keeping the head up. 
 
 Ttie Cut over the Point from Corif to Tierce. — En- 
 gage in carle. If the opponent holds his hand low 
 with the point high, raise your wrist sufflciently to 
 clear the foil of your adversary without exposing 
 your body. Cut with the foil over his point until it 
 hits the center of his chest. If your adversary par- 
 ries tierce, as soon as you see liim take the guard, dis- 
 engage imder his arm by passing your point under 
 the wrist. Longe in carle. The cut and longe should 
 be made simultaneously. (Fig. 15.) The cut from 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 tierce to carle is made in the same manner a.s carte, 
 but the longe must be in carle inside the arm ; be 
 careful that the body is well covered, and not run the 
 risk of being hit at the Siime time; keep the body a 
 little backward. If the adversary takes the guard of 
 carte when you cut, disengag(^ to tierce by passing 
 your foil quickly over his wrist, arm quite straight, 
 longe in tierce. 
 
 The. Disengages. — The disengages are made when 
 an adversary takes the simple guards, or leaves him- 
 self uncovered on either side; however, care nmst be 
 taken that he does not thrust at the .s,ime time as you 
 disengage, thereby both hitting at the same lime. 
 This can be avoided by keeping the hand ojjposed to 
 the ariversarj' either in carte or tierce, whichever 
 you may ha engaged in at the time of making the dis- 
 engage, the one, two, or one, two, three. The disen- 
 gage is also advantageously taken when the adversary 
 advances or retreats. Allow him to lake one pace 
 backward, opposing his foil on either side; lower the 
 point of your foil; longe, covering your body in carte 
 or tierce, whichever you may be engaged in at the 
 time. Should your opponent advance, I'elreat one 
 pace, keeping a good o]ipositioii; disengage as before, 
 longe and recover (luickly on guard. The feint of 
 one, two, and one, two, three, caa be made in the 
 same manner. 
 
 The Sfilnte. — The salute, previous to making an as- 
 sauU or loose play, as it is lenned, is .-.n e.stabli.shcd 
 fonn of politeness before fencing for hits; it is also 
 an excellent practice, as it prepares the body to un-
 
 FENIAN SOCIETY. 
 
 629 
 
 FENIAN SOCIETY. 
 
 der^ the more enersetic movements in the assault. 
 Begin in this niiinncr; 1. Stand, as in Fig. 1, with 
 the foil in the left band. Salute by presenting the 
 right hand to your adversaiy a.s high as the chin, 
 palm of the hand upwanl. £ Bring" the hand across 
 the body, as in Fig. 2. 3. Raise both' hands al)ove the 
 head, as in Fiur. :i. 4. Step out on guard, in tierce, 
 with your foil out of the line of your adversary's 
 body, your opponent doing the .same; now both beat 
 twice with the right foot, leaving the body e.xjw.sed; 
 ask the adversiin,- to thrust tirst, uix)n which he brings 
 his point in front of your body, and longes in carte, 
 but without touching your body. The distance of 
 his point should be at least one inch from your breast. 
 This is called measuring distance. Your adversurj- 
 having recovered, do the same by bringing tlie riglit 
 foot up to tlie left ankle, dropping thelelt hand, the 
 right hand lirought under the chin. From this posi- 
 tion salute, tirst in carte, by turning the eyes to the 
 left simultaneously with thefoil ; bring the foil under 
 the chin again; salute in tierce, bringing the foil back 
 once more; salute j'our opponent by presenting your 
 point in front of his face; then b_v a circular inove- 
 ment made inward with both hands get on guard in 
 carte. 
 
 Thrniting Carte and Tierce. — Engaged in carte, 
 it being tlie adversarj-'s turn to thrust first, he disen- 
 gages in tierce, you parry tierce, and turn the hand 
 to seconde, nails down, by dropping the point; your 
 opponent's foil is now over the left shoulder, holding 
 ■with the fingers and tliumb very slightly. (Fig. 16.) 
 Si.x disengages are to be made, that is to' say, three on 
 each side, finishing in carte. When youradversary 
 gets on guard in tierce, engage with "the foil, at the 
 same time beating once with the right foot; now he 
 disengages to carte, parry carte, and tuni your foil in 
 half-circle, nails up; his foil is now over the right 
 shoulder. When he gets on guard, engage again in 
 carte, beating once with the right foot. When he has 
 completed the six disengages, he finishes bj- feinting 
 one, two, without longeing, recovers in tierce, leaving 
 his body exposed, bringing the right foot up to- the 
 left ankle, left hand down to the side. 
 
 Dmngagiiig Carte mid Tierce. — Being your own 
 turn to thrust, your opponent asks you to do so. Be- 
 gin by bringing the foil in front of your adversary's 
 body, ann quite straight, longe in carte within one 
 inch of his chest, recover and both go tlirough the 
 salute as before; engage in carte. Make three disen- 
 gages on each side as before, tinishing in carte, each 
 beat twice \vith the right foot, bring the right foot up 
 directly to the left ankle, take one pace backward with 
 the left foot, resting the pommel of the foil on the right 
 knee, the foil perpendicular, bo<ly upright; beat twice 
 again, bring the left foot up to the right heel, right 
 band under the chin, go through the sjilute again, 
 finish b}' desciibing a circle with both hands, resting 
 the right hand on the knee; beat twice with the right 
 foot, bring the right foot up to the left ankle, hand 
 under the chin, and droji it to the right side over the 
 knee, left hand down, after which put the mask on. 
 
 The Axsaiilt. — An a.ssault with foils resembles an 
 encounter witli small-swords. AH the thru.sts and 
 parries learned in the les.son should be brought into 
 play, the object of each fencer being to discover the 
 intentions of his adversary and conceal his own. 
 Never fence without ha\ing a mask on, also a jacket 
 of leather or .some strong material to prevent accident ; 
 alsosee that the foils are properly buttoned. When you 
 put yourself on guard, endeavor to discover whether 
 your opponent has a mind to attack or defend; for 
 this purpose, take one step backward, showing your 
 point opposite hLs chest; if he thrusts, parry carte by 
 giving a beat on his foil ; if engaged in tierce, parry 
 tierce ; .should he make the feint of one, two, take 
 the covmter of carte; and so on. Try not to let vour 
 adversary know your intention by your eye ; keep 
 changing to avoid this advantage which you may 
 give him. Never throw the head forward m longe- 
 mg: by so doing you cannot recover quickly. Al- 
 
 ways take care to be covered in whatever side vou 
 are engaged: if in carte, cover the bo<1v to the inside; 
 if in tierce, cover the body outside; observe the same 
 rule in the low guards. 
 
 The Double Counters. — Engaged in carte, disengage 
 to tierce, straightening the arm without longeing. If 
 your adversiiry takes the guard of counlercarlc, dis- 
 engage again; should he take the counter a second 
 time, double, following his foil, longe in tierce; for 
 
 I instance, by doubling counter tierce, you deceive 
 with acircle your opponent's counter-carte. Eniraged 
 in tierce, disengage to carte; straightening your ann. 
 point to your o|)i)onent's chest, biit Ix! care"ful not to 
 expose your Ix)dy by inclining it forward; this should 
 always be avoided. As soon a.s he takes the counter 
 of tierce, double, and longe in carte; the same rule is 
 to be observed in the lower guards; that is, if you are 
 engaged in half-circle, disenmge to m-lave; if your 
 adversiiry takes the counter of half-circle, double' and 
 longe in octave, engage in octave, disengage to half- 
 circle; if he takes the counter of octave or seconde, 
 double circle and longe in half-circle or carte. 
 
 To Guard the Double Counters. — After having taken 
 the counter-guard twice, not meeting with the foil of 
 your adversjirj-, take the simple guard on the oppo- 
 site side; for example, being deceived in your double 
 guard of coimtcr-carte, take the simple guard of tierce 
 or half-circle; being deceived in your double guard 
 of counter-tierce, take the simple guard of carte; the 
 same for the low guards. Being deceived in your 
 double circle, take the guard of octave ; being de- 
 ceived in your double of octave or seconde, take 
 the guard of half-circle or tierce, always continuing 
 
 I the guard until j-ou meet with tlic adversary's foil. 
 Another way of stopping the double movements 
 is to take the guards of counter-carte and coimter- 
 tierce, (jr counter-tierce and counter-carte, without 
 stopping; for the lower part of the body, take the 
 guards of counter-circle and counter-octave, or coun- 
 ter-octave and counter-circle. This is an excellent 
 practice to strengthen the wrist and make it supple. 
 
 In an article limited in length as this must neces.sa- 
 rily be, it is impossible to give more than the merest 
 outline of the various motions; but of course in actual 
 practice there are endless variations of the different 
 modes of attack and defense, which will be severally 
 adopted according to the skill and option of the fen- 
 cer. There is no finer indoor e.xercise than fencing, 
 as the muscles in every limb are developed and 
 strengthened by it. The great requirements for suc- 
 
 i cess are a steady eye and hand; a quick purpose, as 
 
 quickly executed ; and perhaps, above all, perfect 
 
 equanimity of the temper. See Bayonet exercise and 
 
 SirordiTireiM. 
 
 FENIAN SOCIETY.— A political association of Irish 
 
 ! or Irish Americans, the object of which is the over- 
 throw of the English authoritv in Ireland and the 
 
 ; establishment of a" Republic. I'he etymology of the 
 name has been the subject of .some discussion. It is 
 traced to the ancient Irish militaiy organization called 
 Fionna Eirinn, which took its appellation from the 
 celebrated hero of Irish leeend. Finn (or Fionn) Mac- 
 Cumhail. The accounts o^ this renowned body, w ith 
 which the bardic literature of Inland abounds, are 
 most curious. It was designed as a National Militia, 
 
 1 and its origin is ascribed, by Keating, to Se<ina II., 
 wiio w;as Monarch of Ireland about 400 years B.C. 
 In time of peace it consisted of three bodies, each 
 formed on the model of a Roman Legion, and con- 
 sisting of 3000 men; but in war it was ca)iable of 
 being enlarged to imy required limit. Candidates for 
 enrollment were required to be of honomble family, 
 
 j to be irri'proachable in morjds, and to bind themselves 
 
 I to observe the laws of justice and mondity; they were 
 required to be of a certain height, and strong, supple, 
 and vigorous of iKKly: each King submitted, before 
 enrolltnent, to an oVdeal, in which his powers of 
 
 I speed, strength, endurance, and courage were tested 
 by trial with his future commdes. The bardic ac- 
 coimts of some of those conditions are extravagant
 
 F£B. 
 
 630 
 
 FERGUSON KIFLE. 
 
 and amusing in the bijrliost de^e, but the generally 
 hislorifjil cluir.ictcr of the institution is unqucstion 
 able: ami it sulisisteil until the reign of C'arlirv, stm 
 of Corniac JIaeArt, liy whom the" Iwdy of Honna 
 Kirinn was disbanded, "and the membei^ having, in 
 consequence, transferred their allegiance to Mocorb, 
 King of Munster, sulTered an almost total extermina- 
 tion in the battle of Gavra, 2b4 A.D., which formed 
 the theme of many a bardic poem from the days of 
 Oisin (known in cJaelic legend as Ossian), son of Finn 
 MacCumhail, downwanls. 
 
 Adopting the name of this ancient military associa- 
 tion, the modern Fenians (or Finians) are a secret as- 
 sociation for the purpose of overthrowing the alien 
 ascendency of the Saxon, and of restoring to the 
 ancient Celtic population their legitimate status and 
 influence in their native country. It hail its first scat 
 in America, where the Irish p'opulation has largely 
 increased since the famine of 1846-47. JIany of the 
 cmignuits being driven from their homes by arbitrary 
 ejectment, or from inability to pay rent, carried with 
 them a sense of fancied wrong, which prepared them 
 for almost any enterprise which seemed to promise 
 revenge. Others had been sympathizers, if not par- 
 ticipators in the insurrection of 1848; and almost all 
 were deeply imbued with general political and social 
 
 young recruits enrolled in the Fenian Conspiracy in 
 Ireland. Newspapers, moreover, both in America 
 and in Ireland, were established or subsidized for the 
 purpo.ses of the Conspiracy; and journals, broadsides, 
 ballads, and other inllainmatory publications were 
 largely circulated among the peasantry and artisans. 
 Taverns, alehouses, and other places of entertainment 
 were the ordinary places of meeting; and one of the 
 most formidable of the plans of the Conspiracy was 
 an organized attempt to seduce the Irish soldiers from 
 their allegiance, and to prepare the way for their de- 
 .si-riing to the ranks of Fenianism when it should 
 have reached the expected degree of maturity. It 
 
 I became apparent, moreover, that in this, unlike al- 
 most all similar movements, jiains were taken by the 
 organizers to exclude tlie Catholic Clergj-, by whom 
 the Fenian Confederation had from the first been 
 steadily resisted, from all knowledge of its character 
 and objects, a.s well as of the names or number of its 
 
 ' members in the several localities; and many of the 
 most active of the leaders were distinguished by the 
 freedom of their religious opinions, and by their un- 
 concealed disregard of clerical authority. 
 
 FEK. — A word figuratively used for a sword or a 
 dagger; as in the phrase maiiier le fer, to wear the 
 sword, to follow the profession of amis. 
 
 Ferguson Rifle. 
 
 discontent. By all these the prospect of a secret or- 
 ganization for the establishment of Irish independence 
 was eagerly accepted. The most ojieidy active seat 
 of the organization was in the Western States, espe- 
 cially Chicago; but the movement was directed from 
 New York, and it possessed ramifications in almost ; 
 every old city of the Union. Tt wa.s conducted by a 
 Senate, and consisted of " Circles," each directed by 
 a Center. The duly of the Centers was to enroll meni- 
 iK-rs, who lx)UD(l themselves, generally by oath, " to 
 be faithful to the Irish Kopublic as at present virtually 
 established "; to instruct am! practice them in military 
 exercises; to raise funds for the purposes of the as.so- 
 ciation, especiallv for the imrchaseof arms and nutni- 
 tions of war; and to extend the organization by every 
 means at their disposjd. Agents were sent iiito Ire- 
 land, and to the chief st-ats of the Irish pojndation in 
 England; and while the work of secret enrollment 
 was iiiduslriously carried on in Ireland, measures 
 were openly coucerlcd in America, as well for the 
 raising of funds by ])rivalc <ontril>utions, as for the ! 
 purcha.se of arms and ndlitary stores. Opportunely, 
 too, for the purposes of the enterprise, the termina- 
 tion of the Ci\il War in America .set free a large num- 
 berof militarj- adventurers who had served as privates 
 or as olhcers "in one or other of the American armies, 
 and whose exiK-ricnce of service was turned secretly 
 but most actively to account in the training of the 
 
 FEK A CHEVAL.— In fortification, a horseshoe, a 
 small round or oval work, with a parapet, generally 
 made in u ditch or in a mai-sh. It further means, ac- 
 cording to the French acceptation of the term, a work 
 constructed for the pur|i()sc of covering a gate, by 
 having within it a guardhouse, to prevent the town 
 from being taken by surprise. 
 
 FERDWIT. — In the .mcient military history, a term 
 used to denote the freedom from serving upon any 
 military expedition, or, according to some, the being 
 acquilled of manslaughter committed in the army. 
 
 FERENTARII. — Among the Romans, the auxiliary 
 troops lightly armed; their weapons being a sword, 
 arrows, and a sling. We have also mention of an- 
 other sort of Ferentarii, whose business was to carry 
 arms after the army, and to be ready to supply the 
 soldiers therewith in battle. 
 
 FERGUSON RIFLE.— A curious breechloader used 
 early in the Hevdluiionary War. .Major Ferguson, a 
 Brillsh olliier. was a\illiorizid to arm and drill his 
 troops according to his own ide.as; and if tradition 
 and circumsiantlal evidence are to be relied on, it was 
 his pur)wse to ))laee in their hands a breech-loading 
 rifle with a variety of improvements, considered of 
 recent date. Some of these rifles were used in the 
 battle of King's Mountain, 7th October, 1780, the 
 turning point of the war at the South, — as Oriskany, 
 another riflemen's fight, 6th August, 1777, had been
 
 FEBEABA. 
 
 631 
 
 FIEF. 
 
 at the Nortb, — a battle in whicb he was defeated and 
 shiin. Although a breech-loader not of American in- 
 vention, it has become American from the fact thai it 
 made its tirst appearance as a weapon of war on tlie 
 battlc-liclds of America, and is the first instance of a 
 brcech-loailing rifle ever ha\nng been used on this 
 Continent or any other. The aiTn has been photo- 
 graphed and engraved. Referring to the drawing, a 
 few details will serve toexTihiln its peculiarities. The 
 length of the piece itself is5t) inches, weight 7i pounds. 
 The bayonet is 25 inches in length and 1 i inch wide, 
 and is what is commonly called a sword-blade bayo 
 net; flat, lithe yet strong, of tine temper and capable 
 of receiving a razor edge, and, when unfi.xed, as ser- 
 viceable as the best balanced eut-andthrust sword. 
 The sight at the breech is so arranged that by elevat- 
 ing it is equally ada]>ted to ranges varj-ing from one 
 hundred to five hundred yards. Its greatest curiosity 
 is the arrangement for the loading at the breech. The 
 giianl-plate which proti-cts the trigger is held in its 
 position by a spring at the end nearest tlie butt. Re- 
 leased from this spring and thrown around by the 
 front, so as to make a complete revolution, a plug 
 descends from the barrel, leaWng a ca\ity in the 
 upper side of the barrel sufficient for the insertion of 
 a ball and cartridge or loose charge. This plug is an 
 accelerating-screw, and is furnished with twelve 
 threads to the inch, therebj' enabling it, by the one 
 revolution, to open or close the oritice; so that the 
 rifle is thereby rendered capable of being discharged, 
 it has been claimed, asrapidly as Hall's I'nited States 
 (flintlock) carbine. This accefersjting screw constitutes 
 the breech of the piece, onlj- instead of being hori- 
 zontal, as LS usually the case, it is vertical. Were there 
 not twelve Independent thR-ads to this screw, it would 
 require two or three revolutions to close the oritice; 
 •whereas one suflices. Many of the muskets fabricated 
 in the French arsenals during the last j-ears of Napo- 
 leon had bayonets of the shape mentioned herein 
 adapted to them, specimens of which were deposited 
 among the French trophies in the Tower of London. 
 In case of any injury to the fire-arm, the swordblade 
 bayonet would have been as effective a weapon as the 
 artillerj'or even the infantrj- sword carried by foreign 
 troops. 
 
 FERRABA. — A sword of excellent temper, made 
 of steel from Ferrara, Italy. The kind most prized 
 ,was manufactured by Andrea di Ferrara; hence such 
 a sword was often called an Andrea-Fernira. 
 
 FERRIC OXIDE. — The jx-roxide or sesquioxide 
 of iron, Fe^Oj. The anhydrous pero.xide. as found 
 in nature, cry stall i/.es in flattened, rhomboidal tablets, 
 nearly black and verj- brilliant, known to mineral- 
 ogists as " specular iron;" it also occurs in compact 
 red mas.ses, called "red hematite." Prepared arti- 
 ficially, by calcining ferric prolosulphatc, or cop- 
 peras," it is" a red powder, called colcothar, used as a 
 paint, and for polishing silver and minors. Mag- 
 netic iron-ore is commonly held to Ix" a compound of 
 ferric oxide and ferrous o.xiile, Fe.O, 4- FeO - FcO,. 
 
 FESS. — The Fcss in Heraldrj- consists of lines drawn 
 horizontally across the shield, and containing the 
 third part "of it, between the honor point and the 
 nombril. It is one of the honorable ordinaries, and 
 is supposed to represent the waist-bell or girdle of 
 honor, which was one of the insignia of knighthoo<l. 
 
 Per Fess. — A shield, or charge in a shield, is s.aid 
 to be party per fi«x when it is horizontally divided 
 through the middle, or, as the French say, simply 
 couih: 
 
 Fesswise is said of a charge placed in fnvi; that is 
 to say, horizontally across the shield. See JfiraMry. 
 FETLOCK— FETTERLOCK. 
 English heralds speak of a 
 horse fetlock or horse fet- 
 terlock, and represent it ius in 
 the two accompanying fig- 
 ures. It seems to have been 
 Fetlocks. jjj, instrument.fixed on the leg 
 
 of a horse when put to pasture, to prevent his run- 
 
 : ning off. In Scotch Heraldry, a hoop is usually sub- 
 stituted for the chain, and the fetlock is represented 
 :is in the anns of Lokkert (Lockhart) of Barre, giren 
 bj- Sir David Lindsay: Argent, on a bend sjible three 
 fetterlocks or. Some bnmehes of this family carry 
 a man's heart within the fetterlock, one "of th'e 
 heads of it having accompanied good Sir .James 
 
 ; Douglas with King Robert the Bruce's heart to the 
 city of .lerusiilem. 
 
 FETTER.— To put fetters upon, or confine the feet 
 with a chain. Deserters are frequently fettered while 
 undergoing punishment for the crime of desertion. 
 
 FEUD. — Another form of the word fyht, and is al- 
 lied to foe, and probably to fiend. It meant a war 
 waged by one family or small trilx; on another, to 
 avenge the death or other injury of one of its mem- 
 bers. In a certain state of soeietj' this is a legitimate 
 mode of obtaining redress. It jirevailed exteasively 
 among the nations of Xorthern Europe; and it was 
 only by giadual steps that the practice was first re- 
 stricted and then abolished. The laws of Rudolf I. 
 of Germany recognized the right of waging feuds. 
 At last partial as.sociations were formed, th.r mem- 
 
 ' bers of which bound themselves mutually to settle 
 their differences by Courts of Arbitration and Com- 
 pensation, without going to war. 
 
 I FEUDAL. — Consisting of, or foimded upon, feuds 
 or tiefs; embracing tenures by military .system; as, 
 the feudal sy.stem. By some, the word /«« or feud, 
 of which /(""(fans the adjective, is derived from the 
 
 ' Latin fidex, faith, and ead or od/i, or od, a Teutonic 
 word signifying a property, or estate, in land; whilst 
 by others, with perhaps greater probability, the first 
 syllable also is maintained to be Teutonic, equivalent 
 to riefi, cattle, ultimately from the same rofit with the 
 Latin pecun. which, in the form of pecunia, came to 
 signify property, and its representative, monej' — be- 
 cause, as Varro remarks, property amongst pastoral 
 nations consisted of cattle. 
 
 FEU DE JOIE. — A discharge of musketry into the 
 air, made in honor of a victory or other great occa- 
 sion. It commences with the right-hand man of the 
 line, who discbarges his rifle, and is followed succes- 
 sively, at scarcely perceptible intervals, by the men 
 on his left, until the extreme left of the line is reache<l. 
 The effect much dejiends on the regularity with which 
 the slight interval between the discharges is preserved. 
 FEU RASANT. — A grazing fire, or a discharge of 
 musketry or cannon, so directed that the balls shall 
 nm parallel with the ground they fly over, within 
 
 i 3 or 4 feet of the surface. 
 
 FEVER. — In veteriuarj- practice a disease charac- 
 terized by increased heat, quick pulse, and thirst. In 
 horses it" is caused by cold or chill, high feeding, ir- 
 ritation, or pain. The symptoms are lassitude, shiv- 
 ering, quick pulse, and breathing after feed. The 
 cure consists in bleeding, juid keeping open the bow- 
 els by dvsters and laxative medicine. The animals 
 Iwdyand extremities should he kept wann by cloth- 
 ing "and hard rubbing; the diet green meat, or bran 
 mashes, chilled water; and the horse should be kept 
 
 i as quiet as possible. 
 
 FEZ. — A red cap without a brim, commonly worn 
 l)v the Turkish soldiers and others. 
 
 "FICHANT. — In fortification, a term applied to 
 flanking fire which impinges on the face it defends; 
 that is, of a line of defense where the angle of defense 
 is less than a right angle. A fortification is said to 
 be fie'uait when'the command is very great. 
 
 FID.— 1. A block of wcKxl use<l in heavj'-gun exer- 
 cise, for slinging the gun, and for mounting and dis- 
 mounting purposes. The latest pattern of fid is of 
 beech or elm, and each is provide<l with a rope grum- 
 met, iiml has the natvire of the gun for which it is in- 
 tended stamped upon it.— 2. A large pointed pin for 
 splicing ropes, with an eye at the thick end, of mm 
 or lignum vitie, used by "sjiilors in sepjirating and in- 
 terlacing the strands of which the rope is composeii. 
 FIEF. — An estate held of a superior on conditiou 
 of military service; a fee; a feud.
 
 FIELD. 
 
 633 
 
 FIELD AND MOUNTAIN AMMUNITION. 
 
 FIELD. — 1. A cleared space or plain where n battle 
 is fought; also, llie battle it.self. To take the Jielil 
 iiioaiis to coinincnci' active operations ajrainst the 
 enemy. — 2. In Henildrj-, the tield is the whole sur- 
 face or continent of the escutcheon or shield. It is 
 so called, according to some, bwause it repre.sent.s 
 the tield of battle on which the achievements or 
 charges repri-sented on it are supposed to have been 
 gained. In blazoning, the tincture or metal of the 
 tield must be llie tii>.t thing mentioned. 
 
 FIELD-ALLOWANCE.— A daily allowance granted 
 to ofticers of the British army in consideration of ex- 
 tra expen.si' entailed upon them in consequence of 
 nulitary operations. Oriliiiari/ field-allowance, rang- 
 ing from £1 lOx. for a General Officer to 1». for a Sub- 
 altern, is applicable when troops are encamped at 
 home or in the Colonies. EHraordinnry field-allow- 
 ance is sanctioned when and wherever troops are eii- 
 CJiged in actual warfare: it ranges for the above nuiks 
 from £2 10«. to Is. 6rf. Strict rules are laid down 
 that no officer shall receive this allowance unless 
 positively present with the army. 
 
 In India there is no such allowance, as the pay which 
 officers receive is considered sufficient to enable them 
 to I<eep up their camp equipage, and to meet all ex- 
 penses attendant upon a move from cantonments or 
 in .setting out on a campaign. See Allowiinees. 
 
 FIELD AND MOUNTAIN AMMUNITION.— The am- 
 munition for field and mountain servici' in the United 
 Stjites service consists of — shot for the 12-pounder 
 gun; shells for the 12-pounder gun, 12-pounder 
 mountain-howitzer, and 3- and 3i-inch rifle-guns; 
 cn-ne-iihnt for the 12-pounder gun, 12-pounder moun- 
 tain-howitzer, and 3- and 3i-ineh rifle-guns; canis- 
 ter for the 12-pounder gim, 12-poundcr mountain- 
 howitzer, and 3- and 3J-inch rifle-guns. The pro- 
 jectiles are attached by straps of tin to a wooden 
 sabot, to which is also fastened the cartridge-bag con- 
 taining the charge for the 12-pounder and the moun- 
 tain-howitzer, malting together one round of fixed 
 ammunition. With rifle-guns the cartridge is not 
 attjiched to the projectile. The cartridge-bag is a 
 cylindrical bag with a circular bottom, made of 
 iflerino or serge. The material should be composed 
 entirely of wool, free from any mixture of thread or 
 cotton, and of sufficiently clo.se texture to prevent the 
 powder from sifting through; that which is twilled 
 is preferred. Flannel is used when the other ma- 
 terials cannot be conveniently obtained. 
 
 The manner of fixing anil strapping ammunition is 
 explained in the articles Fixed Ajtmunition and 
 Stk.\pped Ammunition. The foUowmg is the 
 mode of charging shells for field and mountain .ser- 
 vice: The shells having been properly cleaned, dried, 
 lapped to receive the plug and the fuse, imd attacheil 
 to the sabot, are placed in two rows. The workman 
 fills the measure with powder, strikes it level with 
 the straight-edge, and pours it in the shell; the assist- 
 ant holds the funnel, and marks the shell with chalk 
 when filled, to prevent mistakes. The assistant screws 
 in the plug. The workman puts a little white-lead 
 on the threads of the fuse, punches 4 or .5 small holes 
 in the tin disk, ami screws the fuse firmly into the 
 shell, the assistant holding the shell to prevent il from 
 turning. 
 
 In the matter of a ca.se-shot, the shot having been 
 cleaned and inspected, the upper pari of the fuse-hole 
 is tapped to receive the fu.se; the small holi^ is tapped 
 to receive the plug. The following materials are re- 
 quired to fill the shells: spherical leaden balls, cali- 
 l)er .69 inch; sulpliur or rosin; linsccd-oil. To fill 
 the shell, cover the lead balls with linsccd-oil, and fill 
 the shell with them, pasliing the ujipei balls aside 
 ■with a stick, to get in as many as possible. Wanii 
 the shell gently, and screw the neck of the funnel 
 into the fasehole; pour in the melted sulphur, filling 
 the shell. To make the chandler for tlie charge, 
 chuck the shot in a lathe; .screw the furniel into The 
 fuse-hole to protect the threads from being injured 
 by the auger, and with a common screw-auger bore 
 
 a hole in the axis of the shell to the bottom. Diam- 
 eter of the auger, .75 inch. Lacker the shot and strap 
 it; paint it red. To charge the shot, fill the cliamljer 
 with musket-powder, ramnung it slightly with a 
 wooden drift and light mallet; .screw in the iron 
 phig, leaving its top flush with the bottom of the 
 large portion of the fuse-hole, and lay over it a thin 
 leather washer with a hole in the center; fill the hole 
 in tlie plug and wa«her with rifie-powder; punch four 
 or five .sniiill holes in the tin disk in the bottom of the 
 ! fuse; put a little white-lead on the threads of the 
 , fu.se, and screw the fuse tirml}' into the shell. The 
 case-shot is fixed the .same as round shot. 
 
 A canister for field-service consists of a tin cylinder 
 attached to a sabot, and filled with lead balls, eleven 
 to the pound. Canister for the mountain-howitzer 
 are filled with lead balls. The following materials 
 are required: sheets of tin, .02 inch to .02.5 inch 
 thick (double tin); soft solder; rosin; culots of rolled 
 iron, .2.5 inch thick; covers of sheet-iron, .07 inch 
 thick for the guns and 12-pounder howitzers, and .1 
 inch thick for the 2-4- and 32-pounder howitzers; sa- 
 bots; tacks. 
 
 Canister for rifle-gtms have metal sabots, and are 
 filled with lead balls. The following utensils are re- 
 quired: patterns; tracing-point; shears; cylinder of 
 hard wood; mallet; gauges; furnace; soldering-iron; 
 hammer; punch. To make the cylinder, the work- 
 man marks out the rectangle on the sheet with the 
 pattern, cuts it, and traces the line for the lap. He 
 draws a line parallel to the long side of the rectangle, 
 .4 to .5 inch from it, for the length of the slits. It is 
 then bent round the former, the edge brought to the 
 line of the lap, clamped and soldered. If lumps of 
 solder be left, they are filed down. The cylinder is 
 made round and gauged on the exterior with the 
 large shot-gauge of the caliber, and the interior with 
 a cylinder of a diameter .02 inch less than that given 
 in the table, which should enter the canister. If it 
 be not of the right size, it is unsoldered and soldered 
 over again. The slits are made and the sabot in- 
 serted and nailed with 6 to 8 nails. Before filling the 
 canister, dip the tin cylinder into a lacker of Ijeeswax 
 dissolved in spirits of turpentine, to prevent it from 
 rusting. Coat the plates with paint or coal-tar. 
 
 The workman, sitting astride the bench, places the 
 canister upright in front of him; inserts the iron bot- 
 tom and places it fiat on the sabot; puts in a tier of 
 balls; fills the interstices with dry, sifted sawdust; 
 packs it with a pointed stick, so that the balls will 
 hold by themselves, and throws out the loose saw- 
 dast. He places another tier of halls, each ball Ijing 
 in the interval between two balls of the lower tier, 
 and proceeds in the same manner until the canister is 
 filled; covers the upper tier with sawdust; puts on 
 the cover, places on it one of the iron bottoms fur- 
 nished with a handle, and strikes it with a small mal- 
 let in order to compress the .sawdust; then removes 
 this bottom, and turns down the slit pieces of the 
 canister over the cover with a hammer. In the can- 
 ister for the 12-pounder gun the cimtor ball of the 
 last tier is omitted. When the canister is finished, 
 verify its diameter with the large shot-gauge of the 
 same caliber. 
 
 The Sawyer canister-shot for all guns and howitzers 
 consists of a casing of malleable iron, in one piece, in 
 the form of a hollow cylinder, having one end closed 
 by a head cast therewith, througli which head is 
 formed one or more small holes, through which a 
 portion of tlie gas occasioned by the explosion of the 
 charge of powder enters, driving forward the small 
 iron balls, imd disengaging the metal cover placed in 
 the forward end of the casing to hold the contents in 
 position till fired. The casing has, cut through its 
 walls, one or more series of oblicpie slits, the end of 
 each slit .slightly overlapping the enil of the next .slit 
 in the same series, thus nearly severing the casing 
 into two or more .sections, said sections being held 
 together only by narrow bars of metal between the 
 contiguous ends of two .slits, which bars are sufll-
 
 FIELD AND MOUNTAIN AMMUNITION. 
 
 633 
 
 FIELD AND MOUNTAIN AMMUNITION. 
 
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 mouth of the casing, and the casing is broken into 
 two or more sections, from which the small shot are 
 
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 uaoooii-^ 
 
 , tr 
 I 3 
 
 Canister. 
 
 0.01 jo 
 
 0.0. is 
 
 otbtot K 
 
 2 
 
 .-O 
 
 -« 
 
 SbelL 
 
 Case. 
 
 Canister. 
 
 SbelL 
 
 Canister. 
 
 r 
 
 to resist the shock of the c.^lo'iion of the charge of 
 powder in the gun, so that %vhen the shot is dis- 
 charged from a gun the cover is stripped from the 
 
 more readily and completely discharged than they 
 would be if "the ciisinrr remained intact. 
 For t4ie greater security of Hold-ammunition, the
 
 FIELD-AKTILLEEY. 
 
 634 
 
 FIELD-ABTILLERT. 
 
 cartridges are covered with paper cylinders and caps. 
 The cap is drawn off at the moineut of loading the 
 piece, and in using solid shot it mav be placed over 
 the shot to iliniinish the windaire. A cylinder and a 
 cap are formed to-retlier by folding the" paper over a 
 former, which allows a lap of about .75 inch for past- 
 ing. The reqiusite length for the cylinder is cut off 
 from the smaller end. The rest fomis the cap, which 
 is choked at the end from which the cylinder is cut 
 on a cylindrical former, which has a groove around 
 it, marking the length from the rounded end for cut- 
 ting the cap. The former should be bored through 
 the axis with a .r)-ineh hole, to facilitate drawing off 
 the cap. The caps for shells are black; for spherical ! 
 case-shot, red; for shot, not colored. | 
 
 On the PR-ceding page will be found a summary of 
 the ammuniliiin for tieid and mountain service. j 
 
 Shells arc tilled with the bursting-charge of movtar- 
 powdcr lo their lapacity. Case-shot are tilled with 
 lead balls which are set with melted sulphur or rosin, 
 and bored out for the bursting-charge with as large 
 a chamlicr as the fusc-lio'.e will admit of, which is 
 tilled with powder or bursling-charge of other explo- 
 sive, space being left for the fuse-plug or fuses. When 
 s;»bots are u.scd, a spherical ca^^ty is made for the seat 
 of the projectile. When port-fires are used, one to 
 each box of ammunition, and half a yard of slow- ' 
 match is packed, and sufficient tow to render the 
 whole packing secure. Large charge for 3-inch rifle- 
 gun, 1.5 ix)und; half an iiich is allowed for each 
 seam in a cartridge-bag. Rilie-aramunition has no 
 wooden sabots, nor is the cartridge attached to the 
 projectile ; these are packed on top of the projectiles, 
 or, better, in a part of the box separated from the 
 projectiles by a partition, in which ca.se the small 
 stores are packed on top of the cartridges. Hotch- , 
 kiss ammunition is metallic; wrapped metal; centre- 
 primed case. See Ammunition, Ammunition-lioxi'K, 
 Ciirtridye-(ni;js. Fiitd Ammunition, Projectiles, Sabot, I 
 and Stiiipped Ammunition. i 
 
 FIELD-ARTILLEEY.— Field-cannon are intended 
 to be used in the operations of an army in the field ; 
 they should, therefore, have the essential quality of 
 mobility. They are divided into light and heavy 
 pieces. The former are constructed to follow the 
 rapid movements of light troops and cavalry. The 
 latter are employed to follow the movements of heavy 
 troops, to commence an action at long distance, to 
 defend field-works anil important positions on the 
 field of battle, etc.; hence they are .Siiid to constitute 
 "batteries of position." Formerly the light pieces 
 of the tield-serviee of the United States were the 
 6-pdr. gun and 12-pdr. howitzer; and the heavy 
 pieces were the 12-pdr. gun and 24-pdr. and 32-pdr. 
 howitzers. At the commencement of the late war in 
 this country, these pieces were set asiile for arming 
 field works, block-houses, etc., and their places were 
 supplied with the light 12-pdr. gun (smooth-l)ore) 
 and the 3-inch rifle-gun. The regulations iirescribe 
 that, as a general rule, one third of the pieces of a 
 fleld-battery be rifles and the remainder smooth-bores. 
 Of course this proportion is subject to be modified by 
 the character of the operations and the nattne of the 
 country. The country in which most of our late mil- 
 itary operations were conducted was either broken 
 in surface or heavily wooded, and the most effective 
 fighting was done at moderate ranges, at which the 
 light 12-pilr., with its heavy shell and case-shot, was 
 found more destructive than the 3-inch rifle-gun. 
 
 Field-artillery is used in combination with infantry 
 and cavalrj-. or with both, to augment their fire and 
 to weaken that of the enemy. It prepares the way 
 for sub.se(iuent operations by its fire upon the enemy 
 before he comes within reach of other wea|ions; it 
 supports the maneuvers of the various arms, and 
 forms points of support and a.s.scmbly for troops when 
 driven back. In selecting the position for a battery, 
 the ground must be considered both in plan and pro- 
 file. The guns must Ik- placed neither too high nor 
 too low. Late wars have shown that it is not alone 
 
 desirable but necessary to cover the guns and horses 
 of a battery from the enemy's tire, either by the acci- 
 dents of the grounil or by iiiiprovi?ed cover; for noth- 
 ing else can insure the battery against destruction 
 by the enemy's infantry and artiller)'. The range, 
 accuracy, and" rapidity "of fire of small-arms of the 
 prc-senl day are such that lotteries which have been 
 brought into action with the greatest possible rapid- 
 ity have Ix'cn placed liov <fu enmlml before firing a 
 sliot. The most favorable ix>sition isagt'iitle hillock, 
 sloping gradually to the front and more abruptly to 
 the rear, with a command over the ground occupied 
 l)y the enemy of about 1 in 100. Considering the 
 ground in ])lan, guns may be drawn up with good 
 effect behind a marsh, pond, or river or ravine, pro- 
 vided such obstacles do not render an advance im- 
 practicable, and the ravine be not occupied by the 
 enemy. The guns shoidd not be in the neighborhood 
 of woods, brush, or other cover that can be occupied 
 by the enemy. Heavy, muddy ground, as well as 
 that which is stony, should be avoided. The ground 
 for .'JO to 100 yards in front of the battery should 
 be as unfavorable as possible for the enemy's artillery- 
 fire. 
 
 The extreme range should be employed only when 
 the nature of the ground or the shortness of the time 
 does not permit a nearer ai)proach to the object, and 
 then only till the effect desired has been obtained. 
 With rifl"ed pieces this tire may exceed 5000 or 600O 
 yards. It maj' annoy troops in their camp, may im- 
 pede the movement of trains, and endanger inflam- 
 mable buildings and materials, but cannot affect an 
 action; therefore, to open fire beyond the limit at 
 which the effect can be ascertained by good sight, 
 aided by telescopes, is a waste of valuable ammuni- 
 tion. If the ground and atmosphere be favorable, 
 and the range can be determined accurately, fire may 
 be oi)ened against troops at 2.500 yards, and under 
 exceptional circumstances at 3000 yards; the former 
 is about the distance at which bodies of troops can be 
 distinguished with certainty by the best eye. This 
 dist;ui<c is modified by the formation of the troops; 
 a column can be fired at effectively oOO yards beyond 
 troops in line. At long range the object must 1k' well 
 defined, the distance carefully determined, and the 
 firing calm and very deliberate. As a battery caimot 
 withstand the fire of small-arms, artillery without 
 cover camiol now maintain a position within 900 yards 
 of the enemy's infantry. 
 
 The object selected upon which to direct the fire 
 depends upon the nature of the action. In acting 
 offensively, the fire should be concentrated on the 
 enemy's artillery and on obstacles which oppose an 
 advance; whilst if acting defensively, the guns should 
 bear upon the infantry and cavalry. As a general 
 principle, the fire should be directed uix)n that arm 
 of the enemy w hich most immediately threatens us. 
 Definite rules cannot be given for what must practi- 
 cally be decided almost entirely by the peculiar cir- 
 cumstances of the indi\idual case. The nature and 
 position of the object fired at determine the projectile 
 to be used. The emplo.\^llent of solid shot is grow- 
 ing greatly into disuse; with rifled guns it is but little 
 used, and in many services is entirely discarded, a* 
 the .sliell ;ind shrapnel as now constructed are .suffi- 
 ciently strong and lieavv to replace it and i)roduce far 
 more ultimate effect. It may be useful in firing over 
 troops, but even then shells, lueferably with percus- 
 sion-fuse, can be employed. Shells are used at first 
 to determine the range; for this, percussion- fuses are 
 best if the nature of the groiuul permit. This fire 
 is usetl to dis;ible artillery; again.st columnsof troops, 
 or when a line can l)e enfiladed or taken obliquely; 
 against obstacles, such as intrcnchmcnts and buihl- 
 ings, and against combustible materials. If the shell 
 Ix' intended for incendiary i)urp()ses, a time-fuse cut 
 long is employed. Should the distance be accurately 
 known and the time-fuse burn uniformly, such a fuse 
 can be advantageously used; but generally a percus- 
 sion-fuse is more uscfid. The nature of the iiround
 
 FIEU) ABTILLERY FUSE. 
 
 635 
 
 f I£LD CABBIAOES. 
 
 is of importance only at the spot where the shell 
 strikes; there it should be fimi enough to cause a jier- 
 cussion-fuse to act and to prevent the shell from pen- 
 etrating so far as to lose its explosive effect. Shell- 
 fire is employed when the enemy is posted under 
 cover, or on a higher or lower giound; when he is 
 moving on a road through a \alley, and when being 
 pursued; when the groimd is much broken, wooded, 
 or cannot be seen; when the ran''c is too great for 
 effective shrapnel tire; for incendiarj- purposes, and 
 when a moral rather than a physical effect is desired. 
 
 In the tire of shrapnel and segment shells, it is of 
 more importance to iiuve a knowledge of the distance 
 than of the nature of the ground, as the elevation 
 must be properly taken and the fuse correctly timed. 
 If such a projectile explode after jiassing the object, 
 its effect is entirely lost; and if it explode too far 
 short, the effect is greatly diminished; therefore the 
 aim should be taken a little short of the object, that 
 it may be the more readily corrected. The spread of 
 the pieces being greater in the direction of the tire 
 than laterally, these projectiles are more effective 
 against high, deep objecUs than against broad, flat 
 ones; they are therefore more destructive against cav- 
 alry in colunm than in line, and more so against 
 either than against infantry in column or in line. 
 Shrapnel-tire is also employed against troops dis- 
 persed or scattered;! against troops in defiles or open- 
 ings, or ma.ssed at points. It is effective against ar- 
 tillery in position, cs|)eeially when it can be taken 
 obliquely ; time tuses should be used against the ani- 
 mate objects, and percussion-fuses against the mate- 
 riel. Time- or percussion-fuses can be employeil 
 against troops in column or in line; but if they be 
 scattered, time-fuses only should be used. Well-ap- 
 plied shrapnel-tire is more effective thim any other 
 artillery-lire against troops, but it is subject to so many 
 contingencies, and the amnuniition is so costly, that 
 it should not be employed unless it will jiroljably 
 create considerable effect, and when other projectiles 
 will not answer. The possibility of shrapnel ex- 
 ploding in the piece causes great care to be neee.s.sarv 
 in firing over the heads or through the intervals of 
 the troops. The tire of canister-shot is confineil to 
 ranges within 500 yards, and is rarelj- of any effect 
 beyond 3.50 yards. The nature of the surface has a 
 great influence on the utility of this tire; it is largely 
 diminished on rough or soft ground, especially if 
 covered with bushes or standing crops, and is in- 
 creased on hard, level ground. As batteries can no 
 longer move up to short range of troops and open fire 
 with canister, its use offensively is entirely ended. 
 (In the flefense, it is used to most advantage against 
 troops in column whose front is greater than thirty or 
 forty feet; it is useful against scattered or dispersed 
 troops at short ranges, and against the attack of tield- 
 intrenchments, villages, and the skirts of woods. In 
 cases of great emergency, a double charge of canis- 
 ter, fired with a single cartridge, may be used for dis- 
 tances within two hundred yards. A canister-tire 
 should not be used too early, "as, if ineffective, it de- 
 stroys the confidence of the troops and increases 
 that of the enemy. It does not always produce the 
 desired effect: 1st, because the distance is underesti- 
 mated; 2d, sufficient care is not taken in aiming, be- 
 cause the danger is exaggeratetl; :W, the character of 
 the ground is not properly appreciated and projectiles 
 are wasted. The fire of machine-guns, which can be 
 used effectively at 1.500 yards, may replace the em- | 
 ployment of canister. I 
 
 The selection of the most suitable kind of fire, 
 whether direct or ricochel , depends upon the distance 
 of the enemy, the conformation and nature of the 
 intcrvcnins ground, the foiirallon of the troops, so 
 far as it ca'n be judged, ami the effect to be produced. 
 Direct fire should be employed whenever the surface 
 of the ground is uneven and the quality of the soil 
 varied, or the soil soft and light. It is used in si>ecial 
 cases: 1st. When the enemy is so situated as to con- 
 ceal the depth of his formation. 2d. When he is 
 
 about to pass a detile, and the head of the column 
 only is seen, or when the depth of the column can be 
 seen by Ix-ing commanded or overlooked. 3<1. In all 
 sustained cannonades. 4th. If the enemv be on a 
 mountain or in a valley. When the diiferencc of 
 level between the object and piece is not irreat, tlie 
 character of the fire will be dea-rmined bv the nature 
 of the intervening ground. Kieochet-tire should 
 never be used for a less distance than 1000 yards, 
 even when the ground Ls favorable, as it is necessary 
 that the projectile should nmke at least two or Uiree 
 rebounds in front of the enemy. For the 12-irounrler 
 gun the limits of this fire may lie consideretl as be- 
 tween 1200 and 1500 yards; the extreme ranse ex- 
 tending, however, to 2000 yards: for a less distance 
 the rebounds are too high and the space commanded 
 loo small. If the ground he uneven, ricochet-tire will 
 lie too irregular to be useful. An o|K'n. flat, and tirm 
 I)iece of ground is most favorable; if within a certain 
 distance in front of the piece or of the enemy the 
 ground be soft and uneven, this species of tire cannot 
 be employed. As much depends ujwn chance in 
 ricochet-tire, it is seldom used on the offensive, for it 
 attracts the attention of the enemy without doing 
 much execution. See Artillery, Kapoleon Ouii, Ord- 
 noiici', and Three-inch liifle. 
 
 FIELD-AETILLEEY FUSE.— The name given to 
 the Breithauiit fuse by its inventor, because he de- 
 signed itifor all kinds" of shells u.sed with field artil- 
 lery. See Breithatipt Fuse. 
 
 FIELD -BATTERY.— A certain number of pieces 
 of artillery so equii)ped as to be available for attack 
 or defense, and capable of accompanying cavalry or 
 infantry in all their movenunts in the tield. There 
 are usually allotted lo a field-battery four pieces in 
 lime of peace and six in time of war. "and it is divided 
 into mounted artilUri/, which usually serves with in- 
 fantry, and hi/me-iirtiUir;/, which ordinarily serves 
 with cavalry-. The main difference between" the two 
 consists in the cannoneers of the latter being mounted; 
 in rapid evolutions of the former they are conveyed 
 on Ihe gun-carriages. See Artillery and Battery. 
 
 FIELD-BED.— A folding bed used by officers while 
 on campaigns or in the field. See Ciimp-bedsteae}. 
 
 FIELD-CARRIAGES.— A marked change hits been 
 made within the last few years in the fabrication of 
 carriages for field and mountain artillery. The prin- 
 cipal nations have arrived in quick succession at the 
 simie conclusion with reference to Ihe material of 
 which these caniages .should be made, and have 
 already abandoned the use' of wood except for the 
 spokes and felloes of the wheels, and for f>oles, and 
 substituted in its pl.ace wrought-iron or steel. The 
 consideration which has led to this important modi- 
 fication is Ihe superior strength, si'rviceability, and 
 \iltiniate economy of the wroughtiron carriage. The 
 general plan of construction adopted isnmch Ihe same 
 in all countries, and the carriages differ oidy in minor 
 details, which vary according to the different ideas of 
 taste and convenience, or as influenced by long-estab- 
 lished usage. 
 
 The cheek and side of the trail are formed of one 
 piece of boilir-plate, cut into the required shape and 
 strengthened by angle-iron riveted to it around its 
 outer edge, or made in one piece in a die. with Ihe 
 flange struck up while the nu'Ial is hot. The two 
 pieces constituting the trail are joined together by the 
 neces.sarv transom and liolls. and by the lunelte, which 
 isriveted lo both. The trail is further strengthened 
 by the tran.soms forming the two ends of Ihe trail 
 tool-chest. The two pieces which form Ihe sides of 
 the trail slo|X' from the head of the cheeks or from a 
 IX)int a short distance in rcjir of it to the lunette, and 
 al Ihe sjune lime diminish in depth. The iinglc-iron 
 which is riveted to the cheeks lo strengthen and stiffen 
 them forms also the trunnion-l>eds, and is jilaccd sonic- 
 times on the outside and sometimes on Ihe inside of 
 the plate. The elevating-screw is arrangitl ilifferently 
 in different services. Minor differences will be men- 
 tioned in describing the carriages in detail. The
 
 rULD CAEBIAGES. 
 
 636 
 
 FIELD CABRIAGES. 
 
 nomenclature is given in detail in the description of 
 the carriages employed in the United States service. 
 
 Uiiitfd i'ltiiU-K.—Tlivrv is a gun-carriage for the three- 
 inch rifle, which willi slight modilications is adapted 
 to the one-inch milniillcur; one for the half inch nii- 
 trailleur; and one for the twelve pounder. 'I'hi' corre- 
 sponding parts of these carriages differ only in their 
 dimensions. There are three kinds of wheels, viz.: 
 No. 1, for tlie three-inch ritle and one-inch mitrailleur 
 guu-carriaiies, forcai.s.sons, forges, ujitlery-wagons, and 
 all limlK-rs except those of the half-inch mitrailleur; 
 No. 2, for the twelve-pounder gun-carriages; No. .i, for 
 the half-inch niilrailleur gun-carriages, CiUs,sous, and 
 limbers. Wheels Nos. 1 and 2 are of the .Siime fomi 
 and height, tit on the same a.xle-arm, and differ only 
 in the dimensions of their parts, strength, and weight. 
 It is proposed that a single pattern ot wheel Ix; used 
 hereafter for all light a'rtillery carriages except those 
 for the half-inch mitrailleur. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 1, the nomenclature of the gun- 
 
 »^^P 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 carriage is as follows: stock (1), of squared wood 
 in two pieces; it serves to connect the gim-carriage 
 with the limber and to direct the piece; it includes 
 tlie /iead(i), to which the sponge-bucket ring is attached; 
 groove (3); trail (4), or curved part of the' stock which 
 rests on the ground when the piece is unlimbered; 
 rounding of tlie trail (ij); trail-plate (6), a piece of iron 
 fastened to the end of the trail and terminated by a very 
 strong ring, called the liuiHte (7), which receives the 
 I)intle-hook by which the limber is attached; pointing- 
 rings, large (H) and small (9), which receive the hand- 
 spike; trail-hanillm (10), on each side of the stock for 
 the purpose of raising it; prolonge-hooks (11), on which 
 the prolonge is coiled; w/ml-giuird jilafes (12). lAick 
 chain (13), u.sed to keep the wheel from turning; it is 
 on the side of the carriage, and has an cjie-platf and 
 bolt;»ponge-aud-rammersiop(\i): Hp<inge-rlta,in and hasj) 
 (15); ear-plttte for sponge-chain and hasp (16); ear-plfite 
 to sup|)ort wonn (17); key-c/miii and kei/; elerating- 
 screw (18); it has a handle with four prongs; eleraling- 
 screwlMx; ilernling-screw bed (19); rondellis (20), which 
 connect cheeks and stock; cheeks (21), two pieces of 
 wood Iwtween which the gun rests; irashcrhooks for 
 handspike (22): im»her-hook for lock-chain (23); «n<i!cr- 
 strap (H); right sponge-liook (25); sponge and toorm hook 
 
 (26); handspike^ngs (27); trunnion^lat.n (OS), into 
 the beds, or deprcs.sions, of which the trunnions tit; cap- 
 gquares (29); cap-squan- chain (30); kcy-ehain and key 
 (31). Axle, including axle-body (32), of wo<xl; axletree 
 (33), of iron; axle-arm (34i, the rounded extremities of 
 the axlctree on which the wheels revolve; linch-pin 
 (35); linch-pin washer and hook. Wheels (36); each 
 includes — nate (37); nace-bands (38); nate-box; t/pokes 
 (39); felloes (40); tire (41). Cannoneers' seats, on the 
 axle between the cheeks and wheels; each consisLs of 
 an iron chair supported on a rectangular bar inserted 
 in a vertical iron aocket, and resting on a strong steel 
 spring; the socket is sup])orted by two l/rasn braces 
 fastened to the axle by axle-straps; to an iron cross- 
 piece at the top of the socket arc attached two iron 
 braces which help to supjjort the iron foot-rest attached 
 to the brass braces. The chair has arms and faces to 
 the trail. 
 
 The following is the nomenclature of the gun-car- 
 riage for mitrailleurs: stock; liead; groove; trail; 
 rounding of trail; trail-plate; lunette; point- 
 ing - ring; pointing - socket; trail - luindles; 
 wheel-guard plate ; elevating-screw; elevating- 
 screw box; elevating-screw bed; rondelles; 
 cheeks; iras/KT-ZiooA^ for handspike; nndei'- 
 straps; handspike-rings; cap-sr/uares; cap- 
 square chains; key-chains and keys; trvn- 
 nioti-beds; trunnion-swivel; trunnion-swivel 
 friction-bed; frame for traversing-apparatus, 
 or Iracersing-arm; traversing-fork; travel's- 
 ing-fiirk spring (spiral); traversing-fork han- 
 dle; tratersing-fork clamp-screw; traversing- 
 fork case, with slot for handle; locking -bolt, 
 connected with traversing-fork by a locking- 
 lever; locking-boll case; stock-seat; with a 
 liinge and prop; drag-hooks; elevating -screw 
 nut; elevating-nut handle; elevating-clamp 
 screir; rod-case and keys; axle; wJieels. 
 
 All limbers (Fig. 2) are similar; the lim- 
 ber-chests of gim-carriages and caissons con- 
 tain ammunition and implements; those of 
 forges and battery- wagons contain tools and 
 stores. The nomenclature is as follows: 
 pole (1), including pole-pnd (2); jwle-straps 
 (3), by which the pole is guided when the 
 team is hitched; pole-strap iron (4); pole-yoke 
 (5); muff and collar (6); pole-yoke branches 
 (7), to which are attached slidiug-rings (8); 
 splinter-bar (9), to which the wheel-horses 
 are hitched, by four trace-hooks (10); end- 
 bands (11); middle-bands; pile-prop (12), in- 
 cluding socket, ferrule, and chain; hounds 
 (13), the pieces of wood, upon which the 
 chests rest, connecting the axle-body with 
 the splinter-bar; forks (14), pieces of wood, 
 between the hounds, forming an opening in which 
 the pole is placed; fork-strap (15); foot-lioards (16); 
 foot-board bracketJi (17); chest (18); chest-handles (19); 
 rover (20), oi wood; cover-plate (21), of copper; turn- 
 buckle (22); hasp (23); backstay (24); frmt-stay (25); 
 stay-pins (26); stay-pin keys (27); binder-strap; pintle- 
 hook (28), on rear part of axletree, which attaches the 
 limber to the carriage; pintle-Jwok key (29); axle; 
 wheels. The four trace-hookg arc sometimes at- 
 tached to the ends of the splinter-bar traces, which 
 are strong leather straps, parallel to the splinter- 
 bar; each works over two pulleys, attached to the end 
 and middle bands; the pulleys are wrought-iron disks, 
 turning on vertical bolts, passing through the rounded 
 ends of the bands, which project three inches beyond 
 the splinter-bar. 
 
 All caissons have the same external form, and, ex- 
 cept those for the ^-inch mitrailleur, the siime dimen- 
 sions. The caisson body (Fig. 3) consists of a frame, 
 mounted on wheels, which carries two chests, a spare 
 wheel, and other spare parts, tools, etc. The nomen- 
 clature of the caisson body is as follows: stock (1), 
 or middle-rail; it has an iron lunette on its front end; 
 side-rails (^); front fool-board (3); rear foot-board (4); 
 middle-chest (5); rear-chest (6); spare-wheel axle (7); it
 
 FI£LD-CABBIAGES. 
 
 637 
 
 FIELD CASKIAGES. 
 
 has a fxxly, two riha. and chain and toggle (8) to secure 
 the wheel; there are also two stags for the axle; Im-k- 
 chains (9), fastened to lock-chain bridles under the 
 front ends of the side-rails, and held up by lack-chain 
 hooks fastened to tlie outside of the side rails; spare 
 pole (10); spare-pole key, key-plate, chain and pin (11); 
 the key -plate is fastened on the underside of the lu- 
 nette; the key is attached to the left side of the stock 
 by a ctiain and eye-pin; carriage-liook (12), for attach- 
 ing a carriage that has lost its limber; wheel-guard 
 
 the 12 pdr. carriage can be made of wrought-iron, so 
 as to be little if any heavier than the wooden carriage 
 used for niountin;; the 3-inch ritle-gun, but one carriage 
 will be required for the field-service. In this case 
 thimbles or washers will be required to tit the trun- 
 nions of the 3-inch gun into the trunnion-beds of the 
 12-p<lr. carriage. 
 
 The very large stock of wooden carriages now on 
 hand may delay, on the score of economy, the intro- 
 duction of wrought-iron carriages for some time to 
 
 ~^ 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 plates (13); spare-pole ring (14), held by the axle-strap; 
 ring-bolt (15) for spare luindspike; key-plate and keg, 
 on the right side of the middle-rail; key-jdate, chain, 
 and key (16), for the .shovel-handle, or the inside of the 
 right side-rail; middle a^semhling-bar (17), of iron; it 
 has two ears in the middle to serve as stay-plates for 
 the middle chests, and a slot (18) for the axe on the 
 right of the middle rail; rear assembling -bar (19); it 
 supports the spare-wheel axle, and h;is a slut (20) for 
 the pickaxe on the left of the middle-rail. Axle, 
 the aJ-k-lmdy (21) being notched to receive the middle 
 rail and tenoned to fit into the notches in the side-rails; 
 staples for tool-handles (22); they are driven into tlie 
 top of the axle-body, in front (>f the iron axletree, one 
 for the slMveUiandlti near the rifcht side-rail, the other 
 for the handle of the pickaxe on the left of the mid- 
 dle-rail. Whci'ls. 
 
 The Ordnance Department has recently made and 
 tested certain wrought iron field and sieire carriages. 
 The principal iinprovcincnts aimed at in one of the 
 patterns of field-carriages on the wooden carriages 
 
 come; but that such carriages can he made superior 
 to wooden ones scarcely admits of doubt. 
 
 A iistria.— The 3.42-inch j^m-carriage (Fig. 4) is com- 
 posed of two cheeks of sheet-steel .24 inch thick, re- 
 enforced around the edge by an angle-iron .275 inch 
 thick, the flange turned inward. The cheek-plates are 
 parallel for a short distance in rear of the axle; from 
 that point they converge to the end of the trail, where 
 they are secured to the lunette. The cheek plates are 
 joiiiccl by two sheet-iron transoms toward the front 
 end, and' between them a cylindrical transom under 
 the trunnion-beds; near the middle is a sheet-iron 
 tran.som forming one end of the tool chest; and the 
 l)olt.s passing through the principal irons. In order 
 that the piece niav not be too low, and to a.ssurc its 
 having a sufficient'ly wide field of fire, the trunnion- 
 beds have been raised considerably above the axle, 
 and carried well forward. 
 
 The axle is cvlindrical, of steel, with shoulders for 
 the cheeks, to which it is secured by solid bands and 
 understraps. It is provided with two seats, like the 
 
 Fio. S. 
 
 now in use are: 1. Lightness and cheapness. 2. Plac- 
 ing the pintle about two feet in rear of the limber 
 axletree, so that the trail of the gun-carriairc sliall 
 counterpoise the weight of the pole, and thereby re- 
 lieve the shoulders of the wheel-horses which have 
 now to support it. 3. Brindm: the Irunmon-bcds 
 nearer to the axletree, thereby diminisliini: the lialal- 
 ity of overturning the carriage in traveling. 4. Allow- 
 ing no part of the carriage to project Iwlow the plane 
 of the axletrees. This is found necessary to prevent 
 the breaking of the implement-fastenings in passim,' 
 over stumps, stones, etc. 5. More convenient modes 
 of carrying the rammers and trail handspike. 6 
 
 As 
 
 Prussian carriage, and is braced to the trail by two 
 rods just inside of the shoulder-washer. 
 
 The elevating-screw is composed of two screws, 
 one within the other. The outer one, which works 
 in a fixed nut between the cheeks, has a rim-handle 
 for turning it. The head of the inner screw is hinged 
 to two iron rods secured to the cheeks. The trail- 
 handspike is secured to the socket, which i.-; hinged 
 to the support, so that the himdspike can be turned 
 down on the tniil when it has l)een diseng-ajjed from 
 the poinling-rin-r. The wheels have melalHc naves, 
 and are smaller "than those in the United States ser- 
 vice; they are onlv •'52.7.") inches in diameter. Two
 
 FIELD CABBIAGES. 
 
 638 
 
 FIELD CABBIAGES. 
 
 shoes are used for looking tbe wheel, and for check- 
 ine the recoil in tiring. 
 
 The liniLer biCOM)|>ose(l of two trough-beams, 3.5 
 iuchfs by 3 iuches by .2 inch, secured ilirectly to the 
 axle by "understnii)s, and bent at tlic front so a.s to 
 form the fork; a transom and a socket for the pole 
 joins thcni in front; they arc connected in rear by an 
 iron bar phuwl on top, which supports the end "of a 
 double T-piece of iron, 2.75 inches by 2.36 inches, the 
 web 1.57 inch; this piece carries the pintle-hook. 
 The splinter-bar is round, hollow, fastened under the 
 fork by understraps, and si'curcd to the a.xle by iron 
 rods. The distance of the pintle-hook from the axle 
 is considerably greater than is necessary to balance 
 the pole, it would seem, an4 increases the weight of 
 the limber. The pt)lc is of wood, and can be readily 
 taken out or put in place. 
 
 The ammunition-chests are of sheet-steel M4 inch 
 thick, and arc di\i<led by a principal vertical parti- 
 tion into two parts. Each part is in turn divided 
 into six compartments by sheets of iron joined 
 together, and strengthened by angle-irons at tlieir 
 junctions. The projectiles are packed in light 
 wooden boxes, with cleats to keep tliem in place; the 
 cover is held closed by a simple hook, and a handle 
 is secured to it for withdrawing the box. The car- 
 tridges are placed in the compartments without doors. 
 The chests are closed by two doors, which swing 
 down around horizontal hinges placed on the lower 
 
 with 64 cartridges of 3.3 pounds, and 32 cartridges 
 of 1 pound for i)lunging tire. The cover of the chest 
 is i)rovided with a netting for carrying various arti- 
 cles. The advantages which result from this mode 
 of construction of the chest and the arrangement of 
 the doors arc so obvious as to make it needless to 
 point them out. 
 The weights of the pails are as follows: 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Carriage with the g:im and implements 2,364 
 
 Limber, packed 1,990 
 
 Caisson, packed 2,740 
 
 Gim with limber 4,255 
 
 Caisson, complete 4,731 
 
 Eiiifltiiid. — The cheeks are made each of a frame 
 of angle-iron of the required form, re-enforced l)y 
 welding to it at the place where the trunnion-beti 
 should come a solid piece of iron of a thickness equal 
 to the width of the angle-irons, and large enough to 
 cut out of it the semicircular recess for the trunnion- 
 bed, which is accomplished by means of a common 
 band-saw. To the inner side of this frame a plate of 
 boiler-iron of corresponding form is riveted. The 
 cheeks are joined by two iron plate transoms, one in 
 front and the other in rear of the axle-body, by two 
 bolts passing through iron pipes, and by the lunette. 
 The cap-squares are secured by a chin-bolt which 
 does not pass entirely through the cap-squares, and a 
 
 Fio. 4. 
 
 edge of the chest; they are secured by means of a 
 double turn-buckle attached to the principal ))artition, 
 and by hooks near the ends of the chest. The han- 
 dles or the chest are joined by a leather strap, and 
 the rear part of the cover has a network for holding 
 knapsiicks. Three cannoneers can be .seated on the 
 front part of the chest. The limber-chest carries 34 
 rounds, of which 10 are shrapnel and 4 canisters. 
 
 The construction of the cais-son is similar to that of 
 the limber. It is composed essentially of a stock 
 formed of two channel-beams 3.5 inches hisliand .2 
 inch thick, and two side-rails, also chann<'l-beams, 
 2.75 inches high and .2 inch thick, bent in front to 
 meet the stock, and joined at the rear bv an iron bar. 
 Tbe caisson is provided with a brake, the cross-piece 
 of which is a piece of round pipe suspended by a 
 hinge from the side-rails. The spare wlieel is earned 
 under the cais.son in a horizontal ]>osition. The spare 
 wheel-axle is attached to the slock bv a hinge a little 
 in front of the axle of the rear wheels; the wheel is ■ 
 laslie<l to the body of tlie cais,son. 
 
 The ammunition-chest is constnicted like that of 
 the limber, but has doul)le the capacity. It is made, 
 we may sjiy, like two limber-<licsts, plaCed one in rear 
 of the other, and is dosed by 4 iloors, 2 in front and 
 2 in rear, oiKjning around the lower horizontal edge 
 of the chest. It contiiins 60 projectiles, 35 of which i 
 lire double shells, 20 shrapnel, and 5 incendiarj- shells, 
 
 pin which rvms through the cheek and a hole in a lug 
 welded to the under side of the cap-squares. 
 
 The elevating-apparatvis (Tig. 5), which is known as 
 the Whitworth pattern, consists of a long screw and 
 bronze female screw with a bevel-gear cut on its 
 lower surface. A spindle with a bevel-wheel on one 
 end pa.sscs through the right cheek piece, and has at- 
 tached to it a bronze hand-wheel by which the screw 
 is workeil. The female screw and bevel-whccl are 
 cont;iiiud in a wrought iron box having trunnions 
 which sujtport it l)etween the sides of tlie trail; the 
 journal-boxes are bf)lted on the inside of the trail- 
 pieces. The elevalingscrew admits of elevations of 
 21° and depressions of 4°. The lOpounder gun- 
 carriage has a trail-box of sheet iron, diWded into 
 two compartments, for holding the small tools. Its 
 cover is fastened by a hasp and turn-buckle. The 
 axle and axle-body are of iron, and constitute a beam, 
 in section a box-girder. The body is riveted to the 
 axle; and also to the cheeks, by means of angle-irons. 
 
 Two wooden boxes, strengthened by corner-irons 
 and provided with iron handles, are secured to the 
 axle iHidy, one on each side of the gun, and carry 
 each two rounds of canister. They also serve as seats 
 for two gunners. A step for their feel is fastened to 
 the box, and when not in \ise slides out of tlie way. 
 A lock shoe is used to check tlie motion of the car- 
 riage down hill, and the chain is arranged so as to
 
 FIELD CARRIAGES. 
 
 639 
 
 FIELD CARRIAGES. 
 
 allow the wheel, when it is desired to unlock it, to 
 run over the shoe, which is then picked up and hung 
 ou the carriage. 
 
 The wheels have bronze naves, which are in three 
 pieces, the pipe-bo.\ being of harder metal than the 
 two flanges. The felloes, of a.-^h, and tlie spokes, of 
 oak, ai'e made by machinery. The inner ends of the 
 *pokes are wedge-shaped, "and form when driven a 
 perfect arch around the pipebo.x. The tenons are 
 not of the same diameter throughout their length. 
 
 tionchests are the same as the side chests on the 
 limber, except in some of the leather fittings. A 
 lock -shoe is used, the same as for the gun. 
 The principal weights are as follows: 
 
 9-poun(Jer. Jft-potinder 
 
 Weight of Run-carriage, empty I. .300 lbs. 1.480 lbs. 
 
 Weight of gun-carriage, packed 2,320 lbs. 2,957 lbs. 
 
 Weijjbt on pintle-hook, without grunners. 140 lbs. 147 lbs. 
 
 Weight of limber, empty 1,235 lbs. 1,270 lbs. 
 
 Weight of limber, packed 1,731 lbs. 1,792 lbs. 
 
 Weight of caisson, empiy 2,725 lbs. lbs. 
 
 Weight of caisson, packed 4,530 lbs. 4,6fi0 lbs. 
 
 Fio. 5. 
 
 but are larger at the shoulder, and fit into the felloes 
 bored with two bits of different sizes. 
 
 The limber is formed of three futcliclls, an angle- 
 stay, a splinter-bar, and two stays, an a.xlt* a.\le-body, 
 ami pintle hooks, all of iron, "with foot-boards and 
 shafts of wood. To diminish the weight thrown on 
 the shaft-hor.se, the ammunition-chests are thrown 
 well to the rear, and held by four knees of T-irou 
 screwed to the rear side of the a.\le-bed. The limber 
 is fitted for single, double, and treble draught, and 
 for oxen. Three chests are carried on the limber. 
 Two of them are similar. They are all made of 
 wood, strengthened by comer-pieces of iron. The 
 side chests are partitioned off to carrj' 18 rounds of 
 ammunition. The center chest ha-s copper partitions, 
 and carries fuses, friction-primers, etc. 
 
 Germany. — The field-carriages arc provided mainly 
 by contract. Krupp makes the largest number. In 
 his last model (Tig. 6) the cheek and trail-piece, instead 
 of being strengthened by angle-iron riveted around the 
 outer edge, is made of steel, and has this flange set 
 up in a die while the metal is hot. The plates are 
 first rolled to about the size required, then cut to the 
 exact shape, heated to redness, and forced by means 
 of hytkaulic power into the die or former, which 
 gives them Uie required form; that is, about H inch 
 of the edge of the plate all around is turned up like 
 an angle-iron. This ncces.silates the provision of an 
 expensive former, but when it has been once prepared 
 the expense of making the cheek pieces is much 
 diminished, while their weight for a given strength is 
 considerably less than when the flange is riveted on. 
 
 The caisson is of iron, with the exception of the 
 foot-boards. The stock is formed of two channel- 
 beams. The spare wheel is carried on an arm se- 
 cured to two plates riveted to the inner sides of the 
 beams forming the stock, the plates lieing bolted 
 together with bolts having pipes over them between 
 the plates. A block of elm to act as a stay is riveted 
 to the stock. The cai.sson-body carries four ammu- 
 nition-chests and four under-boxes. The ammuni- 
 
 The cheeks are united by two plate transoms; that 
 near the head of the cheeks is cut out so as to allow 
 the gun to be depressed. The trail is further 
 slTcngthened by the two ends of the trail-chest and 
 the cover, which extends from the elevating-screw to 
 the lunette, and by the different assembling-bolts. 
 Each cheek is re-enforced by a system of braces 
 secured to the inner faces between the flanges, and 
 intended to prevent the trail from bending in firing.
 
 FI£LD-CABBIAOES. 
 
 640 
 
 FIELD CABBIAGES. 
 
 The axle is of tempered steel, and is cylinilrical in 
 the body. The nmis are coniciil, anil for a ilisiancc 
 arc liartonetl lo linKl the preasf. The linch-pin is 
 elliptiral, anil has a tlut head, which may be used as 
 a step The wheels have bronze naves, twelve spokes 
 and six felloes, of wood; their diameter is it') inches 
 (4 inches less than tlie model of 1864). The linch- 
 washer is covered by a molding of the nave. Leather 
 shoulder-washers aVe used to lessen the noise in 
 marching. Two iron connecting-rods join the a.xles 
 near the shoulder with the trail, strengthening the 
 former. In the Scenlimeler these rods carrv two 
 seats for two gunners. The seats are providecl with 
 a back of netting, India-rublxT springs to les.sen the 
 force of the shock going over rough roads, and a step 
 for the convenience of the gunners taking their seals 
 and to rest their feet on dunng the march. The car- 
 riage is provided with brakes, which are operated 
 during the march by the gunners mounted on the 
 axle-seats. The figure shows how these brakes arc 
 arranged; Ihey may be also used to check the recoil 
 in firing. 
 
 The elevating apparatus is composed of a double 
 screw, the inner one having a flat head with a hole 
 drilled in it. The breech rests on a bronze block, 
 which is embraced by the two rod -supports; they 
 turn around a horizontal bolt passing through the 
 cheeks near the head of the carriage. The head of 
 the inner screw is hinged lo the rods under the block. 
 The outer screw has a wheel-handle for giving the 
 elevation. A small chain attached to the trail chest 
 cover is used to place this wheel in its position, and 
 
 faces the gunner who is distributing the ammunition) 
 has two rectangular openings, each provided with a 
 dt)or, which opens by turning down toward the rear. 
 The doors are do.sed by means of hasps turning 
 around the edge of the cover. An iron arc with two 
 support-notches is attached to the right end of the 
 cover and serves to hold it open. 
 
 E.\i)erimental caisson.s made of iron are now being 
 tcsle(l with a view to their adoption. 
 
 The principal weights, in pounds, are as follows: 
 
 3.1 In. 3.lt4-in. 
 
 Weight of the enrriaee with trail-liandspike 1.080 1,167 
 
 \Vei^)it of the carriage with gun nod impleiueots 1,967 2,164 
 
 Weight of the trail on the ground 165 IBS 
 
 Weight of tlie limber not loaded 1,153 1,157 
 
 Weight of the ainniuuition 562 64B 
 
 Weight of the tools, implements, etc 253 258 
 
 Weight of the guu and carriage and limber with- 
 
 outgimners 3,968 4,277 
 
 Weight for each hor.se without gunners 660 712 
 
 Weight of the caisson loaded for the batteries.. 4,696 4,940 
 
 Jiuma. — This carriage is in its general construction 
 like those already described. The cheeks are made 
 of boiler-plate, .2') inch thick, and strengthened by 
 angle-irons riveted around the edge. The axle is 
 square in cro-ss-section, 3 inches, ami is strengthened 
 to resist the recoil of the gun by a flat bar of iron 
 bolted lo it, the bolts not passing through the axle, 
 but around it, and secured by nuts. 
 
 The wheels have bronze naves. Each felloe is 
 bolted to the tire by a bolt near each end. Under 
 the heads of each pair of bolts nearest each other is 
 an iron plate, let into the under side of the felloe, and 
 
 Fio. 
 
 prevent it from turning during the march. The nut 
 of the elevating-screw has trunnions which turn in 
 trunnion-holes in the cheeks. The 8-centimeter nun- 
 carriage will admit of elevations from 1.5° depression 
 to 18° of elevation, and the 9-centinieter carriage 
 from 15° depression to 16° of elevation. 
 
 Among the other irons of the carriiige may be 
 mentioned the trunnion-beds and cap-squares. These 
 last are held in place by a verlicjil toll, which passes 
 through the flange, and serves as a handle for the 
 man sealed on the axle. The iron pointing-bar on 
 the left cheek is movable around one of the lunette 
 bolts; it can be turned down to the rear, and re-sLs on 
 an iron fork on the cheeks. A ca.se for grapeshot, 
 with leather and felt lining, is on the left cheek, and 
 on the right a sponge-ring near the axle-seat, an<l a 
 sponge-socket near the lunette. A short rammer is 
 transported in the trail-chest. It is composed of a 
 wofxlen head and a hollow iron stall. It is used in 
 placing the projectile and carlridge in posilioii; th(^ 
 staff has a mark on it for this purpose. The staff 
 may l)e also used to open the breech w hen it sticks; 
 it is engaged in the handle as a key. 
 
 The whi-elH and axles of the limber are the same as 
 for the C4irriage. Two parallel hoiuids embrace the 
 pole at Iheir front end, and are joined at the rear by 
 a Inin.soni, to which the pintle-hook Ls fastened. The 
 latest pallern is made of iron, with the exception of 
 the wheels and pole. 
 
 The ammunition-chest is of sheet-iron, and has on 
 it two iron supjiorls for a leather back-slrap for the 
 gunners. The rear side (that is to say, that which 
 
 sendng as a washer to the bolt-heads, thus strengthen- 
 ing the wheel at the junction of the felloes. 
 
 The elevating-screw is a double one, and allows of 
 an elevation of 20 \ The carriages made ten years 
 ago were conslnicled with a top-carriage, which had 
 a lateral motion around a vertical pintle fa.stened to 
 the axle of the carriage. Hy this means the gimner 
 could iHiint the gun without depending upon the man 
 at the trail-handspike to give it tlie exact direction. 
 Experience showed, however, that the compliaition 
 of the part-s and the weakening of the carriage were 
 not compensated for by the advantages gained, and 
 this feature has been siqipressed in i he carriages of 
 recent construction. The lrail-hands]iike is of wood, 
 shod with iron, and made fast to a hinge on the trail 
 of the carriage, .so that it can be, when not in use, 
 folded biick on the trail. 
 
 The ammunition-cart is covered with sheet-iron, 
 and lined on the inside with coarse tow-doth, glued 
 to the wood. More recently the cjut has l)een super- 
 .seded by the caisson will! four wheels, drawn by 
 horses attached for draught as in our service. 
 
 Among the regular stores assigned to each battery 
 is a bra.s.s mold for casting new jackets on projectiles 
 which have been fired and recovered. The Kliivan 
 campaign developed serious objections to the leaden 
 coat, some of the pieces having been rendered tempo- 
 rarily unserviceable by the leading of the bore. To 
 prevent this in future, the lead-coaled ])rojeclilcs are 
 covered with a composition made of i."> parts of beef- 
 tallow, .'iO parts of common soap, and 'ii> parts of 
 parafllue, applietl with a brush. New projectiles are
 
 FIELD-COLOES. 
 
 641 
 
 FIELD-FORTIFICATIOK. 
 
 provided '.vith copper bands for filliDc the grooves 
 and imparting rotation. 
 
 Instead of woolen sponges for sponging the bore, 
 brushes are used; the bristles are held in place by 
 pitch. Brass-wire brushes have been tried, but their 
 use has been abandoned 
 
 The principal weights are as follows: 
 
 Gun, carriaee, and limber, ( 4,*W pounds for the 9-pounder. 
 
 loaded, pioiieei-s' tools and-^ .J.UbO pounds for the 4-pounder, 
 
 men's knapsacks included: / 3, CW pounds for horse-artillerv 
 Weight for each horse, in- f ^„ j , .u « 
 
 eluding five cannoneers, '•» pounds for the Opounder. 
 
 mounted on the carriage 1 »«" pounds f..r the 4-pounder. 
 
 and Umber: I ^™ pounds for horse-artillery. 
 
 France.— The French f]eld<'arriages resemble mucli 
 the latest pattern of Krupp"s carriage, in which the 
 cheek-piece and flange are one piece." 
 
 Sweden. — The Swedish carriage (Fig. 7) is made of 
 boiler-plate a little less than i inch thick, strength- 
 ened by angle-iron, both on the lop and bottom edges, 
 the angle-iron being turneii inward. 
 
 The elevating-screw is operated by means of a 
 second screw, which turns the female screw of the 
 former, thus raising or lowering the elevating-screw. 
 
 The limber has the jiintle some distance in rear of 
 the axle, thus serving to balance the pole and relieve 
 the weight from the horses' necks. 
 
 The hounds are made of two pieces of angle-iron 
 riveted together. See Emjkhardi G^iin-eam'age. 
 
 of the assailant should be swept not only by the 
 front but the cross tire of the assailed. 5. It should 
 olTer no obstructions to the free movements of the 
 a.ssailed either for the offensive or defensive, and 
 aiford facilities for active offensive movements at the 
 opportune moment. 6. It should have secure natural ' 
 points of support both on its Hanks and in the rear. 
 7. It should afford every convenience for encamping 
 and supplying the army. 8. Its lines of retreat should 
 be ample and secure. As natural defensive positions, 
 offering all or even the most essential of these advan- 
 tages, are seldom met with, their defects have to 
 be remedied by artiticial means. These means from 
 their object have received the nmnc (>{ JitrUJical ion, 
 which may tJicrefore be delined as t/ie art of so ar- 
 ranging a ponition selected for defeme that an inferior 
 force shall be able to remt with advantage the assaults 
 of one superior to it. If the artificial means are of a 
 durable character, and the position is to be perma- 
 nently occupied, the works receive the name of per- 
 inanent fortification ; but when the position is to be 
 occupied only for a short period, or during the oper- 
 ations of a campaign, perishable materials, as earth 
 and wood, are mostly used, and the works arc de- 
 nominated iemporary or field furtifcalhn. 
 
 Fortifications should be regarded only as an acces- 
 sory <lefensive means, but still a very important one, 
 and they will conduce to the end proposed the more 
 
 Profile ot Parapet and Ditch of Ordinary Field-fortiflcation. 
 
 A B C D E F the profile of Par- D E, the Superior Slope. 
 
 G HI k, is the Droflle of the 
 
 Ditch. 
 L M N, the profile of the Glacis. 
 A B is the Banquette Slope. 
 B C, the Tread of Banquette. 
 C D, the Interior Slope. 
 
 E F, the Blxterior Slope. 
 F G, the Berm. 
 G H. the Scarp. 
 II 1, the Hottom of the Ditch. 
 I K, the Counterscarp. 
 A, the Foot ot the Banquette 
 Slope. 
 
 B, the Crest of the Banquette. H, the Foot of the Scarp. 
 
 C, the Foot ot the Interior I, the Foot of the Counter- 
 
 Slope. 
 
 D, the Interior Crest. 
 
 E, the Exterior Crest. 
 
 scarp. 
 K. the Crest of the Counter- 
 scarp. 
 
 F. the Foot of the Exterior M, the Crest of the Glacis. 
 
 Slope. 
 G, the Crest of the Scarp. 
 
 N, the Foot of the Glacis. 
 
 FIELD-COLORS.— Small flags, about U foot square, 
 carried along with troops for marking out the grotmil 
 for tlie sqtiadrons and battalions; camp-colors. 
 
 FIELD-DAY. — A term employed when a regiment 
 is taken out to the field for the purpose of being in- 
 stnictetl in the field-exercise and evolutions. 
 
 FIELDED. — A term formerly used to imply in the 
 field of battle, or encamped. The word is now obso- 
 lete. 
 
 FIELD-FORTIFICATION.— When an armed force 
 is constrained to art on the defensive, either from in- 
 feriority in numerical strength or discipline to its ad- 
 versary, it should endeavor to counterbalance this 
 disparity against it by selecting a position on which 
 to receive battle, which will afford every militarj- 
 advantage to itself, and prove, in a corresponding 
 degree, unfavorable to the as.sjiilant. A defensive 
 position to afford these advantages should satisfy the 
 following conditions: 1. It should present natural 
 obstructions to the advance of the assailed, so as to 
 deprive him of the advantage which his superiority 
 in numbers or discipline would give him in a hand- 
 to-hand conflict. 2. The features of the groimd 
 should screen the a.s.sailed from the assttilanf's view, 
 and offer covers from the a.s.siiilant's fire, whilst their 
 own fire can be u.sed with full effect. 3. It should 
 command or overlook the ground over which the 
 assailant will be obliged to advance, in such a man- 
 ner that its surface will be swept by the fire of the 
 assailed. 4. In like manner all the lines of approach 
 
 nearly they are made to satisfy the foregoing condi- 
 tions of a strong defensive position. To satisfy the 
 first three of the.se conditions — viz., to offer an ob- 
 struction to a hand-to-hand conflict; to shelter the 
 assailed from the view and fire of the as.sailant; and 
 to afford the assailed a commanding view and a 
 sweeping fire over the assjtilanfs lines of approach, 
 fortifications must consist of a covering mass of 
 earth, stone, wood, or iron of sufficient height and 
 thickness to screen the men behind it from view, and 
 to intercept the missiles of the a.s.sjiilcd, and of some 
 obstruction in advanceof it which will prove a serious 
 obstacle in the way of the as-siulant's advance. 
 
 The covering mass is termed a parapit when it fvd- 
 fills the last two of these conditions; when intended 
 simply as a screen, as in the case of a cover for cav- 
 alry when waiting to be brought into action, it is 
 termed an epaiilement ; and when used to cover troops 
 from an enfilading fire pn the flank or in the rear, a 
 trarer.ie. 
 
 The most usual obstruction to impede the enemy's 
 advance to attack with the bayonet is a ditch placed 
 in front of the parapet. AVhen the parapet is of 
 earth, the ditch furnishes the material for its con- 
 struction. The drawing shows the form and rela- 
 tive dimensions of the "profile of the parapet and 
 ditch of an ordinary field-fortification. When the 
 top surface of the platform, termed the banquette 
 tread is too high to be reached from the givund 
 by an ordinary step, a ramp, either of earth or tim-
 
 riELD-GLASS. 
 
 642 
 
 FIELD OFFICER'S COUET. 
 
 ber, is plawd in the rear of it, Ijy which it is reached. 
 This ranip is called the banquette sh>iH. The interior 
 face of the parapet, when arranged for musketry, 
 is termed the brttint/uii/fit or interior sIojm- ; wlien 
 for artillery, the geuouilllre. The top of the paraiJet 
 ' is the >iip< rior shin. The exterior face is termed the 
 exterior fhpe. Between the parajxjt and ditch a nar- 
 row zone is usually left on the natund surface of the 
 f round, which is iernied the berm. The side of the 
 itch adjacent to the parapet is termed the scarp; the 
 side oi>posite to this, the counterscarp. A mound of 
 earth placed in front of the counterscarp, with a gen 
 tie slope outwards, is termed the glucix. To obtain 
 speedy coyer, the parapet is formed from a ditch 
 . vrithiii, termed a trench, of sufficient depth, ^yith the 
 height of the parapet, to giye shelter to the troops 
 when standing in the trench. The natural ground 
 serves as the banquette tread in this ca.se. 
 
 The measures taken for the attack and defense of 
 fortifications have an interdependence so intimate that 
 the disposition* made by the one party naturally con- 
 trol those that the other may make. The assailing 
 force naturally seeks to advance on those points which 
 offer the least obstruction, either by their passive 
 strength or by the fire which sweeps the ground over 
 which the advance has to \k made. The most favor- 
 able case for the assailant will be where no lire from 
 the a.s.s;uled sweeps over the ground along which he 
 advances; the next is where, although the missiles of 
 the as.sailed sweep above the approach, they pas<5 so 
 high above the assailant as to iutiict no in.iu'ry. See 
 Field-intrcnchments, Field-works, Flanked Disposition, 
 Fortification, Inclosed Works, Line of Works, Projil- 
 in<], aiul Tracing. 
 
 FIELD-GLASS.— The double or binocular telescope, 
 constructed ojitically on the principle invented by 
 Galileo, and designed to give clear and distinct views 
 of natural scenery by sea or land. Each tube of 
 the glass contains a convex or magnifj-ing achro- 
 matic object lens and a concave or negative eye- 
 lens, which are placed at nearly the distance of their 
 focal length apart. Thus, if the object lens is of 
 five inches focus and the eye-lens of one inch nega- 
 tive focus, the length of the bodies will be about four 
 inches and the power will l)e about five times. To 
 obtain a greater magnifying power with glasses con- 
 structed on the Galilean principle, the distance be- 
 tween the object- and eye- lenses must be inerea.sed 
 until the limit of convenient portability is reached, 
 which is found to be about ciglit times. If it be de- 
 sired to a)iply the principle of binocidarity to higher 
 powers, an onlinaiy refracting telescope nmst be em- 
 ployed. The field- or 
 marine-^lass being in- 
 tended lor all out-door 
 use, and being necessa- 
 rily employed in hazy 
 weather or after night- 
 fall, is constructed with 
 large object-lenses for 
 the light-gathering, and 
 with shades to extend 
 beyond both the object- 
 glasses, to shield the 
 Ci.-m FielJ-glass. i.„ter from sun or rain. 
 
 Their frames arc made very substantially, to endure 
 the rough handling to which they may be subjected, 
 and they are earrieilin strong sole-leather ca.ses, with 
 strai)S tor slinging over the shoulders. But they are 
 bulky and heavy, rendering it very desirable that a 
 gla.sscombining "their good ((ualities with greater port- 
 ability and lightness should be procurable for many 
 purposes. Tiiese desiderata are fully realized in the 
 Gem, a glass manufactured by Walmsley & Co., and 
 largely issued by the I'nited States Government to of- 
 ficers serving on the Plain.s. 
 
 FIELD-GUN. — A small kind of gun or cannon used 
 on the battle-field. Often called a fleld-piece. See 
 Field-artilli rt/. 
 FIELD-HO'SPITAL,— The Staff and apparatus for 
 
 the surgical treatment of the wounded in the field, 
 and the locality a.ssigned for the resort of the latter 
 to obtain it. In the United States there is a hospital 
 at every military post, under the superintendence of 
 the Medical Department. In the Freiuh army the 
 service of the field-hospitals forms part of the inten- 
 dance of the army, the Medical Ollicers in charge 
 being under the s"upreme control of the Intendant 
 General, See Jloxjiitnh. 
 
 FIELD INTRENCHMENTS.— When positions are to 
 be taken up and lines ol intrenchments or iletachcd 
 works are to be construcled, it is the duty of artillery 
 ollicers, in co-o)5eration with those of engineers, to se- 
 lect positions for batteries and determine the kind and 
 amount of armament therefor. It is therefore neces- 
 sary that they shoidd be thoroughly conversjmt with 
 the i)rinciples of military engineering, and especially 
 those ol ficld-iulrenchinents. The object of every for- 
 tification is to shelter the troops occupying it from the 
 view and fire of an as.sailant, and at the sjimc time to 
 all'ord them a conunanding view and sweeping fire 
 over their enemy. Earth is the principal material 
 employed on land for resisting the fire of artillery. 
 Wood, iron, and masonry are used in conjunction 
 with it, principally for sustaining purpo.ses. As a 
 material for fortifications, earth po.ssesses advantages 
 over all other, being found read}' at hand in almost 
 all localities where wanted for such purposes, being 
 easily handled, and possessing unrivaled properties 
 of resistance as a covering mass against projectiles. 
 
 Field-iutrenchments may be classified as follows: 
 1. Intrenched camps; 3. Intrenched lines of battle; 
 3. Detached works; 4. Lines of works; ,'5. Works 
 auxiliary to permanent fortifications; 6. Works for 
 siege-operatious. So far as artillery is concerned, the 
 first object to be con.sidered is position, the general 
 principles of which are the same for each of the above 
 classes, and which may be briefiy stated as follows: 
 1. Artillery should, if possible, overlook all the 
 ground within range over which an enemy might ad- 
 vance, and the pieces be .so placed as to sweep the en- 
 tire surface with their fire, those of longest range oc- 
 cupying the most commanding positions. 2. All the 
 lines of approach of the assailant should be swept not 
 only by the frontal, but by the flank or cross fire of 
 the assailed. 3. The features of the ground should 
 screen the a.ssailed from the assailant's view, and af- 
 ford cover from his fire whilst that of the assailed 
 can be delivered with full effect. 4. The position 
 should, if po.ssible, present natural obstructions to the 
 advance of the assailant. 5. It should offer no ob- 
 structions to the free movements of the assailed, either 
 for the offensive or defensive, and should afford fa- 
 cilities for active offensive movements at the oppor- 
 tune moment. 6. It should have secure supports, 
 both on its flanks and in the rear. 7. It should af- 
 ford every convenience for encamping and being 
 sujiplied. See Field-fortification, Intrenched Camps, 
 and Intreiichnifnt. 
 
 FIELD MARSHAL.— The highest rank of General 
 OBicers in the British and other foreign armies. In 
 the former it is a special honor enjoyed by very few 
 oflicers, and only conferred by selection, either on the 
 ground of distinguished service or of royal birth. 
 \Vheii unemployed, the Field Marshal has no higher 
 pay than any other General, but if conunanding an 
 ariiiy he receives i'16 Si. »'/. a day forstalT-i)ay, while 
 a General has but fi) 9«. 0(/. Theequivalenl'rank in 
 the Navy is that of Admiral of the Fleet. Formerly 
 a ('aptain General was occasionally appointed, who 
 had rank liisrher even than a Field ^larshal. 
 
 FIELD OFFICER.— An officer above the rank of 
 Captain and below that of General. Thus a JIajor, 
 Lieutenant Colonel, or Colonel, whether of brevet or 
 regimental rank, is a Field Ofiicer, A Field Otticer 
 in the English army in conunand of his regiment re- 
 tains the command for five years, but can be re- 
 appointed at the will of the Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 FIELD OFFICER'S COURT.— In the United States 
 service, a Court-Martial consisting of one Field Officer
 
 flELD OF IH£ CLOTH OF GOLD. 
 
 643 
 
 FIELD-BEMEDIES. 
 
 empowered to try all cases, subject to jurisdiction of 
 Garrison and Regimental Courts. It takes the place 
 of the latter Courts in time of war, but cannot be held 
 in time of peace. See CourU-Mdrtial. 
 
 FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD.— A plain near 
 Guisnes, in the Department of Calais, France, where 
 Henry VIII. of England and Francis I. of France 
 held a conference in June, 1520. The Throne of 
 France was sought for by Charles I. of Spain (after- 
 wards Charles V.), and Francis sought the fricnd.ship 
 of the English King. To bring about such a result 
 Francis proposed to raise Cardinal AVolsey to the 
 Papacy. Wolsey brought about and conducted the 
 meeting, which was attended with so much splendor 
 of pageantry lus to give the peculiar title to the place. 
 The solemnities occupied nearly three weeks. Ten 
 days were spent in the feats of arms for which Wol- 
 sey had provided. There were tilting with lances, 
 and tourneys on horseback with the tjroadsword, and 
 fighting on foot at the barriers. The Kings were al- 
 ways victorious against all comers. On Midsummer 
 Day the gaudy shows were over. 
 
 FIELD-PARK. — The spare carriages, re.served sup- 
 plies of ammunition, tools, and materials for exten- 
 sive repairs and for making up ammunition, for the 
 ser\'ice of an army in the field, form the field-park, to 
 which should be attached also the batteries of re- 
 serve. See Park. 
 
 FIELD-REMEDIES.— Peculiar and local diseases 
 prevail in nearly every section of countrj'; and 
 wounds from gun-shot and weapons, bruised and 
 broken ijones, are casualties that may befall soldiers 
 in the tield at iuiy time. It is, therefore. Important 
 for all to have, in ca.ses of emergency, a sufficient 
 knowledge of medicine and practical surgery to en- 
 able them to relieve the sick and wounded until pro- 
 fessional aid can be secured. It is not necessary to 
 provide a very extensive collection of medicines, etc. 
 The list detailed for the weduine-chest will be found 
 suflicient. Many natural remedies piesent themselves 
 in all localities, and very .simjile modes of treatment, 
 if understood, will relieve much sutfcring The fol- 
 lowing remetlies and modes of procedure should be 
 carefully noted, as it is quite impossible to experience 
 even a brief ser\ice in the field, without the necessity 
 of resorting to .some of them: 
 
 Sciirrymay be prevented by employing the following 
 antiscorbutics: 1. Any fresh vegetables, wild onions, 
 fresh fruit, and even unripe fruit, with a risk of di- 
 arrhea. 2. Dried or canned vegetables, es|x'cially 
 potatoes and cauliflower. 3. Vinegar, citric acid or 
 lemon-juice. 4. Citrates, malatcs, tartrates and lac- 
 tates of potash, used in food or drink. !). Pure air, 
 exercise, and cleanliness. 6. Tincture of chloride of 
 iron, taken daily, or infusion of hemlock-leaves. 7. 
 Raw potatoes and fresh raw meat. Mahiria should 
 be promptly checked. Quinine in sufficient doses is 
 the remedy. A halt to the leeward of a marsh or 
 swamp should be avoided. A camp on low ground 
 is often less tiffected by malaria than the low hills 
 that overlook it. Violent exertion, resulting in ex- 
 haustion and perspiration, often averts an attack, and 
 any simple aperient is likewise good. Diarrheti may 
 bo treated with an ounce of castor-oil and fifteen drops 
 of laudanum suspended in water. The patient should 
 eat neither bread nor meat, but confine liis diet to a 
 little rice-broth, thickened milk, and the like. If it 
 is accompanied by severe cramps, apply hot rocks or 
 pans to the feet and hot fomentations to the stomach. 
 PoiaoMd persons must be treated with the greatest 
 caution, inasmuch as it is necessary to deal with dan- 
 gerous remedies. Some poisons are best ejected by 
 vonuting, and an emetic should be promptly given; 
 in others, the action on the stomach may be dimin- 
 ished by oily and mucilaginous drinks, such as mag- 
 nesia, milk and oil, barley-water, flour and water, and 
 raw eggs. For poisonous acids, such as nitric, ox- 
 alic, muriatic, or sulphuric acid, avoid emetics. For 
 nitrate of silver, give plenty of salt water, followed 
 by barley-water or gruel. For strychnine, narcotic 
 
 poi.sons, opium, mushrooms, belladonna, etc., give 
 strong emetics at once, ix)ur cold water on the head, 
 neck, and shoulders, place mustard-iwultices on the 
 feet, and keep the person moving about, giving strong 
 coffee as a stimulant. Water should always accon^ 
 pany the emenc, to make the vomiting easy, and 
 gieat effort made to i)re\ent the patient from becom- 
 ing drowsy and stupid. A charge of gunpowder 
 swallowed in water, mustard in hot water, or wann 
 soapsuds are prompt emetics. In the ab.sence of ;dl 
 these, a careful tickling of the throat often docs the 
 work. The following are good poultices: Muitard- 
 jx/iiltice — two ounces powdered mustard, two ounces 
 linseed-meal, eight ounces boiling water; Charcoal- 
 poultice — one third ounce charcoal, two ounces bread, 
 one ounce lin.seed-meal, eight ounces lx)iling water. 
 For suffucittioii by f/asee, ttr., remove the patient to 
 pure air, ai)ply cold water to the face and chest, rub 
 the body briskly, give hot coffee or spirits, and eu- 
 deavor to induce artificial respiration. 
 
 For sort- and blistereil feet, undiluted whiskey and 
 melted tallow rubbed on the foot, which is afterwards 
 covered with a sock, act well. Great relief is found 
 in tepid bathing, a small quantity of alum or salt 
 being dissolved in the water. The feet should Ije 
 washed daily, while on the march, and both the feet 
 and inside of the stockings should be well soapetl. 
 In severe cases of soreness, a raw egg broken in the 
 boot before putting it on is a splendid antidote. Blis- 
 ters of the feet should not be opened, but a thread 
 should be drawn through them and the liquid allowed 
 to run off. If the foot-soreness is simply owing to 
 bad boots or .socks, relief mav be often found by 
 changing the boots and socks from one foot to the 
 other, and turning the stockings inside out. Chafing 
 is remedied by keeping the parts clean and powdering 
 with fuller's earth. Sprains are relieved by hot fo- 
 mentations and by rugs kept saturated with cold 
 water and bound roimd the (larts. Burns and scalds 
 are treated by keeping tliem from exposure to the air 
 and apjilying carron-oil (a mixture of equal parts of 
 oil and lime-water), flour, orscrajied jiotatoes. l<now- 
 hliiidness is an affection to be met with in all locali- 
 ties where there are glaring sheets of snow. Some 
 persons are simply blind, others experience great pain, 
 the lips chapping, and the face and exposed parts 
 severely blistering. A person having once experi- 
 enced snow-blindness is subject to frequent attacks. 
 Green or blue glasses and a green-lined broad-brimmed 
 hat give to the eyes inotection. In the absence of 
 ghisses, wet powder and grease, or charcoal, smeared 
 on the nose and alxiut the eves, will afford much re- 
 lief. A few drops of opium, in tincture, l)laced 
 within the eyelitls will also afford relief. Water and 
 weak brandy is an excellent eye-wash. For sunstroke, 
 remove the collar and stock, loosen the shirt and 
 coat, and continue to throw cold water on the head 
 and spine until consciousness returns. For wasp and 
 scorpion stings, etc., extract the sting, if it remains in 
 the wound, and rub acetic acid, the nicotine from a 
 pipe, or chewed tobacco, upon the wound. 
 
 Rattlesnakes and venomous reptiles are met with 
 in most localities, and their bites are of frequent oc- 
 currence. As an antidote the Western mountaineers 
 of America place great deiiendence on strong wliis- 
 kc}'. The action of the i)oison seems to counteract 
 the effects of the whiskey, and a very large quantity 
 may be taken without causing intoxication. Ko time 
 should be lost in administering the spirits. Harts- 
 horn applied externally and taken internally, in small 
 doses, is a good remedy. Plaintainleaves finely 
 chewed and applied to the wound, after sucking out 
 the poison, are also good. Pulverized indigo made 
 into a soft poultice will draw out the poison when 
 applied to the wound. The poison turns the indigo 
 white. When the indigo ceases to change color it is 
 a sign that the poison has lieen withdrawn. In the 
 absence of antidotes, lie a ligature as firndy as possi- 
 ble above the wounded part, suck the wound, if the 
 mouth and lips be free from sores, and caustic it. If
 
 FIELD SERVICE. 
 
 644 
 
 FIELD SERVICE. 
 
 no caustic be at hand, explode gunpowder into the 
 wound, or burn it out with the end of a luiyoiu't or 
 niinnxl liealod to a wliitc heat, avoidini; the arteries 
 Vso every elTorl to prevent the patient from fallin;,' 
 into tlie ielliarjry an<l drowsiness that always follow. 
 The folhnvini; eriiel eourse is often taken by the In- 
 dians of the Northwest in treating a poisonous bile; A 
 bird or animal with a (luiek eireulation of the blood 
 is secured, an ineision is made into the tlesh of the 
 creature and placed in coulael with the wound. The 
 bird or animal soon dies. This is repeated several 
 times until the contact jiroduces no cfTect, when the 
 victim is consideritl out of all danger. A bandage is 
 generally placed between the wound and the heart to 
 prevent the return of venous bUxxl. 
 
 The following is the proper treatment of the ap- 
 parently dead from intense cohl: Hub the body willi 
 snow, ice, or cold water. IJestore wanulh LfraiUially ; 
 and after some time, if M<cessary, employ llie means 
 recommended for the drowned. In these accidents 
 it is very dangerous to apply heat too early. In order 
 to restore the natural warmth of the body, move a 
 heated warming pan over the back and sjiine, and rub 
 the body briskly willi the hands. To restore breath- 
 ing, place the i)ipe of a conunon bellows (wlien jiro- 
 curable) into one nostril, carefully closinir the olher 
 and the mouth; at the sanu- time push gently down- 
 wanls and backwards the upjier i>art of the windpipe, 
 so as to allow a freer adnussion of air; bluw the bel- 
 lows gently to inllate the lungs, until the breast be 
 slightly raised; the mouth and nostrils should then 
 be .set free, and a moderate ]iressure with the hand 
 brought to bear upon the chest. Kepeat this process 
 until life n)ipears. Any of the following may be 
 useful helps; 1. The application of sal-volatile or 
 hart.shorn to the nostrils. 2. The early employment 
 of electricity by a skillful person. 3. The injection 
 of half a jiint of warm brandy and water, or wine 
 and water, into the stomach. See Medicine-cJieiit, Mil- 
 iUini Siiir/i ri/, Sirinitniiif/, and Wounds. 
 
 FIELD-SERVICE.— In' the United States, the forma- 
 tion by divisidns is the basis of the organization and 
 administnilion «( armies in the field. A division con- 
 sists usually of two or three brigades, either of infantry 
 or cavalry, and troops of other corps in the necessary 
 proportion. A brigaile is formed of tno or more regi- 
 ments. As the troops arrive at the rendezvous, the 
 General Commanding-iu-C'hief organizes them into 
 brigades and divisions. Brigades in divisions and 
 di\'isions in corps receive jxTinanen' numerical desig- 
 nations, as first, second, and third. In a single army, 
 corps are designated in like manner. It Ihirc be more 
 than one anny , corps are nund>eied C()nscculi\ely from 
 the tjrst to the last one organized. In reports of mill 
 tary o|)crations, brigades and divisions are designated 
 by the name of the Genend commanding them. The 
 Grcneral C'ommanding-in-('hief assigns the (Jcnerals of 
 diWsionsandof brigades to I lieir respective commands, 
 when the assignment is not made by the Department 
 of War. The General of Brigade' inspects his troops 
 in detail, by companies, when he takes the command 
 and at the opening of the campaign, and as often as 
 may be necessiiry to ascertain exactly their condition. 
 The General of Division makes similar inspections 
 whin he thinks projjcr. At these inspeelions tjie 
 Generals examine the arms, (-lolhing, ecjuiinnents, 
 harness, horses, etc., direct the necessary repairs, and 
 designate the men and horses to remain in depot or 
 march with the train. Staff OITicers, and Ollicers of 
 Engineers, Ordnance, and Arlillerv, according to the 
 nature of the service, are a.ssigneil to the head(|Uarlers 
 of armies and divisions, and ilelached lirig;ides, by 
 order of the General C'onunanding-in-Chief, when the 
 distribution of these ollieers has not been reg\dated by 
 the War Department. The necessjiry Staff is also 
 a.s.signpd to Commanders of Brigades. The report of 
 the Onicer of Engineers embraces plans of military 
 works executed during the campaign, and, in case 
 of siege, a journal of liie attack or (lefen.st\ 
 
 At the oixMiing of a campaign, the Commander of 
 
 an army determines and announces in orders the 
 number of orderlies, mounted or foot, for the Gen- 
 erals. Orderlies for Coips, Division, and Brigade 
 Conunanders of Infantry are detaileil from the In- 
 fantry, and are mounted; for Artillery and Cavalry 
 Commanders, from their commands. In marches, 
 the mouiUed orderlies follow the Gencnds, and per- 
 form the duty of escorts, or march with orderlies on 
 foot at the head of the division or brigade. The Staff 
 Officer who distributes the orderlies to their posts 
 sends with them a note of the time and place of de- 
 parture; those relieved receive a like note from the 
 Staff Officer at the headquarters. 
 
 In active campaign, troops should be prepared to 
 bivouac on the march, the allowance of tents being 
 linuted, about as follows; For the headquarters of an 
 army corps, division, or brigade, one wall-tent to the 
 Conunanding General, and one to every two oflicers 
 of his Staff.' For the Colonel, Field, and Staff of a 
 full regiment, three wall-tents; and for eveiy other 
 commissioned officer, one slielter-tcnt each. For 
 every two non-commissioned officers, soldiers, offi- 
 cers' servants, and aiUhorized camp-followers, one 
 shelter-tent. One hospital-tent is allowed for office 
 jiurposes at corps heaihiuarters, and one wall-tent at 
 tho.se of a division or a lirigade. Hospital-tents are 
 for the sick and wounded, and, except tho.se allowed 
 for army ct)rps headquartei-s. should not be diverted 
 from their proper use. Officers' baggjige is limited 
 to blankets, one small valise or carpet-bag, and a 
 moderate mess kit. The men carry their own blankets 
 and shelter tents, and reduce the contents of their 
 knapsacks Jis much as possible. 
 
 Reconnoissances should precede the establishment 
 of a camp. For a camp of troops on the march, it is 
 only necessary to look to the health and comfort of 
 the troops, the facility of the communications, the 
 convenience of wood and water, and the resources in 
 provisions and forage. For an intrencheil camp, era 
 camp to cover a country, or one liesigned to deceive 
 th<' enemy as to the strength of the army, the ground 
 must be selected, and the camp arranged for the ob- 
 ject in view. The camping-party of a regiment con- 
 sists of the Regimental Quartermaster and Quarter- 
 ma.ster Sergeant, and a Corporal and 'wo men per 
 company. The General decides whether the regi- 
 ments camp separately or together, and whether the 
 liolice guard shall accompany the camping-party, or 
 a larger escort shall be sent. The watering-])laces are 
 examined, and signals placed at those that are dan- 
 gerous. Any work required to niiikc them of easier 
 access is done by the police guard or Quartermas- 
 ter's men. Sentinels, to be relieved by the guards 
 of the regiment when they come up, arc placed 
 by the camping-party over the water if it is scarce, 
 and over the houses and stores of provisions and 
 forage in the vicinity. If the eainping-iiarty docs not 
 lirecede llie regiment, the QuarUnua.ster attends to 
 these things as .soon as the regiment reaches the camp. 
 On reaching the ground, the infantry form on the 
 color front, the cavalry in rear of its camp. The 
 number of men to be furnishe<l for guards, pickets, 
 and orderlies; the fatigue-parties to be sent for sup- 
 plies; the work to be done, and the strength of the 
 working jiartics; the time and ])lace for issvies; the 
 hour of marching, etc., are then annonncetl by the 
 Brigadier Generals to the Colonels, .ind by them to 
 the Field Officers. The artillery is parked near 
 the troops to which it is attached, so as to be protected 
 from attack, and to contribute to the defense of the 
 camp. Sentinels for the park are furnished by the 
 artillery, and, when neeessjiry, by the other troops. 
 In the cavalry, each trooji moves a little in rear of 
 the point at which its horses are to be secured, and 
 forms in one rank; the men then dismount; a detail 
 is made to hold the horses; the rest stack their arms 
 and fix the pickcl-rope; after the horses arc attended 
 to, the tents are pitched, and each horseman places 
 his carbine at the side from the weather, and harigs 
 his saber and bridle on it. The standard is then car-
 
 TIELD-SEEVICE. 
 
 645 
 
 FIXLD-SEEVICE. 
 
 ried to the tent of tbc Colonel. The front of the 
 camp is iisimlly equal to the front of the troops. The 
 tent-sare arranged in ranks and tiles. The number of 
 ranks varies with the .streuL'th of the companies and 
 the size of the tents. Thi' Staff Oflicer ehurgcd with 
 establishing the camp designates the place for the 
 shambles. 
 
 When l)ivouackiug, the distance from the enemy 
 decides the manner in wliich the horses are to be fed 
 and led to water. When it is permitted lo unsaildle, 
 the saddles are placed in the rear of the horses. For 
 infantry, the tires are made in rear of the color-line, 
 on the groimd that woidd Ih? (x:eupied by the tents in 
 camp. The companies are placed around tlicm. and, 
 if possible, shelters are made. When liable to sur- 
 prise, the infantry should stand to arms at daybreak, 
 and the cavalry mount until the return of the recon- 
 noitering parties. If the arms arc to be tiiken apart 
 to clean, it must be done by detachments, successively. 
 When in cantonment, the Hegimental Commander 
 indicates the place where the command shall assem- 
 ble in case of alarm. It should generally be outside 
 the cantonment: the egress from it should be free; the 
 retreat upon the other positions secure, and roads 
 leading to it on the side of the enemy obstructed. 
 Near the enemy, companies or platoons shoidd be 
 collected, as much as possible, in the same houses. If 
 companies must be separated, they should be di\ided 
 by platoons or squads. When cavalry and infantry 
 canton together, the latter should furnish tlie guards by 
 night, anil the former l)y day. Troops cantoned in 
 presence of the enemy should be covered by advanced 
 guards and l)y natural or artiticial obstacles. Can- 
 tonments taken during a cessation of hostilities shoidd 
 be established in rear of a line of defen.se, and in front 
 of the point on which the troops would concentrate 
 to receive an attack. The General Commanding-in- 
 Chief assigns the limits of their cantonments to the 
 divisions, the Commanders of Divisions to brigades, 
 and the Commanders of Brigades post their regiments. 
 The position for each corps in case of attack is care- 
 fully indicated by its Conmianding Officer. 
 
 The General «ho establishes an intrenched post 
 gives to its Commander detailed instructions in re- 
 gard to its defense, and to the circumstances under 
 which the defense should cease. The Commander 
 reconnoiters his post; distributes the troops; posts the 
 officers and non-commissioned officers; forms a re- 
 serve; gives orders for all contingencies he can fore- 
 see, and arranges his troops so as to prepare them for 
 attack, day or night. 
 
 The grand dejiots of an army are establtshed where 
 the military operations would not expose them to be 
 broken up. Smaller depots are organized for the 
 divisions and for the several amis. They are com- 
 manded by officers tcmporarih' disabled for field- 
 service or by other officers if necessarj', and com- 
 prise, as much as possible, the hospitals and depots 
 for convalescents. When conveniently placed, they 
 serve as points for the hailing and assembling of de- 
 tachments. They receive the disabled from the corps 
 on the march; an<l the officers in command of the dc- 
 ix>ts .send with the detachments to the army those at 
 the depots who have liecome fit for service. In the 
 field verbal orders and important sealed orders are 
 carried by officers, and, if possible, by Staff Officers. 
 When orders are in writing, the place and time of 
 departure should be nuirked on them, and place and 
 time of delivery on the receipt. Dispatches, particn- 
 larly for distant corps, should be intrusted only to 
 officers to whom their contents can he confided. In 
 a countrj- occupied by the enemy, the bearer of dis- 
 patches should be accompanied by at lea.st two of the 
 best mounted men; should avoid "towns and villages, 
 and the main roads; rest as little as possible, and only 
 at out-of-the-way places. Where there is danger, he 
 should send one of the men in advance, and Ix- al- 
 ways ready to destroy his dispatches. He should be 
 adroit in answering questions about the array, and 
 not be intimidated by threats. The precise time when 
 
 the dispatch is sent off, and the rate at which it is to 
 l)e conveyed, should be written clearly on the covers 
 t>f all letters Iransmitteil by a mounted orderly, and 
 the nece-ssarj" instructions to him, and the rale of 
 travel going jmd returning, should be distinctly ex- 
 plained to him. The parole and countersign are is- 
 sued daily from the principal headquarters of the 
 command. The countersign is given to the sentinels 
 and non-eomtnissioned ofliccrs of guards; the parole 
 to the commissioned officers of guards. When the 
 parole and countersign cannot be comniunicate<l daily 
 to a post or delachnient which ought to use the same 
 as the main body, a series of words may be sent for 
 some days in advance. If the eoimlersign is lost or 
 one of the guard deserts with it, the Commander on 
 the spot substitutes another, and reiK)rts the case at 
 once to the proper Superior, that immediate notice maj- 
 be given to headquarters. 
 
 When the wants of the army absolutely require it, 
 and in other cases, under special instructions from 
 the War Deparlment. Ihe General Commanding the 
 Aimy may levy contributions in money or kind on 
 the enemy's country- occupied by the troops. No 
 other Commander can levy such contributions with- 
 out written authority from the (Jeneral Commanding- 
 in-Chief. 
 
 AVhile the general laws and necessity of war may, 
 in certain ca.ses, justify the seizure and conversion of 
 private property for the subsistence, transportation, 
 and other public uses of the army, yet the Rules 
 and Articles of War denotmce the severest penalties 
 against pillage, and the taking or appropriation of 
 property for private purposes, whether the offense be 
 committed wilhin the United States or in an enemy's 
 country. All property, public or private, lawfully 
 taken from the enemy, or from the inhabitants of an 
 enemy's country-, by the forces of the United States, 
 instantly becomes the public property of the United 
 States, and must be u.sed and accounted for as such. 
 It is forbidden to purchase horses without ascertain- 
 ing the right of the parly to sell. Estrays, in the ene- 
 my's country, when Ihe owner is not discovered, are 
 taken for the army. Officers are held strictly respon- 
 sible that all properly taken from alleged enemies by 
 them, or with their authority, is inventoried and duly 
 accounted for. 
 
 A police guard is detailed in each regiment daily, 
 consisting of two Sergeants, three Corporals, two 
 drummers, and men enough to furnish the required 
 sentinels and patrols. Ai\ advanced-post is detached 
 ! from the police guard, composed of a Sergeant, a 
 Corporal, a drummer, ami nine men to furnish senti- 
 nels and the guard over the prisoners. The men are 
 the first of the guard roster from each company. 
 The men of the advanced-post must not leave it un- 
 der any pretext. Their meals are sent to the jwst. 
 The advanced ]K)st furnishes three sentinels— two a 
 few paces in front of the post, opposite the right and 
 left wing of the regiment, posted so as to see as far 
 as possible to the front, and one over the arms. In 
 the cavalry, dismounted men are employed in prefer- 
 ence on the police guard. The mountetl men on 
 guard are sent in succession, a portion at a time, to 
 groom their horses. The advanced-post is always 
 formed of mounted men. The police guard and the 
 advanced-post pay the sjune honoi-s as other guards. 
 They take anns w"hen an armed IxKly approaches. 
 
 Deserters from the enemy, after being examined, 
 are secured for some days, as they may be spies in 
 disguise; as opportunities offer they are sent to the 
 rear; after which, if they are found lurking about 
 the armv, or attempting to return lo the enemy, they 
 are treated wiUi severity. The arms and accouter- 
 mcnts of deserters are turned over to the Ordnance 
 Department, and their horses to the corps in want of 
 them, after being bnuided. The enlistment of de- 
 serters from the enemy, without express permission 
 from Genend Headquarters, is prohibiti-d. Plunder- 
 ing and marauding, at all times disgraceful to stil- 
 I dieis, when committed on Ihe persons or property of
 
 TI£LD-S£BVIC£. 
 
 646 
 
 FIELD SEEVICE, 
 
 those whom it is the duty of the army to protect 
 iKOome crimes of such enormity as to admit of no re- 
 mis-sion of the awful ]niiiishinent which the military 
 law awards ainiiusl otTinses of this nature. 
 
 The picket^ is detailed daily after the details for 
 duty of the IJrst class, and from the next for detail 
 on "the roster of that chiss. It is designed to fur- 
 nish detachments and guards unexpectedly called for 
 in the twenty-four hours; it counts as a tour of the 
 first class to ihiise who have marched on detachment or 
 guard, or who have passed tlic nisht in bivouac. The 
 picket of a regiment is compcxsed of a Lieutenant, two 
 Serseants, four Corporals, a drummer, and about forty 
 privates. For a smaller force the picket is in pro- 
 portion to the strength of the detachment. The 
 picket is !i.sscmMcd by the Adjutant at guard-mf)unt- 
 ing; it is posted twelve paces in rear of the guard, 
 anii is inspected by its own Commander. 'When tlic 
 guard has marched in revieiv, the Commandant of the 
 picket marches it to the left of the police guard, 
 wliere it stacks its arms and is dismissed. The officers, 
 noncommissioned officers, and soldiers of the picket 
 are at all times dressed and equipped; the horses are 
 B.uldled, and knapsacks lUid vali-ses ready to be put 
 on. The picket docs not assemble at night except in 
 cases of alarm, or when the whole or a part is to 
 march; then the Officer of the Day calls the officers, 
 who call the non-commissioned otjicers, and the lat- 
 ter call the men; for this purpose each ascertains the 
 tents of tliosc he is to call. They are as.sembled 
 without beat of drum or other noise. At night, cav- 
 alry pickets assemble mounted. 
 
 The grand guards sliould cover the approaches to 
 a camp or cantonments Their mmiber, strength, and 
 position are regulated by the Commanders of Bri- 
 gades; in detached cori)s,"by the Commanding Officer. 
 When possible, the grand guards of cavalry and in- 
 fantrj' are combined, the cavalry furnishing the ad- 
 vanced sentinels. When the cavalry is weak, the 
 grand guards are infantrj', but accompanied by a few 
 cavalni- soldiers, to obtain and carry intelligence of 
 the enemy. The strength of the grand guard of a 
 brigade deiiends on its object and the .strength of the 
 regiments, the nature of the country, the position of 
 the enemy, and the disposition of the inhabitants. It 
 is usually commanded by a Captain. Grand guards 
 usually mount at the same time as the other guards, 
 but may mount before daybreak if the General of 
 Brig:ide thinks it ne^essarj- to double the outposts at 
 that time. In this case the)' assemble and march 
 without noise, and during "their march throw otit 
 scouts — a preciiution which should always be taken in 
 the tirst posting of a grand guard. The doubling of 
 guanls weakens the corj's and fatigues the men, and 
 should seldom be resorted to, never when preparing 
 to march or light. The Commander of a grand 
 guard receives detailed instructions from the General 
 and Field Officer of the Day of the brigaile, aiul in- 
 structs the Commanders of ihe small posts as to their 
 duties and the arrangements for defense or retreat. 
 If the small posts are to change their positions at 
 night, they wait until the grand guard is in position 
 and darkness hides their movements from the enemy; 
 tlien march silently and rapidly under the charge of 
 an officer. 
 
 In war, every Commander of a fortified place al- 
 ways holds himself impared with his plan of defense, 
 as if at any time lialile to attack. He arranges this 
 plan according to the probalile mode of attack; de- ' 
 termines the posts of the troops in the several parts 
 of the works, the reliefs, the reserves, and the details 
 of service in all the corps. He draws up instructions 
 for a ca.se of attack, and exercises the garri.son accord- 
 ing to his plan of defense. In sea<'oast works, he 
 provides the instructions for the different batteries on 
 the approach of ships. In framing his plan, he 
 studies the works and the exterior within the radius 
 of attack and investrrent, the strength of the garri.son, 
 the artillery, munitions of war, subsistence and sup- 
 plies of all kinds, and takes immediate measures to 1 
 
 procure whatever is deficient of troops or supplifs, 
 cither by requisition on the Government or from the 
 means put at his disposal. On the approach of an 
 enemy, he removes all houses and other objects, 
 within or without the place, that cover the approaches, 
 or interrupt the tire of the guns or the movements of 
 the troops. He a.ssures himself personally that all 
 posterns, outlets, embrasures, etc., are in proper state 
 of .securitv. He should he furnished, if possible, with 
 a plan of the works, showing all the details of the 
 fortifications and of the exterior within the radius of 
 attack; with a map of the environs within the radius 
 of investment ; with a map of the vicinity, including 
 the neighboring works, roads, water-channels, coasts, 
 etc.; with a memoir explaining the situation and 
 defense of the place, and the relations and bearings 
 of the several works on each other, and on the 
 approaches by land smd water — all which he carefully 
 preserves, ancl commimicates only to the Council of 
 Defense. 
 
 The Commander defends in succession the ad- 
 vanced-works, the covered-way and outworks, the 
 body of the work, and the interior intrenchments. 
 He IS not content with clearing away the foot of the 
 breaches, and defending them by abatis, mines, and 
 all the means used in sieges, but he begins in good 
 time, behind the bastions or front of attack, the nec- 
 essary intrenchments to resist assaults on the main 
 work. He uses his means of defeiLse in such manner 
 as always to have a reserve of fresh troops, chosen 
 from his best soldiers, to resist assaults, retake the 
 outworks, and especially to resist the a.s.saults on the 
 body of the jilace; and a reserve of provisions for the 
 last period of the siege, and of ammunition for the 
 last attacks. He endeavors in every case to compel 
 the besieging force to approach by the slow and suc- 
 cessive works of siege, and sustains at least one 
 as.sault on a practicable breach in the body of the 
 place. When the Commander thinks that the end of 
 the defense has come, he consults a Council of De- 
 fease on the means that may remain to prolong the 
 siege. But in all cases he alone decides on the time, 
 manner, and terms of the surrender. In the capitu- 
 lation he docs not seek or accept better terms for 
 himself than for the garrison, but shares their fate, 
 and exerts his best endeavors for the care of the 
 troops, and especially of the sick and wounded. Near 
 an enemy, daily reconnoissances are made to observe 
 the ground in front, and to discover whether the ad- 
 vanced-guards of the enemy have been increased or 
 put in motion, or anj' other sign of his preparation for 
 march or action. Reconnoitering parties should ob- 
 serve the following precautions: To leave small posts 
 or sentinels at iiitervals, to transmit intelligence to 
 the advanced-posts of the army, unless the return is 
 to be by a different route; to march with caution, 
 to avoid fighting; and see, if possible, without lieing 
 seen; to maintain an advanccd-gtiard; to send well- 
 mountecl nun ahead of the advanced-gtiard, and on 
 the flanks of the party; to instruct the scouts that no 
 two should enter a defile or mount a hill together, 
 but to go one at a time, while one watches to carry 
 the news if the other is taken. Special reconnois- 
 sances are made under the dircetioii of the General 
 Officer in command, by such officers and with such 
 forces as he may direct. Offensive or forced recon- 
 noissances are to ascertain witli certaintj' points in the 
 enemy's position, or his strength. They are some- 
 times preludes to real actions, and sometimes only 
 demonstrations. They drive back his outposts, and 
 sometimes engage special corps of his line. They 
 are only made by the order of the General Com- 
 mander-in-Chief, or the Commander of an isolated 
 corps. 
 
 The strength and composition of the escort of a 
 convoy depend on the country, the nature and value 
 of the convoy, and the dangers it may incur. A 
 larger escort is required for a convoy of [lowder, that 
 the defense may not be near the train. The advance- 
 guard precedes the convoy far enough to remove all
 
 FIELD STAFF. 
 
 647 
 
 FIELD-TELEGEAPHY. 
 
 obstacles to its advance. It examines the woods, 
 defiles, and villages, and by mounted men gives 
 information to the Commander, anil receives bis 
 orders. It reconnoitcrs places for halts and parks. 
 When the rear is threatened, the rear-guard defends 
 the ground and retards the enemj' by breaking the 
 bridges and blocking tlie road. If the flanks are 
 threatened, and the ground is broken, and many 
 defiles are to be passed, the defense of the convoy 
 becomes more ditlicult ; the advance and rear guarils 
 •must be reduced, the flanks strengthened, and i)osi- 
 tions which will cover the march of the convoy must 
 be occupied by the main body of the troops before , 
 the head of the convoy reaches them, and until it has \ 
 pas,sed. If the convoy is large, and has to pass 
 places that the force and position of the enemy make 
 dangerous, the loss of the whole convoy must not be 
 risked; it must pa.ss by tlivisioas, which reunite after 
 the passage. In this case the greater part of the 
 troops guard the first division; they seize the impor- 
 tant points, and cover them with light troops, or, if 
 necessary, with small posts, and hold them until all 
 the divisions have passed. On the appearance of the 
 enemy during the march, the Commander closes up 
 the wagons and continues his march in order ; he 
 avoids fighting ; but if the enemy seizes a position 
 that commands his road, he attacks vigorously with 
 the mass of his force, but does not continue the pur- 
 suit far from the convoy. The convoy halts, and 
 resumes the march when the position is carried. 
 When the enemy is too strong to be attacked, the 
 convoy is parked in square if there be room; if not, 
 closeil up in double file , at the front and rear the 
 road is blocked by wagons across it. The drivers are 
 dismounted at the heads of the horses. They are not 
 perniitfed to make their escape. The light troops 
 keep the enemy at a distance as long as possible, and 
 are supported when necessary, but prudently, as the 
 troops must be kept in hand to resist the main 
 attack. When a whole convoy cannot be saved, the 
 most valuable part may .sometimes be by abandoning 
 the rest. If all efforts fail, and there is no hope of 
 succor, the convoj^ must be set on fire and the horses 
 killed that cannot be sjived ; the e.scort may then cut 
 its way through. If the convoy be of prisoners of 
 war, every effort .should be made to reach a village 
 or strong building where they may be confined ; if 
 forced to fight in the field, the prisoners must be 
 secured and made to lie down until the action is over. 
 The wagons or pack-animals allowed to a regi- 
 ment, battery, or squadron should carrj- nothing but 
 forage for the teams, cooking-utensils and rations for ; 
 the troops, hospital stores, and baggage. One wagon, I 
 or an equivalent of pack-animals, to each regiment 
 shoulil transport exclu.sively hospital supplies, under 
 the direction of the Regimental Surgeon; the one for 
 regimental headquarters should carry the grain for 
 the officers' horses ; and the three allowed for each 
 battery or squadron should be loaded with rations 
 and forage in proper proportions for the same num- I 
 ber of days' supply of each. Stores in bulk and 
 ammunition should be carried in the regular or in 
 special supply-trains. In large conmiands the roads, ; 
 if possible, are left to the artillery and trains. The 
 order of march should state whether the troops or 
 trains have the right of way. The order for the 
 movement of the divisions, brigades, and regiments 
 contains the necessary directions in regard to the 
 assembling and marching of the respective trains. 
 The several trains march in an order analogous to 
 the rank of the Generals, and the order of battle of 
 the troops to which they belong. Trains are not 
 allowed in any case to be in the midst of the troops, 
 or to inijiede the march of the troops. Genend 
 Officers should not permit any General or Staff Officer 
 or regiment under their orders, or any person what- 
 soever attached to their command, to have more than 
 the a\ithorized amount or means of transportation. 
 For this inirpose they should themselves make, and 
 cause to be made, frequent reviews and inspections 
 
 of the trains. They should see that no trooper is 
 employed to lead a iirivate horse, no soldier to drive 
 a private vehicle, and that no trooper is put on foot 
 to lend his horse to an officer. They should not 
 permit the wagons of the artillery or of the train to 
 be loaded with anything foreign to their proper ser- 
 vice, nor any public horse, for any occasion, to be 
 harnessed to a private carriage. It is the duty of the 
 Jledical Director, or Chief Medical OfTicer, of the 
 army corps, previous to a march, and previoas to 
 and in time of action, or whenever it may be neces- 
 sary to use the ambulances, to issue the proper orders 
 for the distribution and management of the same, for 
 collecting the sick and wounded and conveying them 
 to their destination. And it is the duty of his assist- 
 ants faithfully and diligently to execute such orders. 
 
 If two corps meet on the same road, they pass to 
 the right, and both cf)ntinue their march, if the road 
 is wide enough; if it is not, the first in the order of 
 baffle takes the road, the other halts. A corps in 
 march must not be cut by another. If two corps 
 meet at cross-roads, that which arrives last halts if the 
 other is in motion. A corps in march pas.ses a corps 
 at a halt, if it has precedence in the order of battle, 
 or if the halted coi-ps is not ready to move at once. 
 A column that halts to let another column pass re- 
 sumes the march in advance of the train of this col- 
 umn. If a column has to pass a train, the train must 
 halt, if necessary, till the cohimn pa.sses. The col- 
 umn which has precedence mu.st jicld it if the Com- 
 mander, on .seeing the orders of the other, finds it for 
 the interest of the service. Dispositions for battle 
 depend on the immber, the kind, and quality of the 
 troops opposed, on the nature of the ground, and on 
 circumstances which if is impossible to anticipate; 
 and therefore the general disposition is left to the 
 judgment and discretion of Commanding Officers. 
 In making an attack, the communications to the rear 
 and for retreat should be secured, and the General 
 should give beforehand all neee.s.sary orders to pro- 
 vide for that event. During the fight the officers and 
 non-commissioned officers keep the men in the ranks, 
 and enforce obedience if necessary. Soldiers should 
 not be permitted to strip or rob the dead, nor even to 
 assist tlie wounded, except by express permission, 
 which is only to be given after the action is decided. 
 The highest "interest and most pressing duty is to win 
 the victory, by winning which only can a proper care 
 of the wounded be insured. Before the action, all 
 the necessary aiTangements are made for the trans- 
 portation of the wounded. Ambulance-depots are 
 established in the rear, and necessary instructions are 
 given for the service of the ambulance-wagons and 
 other means of removing the wounded. A General 
 Commanding in the Field or a Department makes 
 arrangements for the safe-keeping and reasonable 
 comfort of his prisonei-s. For this purpose he may 
 appoint a Provosf JIarshal to take charge of them, 
 and place them vmder a guard already on duty, or 
 detach a guard for the sjiecial service. The General 
 gives no order exchanging prisoners, or releasing 
 them, except under instructions from the Secretary of 
 War. In emergencies admitting of no delay he may 
 act upon his own authority, and give any order in re- 
 lation to his prisoners the public interest may reiiuire, 
 promptly reporting his proceedings to the ^\'ar De- 
 partment. 
 
 FIELD-STAFF. — A staff formerly canned by gun- 
 ners in the field, and holding lighted matches for dis- 
 charging cannon. It is no longer used. 
 
 FIELD STATE. — A statement made over to the 
 Superior or Reviewing Officer on parade, showing the 
 number of officers and men composing the troops, 
 distinguishing those present and absent (on whatever 
 accoimt in the latter case), all under their respective 
 headimrs. 
 
 FIELD-TELEGRAPHY.— The electric telegraph is a 
 novel element of war. En^and was the first to apply 
 it to military operations. During the siege of Sebas 
 topol telegraphic lines were established by the allied
 
 FIELD-TELEGBAPHY. 
 
 648 
 
 FIELD TELEGRAPHY. 
 
 armies, and later, during the Indian Mutiny, a first 
 attempt was made to orpmize a tield-tclegrapu, which 
 suceeetled aelmirahly under tlie direction of the laic 
 Captain Stewart of the Beniral Enjiineers. In 1859 
 the French army was accompanied liy a hirse /xrnoii- 
 11(1 iH-lonirini; to the civil teleirraphic administnition, 
 whose duly was to estahlish a service during the 
 marches. The war in America, and that between 
 Austria and Prussia in 18(i(i. showed convincingly the 
 imiHirtance of such an introduction into military op- 
 erations. Permanent lines on a large e.\tent were 
 established and worked l>y Ihe trotjps; all those that 
 e.xisted in the zone of operations of tlie armies were 
 seized. Trains of a special tieldnniterial followtni 
 each corps, lo Ix" used on the march, in cantonments, 
 and even on the tield of battle. In 1866 the Prus- 
 sian and Austrian armies employed, to a great extent, 
 telegraphic lines during the marches and maneuvers 
 that preceded Sadowa. The war of 1870-1871 is an- 
 other instance of the immense advantages that can be 
 derived from Ihe use of llie electric telegraph wlien 
 Well organized and employed. During the latter end 
 of the war, ManteulTel and Werder, operating in the 
 Ea.sl separately and on liitTerent lines, were able to 
 combine their movements and to receive direct in- 
 structions from the headtpiarters at Versailles by 
 means of the wire. The Telegraphic Department in 
 time of war may txidirided into two distinct branches. 
 The lirst comprehends the seizure and use of all per- 
 manent lines existing in the country in which the op- 
 erations are carried on. or, in Ihe ab.sence of these, the 
 creation of new lines of the same kind. The influ- 
 ence of the telegraph is very great, as it enables the 
 General in Command, as long as llie opposing armies 
 are concentrated, to transmit intelligence and direc- 
 tions between his headquarters and the rear of his 
 army, or between him.self and the Generals command- 
 ing wings. The organization and working of such 
 lines should keep pace with the rapid transport by 
 rail of troops and supplies. Whether already exist- 
 ing or newly created, it is considered as a general ride 
 that within the zone of operations an army should ex- 
 clusively dispose of all the lines indispensable for its 
 correspondence, and that tbe.se should be carefully 
 watched over, whilst those that are not neces.sary and 
 might fall into the hands of the enemy should be de- 
 stroyed. The second branch of this Department com- 
 prehends the transport, Ihe establishment, and the 
 ■working of mobile lines, known as Xhc jield-telef/raph. 
 These arc usi'd when the oppo.sing armies are in pres- 
 ence of each ^ ther, and on an extended f ron and in 
 cases when concentrated action is essential to success. 
 By the field-telegraph, corps d'armie are placed in in- 
 timate communication with each other, and are con- 
 nected with their base of oiieralions liy means of the 
 permanent lines. On the march Ihe telegraph can 
 easily be laid down as each colimm advances, and 
 thus th: Commander-in-Chief be placed in communi- 
 cation with the whole of his army. In certain cases, 
 •when circumstances permit of il,"the field-telegraph, 
 as was seen during the Indim Mutinv and later wars, 
 can l)e brought on the baltle-field, following clost^lv 
 the combatants. Lines of a light nature can move 
 easily with armies in Ihe field, and can subsequently 
 l)e replaced by others of a more solid material, called 
 Mtni-ptTtiinnent, if comnmnication is to be kept up 
 for.iny length of timi'. Field, .semi-permanent, and 
 permanent telegraphs dilTcr in materials and manner 
 of laying. The JitUi-Mfgrnph should Iw of such a 
 nature that it can be constructed or taken up at the 
 same rate as an infimtr>- regiment marches. The 
 S'ini-jk'rmiiiient Ulegrnph is construcled of more solid 
 material and substantial win-; its weight, including 
 the |V)les, should not exceed one ton per mile, and it 
 .should be of such a nature as lo lie laid at a rale of 
 from 20 lo 30 miles ix-r day for every 100 men em- 
 ployed. The wires are sus'iH-nded from ix)les, trees, 
 or m any other convenient mode. TJie ptriii'inint 
 ffleijraph can lie cimslnicled al the rale of 10 miles a 
 <lay. There is a point Ix'low which the electric tele- 
 
 graph ceases to be advantageous over other modes of 
 communicating intelligence, such as is carried on by 
 signaling and by mounted orderlies. The handing- 
 in, the Iransmitfing, and the recei\'ing of a telegram 
 require a certain amount of tine which may be longer 
 than that necessjiry for a mounled orderly to cross the 
 distance between the two places. The electric tele- 
 graph, therefore, should only be made iLsi' of for dis- 
 tances of eight miles and upwards. In England the 
 military telegraph is worked by a branch of the Koyal 
 Engint'crs, of which there is one troop. Al present 
 this troop is conqxised of three officers and 2-i!5 non- 
 commissioned officers and men; 12 wagons, each car- 
 rying 3 miles of insulated wire, rolled on 6 drums for 
 paying-out, and iron rods for carrying over roads. 
 A telegraph-troop forms 3 sections composed of 3 
 traveling offices, 3 general-service wagons, and 3 ar- 
 tificers' wagons. In time of war this branch of the 
 service would be placed, in each army cor]is, under 
 the immedi.ite control of a Director of Telegraphs, 
 with an assistant. His chief duty shoulil lie lo keep 
 up the communication between corps and divisions 
 and headquarters. He should never be without one 
 or two alternative lines, in case of accidents, and be 
 always prepared to alter and adapt existing Imcs. 
 Betw'een inqxirtant points there should be two or 
 more separate lines, remembering that the sole value 
 of telegraphs lies in their security. Every effort 
 should be made to watch over the telegraphic lines 
 u.sed by an armv in the field, and to (Icstroy those 
 of the enemy. Their destruction is easily executed; 
 and this duty generally devolves on cavalrj". It is 
 sufficient to pull down the poles, and to cut them in 
 several pieces, or carrj' away as much of the wire as 
 possible; to destroy the insulators as well as the in- 
 struments and batteries found in telegraphic st;ilions. 
 A non-conducting wire, having the outward appear- 
 ance of an oriliuarv wire, can be used also for destroy- 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 ing communication by splicing it to the electric wire 
 in one or two places along the line. The result will 
 be that all galvanic communication will lie stopped, 
 and it will be ditficult to discover where the break ex- 
 ists. In telegraphy, as well as in the other branches 
 of military art, it is important to be acquainted with 
 the resources of the countrj', and to tjike as much ad- 
 vantage of these resovuces as is possible. These are 
 obtained by means of reconnaissiuices, and note must 
 be taken of the plan and direction of all existing lines, 
 and the dvanlages that may accrue from them by 
 connecting them with other stations; tlie number and 
 kind of instruments used in the stations; whether the 
 roads to bo traversed by the anny are planted with 
 trees or posts on which the wires can be .set up; and 
 whether the neighboring woods can furnish timber 
 for the posts. 
 
 A.ssuining that the reader is unacquainted with the 
 iletjuls of telegraphy, we will briefly descrilH^ the con- 
 struction and operation of a field-telegraph. It is 
 from the action created in the battery that is first 
 generated the electric current, which, in field-teleg- 
 raphy, is made to traver.se long or short distances 
 through the conducting medium of metallic wires, 
 and this current of eleelrieily, so generated in the 
 battery, and so conducted through the wires, is then, 
 by means of the proper iastntments, made to give out 
 tangible signals, which. Ixniig arranged in the fonu 
 of an alphabet, enables us to read or speak as it were
 
 rrEID-TELEGKAPHT. 
 
 649 
 
 riELD-TELEGBAPHY. 
 
 from any great distance, ami tliis instantaneously; 
 for the electric current requires but a small fraction 
 of I seconil's time to travel many hundreds of miles 
 through the wires. 
 
 Where currents more powerful than can lie pro- 
 duced by a single cell are required, additional cells 
 are added by connecting either the copper or zinc 
 pole of the first cell to tlie opposite pole of the next, 
 and so on (Fijj. 1); so that in a scries of fifteen or 
 twenty cells, it the unconnected pole of the cell at 
 one end \ierc copper, that pole wouKl constitute the 
 copper pol'j if the entire battery, and the luiconuccted 
 zinc at the other end would be the zinc pole of the 
 entire battery. By connecting the end of a wire of 
 any length to the zinc or oppi'r pole of such a battery, 
 and its opposite end to th • remaining pole, a much 
 more powerful current would jiass through the wire 
 than if the battery consisted of but one cell. Tele- 
 STuph Companies' on their long lines u.se batteries of 
 from twenty to one hundred cells each. To i)ut the 
 battery in opera'ion, fill the gla.ss jar about two thirds 
 full oi water; place the copper in the bottom so that 
 it rests \: n arlv level as i)os.sil)le, and its wire pass- 
 ing straight up-.vard at one side of the jar. Then 
 drop alxiut half a pound of sulphate of cojiper into 
 the jar so the lumps will lie evenly on the bottom or 
 around and on the copper. Then "suspend the zinc so 
 
 this battery depends very much upon the position in 
 which the zinc is placed with reference to the cojiper. 
 To get the most active effect, lower the zinc to within 
 about an inch of the copiXT, taking care not to allow 
 a contact Ix'tweeu the two. To decrea.se the ixjwer 
 and render the batterj' more constant or la.sling, raise 
 the zinc farther tiway from the copper. Mention is 
 mad? of the use of wire as the means of conducting 
 currents of electricity from one pole of a battery to 
 any given point, and'thenee back to the opposite jjole, 
 making the " circuit," as it is called, complete. Cer- 
 tain substances are found to conduct electricity with 
 more or less facility, and thesi' substances are called 
 comluctors, while lliroiigli other matter no currents 
 whatever will pass. The latter class of substances 
 arc called non-conductors or insulating mediums. In 
 telegraphy there are used as comluctors, princijially, 
 copper, iron, bni.s.s, and platina. .iVs insulation, giit- 
 tapercha, hard and soft rubber, glass, silk and cot- 
 ton fiber, dry wood, bone and ivory. Iron in the 
 shape of wire is asually employed for outside con- 
 ductors, iK'cause of its durability, cheapness, and 
 strength, although it is not as perfect a conductor as 
 copper, which latter is generally u.sed for all wires 
 inside of buildings and offices. " In conducting cur- 
 rents of electricity from one point to another, as in 
 telegraphy, it is found necessary to use non-conduct- 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 that the body of the wheel is alxnit two inches above 
 the copper. As the battery dix's not at once begin to 
 act in it.s fullest strength when newly set up. it is well 
 to connect the copper with the zinc and leave it so for 
 a few hours before using. This is done by fjustening 
 the wire from the copper into the screw-post of the 
 zinc hanger, and will soon cause the battery to work 
 up sufficiently to be ready for use. The battery should 
 be kept supplied with enough sulphate of copper so 
 that a blue color can always Ik- seen in the li(|uiil at 
 the bottom of the jar, rising to within an inch of the 
 lower surface of the su.spended zinc. If it is found 
 that the blue color rises higher than this, it is thereby 
 indicateil too much su'.jjl'.ate of cnjiper is being use<I, 
 and no more should be put in until the blue has re- 
 ceded almost to the veri' bottom of the jar. The lat- 
 ter state of the battery indicates that more sul|ihaleof 
 copper is required. Water should be from time to 
 time added to that in the jar to replace the lass by 
 evaporation. Once in two or three months it will Ije 
 neccssixry to thoroughly clean the batteiT. Take out 
 the zinq carefully; then the copper in tiie s;mie man- 
 ner; pour the liquid into a separate jar, leaving Ix'- 
 hind the o.xiile and dirt which may have gjilliered in 
 the bottom of the jar. Wa.sh the latter out com- 
 pletely, and return to it the clean liquid which it had 
 in it before; put back the copper to its place; put in 
 a few crystals of sulphate of copper; clean the zinc 
 thoroughly by scra|)ing and wiushing, and return it 
 also to its place. The battery will then be in g(X)d 
 order, and should not be disturbed excepting when 
 necessary to clean it or add sulphate. The power of 
 
 ors wherever a fastening of the wire is made, in order 
 to prevent an escape of the fluid at these numcrotw 
 points. For this purpose gla-ss is principally used 
 for outside wires, the glass " insulators " being first 
 made fast to the iH)le or building, whereon the wire 
 is to be suspended by means of a wooden pin, or 
 " bracket," after which the wire is .strung and tied to 
 the glass with a short piece of iron "tie-wire." In- 
 side of offices hard and soft rubber tubes are u.sed 
 where the wires pass through the windows, and the 
 Clipper conducting-wires are us\ially covered with a 
 coating of gutta-percha, or wnip|>ed with a continu- 
 ous covering of cotton or silk. The latter is princi- 
 ]ially used as a covering for the wires inside the finer 
 instruments. For the handles or knobs to the various 
 instruments which require manipulation, hard rubl)er 
 is generally used. It is found that when one pole of 
 a battery is connected with the earth, and the wire 
 from the opposite pole carried to a point at any dis- 
 tance away, and also connected with the earth, the 
 current will flow as readily as though the "circuit"' 
 had been made complete by the use of a return-wire. 
 It is therefore shown that the earth is practically one 
 vast conductor. This is principally ilue to the fact that 
 moisture is cvenwhere iireseni beneath the surface 
 of the earth, anil water itself is known to be a very 
 fair conductor. Telegraph Companies make great 
 practical us<' of earth-conduction by using it in all 
 Ciises for their numerous lines, lx)th long and short, 
 thus saving the construction of a si'parate or return 
 wire on every circuit. .\ careftd reading of the fore- 
 going will have enabled the soldier to understand how
 
 FIELD TELEGEAPHY. 
 
 650 
 
 FIELD TELEGRAPHY. 
 
 currents of electricity are generated and made to 
 travel through space. The next feature of the study 
 will 1)0 the niemis which are employed to make these 
 cum'nts transmit sijrnals. The basis of the entire 
 telegraphic apparatus is the electro-magnet and the 
 transmitting ••key" (Fig. 2). The electro-magnet is 
 constructed as follows: Two bars of s<ift iron, liaWng 
 round heads of rubber or wooil, thus making spools 
 
 contact with another platina point set into an insula- 
 tion of rubber in the base of the key, so that there can 
 be no electrical connection between them unless the 
 key is pressed down, or " closed" as it is termed. A. 
 conducting wire being separated at any point, and 
 one of its ends connected with the lever or base of the 
 key, and the other end with the metal set into the 
 ruF)ber insulation, would convey the current while 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 of each, are fastened together by means of a short I 
 flat bar of iron similarly soft. The round bars iu the 
 spools of the magnet are called the "cores." The 
 flat connecting-bar at the back is called the "back 
 armature," by telegraphers, to distinguish it from the 
 movable piece in front, which is to be attracted to the 
 " cores" or withdrawn by the spring, and which is 
 called the armature. A silk- or cotton-covered wire is 
 wound in continuous turns about the cores until a di- 
 ameter of al)t)ut an inch and a half is attained, and 
 each core or spool of the magnet contains a great 
 number of turns of the wire aroimd it. Now, if a 
 current of electricity be sent through this wire, it will, 
 by its pa.ssing through the numerous turns, cause the 
 iron cores within to become magnetic and to possess 
 the power of attracting with considerable force any 
 piece of iron brought near to their ends. The core.s, 
 being made of soft iron, will lose their magnetism and ; 
 cease to exert any attractive power the moment the 
 current ceases to flow. The actual power of the at- 
 tractive force thus exerted is directly dependent upon ' 
 
 the key was closed, and cease to do so the moment 
 it was "opened. Platina is used at the points where 
 the electiical contacts are made and broken because 
 it does not readilj' fuse or tarnish. An extra lever at 
 the side of the kej' is called the "circuit-breaker, "and 
 is used as a means of kee]iing the circuit closed when 
 the hand of the operator is not on the key. When the 
 circuit-breaker is pushed into its closed position it 
 makes contact with a bra.ss lip, which latter is fastened 
 to the rubber along with the lower platina point. 
 This, then, has the sjime effect as though the key was 
 pressed downward and contact made at the points. 
 Fig. 2 represents a magnet with its armature suspend- 
 ed from a spring, and connected with it by a wire, a 
 battery, and a key. From what has now been ex- 
 plained it may be seen that when the key is closed a 
 current from the battery will pass through the wire 
 and magnet, and cause the latter to attract the arma- 
 ture, overcoming the resistance of the spring, and that 
 the instant the key is opened the current will cease to 
 flow, the magnet cease to attract, and the sprii;g will 
 
 Fio, 4. 
 
 the power of the battery which supplies the current, 
 or, more projterly speaking, upon the power of the 
 current it.self. Strong currents will cause the magnets 
 to attract with a power of several pounds. Keys arc 
 simply a contrivance for making or lireaking the con- 
 tacts which control the passiige of the current— a 
 brass lever .swung on a pivot, having a nibbcr handle 
 which the operator grasps lightly with the thumb and 
 forelinger. On pressing the lever downward, a plat- 
 ina point projecting under the lever is brought into 
 
 instantly dr.iw the armature back to its original posi- 
 tion. In this way the armature is made to follow ex- 
 actly the movements of the key. no matter at what 
 distance they may be placed froiii each other, although 
 in practice it is found that as the circuits are length- 
 ened, more batlerv- power and more delicate instru- 
 ments are required than on short lines. The whole 
 basis of the telegraph system is this duiilieation at one 
 ' point, by the magnet aiid its armature, of the motions 
 I made on tie key by the hand of the operator, at
 
 FULD-TELEGEAPHY. 
 
 651 
 
 FIELDTELEGEAPffS . 
 
 Teleokaph Impu:ments.— 1. Crow and Pipgine Bar. 2. Tamping and Digfrfng Bar. 3. Round-face Tamplng-bar. 
 4. Pike for raising telegraph-posts. 6. Guarded Pike. 6. Earth-auser, for boring holes in the earth for telegraph-posts. 
 T. Telegraph Shovel, round point. S. Telegraph Spoon. 9, Soldering-oopper. 10. Eccentric Clamj) and Strap. 11. Section 
 of gla.ss insulator, and manner of attaching to pole: B is a bracket, spiked to the pole. P; over the upper part of the bracket 
 fits the glass. G. IJ. Cliniliers. 13. Brockton Combination Line-vise. 14. Solder-pot. 15. Line-tapping Clamp, for use in 
 establishing Temporary Offices.
 
 TIELD-TRAIN. 
 
 652 
 
 FIELD-WOaSS. 
 
 anotbcr separate and distant point. Durinj; the first 
 years of telegnii>hy, the Morsi- ri'irister was the only 
 means employed to put into lanj^iMeform tlie siirnals 
 transmitted over the "ires. See TtUyraph. The ar- 
 mature of the magnet is attached to a lever, and this 
 lever, which swin~gs on a pivot in the middle, is i>ro- 
 vided at the end with a [lointed pin or .screw, which 
 is caused to press upwards airainst a strip of pa|HT 
 whenever the mairnel attracts, and to return to its for- 
 mer iwsition when the reverse is the case. (Fi,!i. 3.) 
 Meanwhile the paper is kept moving stcjulily forward, 
 so that if the lever-pin Ls jircs-scd apunst the paper for 
 only an instant of time a short mark or ilot api>ears 
 preksi-d or emiiossed into the paper. If for a longer 
 time, the mark would be proportionately longer, or a 
 datJi. If alternately, the marks would come consecu- 
 tively, and have kjx'ici'ii between them. As the Morse 
 alphalx'l consists entirely of dots, dashes, spaces, and 
 e.xtni-long dashes, the letters and nuniends are easily 
 made with these marks and their lombinations. So 
 that as the hand of the oi)crator, on the key at a dis- 
 tant point, makes short or long strokes, dots, or da.shes, 
 or spaces, these' same marks appear on the paper as it 
 comes from the regist<'r, and, l^ing based on the for- 
 mation given bv the Morse alphabet, are as easily \ni- 
 derst<x>d by the receiving operator as though they 
 appeared iii the well-known Roman chaniclers. After 
 the telegraph had been in successful operation for 
 several ye;irs, the operators beg-an to discover that, 
 with practice, they could more easily distinguish the 
 dots an<l dashes by" the clicking sounds that came from 
 the instrument, when the lever responded to the sig- 
 nals, than they coidd read them from the paper. 
 This was the beginning of what is called remfiiis by 
 souiifl. At the presentlime none are considered good 
 operators who cannot read by sound, and there are 
 comparatively few registers employed in the United 
 States. 
 
 Having set up the Iiattery, connect, as shown in the 
 cut, one wire from the copper pole of the battery to 
 one of the brass binding-posts of the instrument, and 
 one wire from the zinc pole to the remaining binding- 
 post: screw down the instrument firmly to the table 
 with the screw in the ba.sc. as its best sound is there 
 by jiroduced. See that none of the screws arc loose 
 iii their places, and that the armature lever, which is 
 the speaking tongue of the telegraph, plays freely, 
 with a movement of about one sixteenth of an inch. 
 The spring, which dniws the armature-lever upwards, 
 and Is called the adjustment, should only be set at 
 sulTicient tension to raise the lever when no cm-rent 
 is passing through the magnets. If drawn too tightly, 
 the spring will not allow the armature to respond to 
 the attractions of the magnet. When the instrument 
 is not in use, leave the circuit breaker of the key open 
 so that the battery will not be in action, and its power 
 accordingly economized. See that the platina jioints 
 of the key are kept clean from dirt or dust, thus pre- 
 venting imperfect contact.s from being made. The 
 key is provided with screws for the puqiose of regidat- 
 ing its play to suit tlie hand of the ojKM-ator, and to 
 regulate also the pres.sure of the spring beneath it, for 
 the same purjrose. The best way to acquire the habit 
 of correct Morse writing in the start is by practicing 
 with another .student at the s;nne instnunent, one at 
 making letters, while the other by listening endeavors 
 to naitie them. This is e.xcellenf practice for both; it 
 is the Ix'ginning of .sound-reading on the i)art of the 
 one who names the letters, while the one who writes i 
 on the key iimtl make the signals distinctly and cor- I 
 rcctly or they cannot jiossibly be distinguished by the 
 other. Start rightly, and practice will soon make 
 perfection of skill. No mental elTort whatever is re- 
 <|uired of the practical operator to construct a Morse 
 letter the moment his eyes come to it. An<i in trans, 
 mitting me.s.sagc8 he transmits the right siirnals in a 
 continuous stream with as little elTort or thought as 
 the accomplished penman rapidly writes the words of 
 a manuscript. Tlie click of an instrument is as easily 
 understood by a "sound-operator" who has had an 
 
 experience of a year or two as his own language .spoken 
 in the clearest of accents. After two or three weeks 
 of iiracticc together over one instrument, two i)ersons 
 should be able to read each other's writing slowly, and 
 should also have become familiar with the instruments, 
 battery, and the principles of their operation. Sepa- 
 rate practice ovcra short line lielween ilifferent roonis 
 or buildings may then with advantage iK'gin, each 
 student having an instrument connected at his own 
 end of the wire, and all communication between them 
 necessarily being made by telegraph. According to 
 the Icngtli of line between the two iastruments, two 
 or more cells of battery, arrangtnl in series, will lie 
 required to operate in this way. Connect instruments 
 smd battery as shown in Fig. 4. The return-circuit 
 may be made either by a continuous wire, lus indicated, 
 or "bv connection with the earth at each end, G G. 
 For wires of but a short distance in length, the return- 
 wire is best ; for out-door lines of more than a few- 
 hundred feet in length use ground-wires, as earth- 
 connections are called. To make a ground-wire, con- 
 nect a wire to a plate or sheet of met;tl, zinc, iron, or 
 tin ; bury the latter in moist earth. The plate of metal 
 should present not less than three square feet of sur- 
 face. Gas and water pipes are, however, the bCst for 
 this attachment, and whenever they are within reach 
 should be used instead of buried plates in the earth. 
 In running an out-door wire between points at any 
 distance apart, it should be insulated (by using glass 
 or rubber insulators) from all direct contact -Nvith build- 
 ings, posts, or trees. This prevents "escape" of the 
 current, by which it would otherwise lie diverted from 
 its proper course through both of the instruments, 
 and ivaching the earth by a shorter route, w-ould cir-. 
 culate to its opposite pole in the batterj- without hav- 
 ing any effect whatever on the distant apparatus. To 
 make "a joint or splice in wire, brighten the ends by 
 scraping them, and twist each wire around the other 
 as closely and tirml> as pos.sible, so that no strain will 
 (haw them apart. In running wires inside of a build- 
 ing, use insulated copper wire covereil either with 
 (ottiin or g\ittapercha; fasten it in place with small 
 staples or tacks, but in doing so lie careful not to allow 
 the covering to be opened or stripped from the wire, 
 nor to allow the latter to come in contact with gas or 
 water pipes, or metal ix)sts. In the beginning, when 
 two persons are first practicing over a short wire, ar- 
 ranged as de,scritx-d, ordinary conversation carried on 
 by telegraph is as good a means of )iractice, both at 
 sending and at re-tding, as anything else. Then pro- 
 ceed with alternately sending printed matter from 
 newspapers or books and copjing it with a pen -or 
 pencil from the instrument by sound as the other 
 sends it. As each improves, both in reading by sound 
 and in sending plainly, thisv\ill become verv pleasant 
 and interesting occupation. The more Important 
 telesrraph implements, as manufactured by Messrs. 
 L. G. Tillot.son and Company, the leading Govern 
 luent Contractors in America", are shown in the full- 
 page emiravintr. See Trlf graph. 
 
 FIELD-TRAIN.— A Department of the Royal Ar- 
 tillery, consisting of Commis-saries and Conductors 
 of Stores, responsible for the siife custody of the am- 
 munition, for the formation of proper depots of shot, 
 etc., between the front and the base of operations, 
 and that a due proportion shall be constantly at the 
 ser\-ice of each srun during an engagement. 
 
 FIELD WORKS.— Field-works "may be enumerated 
 imder three heads. 1st. Those whfch, being secure 
 on the flanks and in the rear, are assailable only in 
 front. 2d. Tho.se which are assailable in front and 
 on the flanks. 3d. Thosi- which are a.ssiiilable on all 
 sides. The plan of the works of the first cla.ss, when 
 the front to be defended is of very limited extent, 
 may be a simple ripht line. From this line only a 
 front or direct fire can be brought to bear on thf ivs- 
 sinlant in his advance, and when he attains the ditch, 
 the fire of the parapet passing over his head, he is in 
 a sheltered dead space where he can leisurely tiike 
 his measures to assault the parapet. For extended
 
 FIFE. 
 
 653 
 
 FIFTEEN-INCH GUN. 
 
 fronts ri flanked disposition more or less perfect can 
 be obtained, from wbich cross as well as direct lire 
 can I)e brought to bear on the advance of the assail- 
 ant. The most simple combination for this object is 
 the cn'maillire or serraUd lim-, which consists of a 
 broken line formed of long and short liranches pcr- 
 pendicidar to each other. The salient angles are 
 protected by a cross-lire, as well as a portion of the 
 ditch in front of the .Siilients; but the portion of the 
 ditch at each reentering angle is a dead-space, not 
 being reached by the tire of the parapet. The plan 
 of works of the second class admits of great variety, 
 dejK'nding on the extent of the position. The most 
 simple is that of a work of only two faces, the salient 
 being towards the a.s.sjiilant's line of approach. This 
 work is termed a rxltin. The faces should receive 
 such direction as to sweep the approaches to the 
 flanks of the position. As many pieces as possible 
 are placed in the salient, and others disposed along 
 the faces in the most commanding positions for 
 sweeping the ground in their front. The angle 
 formed at the salient by llie faces should never be 
 less than 60 . When the flank approaches extend 
 somewhat to the rear, a flank is added to each face 
 of the redan; it then tiecomes a lunetU'. The flanks 
 receive such directions as will sweep by their fire that 
 portion of the flank-approaches which cannot be 
 reached from the faces except by a verj- oblique tire. 
 The artillery is placed in position at the -salienfs, in 
 each of which is a pan-coupec. The works com- 
 prised in this class are termed inclosed works, as, 
 ))eing assailable on all sides, they must, for securitj', 
 present a complete line tliroiighout to any assault. 
 These works may be di\ided into three orders: 1st. 
 Polygnnal works, 'or redonbU ; 2d. TenaUled morks, or 
 slarforlx ; 3d. lia/itioned works. 
 
 The defense of inclosed works demands that every 
 point of the parapet .should be guarded, at the mo- 
 ment of a.s.sault, either by cannon or musketry. The 
 troops may be drawn uji for the defense either in one, 
 two, or three ranks; and there should, moreover, be 
 a reserve proportioned to the importance attached to 
 the work. The free interior space, denominated the 
 ttrre-plfi'n, or pariulc, should be sufficiently great to 
 lodge tlie troops, with the cannon and its acces.sories, 
 and will therefore dejiend on the nature of the de- 
 fense. The following data will aid to regulate this 
 point. Each man will occupy one yard, linear nieas- 
 m-e, along the interior crest, and each cannon from 
 five to si.x yards. The space requisite to lodge each 
 man is one and a half square yards; and about sixty 
 square yards should be jdlowed for each gun. Be- 
 sides this space an allowance must be made for the 
 trarersts, to cover an outlet, to screen the troops from 
 a reverse or an enfilading fire, etc.; and for powder- 
 magazines when they are not placed in the traverses. 
 The area occupied by a traverse will depend on its 
 dimensions, and cannot be fixed beforehand; that 
 allowed for a magazine for three or four cannon may 
 be estimated at fifteen or twenty square yards. As a 
 fieUl-fort must rely entirely on it.s own strength, it 
 shoidd he constructed with such aire that the enemy 
 will be forced to abandon an attempt to storm it, and 
 be obliged to resort to the method of regular ap- 
 proaches used in the attack of pernianent works. 
 To effect this, all the ground around the fort, within 
 file range of cannon, should offer no shelter to the 
 enemy from its fire; the ditches .should be flanked 
 throughout; and the relief be .so great as to preclude 
 every attempt at scaling the work. See Bastinned 
 Fnri», Fieldfortifirntion, Inelnned Work», Lunette, 
 Prifiit<ap, Redan, Redoubt, Star-fort*, and Swalloie- 
 tuil. 
 
 FIFE. — An ancient wind-instniment of militarj' 
 music, in which the melody is produced by blowing 
 through a hole in a reed or tube, while the escape of 
 air is regidated by tlie fingers stopping or opening a 
 numl)er of other holes in different parts of the pipe. 
 It has a compass of two octaves, from V> on the fourth 
 line of the treble clef to D above in altissimo. The 
 
 fife figures in the sculptured memorials of the 
 Argonauticexpedition, and from that time 
 to this has maintained its jjlace as a simple 
 yet effective instrument for martial i)ur- 
 poscs. It was common with English troops 
 till the reign of James 1., but wtts then dis- 
 continued, lobe reintroduced by the Duke 
 of Cumberland at the siege of Maestricht 
 in 1747. It is a universid favorite in the 
 Na\y, and many a stirring air on drums 
 and fifes has cheered the sailor to deeds of 
 darinir. 
 
 FIFE MAJOR.— The chief or superin- 
 tendent of the tifers of a regiment. In the 
 English infantry there is a fifer to each 
 company, and a Fife iMajorto each bat- 
 talion, the former receiving the daily paj- 
 of l.«. \d., the latter, who is a non-coiumis- 
 sioncd (iflicer, Ix. llrf. 
 
 FIFEE.— One who plays the fife. In 
 the United States army there is one fifer 
 allowed to each company of the infantrj'. 
 Fifers are idso employed aboard men-of- 
 war and in the MarineC'orps. 
 
 FIFTEEN INCH GUN.— A smooth-bore, 
 muzzle-loading cast iron gim, mounted on 
 a front- or center-pintle carriage, u.sed in 
 the United States sea-coast service. The 
 following tables exhibit the principal weights, dimen 
 sions, and ranges of the gun: 
 
 Desiokation, 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Caliber 
 
 
 
 
 49,66o 
 00 
 
 15 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Length of piece 
 Length of bore 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 (calibers) 
 
 
 
 Maximum diameter 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 Wiiitiage 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 Charge ( mammoth or hexagonal powder) for 
 
 
 
 
 shot 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 450 
 
 330 
 
 
 (t 
 
 for shel 
 
 
 
 
 
 Solid si 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shell (unfilled) 
 
 
 Initial veUx-ity (feet) 
 
 
 
 
 W'eight of top-carriage 
 
 
 
 5,800 
 15,450 
 
 
 
 
 Carriage— wrought-iron (chissis with 
 
 two 
 
 
 air-cyliuders to check recoil) . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ranges in 
 
 Yards. 
 
 
 Shot. 
 
 Shell. 
 
 d 
 o 
 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 . 
 
 _ J= 
 
 
 % 
 
 a 
 
 % 
 
 ?f 
 
 s;a 
 
 Charge. 
 
 
 a 
 
 ® 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 Degs. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Degs. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Sees. 
 
 100 lbs. of mam- 
 
 1 
 
 769 
 
 1 
 
 600 
 
 1.44 
 
 moth powder for 
 
 2 
 
 1.3S2 
 
 2 
 
 1.073 
 
 2.79 
 
 solid shot, and 60 
 
 8 
 
 1.819 
 
 3 
 
 1.467 
 
 4.1 
 
 lbs., for shell. 
 
 4 
 
 2.2.35 
 
 4 
 
 1.800 
 
 5.28 
 
 To fill shell: 13 lbs. 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 2.601 
 2.926 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 2.094 
 2,335 
 
 6.44 
 7.68 
 
 of mortar-powder. 
 
 7 
 
 :i.281 
 
 7 
 
 2,590 
 
 8.67 
 
 Pressure per square 
 
 8 
 
 3.491 
 
 8 
 
 2.601 
 
 9.68 
 
 inch, average 19.- 
 
 9 
 
 3.7S5 
 
 9 
 
 8,000 
 
 10.89 
 
 500 lbs. 
 
 10 
 
 3.959 
 
 10 
 
 3.171 
 
 11.63 
 
 I.*ngth of cartridge 
 
 15 
 
 4.890 
 
 15 
 
 3.916 
 
 16.30 
 
 I(i0 1bs.=.3n inches. 
 
 80 
 
 5,579 
 
 20 
 
 4,458 
 
 30.52 
 
 60 lbs.= 18 inches. 
 
 The piece admits of 2.5 degrees elevation and 6 de- 
 grees depression. The platform is a permanent por- 
 tion of the work. The top-carriage is the same: the 
 chassis alone diffeis in the front-pintle and center- 
 pintle carriages. The weight of the front-pintle chas- 
 sis, including geareii travers<^-whcels is, 17,000 pounds. 
 There are two kinds of geared traverse- wheels, differing 
 however only in height and weight. The axis of the 
 trunnions of the gmi mounted on the higher is 8 feet 
 .5.25 inches above the pintle block, and 10 feet 11.35
 
 WOHT. 
 
 654 
 
 FILE. 
 
 inches above the terre-pleiii. Upon the other carriage 
 it is 7 feet 2.25 inches al)ove the pintle-block, nnd 9 
 feet 5.25 ir.clics ntove the terreplein. The front axle 
 of the topcarriajre is not eccentric; the rear one is. 
 The front pari of the sole of each sh(X' is cut away to 
 a point a few inches in rear of the trtmi a.xle, and to a 
 depth of about half an inch. When the rear wheels 
 are out of gear, the frout wheels do not touch the 
 chassis-rails; but when the rear wheels arc thrown 
 into gear, the rear part of the carriage is slightly 
 raist'il, and the front part of the carnage is, in conse- 
 quence of the soles being cut away, lowered; the front 
 wheels then touch the chassis-rails and support the 
 weight of the front part of the carriage, and the whole 
 moves with rolling friction upon the front jxnd rear 
 truck-wheels. The wheels are out of gear when the 
 gun is tired; the recoil is then on sliding friction. The 
 front axle is furnished at each end with a brass sleeve, 
 to which the counterpoise handspikeistinnly attached. 
 A pawl is attached to the handspike, and engages into 
 ratchets in the truck-wheels. Bearing dowii upon 
 the handspikes forces the wheels to turn, and com- 
 municates motion to the carriage. The handspike 
 pawls are engaged in the ratchet of the truck-wheels 
 only when it is ilesired to give motion to the carriage; 
 at all other times they must Ije kept clear of tlie 
 ratchets. To prevent "the rear truck-wheels of the 
 carriage from working out of gear while the gun is 
 bein^ run from battery, or jumjiing in gear when the 
 gun is tired, ])awls are provided for locking the rear 
 axle. The elevation is given bv means of the elevating 
 arc. With a well-instrlicled iletachment. the 15 inch 
 gun can be tired twelve times in an hour, allowing 
 time for deliberate pointing. The carriage and chassis 
 for the front and center pintle have the same dimen- 
 sions, viz.: 
 
 Length of chassis 19 feet 7 inches. 
 
 Width of chassis 5 feet 3 inches. 
 
 Depth of chassis-rail 1 foot 8 inches. 
 
 Length of carriage 8 feet 8 inches. 
 
 Inclination of chassis-rails. . 3 degrees. 
 See Cast-iron Guns and Ordnnnce. 
 
 FIGHT. — A struggle for victory, either between in- 
 dividuals or between armies, ships or nartes. A duel 
 is called a single tight or combat. A running light 
 is one in which the enemy is continually chased. To 
 /(//(< rtoi/^ is to continue the contest until one side or 
 the other gets the better. The French express it by 
 se btittre <i oiitranee. See Battlt. 
 
 FIGUEE.— In fortiliciition, the plan of any fortified 
 place, or the interior polygon. Of this there are two 
 sorts, regular and irregular. See Field- irorks. 
 
 FIGURE OF MEEIt.— The figure denoting the ef- 
 ficiency of the shooting of a .squad, a company, or 
 battalion. The tigure of merit is formed as follows: 
 Average points obtained in the tirst and second peri- 
 ods. The uggregate points to he diridtd by the nmnber 
 of men who cominenctd tlwjint period. Average point.s 
 obtiiined in the volley-firing. Jlinus percentage of 
 third-class shots at final classification. 
 
 Infantry. 
 
 
 Very 
 good. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Moder- 
 ate. 
 
 When 
 under. 
 
 AveraRe points obtained 
 in first and second 
 periofls toj-etlier 
 
 Avera>ce pointsobtained 
 in vollef-flrlng 
 
 Percentage of tliird- 
 clas.s Bliots at Hnal 
 cla.isiflcation (miniM). 
 
 Fiyure of merit 
 
 Averaiif iwints In inde- 
 pfMilcnt flrliijjr 
 
 Average points in the 
 slcinhi&hing 
 
 75 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 8S 
 
 18 
 
 » 
 
 70 
 15 
 
 12 
 75 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 SS 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 es 
 
 15 
 
 
 65 
 
 14 
 
 When over. 
 
 1« 
 65 
 
 15 
 
 S 
 
 
 FILE. — 1. File, in a militar)- sense, is used to sig- 
 nify any line of men standing directly behind each 
 
 other, as rank refers to men standing beside one 
 another. In ordinary formations of the present day 
 a battalion stands two deep, or in two ranks — front 
 and rear — wherefore a file consists of two men. 
 Sometimes, however, the battalion may be formed 
 much more solidly, as in a square, when the file com- 
 prises a far larger number. The number of files in 
 a company describes its width, as the numl)er of 
 ranks does its depth; thus. 100 men in "fours deep" 
 woidd be spoken of as 25 files in 4 ranks. 
 
 2. The (jrdnance Department employs one .skilled 
 file-cutter at the National Armory, who is kept con- 
 stantly employed in recutting worn-out files and in 
 making special files for certain classes of work re- 
 quired in the fabrication of small-arms. All the 
 rotary files used in the establishment are also cut 
 I there. Since the introduction of " gun-steel" or Bcs- 
 I senier steel as the material for many of the com]io- 
 nents of arms, a good many files are used which are 
 "new cut" or "skew cut.'"' This " new" or " skew" 
 I cu. is one in which the first course, or oter-ctit, is a 
 [ light cut with small horizontal obliquity, while the 
 second course, or up-cut, is coarser, v\ith great hori- 
 zontal obliquity. This method of cuttin" is excel- 
 lent for a finishing-file, jmd is very popular among 
 armorers on account of the ease of manipulation ana 
 freedom from clogging, as well as the smoothness of 
 the surface produced. " But, unless the {juality of the 
 : milling be excellent, these files do not produ"ce good 
 results except with a great expenditure of time, a 
 thing piece-workmen especially desire to avoid. Files 
 are used upon surfaces of all kinds. Rasps are used 
 upon those materials who.se particles possess less re- 
 sisting power, and are chiefly cniiiloyed for rajiid 
 work. They are more used by workers in wood, 
 soft metals, and leather than are files. The general 
 effects of rubbing a file or rasp upon the surface of 
 metal, wood, ivorj-, leather, or other material is to 
 smooth it and change its form and dimensions. The 
 abrasive effect consists in cutting from the surface 
 small shavings or particles and in gradually reducing 
 the mass. "Therefore files arc only usetl for shajTing 
 and smoothing small pieces, or iii finishing surfaces 
 that are already of appro^dmate figure." The file 
 usually follows "the work of the lathe, the planer, the 
 milling-machine, or the profiling-niachine. In the 
 natural motion of filing, the tenderrcy is to impart to 
 the file a somewhat circular motion," the articulation 
 or joints of the arms and bands acting as centers of 
 motion. It would seem that this kimrof motion with 
 a convex file should produce concavities in the work, 
 whereas the real effect is to give a slight convexity to 
 the work, due to the rocking motion caused by'the 
 work acting as a kind of fuk-ram, except where the 
 file is handled by a skillful manipulator. Everv* filer 
 should aim to have his file, during the stroke, depart 
 from a strait line just enough to bring it into contact 
 with the desired portion of the work. The filing of 
 round or curved surfaces requires that the strokes 
 should be so blended as to i)roduce the best effect. 
 This class of filing depends a good deal upon the ex- 
 perience and eye of the workman, but is not so diffi- 
 cult as absolutely Jtat filing. 
 
 To the uninitiated the operation of filing seems to 
 be a very simple matter, and one that can easily be 
 attaineil by any person. On the contrary, the art of 
 filiiifi irell is one which requires a great deal of skill 
 and long-contiiuied practice, as well as thought and 
 judgment. It is ti-ue that in many shops there can 
 be found filers w ho possess neither skill nor judg- 
 ment, but who, from long practice on some special 
 cla.s.ses of work, have become known as filers. Such 
 persons, however, are not, and do not deserve to be, 
 called "good filers." It is also tnie that this same 
 cla.ss of inferior workmen generally claim to be, and 
 doubtless believe that they are, excellent filers. A 
 rigid .system of inspection and a persistency in point- 
 ing out the multitudinous defects of their " finished 
 work" (so called) would result in instilling into Uieir 
 minds a belief that they were being persecuted, and
 
 FILE. 
 
 655 
 
 FItE 
 
 FLOAT CUT. 
 
 DOUBLE CUT. 
 
 KASP CUT. 
 
 w 
 
 k-. -. ri -V-> -V ^. -1. -^ —J -- ^d -fli 
 E li -^ rO -^.^r^ --> -4 -t 'i.-v t-aij 
 
 r-^"-! --U -' -v^v"-^ ^ ^ '-. •-, -Vjj 
 
 ' " - -. ".. 'a -O -v ^v '. '-* -S-^V^" 
 
 ■ ■-- -^ d. -*^ -'- -% '^ ■<. O. -". 
 
 i rt -V -V> -^ 'V f- — - -^ 
 
 .- ^,-T, .-« O ^V -^ ''- 'V -V 
 , <•- •* -1.-^ <y.tM "-^J -^ T 
 
 r- . . -; ,--.-* -^ -i. -C_r<_--i_*-- -^ 
 
 feS ^ -5, ^ '-, ^- .-- .-. ^..rV -^ -(UK 
 feC""^ i^a •% -V -^ --V --,-". 't -^ ^ ^ 
 
 ^. ■ . , . ■ ^ -. -i 
 
 l)r;i,l Si, th. 
 
 Dead ^ 
 
 SmooUu 
 
 
 ^^# 
 
 i^* 
 
 
 Smooth. 
 
 A ^ >, ^ >> ^ .iJ«"*| 
 -^ --C < -C 'C ^^. <4 *s 
 
 -< -'; -^ -5 "S^-^ -^ fj -. 
 
 -^ -^ -r; -^ -^ -^_-5 -rt 
 
 -< -c ^<--^ -5 -c ^ ^ 
 ^ --; t5--<' ^ -C' -0 -^ -f 
 
 ■5) --; >c^^ -^ -^ -!^ -^ -• 
 
 r-) -'j -fl -O O -^ ■^;_-< -< 
 =*C .O -< --C --> ^ -^_ -4 
 ep^^ -f, < ^ .< ^ -<r -■ 
 ^^ -^ -^ -'. < <> — O '* 
 !;*z-5 -^ < ^J --0 ^ -?0 <■ 
 
 s!« -c -; --; --t --3 <( <s 
 
 Second Cut. 
 
 t^ "^ -IJ: -J -"J -^3 
 
 S> -O ^ -*j <i o— 
 
 a5> -o -o- --0 --:) --J; 
 
 g^O -0 --i ^J -'J -■ 
 
 fi-a -^w ^j -i --^ -i; 
 
 IMS! ^^IS* --fy'' ^ ti; ; 
 
 ^^*^^^ ^^^^^— ^^^— ^^^ ^^^ ^ 
 
 Second Cut. 
 
 Second Cut. 
 
 Bastard. 
 
 P^ 
 
 bsJ-SJH 
 
 g©S5j5L-'??f3'^ 
 
 
 Bastard. 
 
 BastaixL 
 
 Middle Cut. 
 
 
 ;f^LC^^/^^^^ 
 
 5^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 gi^^^^^ 
 
 ^^^:-?^?^ 
 
 £^iL::15^^-^ 
 
 K;^^.f^^.^ 
 
 Float Rough. 
 
 lui.-.p I.uUeh. 
 
 
 vy^v^ 
 
 Bone Float. 
 
 BoDgia. 
 
 New Cut.
 
 FILE LEADER. 
 
 656 
 
 FINDING. 
 
 that till- Foreman or Siiinrimcmlcnt was " down on 
 tliom. anil wa.< scfkini: o])|)i>rtiinily to find fault with 
 tlitir work." Virv ijrnoniut filers, as well as oilier 
 ila.sst's of nieehanies, arlisaus. and even profe-ssional 
 men, are often as l>ii.'oted and sel f -conceited as they 
 are unskillful and opinionateil. With nian_v of them 
 it is an almost ho|H'less task to attempt to eradicate 
 slovenliness in their manner of filing, especially after 
 years of practice in such melhoils. E.xaniples are 
 numerous where men who have been filinj: for years 
 do not even "know how to hold their files." Gun- 
 makers, Master-mechanics, and Superintendents of 
 manufacturing estalilishments where a great ileal of 
 tiling is requiri'd, all know the ilitficulty of obtaining 
 gooil filers. The supply is not equal to the demanil, 
 and the iiieiiuality increases yearly, and has done so 
 since the practical almlition of the apprentice system 
 in this country. The advent of i^aners, .shaping-ma- 
 chines, trimming-niaihines, sliaN-ing-machiues, and 
 milling-machines has greatly iliminished the amount 
 of tiling formerly required in the machine and gun 
 shops; and filing, in its widest sen.sc, is apparently 
 alwut to be remanded to the category of the "lost 
 arts." Bojs and young men go to work on a ma- 
 chine, and find that in a few weeks or months they 
 can earn fair pay without any previous study or ap- 
 prenticeship; consequently it is not strange that they 
 are loth to spend .several years of apprentieesliip iu 
 endeavoring to learn a trade which, when obtained, 
 ■will bring little or no advance of a remuneration. 
 Again, I'roprietors of machine-shops are in such haste 
 to get rich that they do not wish to employ any but 
 skilled workmen, hence they refuse to be " botliercd" 
 ■with teaching boys who will probably leave their 
 shops as soon as lliey have learned their trade. The 
 olfl filers who have learned the trade regularly by a 
 toilsome apprenticeship are gradually dying on, lind 
 no new brood is now being educated to supply their 
 places. Hence the complaint is constantly heard that 
 ■we cannot find enough good filers. How" this evil is 
 to be remedied is not within the province of this arti- 
 cle, and the writers merely call attention to the fact. 
 There arc very few mechanical operations that 
 present greater difficulties than that of filing well. If 
 a planer Ik? used, the work is finnly fastened to the 
 movable bed-plate, which hiis a motion of translation 
 along fixed guide-rails, and passes under a tool at- 
 tached to a tool-post with an automatic transverse 
 feed-motion. If a shaper be employed, the work is 
 keyed to the immovable bed and the tool has a mo- 
 tion of translation and rotation, the former governed 
 by fi.xed gtii<les and the latter by a screw. In neither 
 of the eases alx>ve cited doi-s the accuracy of the work 
 depend upon the workman's skill after'thc machine 
 has l)een set and put in motion. But in filing, the 
 "guiding principle" of the machine is absent, and the 
 accuracy of the work depends upon the constant 
 care, skill, and judgment of the man. To produce a 
 " true flat surfaci" upon narrow work is an excellent 
 test in filing. One would naturally sujipose that a 
 file the points of wiiose teeth lie in the surface of a 
 single plane is all that is required to do the work. 
 Even if the side of the file was a jierfeetly plane sur- 
 face — which it nc\er is— it would "be neces-sary to 
 move it in parallel stndght lines across the work to 
 produce the required effect. Supposing this opera- 
 tion ix)ssible, the pressure applied at the ends of the 
 file, as is usual, would spring the file and produce a 
 concavity on its under surface, which in turn would 
 naturally round the work. To obviate this ilefect the 
 file should have its .sides slightly convex. The greater 
 the convexity of the file the fewer teeth that come in 
 contact with tlie surface and the better will the file 
 cut or bite, provided the pressure remains ((instant. 
 The cimvexity is sometimes given by slightly curving 
 or tapering the sides from alxiut the middle to the 
 point. A better way, perhaps, is to have the gradual 
 curvature extend from the heel to the point. The ad- 
 vantages of the convexitv are plainly seen when the 
 attempt is made to produce an api>roximately true 
 
 plane surface. The straight-edge or stirface-plate 
 will show the points on the surface, which are a little 
 higher than the rest, and without a file with convex- 
 ity it is imixtssible to touch the exact spot desinil and 
 no other. The full-page engraving represents the 
 Xew American File Company's cuts of files and rasps. 
 This Company use the Bernot machines for cutting, 
 and the accuracy and uniformity of cut in all their 
 product is imequaled by that produced by any other 
 methods, either by hand or otherwise. See liirp. 
 
 FILE LEADER."— The soldier placed in front of any 
 file, or the man who is to cover all those who stand 
 directly in the rear of him, and by whom they are to 
 be guided in all their niovenunts. 
 
 FILEY SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In this sys- 
 tem the curtain is replaceil by a bastion or mezalec- 
 tre, whose flanks defend the collateral works. There 
 are cavaliers on the curtains, retrenchments in the 
 bastions, tenailles lielween the bastions and meziilec- 
 tre, ravelins, counter-guards, and covered way. The 
 great defect of this system is that the enemy can at- 
 tack the mezalectre instead of the bastions. 
 
 FILIBEG— FILLIBEG.— A little plaid; a kilt or a 
 dress reaching nearly to the knees, worn in the High- 
 lands of Scotland, and by the soldiers of Highland 
 regiments in the Bvili-^h service. 
 
 FILIBUSTERS— FILLIBUSTERS. — Another name 
 for i)iratical adventurers. Recently it has become 
 familiar to English ears as the designation of certain 
 lawless adventurers belonging to the United States, 
 who have attempted violently to possess themselves 
 of various coimtries in Xorth America. The plea 
 urged by these persons has generally been that such 
 countries were a prey to anarchy and oppression, and 
 could only attain to prosperity by annexation to the 
 United States, and the introduction of demcK-ratic 
 institutions — among which, strange to sjiy, slavery 
 stands prominent. The most notorious of these fili- 
 busters was tlie late William Walker, whose expedi- 
 tion against Xiearagua in 18.5.5 was so far successful 
 that he kept his ground in that country for nearly two 
 years. At last he was driven out by a combination 
 of the various States of Central America. He was 
 subsequently captured and shot, SeptemlH-r 12, 1860, 
 at Truxillo, in Central America, in the course of an- 
 other piratical expedition. 
 
 FILINGS. — In tactics, the numerous movements to 
 the front, to the rear, or to the flanks, by files. 
 
 FILLET. — 1. A molding wed on cannon of old 
 fonn. 2. In Heraldry, an ordinary which, accord- 
 ing to Guillim, contains the fourth part of the chief. 
 3. A head-covering that freipuntly replaced the hel- 
 met among the Assyrio-Babvloniau archers. 
 
 FIMBRIATED.—" A term "in Heraldry, sjud of any 
 ordinary having a narrow border or edging of another 
 tincture. 
 
 FINAL VELOCITY.— In gunnerv-, the technical term 
 for the uniform velocity which a projectile ■would ac- 
 quire in falling through an indefinite height in the 
 air. A body falling in rnetm is unifonnly accelerated, 
 its velocity being continually increased. In the at- 
 mosphere the case is difl'crent. Since the resistance 
 of the air incre;ises with some power of the velocity 
 greater than the square, it follows that at some f)oint 
 in the descent the retardation becomes equal to the 
 acceleration, and the body will move with uniform 
 velocity. This is calleil fnnl rilorily. and is one of 
 the most important elements in the theory of projec- 
 tiles. Other things being equal, that projectile is best 
 which has the greatest final velocity. See Form of 
 Projirti/i . Pr"ji cti/es, and Velocity. 
 
 FINDING. — Before a Court-Martial deliberates upon 
 tlie judgment, the Judge Advocate reads over the 
 whole proceedings of the Court; he then collects the 
 votes of each member, beginning with the youngest. 
 The best mode of doing so is by slips of paper. The 
 Articles of War require a majority in all cases, and 
 in Ciuse of sentence of death two thirds. It is not 
 necessary to find nycnenil verdict of guilt or acquittal 
 upon the whole of every charge. The Court may
 
 FIWINGFOEGE. 
 
 657 
 
 FINI8HIK0. 
 
 fintl a pi-isoner guilty of part of a charge, and acquit 
 him of the remainder, and render sentence according 
 to their tindinir. This is a special verdict. 
 
 FINING FORGE.— An open Iicarth with a blast by 
 which iron is freed of impiuilies or foreign matters. 
 Cast-iron is thu.s rendered malleable by the removal 
 of carbon, etc. 
 
 FINISHING.— Tlie tinal operation in the fabrication 
 of cast guns. When tlie casting has become cool it is 
 hoisted out from the pit, the tias'k being first taken off. 
 The molding composition adhering to the interior or 
 exterior is removed as far as practicable by scrapers 
 and chisels. The casting is then placed in u machine 
 called a heading-lathe, shown in Fig. 1, where the 
 greater part of the surjdus metal of the chase is re- 
 moved and the sinking-heail is cut olf. From the 
 latter a ring is also cut off next to the muzzle of the 
 gun for the purpose of testing the initial strain, and 
 from which .specimens are afterwanls taken for te- 
 nacity and ilensity. To place the gun in the lathe, the 
 square knob of the cascahel is fitted into the chuck 
 atUiched to the machinery, which revohes the gun, 
 while Uie sinking-head is introduced into the "bonnet" 
 which revolves iu its bearing at the other extremity of 
 the lathe. Both of these supports are provided with 
 adjustable screws by means of which the gun is ceu- 
 
 bo centered from the bore, a3 it .sometiines happens 
 that the axis of the bore and casting do not coincide. 
 The gun being centered, all the measurements neces- 
 sary for a proper commencement of the turning are 
 made. 
 
 The turning of the gun commences near the muzzle. 
 The rest in which the turning-tool is placed is so 
 constructed that it can be moved either parallel to or 
 at right angles to the axis of the gun. The tool is 
 brought in contact with the surface of the gun at the 
 desired itoint, the metal being turned off as the gun 
 revolves. In this way a series of narrow cuts are made 
 in the chase at short intervals, extending in depth to 
 within about two inches of the required exterior di- 
 ameter of the gun. The intervening rings are thea 
 broken out with wedges, and the portion of the cha.se 
 next the muzzle is turned down to the finished dimen- 
 sions. Meanwhile the cylindrical part of thee^iscabel 
 is turned down slightly to fonn, with tJic finished part 
 of the chiuse, Iwarings for the gun when transfeiTcd to 
 the boring-lathe. The cuts at the muzzle for removing 
 the sinking-head and test-ring are next made. When 
 these cuts have reached a sulticient tlepth to admit of 
 the separation, the gim is taken out of the lathe and 
 placed upon skids and tlic bonnet is removed fronx 
 the sinking-head. The ring and head together are 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 tered and held firmly in place. The breech is ad- 
 justed by placing a sharp-pointed instrument in the 
 tool-re.st and bringing it in contact with the surface 
 of the casting near the maxinuun diameter, and, while 
 turning the gun, the screws in the chuck arc moved 
 until coincidence of the line around the gim is obtained. 
 At the muzzle a bar of iron is laid upon blocks .so that 
 it .shall be just inside the bore antl nearly in contact 
 with the interior surface. As the gun turns, the dis- 
 tance between this point and the metal of the bore is 
 observed and equalized appro-vimately by the screws 
 in the tonnet. 
 
 A wooden di.sk, turned to fit the bore accurately, 
 bearing a string attached to its center, is then pushed 
 to the bottom of the bore and made to assume a posi- 
 tion in a plane perpendicular to its axis. The string 
 from the center of the disk is long enough to reach 
 some distance outside the muzzle, tlie outer end being 
 made fast to an upright at the same height as the inner 
 end or center of the disk. The string is now stretched 
 perfectly taut and the gim again turned, a square 
 being placed upon blocks about one foot in front of 
 the muzzle clo.se to the string, and, as the gun revolves, 
 the distance, if any, which the string deviates from 
 the square is observed and corrected by again moving 
 the screws in the bonnet. When properly centered, 
 the string will remain in the same position in the 
 square and be the same distance from the interior sur- 
 face of the gim throughout an entire revolution, 
 showing that the axes oif the gun and lathe coincide. 
 With the hollow-cast gun it is necessary that it should 
 
 then separated from the gun by iiwerting wedges at 
 the muzzle, and the ring is afterwards wedged oflE 
 from the head. The gun is next placed in the bor- 
 ing-lalhc, in which it is supported by bearings at the 
 chase and neck of cascabel. Its rotation in the lathe 
 is effected by securing the square knob of the cascabel 
 in the chuck attached to the revolving machinery, in 
 the same manner as in the heading-lathe. 
 
 To adjust the gun the boring-rod is first introduced 
 a short distance Into the bore, and the space between 
 its exterior surfaces and the gun at the muzzle is ob- 
 served. For this purpose a thin wooden gauge is used, 
 pointed at one end imd ha%'ing a notch at the other, 
 which takes the outer surface of the gun at the muzzle 
 — the gauge being laid on the face of the muzzle and 
 therefore perpendicular to the axis of the bore. \s 
 the gun revolves the distance above, below, and on 
 either side is observed, verifying the concentricity of 
 the axis of the gun at the muzzle. The adjustment is 
 completed at the breech by slackening the bolts of the 
 cascabel bearing, leaving it free to move on the ways; 
 and shoidd any lateral motion be perceptible, it is 
 corrected by adjusting the screws in the chuck, after 
 which the concentricity is complete from breech to 
 muzzle. 
 
 In lK)ring, the tools or cutters are fitted into a cylin- 
 drical block called a "head," which is secured to the 
 end of the boring-rod. As the gim revolves in the 
 lathe, the boring-rod is made to advani-e by machin- 
 ery until the cutters reach the bottom of the cylindri- 
 cal part of the bore. From three to five cuts are
 
 FINISHING FSESS. 
 
 658 
 
 FIRE. 
 
 usually required to secure a perfectly straiu'ht tore 
 anil enlarge It to its re(|uire(l iliameter; tlie last one 
 lieing made with a liiiishinir-tool or reamer. Tbc lx>t- 
 tomOf the tore is tlieu finished with tools of the re- 
 quireil shape. 
 
 Diirins; the proce.^v* of toring the turning continues, 
 and the e.xlerior is tiuished e.\cept the trunnion section 
 and the extremity of the l)reech where the cascabel 
 attaches. The ea.scabel is turned down in front of the 
 btsaring so that it can l)e broken off when no longer 
 required. Tt) insure a smooth surface in the bore, the 
 work upon the ex»rior of the gim is suspended while 
 the tinishing tt>ols are being used. 
 
 The toring toiug completed, the dimensions of the 
 Ihir' of the gun are verilied before removing it from the 
 lathe. If found t<i be correct, the gun is renjoved and 
 placed in the trunnion-latlie, where the trunnions are 
 turned ilown to the tiuished dimensions. When ad- 
 justed in this lathe the axis of the gun is in a horizontal 
 plane, the cascabel being supported by the breech-cen- 
 ter, and the cha.se by the muzzle-bearing. The trun- 
 nion-head consists of a hollow shaft in which are 
 located the cuttei-s for turning the trunnions. It is 
 supported upon bearings which rest upon ways at 
 right angles to the axis of the gun. These bearings 
 are of such a height as to bring the axes of the truu- 
 nion-heail and gun in the same horizontal plane. 
 
 In turning the trunnions the gun remains stationary 
 while the trunnion-head revolves about the trunnion. 
 The cylindrical surface is first finished, the .shaft 
 mo\'ing towards the gun and its speed being regulated 
 as circumstances require. To finish the face a broad 
 cutter is used which removes a thin chip nearly equal 
 in width to the semi-diameter of the trunnion. A 
 small spur is left by this tool at the center of the trun- 
 nion which is afterward chipped off by hand. When 
 one trunnion is finished, the gun is turned over and 
 the other is finished in tlie same manner. 
 
 The metal in excess between the trunnions is re- 
 moved by the planing-machine (Fig. 2), which is placed 
 on the side of the lathe opposite the trunnion-head. 
 This machine is so arranged that the bar in which the 
 cutter is secured moves forward and back in a horizon- 
 tal plane, carrying the cutter over that portion of the 
 gun totween the trunnions wliich has not been turned 
 down. The cutter works upon a pivot in the bar, by 
 means of which it cuts only while moving to the rear, 
 the gun toing turned the width of the cut after each 
 passage of the planing-bar. The proper direction is 
 given to the culler liy means of a guide attached to the 
 planing-bar which moves in a groove of the required 
 curvature. 
 
 After the planing is finished, the gun is removed 
 
 from the lathe, placed upon skids, and the cascabel 
 is broken off. The breech, riml>ases, and sight-ma.ss 
 are then finished by chipping off the surplus metal by 
 hand. The vent 'is usually drilled by means of a 
 hand drill arranged to work in an iron frame firmly 
 
 secured to the gun. See Lathe, Ordnaiia, Bodman 
 Gun, and Tuniiii'i. 
 
 FINISHING PRESS.— This machine, employed in 
 the fabrication of iirojectiles, as shown in tlie dniwing, 
 consists of a steel die, supported on a hollow iron 
 platform resting upon the head of an hytlraulie ram 
 which is worked by a steam pimip. On the left of 
 the i)ress is a handle for opening the valve to allow 
 tlie admission of the water to the cj'linder, ami an 
 automatic device for closing it and opening the valve 
 for the escaix', when tlie ram has reached its proper 
 stroke. There are four iron guides for the hollow 
 platform, coimecled at the top by an iron cross-head, 
 through the center of 
 which pas.ses a heavy 
 screw ; the end of the 
 screw is hollow ed out to 
 the shape of the head of 
 the shot, for which it 
 forms a suppt)rt. Iron 
 tongs are used for raising 
 the shot from the floor 
 to its seat, and these are 
 raised and lowered by 
 the movement of the 
 machine it.sclf. Two 
 workmen are required 
 for the machine, and 
 two cuts are tiiken on 
 each shot ; the smaller 
 die being the true size of 
 the shot, and the other 
 slightly larger. Suppos- 
 ing one shot to have 
 been fitted into the die 
 for tlie short length 
 turned down in the lathe 
 and its head inserted in 
 the end of the screw, 
 another is stood upright 
 on the Hoor. One work- 
 man quickly opens the 
 valve, while the other 
 guides the descending 
 tongs over the head of 
 the shot below, as the 
 hollow platform and die 
 move upward. When the 
 
 tongs have reached the center of the shot below they 
 are clamped. As soon as the die has passed over the 
 cylindrical part of the shot, the latter falls through 
 the hollow platform into sawdust below; the auto- 
 matic device then releases the ram, which descends, 
 and rai.ses the tongs with the 
 shot which is attached, and 
 which is guitled into il.s seat 
 by the workmen. With this 
 machine a thousand shot can 
 be turned out iier day. The 
 dies, which arc made of Am- 
 erican steel, will last for about 
 101)0 shot without resetting. 
 The .same operation is often- 
 times ]ierformed in part or 
 entirely in the lathe, but is very 
 much less rapid than that just 
 described. See Fithrication of 
 Pri>j( rtiles. 
 
 FIRE.— 1. Artillery -fires are 
 rlistinguished by the manner 
 in which the projectile strikes 
 the object, as direct, ricochet, 
 rollin;!, and jilu/iffiiif/ fires; by 
 the nature of the projectile, 
 as ml ill x/iiil, nhell. shrapnel, 
 grape, and canister fires; and liy the angle of elevation, 
 as horizoiitid fire, or the lire of guns and howitzers 
 under low angles of elevation, and rerticiil fires, or the 
 fire of mortars under high angles of elevation. A 
 fire is said to be direct when the projectile hits its ob-
 
 FIBE. 
 
 659 
 
 FIBE. 
 
 ject before striking any intemiecliale object, as the 
 surface of the ground, or water. This species of lire 
 is emploj'ecl where great penetration is required, as 
 tlie force of the projectile is not diminished by pre- 
 vious impact; it is necessarily employed for spherical- 
 case shot, and for riHe-cannon projectiles, which, 
 from their form, are liable to be detiected by previously 
 striking a resisting substance; it is also used for all 
 field-cannon projectiles, when the nature of the ground 
 does not insure a regular rel)ound. To point a piece 
 in direct tire, bring the line of sight to bear upon the 
 object, and then elevate the piece according to the dis- 
 tance. When a projectile strikes the ground or water 
 under a small angle or fall, it penetrates obliquely to 
 a certain distance, and is then reflected at an angle 
 greater than the angle of fall ; the rea.son for this is 
 that the projectile in forming the furrow loses a por- 
 tion of its velocity, making the distance from A (Fig. 
 1), the point at which it enters the groimd, to C, or 
 
 plain as near the foot of tlie interior slope as possible; 
 the distance of the crest, and its height alwve the 
 terrc-plein imd batter}-, should therefore l)c known. 
 
 IMUiiij fire is a particular csise of ricochet-fire, pro- 
 duced by placing the a.vi.s of the piece parallel, or 
 neary so, with the groimd. It is generallj' used in 
 field- service. When the ground is favorable for rico- 
 chet, the projectile, in rolling fire, has a veiy long 
 range, and never passes at a greater di.stance above 
 the ground than the muz/lc ol the piece; it is there- 
 fore more efiective than direct fire, as may be seen by 
 inspecting Fig. 3. To point a piece in rolling fire, 
 direct it at the object, and depress the natural line of 
 sight so as to pierce the surface of the ground about 
 80 yards in front of the muz/.le; if the piece be sighted 
 for the pendulum haus,"e, aim directly at the object 
 with the lowest line of sight, or with the slider fixed 
 at the zero-point of the scale. A fire Is said to be 
 plunging when the object is situated below the piece. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^y 
 
 ; ^^~^v,.rf 
 
 
 jLy 
 
 Fig. I, 
 
 the vertical drawn through the deepest point, greater 
 than the distance from C to T), tlie point where it 
 leaves the ground. As this recurs every time the pro- 
 jectile strikes the groimd, it follows that the trajectorj' 
 IS made up of a seiies of rcboimds, or riror/iets, each 
 one shorter and more curved than the preceding one. 
 The mimljer. shape, and extent of the ricochets depend 
 on the nature of the surface struck, the initial velocity, 
 shape, size, and density of the projectile, and on the 
 angle of fall. A spherical projectile ricochets well on 
 smooth water, when the angle of fall is less than 8°; 
 but if the surface of the water be rough very little 
 dependence can be placed on the extent of the ricochet. 
 In general, those projectiles which present a uniform 
 surface and have the least penetrating power are 
 most suitable for ricochet-firing ; hence large shells 
 fired with small charges are more .suitable than solid 
 shot, and round projectiles more suitable than those 
 of an oblong form. The distance at which the larger- 
 size shells will ricochet on water is about 3000 yards, 
 the axis of the piece being horizontal and near the 
 water. Ricochet-tire is employed 
 in siege-operations to attain the 
 face of a work in flank, or in 
 reverse (Fig. 2), and on the field 
 or on water when the object is 
 large and its distance is not ac- 
 curately known. The character of 
 ricochet-fire is determined by the 
 angle of fall, or the angle included between the tan- 
 gent of the trajectory and horizon at the point of fall. 
 There are two kinds of ricochet-fire — \\\c flattened, in 
 which the angle of fall is between 2 and i'; and the 
 curtatfd, in which the angle of fall is between 6' and 
 15°. The principal pieces employed in ricochet-fire 
 in siege operations arc the 8-inch howitzer and the 8- 
 and 10-inch common mortars; the first two may be 
 used when the angle of fall is less than 10°, and the 
 10-inch mortar when the angle of fall is le.ss than l.i'. 
 AVith these pieces the limit of ricochet is about 600 
 yards. Solid shot should not be used in ricochet fire 
 "for any distance less than 200 yards, as it would then 
 be necessary to diminish its velocity so much a.s to 
 destroy its percussive effect. In ricochet-firing against 
 troops in the open field the angle of fall should not 
 exceed 3°. Inenfilaijing the face of a work, the form 
 of the trajectorj- and point of fall should be such that 
 the projectile will strike the surface of the terrc-plein 
 the greatest nunilx;r of times; the object being to de- 
 stroy the men, carriages, and traverses situated upon 
 it. To do this the projectile should be made to graze 
 the crest of the adjacent parapet, and strike the terre- 
 
 Fio. .2. 
 
 This fire is particularly effective against the decks of 
 vessels. 
 
 Before proceeding to describe the fires of different 
 kinds of projectiles, it may be proper to explain what 
 is meant by accuracy of tire, and to determine a suit- 
 able measure for it. It has been seen that there are 
 causes constantly at work to deviate nearly every 
 projectile from its true path. As the effect of these 
 deviating forces cannot be accurately foretold, there 
 is only a probability that the projectile will strike th& 
 object against which the piece is pointed. The de- 
 gree of probability is called accuracy of fire. For all 
 projectiles of the same nature, the chance of hitting 
 an object increases with the velocity and weight of 
 the projectile, whereby the effects of the de^^ating 
 forces are diminished; it also increases as the size of 
 the object is equal to, or greater than, the mean devi- 
 ations, and as the trajectory more nearly coincides 
 with the line of sight. If the size of the object be 
 greater than the extreme deviation, and the trajectory 
 coincide with the line of sight, the projectile will be 
 
 Fio. 3. 
 
 certain to hit the object at all distances. For the same 
 trajectory, therefore, the mean deviation of a projec- 
 tile at a given distance may be taken as an indirect 
 measure of its accuracy at "this distance. To obtain 
 this mean deviation, let the piece be pointed at the 
 center of a target, stationed at the required distjince, 
 and tired a certain number of times — .saj' ten — and let 
 the positions of the shot-holes, me.a.sured in vertical 
 and horizontal directions, be arranged as follows: 
 
 o 
 
 Distances from Center of 
 Target, in Feet. 
 
 Distances prok Center or 
 Impact, in Feet. 
 
 d 
 
 Vertical. 
 
 Horizontal. 
 
 Vertical. 
 
 Horizontal. 
 
 
 Above. 
 
 Below. 
 
 Right. 
 
 Lett. 
 
 Alwve. 
 
 Below. 
 
 RiRht. 
 
 Left. 
 
 I 
 2 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 4.33 
 .33 
 
 4.66 
 
 2.66 
 .66 
 
 3.33 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4.66 
 
 4.66 
 
 8.38 
 
 3.33 
 
 
 4-^8 = 1.88 
 
 4-1.3 = 1.88 
 
 ».82-t-3 = 3 11 
 
 6.66+3=2.28
 
 FIRE. 
 
 660 
 
 FIRE. 
 
 The alijpbniic sum of llio liistances in each direction, 
 (lividi-d by Ihr imnibtr of sliols, pves the position of 
 the center of impact in this direction. In the above 
 table the |)Osilion of tlie center of impact is found to 
 be 1.33 feet below, and 1.33 feel to the right, of the 
 center of the target. To obtain the mean <lcviuliou, 
 it is neces-sarv to" refer each shot-bole to the center of 
 impact as a new origin of coordinates; and this is 
 done by subtnicting the tabular distance from the dis- 
 tance of the center of impact if l)olli be on the same 
 side of the center of tlie target, and adding them if 
 on different sides. The sum of all the distances thus 
 obtained in one direction, divided by the number of 
 shots, gives the mean deviation in that direction; 
 which ill the present case is 3.11 feet vertically and 
 2.25 hdrizontally. The vertical deviation of a pro- 
 jectile is generally greater than its corresponding hori- 
 zontal deviation, and this ililference increases with the 
 range. As objects against which military projectiles 
 are directed itresont a greater extent of surface in a 
 horizontal than in a vertical direction, it becomes 
 neccssiirj' to exercise great care in the selection of the 
 proper angle of lire. If the ground or water in front 
 of the object be favorable to ricochet, the difficulty 
 will Iw diminished by aiming so that the jirojectile 
 will strike the ol)jeel after one or more reljounds. 
 
 Solid shot are generally used for percussion and 
 penetration, and, when heated to a red heal, for the 
 purpose of setting fire to wootlen vessels or buildings. 
 From their great sirength, they can be fired with a 
 hirge charge of powder, which gives them great ini- 
 tial velocity, anil having great density, which dhnin- 
 ishes the effect of the resistance of the air, they have 
 great range and accuracy. In tiring hot shot, the 
 charge shoidd be reduced, to prevent too great pene- 
 tration, which would exclude the mr and rend<T com- 
 bustion impossible. The extreme range of tield-ar- 
 tillery is about 3000 yards; it is not very etlective, 
 however, beyond 1700 yards for the 6 jxiumler and 
 2100 yards for the 12 pounder. At liOO yards Ihc hori- 
 zontal deviation of the 12 pounder is about 3 feet, and 
 al 1200 yards it is about 12 feet. For the tj-pounder 
 the derations are somewhat greater at both distances. 
 The ser\ice of solid shot demanils less skill than that 
 of shells and spherical case-shot, and they are often 
 effective when the latter are rendered non-effective by 
 untimelv explosion. 
 
 The diameter and velocity of two projectiles l)eing 
 the s;ime, the retarding effect of the air is inverse!)' 
 proportional to their weight; hence we see that a 
 shell has less accunicy and range than a solid shot 
 of the Siime size, in the proportion of 3 to 2 — these 
 nvimbei-s representing the weights of a solid shot 
 and shell respectively. As shells act both by percus- 
 sion and explosion, they are particularly "etfective 
 against animate ol)jecls, earthworks, buildings, block- 
 houses and shipping, posts and villages occupied by 
 troops, and against troops sheltered by accidents of 
 the ground; but against good masonry they have but 
 little effect, a.s they break on striking. Against troops, 
 especially cavalry, they pos.sess a certain 
 moral effect which solid shot do not 
 pos.sess. They are used to form breaches 
 in intrenchments, in which case they 
 act as small mines. The 32-pounder 
 .sliell is the most effective field-projectile 
 for this puri>os<'; and, when fired with a large charge, 
 has a penetration of from .'5 to « feet in fresh earth" 
 
 The exirenie range of tield-shdls is from 2r)00 to 
 3000 yards. The24^and 32-ponnder .shells bui-sl into 
 about eighteen effective fragments, some of which are 
 thrown to a distance of 600 yards. AH tield-shells 
 have considerable lateral deviation; it is stated that 
 the 24-iK)under shell is sometimes deviated as much as 
 30 yards in 12fK). The extreme range of the mountain- 
 howitzer is about 1200 yards, after three or four re- 
 bounds. The 12-pounder.shell employed in this service 
 bursts into twelve or tiflei'n fragments, .some of which 
 are thrown lo a distance of 300 yards. The great 
 weight of an 8-inch shell, and the large quantity of 
 
 |X)wdcr which it contains, render it a very formidable 
 projectile aginnst the traverses and epaulemenis of 
 siege-works. In sea-coast defense, the 8-, 10-, and 15- 
 inch shells arc very destructive to vessels built of tim- 
 ber. They range from 3 to 3i miles; but the angle 
 which the trajectory makes with the line of sight at 
 this distance (about-tO ) renders their lire very uncer- 
 tain against individual objects of the size of a ship: 
 but it is presumed that they woidil have the effect to 
 prevent a l)lockading tleet from lying at anchor within 
 their range, as it is well known that a single lO-inch 
 shell, striking on the deck of a \essel, has sufficient 
 force to penetrate to the liottora and sink her. The 
 8-inch shell bursts into 28 or 30 fragments; and from 
 the experiments made at Brest, some years ago, it wsis 
 inferred thai Ihree or four of these shells, properly 
 timeti and directed, were capable of disjibling a ship 
 of war. 
 
 .Vortar-skells are employed to break through the 
 roofs of magazines, etc., and to blow them up; to 
 destroy the surface of the terre-pleins, ditches, etc., 
 bj- forming deep hollows, which are produced by ex- 
 ]>losion, and to interrupt the communications from 
 one part of a work to another. The great depth to 
 which mortar-shells penelrale inearth almost entirely 
 destroys the effect of their fragments; some remain 
 buried in the ground, and the others are thrown out 
 at too high an angle to l)e dangerous. One of the 
 principal objects of traverses, on a terre-plein, is to 
 confine the bursting-effects of shells within narrow 
 limits. Mortar-shells penetrate from half a yard to 
 one yard in earth; and the amount of earth thrown 
 up by explosion is about one cubic yard for each 
 pound of the bursting-charge. Ordinarily the diam- 
 eter of the crater at the top is two or three limes 
 the ilepth. The 13-iuch shell will often break in fall- 
 ing on a pavement. Roofs of good masonry, little 
 more than a yard thick, are s\illicient to resist the 
 penetration of mortar-shclIs. The elVect of mortar- 
 tiring is generally in favor of the besiegers, as the 
 works of the besieged present a larger and more favor- 
 able surface for the action of shells. The charge of 
 a stone mortar should be small, to prevent the stones 
 and grenades from being too much .scattered. A charge 
 of stones is generally scaltcred over a space varjang 
 from 30 to 50 yards l)road, and from 60 to 100 yards 
 long. The dispersion of grenades is .somewhat less 
 than this; the larger jiortion, however, are found 
 within a radius of 13 or 15 yards. 
 
 When a shra])nel or case-shot bursts in its flight, 
 the fragment.s of the case and the contained jirojec- 
 tiles arc influenced by two forces, viz., the force of 
 proindsiou, which moves each piece in the direction 
 of the trajectory, and the force of rupture, which 
 moves it in the (lirection of a normal to the surface of 
 the ca.se. The path described by each fragment and 
 projectile dejicnds on the angle which the normal 
 makes with the trajectory, and on the relative velo- 
 cities generated by the two forces; and, when taken 
 together, these paths form a species of cone, called the 
 
 cone of dispersion, the apex of which coincides with 
 the point of nipture, and the axis is the trajectory, 
 jirolonged. (Fig. 4.) The velocity of a projectile di- 
 minishes from the time it leaves its piece, while the 
 velocity generated by the rupturing force remains 
 constant. It follows, therefore, that the dispersion' 
 of a spherical case-shot increases with the distance, 
 while the force of impact is diminished. The distance 
 at which a spherical case-shot ceases to lie effective 
 depends on the relation between the remaining velo- 
 city and the velocity generated by the force of rupture. 
 The improvements which have lately been introduced 
 into this species of projectile have for their objects 
 to increase the remaining velocity at any point by in-
 
 FIBE. 
 
 661 
 
 FISE. 
 
 creasing the propelling charge, and to diminish the 
 force of rupture, and at the same time increase the 
 number of contained projectiles, by diminishing the 
 bursting-charge. By tilling the interstices of the 
 bullets with sulphur or rosin, the propelling charge 
 of a spherical c;ise-sbot can be made the stime as that 
 of a solid shot. 
 
 It is considered that a spherical ca.se-shot is effective 
 ■when a large portion of the projectiles have sufficient 
 force to penetrate 1 inch of soft pine. The present 
 12-pounder spherical case-shot, tired with a charge of 
 2i pounds of powder, has a remaining velocity of 
 about 500 feet at a distance of 1500 yards, which 
 renders it effective at this distance. The principal 
 difficulty experienced in tiring a spherical ca.se-shot 
 is to burst it at the proper distance in front of the ob- 
 ject. This arises from the difficulty of eslimating the 
 correct distance of the object, the rapid flight of the 
 projectile, and the difficulty of ob.ser\-ing the effect of 
 a shot in order that correction maj' be made for the 
 succeeding one if nccessarj-. To overcome these 
 difficulties requires skill and judgment on the part of 
 the gunner, and great accuracy and delicacy in the 
 operation of the fase. The proper position of the 
 point of rupture varies from 30 to 130 yards in front 
 of, and from 15 to 20 feet above, the object. The 
 weight of a spherical case-shot is about the same as a 
 solid shot of the same size, and, being fired with the 
 same charge of powder, it can be used for attaining 
 long ranges in the absence of solid shot. For this 
 purpose the fuse should not be cut. Spherical case- 
 shot should not Ik- used for a less distance than 500' 
 yards; although in cases of emergency the fuse maj- 
 he cut so short that the projectile will burst at the 
 muzzle of the piece, in which case it will act like 
 grape or canister shot. 
 
 In grape and canister firing, theape.v of the cone of 
 dispersion is situated in the muzzle of the piece, and 
 the destructive effect is confined to short distances. 
 The shape of this cone is the same as in spherical 
 case-shot; its intersection by a vertical plane is circu- 
 lar, while that of a horizontal plane, as the ground, 
 is an oval, with its greatest diameter in the plane of 
 fire. The greatest number of projectiles are found 
 around the axis of the cone, while the extreme devia- 
 tions amoiuit to nearly one tenth of the range. The 
 most suitable distance for field canister-shot is from 
 3.50 to 500 yards; if the giound "be hard and the sur- 
 face be uniform, the effect may extend as far as 
 800 yards. In eases of great emergencj' a double 
 charge of canister, fired with a single cartridge, may 
 be used for distances between 150 and 200 yards. 
 Under favorable circumstances, one third of the 
 whole number of contained projectiles will strike the 
 size of a half-battalion front of infantry, and one half 
 the front of a .squadron of cavalry. Grape and can- 
 ister shot are emijioyed in siege and sea-coast opera- 
 tions; in tlie latter they are effective against boats 
 im<\ the rigging, etc., of vessels. Grape-shot, being 
 larger than canister-shot, are effective at greater dis- 
 tances. Canister-shot for the mountain-service are 
 not effective lieyond 250 and 300 vards. 
 
 Beyond 200 "yards llie fire of tlie smooth-bored 
 musket becomes verv uncertain against indiridual ob- 
 jects, as the lateral deviations often exceed four feet; 
 but by aiming hish it may lx> made effective against 
 troops in massat 400 yards. The fire of the rifle-mus- 
 ket is effective at 1(K)0 yards; the angle of fall, how- 
 ever, is so great (about 5 ) that great care must be exer- 
 ci.sed in determining the exact distance of the object. 
 If the ground be favorable, the projectile will ricochet 
 at 1000 yards, which increases the daiigeroiin apare, 
 and therefore the chances of hitting the object. The 
 limit of any fire is determined by the distinctness of 
 \nsion. The limit of distinct \-ision for a foot soldier 
 is about 1100 yards; that fora mounted .soldier is about 
 1300 yards. The effect of small-arm firing depends 
 much on the .skill and self-pos.se,ssion of the soldier in 
 action, for without these qualities the most powerful 
 and accurate arms will be of little avail. The num- 
 
 ber of cartridges expended for each person disabled in 
 previous European wars has been variously stated 
 to be from 3000 to 10,000. In the late ilexican 
 war, where an unusually lar^e proportion of the 
 American troops were armed with rifles, this number 
 has been estimated to be from 300 to 400. Where a 
 soldier discharges his piece from the back of a horse, 
 as in the cavalry service, the effect of fire is much 
 
 j less than in the dragoon and mounted-rifle services, 
 where he rides from i<oint to point, but discharges 
 his piece on foot. At short distances, and against 
 troops in ma.ss, two or three round bullets may be 
 employed with good effect. See Cannon, Firing and 
 Pointinf/. 
 
 2. Wliether a tribe of men ignorant of fire and its 
 uses has ever existed, is a question in dispute among 
 historians and travelers. It will be enough to say that 
 absolute proof of the existence of such a trilie has 
 not been presented, though there are many well au- 
 thenticated facts and circumstances that suggest its 
 possibility. The uses and dangers of fire, and to a 
 certain extent the means of controlling it, must have 
 been generally understood at a very early age. At 
 first it may have been simply an object of "terror, but 
 proljably men soon discovered that it was a friend no 
 
 I less than an enemir. Concussion or friction was un- 
 doubtedly the earliest method employed for produc- 
 ing fire. In the process of chipping stone, sparks 
 were elicited, which, falling upon combustible sub- 
 stances, may have taught men how to produce a blaze 
 at pleasure. The concussion of flint and steel was for 
 ages doubtless the common method of kindling a fire, 
 and it has not yet Ix-en entirely superseded" The 
 Alaskans strike together two pieces of quartz, rubbed 
 with sulphur, thereby .setting the sulphur on fire, antl 
 then transfer the flame to a heap of diy grass. The 
 Esquimaux use quartz and iron pyrites. In some 
 countries sparks are produced by striking a piece of 
 broken china upon bamboo; in Cochin China two 
 pieces of bamboo are used, the silieious character of 
 the ouLside layer of this wood rendering it as good as 
 native flint. Numerous mechanical devices for in- 
 crciwing by rapidity of motion the friction of differ- 
 ent wootls were resorted to. In some cases a stick 
 was rubbed backward and forward; in others it was 
 made to rotate rapidly in a round hole in a station- 
 arj' piece of wood. This method was used by the 
 North American Indians, who improved it by ap- 
 l>lyiug the piinciple of the bow-drill. The Iroquois 
 u.sed the still more ingenious pump-drill. The pro- 
 duction of fire by concentrating the rays of the sun 
 by means of a burning-glass was well "known to the 
 ancients. North American legends narrate how the 
 great buffalo, careering through the plains, makes 
 sparks flit in the night, and .sets the prairie ablaze by 
 his hoofs hitting the rocks. The sjime idea apix'ars 
 in the Hindu mythology. To sjive the labor required 
 in these initial processes of procuring light, and to 
 avoid the inconvenience of carrjing it about continu- 
 ally, primitive men hit on the expedient of a tire 
 which should bum night and day in a public build- 
 ing. The Egyptians had one in everj- temple, the 
 Greeks, Latins, and Persians in all towns and villages. 
 Of these the "eternal lamps" in the Byzantine and 
 Catholic churches may l>e the sur\'ival. Even the 
 functions of the State itself, according to some emi- 
 nent wTiters, appear to have grown out of the care 
 l>estowed on the tribal fire. The first guardians of 
 this fire, it is said, were the earliest public servants, 
 who by degrees appropriated all important offices, as 
 the Stale it.self developed into a vast aggregation of 
 interests. The men who in the Roman Empire took 
 charge of the tribal tire were called the Prytanes. 
 They were fed at the public expense, and they be- 
 came Magistrates, in whom were combined tlie "pow- 
 ers of Captain, Priest, and King. When Augustus 
 usurped the authority of Impcrator, he assumed the 
 powers which belonged to a Boani of Flamens, or 
 of Prytanes. He made himself Pontifex Slaximus, 
 and assumed the charge of the public fire. The
 
 FI&EALAKH. 
 
 662 
 
 FISE-AKUS. 
 
 Hellenic nations, as well as the Aztecs, received their 
 AinbassjHlors in their lemples of tire, where, as at the 
 imtionul hearth, they feasted the foreign guests. The 
 Prvtaueicn and the State were coiiverlible terms. 
 If "by chance the tire in llie Koman Temple of ^■esta 
 was extinguished, all tribunals, all public or private 
 business, had to stop immediately. No Greek or 
 lioinan army crossed the frontier without carrying 
 an altar where the tire taken from the Prytaneion 
 burned night and ilay. Greek Colonies went iiot 
 forth without living coals from the altar of llestia, 
 to light in llicir new country a lire like that burning 
 at tlic old home. Architecture, it is supposed, began 
 with the creation of sacred sheds to protect the 
 sacreii lire, which was Uxjkcd upon as a divinity. 
 The tin' that burned in the Temple of Vesta was re- 
 garded as the very' got^idcss herself. The hearth-lire 
 was kept holy, it's llame was to remain bright and 
 pure. According to the Zend Avesta nothiui^ un- 
 clean was to l)e thrown into the fire, and no in(recent 
 actions were to be conmiitled before it. To spit in 
 one's fire wotdd be considered in some places an im- 
 pardonable offense. Some people were so reverent 
 that they would not blow out a light lest they should 
 render the flame impure with their bre^dh. In the 
 course of time the sjimc reasons which led to the 
 provision for a tribal fire induced every family to 
 have its hearth. The family developeil iUself only 
 after the married pair and their offspring had their 
 own fireplace. This family tire was at first the 
 privilege of only the aristocracy. The hearth was 
 the very center of the house, as the regia was the 
 sacred center of Rome and the Roman Common- 
 wealth; aroimd the regia the civic and politic iusti- 
 tution.s developed themselves; and around the hearth 
 the family grew slowly into shape and power. Let 
 as hope it may not decline under the influence of 
 those "modern improvements" which have super- 
 seded the hearth-stone and banished from sight the 
 household fire. The Gentile hearth gave a recognized 
 a.sylum — a right still in full vigor in some countries. 
 Tile i>roud saying of the Englishman that his home 
 is his castle is a remnant of this old feeling. 
 
 3. In annorial bearings the fire is iLscd to denote 
 those who, being ambitious of honor, perform brave 
 actions with an ardent courage, their thoughts always 
 aspiring as the tire tends upwards. A flame of fire is 
 more frequently used as a charge in France and Ger- 
 many than in England, where, however, there are 
 fire-balls or bombs, fire-beacons, firebrands, and fire- 
 buckels, etc., in abundance. 
 
 FIBE-ALAKM. — An alann given of a fire or con- 
 flagration. In barracks or camp it is sounded on the 
 drum or bugle, or by the discharge of fire-anns tiy the 
 guard. As soon as the fire is observed, the sentinel 
 on ix)st cries " Fire!" adding the number of his post. 
 If the danger appears great, he discharges his piece 
 before calling out. 'When a fire breaks out, or any 
 alarm is raised in a garrison, all guards are immc- 
 diatclv midtr arms. 
 
 FIRE AND SWORD.— By the law of Scotland, al 
 though decree may be given in a civil action agidnst 
 an absent defender, no criminal sentence can be pro- 
 nounced unless the accu.sed be i)resent. But to resist 
 a criminal citation is to reliel against the law of the 
 land, and in fomier times might iKr treated as trea.son. 
 In this view, litters of fin mid Kiroril were occiision- 
 ally i.ssucd by the Privy Council. These letters were 
 directed to the Sheriff of the county, autliorizing him 
 to call in the a.ssistance of the country, and to pro- 
 cee<l to the e.xtrendlies which the terrible words tire 
 and sword indicate, should sucli proceedings be nec- 
 essary for apprehending the accused party. Lord 
 Stair describes this remedy as the " last legal execu- 
 tion, warranting all manner of force of arms that is 
 competent in war." The same course might lie re- 
 .sorted to where the decree of a Court was resisted; 
 and the object with which letters of fire and sword 
 were more frequently issued than any other was to 
 enable the Sheriff to dislodge refractory tenants who 
 
 retained possession contrarj- to the order of the Judge 
 or the diligence of the law. By the modern practice 
 the Ju<lge may, of course, always call in the aid of 
 the military to" apprehend an accused party, or to en- 
 force a decree where the ordinary means have proved 
 unavailing. 
 
 FIRE-ARMS. — Firearms may be defined as vessels, 
 of whatever form, usi'd in the propulsion of shot, 
 shell, or bullets to a greater or less distance by the 
 action of gunpowder exploded within them. They 
 have played so great a part in the world's story that 
 their invention, develo|>ment, and science deserve 
 careful analysis. At a more advanced period, an 
 obvious division of the subject into cannon, mortars, 
 and snuiU-arms presents itself; but in the infancy of 
 the invention, and amid the obscurity enshrouding it, 
 we can only seek to inqiure into the origin of tire- 
 arms generally. The invention of gimpowder bears 
 .so directly upon the gradual introduction of tire-arms 
 that it will be well to consider the two discoveries 
 concuiTently. The widely prevalent notion that gun- 
 powder was the i/ireiition of Friar Bacon, and that 
 cannon were first use<l by Edwartl III. of England, 
 must be at once discstrded. It is certain that gun- 
 powder differed in no conspicuous degree from the 
 Gretk- fire oi the Byzantine Emjierors, nor from the 
 temsirial thunder of China and India, where it had 
 been known for many centuries before the chivalry 
 of Europe began to fall beneath its leveling power. 
 "Niter," says Sir Gfcorge Staunton, "is the natural 
 and daily produce of China and India; and there, ac- 
 cordingly, the knowledge of gunpowder seems to be 
 coeval with that of thelnost dist<uit historic events." 
 The earlier Arab historians call saltpeter " Chinese 
 snow" and "Chinese salt;" and the most ancient 
 records of China itself show that, when they were 
 written, fire-works were well known several hundred 
 }"ears before the Christian era. From these and 
 other circumstances, it is indubitable that gunpowder 
 was used by the Chine.se as an explosive compound 
 in prehistoric times; when they first discovered or 
 applied its power as a propellant is less easily deter- 
 mined. There is an account of a bamboo tube bein^ 
 used, from which the "impetuous dart " was hurled 
 a distance of 100 feet; this was at a very early period, 
 but it is diflicult to say precisely when. It is re- 
 corded, however, that in 618 B.C.," during the Taing- 
 off dynasty, a cannon was employed bearing the in- 
 scription: "I hurl death to the traitor, and extermi- 
 nation to the rebel." This must almost necessarily 
 have been of metal. We have also curious evidence 
 in regard to the armament of the great wall; for Cap- 
 tain Parisli, who acconiiianiid Lord Macartney's mis- 
 sion, reiKirled that " the soles of tlie embrasures were 
 pierced with small holes, similar to those used in 
 Europe for the reception of the swivels of wall-pieces. 
 The holes appear to be part of the original consti-uc- 
 tion of the wall, and it seems difficult to assign to 
 them any other iiurpose than that of resistance to the 
 recoil of fireanns. " If this sunnise be correct, the 
 use of jingalls would be carried back to three cen- 
 turies at le.'ist before the Christian era. Stone mor- 
 tars, throwing nussiles of 12 lbs. to a distance of 300 
 paces, are particularly mentioned as having btrn em- 
 ployed in 757 \.T>. by Thang's army; and in 1233 
 a.d". it is incontestable that the Chinese besieged in 
 CaVfong-fou used caimon against tlieir Jlongol ene- 
 mies. Thus, the Chinese must be allowed to have 
 established their claim to an early practical knowl- 
 edge of gimpowder and its effects. 
 
 It seems likelv, however, that the principles of 
 fire-arms reached Europe from India rather than 
 China, and that countrj' has ccpial, if not suixrior, 
 claims to the iii-st acquaintance with the art. The 
 ancient Sanscrit writings appear to point very plainly 
 to the oiienilion of some primitive sort of cannon, 
 when, in recording the wars of the EgJ^)tian Hercules 
 in India, it is staled that llie sjiges remained uncon- 
 cerned as spectators of the attack on their strong- 
 hold, till an assiuUt was attempted, when they re-
 
 FIR£ABUS. 
 
 663 
 
 FIBEASMS. 
 
 pulsed it with whirlwinds and thundi-rs, Imrlingr 
 distraction on the invaders; and a Greek historian of 
 Alexauder's campaign testifies that the Hindus had 
 the means of discharging flames and missiles on their 
 enemies from a dLstance. These Indian philosophers 
 seem, from the writings of Ctesias and -Elian, to 
 have also jxisscssed an unquenchable tire similar to 
 that employed later by the Greeks. Passing from 
 these very early times, in which there is reason to be- 
 lieve that some sort of great-gun was employed, we 
 come to the comparatively recent date. 1200 a.d., 
 when their use is established beyond a doubt, for 
 Chased, the Hindu bard, writes (in stjmza 257) that 
 the culivers and cannons made a loud report when 
 they were tired off, and that the noise of the ball was 
 heard at the distance of about ten coss, which is more 
 than three quarters of a mile. In 12oS the vizier of 
 the King of Delhi went forth to meet the Ambassjidor 
 of Hulaku, the grandson of Genghis Khan, with 
 3000 carriages of tireworks (in the sense of weapons, 
 probably a sort of rude muskets). In 1368. 300 gun- 
 carriages were captured by Muhammed Shah Bah- 
 miani. The use of c:umon had so far advanced in 
 India by 1482 that they were even used for naval 
 purposes; shells having been employed two yeai-s 
 earlier by the Sovereign of Guzerat. In 1500 the 
 Portuguese had matchlockmen to contend with, as 
 well as heavy ordnance. Pigafetta, in 1511, found 
 the town of Borneo defended by 62 pieces of cannon 
 mounted on the walls. So much for the antiquity 
 and apparently common use of fire-anns in China 
 and India, at times long antecedent to any knowledge 
 of them in Europe, and during the period at which 
 they were scarcely developed in an effectual degree. 
 Most of the pieces discovered in India, and supposed 
 to be of early manufacture, are composed of parallel 
 iron bars welded together, and very often they had a 
 movable breech-piece. The knowledge of gunpow- 
 der and fire-arms may be presumed to have extended 
 ■ in a westerly direction through the Arabs, whom we 
 find using them possibly in 711 A.D., under the name 
 of iiuiiijaii i/iS, and certainly very early in the fourteenth 
 century. The Byzantine Emperor Leo introduced 
 " fire-tubes" between 890 and 911, for use in connec- 
 tion with Greek fire; and there can be little doubt 
 that these were a species of cannon, probably of small 
 bore. In Spain, both the Moors and Christians used 
 ' artillery as early as the twelfth century. 
 
 Friar Bacon was conspicuous among his contem- 
 poraries for his genenU learning, and we have no evi- 
 dence to show whether he discovered the ingredients 
 of gimpowder independently of all foreign aid, or 
 whether he derived the knowledge from some an- 
 cient MSS.; the latter, however, seems the more 
 likely conclusion, as Sir F. Palgrave brought to light 
 in the Bodleian Librarj- a letter from a Spanish friar. 
 Brother Ferrarius, who was a contemporary of Ba- 
 con, in which the materials of Greek lire arc detailed, 
 differing only in proportions, and in these but Slightly, 
 from real gunpowder. That the latter was identified 
 of old with Greek fire is shown by the name " Crake," 
 applied t(j the first cannon used. This word, which 
 still survives in "cracker," is pointed out by Sir F. 
 Palgrave to be nothing more than a Norman corrup- 
 tion of " Grec. " Bacon's announcement dates from 
 1216; but the powder of his time, as made in the 
 West, was not readily explosive, since the materials 
 were but roughly cleared of impurities, and then 
 mixed together on a slab, and probably little use 
 could be made of it as a propellant luitil the process 
 of granulating had been introduced by Bcrtholdus 
 Schwartz iu 1320. Immediately after this discovery, 
 cannon of small size appeared in the annory of almost 
 every State, as if their use had been known pre- 
 \nously, although no practical effect had been given 
 to the knowledge, on account of the badness of the 
 powder manufactured. These cannon generally con- 
 sisted of a smaller barrel or chamber to receive the 
 charge, which fitted into a larger one containing the 
 projectile. It may be safely assumed that these 
 
 weapoas, if terrifying from their noise, were tolerably 
 harmless — at least to the enemy — in their i)ractice. 
 In 1326 the Florentine Republic ordered the making 
 of iron shot and cannon for the defense of its til- 
 lages. In 1327 Edward III. used " crakeys of war" 
 a.gainst the Scotch; in 1339, ten cannons were em- 
 ployed in the siege of Cambray. By 1346, various 
 improvements had been made ;' and we find in the 
 same year the Consuls of Bruges witnessing experi- 
 ments by one Peter, a tinman, who had coiistruct«d 
 a cannon with a stpiare bore, to throw a cubical shot 
 of about 11 lbs.; his l)olt passed both walls of the 
 town, and imfortuuately killed a man on the other 
 side. We have the authority of Villani for believing 
 that Edward III. had three "cannon at Crecy; but the 
 cannon then made were, from the little knowledge of 
 casting, limited to alxmt the size of modern duck- 
 guns, and, as has been remarked, three very inferior 
 muskets could have had but little to do with i)utting 
 50,000 men to flight. Up to this time European ord- 
 nance had been kept back by the rarity and high 
 prices of sulphur, saltpeter, and iron, the last having 
 been so scarce in England that it was thought neces- 
 siiry to forbid its exportation by a statute. Still, 
 crude as was their form, and small their number, fire- 
 arms had established a firm footing in Christendom; 
 their mission of civilization, and, paradoxical as it 
 may appear, of humanity, had begun. With the 
 first killing discharge, tlie doom of feudalism had 
 gone forth. Plated armor no longer availed against 
 the weapon of the peasant; and the mailed chivalry, 
 the sinews of pre\ious battles, who had trampled 
 with their iron heels upon popular rights, no longer 
 could carry all before them, but, like other soldiers, 
 were now as loath to be slain by unseen foes as the 
 veriest villain in the host. The people discovered 
 their powers of contending with the nobIe.s.se; by de- 
 grees they rose for liberty and suppressed the tyran- 
 nies of the petty lords who had long held them as* 
 mere bondsmen. In war, again, as artillery became 
 more general, so the slaughter of battles diminished, 
 for an army outmancuvered was an army at the 
 enemy's mercy, and therefore beaten; whereas pre- 
 viously, in the hand-to-hand fight.s where victors and 
 vanquished mixed pell-mell in single combat, a vic- 
 tory could only be really won when there were no 
 foes left to slay. A battle as great as that at Crecy 
 might now be gained with a loss to the vanquishca 
 of not more than 1000 men, instead of the 30.000 who 
 are said to have fallen victims to the English sword 
 or bow. 
 
 Dating from the reign of Edward III., the employ- 
 ment of cannon and bombards in siege-operations be- 
 came more or less general. Froissart records that 
 the Black Prince took bombards, cannon, and Greek 
 fire to the reduction of the castle of Komozantin in 
 1356, but it does not appear that he availed himself 
 of fire-arms at the battle of Poitiers in the same year. 
 The bombards seem to have been short, capacious 
 vessels, from which stone balls were shot with small 
 charges to a short distance, and at considerable eleva- 
 tion; they were essentially the parents of the present 
 bombs or mortars. The cannon, on the other hand, 
 were, for some time at least, of extremely small 
 bore, scarcely larger than muskets of the eighteenth 
 century; they discharged leaden bullets, and would 
 have probably been used as hand-weapons but for 
 their cumbrous and heavy workmanship, which neces- 
 sitated small carriages. Arms of this description are 
 doubtless those referred to as having been brought by 
 Ricliard II. to the siege of St. Malo"^ to the number of 
 400 pieces, where they are said to have kept up an 
 incessant fire day and" night on the town icit/iout suc- 
 cess. In the fifteenth century, armies for siege-opera- 
 tions were usually accompanied by great and small 
 gtins, the latter being intended to keep down the fire 
 of the besieged while the large bombard.s were being 
 loaded, an operation requiring no small time. These 
 guns were eraduallv improved, but it was not until 
 the reign of Hemv 'VIII. that the founders succeeded
 
 FIS£-ABEOW. 
 
 664 
 
 FIREBALL. 
 
 in casting iron ordnance, to the entire exclusion, until 
 (|uile the present ilny, of cannon formed of square or 
 rounded bars welded tocellier. En^hind had even 
 then lx!Come famous for the workmanship of its 
 ordnance. A gun found in the wrrck of tlie Mary 
 liim-, which sunk at .Spitliead in the above kini^'s 
 reijrn. shows that a ilcj^rce of excellence had Ix-en at- 
 tained in the nianufacuire of artillery little inferior to 
 that which has lasted till our own day, when ritletl 
 oninance are rjipiilly superseding camion of smooth 
 bores. Still, so late as Henry's reign, although great- 
 guns were found very serviceable in siege and naval 
 operations, where the defenses of those days ofTered 
 hut a tritling resistance to their i)owcr, they appear to 
 have been looked upon rather as an ineumhrance 
 than an advantage with armies in the field. This is 
 attributed partly to the heavy character of the guns 
 themselves, andespecially of their carriages, but more | 
 particularly to the badness, or rather absence, of the 
 necessary roads for tlieir transport. In ITi.jS it is re- 
 corded in the iState-jiapers that the " kingesordonauns 
 [were] unable to pii-ss over Stancs More towards 
 Carlile." As lime pas.sed on, the details of the manu- 
 facture were improved, the general principles remain- 
 ing the same; the size of the guns increased, while 
 the proportionate weight of the carriages diminished; 
 limbers were added, and the eqtiipa.je of a gun 
 gnidually perfected and lightened. ^\ ith increiLsed 
 caliber, to which augmented range was usually added, 
 the numlK'r of camion— at one period enormous — 
 taken with an armv was by degrees reduced, until 
 now a certain standard proportion between artillery 
 and infantry is ordinarily maintained. Three guns to 
 a thousand infantry is the proportion now considered 
 best. Of course this proportion differs with the opin- 
 ions of various Commanders; but the greatest modern 
 Generals have always acted on the maxim that it is 
 wasteful to .send a soldier on any duly of danger which 
 a ball can be made to perforin. As a weapon of of- 
 fen.se, Vauban doubled the utility of hea\y ordnance 
 when he applied the ricochet system of firing. Napo- 
 leon may almo.st Ix; .s,iid to have won his battles by 
 artillerj-, for he rarely, if ever, brought his infantry 
 into action except as supports, until a way had been 
 opened for them, or a panic caused, by the massed lire 
 of large batteries of guns. The Dulic of 'Wellington 
 also devoted the greatest attention to his ordnance- 
 train; while, referring to recent events, the campaigns 
 of Lord Clyde in India were remarkable instances of 
 the use of artillery Ijeing pushed with abundant suc- 
 cess to its greatest limit. During the Franco German 
 'War of 1870-71 the Prussians were considered some- 
 what behind the age in their use of artillerj'. 
 
 Cannon of widelj' varvnng bores have at different 
 periods been cast, and the various sorts became so 
 numerous in Continent;d armies as at one time to 
 cause much inconvenience from the large quantities 
 of nmnnmition which it was nec'cssary to carry. Gus- 
 taviis Adolphus set the example of reducing his guns 
 to a few standard calibers, and the sjime improvement 
 ■was immediately adopted systematicidly in the French 
 and other armies. The mortar differs from all otlicr 
 gvins in its solidity of fonn, its shortness, and its large 
 iwre. The object is the projection of .shells by a more 
 or k-ss vertical fire, with the intention of breaking 
 through and destroying, by weight and explosion to- 
 gether, roofs of magazines, public buildings, and so 
 on, or of sinking a shell deep into earthworks of a 
 fortress, in which it shall explo<le as a most deadly 
 mine. The mortar arose natundly out of the old bom- 
 bard, and doubtless deviated by degrees more ftnd 
 more from the cannon. In very early days, we read 
 in Arabian authors of a cylinder hewn in the rock at 
 Alexandria, and us<'d as a mortar. Such a cylinder, 
 and of large size, is still to be seen at Gibraltar, where 
 it was employed in the last siege against the Spanish, 
 when it was nuule to discharge volleys (jf large stones, 
 which, spreading at times to a distance of 500 j-ards, 
 constituted a fonnidable means of defease. In recent 
 years nearly all guns fire shells, wj that the sjiecilic 
 
 necessity for mortars has greatly diminished. A gun 
 is a frustum of a right cone, with a cylinder (bore) 
 removed around the axis; from whiih it follows that 
 the thickness of metal is greatest at the breech, where 
 it has to withstand the effect of ignited powder in its 
 most condcnseil and therefore most powerful state. 
 Guns are first cast in loam or dry sand, then turned 
 to the re(iuin'<l shape, suid lastly bored with the min- 
 utest accuracy. Fonnerly they were cast with the 
 bore already formed; but the direction was rarely 
 correct, and the surface scarcely ever strictly even. 
 
 An article on fire-arms would be incomplete with- 
 out some allusion to the progress attained in small- 
 arms. In the fifteenth century the smallest sort of can- 
 non were probably at times mounted and u.sed its hand- 
 guns. From this the step to the arquebus was rapid; 
 that weajion developed as years jtassed into the clumsy 
 matchlock; that into the firelock and fiint-musket; 
 then the percu.ssion-musket ; and lastly into the beau- 
 tiful rifles of our own day, which have culminated 
 in the central-fire breech-loaders. For diminutives, 
 small arciuebuscs were made to do duty as horse- 
 pistols; gemiine pistols succeeded them: these were 
 gradually improved and reduced in size till they have 
 culminated in the saloon-pistol, available for a waist- 
 coat pocket, and the deadly revolver, with its multi- 
 plied shooting power. AH these weapons are described 
 tmder their respective beads. See Cannon, Ordnance, 
 and Small a niis. 
 
 FIRE AERO'W.— An arrow or dart furnished with 
 a match impregnated with powder and sulphur, and 
 used for incendiary piu-poses. 
 
 FIRE-BALL. — Fire-balls are projectiles of an oval 
 shape, formed of sacks of canvas filled with combus- 
 tible composition. They are used to light up the 
 enemy's works, and are loaded with .shells to prevent 
 them from being approached. The materials need- 
 ed in their manufacture are strong, close canvas 
 (sail-cloth); rope; cartridge-thread; red chalk; slow- 
 match; loaded shells; and pitch. A composition of 8 
 parts of sjiltpeter, as it comes from the refinery; 2 of 
 pulverized sulphur, and 1 of antimony are passed 
 through sieve No. 2. These materials are mixed in 
 the hands, pas.sed through sieve No. 4, moistened 
 with jV their weight of water, and pa.ssed again 
 through the same sieve. The following utensils are 
 reqtiired besides tho.se necessjiry for grinding and 
 preparing the composition: a wooden pattern; red 
 chalk ; one pair shears; collar-needles; mallet; .small 
 giiuge, of the caliber of the fire-balls; scoop; tarred 
 links; one wooden mold; two wooden drifts 20 
 inches long, one of them Ij- inch and the other 3* to 
 4 inches in diameter; and two wooden pins 4i inches ■ 
 long, the small end the size of a paper fuse. 
 
 To make the sack, mark out the pieces by means 
 of the pattern, and cut them with the shears; ba-ste 
 two or three thicknesses together, according to the 
 strength of the canvas; sew three or more together, 
 enough to make the sack; leave one end open, form- 
 ing a mouth for charging; turn the bag to bring the 
 seams on the inside. The mouth may be made fast 
 to an iron hof)p, large enough to admit the shell, with 
 which the fire-ball is loaded. Charge the shell with 
 powder and put in a slow fuse. Dip the tarred link 
 into the melted rosin, pitch, and tallow, and fasten it 
 with twine to the shell around the fuse-hole. Place 
 the sack in the mold and secure the mouth to it. Put 
 the shell with the tarred link in the bottom of the 
 sack, the fuse-liole downward, and fasten the shell 
 down with twine pas.sed through the sides of the 
 .sack, or with a )iiece of canvas secured to the sides; 
 put in the com]>osition with a scoop and ram it, first 
 with the small drift, and when it is half the height of 
 the projectile, with the large drift, driving it with 
 the mallet. Continue in this way until the .sack is 
 filled to the top. Close the mouth of the sack, sew- 
 ing the pieces together. 
 
 The ball is furnished with an iron bottom to pre- 
 vent it from being broken by the force of the charge 
 in the mortar. To make the bottom, the iron, .2
 
 FIEE BAVIH. 
 
 665 
 
 FIBE WOfiES. 
 
 inch thick, is cut in a circular form, heated and 
 partly shaped with a set-hamnier in a concave wooden 
 former; it is again heated and finished in an iron 
 former. It is then put into a lathe where the outer 
 edge is trimmed and chamfered to the thickness of 
 one eighth inch. The iron bottom is attached to the 
 hall with cement; the bottom is tilled about one third 
 full with the cement, and the loaded end of the tirc- 
 hall is inserted in it and left to cool. The hall is 
 nest covered and strengthened with a network made 
 of spun yarn or cord from .25 to .5 inch thick ac 
 cording to the size of the ball. This network is 
 commenced at the bottom of the sack and terminates 
 at the top in a strong loop which forms a handle for 
 carrying tlie ball. Fire balls are dipped in a com- 
 position of equal parts of pilch and rosin made 
 warm. The ball when finished should pass through 
 the large shellgiiuge. 
 
 To prime the balls, make four holes about 3 inches 
 below the top by driving in the greased wooden pins 
 2 inche.*deep. When the ball is to be primed, take 
 out these pins and til! the holes with fuses and with 
 two strands of quick match, held fast by the com- 
 position; leave room in the priming-hole for coiling 
 the quick match and cover it with a piece of canvas 
 fastened with four nails. The halls are not primed 
 until they are to be tired. See Fire-works. 
 
 FIEE BAVIN.— A bundle of brushwood employed 
 in tire-ships, and for other incendiary purposes. 
 
 FIEEBEAND MINE.— A variety of mine that pre- 
 ceded the purdir-rniiic in the Middle Ages. 
 
 FIEE-BTJCKET.— A bucket to convey water for ex- 
 tinguishing tires. To each set of quarters in a Garri- 
 soiT there are allotted a certain number of tire-buckets. 
 
 FIEE-CEOSS.— An ancient token used in Scotland 
 for the nation to take up arms. 
 
 FIBE-EATEE. — A name applied to a soldier who is 
 notoriously fond of being in action. 
 
 FIEE-HOOPS. — A combustible invented by the 
 Knights of Malta to throw among their be.siegers, and 
 afterwards used in Iwanling Turkish galleys. 
 
 FXKELOCK. — The name applied on its introduction, 
 ill 1690, to the old musket, which produced tire by the 
 concussion of flint and steel, to distinguish it from 
 the matchlock previously in u.se, which had been fired 
 by the insertion of a lighted match at the powder-pan. 
 Writers of the earliest part of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury called firelocks "asnaphans," a word obviously 
 corrupted from the Dutch sinnphaan, and leading to 
 the inference that they were brought to England l)y 
 William III. and his" Dutch au.viliaries. Their first 
 invention is, however, involved in obscurity. The 
 weapon was superseded before 1830 by the percus 
 sion-musket; which, in its turn, has now jielded to 
 the rifle. See Matchhxk. 
 
 FIEE-MASTEE.— In the artillery, a Commissioned 
 Officer who formerly gave the directions and propor- 
 tions of all ingredients for each composition required 
 in fire-works, whether for the service of war or for 
 rejoicings and recreation. 
 
 FIEE MASTEE'S MATE.— In the artillery, a Com- 
 missioned Otticer whose duty it was to aid and as.sist 
 the Chief Fire-master; he was required to Ix' skilled 
 in everv kind of laborator\' works. 
 
 FIEE OF GEEATEST EANGE.— The fire obtained 
 by gi\ing the piece the greatest elevation it can take 
 on its carriaire, and employing the largest charge used 
 for that caliber. This kind of fire is very injurious 
 to the carriage, and is employed only in testing. 
 
 FIEE-PAN.— A pan for holding or convenng fire: 
 especially, the receptacle for the priming in a gim. 
 
 FIEE-SHIP.— A ves.sel, usually an old one. filled 
 with combustibles, sent in among a hostile squadron, 
 and there fired, in the hope of destroying some of the 
 ships, or at least of producing great confu.sion. Li\'y 
 mentions the use of such by the Rhodians, B.C. 190; 
 but among the first occasions in modern times when 
 they are known to have lieen employed were by the 
 Dutch in the Scheldt during the War of Independence 
 in the Netherlands, and.sh"ortlv after by the English, 
 
 in 1588, against the Spanish Armada. The Chinese 
 tried them against the British fleet Ijefore Catiton in 
 1857, but unsuccessfully. The service of na%igating 
 one of these ships into the midst of an enemy, there 
 firing it, and then attempting to escape, is always 
 fraught with great risk of failure and disaster. 
 
 FIEE-STEEL— A steel used in connection with a 
 flint for striking fire. Now little used. 
 
 FIEE-STONE;— A composition placed in a shell 
 with the bursting charge to set fire to .ships, buildings, 
 etc. It is made by stirring niter, sulphur, antimony, 
 and rosin in a mi.xture of melted tallow and turpen- 
 tine. It is cast in molds made of rocket-paper. A 
 priming of fuse-composition is driven in a hole to in- 
 sure its ignition. 
 
 FIEE-SWAB. — The bunch of rope-yams sometimes 
 secured to the tampion, saturated with water to cool 
 the gun in action, and to swab up any grains of pow- 
 der. 
 
 FIEE-WOEKEE.— Formerly an assistant to the Fire- 
 master. In the early organization of the British ar- 
 tillery, this title was given to the junior subaltern 
 grade, the designation of tht" officer i)eing Lieutenant 
 Fire-worker. See Fire-master. 
 
 FIEE-WOEKS. — Militarj- fireworks comprise prepa- 
 rations for the .scrrtceof c'anrutn ammunition, and for 
 signal, light, incendiary, and defentire and offensive 
 purposes. 
 
 Prep.\rations for the Service op Ammitni- 
 TioN. — The preparations for the sernc»of ammuni- 
 tion are stotr-match, quick-match, port-fins, friction- 
 tubes, and fi/ses. Slow-match is used to preserve 
 fire. It may be made of hemp or cotton rope; if 
 made of hemp, the rope is saturated with acetate of 
 lead, or the lye of wood-ashes; if made of cotton, it 
 is only necessary that the strands be well twisted. 
 Slow-match bums from four to five inches in an hour. 
 QncK-MATCH is made of cotton-yarn (candle-wick) 
 saturated with a composition of mealed powder and 
 gummed spirits; after saturation the yam is wound 
 on a reel, sprinkled (dredged) with mealed powder, 
 and left to di-j-. It is used to communicate fire, and 
 burns at the rate of one yard in thirteen seconds. The 
 rate of burning may be much increased bj' inclosing 
 it in a thin paper tube called a leader. Port-fires 
 are paper cases containing a composition, the flame of 
 which is capable of quickly igniting primers, quick- 
 match, etc. The composition consists of niter, sul- 
 phur, and mealed powder. A portfire is about 22 
 inches long, and bums with an intense flame for ten 
 minutes. FRiCTiox-TrBES are at present the princi- 
 pal preparations for firing cannon; the advantages are 
 portability and certainty of fire. They also jvfford the 
 means of firing a piece situated at a distance, and do 
 not attract the notice of the enemy's marksmen at 
 night. They are made of two brass tulx's soldered at 
 right angles. The upper or short tulje contjiins a 
 charge oif friction-powder and the roughed extremity 
 of a wire loop; the long tuljc is filled with rifle pow- 
 der, and is inserted in the vent of the piece. When 
 the extremity of the loop is violently pulled, by means 
 of a lanyard, through its hole in the long tube, suffi- 
 cient heat is generated to ignite the friction-powder 
 which surrounds it, and this communicates with the 
 grain-powder in the longer tube. The charge of 
 grained powder has sufficient force to pa.ss through 
 the longest vent and penetrate several thicknc.s.ses of 
 cartridge-cloth. The composition of friction-powder 
 is one part of chlorate of pot)»s.sa and two parts of 
 sulphuret of antimony. FrsES are the means used 
 to ignite the burstingK'harge of a hollow projectile at 
 any desired moment of its flight ; they may be classi- 
 fied according to their mode of oiK-ration, as time- 
 fuses, percu.ssion-fuses, and combination-fuses. 
 
 Fireworks for Signals. — Rockets for signals 
 are composed of a paper case charged with composi- 
 tion, a pot filled with ornaments, anil a light .stick to 
 give direction. Rockets are denominated liy the in- 
 terior diameter of the case. The most common sizes 
 are the .75-inch, 1-inch, and 1.5-inch. The decora-
 
 FIKE-WORKS. 
 
 666 
 
 FIRE-WORKS. 
 
 tions of rockets are stars, serpents, marrons, gold-rain, [ 
 nin of tire, etc. Stars arc formeil by driving the 
 itmijiosition, moistened with alcohol and guni-anibic 
 in solution, in port-lire molds. It is then cut into 
 lengths about } inch, and tlreilged with mealed pow- 
 der. The ca.se of a sehpent is similar to that of a 
 ro<.-ket, but the interior diameter is only .4 inch. 
 The composition is driven in, and the top is closed 
 ■with moist plaster of Paris. It is primed by insert- 
 ing a small piece of tiuickinatch through the vent; it 
 may be made to explode by driving mealed powder 
 over the composition. The composition is ;i ])ai1.s of 
 niter, 3 parts of sulphur, 16 parts of mealed powder, 
 and i part of charcoal. Marrons are small paper 
 shells, or cubes, tilled with grained powder, and 
 primed with a short piece of quick-match, which is ' 
 inserted in a hole punctured in one of the corners. 
 To increase the resistance of the shell it is wrapped 
 with twine, and dipped in kit composition. The 
 stick is a taix;ring piece of pine about nine times the 
 length of the case, and is tied to the side of the case 
 to guide the rocket in its flight. The position of the 
 center of gravity depends on the diameter of the case; 
 for a 2-ineh rocket it should be 2\ inches in rear of 
 the vent; and it is verified by balancing on a knife- 
 edge. The prescribed dimensions of the stick should 
 be obscrveil, for if the slick Ix- too heavy the rocket 
 will not rise to a proper height; if it be too light it 
 will not rise vertically. A very brilliant blue-light 
 maybe made of the following ingredients, viz.: 14 
 parts of niter, 3.7 parts of sulphur, 1 part of realgar, 
 and 1 part of mealed powder. The brillianc}' de- 
 pends on the purity and thorough incorporation of 
 the icgre<lients. The composition may be driven in a 
 paper aise, and afterw.trd cut off to suit the required 
 time of burning. Both ends of the case are closed 
 with paper aips, and primed with (luiek-match, in 
 order that one or both ends may l)e lighted at pleas- 
 ure. A light in which the composition is !.."> inches 
 diameter can be easily distinguished at the distance 
 of 15 miles. 
 
 Incendiary Fire-wouks. — The incendiary prepara- 
 tions are Jire-etone, caretissf/t, intendiarn-maMi , and 
 hots/lot. Fire-stone is a t-omposition that burns 
 slowly but intensely; it is placed in a shell, along with j 
 the bursting charge, for the ptn-pose of setting tire to i 
 ships, buihlings, et(-. It is composed of 10 parts of [ 
 niter, 4 parts of sulphur, 1 part of antimony, and 3 
 parts of rosin. The composilinn having been prop- 
 erly pulverized and mi.xed is adiled to melted tallow 
 and turpentine in small quaiililies. Kach portion of 
 the composition should be well stined with long 
 wooden spatulas to prevent it from taking tire, and 
 each portion should be melted before another is 
 added. When tire-stone is to be used in shells it is 
 cast into cylindrical molds made by rolling rocket- 
 paper around a former, and securing it with glue. A I 
 small hole is forn\ed in the composition liy placing a 
 pai«.T tube in the center of each mold. Wlien the 
 melted composition has become hard, this hole is 
 tilled with a priming of fuse composition, driven as 
 in the case of a fuse. The object of this priming is 
 to insure the ignition of the fire-stone by the flame of 
 the bursting-charge. There are two sizes of molds, 
 the lamer for shells above the 8-inch, and the other 
 for the .H-inch and all below it. A carcass is a hol- 
 low cast iron pio.jeelile tilled with burning composi- 
 tion, the flame of which issues through four fuse- 
 holes to set fire to combustible objects. The compo- 
 silion is the same as for por^fires, mixed with a small 
 quanlily of finely-chopped li/ir, and as much ir/ii(t: 
 tiir/ieiili/ir and gpin'lx nf tiirpmtiin; as will give it a 
 compressible consistency. The composition is com- 
 paelly pres.scd into the carcass with a diift, so as to 
 fill it entirely. Sticks of wood..") inch diameter arc 
 then ins»!rtcd into each fuse-hole, with the points 
 touching at the center, so that when withdrawn cor 
 responding holes .shall remain in the composition. 
 In each bole Ibusfoniied thncslrandsof (luick-match 
 are inserteil, and held in i)lace by dry port fire com- 
 
 position, which is pressed around them. About three 
 inches of the quick-match hangs out when the carcass 
 Ls inserted in the piece; previously to that it is coiled 
 up in the fuse hole, and closed with a patch of cloth 
 dipped in melteti kit. A common sttHl may be loaded 
 !is a carcitss by placing the bursting-charge on the bot- 
 tom of the cavity, and covering it with carcjiss-compo- 
 sition driven in until the shell is nearly full, imd 
 then inserting four or five strands of (piick-match, 
 secured by driving more composition. This projec- 
 tile, after burning as a carca.ss, explodes as a shell. 
 Ince.ndiakv-matcu is made by boiling slow-match in 
 a saturated solution of niter, drying it, cutting it into 
 pieces, and plunging it into melted fire- stone. It is 
 principally used in loaded shells. Hot shot may 
 be fired for the ])urpose of setting fire to wooden ves- 
 sels, laiildings, etc. Solid shot are healed in a furnace 
 before firing, to a red heat. The time required to 
 heal a 42 jiounder shot to a red heat is aliout half an 
 hour. The jjrecautions to be observed in loading 
 hot shot are that the cartridge be perfectly light, so 
 that the powder shall not scatter along the bore, and 
 that a wad of pure clay, or hay soaked in water, be 
 interposed between the cartridge and the shot. When 
 properly loaded the shot may be allowed to cool 
 without igniting the charge. In the British sea-coast 
 service shells are used for incendiary iiurposes by fill- 
 ing them with molten iron drawn from a small cupola- 
 furnace. If the shell be broken on striking, the hot 
 iron is scattered about; if it be not broken, the heat 
 penetrates through the .sheU with sufficient intensity 
 to set wood on tire. 
 
 Fireworks for Light. — The preparations for pro- 
 ducing light are fire-balls, light-balls, tjirred links, 
 pitched fascines, and torches. A kire-ball is an 
 oval-sha])ed canvas sjick filled with combtLstible com- 
 position. It is intended to be thrown from a mortar 
 to light up the works of an enemy, and is loaded with 
 a shell to prevent it from being approached and ex- 
 tinguished. Tlie sack is made of sail-cloth, cut into 
 three oval pieces or gores, and sewed together at their 
 edges. Several thicknesses of cloth niiiy be used if 
 neces-sary. One end of the sack is left open, and, 
 after being sewed, it is turned to bring the .seam on 
 the inside. The composition for a tire-ball consists of 
 8 parts of niter, 2 parts of sulphur, and 1 part of an- 
 timony. After having been pulverized, mixed, tmd 
 sifted, the composition is moistened with one thirtieth 
 of its weight of water, and again passed through a 
 coarse sieve. The ball is tilled by pouring a layer of 
 composition into the sack, and placing the shell (fuse 
 down) upon it; after this, the com|X)siti(m is well 
 rammed around and above the shell, and the sack is 
 closed at the toji. The Ijottom of the sack is pro- 
 tected from the force of the charge by an iron cup 
 called a oiht. and the whole is covered and strength- 
 ened with a network of spun-yarn, or wire, and then 
 overlaid w ilb a composition of pitch, rosin, etc. A 
 fire-ball is primed by driving into the top of the com- 
 position a greased wooden pin alwul three inches deep- 
 and tilling the bole thus formed with fuse-composition, 
 driven as in a fuse; space is left at the top of each hole 
 for two strands of quick-match, which are fastened 
 by driving the composition upon them. The fuse-hole 
 is covered w ith a patch saturated with kil-coniposilion, 
 which is a ini.xture of rosin, Iweswax, pitch, and tal- 
 low. LiOHT-BAi.LS are made in the same manner as 
 fire balls, except that, being used to light up our own 
 works, the shell is omitted. Tarred links are used 
 for ligliting up a ram|)arl, detile, etc., or for incendiary 
 pinposes. Tliey consist of coils of soft rope, placed 
 on top of each other, and loosely tied together; the 
 exterior diameter of the coil is 6 inches, and the inte- 
 rior 3 inches. Thevare immersed for about ten min- 
 utes in a composition of 20 parts of pitdi and 1 of 
 Utllotr, and then shaiied under water; when drv, they 
 are plunged in a eomi)osition of equal parts oi pitch 
 and ro/)in, and rolled in tow or sjiwdust. To prevent 
 the compositi(m from sticking to the hands, they 
 should be previously covered with linseed-oil. Two
 
 FISE WORKS. 
 
 667 
 
 FIEE-WOEKS. 
 
 links are put into a rampart-grate, separated by shav- 
 ings. They bum one hour in calm weather, and half 
 an hour in a high wind, and are not extinguished by 
 raiu. To light up a detile, the links are placed about 
 250 feet apart; to light up a march, the men who carry 
 the grates should be jilaced to the leeward of the col- 
 umn, and about 300 feet apart. Fagots of vine-twigs, 
 or other very combustible wood, about 20 inches long 
 and 4 iuches diameter, tied in three places with iron 
 wire, may be treated in the same manner, and used 
 for the same purposes as lints. The incendiary prop- 
 erties of PITCHED FASCDTEs may be increased by dip- 
 ping the ends in melted rock-tire; when used for this 
 purpose, they are placed in piles intermingled with 
 shavings, quick-match, bits of port-lires, etc., in order 
 that the whole may take tire at once. A touch is a 
 ball of rope impregnated with an inflammable com- 
 position, and is fastened to the end of a stick, which 
 is carried in the hand. OKI rope, or slow-match, well 
 beaten and untwisted, is boiled in a solution of equal 
 parts of water and niter; after it is dry, tie three or 
 four pieces (each 4 feet long) around the end of a 
 pine stick, about 2 inches in diameter and 4 feet 
 long; cover the whole with a mixture of equal parts 
 of sulphur and mealed powder, moistened with 
 brandy, and till the intervals between the cords with 
 a paste of 3 parts of sulphur and 1 of quicklime. 
 AVhen it is drj-, cover the whole with the following 
 composition: 3 parts of pitch, 3 parts of Venice tur- 
 pentine, and i part of turpentine. Torches are lighted 
 at the top, which is cracked with a mallet; they burn 
 from one and a quarter to two hours. In lighting the 
 march of a column, the men who carry torches should 
 be about 100 feet apart. 
 
 Offexsite .\nd Defensive Fireworks. — The 
 principal preparations of this class, employed in mod- 
 ern warfare, are bags of poirder and the Ughi-bamU. 
 Bags op powder may be used to blow down gates, 
 stockades, or to form breaches in thin walls. The 
 petard was formerly employed for these purposes, 
 but it is now generally thrown aside. From trials 
 made in England, it has been shown that a sand-bag 
 (covered with tar, and sanded to prevent it from 
 sticking) containing .50 pounds of powder, has suffi- 
 cient force to blow down a gate formed of 4-inch oak 
 scantling, and supported by posts 10 inches in dia- 
 meter and 8 feet apart ; and a bag containing 60 pounds 
 of powder, anil weighted with two or three bags of 
 earth, has sufficient force to make a large hole in a 
 14inch brick wall. The effect of the explosion may 
 be much increased by making three sides of the bag 
 of leather, and the fourth of canvas, which should 
 rest against the object. A suitable means of exploding 
 bags of powder is a time-fuse, or the ordinary safety- 
 fuse for blasting rocks. A light-barrel is a com- 
 mon powder-barrel pierced with numerous holes, and 
 filled with shavings that have been .«oaked in a com- 
 position of "pitch and rosin; it serves to light up a 
 breach, or the bottom of a ditch. 
 
 Ornamental Fireworks.— Ornamental fireworks 
 are employed to celebrate great events, as victories, 
 treaties of peace, funerals, etc. • They are divided 
 into Jix/;d pieces, movable pieces, decoratice pieces, and 
 preparations for communic/tting fire frompne part of 
 a piece to another. The different effects are produced 
 by modifying the proportions of the ingredients of the 
 burning composition so as to quicken or retard com- 
 bustion, or by introducing substances that give color 
 and brilliancy to the flame. The fixed pieces are 
 lances, ptards, gerhes, flames, etc. Lances are small 
 paper tubes from .2 to .4 inch diameter, filled with 
 a composition which emit.s a brilliant light in burn- 
 ing. Instead of a single composition, each lance maj' 
 contain two or more compositions, which in turn 
 emit different-colored flames. The ca.se should be as 
 thin as possible, in order that the color of the flame 
 of the composition may not be affected by that of the 
 paper. Lances are generally employed to form fig- 
 ures; this is done by dipping one end in glue, and 
 sticking them in holes arranged after a certain design. 
 
 in a piece of wood-work. Petards are small paper 
 cartridges filled with powder. One end is entirely 
 j choked, and the other is lefl partially open for the 
 passage of a strand of quick-match, designed to set 
 I fire to the powder. A petard is usually placed at the 
 i fi.xed end of a lance, that the flame may terminate 
 with an explosion; they are also u.sed to imitate the 
 fire of nuisketry. Gerbes are strong paper tubes or 
 cases tilled with a biu-ning composition. The ends 
 are tamped with moist plaster of Paris or with clay; 
 through one a hole is bored extending a short distance 
 into the composition, that it may emit a long sheaf or 
 gerbe of brilliant sparks. The diameter of 'the case is 
 about one inch, and the length depends upon the re- 
 quired time of burning. The number of blows to each 
 ladleful of composition is ten, Gerbes are secured to 
 the frame of the piece with wire or strong twine, and 
 pointed in the direction that the flame is to take. 
 Flames consist of lance or star composition, driven 
 into paper cases or earthen vases. The diameter of 
 the burning siuface should be hirge, to give intensity 
 to the flame. Lance<'omposilion is driven dry, and 
 with a slight pressure. Star-composition should be 
 moistened, and driven with greater pressure than the 
 preceding. 
 
 The movable pieces are the sky-rockets, tovrbillions, 
 saxons, jets, Boman candles, paper shells, etc. Sky- 
 rockets are the same as the signal-rockets, except 
 that the composition is arranged to give out a more 
 brilliant train of fire. The toukbillion is a case 
 filled with sky-rocket comjwsition, and which moves 
 with an upward spiral motion. The spiral motion is 
 produced by six holes— two lateral holes (one on each 
 side), for the rotary motion, and four on the imder 
 side, for the upward motion. It is steadied by two 
 wings fonned by attaching a piece of a hoop to the 
 middle of the case, and at right angles to its length. 
 To give it a proper initial direction, a hole is made 
 through the center of the case to fit on a vertical 
 spindle, which is fastened to an upright post. The 
 SAXON is the s;)me as the tourbillion, except that it is 
 only pierced with the central and two lateral holes, 
 and has no wings. The central hole is placed on a 
 horizontid spindle, and the piece has the api^arance 
 of a revolving sun. Jets are rocket-cases tilled with 
 a burning composition; they are attached to the cir- 
 cumference of a wheel, or tlie end of a movable aiTn, 
 to set it in motion. They also produce the effect of 
 gerbes; and to increase the circle of fire, they are in- 
 clined to the radius at an angle of 20' or 30°. A 
 Roman candle is a strong paper tube containing 
 stars, which are successively thrown out bj- a small 
 charge of powder placed under each star. " A slow- 
 burning composition is placed over each star to pre- 
 vent all of them from taking fire at once. Paper 
 SHELLS are filled with decorative pieces, and fired 
 from a common mortar. It contains a small bursting- 
 charge of powder, and has a fuse regulated to ignite 
 it when the shell reaches the summit of its trajectory. 
 The shell is made by pasting .several layers of thick 
 paper over a sphere of wood, cutting the covering 
 thus formed in halves, so as to remove the sphere, 
 joining the halves again, and pa-stiiig paper over them 
 until the thickness is sufficient to resist the charge of 
 the mortar. Decorative pieces arc the stars, serpents, 
 marrons, etc., desciibed under the head of Rockets. 
 
 Preparations for communicating fire from one piece 
 to another arc the qnick-riuitch , leaders, port-fires, and 
 mortar-fuses. The leader is a thin [laper tube contain- 
 ing a strand of quick-malch. an(l it is united to a 
 piece by pasting pieces of paper over the joint. If 
 the piece is to be fired at once, the leader may be 
 omitted, and strands of quick-match tied together 
 used in its place. 
 
 The foregoing pieces are generally mounted on 
 pieces or frames of light wood, and are susceptible of 
 being combined so as to produce a great variety of 
 striking effects. See Blue-light, Carcass-composi- 
 tions, Colored Fires, Fire -ball. tTiction-primers, Fuse, 
 Gold Bain, Uot-shot, Incendiary match. Lances, Lea:
 
 imrsQ. 
 
 668 
 
 FIRING-BATTERY. 
 
 dfrs, Lighl-balU, Light-barrel, Lightt, Marrons, Pe- 
 tards, Pitehed Fa»eiii(», Port-firen, I'limtteliny, Quick- 
 ■match, Pock-Jtrc, Iloinnn Candle, Seriteiits, t<igiial- 
 roekft, Sloic-malfh , Stam. Streamers, Sun-cage», Tarred 
 Links, Torches, Tuurbiltiim, Wheel-cases, and M'ooden , 
 Shells. 
 
 FIEINO.— Tho act of discliarging fire-arms. Fir- 
 insrs are lillicr direct or oblique, and are executed as 
 follows: 
 
 The Direct Fire. — The Instructor commands: 1. 
 FSre by squad, 2. Squad, 3. Ready, 4. Aim, 5. FrRE, 
 6. Load. The commands ready, aim, Jin, and had 
 are given with suHicient intervals to allow them to be 
 executed as officially stated. The rear-nmk men 
 ineline the uppiT part of the body forward, so that 
 Uieir pieces may reach as far as possible beyond the 
 front rank, l^pon the completion of the load, the 
 Instructor continues the tirin,:! by the commands; 1. 
 ^uad, 2. Aim, 3. Kiue, 4. to.Co. To cease tiring, 
 the In.structor commands: 1. Ciase, 2. Fiuixo. At 
 this command, the nun cease tiring, reload their 
 pieces if unloiukd, and afterward bring them to a 
 carry. This rule is general. 
 
 Oblique Firings.— The oblique firings are executed 
 to the right and left by the same commands as the 
 direct fire, except that the command aim is preceded 
 by the command right (or kft) oblique. At the com- 
 mand right iMifjue, the men of both ranks cast their 
 eyes to the right and look steadily at theobject. At the 
 command aim, the front-rank men aim obliquely to 
 the right, without deranging the feet; each rear-rank 
 man aims obliquely to the right, keepmg the right 
 foot in its place, at the same time advancing the left 
 foot about eight inches to the right and fiont, the toe 
 pointing in the direction he is to tire, the upper part 
 of the body inclining forward, the left knee slightly 
 bent. If the command l^e hft uMicjue, the men of 
 both ranks cast their eyes to the left; the rear-rank 
 men at the same time raise their pieces to a vertical 
 position. At the command aim, the front-rank nun 
 aim oblitiuely to the left, without deranging the feet; 
 each rear-rank man, keeping the right foot in its 
 place, brings down his piece to the left of his front- 
 rank man, at the .same time advancing his left foot 
 about eight inches to the left and front, the toe point- 
 ing in the direction he is to tire, inclining the upper 
 part of the body forward, the left knee slightly bent. 
 In recovering arms from the left oblique, each rear- 
 rank man, at the command recover, raises his piece to 
 a vertical position, and, at the command arms, comes 
 to the position of ready. In both cases at the com- 
 mand load, the men of each rank come to the position 
 of load, as prescrilwd in the direct fire, the rcar-riuik 
 men bringing back the foot in advance to the proper 
 position in loading, and bringing back their pieces as 
 in recovering arms. 
 
 To Fire by File. — The Instructor commands: 1. 
 Fire by file, 2. Squad, 3. Ready, 4. Commence fir- 
 ing. At the fourth command, the file on the right 
 aim and fire, reload, fire again, and so on. The 
 second file aim at the instant the first lower their 
 pieces to the position of the first motion of load, fire, 
 and conform to what has been pre.scril)ed for the first 
 file, and so on to the left. After the first fire each 
 man loads and fires imlcpendently of the others. 
 
 To Fire by /lank. — The Instructor commands: 1. 
 Mre by rank, 2. Sr/uad, 3. 1{eadv, 4. Uear-rank, .5. 
 Aim, 6. FiiiE, 7. Load. The rear rank aims, fires, 
 and loads, as already explainc<l. As soon as the In- 
 structor sees several pieces of the rear rank in the 
 position of ready, he commands: 1. Front rank, 2. 
 Aim, 3. Fiue, 4. Load. The Instructor causes the 
 rmks to alternate in firing, until he commands: 1. 
 (.'ease, 2. FluiNo. 
 
 To Fire Kneeling. — The pieces being loaded, and 
 at a carry, the Instructor commands: 1. Fire kneel 
 ing, 2. Rneei.. Bring the left toe wpiarely to the 
 front, and plant the right foot so that the toe shall be 
 almut twelve iix-hes to the rear and twelve inches to 
 the left of the left heel, the feet at right angles; kneel 
 
 on the right knee, bending the left; drop the nuizzle 
 to Uie front, supiwrt the piece with the left hand at 
 the lower band, the forearm resting on the left knee, 
 the right hand grasping the small of the stock, muz- 
 zle at the height of the chin. If formed in two ranks, 
 at the first command for kneeling, the rear-rank men 
 take a side-step to the right. After rising they take 
 a side-step to the left and cover their front-rank men. 
 The firings are executed by the .same commands as 
 when standing. The i>iecc is brought to a ready by 
 simply cocking it, and is supported in aiming by the 
 left elbow, resting on the left knee. To k)ad, lower 
 the piece, support il with the left hand at the lower 
 
 Fire Kneeling. 
 
 band, the left forearm resting on the left knee, the 
 barrel sloping downward. In firing obliquely, the 
 rear-rank men aim through the same intervals as 
 when stiinding, and do not support the left elbow on 
 the left knee. 
 
 To Fire Lying Down. — The squad being in one 
 rank, pieces loaded and at an order, the Instructor 
 commands: 1. Fire lying down, 2. Lie down. At 
 the second command, each man drops on his knees, 
 places his left hand, well forward, on the ground, 
 and lies flat on his belly; the piece is lowered at the 
 same time with the right hand, the toe and muzzle 
 resting ou the ground, the barrel up, the left hand at 
 the lower band, the left elbow on the ground, the right 
 hand at the small of the stock, opposite the neck. At 
 the command commence firing, cock the piece; raise 
 it with both hands, press the butt against the shoulder, 
 and, resting on both elbows, aim and fire. To load 
 the piece, steady it at the lower band with the left 
 hand, the toe and muzzle resting on the ground, in- 
 sert the cartridge with the right hand. To rise, the 
 Instructor commands : 1. Squad, 2. Rise. Draw 
 back the piece slightly; grasp it at the lower band 
 with the right hand, and bring it to a vertical posi- 
 tion, barrel to the rear, the butt opposite the neck; 
 with the aid of both hands raise the body to a vertical 
 position, on the knees; bring back the jiiece, the toe 
 in a line with the right knee; throw the weight of the 
 body backward, rise on the balls of both feet, and 
 return to the position of order anns. Troops will 
 never be permitted to fire lying down ' when the 
 enemy, advancing to the attack, arrives within effec- 
 tive raiiffc. 8of Fire. 
 
 FIRlifG-BATTERY.— The efficiency of a mine or 
 system of mines depends upon the accuracy and cer- 
 tainty with whirh they may be discharged at the 
 right momckiit, this moment being when the hostile 
 vessel is directly over any particular mine of the 
 group. This may be done at will, the position of the 
 ship having lieen determined by intersection, or the 
 vessel herself may l)e made to complete the circuit by 
 striking a circuit -closer. 
 
 The testing-room should l)e in the most secure part 
 of the work. It should be ;ibout If! feet square, with 
 a suitable store-room attached. From the testing- 
 room a gallery, about 4 feet wide by .'> high, passes 
 out through or under the fort. In this gsiUery are 
 placed frames for supporting the cables, so arranged 
 that tliere will be no confusion as to the identitj' of 
 the cables. The frames .should l)e of bronze; iron is 
 apt to oxidize, and wood is liable to decay and render 
 constant repairs necessary. The frames occupy half 
 the breadth of the gallery, leaving the other half for
 
 FIEING PARTY. 
 
 669 
 
 FISCAL TEAK, 
 
 access and examination of the cables. Each cable is 
 attached to a binding-screw of the testinif-table, the 
 binding-screws being numbered to correspond with i 
 the mines. I 
 
 In the testing-room is the apparatus for producing I 
 the agent by which the mines are to be exploded. ; 
 This may be frictional electricity, a magnet current 
 generated by a dynamo-electrical "muchine, but usually 
 it is a galvanic current similar to tlial for electric- 
 telegraph purposes. The main conditions for such a 
 battery are that it shoukl remain constant — that is, 
 that it should be cajialde of being allowed to remain 
 mounted and ready for use for say one mouth — and 
 that it shall generate a sufficient" quantity of elec- 
 tricity to allow of a certain amount of leak or fault in 
 a cable and yet tire a fuse beyond the leak. 
 
 The Leclanche battery is the one best adapted and 
 niost generally used. The advantages possessed by 
 it are the absence of chemical action when the bat- 
 tcrycircuit is not complete, and consequently there 
 is no waste of material; it requires but little looking 
 after; it may be kept ready for action in store with- 
 
 only necessary to take off the prisms, soak the carbon 
 (below the head) in hot water, attach new prisms, and 
 set up as before, with a sufficient quantity of new 
 zinc and sal-ammoniac. 
 
 The firing-battery should be suited to the nature of 
 the fuses employed, and should possess considerable 
 excess of power in order to overcome accidental de- 
 fects, such as inerea.sed resistance in the communica- 
 tions, or defective insulation in the electric cable in 
 connection with the mine. A battery ju.st sutliciently 
 powerful to tire a fuse on the shore, with the electric 
 cable, etc., in circuit, Ijut not submerged, wo\dd not 
 be unlikely to fail after the cable has been sub- 
 merged in sea-water. In such a case it is recom- 
 mended that the battery-power determined by such 
 an experinieiU on shore be doubled for actual work. 
 For all practical purposes this test can be made by 
 firing a fuse of known quality through a resistance 
 equivalent to that of the cable. Double the number 
 of cells necessary to effect this would be required for 
 the submerged cables, etc. See Galvanism. 
 
 FIRING PARTY. — Those who are selected or de- 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 out in any way deteriorating; and, finally, it is com- 
 paratively inexpensive. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows the old form or drnpie battery, so suc- 
 cessfully employed in extensive mining operations. 
 Fig. 2 shows the improved fonn, or the Leclanche 
 prism-battery. In this battery the porous cup is dis- 
 pensed with, and in its place is substituted a pair 
 of comprcs.sed " prisms" or plaques which are simply 
 attached to the carbons by means of two strong rub- 
 ber bands. The prisms contain all of the materials 
 heretofore employed in the porous cup, combined 
 with others not before used, compressed into this 
 compact and convenient fonn by powerful hydraulic 
 machinery. 
 
 The ])ositive pole is composed of a plate of carbon 
 inserted between and in coimection with two com- 
 pressed prisms of peroxide of manganese and carbon, 
 combined with other materials, the three being held 
 firmly together by rubber bands. The negative ])ole 
 is composed of a pi iicil of amalgamated zinc. The 
 two poles are placed in a solution of sjil-ammoniac 
 and water, contained in a glass jar with a cover, 
 through which the carbon head and the zinc pro.iect. 
 When the elements have become exhausted from long 
 service, or other cause, to renew the battery it is 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 tailed to fire over the grave of any one buried with 
 militars' honors. 
 
 FIRING PIN.— That part of the breech-mechanism 
 w hose function is to explode the cartridge. It ordi- 
 narily has a slot cut in it near the head for the end 
 of a screw which, projecting into it, prevents it from 
 coming out of place. The hammer having been 
 drawn back to ftdl-coek, and llie trigger pulled, the 
 head of the/nnf/-/)TO is thrown forward, strikes the 
 head of the cartridge and explodes it. See Hadley 
 Firing -pin and Springjidd Riffe. 
 
 FIRST SERGEANT.— The ranking Non-commis- 
 sioned Officer in a company. He has immediate 
 charg<' of all enlisted men of the company and com- 
 pany property; has command of it during i'oniiations, 
 and calls the roll. He also makes all details, keeps 
 the roster, etc. See Ordtrlji Strgeant. 
 
 FISCAL YEAR.— In the United States army, funds 
 appropriated for any given fiscal year cannot be used 
 to liquidate liabilities incurred in any other fiscal year, 
 nor can fimds \ie used for anv other class of expendi- 
 ture than that to which they were appropriated. At 
 the termination of each fiscal year all amoimts of 
 moneys that are represented by certificates, drafts, or 
 checks, issued by the Treasurer, or by any Disbursing
 
 FISHERMAN'S KNOT. 
 
 670 
 
 FIXED AMMUNITIOK. 
 
 Officer of any Department of the Government nix>n the 
 Treiusurcr or any Au-iislaiil Treasurer, or ilf^iu'nated 
 (lepiisitary of the rniled Stales, or upon any national 
 Imnk (Icsiirnated as a (li'])ositary of the United States, 
 ami wliieh shall he represented on the hooks of either 
 of such otliees as standinj,' to the eredit of any Disburs- 
 ing Ottieer, and which were issued to facilitate the 
 paynuut of warrants, or for any other purpose in 
 li<l"uidatiou of a debt due from the United States, and 
 which have for three years or more remained outstand- 
 ing, unsiilistied, and unpaid, are deijositcd by the 
 Treasurer, to be covered into the Treasury by war- 
 rant, ami to be carried to the eredit of the parties in 
 whose favor such certiticates, drafts, or checks were 
 respectively issued, or to the persons who are entitled 
 to receive pay therefor, and into an approiiriation ac- 
 count to be'denominaled "outstiinding liabilities." 
 The payee or the Ixiiui-jiili' holder of any draft or 
 check tlie amount of wliitli has been deijosited and 
 covered into the Treiusury pursuant to the al)ovc para- 
 graph, on presenting the "same to the proper (Jfflcer of 
 the Treasury, is entitled to have it paid by the settle- 
 ment of an account and the issuing of a warrant in 
 his favor, according to the practice in other cases of 
 authorized and liquidated claims against the United 
 States. 
 
 The following well-known Treasury regulations 
 bear on this subject : 
 
 1. Any Treasury draft or any check drawn by a 
 public Disbursing Oflicer still in service, which shall 
 be presented for payment before it shall have been is- 
 sued three full fiscal years, will be paid in the usual 
 manner by the office "or bank on which it is drawn, 
 and from" funds to the credit of the drawer. Thus 
 any such draft or check issued on or after July 1 , 1 873, 
 will be paid as above slated until June 30, 1877, and 
 the same rule will apply for subsequent years. 
 
 Any such draft or check which has been issued for 
 a longer period than three full fiscal years will be paid 
 only by the setll(;mcnt of an account as provided l)y 
 law; and for this purjiose the draft or check will be 
 transmitted to the Secretary of the Trejisury for the 
 necessary action. 
 
 2. The reports of independent Treasury Officers, 
 national-bank depositjiries, and public Disbursing Offi- 
 cers will be rendered promptly to the Secretary of the 
 Treasury at the close of each flscid year. 
 
 3. Whenever any Disbursing Officer of the United 
 States shall cease to act in that capacity, he will at 
 once inform the Secretary of the Treasury whether he 
 has any pulilic funds to his credit in any office or 
 bank, and, if so, what checks, if any, he has drawn 
 against the same which are still outstanding and un- 
 paid. Until satisfactory information of this character 
 shall have been furnislied, the whole amount of such 
 moneys will be held to meet the payment of his checks 
 properly payable therefrom. 
 
 4. At the close of each fiscal year the Treasurer, 
 the several Assistant Treasurers, and designated and 
 national-bank d(,"positaries, will also render to the 
 Secretjiry of the Treasury a list of all Disbursing Offi- 
 cers' accounts still unclosed which have been opened 
 on the books of their respective offices or banks more 
 than three fiscal years, giving in each case the name 
 and official desi'.rnution of the officer, the date when 
 the account with him was opened, and the balance 
 remaining to his eredit. 
 
 5. In case of the death, resignation, or the removal 
 of a public Disbursing Officer, any check previously 
 drawn by him and not presented for ])ayment within 
 four months of its date will not be paid' until its cor- 
 rectness shall have been attested by the Secretary or 
 Assistant Sccrclarv of the Treasury. 
 
 FISHERMAN'S 'knot.— A knot used in pontoning 
 to fastiM ihc ial)l(s to the rings of the anchors. See 
 Kii'itj<. 
 
 FISHING-SPAKS.— In artillery material, the spars 
 of wood placed parallel to the spars to be strength- 
 ened, by lashing them to one another. 
 
 FISHTAIL 'WIND.— An expression employed in 
 
 target- practice with small-arms for a rear wind which 
 is varial)le in direction. 
 FISSURE. — A small chasm where a small breach 
 
 has been made, as in a fort, citadel, etc. 
 
 FISTULA. — In farriery, the name given to an abscess 
 usually siluated on the withers of a horse, and dis- 
 charging i)us. Sometimes it appears on the head, 
 when it is called poll evil. 
 
 FITCHY. — t'rosses arc said, in Heraldry, to bcfltchy 
 when the lower branch ends in a sliarji point, t'ro.sses 
 are supposed to have been so sharpened to enable the 
 primitive Christians to stick them into the ground for 
 devotional purposes. Also written Fitefie. 
 
 FITTINGS. — The name given to certain fi.xturcs in 
 a barrack or on board a military transport for the 
 purpose of keeping vip a current of pure air, and for 
 recei\ing the e(|uii)menls and arms. 
 
 FITZROY DEFLECTOR.— An instrument designed 
 to prevent the need of making a correction for the 
 inclination of the trunnions. It consists of a block 
 (capable of movement round a pin li.xed on the breech 
 of the gun) containing the sight-slot, which is kept 
 makmg the same pennanent angle of deflection with 
 the perpendicular to the axis of the trunnions by 
 means of a heavy bob underneath, however much the 
 inclination of the trunnions may alter. A spiiit-level 
 is also added. 
 
 FIX BAYONET.— A command in the Manual of 
 Arms, executed as follows: The Instructor commands, 
 1. Jftr, 2. Bayonet. Grasp the piece with the left 
 hand, forearm horizontal; carry it to the left side, the 
 butt striking the ground about eight inches to the 
 rear of the left toe, the piece inclined to the front, 
 the left wrist resting against the thigh; carry the right 
 hand to the shank of the bayonet. (Two.) Draw 
 the bayonet from the scabbard, and fix it on the end 
 of the barrel; drop the right hand by the side. 
 
 1. Carry, 2. Arms. Raise the piece with the left 
 hand and place it against the right sho\dder; resume 
 the carry with the right hand. (Two.l Drop the 
 left hand by the side. See Manual of Arms, Fig. 6. 
 
 FIXED AMMUNITION.— When the cartridge is at- 
 tached to the i)rojectile, the two together are tei-med 
 Jij^ed ainmimition : this is employed for the service 
 with boat-howitzers. It has the advantage of great 
 convenience in the hurried preparations that fre- 
 quently precede boat-operations, and the guns can be 
 served the more rapidly with fixed anmiunition; si- 
 multaneous loading is more simple, and the cartridge 
 is sure to be placed correctly in the bore, and not 
 with the choked end first, as is sometimes the case 
 when the projectile and the cartridge are .separate. 
 Fixed ammunition has, however, the great disadvan- 
 tage that in packing or stowing much greater space 
 is required, and it is more difficult to arrange and to 
 preserve. 
 
 The following implements are required in fixing 
 ammunition: 
 
 Barrels for powder; \ funrtfl; \ set of powder-mea- 
 sures; 1 straight-edfie , to strike the measures with; 
 barrels; tills, formed of barrels sawed in two, or 
 bores, for the cartridge-bags; 2 pavlins; 2 benches; 12 
 choking-sticks, 6 with holes in tluni and 6 slit; 6 
 kniees; 6 handharrdirs with 4 legs and a box, and 
 patiVms to cover them; caliber-gauges for the car- 
 tridge-bags and for fixed amnuinilion (they may be 
 made of wood); (i stiiols; 1 irheel-barrow ; 1 malUt; 1 
 copper chisel; 1 copper drift, or a irrench, to open the 
 powder-barrels. 
 
 In fixing shot or case for smooth-bore field-guns, 
 the bags should be filled in the small magazine or 
 filling-room. The assistant holds the pipe of the 
 funnel in the mouth of the bag with both hands, the 
 bag pressed close against the pipe. The gauger heaps 
 up the measure with powder, strikes it level with the 
 straight-edge, and pours it into the funnel. 'W^hen 
 about S.') bags are filled the gauger takes a filled bag 
 with one hand, squeezing the bag upon the powder; 
 he gives it a blow with the other hand on the top and 
 bottom of the bag, twisting the mouth of the bag
 
 TIXED BATTEEY. 
 
 671 
 
 FLAG OF THE PROPHET. 
 
 down upon the powder at the same time; he then 
 tries it with the small gauge through which it should 
 pass with not more than .25 inch play; should it not 
 do this, (he bag is emptied and rejected. These hags, 
 tilled and gauged, are placed upright in a tub or box 
 and carried by the gaugers into the finishing-room, 
 where the men are placed in pairs, sitting a.slri(le on 
 a bench facing each other. One of them opens a bag 
 and levels the powder, the other inserts the sabot of 
 a strapped shot square ujx)n the powder and draws 
 up the end of the bag over the shot; the fir.st man 
 passes about 4 feet of twine through the pierced stick 
 and makes two turns and a double hitch with the end 
 at the top of the sabot; he makes a knot in the end 
 of the twine, inserts it into the slit in the other chok- 
 ing-stick, and tightens the double hitch by rolling the 
 twine on the sticks and bearing upon tiie sabot; he 
 then takes out the end of the twine from the slit, ties 
 it in a hard knot, which he tightens with the assist- 
 ance of the choking-stick, and cuts the twine off near 
 the knot. The second man turns down the mouth 
 of the bag over the sabot, and the tirst makes a similar 
 tie in the groove; he makes another tie below the 
 sabot, the twine being lodged between if and the 
 powder to prevent the latter from sifting in between 
 the bag and the salxjt; he then runs the paper cylin- 
 der over the cartridge and sabot, leaWng about two 
 inches of the end of the cartridge uncovered, and he 
 makes a tie similar to the others in the groove of the 
 Siibot. He now holds the shot in the left hand and 
 e.xamines it, striking the .sabot with the right hand, 
 if necessary, to bring it straight; if the shot be prop- 
 erly tixed, the .sabot and the bag will have the .siime 
 axis; the seams should be between two straps, and 
 the knots should lie neither on the scams nor on the 
 straps. The assistants pa.ss the cartridges through 
 the large gauge, which is .04 inch larger than the 
 large gauge for the shot. If the size be correct, they 
 put on the paper cap, lay the cartridges on their sides 
 in the box of the hand barrow, and carry them to the 
 magazine. Those which will not pass through the 
 gauge are handed back to the tixers, who sever the 
 strings and put them up anew. 
 
 Canisters for smmth-bore field-gvns are fixed in the 
 same manner as shot, except that the first tie is made 
 in the upper groove of the sabot; the cylinder is tied 
 in the lower groove. The caps must be cut some- 
 what shorter than those for shot-cartridges. For 
 inountain-hmritzers the sabots have but one groove, 
 the first tie is omitted, and the cartridge is covered 
 with a cap only. When the shot is attached to the 
 sabot by a single band of canvas, or when it is placed 
 in the sabot without any strap, the cartridge-bag is 
 drawn over it and tied on top; for this purpose the 
 bag should have an additional length of from 2^ to 
 3 inches. When sabots cannot be obtained, place 
 upon the powder one layer of tow about .2 inch 
 thick, forming a bed for the shot; tie the bag over 
 the shot and around the tow; the bag requires to be 
 1 inch longer than for strapped shot. Sec Amtuuni- 
 tiiin and Fidd and Mountain Ammunition. 
 
 FIXED BATTERY.— The batteiies used during the 
 second period of siege-operations are both fixed and 
 movable. The fixed batteries contain the siege-guns 
 and mortars of the heaviest caliber and longest range; 
 whilst the movable batteries will consist of field-guns 
 and small mortars which can take up temporarily 
 anj' favorable positions for damaging the defenses. 
 As a general rule the fixed gim-batteries should be 
 placed in enfilading positions whenever such can be 
 found for them, delivering their fire always within 
 the interior slope of the face enfiladed, and in prefer- 
 ence taking a .slant reverse direction on the terre-plein 
 of the face. Parts of the defenses which cannot be 
 reached by enfilade must be counter-battered by bat- 
 teries which can obtain a full-front or a slant-front 
 view vipon them. The mortar-batteries will receive 
 such positions as are most favorable for reaching the 
 interior of the defenses; preference being given to 
 those in which the longest lines of the defenses can 
 
 be brought within the range and direction of the 
 shells; avoiding, whenever practicable, throwing them 
 across the positions occupied by the approaches, so as 
 to insure a shell being lauded within some point of 
 the defenses, and to avoid the accidents from .shells 
 falling short of their butt or bursting prematurely. 
 The positions of the fixed batteries of rilied guns arid 
 heav-y mortars will be usually along the position of 
 the first parallel and some 30 or 40 yards in advance 
 of it, so that its service shall not interfcTC with that 
 of the parallel, nor the service of the latter w ith it — a 
 Ijoint of great importance for the etiicient service of 
 each; and being in advance of the pan;llel, the troops 
 in the latter will not be annoyed by the dischaige of 
 the guns, which they might be w ere they in their rear. 
 As the ricochet of rifled guns w ith the elongated shot 
 is uncertain, and, from the great range at which the 
 guns fire, the plunge of the projectile would be neces- 
 sarily great and unfavorable to ricochet, positions for 
 tixed enfilading batteries of smooth-bore siege-guns 
 may be taken either in advance of the second parallel 
 or, better, in some of the demi-parallels, so as to bring 
 them within some 500 yards of the line to be enfiladed, 
 as the range very favorable for the ricochet of these 
 pieces. 
 
 The number of guns in each enfilading battery will 
 depend upon the extent of terre-plein within the 
 works upon which an enfilade or a slant reverse fire 
 can be obtained. Usually the number of guns should 
 not exceed seven, nor be less than three; the number 
 being regulated by the importance to the besieged of 
 the line enfiladed. In each counter-battery there 
 should be at least as many guns as the defenses can 
 bring to bear upon it; always enough to completely 
 control the fire of the point cbimter-battered. Whilst 
 batteries containing a large number of guns are ex- 
 posed to greater casualties than smaller ones, weak 
 batteries are liable to be silenced by a concentrated 
 fire upon them from the defenses. As a general rule, 
 batteries at different distances should be .so placed 
 that the more advanced should not be in the line of 
 fire of those in the rear. The danger from accidents 
 from a violation of this rule is not very gi-eat if the 
 batteries are several hundred j'ards apart, and the 
 point fired at distant; or until the trenches get near 
 the position of the third parallel. At this .stage great 
 precaution is necessary in regulating the fire so that 
 the shot may not fall into or explode too near the 
 trenches. See Batteries and Movable Battery. 
 
 FIXED PIVOT.— The fixed point about which any 
 line of troops wheels. This point is marked bj- a sol- 
 dier or guide who stands fast or marks time while the 
 line wheels. 
 
 FLAG OF PROTECTION.— It is customary to desig- 
 nate by certain flags (usually yellow) the hospitals in 
 places which are shelled, so that the besieging enemy 
 may avoid firing on them. The same has been done 
 in battles, when hospitals are situated within the field 
 of the engagement. Honorable belligerents often re- 
 quest that the hospitals w ithin the territory of the 
 enemy may be thus designated, so that they may be 
 spared. An honorable belligerent allows himself to 
 be guided by flags or signals of protection as much as 
 the contingencies and the necessities of the fight will 
 permit. It is justly considered an act of bad ?aith, of 
 infamj' or flendishness, to deceive the enemy by flags 
 of protection. Such an act of bad faith may be good 
 cause for refusing to respect such flags. The l>esieg- 
 ing belligerent has sometimes reque.stetl the besieged 
 to designate the buildings containing collections of 
 works of art, scientific museulns, astronomical obser- 
 vatories, or precious libraries, so that their destruction 
 may lie avoided as much as possible. 
 
 FLAG OF THE PROPHET (Sanjak-Sherif).— The 
 sacred banner of the Mohammedans. It was origi- 
 nally of a white color, and was composed of the tur- 
 ban of the Koreish, captured by Mohammed. A 
 black flag was, however, soon substituted in its place, 
 consisting of the curtain that Innig before the door of 
 Ayeshah, one of the Prophet's wives. This flag, re-
 
 FLAG OF TKUCE. 
 
 672 
 
 FLAIL. 
 
 garded by the Mohammedans as Uicir most sacred 
 relic, tirst came into the possession of the followers of 
 Omar at Dimiascus; it afterwards fell into the liaiuls 
 of the Alibjisi; then passed into those of the Caliphs 
 of Bagilad and Kahini; jmd, at a later period, was 
 brouiiht into Euixjpe by Ainur.ith III. It was covered 
 with forty-two wrappings of silk, de|X)sited in a costly 
 casket, aiid presj>rved in a chapel in the interior of the 
 seraglio, where it is jruarded by several Emirs, with 
 constant prayers. Th^ banner unfolded at tlie com- 
 mencement of a war, and likewise carefully preserved, 
 is not the same, although it is believed by the people 
 to be so. 
 
 FLAG OF TRUCE.— A white flag carried by an offi- 
 cer sent to comnmnicate with the enemy. The bearer 
 cannot insist upon being admitted. He must always 
 be admitted with great caution. Unnecessary fre- 
 quency is carefully to be avoided. If the bearer of a 
 flag of truce offer himself during an engagement, 
 he'can be admitted as a verj- rare exception oidy. It 
 is no breach of good faith to retain such a flag of 
 truce, if admitted during the eiigagenient. Firing is 
 not required to cease on the appearance of a flag of 
 truce in battle. If he, presenting himself during an 
 engagement, is killed or wounded, it furnishes no 
 ground of complaint whatever. If it be discovered, 
 and fairly proved, that a flag of truce has been 
 abused for surreptitiously obtaining military knowl- 
 edge, the bearer of the flag thus abusing bis sacred 
 character is deemed a spy. So .sjicred is the character 
 of a flag of truce, and so necessary is its siicredness, 
 that while its abuse is an especially heinous oiTense, 
 great caution is requisite, on the other hand, in con- 
 victing the bearer as a spy. See Triire. 
 
 FLAGS.— Cloths of light materials, capable of being 
 estcnded by the wind, and designed to make known 
 some facts or wants to spectators. In the Army a flag 
 is the ensign carried as its distinguishing mark by 
 each regiment ; and also a small banner, with which the 
 ground to be occupied is marked out. In the Navy 
 the flag is of more importance, often constituting the 
 only means ves.sels have of communicating with each 
 other or with the shore. For this purpose devices of 
 conspicuous colors (usually black, w liite, red, yellow, 
 or blue) are hoisted at the nutst-heatl oral the gaff. The 
 flags having three forms, a very few patterns in each 
 shape give sullicienl combinations of three or four 
 flags to express any letter or word in the language. 
 The flag is also a sign of the rank of the principal 
 person on boardaves.sel.asthe " Royal Standard," con- 
 taining the Arms of the United Kingdom, w inch isonly 
 hoisted when a member of the Koyal Family is on 
 Ixjard; the '•Anchor of Hope," on a red grovuid, denot- 
 ing the Admiralty; the Pennant, which specifics the 
 ship of war; and the Ensign, which denotes the nation. 
 Naturally the regtdar English flag was used by the 
 Colonies in their early days, and that was commonly 
 the cross of St. George. The Puritan s^)irit was 
 shown wiien Endicott, the Governor of 3Iass;ichusctts, 
 cut the cross from the flag because it was a Romanist 
 emblem. The Colonial flags varied in color, it being 
 suiUcient if ground and cross differed. Now and then 
 a pine-tree was figured in the upper left-hand quarter 
 of the cross, an(l one flag hiid only this tree for a 
 symbol. When Sir Edmund Andros was Governor 
 he established a special flag for New England, a 
 wiiite field with a St. George cross, and in the center 
 "J. R.," JnrolniK /^<'j- (.Tames, King), surmounted l)y a 
 crown. The Revolution brought in all manner of de- 
 vices for flags and banners, the larger portion bear- 
 ing mottoes more or U'ss defiant of the Foreign Gov- 
 ernment. Soon after the engagement at Lexington 
 the volunteers from Connecticut put on their flag the 
 Arms of the Colony, with the legend " ()iii transtu- 
 lit, simti'ittt" (He wiio brought us over will sustain 
 us). The Colonial flag of New Amsterdam (.sub- 
 stantially the present Arms of New York City) was 
 carried by armed ve,s.sels sailing out of New York — 
 a beaver being the principal figure, indicative of 
 both the industry of the Dutch people and the wealth 
 
 of the fur trade. The day after the battle of Bunker 
 Hill, Putnam displayed a flag with a red ground, 
 having on one side the Coiuiecticut motto, and on 
 the other the words "An appeal to Heaven." The 
 earliest vessels sidling under Washington's authority 
 displayed the Pine-tree flag. An early flag in the 
 Southern States was designe*! by Colonel Moultrie and 
 displayed at Charleston in September, ITT'i. It was 
 blue, with a w hite crescent in the tipper corner next 
 the stall; afterwards the word " Libertj'" was added. 
 At Cambridge, Mass., January 2, 1770. 'Washington 
 displayed the original of the present United Stales 
 flag, consisting of thirteen stripes of red and white, 
 with a St. Andrew cross in place of the stars. The 
 Rjittlesnake flag was used to some extent in two 
 forms : in one the snake was intact, and under the 
 figure the words "Don't Tread on Me;" in the other 
 form the snake was in thirteen pieces, and the legend 
 was "Join or Die;" and in some cases the snake had 
 thirteen rattles. Ten days after the Declaration of 
 Independence, Congress directed the style of tbe 
 flag of the United Stjites, as heretofore described, 
 with its later modifications. By the War Depart- 
 ment the stars in the imion are usually so placed 
 as to form one large star. In the Navy the stars are 
 in straight lines, ]K'rpcudicidar and horizontal. The 
 Union Jack is a blue ground with all the stars but no 
 stripes. During the War of the Rebellion the Seced- 
 ing States had a number of ilistinct flags. Early in 
 1861, however, their Congress decided upon what was 
 popidaiiy called the "Stars and Bars," which was 
 composed of three broad horizontal bars, the two 
 outer ones red and the nnddle one white, with a blue 
 " union" containing nine stars in a circle. Some varia- 
 tions were afterwards made, but they need not be no- 
 ticed. There arc many flags which designate special 
 or personal iiosilion or authority. Among such are 
 Royal Standards, Flag Ofticcrs' flags, etc. An Ad- 
 miral's flag is usually the flag of the country which 
 such an Admiral serves, with the exception of the 
 " union." The flag of the Admirals, Vice Admirals, 
 and Rear Ailnurals of the United States is rectangular, 
 and consists of thirteen alternate red and w hite stripes. 
 The Admiral hoists Ihisat the main; the Vice Admiral 
 at the fore; the Rear Adiidral at the mizzen. Should 
 there be two Rear Admirals present, the Junior hoists 
 at the mizzen a flag similar to the one descrilied, with 
 the addition of two stars in the left-hand corner. The 
 ('onunodore's flag differs from that of the Admiral 
 in form alone, being swallow-tall instead of rectan- 
 gular. Should the President go afloat, the American 
 Hag is carried in the bow of his barge or hoisted at 
 the main of the vessel on board of which he may lie. 
 In foreign countries the Royal St;uulard is displayed 
 at ceremonies in honor of "the Sovereign or at which 
 the Sovereign may be present. A flag placed nud- 
 way on the stafl', or " half-mast," is a sign of mourn- 
 ing. A flag reversed or ujiside down indicates dis- 
 tress. Salutes are made by dipjiing the flag by haul- 
 ing it down a short distance and immediately raising 
 it several times in succession. See Aimrican Flag, 
 TIanner, EtDdriji, Garrisoii-ftrri, Pennon, Post-flag, 
 Red FliKj, St(ii,<laril, Slonn-jiag, and Uiiitm Jack. 
 
 FLAG-STAFF.— A ma.st or pole on which a flag or 
 standard is lumg. One is allowed to each fort or 
 fortress, and to the Governors of the several English 
 Dependencies, to Commanders-in-Chief, and to offi- 
 cers commanding di\ isions or districts of the army. 
 
 FLAIL. — An ancient weapon composed of a shaft 
 and several whips, the latter either with or without 
 iron points; or else of the shaft, to which was fa.stened 
 a cliain ending in an iron ball, or a wooden one stud- 
 ded with iron. The flail, which was well known in 
 I Switzerland and Germany during the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, was also used in JIngland since the period of the 
 Norman Conquest, and existed during the reign of 
 Henry VIII., though then but little used, and only in 
 the trenches and on board ships. The nnlitary flail 
 with a short handle belonged more particularly to 
 Rus.sia and Japan.
 
 FLAU. 
 
 673 
 
 FLANKED DISFOSITIOK. 
 
 FLAM. — A beat or tap iipon the drum which was 
 formerly used lii the British army when re^nmcnts 
 were going through their drill or exercise, every for- 
 mation being done by tap or Ijeat upon the druni. It 
 was likewise beaten in tiring-practice whenever the 
 target was struck. 
 
 FLAMBEAU.— A variety of torch made of thick 
 wicks, covered with wa.\, and used in the streets at 
 night, at illuminations, and in proccs,sions. 
 
 FLAME-SWORD.— A weapon intended to be used 
 with both hands, and employed in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. This sword should not be mistaken for the 
 Jl<i)iibejy. 
 
 FLANCH— FLANGE.— The projecting rim of metal 
 on the circumference of a wheel or cylinder to serve as 
 a bearing; for example, the rim on the tire of railway- 
 wheels. The rim of metal round the mouth of gun- 
 caps used with percassion-muskets is called a flange. 
 
 FLANCHAEDS.— The side-pieces of ancient horse- 
 armor, which joined the front-plate or the breast- 
 piece to the thigh-pieces and croupiere. 
 
 FLANCHES.— In Heraldry, tlanches are composed 
 of arched lines drawn from the upper angles of the 
 escutcheon to the base-points. The arches of the 
 flanches almost meet in the center of the shield. The 
 tlanches are an ordinar)' little used in Scolich Herald- 
 rj-. Also written Hauques. 
 
 . FLAKCHIEEE. — A part of horse-armor which cov- 
 ered the tiauks and croup as far as the houghs. 
 
 FLANCONADE. — In fencing, a term commonly ap- 
 plied to a thrust in the side. See Fencing. 
 
 FLANGED SYSTEM OF RIFLING.— This system 
 embraces all projectiles upon the cylindrical portion 
 of which are projections which in loading are in- 
 tended to be inserted into corresponding grooves in 
 the bore of the gun. Under this system maj' be 
 classed all those projectiles which have projections in 
 the form of studs, ribs, or flanges on their surfaces 
 intended to take the grooves in loading. And it may 
 also be said to comprise all mechanically fitted pro- 
 jectiles like the Whitworth; for the salient departures 
 from a circle, in cross-section of the projectile, may 
 be regarded as flanges, while the corresponding angles 
 in cross-section of the bore, and into which these 
 flanges fit, constitute the grooves. The various modi- 
 fications of this common system are very great, and 
 none of them can be said to have given entire satis- 
 faction, while all of them have revealed serious faults 
 and shortcomings. 
 
 The evident advantages of this system are econo- 
 my, simplicity, and durability of the projectile. The 
 rifle-motion i.s commtmicated with great certainty and 
 regularity. The projectile does not expand by the 
 explosion, and hence gets more windage as the bore 
 wanns. As the gun expands and gets weaker, its 
 safety-valve gets larger. 
 
 Tlie chief objections are, that both projectile and 
 bore lieing hard, fracture of one or the other is liable 
 to occur from a projectile jamming; and that imles.s 
 the bore be made of vco' hard material, it will be 
 rapidly worn by the friction of the projectile. See 
 System of Rifling. 
 
 "flank.— The right or left side of a body of men 
 or a place. Flank presujiposes a formation more or 
 less deep. A flank-march is upon the prolongation 
 of the line to which a body faces. Thus, when we 
 say the enemy, by a flank-march, o\itflanked our 
 right wing, it is "understood that the enemy, by 
 marching parallel to our line of battle, put himself in 
 position upon our extreme right. To disturb the 
 flanks of a column or army is to throw an opposing 
 force upon either side of the route that it follows. By 
 this maneuver the march of the column is retarded, 
 or it is forced to a halt; its baggage is sometimes 
 seized, and terror and disorder fall upon the ma.sses. 
 To flank is to cover and defend the flanks. We flank 
 a c;imp bv posts placed on the right and left; a corps 
 d'armee is flanked bv detachments which take roads 
 parallel to the r(iute"s followed by the larger body; 
 smaller columns are flanked by flankers on the right 
 
 and left, who keep in view the columns, warn them 
 of the approach of an enemy, discover ambuscades, 
 skirmish with them, and fall back when needed upon 
 the nia.ss of the troops. 
 
 FLANK-ATTACK.— In warfare, one of the modes 
 of attack whereliy the side or flank of im army or 
 body of troops Ls attacked. Before the introduction 
 of nfleil guns and arms, the attack in front, bj- heavy 
 columns of infantry covered by skirmishers and guns, 
 was the usual mode of attack; but since then it has 
 been found, in consequence of the withering and 
 rapid fire of rifles, that, depending alone upon such 
 an attack, a front advance is attended with extreme 
 danger. Troops advancing in column under such 
 circumstances nece.ssjirily break up into skirmishers, 
 the column-form becomes. somewhat abandoned, both 
 in the leading columns, supports, and reserves, as each 
 moves up into action. To remedy this, attack in 
 flank or rear is come to be received as the best mode 
 of attack; not that the front-attack is to be altogether 
 given up, for to insure success such an attack is still 
 neeessarj', though modified; otherwise the enemy 
 would be free to meet and frustrate the flank move- 
 ments: so that really the attack of the present day is a 
 combination of front and flank. 
 
 FLANK-CASEMATE CARRIAGE.— A carriage con- 
 sisting of two cheeks of wood united by two iron 
 transoms. The chassis consists of two wootleii rails 
 three inches apart, and joined by four transoms and 
 a.sscmbling-bolts. To the rear end of the top carriage 
 is attached an eccentric roller, and to each check, in 
 front, a roller which, when the eccentric roller Is in 
 gear, rests on the chassis-rails, giving to the carriage 
 rolling friction. The piece is then easily run in and 
 out of batten,', the cannoneers applying themselves to 
 rings and handles on the sides of the cheeks. The 
 front end of the chassis rests on the sole of the em- 
 brasure, and is provided with a lunette, through which 
 a pintle drops into the ma.sonry beneath. The rear of 
 the chassis is .sujjported by an iron fork, to the lower 
 extremity of each prong of which is attached a small 
 traverse- wheel. See Carriage. 
 
 FLANK-COMPANY.— A certain number of troops 
 drawn up on the right or left of a battalion. Thus, 
 when there are grenadiers, Ihey compose the right, 
 and the light infantrj' the left, flimk-eompany. Gren- 
 adiers and light infantry are generally called flimk- 
 companies whether attached or not to their battalions; 
 rifle corps are ah\ ays flankers. 
 
 FLANK-DEFENSE. — In fortification, the means 
 adopted in the trace of a work to preserve all pails of 
 it from being imduly exposed to the direct tire of the 
 enemy, such as would be the case if a parapet had 
 alone to protect it.self in a direct line upon the besieg- 
 ers. Again, the face of a work is said to receive flank- 
 d(fenae,OT to he flanked, v;hn\ the fire of another work 
 Is directed parallel or nearly so to its escarp, so as to 
 defend its ditch or the ground in front of it. AiLy 
 work not so provided would be liable to be captured 
 without difficulty. Take for instance a faultily-con- 
 structed work, permitting of the as-sailants getting 
 close up under the rampart without the defenders see- 
 ing them: in this position a few bold, resolute men, 
 with crowbarsand a bag of powder, might, by making 
 a cavity in the escarp, destroy a portion of the ram- 
 part. To prevent, however, such a possibility, three 
 systems have been devised for giving flanking defense 
 to a permanent work; they are the tcnaille system, 
 the bastinned svstem, and the polvgonal system. 
 
 FLANKED ANGLE. — In fortification, the Jingle 
 formed bv the flank of the bastion and curtain, or, in 
 other wo"rds, that formed by two lines of defense. 
 See Angle. 
 
 FLANKED DISPOSITION.— In planning or dispos- 
 ing fortifications in relation to the position to be de- 
 fended, it is very important that the parts shall be s<j 
 distributed as to obviate certain defects, besides sat- 
 isfying some other well-known general conditions, 
 such as to bring a front, flunk, and croM fln up<in 
 the assailant's columns of" attack; or, what is the
 
 FLANK EN POTENCE. 
 
 674 
 
 FLANEEB. 
 
 same, one sheet of fire tbat will sweep tlie column 
 from front to n-ar, auotbcr lo l>i';u' mxin each of its 
 tlaukii so as lo cross their lire with each other anil with 
 the one from the front. In thi'^ \v;iy mutual defensive 
 relations are soujrht to Ix' established hetwecn all the 
 part*. To etieet this, certain part.- are thrown forward 
 towards the enemy to receive his allaek; they are de- 
 nominated lulraiirtd )mrU; other portions, denomi- 
 natc<l relint/ ptirtji, are withdrawn from the enemy, 
 and protect by their tire the advanced parts. Tliis 
 arrangement naturally imlicatcs tbat the i;eneral out- 
 line of the l)lan must present an angular system; some 
 of the angular i)i)ints, denominated militntn, being 
 towards tlie enemy; and others, denominated re-inUr- 
 ing>, towards the a.ssiiiled. 'When such a disjwsition 
 is made it isdenomiuatetl i\ flanked digpntUlnn, because 
 the enemy's tiaidv is attained by the tire of the retired 
 parts when he is advancing uix)n the sjdicnts. The ad- 
 vanced parts arc denominated /((f(«; the retired parts, 
 which protect the faces, tho flunks; the retired part con- 
 necting the tlauks is the nn-Uiin. The angle formed by 
 two faces is denominated a mlit nt angle; that formcci 
 by two retired parts, a re-entering anyle; and one 
 made by a face and tlie opposite tlank, an angle of de- 
 fense. The line bisecting a siilient angle is denomi- 
 nated the eitpital; the distance from a siUient to its op- 
 posite Hank is a line of defense. 
 
 In planning a work, the interior crest is regarded as 
 the ilirecting line in regulating the dimensions of the 
 faces, tlanks, etc., because this line shows the column 
 of fire for the defense. There exists a necessary sub- 
 ordination between the plan, relief, and command of 
 works, which prevents the dimcasions of the one being 
 regulated independently of the others; but, without 
 entering into a close examination of this necessarv co- 
 rclation of the parts, it may Ix' stated generally" that 
 faces should vary between thirty and eighty yards, 
 flanks between twenty and forty yards, and curtains 
 shoidd not be less than twelve times the relief. In 
 establishing the co-relations between the different parts 
 of any isolated works or combination of the elements 
 of fielil fortification, the following facts should, as far 
 as practicable, be observed: 1. The flanks sweep with 
 their tire the ground in front of the faces; remove sec- 
 tors without fire and dead angles; cross their fire in 
 front of the salients; and take the enemy's column in 
 flank. 3. An acute angle of defense exposes the faces 
 to the fire of the flanks; a too obtuse angle leaves a 
 
 fortioi) of the ground in front of the face undefended, 
 n the heat of action, the soldier, from his position be- 
 hind the parapet, naturally brings down his piece, in 
 the act of firing, in a position sensibly perpendicular 
 to that of the interior crest. If everj' bullet, therefore, 
 took this direction, those delivered "just exterior to the 
 paraiJet flanked would barely clear the men drawn up 
 along it. On this account, and from the fact that un- 
 less checked before reaching the ditch the success of 
 the assiudling column is greatly assured, it is better 
 in field-works to make the angles of defense so open 
 that all the fire of the general defense from the flanks 
 shall be thrown froni just within the counterscarp 
 outwards; and to insure the flanking of the ditches 
 by cannon, or a body of infantry speciallv detailed 
 fortius duty. 3. Thelinesof defcn.se shoul(l be based 
 upon the skill in handling their weapons of infantry 
 in an ordinary stale of efiieiency, and allowance must 
 also be made for the ordinan' range of distinct vi.sion 
 of such men. The fire of the .smooth-lwre, with 
 trcKjps in this stale, is very efl'cetive at KiU yards; and 
 with the best weapons thefireof none but w"ell-f rained 
 and special troops can be depended upim much over 
 300 yards. Particular cases nijiy require the lines of 
 defense to exceed this limit. \<'lK'n Ihey arise they 
 .should be specially i)rovide<l for. The .shorter the 
 lines of defense, where the flanking dispositions are 
 good, the longer will the a.ssailaiil be exposed to the 
 fire of thea.s,sailedbefore he can attain the works, luid 
 the greater the chances of checking him. 4. A salient 
 less than 00 is too weak to withstand the effects of 
 weather; the interior space which it incloses is too con- 
 
 fined for the maneuvers of the tn)ops; when its faces are 
 not flanked there will be a large .sector without fire in 
 front of it. The positions which the assjiiled can take up 
 lo enfilade either face of an acute sjilieni are more fa- 
 vorable to him than in that of an obtuse one, as his guns 
 an' thrown farther from and are exix)sed lo a less di- 
 rect fire of the adjacent face of the salient, and of any 
 other parts of the fortiticaliou adjacent to this face. 
 This rule, however, .should not bi- taken as ab.solule, 
 as many cases may arise where more acute sjdients 
 can alone be obtained, and in which the tr<x)ps, being 
 restricted lo a passive defense, will require only room 
 enough to load and tire either cannon or muskets. 
 As such sidients are necessarily very weak, the ap- 
 proaches to them should beobstnicled by every means 
 at hand. 5. The rajiidily with wliich a column of 
 attack approaches, and the .short time it remains e.\- 
 po.sed to the Art of the work unless detained by ol>- 
 stacles in front of the ditch, render its loss, gener.illy, 
 .so trifling as not lo check its march until it arrives at 
 the crest of the counterscarp. Here, if the ditch is 
 deep, some delay ensues in entering it, during which 
 the column is expo.sed lo a warm fire within short 
 range. When the ditch is entered, a more serious ob- 
 stacle remains to be encountered in the additional 
 height of the parapet and scarp; and when this ob- 
 stacle is overcome the enemy presents himself in a 
 fatigued and exhausted slate lo the bayonets of the 
 assiiiled, who have mounted on the lop of their 
 ixuapet to meet and drive him back into the ditch. 
 This rule is essential in all isolated works where, 
 from the small size of the garrison, the defense must 
 necessarily be of a passive character, being restricted 
 lo a simple repulse of the assailant. 6. Unless the 
 a.ssailed are determined lomeet theenemy ,at the point 
 of the bayonet, they miist evacuate their work so goon 
 as he has entered the ditch; a longer delay to retreat 
 would be followed by the most disastrous consequen- 
 ces. The results of innumerable actions prove that the 
 defense with the bayonet is the surest method of re- 
 pelling the enemy. The nssjiiled, having now become 
 the as.sailant, are assisted by that moral effect which 
 is ])rodueed by a change from a defensive to an offen- 
 sive altitude. They have, moreover, the advantages 
 of position and freshness over a clunbing and exhaust- 
 ed eiieniv. See Fuld-fortificatiim. 
 
 FLANK EN POTENCE.— Any part of the right or 
 left wing formed at a projecting angle with the line. 
 See Poti'nce. 
 
 FLANKER. — 1. A fortification jutting out so as to 
 command the side or flank of an enemy marching to 
 the a.ssault or attack. 3. The disiiosilions of mova- 
 ble advanced-posts in the directions of the flanks, 
 keeping pace with the progress of the main Iwdy, and 
 far enough from it to give it timely warning of a 
 threatened attack, are termed t\u! fltmkers. Generally 
 the head or leading detachment of some force, com- 
 posed usuall)- of both cavalry and infantry, and if 
 re(iuisite .some iiioncers, forms the advance of the 
 main body of the advanced-guard, for the purpose of 
 .searching all the ground within a dangerous pro.xim- 
 ity, and of clearing the way for the advancing col- 
 uiims. Through this delachmenl a conununicalion 
 is kept up with the flankers, and all the ground is 
 thus hemmed in around the advancing column by 
 which an enemy might apjiroach it. The strength 
 of the leading ilelachment will dciiend greatly upon 
 the character of the country, and upon the slate of 
 the weather and .season being more or less favorable 
 to ihe unobserved ai)proach of an iiicmy. A leading 
 detachment of one fourth Ihe total strength of the 
 advanced-guard; two flank-detachments, to act as 
 flankers, of one eighth; and a rear detachment, act- 
 ing as a rear-guard, also of one eighth, — taking, in all, 
 one half the total strenglli of Ihe advanccdgu.ard, — 
 is consiilered, luulcr onlinarv cireum.staiices. a good 
 distribution for the duties to "be performed. All the 
 ground within llie proximity of the advanced-guard 
 must be carefully searched liy it. No invariable rule 
 can be laid down on this subject, everything depend-
 
 TLANKFIIES. 
 
 675 
 
 FLANK FATSOLS. 
 
 ing on the character of the country ; the state of the 
 weather; and the march being by tlay or night, as to 
 the more or less dispersed order that "can be adopted 
 for examining the ground. The leading detachment, 
 and those on the flanks, should keep in a position, 
 with respect to each other, that will admit of prompt 
 mutual support, and guarding against the approach 
 of an enemy unperceived; the flank-detachments, 
 for this purpose, keeping somewhat to the rear of the 
 leading one. The most advanced portions of these 
 troops should be of cavalry, unless the country be 
 mountainous or very thickly wooded, in which cases 
 infantry is the best arm for the duty. 
 
 FLANK-FILES.— The first men on the right and 
 the last men on the left of a battalion, com|)any, etc. 
 When a battalion is drawn up three deep, its "flank- 
 flics consist of three men, or, as the French call it, 
 file and demi-filc. When four deep, the flank-tiles 
 are termed double files; so that a column fonned from 
 any of these alignments will have all its relative 
 flank files, be the depth of the formation what it may. 
 
 FLANK-MARCHES.— Marches made parallel or o"b- 
 liquely to the enemy's fwsition, with a view to turn- 
 ing it or attacking him on the flank. Flank-marches 
 are risky, but there are times when an army must 
 make them and run the risk of exposing its tlank in 
 order to gain great advantages. As the greatest 
 danger to which the column is exposed is that of be- 
 ing attacked in flank during the march, a strong de- 
 tachment should he thrown out on the side next the 
 enemy, to move along in a direction parallel with the 
 coliniin, and sutficii-ntly near to keep up a constant 
 communication with it. The advanced-guard usually 
 becomes the flank-detachment on a flank-march; but 
 it will be well, since the chances of attack arc greater, 
 to increase its strength, so that it should be able to 
 hold its ground against any serinus effort of the 
 enemy. This detachment should be careful to oc- 
 cupy all defiles, and watch all the roads by which the 
 enemy might appear, until the main liod)- has passed. 
 The baggage becomes, in a case like this, more of an 
 encumbrance th m usual. It may be sent to join the 
 army by a circuitotis route, at a distance from the 
 enemy, or inay move on that flank of its own column 
 which is the safer against attack. 
 
 If possible, the march should be concealed from the 
 enemy, keeping him in ignorance of the movement 
 until completed. This cannot always be done, as he 
 is on the alert to observe any movements which may 
 be made. Under no circumstances should the flank- 
 detachment be omitted, as by its skillful vise the 
 enemy may be kept in doubt for some time as to the 
 particular cliaracter of the march, whether it is to the 
 front, to the rear, or to a flank. If this detachment 
 meets the enemy, it makes a show of resistance and 
 develops (he strength of the opposing force. In the 
 mean time the main body moves steadily forward, 
 and, when it has passed sufficiently far, the detach- 
 ment leaves the position it had held, and retires rap- 
 idly, taking, if necessary, a direction different from 
 that of the main body, and subsequently rejoining it 
 by a detour. The enemy will not follow it very far, 
 as he exiwses his own flank to the troops which have 
 already passed. When the body of troops making 
 the flank march is large, as a corjas composed of sev- 
 eral divisions, there should be several columns, if the 
 nature of the country will admit of it. These columns 
 should he in supporting distance of each other, as re- 
 quired in a march to the front. 
 
 FlanTv tactical marches were frequently made by 
 Frederick the Great to gain a position favorable for 
 an attack on an enemy's wing. On such occasions he 
 formed his army in two columns of companies at full 
 distance, .so that by wheeling the companies to the 
 right or left he formed at once a line of battle fac- 
 ing the enemy. Approaching the enemy with this 
 formation, and when near him, he changed the direc- 
 tion of his march, making the flank-movement, pro- 
 tected by the advanced guard and hidden from view 
 by some inequality of the ground. Then bj' a simple 
 
 wheel of the companies his line of battle was formed, 
 and was oblique to the general line occupied hj- the 
 enemy. We find numerous instimces of this maneuver 
 recorded. At the battle of Leuthen he moved for- 
 ward in four columns, the two interior ones being 
 composed of infantry, and the exterior ones of cavalry. 
 When he changed "direction to make a flank-marcb, 
 the four colunms formed two, which by a wheel of 
 the companies formed into two lines of battle. See 
 Flaiih-iii'irtiiitut and March. 
 
 FLANK-MO'VEMENT.- This term has reference to 
 the change of march of an army, or a portion of 
 an army, which circtmistances may necessitate, and 
 which may occur when a battle i-s being fought, with 
 the view to turning either one or both wings of the 
 enemy, or a better position being taken up. ^In mak- 
 ing a flank-movement before the enemy, it would be 
 difficult to carry out the usual order of march as laid 
 down for the march of an army to the front. Such 
 a formation would be inconvenient to a large body of 
 troops, if the groiuid or country were circumscribed 
 or inclosed, having to march in one direction and to 
 fight a battle in another, thus neces-sitating a long 
 wheel of its columns before coming into action. To 
 avoid this, a new order of march niust be pursued. 
 
 On perfectly open ground such a movement might be 
 accomplished by marching to a flank in order of bat- 
 tle; that is, in three columns formed of the two lines 
 and the reserve, with an advanced-guard protecting 
 the flank towards the enemy. But the question is of 
 making a march of this kuid in an average broken or 
 inclosed country, where very lengthened columns, 
 especially of cavalry and arlillerj-, could not without 
 great risk offer their flank to the enemy. When a 
 
 I corps is moving thus to a flank, it will be of immense 
 importance to decide whether it is to form line of 
 battle to a front or a flank, relatively to the rest of 
 
 1 the army and to the enemy. Thus Btdow's march 
 
 t to the field of Waterloo was a flank-mnrfh; but for 
 the attack on the French flank, the order of march to 
 a. front was the projier formation for his colimins. 
 
 The turning of the flank of a line of battle maj- be 
 effected either by originally directing part of the 
 army beyond that flank or by reinforcing one wing 
 of a direct attack and deploj'ing the addid troops 
 
 ' beyond the menaced flank during the engagement. 
 The Prussians always seem to have operated in the 
 latter way, engaging at the same time throughotit the 
 front. The history of the \nctories of the summer of 
 1870 is that the Geminn corps march straight for the 
 enemy, that the leading troops at once attack, that 
 the rest huny up to their support, extending and 
 deepening the skirmishing line, and that, after a se- 
 
 ' vere eng.igement, an extension beyond a flank renders 
 the position untenable. See F(ank-tiiorrhei. 
 
 FLANK OF A BASTION.— In fortification, that part 
 which unites the face to the curtain, comprehended 
 between the angle of the curtain and that of the 
 shoulder, and which is the principal defense of a 
 place. Its use is to defend the curtain, the flank, and 
 the face of the opposite bastion, as well as the pas- 
 sage of the ditch; and to batter the salient angles of 
 the counterscarp and glacis, from whence the besieg- 
 ers generally ruin the flanks with their artillerj'. 
 
 FLANK-PATROLS.— Besides the flankers proper, 
 which constitute a portion of the movable advanced- 
 posts, detachments of an independent character are 
 sent out to patrol along the flanks of the main col- 
 
 j umn. These should keep themselves in coininuni- 
 
 i cation, by the suitable dispositions of vedettes, with 
 the flankers. As the flank-patrols are frequently be- 
 yond direct supporting distai:ce, they must adopt all 
 the necessary dispositions asraiast sur[;rise of any 
 other body marching independently; having their 
 advanced-guard, etc., etc. These p:itrols keep on a 
 level with their column; and particularly secure all 
 lateral roads, or defiles, by which it might be sud- 
 
 I denly attacked, imtil the column is beyond danger. 
 A great activity, watchfulness, and caution should 
 
 I characterize this service. The officer in command of
 
 FLAireS OF A FRONTIER. 
 
 G70 
 
 FLEDRY. 
 
 n flankpntrol must use bis discretion in meeting an 
 enemy, whellier to iitlaek bim or to let him pass, if 
 be luei not biniself iKen oliserveil. 
 
 FLANKS OF A FRONTIER.— Certain snlicnt point.-j 
 ill a niiiidiial lumniliirv, slronj; by nalure and art, 
 and ordinarily projectiui: son\e\vliat lieyond Uie jren- 
 enil line. The elVect of lhe.-;e tlanks is to protect the 
 whole frontier aiiainsi an eniiny, a.< lie dare not iiene- 
 trate between, with the risk of their ;rarnsons. rein- 
 forced from their own territories, attacking his rear, 
 and cutting off commumcation between bim and bis 
 base. 
 
 FLASH. — The Hamc which issues from any fire-anii 
 or piece of ordnance on its beinir tired. Flash in the 
 jHin is an expression for the exi>losion of jjuupowder 
 without any communication beyond the vent. 
 
 FLASHING.^The proper incorporation of the in- 
 crre<lienls of jjiinixivvder is tested hy Jlaxhiitg; that is, 
 by burning a small quantity of the iiowdcr on a glass 
 or porcehun plate. H any tine-gjained jiowder, the 
 quantity to be Hashed is i>laceil in a small copper 
 measure, which is inverted over the flashing-plate. 
 This pro\-ides for the granules being arranged in 
 nearly the .siime kind of heap each time, which is im- 
 portant. The decomposition of the powder will be 
 more thorough if the powder be thrown together in 
 a small conical pile than if it be sjiread out in a thin 
 layer on the i)lale; hence, for comparison of ilifferent 
 powdei's, they should be placed on the plates as 
 nearly as pos.sible under the siime conditions. If the 
 ]io\V(ier has been thoroughly incorporated, the sm.-iU 
 <'liarge placed on the plate will flash otT when touched 
 with a hot iron, leaving only smoke-marks on the 
 plate. A badly incorporated powder will leave 
 specks of undecomposed siiltpeterand sulphur, form- 
 ing a dirty residue. The fla.shing-test, though sim- 
 ple, requires experience and care to enable the ob 
 server to form an accurate judgment. A badly 
 incorporated powder is easily detected; but to deter 
 mine between two nearly alike, and both tolerably 
 jjood, is vastly more dillicult. Flashing .should there- 
 fore be conslanlly practiced with all classes of pow- 
 ders, and it is advisable to keep .sample-s of iin|)er- 
 fectly incorporated grains to be flashed occasionally 
 for comijarison. 
 
 FLASK. — When casting a gun, the mold is formed 
 in a case of cast-iron, called a flash, consisting of 
 several pieces, each of which has flanges perforated 
 with holes for screw-bolts and nuts, to unite the parts 
 flrmly. In casting the tifteen-inch gun, a circular 
 flask is used, consisting of five upriglit sections, 
 secured together by elami)s tilting over flanges at 
 either end of the .sections; its thickness is one inch, 
 and it is pierced with holes. The breech, or lower .sec- 
 lion, is made of siiflicient length to cast the ba.se of 
 breech, ca.scabel, and square knob; the next above is 
 twenty-five inches in length and cylh.drical, being 
 the part which embraces the cylinder of the gun; the 
 next is the trunnion-section, filled with trunnion- 
 boxes ha\ing movable plates on their ends, that the 
 trunnion paitern may be placed and removed after 
 the mold is tinislied; then there are two sections 
 above this, the upper being about three feet longer 
 than the required length of the gun, to admit of a 
 "sinking-head." The entire length of the flask is 
 twenlv feel. See Moltlinr/ 
 
 FLAT BASTION.— A biistion having its demi-gorges 
 in Ihe same straight line. See Bastion. 
 
 FLATS. — In ordiianee, two vertical plane surfaces 
 situated at equal distances from Ihe axis of the bore. 
 They serve to preveni the barrel from tuniing in Ihe 
 jaws of the vise when the breech-screw is taken out. 
 See Hnrrcl. 
 
 FLAW.— In casting or forging, any crack or open- 
 ing which may be ol)Served. In forging, it frequently 
 occurs from bad welding. See Castimj. 
 
 FLEAU D'ARHES.— An ancient ofTensive weapon; 
 the i)art used for striking was armed with sharp iron 
 spikes. 
 
 FLECHE.- In fortiflcution, tbc most simple species 
 
 of field-works; it is quickly and easily constructed, 
 and therefore frequently used in the field. It usually 
 consists of two faces forming a sjilient angle towards 
 some object, from whence it cannot be approached 
 on the prolongation of its capital. One simple rule 
 for the construction of a fleche is to .select a s|)ot for 
 the salient, and to throw up a breastwork on either 
 side forming an angle of not less than 60 degrees, and 
 allowing a <lislan(e of a yard to each file. 
 
 FLETCHER. — The naiiie anciently applied to the 
 man who made or repaired the military bows. He 
 was also called Buu-ytr. 
 
 FLEUR-DE-LIS.— Authorities are undecided as to 
 whether this celelinited emblem is derived from the 
 white lily (if Ihe garden, or from the flag or iris, which, 
 as generally rein'eseiited, it more resembles both in 
 form and color. " Ancient heralds," .says Newton, 
 " tell us that the Franks of old had a custom, at the 
 proclamation of their king, to elevate him upon a 
 shield or target, and place in his hand a reed or flag 
 in blos.som, instead of a scepter; and from thence the 
 kings of the first and second race in France are repre- 
 .sentcd with scepters in their hands like the flag with 
 its flower, and which flowers became the armorial fig- 
 ures of France." However this may be, or whatever 
 may be the value of the other legendary tales, such as 
 that a blue banner, embroidered with golden fleur-de- 
 lis, came down from heaven; that an angel gave it to 
 King C'lovis at bis baptism, and the like; there can 
 lie little doubt that, from C'lovis downwards, the 
 kings of France bore as their arms first an indefinite 
 number, and lallerly three golden lilies on a blue 
 field, or, as herahls would say, azure, three fleur-de- 
 lis, or. It was Charles VI. who reduced what had 
 hitherto been the indefinite numlxT of fleur-de-lis to 
 three, disposed two and one; " some conjecture upon 
 account of the Trinity, others .say to represent the 
 three different races of the kings of France." !Many 
 English and Scotch families bear Ihe fleur-de lis in 
 .some portion of their shield, and generally with some 
 reference to France. 
 
 FLEURY— FLORY.— In Heraldry, signifying that 
 the object is adorned with fleurs-de-lis; a cro.ss-fieurj', 
 for an example, is a cross the ends of which arc m 
 the form of fleurs-de-lis. There are .several varie- 
 ties in the modes of representing these cros.ses wbicb 
 lias led to distinctions being made between them by 
 heralds too trivial to be mentioned; but they are ail 
 dislinguishable from the cross-potance, or potancce, 
 incorrectly spelled patonce by English heralds. In the 
 latter the limbs are in the form of Ihe segments of a 
 circle, and the foliation is a mere bud; whereas the 
 cross-fleury has the limbs straight and the termina- 
 tions distinctly floriated. Perhaps the most cele- 
 
 Cross-fleury. Cross-potance. 
 
 brated in.stance of this bearing is in the case of the 
 double prepuce flowery and counter-flowery gules 
 which surrounds llie red lion in Ihe Royal Arms of 
 Scotland, and which Charlemagne is said to have 
 conferred on A<haius, King of Scotland, for a.ssistance 
 in bis wars. The object, according to Nisbet, was to 
 show that, as the lion had defended Ihe lilies of 
 France, these '•hereafter shall continue a defense for 
 the Scots lion, and as a badge of friendship, which 
 has still conlimieil." Thai the lilies were assumed in 
 consequence of Ihe inlimale relation whieh prevailed 
 between France and Scotland for .so many genera- 
 tions will not be doubted; but the special occasion 
 of the assuin|)lion may not be admitted in our day to 
 be quite beyond Ihe reach of skepticism, nolwilhsland- 
 ing Nisbcl's assertion that il is so fully instructed by 
 ancient and mo<lerii writers that he need not trouble 
 his readers with any long catalogue of them. Also 
 written Floitry and 'Flcurdk.
 
 FLEXIBLE SHAFT. 
 
 677 
 
 FLEXIBLE SHAFT. 
 
 FLEXIBLE SHAFT.— An apparatus for transmitting 
 rotary motion to any desired distance from the power 
 source through any number of cunes ; thus allowing 
 tlie power to he carried to the work, instead of the 
 ■work to the power. The uses of the shaft in the ar- 
 senal and in engineering are almost unlimited, and as 
 it is reaflily handled, easily cared for, and durable, it 
 is rapidly Iiecoming a staple article where work is to 
 be done by power. The construction of the tiexible 
 shaft is peculiar to it.self , and it is in this peculiar con- 
 struction that its utility consists. It is made up of a 
 
 The drawings show all the details of construction. 
 Fig. 1 represents the complete shaft with the auger 
 screwed into the end. Fig. 2 shows the manner of 
 " lajTng up" the shaft, and the construction of the 
 ca.se. Fig. 3 is a section showing the hand-piece, 
 shaft-case, and endnut to which are attached the tools 
 to he used. Fig. 4 is a section at the pulley end. 
 Letter references^ AA, shaft-ca.se; B, sections of shaft 
 and case; C, cord lo draw pulley to any desired di- 
 rection; D, driving-lielt. This mode of construction 
 insures stability, durability, and very great torsional 
 
 Eound-about Transfer. combiDed with Countershaft, Flexible Shaft, Drill-press, etc. 
 
 series of coils of steel wire, wound hard upon each 
 other, each alternate layer running in an opposite di- 
 rection, and the numlwi- of wires in the different layers 
 varying according to the work the shaft is adapted to; 
 on being brouglit to size, about one incli at eadi end 
 of the shaft is brazed .solid, and to the.se solid ends the 
 fittings are attached, the one to receive the tools to be 
 operated, the other to receive the power from the pul- 
 ley inclosing it, which in turn receives its power from 
 a belt. Next a ca.se is prepared consisting first of a 
 single coil of steel wire, its internal diameter being a 
 loose fit for the outside of shaft; this is covered with 
 some flexible material, leather preferably, over which 
 at either end a fernile is fa.stened; into this ferrtJe at 
 one end is screwed the handpiece; at the opposite end 
 the frame which carries the pulley. 
 
 strength; and at the same time perfect flexibility at 
 rirfit angles to the axis. 
 
 In the above drawing is shown the round-about 
 transfer, in connection with the countershaft, flexible 
 shaft, drill-press, etc. The lower pulley takes up the 
 slack of the driving-rope, and the swiveled pulleys at 
 the top allow the shaft to be carried in any direction. 
 A peculiar feature of this device, distinguishing it 
 from all others of its class, is the fact that the rise of 
 the lower pulleys is only one half the extension of 
 the driving-rope, a matter of great importjuice in a 
 low-studded room. With the roundalwut work may 
 l)e performed at varjing distances from the fixed 
 countershaft and in any desired direction. Besides 
 metal drilling, the shaft is admirably adapted to the 
 kindred work of tapping, reaming, and boring. The
 
 FLIQHI. 
 
 678 
 
 FLINT IMPLEUENIS AND WEAPONS. 
 
 convenience of the flexible shaft is wonderfully showii 
 ill liri(lj.'e-«'(irk. There are always mullituiles of holes 
 to be ilrilkti alxiut bridges when in construction, and 
 the shaft will allow of inan}° limes the amount of work 
 in the same period of time. Kngineers are now begin- 
 ning to specify in their specifications that all rivet-holes 
 must be punched smaller and reameil out to a perfect 
 circle, thus insuring a round bolt where it is intended 
 to be. Some bridge-works are already using thesi' 
 shafts with marked success. In building carriages and 
 wagons there are always great quantities of holes to 
 be bored and drilled Imth In the wood and iron al)out 
 the shafts and carriagebotly; and this is a place where 
 the utility of the tlexible shaft is admirably shown. 
 
 Details of Flexible Shaft. 
 
 One man with a shaft and chuck with drill can do 
 aa much in an hour as hius heretofore been done by 
 hand in three or four hours. For the purpose of hor.se 
 and cattle Ijrushing the shaft is frequently u.sed, 
 driven by steam or other power. The brush is made 
 in the most thorough and careful manner, and is so 
 guarded that it cannot catch in the tail or mane of the 
 animal. Not only is the tedious operation of cleaning 
 horses greatly expedited by this machine, but the 
 work is more thorougldy done than is possible in the 
 most careful hand -grooming. The expense of linish- 
 ing irregular metal dies forstjimping, also the various 
 molds, may be greatly lessened by using the shaft. 
 Hoimd and pear-shaped tiles of various sizes are used, 
 also small emery-wheels of appropriate pattern. See 
 DrilUiniiitaeliiiie. 
 
 FLIGHT. — 1. A word employed figuratively for the 
 swift retreat of an army or any iiarty from a victori- 
 ous enemy. It is likewise ai)i>lical)le to missile wea- 
 pons or shot; as a flight of arrows, a flight of bombs, 
 etc. 2. In gunnery, the flight of a shot or shell is 
 the lime during which it is passing through the air 
 from the piece to the first graze. 
 
 FLINT IMPLEMENTS AND WEAPONS.— Weapons, 
 believed to have Ihcii used by the primitive inhabi- 
 tants, have from time to lime, in more or less num- 
 ber, been turned up by the plow and the spade, dug 
 
 out from ancient graves, fortifications, and dwelling- 
 places, or fished up from llic beds of lakes and rivers, 
 in almost every country of Europe. They do not 
 difl'er, in any material respect, from the flint imple- 
 ments and weapons still in use among uncivilized 
 tribes in Asia, Africa, America, and the Islands of 
 the Pacific Oeeiui. The weajKins of most frequent 
 occurrence are arrow-heads, spear-points, dagger- 
 liliules, and axe-heads or celLs. The more common 
 implements are knives, chisels, rasps, wedges, and 
 thin curved or semicircular plates, to which the 
 name of " scrapers" has been given. There is great 
 variety as well in the size as in the shape, even of 
 articles of the same kind. There is equal variety ia 
 the amount of skill or lalwr expended in their manu- 
 facUire. In .some instances the flint has been roughly 
 fashioned into something like the required form by 
 two or tliree blows; in others it has Ix'en laboriously 
 cliii»ped into the wished-for shape, which is often one 
 of no little elegance. In yet another cla.ss of cases, 
 the flint, after being iluly shaped, has been ground 
 smooth, or has even received as high a jwlish as could 
 be given by a modern lapidarj-. Examples of all the 
 varielies of flint weapons and implements will Ije 
 found in the British Museum, in the Museum of the 
 Koyal Irish Academy at Dublin, in the Museum 
 of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland at Edin- 
 burgh, and above all in the Museum of the Koyal 
 Society of Antiquaries at Copenhagen, which is espe- 
 cially rich in this class of remains. 
 
 Geological discoveries have recently invested flint 
 implements with a new interest. At Abbeville, at 
 Amiens, at Paris, and elsewhere on the Continent, 
 flint weapons, fashioned by the band of man, have 
 been found along with remains of extinct species of 
 the elephant, the rhinoceros, and other mammals, in 
 undisturbed beds of those deposits of sand, gravel, 
 and clay to which geologists have given the name of 
 '■ the drift." They .so far resemble the flint imple- 
 ments and weapons found on the surface of the 
 earth, but are generally of a larger size, of ruder 
 workmanship, and less varied in shape. The}' have 
 been divided into three cla.sses — round-pointed; .sharp- 
 pointed; both being chipped to a sharp edge, so as to 
 cut or pierce only at the pointed end; and oval-shaped, 
 with a cutting edge all round. The first and second 
 classes vary in length from about 4 inches to 8 or 9 
 inches; the third cla.ss is generally about 4or 5 inches 
 long, but examples have been found of no more than 
 2 inches, and of as much as 8 or 9 inches. In no in- 
 stance has a Hint implement yet discovered in the 
 drift been found either polished or ground. The 
 French antiquary, M. Boucher de Perthes, was the 
 first to call attention to these very interesting remains, 
 in his Aiiti(jiiiti'K Celtiqnen et Aiit/diliifuniies. But 
 it has since been remembered Ibat implements of the 
 sjime kind were found in a similar posiiidnat Hoxne, 
 in Sufl'olk, along with remains of some gigantic ani- 
 mal, in 1797, and at Gray's Inn Lane, in London, 
 along with remains of an elephant, in 1715. Both 
 these Englisli examples are still jmserved, — the first 
 in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries at Lon- 
 don, the second in the British Museum, — and they are 
 ])recisely similar in every respect to the examples 
 more recently found in France. 
 
 To what age tliese remains should be a.ssigned is a 
 question on which Geology seems scarcely yet pre- 
 pared to si)eak with authority. But. in the words of 
 Mr. John Evans in Ids es.say on " Flint Implements 
 in the Drift," in flic Arrhtrologia, " thus much ap- 
 pears to be established beyond a doubt, that in a 
 IX'riod of antiquity remote beyond any of which we 
 liave hitlierfo found traces, this portion of the globe 
 was peopled by man; and that mankind has here 
 witnc.s,sed sdine of those geological changes by which 
 the so-called diluvial beds were deposited. Whether 
 these were the result of some violent rush of wafers, 
 such as may have taken place when " the fountains 
 of the great deej) were broken tip, and the windows 
 of heaven were opened," or whether of a more grad-
 
 FLIITT-LOCK. 
 
 679 
 
 FLOATING TARGET. 
 
 ual action, similar in character to some of those now 
 in operation along the courses of brooks, streams, 
 and rivers, may be matter of dispute. Under anj- 
 circumstances, this great fact remains indisputable, 
 that at Amiens, land which is now 160 feet above the 
 sea, and 90 feet above the Somme, lias, since the ex- 
 istence of man, been submerged under fresh water, 
 and an aqueous deposit from 20 to 30 feet in thick- 
 ness, a portion of which, at all events, must have sub- 
 sided from tranquil water, has been formed upon it ; 
 and this, too, has takeu place in a country the level 
 of which is now .stationary, and the face of which 
 has been little altered since the days when the Gauls 
 and the Romans constructed their sepulchers in the 
 soil overlying the drift which contains these relics of 
 a far earlier race of men." See Elf-arroir-lwadg. 
 
 FLINT-LOCK. —A very modern "lirelock, invented 
 about 1635. It was suggested, no doubt, from the 
 snaphaunce, and from which it only differed by the 
 cover of the pan forming part of the steel or hammer, 
 which retained its furrows until the eighteenth cen- 
 turj'. Before the invention of the flint-luck-, the wheel- 
 lock was frequently called the firelock. It does not 
 appear to have been employed in England \m\\\ 1677. 
 
 FLISSA. — An Oriental sword without a hilt or cross- 
 guard. The handle is straight and forms with the 
 blade a Latin cross. 
 
 FLO. — An ancient name for an arrow used in war. 
 Seldom used at present. 
 
 FLOAT. — The wooden cover of the sponge or tar- 
 bucket used with tield-gun carriages. 
 
 FLOATING BATTERY.— A hulk verj' headly arm- 
 ed, made as invulnerable as possible, used in defend- 
 ing harbors, or in attacks on marine fortresses. The 
 most remarkable instance of their employment was 
 by the French and Spaniards against Gibraltar, in 
 the memorable siege which lasted from July, 1779, to 
 February, 1783, when ten of these vessels, carrying 
 212 large guns, were brought to bear on the fortress^; 
 they had sides of great thickness, and were covered 
 with sloping roofs, to cause the shot striking them to 
 glance off innocuously. But their solidity and 
 strength were unavailing against the coinage and 
 adroitness of the defeniiers, under the gallant Gen- 
 eral Elliot, who succeeded in destrojnng them with 
 red-hot cannon-balls. Steam floating batteries of iron 
 were constructed for the war with Russia in 18.54, 
 both by the British and French governments; but, 
 notwithstanding that they rendered good service be- 
 fore Kinburn, they have since been generally dis- 
 carded for other than purely defensive purposes, as 
 too cumbrous for navigation, and too suffocating from 
 the smoke that collected between their decks during 
 action. Indeed, vessels of this class maj'be regarded 
 as having been superseded for all purposes both of 
 attack and defense by the newer kinds of gunboats 
 and armorclad frigates, as well as by the turret-ships, 
 which are among the more recent contrivances of skill 
 in nav.il ensrineering. 
 
 FLOATING BRIDGE.— A variety of double bridge, 
 the ujiper one i)rojecting beyond the lower one, and 
 capable of being moved forward by pulleys, used for 
 carrj'ing troops over narrow moats in attacking the 
 outworks of a fort. See F/>/i)if/ Bridge. 
 
 FLOATING DERRICK. — A mechanical contrivance 
 used for the same purposes as the crane, but recently 
 so improved in size, strength, and mechanism as to 
 be able not only to raise a body of 1000 tons in weight, 
 but to transpoii it from one "place to another. The 
 following description of the Oretit Flfinting Derrick, 
 built in 1859, will convey an idea of the powers of 
 this machine, and of the principles upon which it 
 ■works. This derrick w-as built by the Thames Iron 
 Ship-building Company, at Blackwall. It consists of 
 a flat-bottomed vessel, 270 feet long, and 90 feet across 
 the beam, and is divided throughout into a number 
 of water tight compartments, which can be filled so 
 as to counterbalance any weight on an opposite side. 
 From the deck of thisflrtating steam crane rises an 
 iron tripod 80 feet high, on the top of which revolves 
 
 a gigantic boom, 120 feet long, and above the boom 
 the " kingpost," a continuation of the tripod, rises to 
 the height of .50 feet. One arm of the boom is fur- 
 nished with ten fourfold blocks; the chains attached 
 to these blocks are all passed across the king-post, 
 i brought over the other ann of the boom, imd so de- 
 j scene! to the oth(;r side of the vessel, where they are 
 connected with two powerful steam engines, b}- means 
 of which the weights arc raised. This denick is 
 capable of being propelled by means of a series of 
 bucket-paddle floats at the rate of 4 miles an hour. 
 It is the invention of Jlr. Bishop, an American. Der- 
 ricks have been long in use in America, and have 
 proved much more expeditious and economical than 
 any other species of lifting-power. They are chiefly 
 used for lifting machineiy or other great "weights, ancl 
 for raising wrecks See "(';•«»<«. 
 
 FLOATING RATES.— A light open frame of hori- 
 zontal bars, attached along the top of the sides of 
 wagons, and sloping upwards and outwards from 
 them. They are very convenient for supporting and 
 securing light bulkv loads. 
 
 FLOATING TARGET.— The best and most readily 
 constructed target is comjio.sed of three stout boards 
 twelve feet long and a foot broad, forming a triangle. 
 A fourth board extendt; from one of the angles tothe 
 middle of the opposite side. The whole is fastened 
 together with spikes, or, better, with screw-bolts. At 
 the center of the triangle, a hole is cut in the last- 
 mentioned board; Ibis hole is about four inches in 
 diameter; throvigh it passes a pole projecting about 
 twelve feet above and three feet below. A 10-ineh 
 shot, or equivalent weight, is secured to the lower end 
 of the pole, and rope guys are led from the top to the 
 angles of the platform to keep the pole upright. To 
 these ropes are fastened triangular pieces of canvas. 
 A bidl's-eye four feet in diameter is painted on the 
 middle of this screen, upon each side. On each side 
 of the pole, underneath the platform, an empty water- 
 
 tight barrel is lashed to the athwart-board, and a .small 
 red flag is jilaced on the top of the pole. This target 
 is suitable for even the roughest water. To hold it, 
 under such circumstances, requires an anchor weigh- 
 ing not less than two hundred pounds. This is at- 
 tached to the target by a chain or heavy rope, .secured 
 to one angle of the base b.v an eye on the under end 
 of the bolt holding the planks together. When a 
 single anchor is used, the chain or rope is liable to 
 w ind itself around and trip the anchor, causing it to 
 drag. To obviate this, it isadvi.sable to moor the tar- 
 get with two anchors, ]ilaced in the direction of the 
 current. The distance of the anchors apart uuist de- 
 pend upon the depth of the water, and should be 
 such as to form, with the mooring-chains, about an 
 equilateral triangle. 
 
 An empty water-tight barrel, painted some dark 
 color, forms a good target or point at which to aim. 
 The cask is seemed in position by means of a small 
 anchor or a kedge attached to it by a stout rope 
 fastened to .secure lashings on the cask. Instead of 
 an anchor, anj- heavv body, such as a stone or bars of 
 iron, may be used. \i the current is swift, the weight 
 should never be less than the flotation of the cask. 
 This latter is obtained by multiplying the number of 
 gallons contained in tlic cask l)y ten — the approxi- 
 mate weight of a gallon of water. A spar, similar to
 
 FLOATING WAREHOUSES. 
 
 680 
 
 FLTTGELHOBH. 
 
 the spar-buoys to be seen al)oiit harbors, forms a good 
 target and one of easy construction. When a spar or 
 ca.sk is used, a small ilag of some brijrht-colored stutT, 
 attachitl to the target, makes it more conspicuous and 
 easy to aim at. The target is moored in position at 
 the' commencement of the season's tirinj:, and is lift 
 out until the tiring is conipletetl. Its distance from 
 the two stiitionn and from the guu is deternuncd by 
 ordinary trigonometrical methods, or by plotting from 
 plane-table observations. After the table is si't up at 
 its station and atljusled, the ollicer in charge marks 
 ui>ou it the line to the target, to the gun, and to the 
 other station. These lines form the basis for the sub- 
 sequent plotting of the shots. The officer at each 
 station is accompanied by a llagman to signal to the 
 piece whether the shots" are short or oti r. By this 
 means the error, for all subsequent shots, is approxi- j 
 matelv corrected. [ 
 
 The officer in charge of the firing attends to the 
 loading and aiming, sees that the charges and pro- 
 jectiles su-e weighed, and that the pres.sure-plug (when 
 used) is proix?rly attached to the cartridge; also that 
 the fuses for tlie"shells are of the projier length. When 
 everything is in readiness, he directs his signal-fiag to 
 be raised to inform the observers at the stations that 
 he is about to tire. The piece is then discharged. 
 The other officers at the battery attend to the stop- 
 watch and telemeter. When the gun is tired, the 
 officer at each station, sighting through the alidade, 
 catches the point on the water where the shot strikes, 
 or, in ca.se of a shell, the point in the air where it ex- 
 plodes, lie then draws a line line to mark the (iirec- 
 tion, and gives it a number corresponding with the 
 number of the shot. The observations thus obtained 
 arc plotted. A suitable scale is a.ssumed (one of 1 
 inch to 100 yards is convenient), and the line joining 
 the two stations is laid ofl on the plotting-sheet ac- 
 cording to the scale. From this all the other lines 
 are laid off, usually by the method of chords. The 
 intersection of the lines to the target establishes its 
 position, and those to the gun its position also. The 
 distance from the gun to the target is ascertjuned 
 from the scale. The lines of observation to each .shot 
 having been cjircfully numbered by the observers at ] 
 the plane-tables, the intersection of corresponding 
 numbers on the plot gives the striking-points of the i 
 shots or bursting-points of the shells. See Artilhi-y- 
 pnii-tice and Tarqit. 
 
 FLOATING WAREHOUSES.— The danger that at 
 tends the storing of petroleum and other infiammablc 
 and explosive chemicals has led in France to the con- 
 struction of warehouses, storehouses, or magazines 
 that will tloat in a dock or basin, and can be moored 
 at a distance f roni buildings on land. So far as con- 
 cerns England, an Act of Parliament was passed in 
 lHti6 relating to the carriage and storing of danger- 
 ous substances; this law was amended and considera- 
 bly extended by an Act passed in 1875, applying to 
 gunpowder and other e-vjilosivc substances (including 
 nitroglycerine, dynamite, gun-cotton, blasting-pow- 
 ders, fulminate of mercmy, fire-work.s, percussion- 
 caps, etc.). This Act requires such substances to be 
 marked "gunpowder" or "explosive," and to be 
 conveyed or stored with special precaution; it leaves 
 much power to the Secretary of Slate to intervene in 
 s|>ecial cases and arninge the precise conditions. The 
 storing of petroleum is regulated by the Act of 18T1. 
 In France, as we have said, floating warehouses have 
 been eonstnicted, two l)eing finished in 1864, and 
 others added in later years. The construction of the 
 floating fabrics is remarkable. Kacli warehouse or 
 magazine consists es-ientially of one hundred hollow 
 iron cylinders, arranged in four rows of S.") each, 
 firmly la.shed or strapped together to form a kind of 
 raft. Each cylinder, 16 feet long by 6 or 7 in diame- 
 ter, has hemispherical ends, with a man-hole at one 
 end. They are placed u|>right wlien in position, so 
 as to t)e tilled with petroleum, dycerine. gunpowder, 
 or any other substance, through the man-hole. As 
 they will hold "J.") Ions each, their united capacity is 
 
 2500 tons. There is a wooden covering to the top of 
 the collected mass of cylinders, and round the sides 
 as far down as the line of flotation, to shield the iron 
 from rtuctuations of temperature. This covering is 
 made of thick pltuiking, fastened to the cylinders by 
 angle-irons which have been riveted to the latter. At 
 the head and stern are large hawser-holes, to admit 
 liawsers for towing and mooring the floating fabric, 
 bringing it into and taking it out of a basin or dock, 
 and warping it to a quay or dock wall: or, when the 
 vessel is moored in the middle of a basin, faraway 
 from buililings, a barge may tieliver or receive the 
 dangeroiLs cargo, antl thus the vessel may be kept 
 altogether away from quays anil w harvcs. 
 
 FLOGGING.— Corporal punishment has existed from 
 time inunemorial in the British army and navy; for- 
 merly having been inflicted upon slight occjusion, and 
 often with i)arbarous si'verily. In deference, how- 
 ever, to public opinion, it has been nuich less resorted 
 to during recent years, and promises almost to disap- 
 pear under a regulation of 1860. A man must now 
 be con\icted of one disgraceful offense against disci- 
 pline Ix'fore he can be liable to flogging for the next 
 such offense; and even after one such degradation, 
 he may l)e restoivd to the non-liable class by a }ear"s 
 good conduct. The punishment of flogging, which 
 is generally administered with a whip or a "cat" of 
 nine tails on the bare back, cannot, under existing 
 rules, exceed fifty lashes. 
 
 Corporal punishment is never recognized in the 
 French army; but then the soldiers in that countrj- 
 are drawn l)y conscription from all ranks of society, 
 and have, on an average, a higher moral tone than 
 the British recruits, who. attracted by a bounty, \o\- 
 unteer usually from the lowest orders. On the other 
 hand, the discipline in the French army, and espe- 
 cially during war on a foreign soil, is universidly ad. 
 milled to lie inferior to the strict rule preserved among 
 British troops. Soldiers and sjiilors being men unac- 
 customed to control their jiassions, and any breach of 
 insubordination being fatal to the esprit of a force 
 imless siunmarily repre.s.sed, it is considered necessary 
 to retain the power — however rarely exercised — of in- 
 flicting the painful and humiliating punishment of 
 flogging. The French soldier, though escaping the 
 ignominy of personal chastisement, is governed by a 
 code hai-sher than our Articles of War as actually ad- 
 ministered; and the punishment of death, scarcely 
 known during peace, is not unfrequently visited in 
 France upon offenders against discipline. 
 
 The practice of flogging was long ago discontinued 
 by the United States'Government. It may be noted, 
 however, that under the statutes of one State (Dela- 
 ware) it exists as a punishment for petty crimes. 
 
 FLOODGATE.— In fortified towns, a structure com- 
 jioseil of two or four gales, so that the besieged by 
 opening the gates may inundate the en\irons so as to 
 keep th<' enemy out of gun-shot. 
 
 FLOTANT.— A term "employed in Heraldry to ex- 
 press that the object is flying in the air as, for exam- 
 ple, a baimer-flotant. See Utraldry. 
 
 FLOURISH. — 1 . To execute an irregular or fancifid 
 strain of music, by way of ornament or prelude; as, 
 a flourish iiftni 111)11 tx. 'J, The wa\iug or brandishing 
 of a weapon. 
 
 FLOURISH OF TRUMPETS.— The soundin" used 
 by regiments having no bands in receiving a General 
 Officer on parade, viz.. by the trumpets or bugles ' 
 soundluL' the " flourish." 
 
 FLUGELHORN.— The introduction of the flUgel- 
 horn into liands in this country is of comparatively 
 recent date, though in the larger bands of Euroiw the 
 very pli-asing effect of this instrument is generalli' re- 
 cognized, and is in consequence commonly used. Its 
 key is B flat, and in size it is between the B6 cornet 
 and Ei alto. If usually takes the parts given the 3d 
 and 4th B6 cornets, perfecting the harmony at this 
 point where it is often weak. It can also be used 
 willi very |ileasing results in certain solo parts and 
 cadenzas, or in duos with the cornets. In fact, the
 
 FLTT6ELUAK. 
 
 681 
 
 FLYING BRIDGE. 
 
 flQgelhorn to a band is what a French horn is to the 
 orchestra. A baud of 13 or 14 pieces should include 
 
 at least one, and of 15 to 20 pieces two of these horns. 
 The drawing shows the Kb alto, bell front. 
 
 FLU6ELMAN.— The leader of a tile; the one who 
 .stands in front of a body of soldiers, and whose mo- 
 tions in manual exercise they all simultaneously fol- 
 low. Also written Fvgeliiiuii. 
 
 FLUSHED. — A term frequently applied when men 
 have been successful, as in the e.vpression /««/(f(i irith 
 victory. 
 
 FLUTE. — This wind-instrument, so frequentlj' u.sed 
 in military bands and so well known to the ancient 
 Greeks, has a soft and pleasant quality of tone. It 
 Is commonly made of bo.xwood or eboiiy, but some- 
 tunes of ivory or silver. Its form is that of a taper 
 tube, firmed in four pieces, with six holes for the 
 Angel's, and with from one to fourteen keys, which 
 cover or open other holes. The sound is produced by 
 blowing from the mouth into the emlx)uehure, an 
 oval kind of hole at one side of the thick end, which 
 is done by the lips covering a part of the hole, so that 
 the air in it.s passage from the mouth is broken 
 against the opposite edge of the hole, which causes 
 the column of air inside the tube to vibrate. The 
 notes of the gamut are produced by the ojicning or 
 shutting of the holes by the lingers of both hands. 
 The compa.ss of the flute is from D to A sharp, nine- 
 teen diatonic intervals. For solo-jilaying, the flute 
 ^vith a compass from G to C is sometimes used. For 
 orchestral i)urposes there are also the tierce flute, 
 the octave flute, the E flat and F piccolo flute; and 
 the highest of all, the C piccolo Improvements on 
 the flute have been made from time to time by 
 Quantz, Ribock, Trommlitz, and especially by BiJhm 
 in Germany, and by Rudell and Rose in London. 
 
 FLUX.— The tenii given to the substances employed 
 in the arts which cause or facilitate the reduction of 
 a metallic ore and the fusion of the metal, ^\'llit<• 
 fiuj- is an intimate mixtme of 10 parts of dry carbonate 
 of soda and 13 parts of dry carlionate of potash, and 
 is mainly instrumental inwilhdrawing the silica or 
 combined sand from mineral substances; Mark flii.r is 
 prepared by heating in close ve.s.sels ordinary cream 
 of tartar (bitarlrale of pot;ish), when an intimate mix- 
 ture of finely divided charcoal and carbonate of pot- 
 ash is obtained. The latter flux, when mixed with 
 linely divided metallic ores, and the whole raised to 
 a high temperature in a furnace, is not only useful in 
 removing the silica, w hich the carbonate of potash it 
 contains enables it to do. but the charcoal withdraws 
 the oxygen from the metallic oxide ;ind causes the 
 separation of the pure metal. Limestone is employed 
 as the flux in >he smelting of iron ores. The other 
 fluxes are fluor spar, borax, protoxide of lead, etc. 
 See Iron. 
 
 FLUXIONS.— The method of fluxions mventcd by 
 Newton was intimately coimected with the notion of 
 velocity uniform and variable; and extended that no- 
 tion, derived from the consideration of a moving 
 point, to every species of magnitude and quantity. 
 It proposed to" determine in all cases the rate of in- 
 crease or decresLse of a magnitude or quantity whose 
 value depends on that of another, which itself varies 
 in value at a uniform and given rate. If x and y rep- 
 resent two such quantities, and .v = F (x) represent the 
 law of their dependence, and if j be suppo.sed to be 
 the velocity with which t increases, and y that with 
 
 which y changes value. Newton undertook by his 
 method to express y in tenns of x and of x, or to find 
 y — ¥i (.(•). X. The quantities x and y, which in mod- 
 em hmguage we call the variables, he called Jtoiri/ig 
 quantities or fliientx, and x, y, which wc should rep- 
 resent by (f.r and rfy, and call differentials, he called 
 the fli/xion of x and (/. See Cai-cii.us. To illustrate 
 his notation: Suppose y = x", it may be shown that 
 y=na"-'j-. Regarding now ^ as a quantity depend- 
 ing on x and x, and supposing x to increase uni- 
 
 formly, in which case x is constant, and (r) its fluxion 
 zero, we observe that y may have a fluxion, for it de- 
 pends on the value assumed by nx"-' .x, when x 
 
 further changes. We find (y) = n.{n — \). x^--. (xf. 
 
 Thus, second fluxion or velocity of y, or (y), Newton 
 wrote y. If .;• had a second fluxion, or did not 
 change uniformly, then that fluxion he wix)te x. The 
 
 third fluxion of y he wrote,!/; and soon, pointing as 
 many jioints over the fluent as there are units in the 
 order of the fluxion. For the fluent he had no 
 special symbol. Instead of /«.i° -' dx = r\ according 
 
 to the modern notation, he wrote in^-'.^-', putting 
 
 the cxjiression in an inclosurc. Imagine a point to 
 move uniformly in the direction of a fixed line, and, 
 at the s;ime time, to have a variable transvei'se motion 
 depending upon a law which determines the charac- 
 ter of the cune or line thus generated. The indefi- 
 nite jiart of the curve up to any point is the Jl>i> nt, 
 and the exceedingly small element of the curve that is 
 generated in the next infinitesimal , but constant, period 
 of time is the fluxion. These are Imth variable ex- 
 cept in the case of straight lines. Pas.sing from the 
 consideration of the motion of a point in a plane to 
 that of a ]>oint in space, it is evident that llie generat- 
 ing point will describe a straight line, or a curve of 
 single or double curvature. Equations can be con- 
 stnicted formulating law s of motion w hich will cause 
 the general point to trace any curve whatever, and 
 from these equations the natures of the curves can be 
 discovered. The .science of fl\U'nts and tluxioijs is 
 based upon the ahove principles. Any plane figure 
 can be generated liy the motion of a straight line, and 
 any volume by the motion of a plane figure. In all 
 cases, the portion of a plane figure or voliune gener- 
 ated in the time / is the fluent, while that generated 
 in the time dt is the fluxion. In practice, the method 
 of inti'grals imd differentials has superseded the sys- 
 tem oftluents and fluxions, chiefly because the nota- 
 tion of the latter is too cvunljersome. 
 
 FLY. — The length of any flag. The dimension at 
 right angles to tlie st;iff, the other dimension being 
 th^^ hoitt. The term is also applied to the outer can- 
 vas of a tent. Sec Tent. 
 
 FLYING ARMY. — A strong body of cavalry and 
 infantry w hich is always in motion, both to cover its 
 own garrisons and to keep the enemy in continual 
 alarm" The flyii'g artillery is also trained to very 
 rapid evolutions. 
 
 FLYING BRIDGE.— A flying bridge is an arrange- 
 ment by which a stream with a good current may l)e 
 crossed when, from a want of time or a deficiency of 
 materials, it may not be possible to fonn a bridge. Il 
 consists of a large boat or raft firndy attached by a 
 long cable to a mo<5ring in the center of th(> stream, if 
 the channel be straight, or on the hank, if the channel 
 be curved. By hauling the lioal or raft into jirojX'r 
 positions, it will be driven across the stream iii either 
 direction as may be desired. The bridge is made 
 usually of two, three, and sometimes six boats, con- 
 nected together and very solidly floored over, the 
 beams being fastened to the giuiwatcs of the boats 
 with iron bolts or bands, and the flooring-planks 
 nailed down upon them. The floor is sometimes sur- 
 rounded with a guard-rail. The most suitable boats
 
 FLYIHG CAMP. 
 
 682 
 
 FXY-WHEIL. 
 
 arc long, uarrow, and deep, with their sides nearly 
 vertiml, in onler to offer greater resistance to the ac- 
 tion of the current. At the end of the rope is fixed an 
 anchor which is moored in the channel, it this is in 
 the middle of the stream. If the channel is not in the 
 iniildle, the anchor is placed a little on one side of it 
 towanis the more distant shore. By means of the 
 rudder, the bridge is turned in such "a direction that 
 it is struck obliquely by the current, and the force re- 
 sulting from the deconiiX)sition of the action of the 
 current maiics it describe an are of a circle arouml the 
 anchor as a center, and this force acquires its ma.\inuim 
 elTect when the sides of the boats make an angle of 
 about .55' with the direction of the current. See 
 Bri(l;/iK and Tinilhrkhje. 
 
 FLYING CAMP.— A camp or body of troops formed 
 for rapid motion from one place to another. 
 
 FLYING COLORS.— Colors unfurled and left to wave 
 in the air. Uence, to return or come off icit/i Jtjliitg 
 colore is to he victorious, or to succeed in any imder- 
 taking. 
 
 FLYING PARTY. — A detachment of men employed 
 to hover about an enemy and observe his mo\ cmeuts. 
 
 FLYING SAP. — In all siege-operations, when the 
 trenches have been pushed forward to within de- 
 structive range of case-shot, the construction by the 
 simple trench has to be abandoned, and one which 
 will afford more speedy shelter resorted to. This is 
 effected by placing a row of oriliuaiy gabions in jux- 
 taposition along the direction of the trench; these 
 being tilled with the earth from the trench, the para- 
 pet is completed by throwing the remaining earth 
 over and beyond them. This proce.ss is termed the 
 flying sap, from the rapidity with which the work is 
 
 Section of Parallel with Flying Sap. 
 
 done. It is also executed by troops of the line, each 
 man bringing twogaliions on the ground, which he is 
 required to till, and also to complete the portion of 
 the trench, in the rear of them, assigned to the relief 
 to which he l>elongs. The requisite lieiglit is given to 
 the i>araiiet either by heaping ny> the earth above the 
 top of the gabions, or by placing three ordinary fas- 
 cines upon the gabions, two being in the liottom course 
 and the other on top, and throwing up the earth at 
 least as liigh as the top fascine. In jiositions where 
 the earth cannot be obtained in suthcient quantity to 
 afford a speedy cover, as in a shallow stratum of "soil 
 on rock, etc., two rows of gabions, placed in juxtapo- 
 sition, may he used for the flying sap. The troojis 
 for constructing both this and the simple trench arc 
 divided into three parties or reliefs. The first digs 
 the trench to the requisite depth and to the width 
 of .") feet. The second widens it 4 feet 6 inches. The 
 third finishes what remains, gi\ing the requisite slopes 
 to the front ami rear. See Sap. 
 
 FLYINGSHOT.— A shot fired at any object in mo- 
 tion, as a horseman, or a ship under sail, etc. The 
 term is also applied to the marksman who fires thus. 
 
 FLYING-TORCH.- An important article of signal- 
 ( (luipment. This torch is attached to a long stidi, and 
 is iisiil in niirht-signaling. 
 
 FLY-WHEEL.— A heavy wheel attached to ma- 
 chinery to ((pialize the movement. By its inertia it 
 opposes any sudden acceleration of speed, and by its 
 momentum it prevents sudden diminution of speed; 
 in the latter case it acts as a store of power to con- 
 tinue the movement wlun the motor temporarily 
 flags, or in passing dead-centers when the motor is 
 inoperative. In the Cummer engine, when the fly- 
 wheel is used, instead of having heavy weights mov- 
 ing back and forth with a variable velocity, there is 
 a wheel with a heavy rim revolving continuously in 
 
 the same direction with groat velocilv and thus stor- 
 ing up a large amount of energy. The work done 
 by the steam at the commencement of a stroke, in 
 excess of the mesm work, is so small compared with 
 the energy stored in the fly-wheel, that no great in- 
 creiuse in velocity can take place ; the fly-wheel sim- 
 ply absorbs the excess without a perceptible increase 
 of" speed. A similar state of things exists at the latter 
 part of a stroke, when the steam-pressure has rapidly 
 fallen and less work is done ; the fly-wheel then 
 yields up a part of its energy to supply the deficiency 
 iuid still does not visibly retard its speed. The vary- 
 ing effort of the crank-pin anil the varying resistance 
 of the load are also met in the Siime way, and the re- 
 sult is to approximate very clo.sely to a uniform tan- 
 gential pressure upon the crank-pin, with onl3- very 
 slight variations in the velocity of the fly-wheel. 
 Just at this point comes in the office of the governor, 
 for the slightest change of speed is instantly met by 
 a change in the point of cut-off and standard speed 
 restored. But it is important to have a fly-wheel so 
 Iiroportioned that it does not admit of any sudden or 
 a great cliange of speed. If the rim is not hwivy 
 enough, any slight change of pressure or load causes 
 considerable ch:iuge of speed, and when the governor 
 acts to correct this there is caused a variation in the 
 other direction ; thus with a sensitive governor and 
 a light fly-wheel there is a continual and quite im- 
 necessary fluctuation of speed. This does not occur 
 with such a weight of rim as the fly-wheels of the 
 Cummer engine have ; with them the permissible 
 variation from standard speed is very small, and the 
 governor is depended upon for the rest of the regu- 
 lation. 
 
 As a matter of interest in connection with 
 fly-wheels, we have made a diagram which 
 shows the variations of power, above and 
 below the mean work done in a revolution, 
 with a steam-pressure of 90 lbs. and a cut-off 
 of I stroke. The mode of constructing this 
 diagram is very simple and it may be briefly 
 explained : 
 
 We constructed an ideal diagram, such as 
 Fig. 1, forsteam at 90 lbs., cut-off at I stroke, and then 
 expanded to the end. The length of the diagram rep- 
 resenting the stroke, we ma}' construct a semicircle 
 upon this line and divide the half-circumference into 
 equal parts, representing successive positions of the 
 crank ; if the connecting-rod be infinitely long, lines 
 drawn from these points, at right angles to the ba.se- 
 line, will give the corresponding positions of the pis- 
 ton, and, being ordinates of an indicator-diagram, 
 will show by their length the pressure upon the pis- 
 ton for each of these positions of the crank. These 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 pressures, however, are not just those which pVopcl 
 the crank ; it is the tangential pressures upon the 
 crank which we desire to have ; these are difTerent 
 for each angle of the crank with the line of centers ; 
 and, since in practice tlie connecting-rod has a defi- 
 nite length, its modifving influence must be allowed 
 for. We made then"a table of tangential pres,sure9 
 for forty equal divisions of the circle, supposing the 
 radius to represent a pressure of one pound per stjuare 
 inch on the piston, and allowed for a connecting-rod 
 of six cranks' length. Then from the diagram were 
 found file effectixe .stcam-prcssures corresponding to 
 each crank-position, which, multiplied by the tan-
 
 FOCUS OF EZFLOSIOK. 
 
 688 
 
 FOILING MACHIKE. 
 
 gential crank-pressures for one pound pressure on the 
 piston, gives the tangential pressure for each di\-ision, 
 with 90 lbs. Initial steam-pressure, and the various 
 effective pressures for successive points as taken from 
 the diagram. Referring to Fig. 2, the inner circle 
 has a diameter equal to the length of the diagram, 
 and it is subdivided into a number of equal parts, 
 and radial lines are drawn extending beyond the cu-- 
 
 FlG. 2. 
 
 cle ; upon each line is laid off the corresponding tan- 
 gential pressure, and the extremities joined by a line 
 makes the curve (i h c, starting from a, where the 
 pressure is 0, and ending at c , where the pressure is 
 also 0. The return-stroke gives a corresonding curve, 
 cda. We now find the mean tangential pressure, 
 which is, of course, the average of all these other 
 pressures, and represent it by the outer circle. It will 
 be seen that the area inclosed between the two circles 
 represents the work done in a revolution : also that the 
 sum of the areas included between the two curves 
 ahc. cda and the inner cucle represents the same 
 work. These two curves cross the circle of mean 
 pressure, a part of the curve being above and a part 
 below the line ; for that part of a revolution where 
 the curve extends above the circle the work is in ex- 
 cess, and for that portion where the curve goes be- 
 low there is a deficiency of work done. Two phases 
 of a revolution show an excess, and two phases a 
 deficiency, and the excess balances thb deficiency for 
 an entire revolution, as we find on calculating the 
 areas. Comparing the whole excess or deficiency with 
 the work done in a revolution, which is represented 
 by the mean pressure upon the crank-pin, exerted 
 through 360\ or the complete circle, we find a vari- 
 ation of 37.5 per cent for a whole revolution. If we 
 take the greatest .irea. which is the excess during the 
 first quadrant, and compare it with the work for a 
 stroke, or a half-revolution, we will have a variation 
 of 4.'). 4 (XT (lilt. 8ee ^Uain-ftigiiu. 
 
 FOCUS OF EXPLOSION.— The center of the cham- 
 ber of a mine. See CraUr and Mines. 
 
 FOCUS OF IGNITION. — The point at which the 
 powder-hoses or the Miicisxoiifi are brought together 
 when several mines are to be fired simultaneously. 
 
 FODDER.— The food collected by man for the use 
 of the domestic herbivorous quadrupeds. In English, 
 the term is commonly restricted to dried herbage, as 
 haj- and straw; but in other languages it is more com- 
 prehensive, and includes all the food of stock except 
 what they gather for themselves in the field. The 
 principal part of the food of all the domestic hcrbiv- 
 ora is furnished by grasses, almost all of which arc 
 
 eaten by them when fresh and green. Besides the 
 supplies which they receive of all the kinds of com 
 cultivated for human food, they are also, to a con- 
 siderable extent, dependent on the nirair or dried herb- 
 age of the corn-plants for their winter provender; and 
 that of many other grasses, cultivated on this accoimt 
 alone, is converted into hai/ for their use. Hav, being 
 cut and rapidly dried whilst the plant is siifl full of 
 sap, contains more nutritious matter than the ripened 
 straw of the cereals. The most important fodder- 
 grass is rye-grass, next to which must be ranked 
 timothy-grass; but all the meadow-grasses and larger 
 pasture-grasses also contribute to the supply of hay. 
 Kext to the grasses must l)e ranked different kinils of 
 kgnmiiwsa, affording food for stock in their seeds — 
 as beans, peas, lentils, lupines, etc. — and in their her- 
 bage, on account of which many of them are cultivated, 
 as clover, mtdick, melilot, vetch, tare, Siiinfoin, etc., 
 of some of which there are numerous species. Some 
 of these also often enter pretty largely into the com- 
 position of hay, being cut and dried with the grasses 
 along with which they have been sown; which is the 
 case also with some plants of other orders, as the rib- 
 wort plantain, etc. Some of the crucifira are culti- 
 vated to a considerable extent as forage-plants, cattle 
 being fed on their green herbage, although they are 
 not suitable for drjing as fodder. In portions of the 
 world, stock are not unfrequently fed on the leave* of 
 trees, as in the Himalayas, where the leaves of different 
 species of aralia, greitia, elm and oak, are chiefly 
 employed for this purpose, and are collected, dried, 
 and stacked for winter fodder. See Foraye. 
 
 FOE. — An enemy in war; a national enemy; a hostile 
 army; an adversary. Also written Foemait a.n({ Foue, 
 but the latter is now obsolete. 
 
 FOGEY. — 1. A tenn sometimes applied to an inva- 
 lid soldier or sailor. 2. The common expression for 
 extra pay for long service. 
 
 FOIL. — 1. A thin bar of elastic steel, mounted as a 
 rapier, but without a point, and additionally blunted 
 at the end by the presence of a button covered with 
 leather. See Fencing. 2. A general name for thia 
 metal intermediate in thickness between leaf-metal, 
 such as gold, silver, and copper leaf, and sheet-metal. 
 There are two distinct kinds of foil in common use — 
 the tin-foil used for silvering and for the conducting 
 coatings of electrical apparatus; and the bright foils 
 employed by the jewelers for backing real or artificial 
 gems, and therebj- increasing theu- luster or modifying 
 their color. 
 
 FOILING-taACHINE.— A machine employed in the 
 fabrication of cartridge-primers. The one used at 
 Frankford Arsenal, and represented in the drawing. 
 
 Foiling-machioe. 
 
 is a single-action pre.ss arranged to receive and move 
 horizontally the plate of caps under a gang of punches 
 and dies. The strip of foil is fed between these tools, 
 and by them cut into disks. The punches press the 
 disks through the dies into the caps, and the ends of
 
 FOISSONNEMENT. 
 
 (;S4 
 
 FOOT-TON. 
 
 till' punclies, beini; (X)nc:ive, press tl;o edges of the 
 disks anmiul the cliuruTs ajpiinsl the Iwtloms of the 
 caps, aiul at the same time the i)un(h gives tlie charge 
 a unifdrin conical shape, that its heisjht may permit 
 the iuserlion of the anvil far enough into the cap to 
 prevent anv premature exi>losion in this operation and 
 that of inserting the completed jirinier iu the pocket of 
 the shell, while leaving no unnecessary s])ace between 
 the anvil and the apex of the charge. See V<i li ridge- 
 prim r ami C, iiUr-priiiiKl MiUiUir-cdite C'tirtridge. 
 
 FOISSONNEMENT.— A term used in forlilication to 
 signify the increase in hulk of earth after its excava- 
 tion. " This increase varies from one eighth to one 
 twelfth generally. For all ordinary sand it is one 
 twentielli. 
 
 FOLDING-BOAT.— A boat having a jointed frame- 
 •work covered with canvas, used in campaigning and 
 hv travelers. 
 
 FOLLOW-BOARD.— A board beneath the pattern, in 
 the louudry, and on wliicli the pattern lies while the 
 loam is lieiiig rammed. .See liroiize Gnus. 
 
 FOLLOWER-WEIGHT.— A weight employed in the 
 ft<il-driims of certain machine-guns to force the Ciir- 
 tridges downward towards the barrels when firing. 
 Skv Oiilliiiff Oun and Fivd-dnim. 
 
 FOLLOW UP. — To pursue with an additional \ngor 
 Bome arlvantage which has already been gained. 
 
 FOOD. — Although very nearly sixty elementary sul)- 
 stanccs are known to chemists, only a comparatively 
 small number of these take part in Ihe forn\alion of 
 man and other animals; and it is only this small 
 numl)er of constituents which are essential elements 
 of our food. These elements are carbon, hydrogen, 
 nitrogen, oxj-gen, jihosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, 
 smliiun, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and 
 fluorine. 
 
 Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen are sup- 
 plied to the system liy the albuminous group of 
 alimentary principles, viz., albumen, tibrine, and 
 caseine, which occur both in the animal and vegetable 
 kingdoms, and the gluten contained in vegetables. 
 Animal flesh, eggs, milk, corn, and many other vcge- 
 talile products contain one oi' more of these principles. 
 The gelatinous group also introduces the same ele- 
 ments into the system when such substances as pre- 
 parations of isinglass, calves' feet, etc., are taken as 
 food. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxvgen aic abundantly 
 introduced into the system in the form of sugar, starch 
 (which occurs in large quantity in the cereal grains, 
 leguminous seeds, roots, tubers, etc., used 4s food), and 
 organic acids (which, as citric, malic, tartaric acid, 
 etc., occur in numerous veget;ibles emiiloyed as food). 
 Carbon, with a little hydrogen and oxygen, occurs 
 aljundantly in the oleaginous group of alimentary 
 principles, as, for instance, in all the fat, suet, butter, 
 and oil that we eat; in the oily seeds, as nuts, walnuts, 
 cocoa-nuts, etc.; antf in fatty foods, as liver, brain, 
 etc. Phosphorus is supplied to us by Ihe flesh, blood, 
 and bones used as food (the flesh of fishes is especially 
 rich in phosphoric matter), and in the form of various 
 phosphates it is a consiiiuent of many of the vege- 
 tables used as food. The .system derives its sulphur 
 from the tibrine of Hesh, the" albumen of eggs, and the 
 ca.scine of milk, from the vegetable tibrine of corn, etc. , 
 from the vegetable albumen of turnips, cauliflowers, 
 asparagus, etc., and from the vegetable ca.seine of 
 l)ease and beans. Most of the culinary vegetables 
 contain it, especially the cnirifirii'. ('Idorine and 
 sodium, in the form of chloride of sodium, arc more 
 or less abundanlly conlain<Ml in all varieties of animal 
 food, and are taken separately as common .s;ili. Potas- 
 sium is a constituent of both animal and vegetable 
 f<x>d; it occurs in consideralile (piantity in milk, and 
 in Ihe juice that permeates animal flesh; and most in- 
 land plants contain il. We derive the calcium of our 
 system from flesh, bones, eggs, milk, etc. (all of which 
 contain salts of lime); mo.st vegelables also contain 
 limesalLs; and another source of our calcium is com 
 nion water, which usuallv contains lH>lh bicarbonate 
 and sulphate of lime. Magnesium in small (juantit^' 
 
 is generally found in those foods that contain calcium. 
 Iron is a consiiiuent of the blood found in meat; and 
 it occurs in smaller (|uantity in milk, in the volk of 
 egg, and in tnices in most vegetable foods. I'luorine 
 occiu^s in minute ipiantily in the bones and teeth. 
 This .small quantity is accounled for liy the traces of 
 fluorine found by Dr. George \Vilsi)n iii milk, blood, 
 etc. 
 
 These simple bodies are not, however, capable of 
 being assimilated and converted into tissue; they must 
 be previously combined, and this ct)mbination is 
 primarily conducted by the vegetable kingdom. The 
 number of combined elements varies: thus water con- 
 tains oidy 2\ sugar, starch, fat, and many organic 
 acids contain :i; caseine contains 5; and fibrine and 
 albumen contain 6. 
 
 It would be impos.sible. and it is quite unnecessarj', 
 to mention in this article the difTcrcnl animals and 
 plants that are used as food by dill'erent nations. The 
 subject is, however, an interesting one, and those who 
 desire to study it may be referred to Jloleschotf's 
 Physiologie dtr j\ahrvngi>mitt<l (1H5I)), and especially 
 to Reich 'sJV«//;v/ /(17s- uud G( >i iisiwiilUlhn iidf (ISdO-Ql), 
 which is the most learned and elaborate work on the 
 subject in any language. See ])iitiir>i. 
 
 FOOT.— 1. The most common unit of lineal measure 
 all over the world. It has been evidently taken origin- 
 ally from the length of the luunau foot, and as that 
 varies in length, .so iloes the measure; each countty, and 
 at onetime each town, having a foot of its own. The 
 three foot-measures that occur most frequentiv are the 
 Paris foot, or pi>d de rvi, the (German) Rhenish foot, 
 and the ilnglish. Compared with the French mtter 
 (= 3.28090 feet Knglisb), they stand thus: 
 
 Meters. Inches. 
 
 English foot 
 Paris " 
 Rhenish " 
 
 = 0.80479 
 = 0.32484 
 = 0.31385 
 
 Paris foot = 12.78912 
 Rhenish foot = 12.35652 
 
 In round numbers, 46 French feet = 49 English feet, 
 34 Rhenish or German feet = 35 English, and 57 
 French feet = 59 Rhenish. The Russian foot is equal 
 to the English. Almost every German State has or 
 had a dillerenl foot. The Rhenish foot is that used 
 in Prussia. The longest foot occurring is the old 
 Turin foot = 20 inches English. Jlany local feet are 
 rinly aliout 10 inches. The toot has aliiiost uniformly 
 been divided into 12 inches; the inch into 12 lines, 
 often into tenths. The Frence pied nmtl is the thu-d 
 part of Ihe meter. 
 
 2. A term often applied to foot soldiers. The in- 
 fantry is usually designated as the/wrf, in distinction 
 from Ihe cavalry. 
 
 FOOT-ARTILLERY. — Artillery soldiers .serving on 
 fool The name is also ajiplied to heavy artillery. 
 
 FOOT BOARDS.— The transverse board's on the front 
 of a limber, on which Ihe cannoneers rest their feet 
 when mounted. 
 
 FOOT-FIGHT.— A conflict by persons on foot; in 
 opiiosilioii to a fighl when mounted or on horseback. 
 
 FOOT GUARDS.— The flower of the Biitish infantry, 
 and the garrison ordinarily of Ihe metropolis, comprise 
 three regiments, the Grenadier, Coldstream, and Scots 
 Fu.silicr Guards, in all 7 battalions and 6307 officers 
 and men. Sec Oimrdn. 
 
 FOOT-LEVEL.— A form of level used by gunners in 
 giving any ])roi)osed angle of elevation to a piece of 
 ordnance. 
 
 FOOT-POUND.— The unit by which the trnrk done 
 by a force is eslinialcd; lluis (taking 1 lb. and 1 foot 
 as the units of weight and distance), if 1 lb. be raised 
 through 1 foot, the irork done is cqtial to 1 foot-pound; 
 if 10 lbs. be niiscd 9 feet, the imrk done is 90 foot- 
 |)Ounds; and generally, if W represent the m>rk done, 
 P the ireigfil in pounds, and /( the heigld in feet, then 
 AV (in foot pounds) Vh. 
 
 FOOT-TON. In EnL'Iand the power of modern ord 
 nance is estimated f>y the energy of the shot in fool- 
 tons, divided by Ihe number of inches in Ihe shot's 
 cireumfcreuce. The expression for the energy is
 
 FOBA0E. 
 
 685 
 
 FOSAGE-CAP. 
 
 wv- 
 
 E = ;; , in which W is the weight of the shot in 
 
 2:ir.g * 
 
 tons, V is the velocity, 2;rr the circumference of the 
 
 shot in inches, and g the force of eravity. is the 
 
 ff 
 liWnir force of the shot, and is equal to twice the 
 quantity of work it is capable of doing:. 
 
 F0KA6£. — 1. To collect supplies both for man and 
 stock, from an enemy by force, and from friends by 
 impressment. In the latter Ciuse receipts arc ^ven and 
 the claims are paid ultimately. 
 
 2. The hay, corn, fodder, oats, etc., required for 
 the subsistence of the animals in an army. It is of 
 two kinds, green and drj'; the former consists of green 
 grass, tjiris, vetches, etc. ; the latter of oats, hay, and 
 sometimes of corn, fodder, barley, etc., according to 
 circumstances and the country in which the animals 
 may be serving. In India the daily food given to 
 horses consists of grain and grass. Oienerally 4 seers 
 or 8 poun<ls per horse is given of the former during the 
 warm sesison, and 5 seers throughout the cold weather 
 and when on the march. Grass, about 30 pounds daily, 
 is provided by gra.ss-cutters, of whom there is usually 
 one to every two animals. On the march, should it 
 be difficult to obtain gi'iiss, a requisition is made on 
 the Civil Authorities to collect it at any named place. 
 The forage for IjuUocks in India consists of 6 pounds 
 of grain iind 14 pounds of chopped straw, called 
 bfioosa. Camels feed on the leaves of the pepul-tree. 
 Elephants are fed on wheaten cakes mi.xed with mo- 
 lasses, called in India go>ir. The daily ration is from 
 15 to 80 pounds according to the size of the animal. 
 The green food consists of sugar-cane or green leaves 
 of different trees. Where troops are together, in Eng- 
 land, the provision of forage devolves on the Commis- 
 sariat: Orficers of the Staff, etc., who are entitled to 
 horses, but whose duties are at stations where bodies 
 of horse are not collected, receive a money allowance, 
 in lieu of forage in kind, varying according to the 
 place and price of provender, but usually alxiut Is. 
 10(f. to in. per horse per day. ^Vhen a soldier is en 
 mute away from his regiment, the innkeeper with 
 whom li" .stops is bound, under the Mutiny Act, to pro- 
 v\de his horse with the specified ration of forage — \iz. , 
 10 pounds oats, I'i pounds hay, and 8 pounds straw, 
 for the payment of l.*. 9d. a da}', which must also in- 
 clude stabling. The daily .ration in the United States 
 army is for each horse 14 pounds hay and 13 pounds 
 oats, barley, or corn. For a mule the s;ime amount 
 of hay with 9 pounds grain. Leaves of Indian corn 
 are used in default of hay. The consumption of for- 
 age during active army operations is enonnous. and 
 the weight is foiu' and a half times as much as that of 
 all other subsistence supplies. Duiing the War of the 
 Rebellion there were issued from the depot of Wash- 
 ington 4,.500,0O0 bushels of corn, 29,000,000 bushels 
 of oats, and 490,000 tons of hay. Partial reports of 
 the Quartermaster General show issues of forage dur- 
 ing the war as follows: 
 
 22,816,271 bushels of corn, costing $29,879,314 
 
 78,66:1799 bushels of oats, costing 76,36 J.026 
 
 1,518,631 tons of hay, costing 48,.)95,8T2 
 
 Total $1 54.837.212 
 
 The weight of these supplies in pounds was — 
 
 Corn 1,277.711.176 
 
 Oats 2..'il7.241..V.8 
 
 Hay 3.037.S42.000 
 
 -—making a total of 6,832,194,744 pounds: numbers in- 
 teresting as showing the magnitude of the operations 
 necessarj' to provide ;md distribute these few items of 
 the expenses of war. 
 
 The endurance and ciipabilities of the stock in the 
 field will depend upon the proper supply of mitritious 
 forage, and it is incumbent upon the soldier to instruct 
 himself as to the jiroperties and chemical constituen- 
 cies of the different articles of forage. 
 
 Oats contain about three fourths their weight of 
 
 nutritiovis matter. When good they should be dry, 
 sweet, heavy, and rattle like shot. They are most 
 nutritious when about one year old. Xew oats are 
 difficult to digest, and often occasion colic and stag- 
 gers. All such, or those that are wet and nmsty, 
 should be kiln-ilried before feeding. Oats possess an 
 invigorating principle u:t found in anj- other grain. 
 Oat-meal, in the form of giuel, constitutes one of the 
 most satisfactory articles of food for the sick and tireil 
 hoi^se. Hay should be one year old, if procurable, 
 when fed. New hay act: as a purgative. Old hay 
 becomes dry, tasteless, innutritive, and often mow- 
 burnt, in which condition it becomes really poisonous. 
 Horses fed on such soon become languid, hide-lxjund, 
 worthless, and often victims of diabetes. Hay must 
 not be fed in too large quantities. Many diseases of 
 the horse are the results of over-feeding with hay. 
 Horses are prone to eat more than they should, hence ^ 
 it is necessiiry to add grain containing more nutri- * 
 ment in a smaller comi)ass. Barley contains about 
 nine tenths its weight of nutritious matter, but is not 
 so good as oats as an article of food. Animals fed 
 upon it are subject to mange, surfeit, and inflamma- 
 tory complaints. Barley-straw induces diseases of 
 the skin. Wheat contains more nutritious matter than 
 barley and more gluten than any other grain. It 
 should be fed in small quantities, or colic and fomen- 
 tation will result. It is diffici'll of digestion, and the 
 horse fed on it should have but little hay and water 
 soon afterwards. Under certain conditions the addi- 
 tion of other articles to the forage ration is very bene- 
 ficial. Peas and beans, in small quantities and about 
 one year old, are excellent articles of food for horses. 
 They should be wellcru.shed before feeding, and Gen- 
 erally fed with hay. If fed alone they might produce 
 the meagiims or staggers. Carrots when sliced and 
 mixed with grain make a splendid provender for the 
 horse, and are found to be very beneficial in all 
 breathing and skin disorders, coughs, and broken 
 w ind. They shoidd be fed in small quantities, as they 
 are sUghtly laxative and diuretic at first. Potatoes 
 possess great virtue as an article of horse-food. If 
 they are slightly steamed before feeding, horses will 
 prefer them to oats. If they are mixed with other 
 provender, there is a great saving in expense and an 
 increased capability for work. One acre of potatoes- 
 is equivalent to four acres of hay. 
 
 FOKAGE-CAP. — The small, low cap worn by officers 
 and enlisted men when not in full dress. In the 
 United States anny the following patterns are worn: 
 For General Offici'rs.—Oi dark blue cloth, chasseur 
 pattern, with black velvet band and badge in front; 
 cap-cord of gold lace. For all other Commusimwd 
 Officers. — Of dark blue cloth, chasseur pattern, with 
 badge of corps or regiment in front, and top of badge 
 
 FlQ. 1. 
 
 to be even with top of cap; cap-cord of gold lace. 
 For all Enlifted Men.—Ot plain blue cloth, same pat- 
 tern as for officers, with ba<lge of corjis or letter of 
 company of yellow metal, worn in frfnil as for otlicers. 
 The following are the authorized fonige-cap badges 
 for otlicei-s and men: For General Offieem. — A gold- 
 embroidered wreath on dark blue cloth grountl, en- 
 circling the letters ffl. S. in silver, old English char- 
 actei-s. For Officem of the Adjutant Gi neral's Dejiart- 
 ment. — A soUd shield of silver bearing thirteen stars.
 
 FOBAOEOUARD. 
 
 fi86 
 
 FOKAOINO. 
 
 according to pattern in the Adjutmit General's OfTice. 
 For OJUKm vf the En</iiit<n. — A goldembioidereil 
 wreath of laurel and palm encircling a silver tiirre- 
 led castle on dark blue cloth ground. Fur Officer* of 
 Orilnitnce. — A gold-embroidered shell and tianic on 
 a dark blue cloth ground. For Officers uf the fignal 
 Corps. — According to the pattern ilepositcd in the 
 office of the Chief Signal Officer.— /V Officers of the 
 other Stuff Corps. — The sjune as prescribed for General 
 Officers. For Officers of Caralry. — Twogold-embroid- 
 ereil sabei's, crossed, edges upward, on dark blue cloih 
 ground, with the number of the regiment in silver in 
 the upper angle. For Officers of Arti/leri/.— Two gold- 
 embroidered" cannons, crossed, on dark blue cloth 
 ground, with the number of the regiment in silver at 
 the intersection of the cross-cannon. For Officers of In- 
 fantry.— Tvco gold-embroidered rifles without bayo- 
 nets, barrels u|)ward, on dark blue cloth ground, 
 with the number of the regiment in silver in the upper 
 angle. For Light Artillery and Cavalry Soldiers. — 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 The numbers of their rcgimonf.s in the upper, and the 
 letters of their companies in the lower, angles of the 
 badges of their respective arms upon the forage-caps. 
 For" Ordnance Sergeants and Soldiers. — The "shell 
 and flame" on the dress and forage caps. For Hospital 
 Stewards. — The letters " U. S." in white metid, inclosed 
 by wreath, on dress and forage caps. For Commis- 
 sary Sergeants. — Crescent in white metal, the points 
 in a vertical line, on the dress and forage caps. For 
 Engineers. — The castle, with letter of company above 
 it, on dress and forage caps. For Artillery. — The 
 crossed cannons, with number of the regiment in 
 upper, and letter of company in lower, angles, on dress 
 and forage caps. For Infantry. — The crossed rifles, 
 with the numbers of regiment and the letters of com- 
 pany placed as for artillery, upon dress and forage 
 caps. For Field and Band Musicians. — Bugle, with 
 numbers of regiment in the center, and the letters of 
 the coinjianv above the bugle. See Figs. 1 and 2. 
 
 FORAGE-GUARD.— A detachment sent out to secure 
 foragers. They are posted at all places where either 
 the enemy's party may come to disturb the foragere, 
 or where they may be spread too near the enemy, so 
 as to be in danger of being taken. This guard con- 
 sists both of horse and foot, who must remain on 
 their ])osts till the foragers are all off the ground. 
 
 FORAGE-MASTER.— A person in charge of the for- 
 age; his duties being to provide the necessjiry forage 
 and its means of transportation. The Quarternia.ster 
 General is authorized to employ from time to time as 
 man)- Forage-masters as he may deem necessiiry for 
 the service, not exceeding twenty. See Wagon-mas- 
 ter. 
 
 FORAGING. — The collection of forage or other sup- 
 plies systematically in towns or villages, or going 
 with an escort to cut nourishment for horse-; in the 
 flelils. Sudi operations freijuently lead to engage- 
 ments with the enemy. Foragatig-parties are fur- 
 nished with reaping-hooks and cords. The men 
 promptly dismount, make bimdles with which they 
 load their horses, and are prepared for anything th.it 
 may follow. The word foraging is sometimes inac- 
 curatelv used for marauding. \Vlien foraging is ef- 
 fected ni rillages, it is best not to take the parly into 
 the village, but to send for the chief ])ers(ins and 
 stipulate with them that the inhabitants shall bring 
 the required forage and other stores out to the troops. 
 If the inhabitants do not promptly comply with this 
 
 moderate command, it is necessary to take the troops 
 into the village. In this event all pos.sible means 
 must be taken to prevent disorder, as for instance : 
 1. A certain numlHT of houses are a.ssigned to each 
 company, so that the Commander of the detachment 
 may hold each coniiiany res])onsible for the disorders 
 eommitled within its Uiuits. 2. Guards arc posted 
 and patrols sent out, who arrest any foragers guilty 
 of disorder. 3. If the form of the village permits, "a 
 part of the detachment remains at the center to pack 
 the horses and load the wagons as fast as the other 
 men bring the forage from the houses. In places 
 where an attack may Ix" expected, the foraging is con- 
 ducted as follows : Either fatigue-parties are sent 
 with wagons, or parties of cavalry with their own 
 horses; in both cjises a special escort is added for the 
 protection of the foragers. In all cases the strength 
 of the escort depends upon the degree of danger, the 
 space over which the foraging' is to extend, and the 
 distance from the enemy. During the march of for- 
 agers to and from the foniging-ground, if they con- 
 sist of a fatigue party with wagons, an escort is added, 
 which acts in cxjnformity with the rules for escorting 
 convoys. If the foragers consist only of cavalry with 
 their own horses, then on the outward march they 
 mo\c in one Ijody, obser\iug the precautions pre- 
 scribed for movements near the enemy; on the re- 
 tvirn-march, if the horses of the foragers are packed 
 and led, the detachment acting as escort should not 
 pack more than fortj' pounds on their horses, so that 
 the load may not prevent them from acting against 
 the enemy. Sometimes the escort, or a part of it, 
 may be sent out early to the foraging-ground to take 
 measures for the seciirity of the foragers before they 
 arrive. For the safety of the foragers when at their 
 work, the escort is divided into two or three parts, 
 according to circumstances ; one part placu'S a chain 
 of outposts and sends out patrols to guard the whole 
 ground; another furnishes the supports of the out- 
 posts, and if there are infantry or moiuited rifles with 
 it they occupy the points which cover the approaches- 
 the tliird part is placed in reserve near the center of 
 the ground, that it maj' easih- reach any point at 
 tacked. If the enemy attacks while the forasring is 
 going on, the escort should go to meet him or (lefcnd 
 itself in position, endeavoring to stop him until the 
 foragers have finished their work and are drawn out 
 on the road for their return-march; then the escort 
 commences its retreat, acting as a rear-guard, and en- 
 deavoring to keep the enemy as far from tlie foragers 
 as possible. If it is impossible to holil the enemy in 
 check long enough to finish the work, they should at 
 least send forward and protect all the foragers who 
 have packed their horses or loaded their wagons; the 
 rest join the escort. If there is a probability of driv- 
 ing off the enemy by uniting all the foragers to the 
 escort, it is best to abandon the forage already ]iacked, 
 and to begin foraging anew after having repulsed the 
 enemy. It is permitted to abandon the forage en- 
 tirely only in extreme urgency, when there is abso- 
 lutely no otiier way of s;iving the foragers. If the 
 enemy is repulsed, we must not be induced to pursue 
 him except far enough to prevent a renewal of the 
 attack, but must endeavor to complete the foraging. 
 The foraging must not be extended over any ground 
 not guarded by the escort. If the escort is too weak 
 to cover the whole space designated for foraging, the 
 gniwnd is divided into parts, and the foraging ef- 
 fected in the different portions successively. If the 
 foraging-ground is at a consiilerable distance from 
 the camp, it will be a proper precaution to post a 
 special detachment in su])port half wav. Foraging 
 in places occupied liy the enemy is tnidertaken only 
 upon the entire exhaustion of the ground occupied 
 by our own troops. Such foraging is covered by 
 offensive operations, so that, having driven in the 
 enemy's ailvanced troops or other p.arties, we may 
 rapidly seize all the supplies to be found in the vi- 
 cinity. This is called forced foraging . The strength 
 and composition of a detachnieut for forced foraging
 
 rORCAT. 
 
 G8^ 
 
 FOBCE. 
 
 must be such that it can ovenvhelm the enemy's 
 troops, and remain long enough in position to enable 
 the accompanying detachment of foragers to complete 
 their work and retreat out of danger. The main con- 
 ditions of success in such an enterprise are sudden- 
 ness, rapidity, and determination in the attack, 
 promptness in the work of the foragers, and tenacity 
 in holding the position taken from the enemy as long 
 as necessary. Success will be greatly facilitated by 
 partial attacks made upon different points of the ene- 
 my's position while the foraging is going on. At- 
 tacks upon foragers should be sudden ancl rapid, in 
 order, by not giying the escort time to defend the 
 points attacked, lo produce confusion among the for- 
 agers and thus preycnt them from working. The 
 approach of the attacking party should be concealed, 
 rapid, and compact; that is, it should not send out 
 parties to any great distance in front or on the Hanks, 
 and, as a general rule, should not iliyide its force 
 prematurely, but only the moment before the attack. 
 The force of a detachment sent to attack foragere de- 
 pends chiefly upon the object of the attack — that is, 
 whether it is designed to capture the foragers, or only 
 to prevent them from foraging by alarming them, or to 
 prevent them from carrying olf forage already packed. 
 It is in all eases advantageous to begin with several 
 simultaneous false attacks by small parties, toix-rplex 
 th» enemy and oblige him to divide the escort; then 
 to direct the main party of the detachment upon the 
 principal point of the enemy's arrangements, over- 
 throw his weakened escort, and penetrate to the road 
 of retreat, so as either to cut off and destroy a part of 
 the escort and foragers, or to force them to abandon 
 their work and fly, by threatening to cut them off. 
 If from the disproportion of force it is impossible to 
 prevent the foraging entirely, the attacking party con- 
 fines itself to delaying the work; its operations, there 
 fore, should consist in jiartial attacks upon several 
 points, in order to alarm and disperse the foragers by 
 breaking through the outpost-s at several points. 
 Uiwn meeting any considerable force of the enemy 
 these attacking parties should at once retreat, and re 
 new the attack in a different place. In such opera- 
 tions a portion of the attacking detachment should be 
 kept together and held in reserve, as a support and 
 rail \-ing point for the small parties. If they do not 
 succeed in preventing the foraging, they may trj- to 
 attack the foragers on the return-march; observing 
 in this case the rules laid down for attacks upon con- 
 voys. See Contoji. 
 
 FOSCAT.— A rest for the musket, used in very an- 
 cient times. It is now obsolete. 
 
 FORCE.— Until we know what matter is, if there be 
 matter, in the ordinary sense of the word, we cannot 
 hope to have any idea of the absolute nature of force. 
 Any speculations on the subject could only lead us 
 into a train of hyix)theses entirely metaphysical, since 
 utterly beyond the present powers of experimental 
 science. If we content ourselves with a definition of 
 force based on experience, .such a definition will say 
 nothing of its nature, but will confine itself to the 
 effects which are said to be due to force, and in the 
 present state of o<ir knowledge it is almost preposter- 
 oiLs to aim at more. Our first ideas of force are evi- 
 dently derived from the exertion required to roll, or 
 lift. i)end, or compress, etc., some mass of matter; 
 and it is ea.sy to see thai in all such ca.ses where mu.s- 
 cular contraction is employed, matter is moved, or 
 tends to move. Force, then, we may say generally, 
 is any range w?uch produces, or tendx to produre, a 
 change in a bodi/'s state of rest or motion. The amount 
 or magnitude of a force may be measured in one of 
 two ways: 1. By the pressure it can produce or the 
 weight it can support; 2. By the amount of motion 
 it can produce in a given time. These are called re- 
 spectively the slatioil and dynamical meas\n-es of 
 force. The latter is, as it stands, somewhat ambigu- 
 ous. What shall we take as the quantity of motion 
 produced? Does it depend merely on the velocity 
 produced, or does it take accoimt of the amount of 
 
 matter to which that velocity is given? Again is it 
 proportional to the velocity itself , or to its square? 
 This last question was very fiercely discussed between 
 Leibnitz, lluyghens. Euler ilaelaurin, the Bemouil- 
 lis. etc. ; Leibnitz being, as usual with him in physi 
 cal questions, on the wrong side. Newton, to whom 
 we owe the third law of motion, had long before 
 given the true measure of a force in terms of the mo- 
 tion produced. This law is an experimental result — 
 that when pressure produces motion, the momentum 
 producetl is proportional to the iiressure, and can be 
 made (numerically) equal to it by emplojing proper 
 imits. Hence, momentum is the Inie flynamical meas- 
 ure of force, which, therefore, is proportional to the 
 Jirst power only of the velocity pro<luced. \Vhat is 
 proiierly measured in terms of the square of the veloc- 
 ity we shall presently see. 
 
 "it is obvious that "in order to produce any effect at 
 all, or to do work, as it is technically called, a force 
 must produce motion, i.e., must move its point of ap- 
 plication. A weight laid on a table produces no ef- 
 fect whatever unless Ibe table yields to the pressure; 
 i.e., miless that weight descends, be it ever so little. 
 Vt'e do no work, however much we may fatigue our- 
 selves, if we try to lift a ton from the floor; if it be a 
 himdred-weight only, we maj- lift it a few feet, and 
 then we shall have done work — and it is e\ident that 
 the latter may be measured as so many poimds raised 
 so in;my feet — introducing a novel imit, the foot- 
 poi/nd, "which is of great importance, as we shall 
 shortly see, in modern physics. This is evidently, 
 however, a statical measure of work, since no account 
 is taken of velocity. Have we then for work, as we 
 had for force, a dynamical measure? Let us take a 
 simple case, where the mathematical investigation is 
 comparatively very easy, and we shall find we have. 
 ■\Ve know that if a p;iiticle be moving along a line 
 (straight or not) and the distance moved (in the time 
 /) along the line from the point where its motion 
 
 ds 
 commenced be called s, its velocit}' is r = -r- Also 
 
 we know that the force acting on it (in the direction 
 of its motion) is to be measured by the increase of 
 momentiun in a siven time — this gives (just as the 
 
 last equation was obtained) F = )/( - • From these 
 
 two equations, we have, immediately, mrdr = Yds. 
 
 or, as the rudiments of the differential calculus give 
 
 m r- /* 
 at once, — ^ = / Fds = F.s if the force he uniform. 
 
 '!!f=J'Fds = : 
 
 The quantity on the right-hand side is the sum of the 
 products of each value of F by the corresponding 
 space ds through which the particle moved under it? 
 action. It is therefore the whole work done by tht 
 force. On the left hand we find half the product ot 
 the mass, and the sfjuare of the velocitj- it has ac 
 quired; in other words, the vis-\iva. Hence, in this 
 case, the vis-\-iva acquired egnalsthe amount of work 
 exTsendcd by the force. 
 
 It appears from a general demonstration (foimded 
 on the experimental laws of motion, and therefore 
 true, if they are), but which is not suited to the pres- 
 ent work, that if, in any system of bodies, each be 
 made up of particles or atoms, and if the forces these 
 mutually exert be in the line joining each two, and 
 deiwncl merely on the distance Iwtween them, then 
 we can express the required iiroposition in the follow- 
 ing fonn: Any change of risrira in the syKtem corre- 
 sponds to an equal amount of work gained or lost by the 
 attractions of the particles on each other. What is 
 spent, then." in work is stored up in vis- viva; and 
 conversely, the system, by losing some of its vis-viva, 
 will recover so much work-prcKlucing power. If we 
 call the former, as is now gener.dly done, h'netie, and 
 the latter potential, tntrgy, we may express the above 
 by sajing, that in any system of Ixxlies where the 
 before-mentioned restrictions are complied with, tlie 
 sum of the hinetic and jwtential energies cannot be al- 
 tered' by the mutual action of the bodies. The most
 
 FOSCE. 
 
 688 
 
 FOBC£, 
 
 simple and c\ident illustration!! of this projiosilion 
 art' lo l>t' found in tlic case of the force known as 
 gnivitilion. The potential energy of a mass on the 
 earth's surface is zero, iK^causi-, not heiiiij; ahle to ile- 
 s<vnd, it has, in common language, no wbrlv-produc- 
 ing ixiwir. If it be raised al)ove the surface, and 
 then dropped, it is easy to see that the work expended 
 in raising it will be exactly recovered sis vis- viva after 
 its fall. " For a mass falling through a space /i to the 
 earth acquires a velocity r, stich that r- — •if/h; or if 
 
 111 he the mass, 
 
 : mg.h. The left-hand side gives 
 
 the vis-\-iva acquired hy the fall; the right is the pro- 
 duct of the weight (»(</) and the height fallen through 
 — or is the work required to elevate the nniss to Its 
 original altitude. Hence we may calculate the 
 amount of work which can he obtained from a head 
 of water in driving water-wheels, etc., remembering, 
 however, that there is always a Id.-vi (as it is usually 
 called) due to friction, etc., in the machinery. That 
 Uieix' is a lo.ss in u.seful power is true, but we shall 
 find presently that in energy there is none, as indeed 
 our general result ha-s already shown. Where the 
 apparently lost energy goes is another question. 
 Another gi>od example of potential energy is that of 
 the weights in an ordinary clock. It is the gradual 
 conversion of polcniial into kinetic energy in the 
 driving weight which maintains the motion of the 
 clock, in spite of friction, resistance of the air, etc.; 
 and we have in the kinetic energy of sound (which 
 depends on \ibrations in the air) a considerable por- 
 tion of the expended potential energy of the striking 
 weight. A coiled watch-spring, a drawn bow, the 
 charged receiver of an air gim, are good examples of 
 stores of potential energj' which can be directly used 
 for mechanical purposes. The chemical arrange- 
 ment of the different components of gunpowder or 
 gim cotton is such as corresponds to enormous poten- 
 tial energy, which a single spark converts into the 
 equivalent active amount. But here heai has a con- 
 siderable share in the effects [noduced; it may then ' 
 be as well, before proceeding farther, to consider 
 how we can take account of it and other (so-called) 
 physical forces as forms of energy. 
 
 The physical forces that require to be carefully no- 
 ticed in this work maybe thus classified: 1. Gra\i- 
 tation; 2. Jlolecular Forces, including Cohesion, 
 Capillarity, Elasticity, and Chemical Xffinity ; 3. 
 Heat and Light; 4. Electricity, including Magnet- 
 ism. Of these, cUis-ses 1 and 2, and some forms of 
 class 3, are more immediately coimected with iiuilkr 
 than the others— that is to say, that the remainder 
 almost necessitate the hj-pothesis of the existence of 
 some medium imlike ordinary matter, or, in popular 
 language, an imjytiiihrnlile. ' The almost universjil 
 opini.m of physicist.s, however, seems to be that even 
 the former must be accounted for in .some such way. 
 (Jf what that medium might consist we camiot, iif 
 course, hazard even a conjecture; but if it be com- 
 posed of .separate atoms— i.e., not continuous— it is 
 evident that a second medium will be required to 
 help the particles of the first to act on each other (for 
 without this the first medium would he merely ob 
 siruclive), and .so on. This must stop somewhere; 
 why not, then, at the first? But in the present state 
 of our understanding of mechanics a continuous me- 
 dium is barelv conceivable, and its motions, etc.. 
 |)re.sent considerable ditlicuUiis to even plausibK> 
 mathematieu: treatment. If we take the view op- 
 pos«>d to Newton's, as Mosotii and others have done 
 (their ideas are considered farther on), we om, in a 
 \erj' artificial maiuK r, however, account for gravita- 
 tion and molectdar action; but, as before said, the 
 fnmdations of this attempt at explanation are hardly 
 tenable. .Inst as sound (l<'i)ends on llie clnsticity of 
 the air and vibrations thereby miiiiit.iined and propa- 
 gated, light and radiant heat, which are certainly 
 identical, most probably consist in the vibrations of 
 sfime very elastic fiuid." This lias been provisionally 
 named ether. If it be continuous, it nniy helj) us to 
 
 ! account for the first two categories of force also, as 
 we have already seen; if not so, as is more likely, 
 fresh difliculties arise. Light and heat, however, 
 I imdoubtedly tlepend on motion, and correspoml, 
 therefore, to so much of \is-viva or actual energy. 
 Even heat in a liquid or solid body must correspond 
 i to stime vis-viva in the material particles, since a hot 
 ; body can give out Iwth light and heat, and a iKxly 
 may be heated by hmiinous or calorific rays which 
 I are vibratory, sis we have seen. Cla.ss 4 contains per- 
 ' haps the most puzzling of all the.se forces. That 
 j there is something in common in all the forms of 
 electricity, and that magnetism is nearly related to 
 them, iscertain; it is probable, also, that fiictional 
 electricitj', when st^itical, consists in .something analo- 
 gous to a coiled spring, or is one form of iMtential 
 energy — the others being forms of kinetic energy. 
 .Some have supposed magnetism to be also a form of 
 I)otential energy, but Ampere's discoveries have ma- 
 terially !e.s.sened the probability of the truth of this 
 hypothesis. We shall consider this again. 
 
 These forces can be transformed one into another. 
 Take the potential energy of gravitation to commence 
 with. We can employ it to drive a water-wheel. 
 This turns a shaft, to which, if a tight brake be ap- 
 plied, heat will be produced by friction, and light 
 also, if a rough wheel on the shaft be made to rotiite 
 against a piece of tlint or pvrites; or electricity nj«y 
 be produced by employing the moving power to turn 
 an ordinarv' electrical machine, or a magneto-electric 
 one; and from the electricitj" so produced electrical 
 charges and currents may be derivetl; from them 
 heat and light again. Or the currents may he em- 
 ployed to magnetize a needle or a piece of soft iron, 
 or to iiroduce chemi'.al decomposition. Ag:un, heat 
 may be employed l)v means of a steam-engine as a 
 substitute for the water-power or potential energy of 
 gravitation, and the above effects be produced. It 
 may also be employed in raising weights, and there- 
 fore in producing the potential energy in question; 
 or it may be employed to produce thermo-electric 
 currents, and thence all the ordinary effects of elec- 
 tiicity, including the motion of a magnetic needle. 
 Light may be employed to produce chemical combi- 
 nation or decomposition, as we see in photography; 
 it may also by the same means be made to produce 
 electric currents, and consequent motion of a needle. 
 It is not yet proved that light can produce magnet- 
 ism (UrecUy, though there can be little doubt that, 
 if pro|ierly applied, it is capable of doing .so. Chemi- 
 cal action in a voltaic battery can Ix' made to produce 
 motion, heat, light, electricity, electrical charges and 
 magnetism, and to overcome other chemical affinity. 
 Capillary action has been employed to i>roduce elec- 
 tricity and mechanical effects, etc., but we need not 
 go through the whole category. In these experi- 
 mental results, then, consi.st what is called the cor- 
 relation of the physical forces — i.e., the transmtita- 
 billty of one of the latter into another or others. 
 The idea is old, but the proofs of its truth have 
 only become numerous within the last half-century. 
 Grove has pviblished an excellent treatise with the 
 above title; to this we refer the curiovis reader for 
 further detail on this interesting subject. 
 
 A far more important principle, being, in fact, the 
 pireiM- statement of the preceding — which is some- 
 what vague — is that of the conservation of energj'. 
 It is situply the extension (to all physics) of the prin- 
 ciple which we have given in fidl. and jnoved in a 
 particularca.se, at the l)eginning of this article — i.e., 
 that the .sum of the potential and kinetic energies of 
 any set of moving bodies cannot be altered by their 
 nuUual action. Let us now suppose heat, light, etc., 
 to consist in the energ)" of vibratory movements of 
 particles, and in their relative states of distortion, 
 etc., and make the supiiosition that these particles act 
 on eiu-h other — no matter by what means — in the line 
 joiinng each two. and with forces which depend on 
 their distance, and we have at once the theorem that 
 the sum of the potential and kinetic energies is a
 
 FOECED MARCHES. 
 
 689 
 
 FOBCED MARCHES. 
 
 quantity unalterable in any system, save by external ] 
 influences. Hence, when mechanical power is said 
 to be lost, as it is by the unavoidable friction in ma- 
 chinery, etc., it is really only changed to a new form 
 of energ)- — in general, heat. Thus, when a savage 
 lights his fire, he expends animal energy in rubbing 
 two pieces of dry wood together. If fhese pieces of 
 wood were not in contact, no force would be required 
 to move them past atch other — more and more is re- 
 quired as they are more strongly pressed together. 
 The equivalent of the energy so expended is found 
 in the heat produced. Da\-y showed that two pieces 
 of ice might be melted by rubbing them together. A 
 skillful .smith can heat a mass of iron to redness by 
 mere hammering. Here the energ)' actually em- 
 ployed is partly given out in the shape of he;it, and 
 partly stored up in the iron as potential energy due 
 to the compression of the mass, or the forcible ap- 
 proximation of its particles. Amongst the earliest, 
 and certainly the be)<t experiments on this subject, are 
 those of Joule. He determined the relation between 
 the units of heat and potential energy of gravitation 
 by various methods, which gave very nearly coinci- 
 dent results. One of these we may mention. A 
 paddle-wheel is so fixed as to revolve in a closed ves- 
 sel full of water. The wheel is driven by the descent 
 of a known weight through a measured space, and 
 precautions are taken against losses of energy of all 
 kinds. The water agitated by the paddle-wheel 
 comes soon to rest, as we know; but this is due to 
 friction between its particles; and the final result is 
 the heating of the water The quimtity of water, 
 and also the number of degrees by which its tem- 
 perature is raised, being measured, a simple propor- 
 tion enables us to find how many foot-pounds of me- 
 chimical energy correspond to the raising by one 
 degree the temperature of a pound of water. The 
 result is that the heating a pound of water one de- 
 gree Fahrenheit is effected by 772 foot-pounds — and 
 this number is called Joule's equivalent. In other 
 words, if a pound of water fall to the ground through 
 772 feet, and be then suddenly arrested, its tempera- 
 ture will be raised one degree; and, conversely, the 
 Leat that would raise the temperatvtre of a pound of 
 water one degree would, if applied by a steam-engine 
 or otherAvise, raise 772 pounds one foot high. Now 
 we know the amount of beat which is produced by 
 the burning (in air) of any material whose composi- 
 tion Is known. It follows", then, that from the mere 
 quantity and composition of a substance we can tell 
 the amount of mechanical work due to its combus- 
 tion; that is, supposing it all to be effective. ! 
 
 An immediate consequence of the truth of the coii- 
 servation of energy is the impos.sibility of what is 
 usually understood by the perpetual motion; for it 
 is to lie carefully remembered that perpetual motion, 
 in the literal si-nsc of the words, is not only possible, 
 but very general. If there were no such thing as 
 friction! or if we had a perfectly smooth Iwdy, in 
 the form of a teetotum, for example, it would spin 
 forever in vacuo with undiminished speed. The 
 earth in its axial rotation affords a good exanqjle. 
 ■Were it a perfect sphere, and of uniform material, 
 the other mji,sscs of the system could produce no ef- 
 fect whatever on its rotation, and the latter would 
 remain forever imchanged. And even, as we have 
 already seen, when one form of kinetic energy, as 
 electricity, or ordinary vis-viva, is lost, we find it re- 
 appearing in other forms of kinetic energy, such iis 
 heat and light. But this is not the technical accepta- 
 tion of the term, the perpetual motion; it is popu- 
 larly understoml to mean a source of motion which 
 will not onlj' preserve its own vis-\iva vmehanged, 
 ■but also do irork. This is, of course, incompatible 
 with the con.servation of energy, for wherever work 
 is done, equivalent energy in some form or other is 
 consumed. The ordinary attempts to obtain "the 
 perpetual motion" which are still being made in 
 thousands by visionaries are simply absurd, based 
 as they are for the most part on ignorant applications , 
 
 of mechanics. There is absolute impossibility here; 
 and a "perpetual motioni.st" of the common herd is 
 far more iiifatuated than a " squarer of the circle;" 
 for the latter's problem may be solved, although cer- 
 tainly not by the means usually employed, or in the 
 form usually sought for. There are, in mechanics, 
 several other quantities which retain a fixed value 
 under certain circumstances. We may briefly con- 
 sider a few of them. 
 
 ConseraitioK of Areas. — We have seen in the article 
 Cestr^vl Forces that if a particle move a1x)ut a 
 center of force, its motion is confined to a plane, and 
 its radius vector traces out equal areas in equal times. 
 Similar theorems hold in any system of particles 
 acted on only by their mutual attractions. If in such 
 a system we suppose the positions of the resjiective 
 particles to be continually projected (orthogonally) on 
 any fixed plane, and radii vectorcs to be drawn from 
 any ix>iut in that plane to the projections — the shin of 
 the ureas sirept out by all those radii rectores iri/l be 
 equal in equal times. Also, this being true of all 
 planes, there is one for which this sum is a niaxi- 
 nuini, and tJiis plane is fixed in space. It is thence 
 called the invariable plane of the system. Similar 
 propositions hold for a system of bodies each of finite 
 size, their several axial rotations being taken into ac- 
 count; hence what is called the invariable plane of 
 the solar s3-.stem. 
 
 Conserration of Momentum. — When two mas.ses at- 
 tract or impinge, the forces they exert on each other 
 are evidently equal and opposite. Now, the measure 
 of a force is the momentum it produces; hence equal 
 and opposite momenta, in addition to their original 
 quantities, \\ill be commimicated to the masses, and 
 therefore the sum of the momenta of the two, resolved 
 in any direction, will be unaltered; hence the sum of 
 the momenta of any number of bodies trill be unaltered 
 by mutual actiom either of the nature of attraction or 
 impact. 
 
 Conserration of the Motion of the Center of Oravity. 
 — Again, in such a system, the momentum of the 
 whole collected at its center of inertia, resolved in 
 any assigned direction, is the sum of the momenta of 
 the separate bodies in that direction; hence the center 
 of inertia of a system subject to none but the m utual 
 actions of its components either remains at rest or 
 motes uniformly in a straight line. See Center of 
 Grarity, Central Forces, CovpUs, Energy, Falling 
 Bodies, Grarity, Mechanical Powers, Motion, Parallelo- 
 gram (f Forces, Vehxity, Virtual Velocities, and Work. 
 
 FOECED MARCHES. — Whether forced marches are 
 offensive or defensive, the important considerations 
 are to travel rapidly without enciimbrance mid to 
 have at hand all things necessary for the comfort and 
 safety of the command. The matter of proper equip- 
 ment for the forced march is frecjuently a difficult 
 one, when the element time is an imcertain factor, 
 and the character of the country to be traveled over 
 is unknown. Assuming that, in ca.se of necessity, 
 the country will afford the necessary .supplies, the 
 question of most proper equipment may be easily dis- 
 posed of in particular cases. Whether the troops are 
 mounted or not. the equipment should be selected so 
 as to avoid all strains and unequal pres.sures ; and, 
 with a constant \iew to comfort and convenience, the 
 useful points should be most numerous and the 
 weight in toto a mininuim. Of course, the time will 
 never come when regular troops will scout or cam- 
 paign without tents; but there is no doubt as to the 
 bivouac, a temporary makeshift, being far preferable 
 to tenting in a dangerous or rugged moimtauious 
 country. " Bivouacking Is not only healthier, in con- 
 sequence of the soldier inhaling purer air, but he is 
 enabled to better see and hear, and does not indicate 
 to sneaking hostiles the exact si>ot where he is lying 
 and enable them to move accordingly. A mound of 
 sand or earth, covered "by a cloth or blanket, will 
 make an excellent pillow; 'whilst a blanket judicious- 
 Ij- pitched over a little tumed-up earth or an accumu- 
 iation of twigs, leaves, or grass, serving as a comfort-
 
 PORCES. 
 
 690 
 
 rosciNG, 
 
 able bed, will afford n shelter surprisingly complete 
 so far as protection from cold winds or drift injr rains 
 is conceme<l. This plan of flying camps could be 
 very advantageously c;.rried out l)y transiK)rting extra 
 eoiiiliiiiatiouMdnhUi, so made as to admit of l)eing 
 worn as apR)ns when moving through wet bushes or 
 during rainy weather, anil to be packed, when not in 
 use, singly or in great nund)ers (as horse-blankets) 
 u]X)n anv loose stock that may accompany the com- 
 mand, i'hc blankets will prove invaluable for many 
 purjKiscs after the march is completed, even if it is 
 not desirable to adjust them as shelters. The Indians 
 of the Xorthwest, when traveling rapidly, invariably 
 
 low the winding of the grooves without materially 
 altering its shaiie. The patch is still used in sportiu^- 
 ritles, and gives excellent results; hut the loading is 
 too slow and dilhcult for a military arm. 
 
 31. Dehngne, an othcer of the French infantry, ap- 
 ]iears to have been the first person who overcame the 
 dilliculty of loailing ritles, thereby removing the prin- 
 cipal obstacle to their inlroduction into the nulitary 
 service. The plan i>roposed by him, in IH-JT. was to 
 make the projectile small enough to enter the bore 
 easily, and to attach it to a mboi, or block of wood (a) 
 (as siiown in Fig. 2), which, when in position, rested 
 
 transport extra blankets on the led-horses, and make 
 such uses of them as the nature of the weather neces- 
 sitates. When not engaged in forced marches, and 
 when not compelled to leave the means of transpor- 
 tation, the men should bear only their rifles, ammu- 
 nition, uitrenching tools, and at times otnteens. The 
 haversack and contents are useless and burdensome. 
 It is not needed during an ordinary march, and is 
 certainly in the way about the time of an engase- 
 ment. A few pieces of hard bread placed in the hip- 
 pocket of the soldier do not incommode him and are 
 alway.s attainable, whereas the haversack is often lost, 
 and oftener abandoned before the soldier has had an 
 opportunity to attend to his hunger. See Farrow 
 Cotnlnndtiiin-tfiit and Ronh-marclifs. 
 
 FORCES. — An armv of all branches — artillery, cav- 
 alry, and infantry. 'The word is sometimes used in 
 the singular number, but with the same signification. 
 The efffctiir forces comprise all the efficient parts of an 
 army that may be brought into action, with their ne- 
 ces.siiry appendages, such as Hospital Staff, Wagon- 
 train, etc. TheXa\')' of a country must be looked 
 upon as part of the effective force of the country, to 
 which is added the MJirines. 
 
 FORCING.— As a])plied to a jirojectile, forcing is the 
 operation by which it is mad<> io take hold of the 
 grooves of a rifled barrel and follow them in its pas- 
 sage through the bore. It may be accomplished in 
 various ways, most of which depend upon the soft 
 and yielding nature of lead, the material of which 
 small arm projectiles .ire made, viz.: 1. Bvtheaction 
 of the ramrod. 2. By the action of the powder. 3. 
 By the action of ramro<l and i)owder combined. 4. 
 By the form of the bore or projectile, as in breech- 
 loading arms, etc. 
 
 When rifles were first made, forcing was effected by 
 making the projectile a little larger than the bore, 
 and driving it down with a mallet applied to the 
 point of the ranu-od; although this caused the lead to 
 till the grooves completely, con- 
 verting the projectile into a screw, 
 whereof the barrel was the nut; 
 the operation was slow and labori- 
 ous, and the accuracy of the pro- 
 jectile was imi)aired by the conse- 
 quent disfiguration. The form of 
 the grooves then used is shown in 
 Fig. 1. Tliev were liable to be in- 
 jured bv the ramrod, and were difficult to dean. 
 
 The foregoing plan was imjiroved by making a pro 
 jectile a little .smaller than the bore, and wrappini; it 
 with a patch of cloth, greased, to diminish friction in 
 loading. The thickness of llie cloth was greater thiin 
 the windage; this caused the patch to press upon the 
 projectile ^^^th so much force as to compel it to fol- 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 FtG. 2. • 
 
 upon the shoulders of a cylindrical chamber (6) 
 formed at the bottom of the bore to contain the pow- 
 der. In this position the projectile was struck two or 
 three times with the ramrod, which expanded the 
 lead into the grooves of the barrel. To the bottom 
 of the sabot was attached a piece of greased serge, 
 which served to soften the residuum of the powder 
 and facilitate the loading. By this plan the accuracy 
 of the round projectile was increased, but its range 
 was diminished. 
 
 In 1742 Robins pointed out the superiority of the 
 oval or elongated fonn of projectile, and since this 
 many attempts have been made to employ it in rifled 
 arms, especially in this countrv: but it remained for 
 M. Delvigne, followed by MM." Thouvenin and Minie, 
 of the French service, to apply it successfully to the 
 military service. The form of projectile proposed 
 by these oflicers was composed of a cylinder and co- 
 noid. The cylinder served as the ba.se of the projec- 
 tile, and gave it stability in the bore of the piece; the 
 conoidal surface, which formed the point, was well 
 adapted to diminish the effect of the air, by increas- 
 ing the penetrating power of the projectile. A single 
 groove was formed around the cylinder, to contain a 
 greased woolen thread, in place of the woolen patch 
 of Delvigne. It was shown by the trials which fol- 
 lowed that the presence of this groove improved the 
 accuracy of the projectile— a fact which gsive a new 
 turn to the investigations, and led to the adoption of 
 two additional gi-oovcs. The theory advanced in ex- 
 planation of theaction of these grooves was, that they 
 opiiose a resistance to the air which, acting on the 
 rear portion of the projectile, tends to keep the point 
 foremost in flight, thereby rendering the resistance of 
 the air uniform, and at the same time a minimum. 
 The correctness of this theory may be well questioned; 
 
 ^^^m^^'^yW^^y^m:' 
 
 but that the grooves exert abeneficial effect, by dimin- 
 ishing adhesion to the surface of the l>ore, and by fa- 
 cilitating expansion, can scarcely admit of a doubt. 
 
 Colonel Thouvenin )iroiiosed to rejilace tbcchamber 
 of Dehigne by a sjiindle of iron, screwed into the cen- 
 terof the breech-screw (seer/. Fig. S). Thiswas found 
 to be an excellent point of sujiport for the base of the 
 elongated bullet when forced by the blows of the 
 ramrod. The expansion of the lead into the grooves 
 secured the bullet in jilaee, and protected the powder 
 from moisture. Considerable dilliculty, however, 
 was experienced in cleaning the space anmnd the 
 spindle; and, like all plans of forcing by the ramrod,
 
 ?OBD. 
 
 691 
 
 FOBEIOK &BMIES. 
 
 it is subject to variation, arising from the particular 
 care and strength exercised iiy the soldier. 
 
 The method of forcing by form of inojectile is il- 
 lustrated in the Whilworth ritlo. The form of the 
 bore, as in the cannon, is a twisted hexagonal prism, 
 making a complete turn in 20 inches. The projec- 
 tile is made nearly of the exact form and size of 
 the bore, and is about three diameters in length. To 
 prevent disfiguration and stripping, which are very 
 liable t<i occur in bullets of this length, fired with 
 high velocities, the lead is hardened bj- alloying it 
 with tin and manganese; and to obviate fouling a 
 greased wad is placed between the powder and bullet. 
 As might be exjiected from the length of the bullet, 
 the amount of twist, and the extreme accuracy with 
 which the bullet fits the bore, the results obtained 
 with this arm are much superior to those obtained 
 with serviceamis. 
 
 It appears that the first attempt to force a projectile 
 by the action of the ))0wder was made by Mr. Greener, 
 an English gimsmith, in 1836. The plan which he 
 tried consisted in forming a cavity at the ba.se of an 
 oblong bullet, and partially inserting in it a conical 
 ]iewter wedge, which was driven in by the force of 
 the powder in such manner as to expand the outer 
 part of the bullet into the grooves of the barrel. Some 
 years after this Colonel Jlinie produced a projectile 
 constructed on the same principle, but, instead of a 
 solid wedge, he used a cup of sheet-iron, w hich was 
 inserted into a conical cavity (as seen in Fig. 4), at 
 the base of the bullet. The point of the 
 ball was cut off to prevent disfiguration 
 by the fiat head of the ramrod. This 
 projectile, when fired from a rifle of 
 ser\ice-caliber, generally posses.sed great 
 range and accuracy; but it had certain 
 defects which prevented it from being 
 extensively used in the military service, 
 Fio. 4. \\z,: it was compound in its structure; 
 the cup was sometimes forced in obliquely, producing 
 unecjual ex^pansion; and, from the large size of the 
 ca\-ity, the top was occasionally blown off, leaving 
 the cylindrical portion adhering to the sides of the 
 bore. 
 
 Not long after the introduction of the Minie bullet 
 it was discovered that, by giving a suitable size and 
 shape to the cavity, the wedge could be dispensed 
 with. The projectile thus obtained was simple in its 
 structure, and gave better and more reliable results 
 than the one from which it was derived. The par- 
 ticular form and mode of expanding bullets varies in 
 most military serWces; in general terms, however, all 
 modem small-arm projectiles arc eyUndro-coTioidal in 
 shape, and a majority of them are forced by the action 
 of the powder. The effect of the powder may be di- 
 rect, a.s in the case where it ' acts in the cavity of a 
 bullet; or it may be indirect, as when it comjjresses 
 the bullet lengthwise, or, as it is technically termed, 
 " upsets" it. See Smtill-arm Projectiks. 
 
 FOKD. — When a river or rivulet is crossed without 
 the aid of either a bridge or ferry, it is said to be. 
 forded, and an established place for this crossing is 
 called a ford. Thus we have Oxford, Stratford, 
 Deplford, Hungerford. etc., towns built around an- 
 cient fords. To the military engineer and the traveler 
 in wild countries the selection of the sjifest place for 
 fording a river is a matter of some practical impor- 
 tance. In the first place, the widest part of the river 
 should be chosen, as, wherever a certain cpiantity of 
 water is flowing, the wider its bed — the rapidity of 
 the flow being the same — the shallower it must be. 
 At the bend of a river the line of shallow water does 
 not run straight across, but extends from a promon- 
 tory on one side to the nearest promontory on the 
 other. The stream \isually runs deep along hollow 
 curves, and beneath steep perpendicular and over- 
 hanging banks, whilst it is always shoal in front of 
 promontories, imless the promontory is formed by a 
 jutting rock. For safe fording on foot the depth of 
 water should not exceed 3 feet; on horseback, 4 feet; 
 
 or a foot less for each if the current be very strong. 
 The bottom of a ford should be firm and even"; weeds, 
 blocks of stone, etc., are serious obstacles, especially 
 for cattle. When a caravan, a numljer of troops or 
 of cattle, have to cross, a sandy bottom is very bad, 
 for the sand is stirred up an(I carried away by the 
 stream, and renders the ford impracticable "for the 
 hindmost. For a small party hard sand or gravel 
 is the safest bottom. The inhabitants of a district 
 generally know the sjifest forils, and their experience 
 affords a better guide than the best ndes that can be 
 given. Fords are continually varying, either from 
 the swelling of the river or the shifting of its bed or 
 banks, and therefore it does not follow that the place 
 set down by one traveler as a Siife ford will contiime 
 so for the next that succecils him. 
 
 The best ford seldom leads directly across a stream, 
 but must be selected at a point where the width of 
 the stream is greater than usual, with the point of 
 egress some distance down stream, in order that those 
 crossing may secure the advantage of the cuiTent. 
 In certain cases, however, owing to the formation of 
 the river-banks, it is necessary to ford obliquely up 
 the stream. This is alwaj's attended with much labor 
 and difficulty, and frequently in the struggle with the 
 current the footings of men and animals are lost. 
 In such cases it will accomplish much if mounted 
 men are placed at suitable points, to urge forward 
 with whips any animals that do not work properly. 
 To insure reaching the proper point of egress, some 
 of the animals will need frecjucnt assistance by means 
 of attached lariat-ropes. When the river is deep and 
 rapid, in consequence of the body's buoyancy ilimin- 
 ishing its power to resist the action of the current, it 
 might be well to place a heavy rock in the arms be- 
 fore entering the ford. When the different arms 
 cross a ford separately, the infantry should precede 
 the cavalry imd artillery ; otherwise they would de- 
 stroy the bottom and render the crossing for the in- 
 fantry difiicult or impossible. While fording, it is 
 important to direct the cj'cs to some fixed point upon 
 the shore and not look at the water, and particularly 
 when the water-course is broad or the current rapid. 
 Sec Br/'df/i.i. 
 
 FORE CARRIAGE.— That portion of a wagon con- 
 sisting of the frame (formed by the .sweep-bar, the 
 splinter-bar, and futchells), the axletree together with 
 its connections, and the front wheels. 
 
 FOREIGN ARMIES.— Looking at the armies of 
 Europe from every point of view, their strength, the 
 rapidity with which they can be mobilized, and the 
 means of feeding them, they may be classed as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 (Jermany. 
 
 France. 
 
 Rus.sia. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 England. 
 7. Belgium. 
 , 8. Turkey. 
 
 9. Sweden and Norway. 
 
 10. Holland. 
 
 11. Denmark. 
 
 12. Spain. 
 
 13. Portugal. 
 
 14. Switzerland. 
 ^ 15. Greece. 
 
 The four armies of the first class can place together 
 in the field, in round numbers, a combatant force of 
 3,400,000 men and 86r)2 guns, whilst they can count 
 twice that number of men on iiaper. Tlie expense of 
 these armies exceeds £07,000,000 per annum. Rus-sia, 
 Turkey, and Austria keep their troops at least cost, 
 \'iz., from £25 to £29 a year per man; the main- 
 tenance of the British soldier is by far the dearest, as it 
 amounts to close upon £100 per aniuim. In Germany 
 the cost is .£38 11". per man. Of the al)ove-named 
 fifteen States of Europe, seven have introduced the 
 compulsory service as the means of raising their 
 
 First class. 
 
 Second class. 
 Third class. 
 
 Fourth class.
 
 FOB£ION AXrXILIABIIS. 
 
 692 
 
 FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 
 
 iirinics — Germany. Russia, Austria, France, Italy, 
 Denmark, and Switzcrlaml. Seven are recruited liy 
 conscription, or conscription and enlistment, viz., 
 Spain, Turkey, Sweden and Xorway, Holland, Bel- 
 gium, Portugal, and Greece. The British army alone 
 13 solely deiK-udent on voluntary enlistment. In the 
 foUowiusr armies the age f<ir joiiiini: the Colors is 30, 
 viz., Austria, France, Russia, Sjiain. and Switzerland; 
 21 in Germany and Sweden; 19 in Belgium; IH in 
 Italy; and 22 in Denmark and Norway. In England 
 men enlist between 18 and 25. The "term of service 
 in Austria, Gennany, Italy, and Greece is 12 years; 
 in Russia, 1."); in France and Turkcv, 20; in England, 
 12; in Denmark, 16; and in Switzerland. 10. The 
 direct term of army service — that is to say, the term 
 the recruit or the conscript has to remain in the active 
 army before entering the Reserve (e.xceptionsomitted) — 
 is, iii Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, and Italy, 
 3 years; in England, 6; in Sweden and Norway, 5; in 
 Turkey and Russia, 4. The training of a recruit last-s 
 in Austria 8 weeks; Germany and ftaly require but 6; 
 Russia deems 26 requisite; France linds 13 sufficient; 
 England, 16; whereas Turkey considers 12 weeks 
 neeessiiry for the drill-education of her soldier. The 
 active army in Austria is composed of the l^iue. Re- 
 serve, and eventually of the Landirehr, together with 
 the Substitute Reserve. In Germany the active army 
 is composed of the same parts. Russia fomis hers of 
 the Line, Reserve, and Militia, who have served but 4 
 years in that l)raneh of the army. France has her Ac- 
 tive Army and her Reserve, followed by the Territorial 
 Army and the Reserve of the Territorial. As in the 
 ca.se "of Russia, her Reserves a.s well as her Territorial 
 Armies are bi^t on paper, as sufficient time has not 
 elapsed for the new system to mature. Italy has the 
 Line and the M'Mle MUizia. In Turkey tiie active 
 army is followed by three reserves, the Iilnli/al, the 
 Ji'dij, and the Iliyade, the latter beinjr a kind of 
 LitndsUiriii. In the six principal armies of Europe 
 the proportion of jiuns and cavalry on active service 
 to the strength of infantry is as follows: 
 
 Austria has. . . . 108 cavalry and 4 guns" 
 
 France 119 
 
 Germany 117 
 
 Russia (Europe). 178 
 
 " (Asia) . . 910 
 
 England 133 
 
 Italy 
 
 The Austrian infantry is armed with the AVerndl v\^e, 
 the Bavarian with the Werder, and the remainder of 
 the German infantry with the Mauser rifle. France 
 is gradually providing her troops of the line \\\ih the 
 modified Chas.sepot called the Gras rifle, from the 
 name of the officer who has improved this weajion. 
 Denmark, Norway and Sweden vise the Remington 
 ritle. Italy and Switzerland have adopted the Vct- 
 terli rille, R\issia the Berdan, and Sjiain the Reming- 
 ton. Belgium has found the Albini-Braende rifle 
 superior to all, and England and Turkey the Martini- 
 Henry. The American troops are armed with the 
 Springfield ritle. Before closing this article on the 
 small-arms of the several foreign armies, a statement 
 of the guns used by the four largest Continental 
 powers may be considered interesting. The tield- 
 batteries of "the German army are armeil with the H.8- 
 centimetcr B.L.R. gun, firing a shrapnel of 17 lbs. 
 weight; the horse-artillery with the 7.8.")-centimetor 
 B.L.R. gun, firing a shrapnel weighing 12.2 lbs. 
 These guns are maile of cast-steel, with i)olygroove(i 
 rifling and we<lge-brcak action. For siege "purposes 
 the Germans use the 12-ccntimel(r (4.6H-inch) bronze 
 gun, tiring a 29-lb. shell, and steel and bronze giuis of 
 1 .')-centimcter (6.85-inch) caliber, tiring a .'>4-lb. shell. 
 A 21 -centimeter shell gun is so(m to be added to this 
 arm. The lield-artillery of Austria is composed of 
 8 pdr. and 4-pdr. bronze rifled guns, having calibers 
 of 3.9 inches and 3 inches, firing 14-lb. and K-Ib. shell 
 respectively. Steel B.L.R. guns of the Prussian type 
 are, however, being gradually introdueiil. Tlie numn- 
 tain-batteries are armed with 3pdr. rifled l)ronze gims; 
 
 and for siege and garrison purposes the guns in use 
 are B.L.R.l.l- ami 21 -centimeters and 8-inch bronze 
 guns. The liussian lieldartillerv is now armed with 
 both cast-steel and bronze B.L.R. guns, 4-pdrs. and 
 9-pdrs. of 3.3-inch and 4-inch calibei-s, tiring 12-11). 
 and 24-lb. shell respectively. For siege and garri.son 
 artillery they use 12-l)dr. and 24-ixlr. guns, throwing 
 30-lb. and 63-11). shells, and 8-inch bronze and .steel 
 guns. The mountain-gim is a 3-pdr. bronze rifled 
 gun, and fires a 9-lb. projectile. The fleld-iruns of 
 J'ranccare the 14-pdr. steel and 10-pdr. bronze B.L.R., 
 the former the production of Colonel Relive, the latter 
 made by Major Pothier, and a steel 7-pdr. B.L.R. 
 gun of a new iiatt<'rn. 
 
 FOREIGN AUXILIARIES.— In the early periods of 
 English history, the Foreign Auxiliaries were by no 
 means uneoimnon. Harold had a body of Danes in 
 his army when he defeated the Norwegian King, and 
 to their refusal to march against the kindred Nor- 
 mans he owed not the least among the complications 
 which ultimately overwhelmed him. Passing to 
 moilern times, William III. had for some time a 
 body of Dutch troops in his pay as King of England; 
 throughout the eighteenth century, IIes.siim and Han- 
 overian regiments were constantly in the pay of tlie 
 English Government for terajiorary i)urposes. Hes- 
 sians fought for the English in the first American war; 
 and the Landgrave of IIe.s.se, who sold his troops at 
 so much a head, received upwards of half a million 
 for soldiers lost in the campaign. During the Irish 
 Rebellion, again, iu 1798, man}- Hessian troops were 
 employed. 
 
 On the outbreak of the Continental War in 1793, it 
 was determined to recruit the British army by the ad- 
 dition of a large body of foreigners; and accordingly, 
 in 1794, an Act was pas.sed for the embodiment of the 
 " King's German Legion," consisting of 1.5,000 men. 
 These troops, who were increased in the co\irse of the 
 war to at least double that number, distinguished 
 themselves in various engagements, and formed sonic 
 of the regiments on which the Generals could be-st 
 rely. Corps of French EinigriK, as the York Rangers 
 and others, were also organized. The whole of the 
 Foreign Legions were disbanded in 1815, the officers 
 being placetl on half-pay. 
 
 During the Russian War, in 18.54, the British Gov- 
 ernment again had recourse to the enlistment of for- 
 eigners; s|)ecial pro\ision Ijcing made, in the Act au- 
 thorizing their emplopnent, that the arms of the 
 Legionaries were in no case to be used against British 
 subjects, in the event of internal discord. The num- 
 bers to be raised were 10,000 Germans, 5000 Swiss, 
 and 5000 Italians; the pay to be the same as to Brit- 
 ish troops, but temporaiy ser\-ice to convey no claim 
 to half-pay. About half the number of men were en- 
 rolled, and were .said to ha\e reached gi'cat efficiency, 
 when the stoppage of hostilities arrested their pro- 
 gress, and caased them to be disbanded at a great 
 cost for gratuities, etc. 
 
 The Swiss Auxili;uies used to fonn a regular con- 
 tingent in many of the armies of Euroi)e, especially 
 of France anct of Italy. Over 1,000,000 served in 
 France from tlie time of Louis XI. to that of Louis 
 XIV. (146.5-1715), See Giirdfs Siimes. Usual- 
 ly the Swiss served only on condition of lieing com- 
 manded by their own ofiicers, and occasionally the.se 
 officers obtained distinction and fame. But the pri- 
 vates returned home poor and often demoralized; and 
 the Cantons which supplied most mercenaries suffered 
 severely by their absence. After the French Revolu- 
 tion, the Cantons ceased publicly to hire out their 
 subjects; and after 1830 most of the Cantons forbade 
 foreign eidistmenf. In 18.59 the Confederacy passed 
 a severe law against recruitment for service aliroad. 
 There is still, Cowever, a large contingent of Swi.ss as 
 mercenaries in the Dutch East Indian Colonies. The 
 Pajml Swiss troops have shrunk to a body-guard of 
 about 100 men, 
 
 FOREIGN-ENLISTMENT ACT.— In the law of Eng- 
 land there was a statutory prohibition of enlistment
 
 rORELAND. 
 
 693 
 
 FORM OF PROJECTILE. 
 
 in tlie service of a Foreign Prince. It provides that 
 if any British subject shall agree to enter the service 
 of any Foreign Stale, either as a soldier or a sailor, 
 withcSiit the license of her Majesty, or an Order in 
 Coinicil or lioyal Proclamation, or if any person 
 within the British Dominions induces any oilier per- 
 son to enlist in the service of a Foreign State, such 
 a person shall be gnilt}' of a misdemeanor. The 
 Otticers of the Customs, on information on o;ith, may 
 detain anj' vessel having persons on l)oard destined 
 for unlicensed Foreign Service, blasters of vessels, 
 knowingly having such persons on board, are punish- 
 able by tine or imprisonment, or lioth. Persons build- 
 ing any vessel for Foreign Service, without license, 
 are guilty of a high misdemeanor, and the ship and 
 stores are forfeited. Even to as.sist a Foreign State 
 wth warlike stores, without license, is a misdemeanor 
 punishable with tine and imprisonment. These pen- 
 alties are irrespective of any consequences that maj- 
 follow to the individual for having committed any 
 breach of international law. 
 
 FORELAND.— In fortification, the piece of ground 
 between the wall of a place and the moat. 
 
 FORE-SIGHT.— 1. A sight/.)r(r(/;f? at the leveling- 
 staff or through the sights of the circumferentor. 2. 
 The muzzle-sight of a gun. See Front Sight. 
 
 FORGE. — The process of hammering red-hot iron 
 or steel into any required shape is called forging, and 
 the workshop in which the operation is performed, a 
 forge. The principal tools of the common smith's 
 forge are the forge-tire or hearth, with its bellows, the 
 anvil, and the various hammers, swages, etc. For 
 large work, an air-furnace, blown by steam-bellows, 
 supplies the place of the simple hearth of the black- 
 
 Power-forge. 
 
 smith, powerful cranes swing the work to its place 
 on the anvil, and a steam-hammer strikes the blows 
 that squeeze the red-hot mass into shape. Besides 
 these, there arc portable forges of various sizes and 
 forms, used for milit.iry and other purposes. They 
 usually consist of an iron frame, to which a bellows, 
 worked by the foot, is attached: and above the liel- 
 lows is an" iron trav, with a hearth, etc.. upon which 
 the fire is made; "and the ainil is either attached to 
 this frame or has a separate stand. 
 
 For the largest work to which hand-haminers are 
 still applied, two gangs of from six to twelve ham- 
 mermen are employed; they swing the large hammers 
 with such wonderful precision and regularity that 
 the instant one hammer is withdrawn another falls 
 unon the same place. A foreman, with a wand, 
 directs the hammering. The two gangs relieve each 
 other altcrnatelv. on account of the great severity of 
 the labor. Shovels, spades, mattocks, and many 
 other tools and implements, arc partly forged tinder 
 the tilt-hammer. 
 
 The dr;n\-ing shows a power-forge weighing 500 
 
 pounds, with a fire-pan 36x54 inches. It i? well 
 adapted for armory work, excelling in the arrange- 
 ment of the gearing, strength of blast, and general 
 working capacity. It Ls furnished with the Keystone 
 fan-blower and revolving tuyere. This forge is well 
 arranged for rapid work, and in all processes of forg- 
 ing it is of primary importance to obtain the greatest 
 possible rai)iility in the succession of the blows. 
 There is a double reason for this: tirst, and simply, 
 that the work is cooling, and the more slowly it is 
 forged the juore frequently it must be reheated; and 
 secondly, that percussion generates actual heat, and 
 when the blows are sufficiently hea\w and rapid, the 
 temperature of the work may be hilly maintained 
 out of the lire for some considerable length of time. 
 The hammer used for tilting steel not only maintains 
 the heat of the bar, but it raises it from a dull to a 
 bright red heat. See Caralry Forge. 
 
 FORGE-WAGON.— A wagon consisting of the body 
 of an ammunition-wagon, carrying a movable frame 
 for the bellows, hearth, anvil, etc., and the limber in 
 which the necessarv tools are conveved. 
 
 FORLORN HOPE.— The body of" men selected to 
 attempt a l.reaeh or to lead in scaling the wall of a 
 fortress. The name ( w hich in t he French , cnfu n In per- 
 dun, is even more expressive) is given on account of 
 the extreme danger to which the leaders of a storming- 
 party are necessarily exposed. As, however, tlie honor 
 of success is proportionate to the peril of the under- 
 taking, there is ordinarily no laik of volunteers for this 
 arduous service. The forloni hope is called bj' the 
 Germans Die rerloriwn Posten. 
 
 FORM. — In a general acceptation of the term, to 
 assume or produce any shajie or figure, extent or depth 
 of line or column, by means of jire- 
 scribed rules in military movements 
 or dispositions. To form on is to 
 advance forward, so as to connect 
 with any given object of formation, 
 an<l to lenirthen the line. 
 
 FORMATION.— A temi applied to 
 that ]iarticular arrangement of the 
 troojis composing any unit when 
 this latter is waiting for battle or is 
 prepared to execut^ a movement. 
 That portion of the formation up- 
 on the side towards the enemy is 
 known as Ihe front; the side opposite 
 to the front is designated the rear; 
 the lateral extremities are known iis 
 JliinkK. Any row of sohliers (ilaeed 
 parallel to the front is known as a 
 file; the number of ranks measures 
 the depth of the formation. 
 
 FORMERS. — Round pieces of wood 
 that are fitted to the diameter of the 
 bore of a gun. round which the car- 
 tridge-pa])er, parchment, lead, or cot- 
 ton is rolled before it "is served. Cartridgiformern are 
 wooden shapes for cutting out the form and size of can- 
 non cartridse-bags: theirsize and shape depend on the 
 nature of the cartridge to be made. Port-firefornurs 
 are used for making portfire cases. They are made 
 of wood, of a diameter slightly larger than the port- 
 fire settins-drift. Signal-roeketfonners are used for 
 fomiinc the cases of signal-rockets. They have a 
 movable piece from two to three diameters in length, 
 which is termed the nipple, the smaller end of wbicli 
 fits into a hole made in the/wmer, and when .slightly 
 drawn out keeps the neck of the case open while the 
 choke is being formed and secured. Wadforment are 
 fiat circular piecesof wood, hollowed out and grooved. 
 They are employed for making up gnimmeUwads 
 for suns. 
 
 FORM OF PROJECTILE.— "When a body moves 
 throiurh the air the gaseous particles in front arc 
 crowded upon each otlier until they meet with a cer- 
 tain resistance, after which they move oflF laterally-, 
 and finallv pa.ss around and arrange themselves in 
 rear of the moving body. It is endcnt that the dif-
 
 roKT. 
 
 694 
 
 FOSTIFICATIOV. 
 
 ferencc of the densities, or pressures, front and rear, 
 depends on the velocity with which the disphiccd 
 particles rearnmiro themselves after displacement : and 
 this in turn dcpeuiLson the shape and extent of the sur- 
 faces of the moving body. The Itest form for a projec- 
 tile can only be determined by experiment, as theorj' 
 and ex-periiiient do not agree in their results. Accord- 
 ing to theorv, if a plane of given area be moved 
 through the air, it meets with a resistance which is pro- 
 portional to the square of the sine of the angle which 
 its direction makes with that of motion. • 
 
 The expi-riments of Ilutton with low velocities show 
 that this is only true in cases of 0° and 90'; that from 
 90° up to 50 or 00' the resistance is nearly propor- 
 tional to the sine; beyond this it decreases a little 
 more rajiidly than thesine, but not so rapidly as the 
 square of the .sine: 
 For an angle of 23° i Us only i "1 
 
 ^Q?o •> " " tithe resistance proportional 
 °; II to the sine. 
 
 2" IJ 
 
 The following arc the results of the experiments 
 made by Ilutton and Borda on the resistances experi- 
 encetl bv different forms of solids moving through 
 the air with velocities varying from 3 to 25 feet per 
 second: 
 
 HiTTON's Experiments. Velocity, 10 Feet. 
 
 
 Kind of surface. 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 resist- 
 
 Theo- 
 retical 
 resist- 
 
 
 
 ance. 
 
 ance. 
 
 D- 
 O- 
 
 No. 1. Hemisphere (convex 
 surface in front) 
 
 119 
 
 144 
 
 No. 2, Sphere 
 
 124 
 
 144 
 
 t>— 
 
 No. 3, Cone, elements inclined 
 to the axis 23* 42' 
 
 126 
 
 53 
 
 No. 4, Disk 
 
 885 
 
 288 
 
 
 a - 
 
 No. 5, Hemisphere (plane sur- 
 face in front) 
 
 288 
 
 288 
 
 <i— 
 
 No. 0, Cone (base in front) 
 
 291 
 
 288 
 
 BoRDA. 
 
 
 Kind of surface. 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 resist- 
 ance. 
 
 Theo- 
 retical 
 resist- 
 ance. 
 
 <— 
 
 No. 1, Prism, with triangular 
 base 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 t>- 
 
 No. 2, " 
 
 52 
 
 25 
 
 D— 
 
 No. 3, " semi-ellipse 
 
 43 
 
 50 
 
 D— 
 
 No. 4, " ogee 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 The foregoing experiments show: 1st. That the re- 
 sults of theorj- do not agree with those of practice. 
 2<1. That rounded and jiointed solids suffer less resist- 
 ance from the air than those which present flat sm-- 
 faces of Ihe .same transverse area; but at th(; same time 
 the sharpest points do not always meet with Ihe least 
 resistance. M. Thai where the front surfaces were 
 the .same the rcsislaiiee was least with ihusc in which 
 the posterior surfaces were llic llallist. 4tli. That llie 
 ogeeval form, or tlie form of the present ritle-musket 
 bullet, experiences less resistance than any of the 
 others tried. 
 
 These experiments, as before remarked, were made 
 mth low velocities comjiared to lliose which ordinarily 
 actuate prf)jectiles, and the conclusions which have 
 iK'eii drawn from them may not be striclly ajiplicable 
 in practice. Now that oblung projectiles are ased in 
 
 all kinds of firearms, it is important to determine 
 that form which will be least affected by the re-sist- 
 ame of Ihe air. See Projirtilts. 
 
 FOET. — A tenn technicidly applied to an inclosed 
 work of the higher da.ss of lield-fortilications; but 
 the word is often used in military works much more 
 loosely. Detached works, depending solely on their 
 own strimith, belong to tlie cla.ss o^ works termed 
 forts, aiui should have a revetted scarp and coun- 
 terscarj) of sutlicient height to present great difficul- 
 ties to an oi)en assault, and have their ditches Hanked 
 either from the parapet of the work itself, or by ca- 
 ponieres, or by countcrscarp-giUleries. Their prin- ' 
 cipal use is to occupy ground like comiuanding 
 heights, which, although not within good sweep of 
 the tire of the main work, is still within range of the 
 heavie.st calibers of the a.ssailaiil, and which if occu- 
 pied by him would i^rove a source of serious annoy- 
 ance to the work. These detached works are also 
 sometimes calletl independent defensible workv, or sim- 
 ply iudciundeut works. In British North America 
 the term fi>rt is applied to a tradiug-po.st in the wil- 
 derness with referen<-e to its indispensable defenses, 
 however slight, against the surrounding barbarism. 
 It has thus been often employed to designate merely 
 a palisaded log-hut, the central oasis of civilizjjtionin 
 a desert even larger, it may be, than Scotland. See 
 Adranced-irorks and FvrtificJition. 
 
 FOET ADJUTANT.— An officer holding an appoint- 
 ment in a fortress — where the garrison is often com- 
 posed of drafts from dilTercnt Corjis — analogous to 
 that of Adjutant in a Regiment. He is responsible 
 to the Commandant for the internal di.scipline, and 
 the appropriation of the ueces.sary duties to particu- 
 lar Corps. Fort Adjutants are Stall Officers, and so 
 receive a certain allowance per day in addition to 
 their ordinarv regimental pay. 
 
 FOETALICE— FOETELACiE.— A small outwork of 
 a fortification. The military power of the State is 
 intrusted bv the Constitution of England to the Sov- 
 ereign. xVher having been unconstitutionally claimed 
 by the Long Parliament in the time of Charles I., it 
 was again \indicated for the Crown. This branch of 
 the royal prerogative extends not only to the raising 
 of armies and the construction of fleets, but to the 
 builduig of forts, fortalices, and all other places of 
 strength. Sir Edward Coke lays it down that no 
 subject can build a house of strength embattled with- 
 out the license of the King; and it was enacted by 
 Henry VII. tliat no such place of strength could be 
 conveved williout a special grant. 
 
 FOETIFICATION.— The records of historj' and the 
 vestiges of remote civilization show that the art of 
 fortification, in some guise or another, has been in 
 practice throughout all nations, even in the lowest 
 stages of social progress, and that, wherever it has 
 been cidtivated, its character has been more or le.ss 
 influenced not only by llie nalural features of the 
 country, but by the poiitieal and .social conditions of 
 its inhabitant.s. There are ihrfc distinct epochs; 
 namely, ancient, that of the Middle Ages, and mod- 
 ern. In its earliest api)lieations, we find men resort- 
 ing to one or more simple inclosures of earthen walls; 
 or of these sin'mouiited by slakes ]i]aeed in juxtapo- 
 .silion; or of slakes alone lirndy ])lanleil in Ihe ground, 
 with a strong wattling between lliem; orof limber in 
 its natm-al slate, having its branches and Ihe under- 
 growth strongly inlerl;iced to form an iini)ervious 
 obstruction, with tortuous paths through it only 
 known to the defense. A resort to such feel)le means 
 shows not only a verv low stale of this branch of the 
 military ail. but al.so'of that of Ihe attack; as defens- 
 es of this kind would present but a slight obstacle, 
 except against an enemy whose habitual mode of 
 warfare was as cavaliy, or of one not yet conversant 
 with the ordinary plans for scaling. " This cla.ss of 
 fortifications for the defense of eiilire frontiers has 
 been mostly met with in the e.ist of Europe, and was 
 <loubtless, at the lime, found to be a sufficient protec- 
 tion against those nomadic tribes that for ages have
 
 ^, 'W. ^,^.. m ,.^1 
 
 ^<»"':pL?*^"^^- '■''■'•. Outline nna profile or a lanctto. Intrenchm--nt^: 2, FK^clie. "i'""*'"^- J,il'2?nctimMi»- 
 F/'?!!^!"'"' "^di'Ubt. witli Bt-ml-bastlonH. U. Star rudoubt. 12. Cross redoubt. 13 to 6- ^""!^ "VS"cti-i1 WB' 
 IS. Oblique cmbrassiiruB. i9a,b, Orouud plan imd profile of a parapet. ISl.-. Prollieof paropii l^fn"f^j„ ^ 
 de-loupsiWolMraps,. 25. PalllMdea. wltfi^dltcli. *. Stockade, wlfh cmpaleinent. 27. t'ommon w m» , 
 
 fence. Si Abauis. 33. Caltrops or ChauHse-lrapca. 34. Mine. 35. MoiTe of eonvcy nKOje tomini ^^^,,,,,,.,fl 
 fe""^!-!; .■"■.,J'»"'^''y'c"verlD({"^dltch. 42. Redoubt, with componieres covering dllcli. ^i.^„\v,|5; of li'"'" 
 F,'"^"?^.,'''"'K«. *»■ T.Hedu-pont or Bridge-head. 49. Fort I fled forest. W- P^oQIe and coMtmciion ^^,,.,,o* 
 M. Wot dltcb. wltb branehea aa barricades. 58, Bomb-proof earthwork. 56. P"wd'7„''!2S?S W Cook' I 
 
 VI-IS?""^ 81. Eartn-workfi.one-quaner. one-third, oue-lialf. entire, double, triple. (B. 03. Teal«, w- ^ 
 
 'Uietiih^J^"'"'- "■■ Horn-woric. 7- Crown-work. 8. (iuadninfnilar redoubt. 9. Sexagonal redoubt. 10. 
 lliifiirm ni o '■ "■ '*alBed cmbrassure : b, deep ombrassure, with reveted checks; t, with un re ve ted cheeks. 
 (•lllwrii:..i„V' Pi"^'P- 22- Sand.bag scarp, obftndef: 23. Che val-de-f rise. 2J n, l>. Snare ond round Troos- 
 u. p '"' " '"■ inrvtiLde-trlse. 29. Fraleliig an obtuse anKle 30. Different modes of fratslui^ 31. Wlre- 
 'i't LTnu,, 1 '' "' '' P'-rcuiislon dlscharKi^r for mine. 3S. Location for mioee. S). Stone mine. 40. Block 
 
 ■ ili'ii 
 
 ii-llni 
 
 47. 
 
 r^v
 
 TOETmCATIOK. 
 
 695 
 
 FOETIFICATIOIT. 
 
 Toamed over its vast plains, and who are only formi- 
 dable as a mounted force. The next obvious, and, in 
 humid countries, necessary step, was to fonii walls 
 cither of rough blocks of stone alone, or of these in- 
 terlaced with the trunks of heavy trees. Obstruc- 
 tions of this kind could only be used to a limited ex- 
 tent, and were confined to the defenses of places 
 forming the early centers of jiopulation. As human 
 invention was developed, these, in their turn, were 
 found to ijrcsent no .serious obstacle to an assault by 
 escalade; gi^^ng to the assailed only the lemiiorary 
 advantage of a more commanding position; and they 
 gave place to walls of dressed stone, or brick, whose 
 height and perpendicular face alike bade defiance to 
 indindual attempts to climb them, or the combined 
 effort of an e.scalade. From the tops of these inac- 
 cessible hei^rhts, sheltered in front by a parapet of 
 stone, and, in some cases, by a covered corridor be- 
 hind them, the as-siiiled could readil}- keep at bay any 
 enemy, so long as he could be attained by their mis- 
 siles; but having reached the foot of the wall, he here 
 found shelter from these, and, by procuring any 
 cover that would protect him from objects thrown 
 from above, could securely work at effecting a breach 
 by mining. It was proliably to remedy this defect of 
 sim])le walls and towers, which at first were nothing 
 more than square or semicircular projections built from 
 distance to distance in the wall itself, that flanking tow- 
 ers were first de%i.sed, and which subsequently were 
 not only inclosed throughout, Ijut divided into stories, 
 each of which was pro\ided with loop-holes to flank 
 the adjacent towers and the straight portions of the 
 will between them. Each tower could be isolated 
 from the straight portion of the walls adjacent to it 
 by an interruption at the top of the wall, over which a 
 communication between the tower and wall could be 
 established by a temporaiy bridge. These fonnidable 
 defen.ses were, in their turn, fomid to be insufficient 
 against the ingenuity and skill of the assailant, who, 
 hy means of covered galleries of timber, sometimes 
 above ground and sometimes Ix'neath, graduallv won 
 his way to the foot of the wall, where, by breaking 
 his waj' through it, or by undennining and support- 
 ing it on timber props to be subsequently destroyed 
 by fire, he removed the sole obstruction to a l)odily 
 collision with the a.ssailed. These methods of a.s.sault 
 Avere in some cases supported by means of high 
 mounds of earth which were raised in an inclined 
 plane towards the walls, and sometimes carried for- 
 ward to them, from the top of which the assailant, by 
 the erection of wooden towers covered with raw hides 
 to secure them from being burnt, could command the 
 interior, and, dri\ing the assailed from the walls, gain 
 a foothold on them by lowering a drawbridge from 
 the wooden tower. 
 
 These changes in the attack led to new modifications 
 in the defense, which con.sisled in surrounding the place 
 Ijy wide and deep ditches, of which the walls formed 
 the scarp, the counterscarp being either of earth or 
 revetted. This placed a formidable obstacle to the 
 mode of attack by mining, and also to the use of 
 earthen mounds, as these last had to l)e constructed 
 across the ditch before they could gain sufficient 
 proximity to the wall either to form a communica- 
 tion with its top. or to breach it by means of the 
 battering-ram; the ditches also were filled with water 
 whenever this obstruction could Ije procured, and 
 when dry they fonned a defile through which the as- 
 sailed often sallied upon the assailant with success 
 when found at a disadvantage in it. The gigantic 
 profile often given to the fortifications of antiquity 
 seems almost incredible, as well as their extent. In 
 many cases a double wall of stone or brick was filled 
 in between with earth, forming a wide rampart upon 
 which several vehicles could go abreast. Not only 
 was the space inclosed by some of these fortifications 
 suflSeient for the habitations, but ground enough was 
 taken in to add consideral>ly to the food of the inhab- 
 itants and cattle, for the long periods to which block- 
 ades were in m;iny cases extended when all other 
 
 means of reducing the place had failed. The wall 
 built by the Romans between Carlisle and Newcastle 
 to restrain the incursions of the Piets into the south- 
 ern portions of the Island was 16 miles in extent, 
 about 12 feet in height, and 9 feet in thickness. The 
 extent and dimensions of this work sink almost into 
 insignificance when compared with those of the cele- 
 brated wall of China, built to rcstnun the incursions 
 of the Tartars. This structure is al«)Ut 1.500 English 
 miles in length; has a height of 27 feet; its thickness 
 at top is 14 feet. The lower portion of it is built of 
 dressed stone, the upper of well-biuneil brick. It 
 is flanked at distances of about 80 yards apart by 
 tcnvers in which iron cannon are found. In the grejit 
 extent it embraces it necessarily cros.ses hills and val- 
 leys, anil in many places important defiles. An ex- 
 amination of its parts has shown that in its plan there 
 was an eWdent design to adapt it to those features of 
 its site, as it is well thrown back to the rear of diffi- 
 cult passes; and at points where there is most danger 
 to be apprehended from attempts of invasion there 
 are several walls in succession. The mode of attack 
 of fortified places resorted to by the ancients was re- 
 duced to settled rules, and brought to the highest 
 state of perfection by the Greeks, about the epoch of 
 Alexander the Great and the immediate succes.sors to 
 his vast conquests. Anes.scntial featiue in it, whether 
 in the sieges of inland fortresses or those on the sea- 
 board, was to cut off all communication between the 
 place and the exterior by hemming it in by sea and 
 land with stationarj- forces, covered tlienLselves by 
 lines of intrenchments strengthened by towers, and, 
 in the ca.se of sea-coast places, also by fleets, from all 
 assaults both from without and from the place in- 
 vested. Ha\-ing selected the portions of the place on 
 which the attack was to be directed, a second line 
 was fonned parallel to the first, which was covered, 
 and constructed of tunber and wicker work, and se- 
 cured with raw hides to prevent its being set on fire. 
 From this sheltered position, which served also the 
 purpose of a lodging for the besiegers, the besieged 
 were annoyed with missiles thrown from all the artil- 
 ler)' known in that day, consisting of the ordinary 
 bow, the cro.s.s-bow, and the various machines for 
 projecting hea%'y stones and other projectiles. The 
 defense was mostly of a passive character; the be- 
 sieged trusting mainly to the strength of their de- 
 fenses, under cover of which they resorted to all the 
 means used by the besiegers for assailing the latter 
 when they caiiie within reach of their missiles; using 
 cranes and other devices to .seize upon tlie implements 
 Ijlanted at the foot of the wall, and carrying out gal- 
 leries of countennines to overwhelm the artificial 
 mounds and their lowers. The Romans evinced 
 their decided military aptitude not only in the em- 
 ploj-ment of the ordinary systematic methods of the 
 attack an<l ilefense of fortified places, but in their ap- 
 plication of the cardinal princi]>le of mutual defen- 
 sive relations between the parts of a fortified )K)silion, 
 obtained by advanced and retired portions of the en- 
 ceinte, and also in the adaptation of intrenchments 
 to the natural features of the site, as .shown in the 
 fortifications of some of the pennanent frontier camps 
 of their military colonies. These i^rinciiMes have 
 also been noticed in some of the fortified positions of 
 India, whicli consist of a mural enceinte with the 
 earthen ramiiarts flanked by roun<l towers, and of 
 round towers in advance of the enceinte connected 
 witli it bv caponieres. 
 
 The reminns of the structures raised for defensive 
 purposes during the prosperous days of the Empira 
 were probably the sole means of protection afl'orded 
 to the inhabitants of the towns that still maintained a 
 nucleus of population, until the rise of the Western 
 Empire under Charlemagne; and it was the necessity 
 felt by this conqueror not only of securing his con- 
 quests, but of checking the irruptions of the barbarous 
 tribes along his ex-tended frontier, which led him to 
 erect tftes-de-j^nt on the frontier rivers, and a line 
 of strons- towers, for garrisons of a few men, upon
 
 70BTIFICATI0K. 
 
 696 
 
 FOETIFICATIOK. 
 
 the most inaccessible and i)romineiu |»ints of this 
 frontier; the hitter being a means which was subse- 
 quently resorted to for a like piirixisi' in the Spanish 
 Peninsuhi. Henry I. of Geniiany iiitrotluced a more 
 important and more systematic addition to thesi- per- 
 manent frontier defenses by surrounding the frontier 
 towns and \illaires, occupietl by military colonists, 
 with walls and ditches, to secure them from such at- 
 tacks as they might be exposed to, and subsecjuently 
 adding a second line of strongholds within the fron- 
 tier, by which an irruption through the frontier line 
 niiglitstill be checked. During the general disorgan- 
 ization of States under the feuiUd system, the free 
 cities, which dei)en(led for their defense on the burgh- 
 ers composing the dilTercnt crafts, every indiWdual 
 who could maintain a few retjiiners in his jxiy, smd 
 the Clergy, even, resorted — eiich according to their 
 separate Wews — to such means of defense as woidd 
 hesi secure them from the attacks of others in a like 
 condition, and woidd enable them to carey out that 
 system of pillage which had become gencnd among 
 the nobles and other military chieftains. From this 
 state of society sprang up those castles placed in the 
 most inaccessible positions on the lines of communi- 
 cation which the little inland conmierce that was still 
 carried on was obliged to traverse. These were pro- 
 vided with ever\- possible de\icc for an obstinate pas- 
 sive defense, being surrounded by a wide and deep 
 ditch, or moat, over which a drawbridge was the only 
 communication to the main entrance, which was 
 flanked by towers on the exterior, and closed with 
 ma.ssive doors; the tortuous pa.s.s;ige wliich led from 
 them to the interior of the castle being further secured 
 by a grated portcullis, which could be let drop at a 
 moment's notice, to arrest a sudden iuss;udt. To these 
 means were often joined, hesitlcs the ordinary mcits- 
 urcs of loop-holes and machicoulis in the walls and 
 towers for annoying the assiulant, a high interior 
 tower, termed a keep, or donjon, which, command- 
 ing the exterior defenses, was also a watch-tower 
 over the adjacent country. The keep, which was 
 the last defensible point, was in some cases proNnded 
 with a secret subterranean jiassage, having its outlet 
 in some distant concealed spot, through which succor 
 coidd be introduced into the Ix'leaguercd castle, and, 
 in the last extremit}-, the garrison find stifety in a 
 stealthy flight. The fortifications of towns partook 
 of the siime characteristics as those of oa.stlcs. From 
 the old custom of assigning to the difTerent burgher 
 crafts, each of which had an indejiendent militarj- or- 
 ganization, the exclusive guardianship of portions of 
 the enceinte, as well as their erection and re|)airs, 
 great diversity, and frenuently a whimsicality, in the 
 defensive arrani,'cmcnts was" the natural result; the 
 evidence of which still exists in the remains of the 
 walls of some of the old Continental cities. The art, 
 for the most part, was practiced by ambulatory engi- 
 neers, who, like the secret orders by whom tlie bridges 
 and churches of the sime period "were built, olTered 
 their services wherever they were w;mted. Many 1 
 ideas were also introduced fr<)m the East bv the Cru- 
 saders, as exhibited in the fortifications of ca.stles and i 
 citii-s belonging to the Templars and other religious [ 
 military orders. 
 
 With the invention of gunpowder and its applici- 
 tion to nulitary purjKjses, a gradual revolution took 
 place in the general forms and <l(tails of fortification. 
 It was soon seen that naked walls alnne di<l not offer 
 either suitable conveniences for the new mililarv ma- 
 chines, or sutlicient protection ag:iinst the ]iroji"(lilis 
 thrown from them. This led to the introduction of 
 earthen ramparts and paraiwts, which were placed 
 against the walls and suitably arranged to meet the 
 exigencies cf the moment. The art received some- 
 thing like a scientific basis about this time in Italy, 
 from which the names and forms of most of the efe- 
 nienls of fi)rtiti(ation now in use are derived. The 
 Italian emrineers, like their predecessors, went from 
 State to State to offer their .services wherever they 
 were needed, and in this way disseminated the priii- . 
 
 ciples of their School throughout Euro|)e. It was at 
 this epoch that the bastioned form of forlitication lirst 
 appe;ired, but the precise date and the author of the 
 invention are both unknown. With its introduction 
 the importance of separating the parts of a line of 
 fortification into advan<-ed and retired parts, the lat- 
 ter flanking and defending the former, seems to have 
 been recognized as an e.s,si'ntial principle of the art. 
 With these changes in the form of the enceinte, the 
 art was gradually improved by the addition of the 
 outworks to incrciuse tlie amount of cro.ss- and flank- 
 fire; the introduction of bomb-proof shelters for the 
 troops and other purposes; the substitution of earthen 
 for stone parapets; and the attempt to conceal the 
 scarp-walls from the enemy's batteries by decreasing 
 the command and deepening the ditches of the en- 
 ceinte. By these gradual changes stone walls, which 
 in the old fortifications were the essential defensive 
 fea^tures, came at length to be regarded in their true 
 character, simply as passive obstacles to an open as- 
 ssiult by escalade. The property of earthen parapets, 
 of resisting without material loss of strength the long- 
 continued fire of the assailant's heaviest guns, showed 
 that the sjime defensive means were applicable both 
 to work of a permanent and of a temporary charac- 
 ter; and were equally available for the purposes of 
 the assailant and the assitiled. The measures for the 
 attack and the defense of positions were thus reduced 
 to the same general principles, differing only in the 
 forms and dimensions of the elementary parts, as cir- 
 cumstances seemed to demand. From the discussions 
 of and the variations made in the bastioned system by 
 engineers of this period, there arose four distinct 
 Schools of Fortification— the Italian, Dutch, French, 
 and Spanish, all Ijelonging to this system. Asabove 
 stated, the first employment of bastions as they now 
 exist was made by the Italian engineers, and, as far 
 as has been ascertained, towards the close of the fif- 
 teenth or the commencement of the sixteenth century. 
 To whom the credit of their invention is due is not 
 known. In the earlier fronts of the Italian School the 
 bastions are very small, and they are connected by 
 curtains varying from 250 to 500 yards in length. 
 The bastion flanks, which were perpendicular to the 
 curtains, were divided into two portions; that next 
 to the curtain, which was one third of the entire flank, 
 was thrown back and covered by the portion in ad- 
 Viince, which thus formed what received the name of 
 the orillon. The lower part of the retired portion, 
 was cascmated for cannon; and behind this, and sep- 
 arated from it by a dry (litch, rose a second flank, 
 having the same command as the other parts of the 
 enceinte parapet. In some cjises a small and very 
 obtuse bastion was erected at the miildle of long cur- 
 tains. The defects of these early fronts were soon 
 felt, and a more ci>inplicated but impr()\ed method 
 adopted, in which the ba.stions were enlarged and the 
 curtains diminished. The retired flanks were still 
 retained, lail the oriUon instead of being angular was 
 roimded. To these improvements, cavaliers were 
 sometimes added to the bastions, wliich in those 
 eases were made without retire<l flanks; or placed OB 
 the curtains, when, from the configuration of the site, 
 some portion of the ground within cannon-range 
 could not be swept from the enceinte parapet. The 
 coveied-way was introduced and became an integral 
 part of the front; and a small demi-lune or ravelin 
 was placed in advance of the enceinte ditch, forming 
 a tit<-<U ponl to cover the commuTiication, at the mid- 
 dle of the curtain across the main ditch, between the 
 enceinte and the exterior. 
 
 The Dutch School took its rise in the political 
 necessities of the times in which the national spirit 
 was aroused to throw otT an onerous foreign yoke. 
 The aquatic character of the country, and the want 
 of time and pecuniary means, leil to those expedi- 
 ents of defense which are never wanting under like 
 circumstances. The deficiency of earth led to Uie 
 formation of low parapets for the main enceinte and 
 wide ditches filled with water. The main enceinte
 
 FOBTIFICATION. 
 
 697 
 
 FOBTIFICATIOK- 
 
 was usually preceded by a second one with a very 
 low parapet to sweep the surface of the wet ditch; 
 and this second enceinte was separated from the first 
 by a dry ditch, which favored sorties, and which was 
 provided with all tlie means, as palisades, tambours, 
 and block-houses, for offensive returns and surprises. 
 The second enceinte was generally covered from an 
 exterior command by a glacis in advance of the main 
 ditch. The covered-wa\' between the glacis and the 
 ditches was, to a great extent, deiirived of its essen- 
 tial offensive feature by an exterior wet ditch made 
 at the foot of the glacis and inclosing it, over which 
 communication with the exterior was kept open by 
 temporary bridges. The works were usuall.y very 
 much niultipliid and their combination complicated; 
 features the less objectionable where their defense 
 chiefly rested upon the inhabitants who had become 
 familiar with all their turnings, and as offering obscu- 
 rity of design to an assailant who might force his way 
 into them. The whole of the defensive mea.sures o'f 
 this School seem to have had solely for their object a 
 strictly passive resisttmce. With this view long lines 
 of intrenchmenis, supported from distance to distance 
 by forts, connected their frontier towns and villages, 
 affording a sutticient obstacle to marauding expedi- 
 tious, and requiring the efforts of a strong" force to 
 break through them. What may be tenned the 
 characteristics of the French School are to be seen 
 rather in the method of Connonlaigne than in the 
 practice of V'auban, although his authority has exer- 
 cised a pre|)onderating influence throughout Emope, 
 and is still ajipealed to, in all great problems of the art, 
 by each side in polemical dis|iutes. This School is 
 characterized by the retention of the protile of the 
 Italian School, combined with the outworks of the 
 Dutch, and a systematic arrangement of all the parts. 
 The French have evinced in this, as in all the other 
 arts, that spirit of systematic combination which forms 
 one of their most striking national traits. From the 
 existing fortifications of Spain the influence of the 
 Italian School may be traced, but moditied by national 
 characteristics. The works seem organized more for 
 a purely jiassive defense; the covered-way, tliat es- 
 sential outwork to an active defense, being in many 
 cases omitted, the means of annoyin"; the besiegers 
 by fires being greatly multipliefl, and the outworks 
 generally being arranged with a view to a purely 
 pa.ssive defense. Besides this, the dinu'iisions of the 
 profile and height of scarp were in<-reased as a great- 
 er .security against .escalade; interior retrenchments 
 were midtijilied, sometimes inclosing a bomb-proof 
 keep to render the defense more obstinate. The 
 Spaniards, although resorting but little to sorties, 
 show great skill and pertinacity in the defense of 
 breaches, and in availing themselves of all obstruc- 
 tions for |irolonging resistance. 
 
 The combinations adopted in fixing the defensive 
 relations, and the proportions of the various parts 
 of the bastioned system, produced a great many me- 
 thods of fortification. These differ so little in plan 
 from those that characterize the four Schools just 
 named, that they may all be placed under the head 
 of one or the other of the.se classes. It has been 
 observed how the natural features of the coimtry, 
 like Holland, and tlu' national characteristics of the 
 people, like the Spanish, have modified the plan and 
 protile of their works. This is particularly true in 
 Sweden, and partly so in Germany. We iuay then 
 form two other Schools based on these peculiarities 
 — that of Sweden and that of Germany. The part 
 played by Sweden u])on the theater of Europe, imder 
 her two cclebrati'd Monarchs, Gustavus Adolphus 
 and Charles XII., served to develo]) in this nation 
 every branch of the military art, and produced a 
 number of distinguished Generals and Engineers, who 
 combined, with the practice of their profession, a 
 study of its theory. Among the eiiirineers of this 
 School, Virgin holds the first place. The climate 
 luid the nautical habits of the country seem to have 
 led to laud-defenses analogous to those of ships, as 
 
 .shown in the uses of casemated batteries in several 
 I tiers, both for sea-coast and inland fortifications. Ill 
 this School the bastioned system seems to have been 
 ' generally adopted for the enceinte, great attention 
 being paid to covering the faces of the works from 
 I enfilading fire; in providing casemates having reverse 
 views on the besieger's works; and particularly in so 
 arranging the interior dispositions that each part 
 should not only contribute to the defense of the others, 
 but be capable of an independent resistance. These 
 dispositions necessarily led to great complication and 
 nudtiplicity of works, as shown in the writings of 
 Virgin. The Germans reckon a number of original 
 writers on fortification, among the most noted of 
 j whom are the celebrated painter Albert Diirer, 
 I Daniel Sjicckle, and Riinpler. In the propositions 
 of these writers are to be found the influence which 
 the Italian School naturally exercised throughout 
 I civilized Europe, and the germs of many of the views 
 held by the German School of the present day; which 
 last seem, however, to have been taken more imme- 
 diately from the propositions of Montalcmbert and 
 Carnot. 
 
 The introiluction of cannon, although it led to im- 
 portant changes in the measures Ixith of the attack 
 and defense, still did not, for a considerable period, 
 bring about any very decisive results in the length of 
 sie.srcs. The means which it afforded the defensi' of 
 reaching the besiegers at a distance, and of destroying 
 all the nu'thods of aiiproaching and annoying the 
 place which hail hitherto been used, led to the substi- 
 tution of the ordinary trenches of the present day for 
 the wooden galleries and other similar expedients for 
 ai)iiroaching under cover, and to the erection of bat- 
 teries at distant points to open breaches in the walls. 
 Lines of circumvallation and countervallation, which 
 formed so prominent a feature previously to this 
 j epoch, was the only one which still kept its phace, as 
 ! it has done to a gi-eater or less extent to the present 
 day. For the purpose of ctTecting an entrance into 
 the place, breachiug-batteries were erected opposite 
 the points deemed most favorable. They were i>laced 
 either on natural elevations of the ground or upon 
 artificial mounds, with the object of attaining the 
 wall to be opened near its foot, and to form a breach 
 of easy ascent. These batteries were enclosed in 
 works of sufficient size and strength to hold garrisons 
 to secure them from sorties. The approaches were 
 made as at present, by zigzags along the capitals of 
 the salients to the counterscarp, where a covered de- 
 scent was made into the ditch opposite the breach 
 preparaltny to its assiiult. When the wall was not 
 exposed to" a distant fire, the besiegers were obliged to 
 carry the covered-way by assault, and establish their 
 breachingbatteries on the crest of the glacis. In car- 
 rying forward these works the besiegers were sub- 
 jected to great losses and delays, owing to the mag- 
 nitude aiid the multiplicity of the works they were 
 obliged to cimiplele; to the imperfect character of 
 their arlillery and the faulty position of their batter- 
 ies, by which tliej' were unable to keep under the fire 
 of the place; the want of connection between the 
 separate approaches, and the con.se(|ueiit exiiosure of 
 the workiixn in the trenches to sorties, the troops for 
 their support being too distant in the inclosed works 
 in the rear to give them timely succor; besides which, 
 as these inclosed works naturallv became the chief 
 objects for the fire of the besieged, this agglomeration 
 of troops in them adih'd maleri.illy to the losses of 
 i the besiegers. Owing to these iniperfections in the 
 j measures of attack, the besieged were able to make 
 I a vigorous and prolonged defense; and sieges liecame 
 the most important military operations of this period, 
 I in which Captains of the greatest celebrity sought for 
 I opportunities of distinction. 
 
 But 'little deviation was made in the methods just 
 described until Vauban appeared upon the scene. 
 Previouslv to him, Monlluc. a distinguished French 
 GencRil and Engineer of his day, had introduced short 
 branches of trenches, which were nm out from the.
 
 rOETinCATION-DBAWIHB. 
 
 698 
 
 FOBTIFICAIION-DBAWING. 
 
 au'jles of the zijrzags, to post a few troops for the iin- 
 niediate protection of the workmen; but these were 
 fuund to be very insutlicieiit in sepelliug sorties of 
 any stren^h. I'he event which seems to have had 
 the greatest intluenee on the subsequent progress of 
 Ixith the attack ami defense was the memorable siege 
 of Candia, in which volunteers from all psu-ts of 
 Eurojie engaged, and who, after its close, ilisscmina- 
 teti throughout their resi)ective countries the results 
 of the experience Ihey had there acquired. Whether 
 the idea cf the parallels, now in use in the attack, 
 oridnated there, or with Vauban, this eminent man 
 was the tirst to establish them in a systematic manner, 
 and to demonstrate by cxjierience their controlling 
 importance in repressing sorties. The introduction 
 of this important element in the attack; the concen- 
 tration of (he tire of batteries, bv giN^ing them enfilad- 
 ing positions; the invention of the ricochet, as the 
 most powerful destructive means against the defenses; 
 the avoidance of open assaults, which, even when 
 successful, are nuide at a great sacrifice of life, pre- 
 ferring to them the less brilliant but slower method 
 of skill and industry, by which the blood of the sol- 
 dier is spared, and the end the more surely attained, 
 such are the important .ser\'ices which the attack owes 
 to Vauban. which has given it its present marked 
 superiority over the means of defense, and to which 
 the science and experience of engineers since his day 
 have added nothing of marked importance. 
 
 From this brief summary, it will be seen that the 
 art of fortification, in its progress, has kept pace with 
 the measures of the attack; its successive changes 
 ha\ing lieen brought about by changes either in the 
 arms ased by the sissailanl, or by the introduction of 
 .some new mode of ass;iult. The same Ciiuses must 
 continue to produce the same effects. At no past 
 period ha.s mechanical invention, in its beating on 
 the militarj' art, been more active than at the present 
 day. The improvement that has already been made 
 in the range and accuracy of aim of both small-arms 
 and cannon, the partial adoption of ■wrought-iron and 
 steel for floating batteries and sea-coast defeiLses, 
 point to the commencement of another epoch in the 
 Engineer's art. The great improvement in cannon 
 will give to the assiiilant a still wider range in the 
 selection of positions for his batteries, and will thus 
 increa.se the dilBculties of the engineer in adapting 
 his works to the site, and in gi\"ing adequate .shelter 
 to the garri.s<jn and armament. Whilst the defense 
 will be to this extent weakened, the approaches of 
 the besieger will be rendered more perilous and more 
 dilfioult from the greater range and accuracy of 
 small arms. Upon the chief defects and wants of 
 the art there exists but slight divergence of opinion 
 among engineers generally; not so with respect to the 
 remedy; opposite opinions being frequently drawn 
 from the sjune cla.ss of facts, and the same authority 
 iK'ing frequently cited to sustain opposite \-iew.s. 
 Whilst each new disputant denounces systematizing 
 and the systems of others, his remedy for the abuse 
 complained of is usually a system of "his own, which 
 not unfrequently is but "a coinbination of the dlsjechi 
 tnemlirn from those of others. See Citxtle, Enceinte, 
 Fifld-fortificdiion, Permanent Forlification, and Sy»- 
 U'ln of Fortiftfali'in. 
 
 FOKTIFICATION DRAWING. — The method now 
 in general u.se, among militiiry engineers, for deline- 
 ating the plans of permanent "forlirications is similar 
 to the one which had been previoiisly emjiloved for 
 representing the natural surface of ground in topo- 
 graiihieal and hydrographicjd maps, and which con- 
 sists in projecting, on a horizontal plane at any as- 
 sumed level, the bounding lines of the surfaces and 
 also the horizontal lines cut from them by equidistant 
 horizontal plams, the distances of the.se lines from 
 the assiuned i)lane I)cing expressed unmirli-dUi/ in 
 terms of some linear measure, as a yard, a fool, etc. 
 The assumed horizontal plane upoii which the lines 
 arc projected is termed the plane of ompuriitfm or 
 plane of nferenrc, as, it is the one to which the dis- 
 
 tances of all the lines from it are referred, and a-s- it 
 serves to comiiare these distances with each other and 
 also to detennine the relative positions of the lines. 
 
 The numbers which express the distmices of points 
 and lines from the plane of comparison are termed 
 refennas. The imit in which these distances are ex- 
 pressed is usually the linear foot and its decimal divi- 
 sions. As the [josition assumed for the plane of com- 
 parison is arbitrary, it may be taken either above or 
 below every point of the surfaces to be projected. In 
 the French military ser\'ice it is usually taken above, 
 in our own below the surfaces. The latter seems the 
 more natural and is also more convenient, as vertical 
 distances are more haliitually estimated from below 
 upwards than in the contrary direction. Each of 
 these methods has the ailvantage of requiring but one 
 kind of symbol to be u.sed, viz., the numerals express- 
 ing the references; whereas, if the jilane of compari.sou 
 were so taken that .some of the points or lines projected 
 should lie on one side of it and .some on the other, it 
 would be then necessary to ase, in connection with 
 the references, the algebraic symliols jilus or mindu to 
 designate the points above the plane from those below 
 it. As the distiinces of all points arc estimated from 
 the plane of comparison, the reference of any point or 
 line of this plane will therefore be zero (0.0); that of 
 any point above it is usually ex]ire.s.sed in feet; decimal 
 parts of a foot being used whenever the reference is 
 not an entire number. When the reference is a whole 
 number it is ^\Titten with one decimal place, thus 
 (23.0); and when a broken number with at least two 
 decimal places, thus (3.70), (13.63). In writing the 
 reference the mark used to designate the linear unit is 
 omitted, in order that the numbers exjiressing refer- 
 ences may not be mistaken for those which may be 
 put upon the drawing to express the horizontal dis- 
 tances between points The references of horizontal 
 lines are written along and upon the projections of 
 these lines. All other references are written as nearly 
 .OS practicable parallel to the bottom border of the 
 drawing, for the convenience of reading them without 
 having to shift the position of the sheet on which the 
 drawing is made. 
 
 This method of representing the projections of ol> 
 jects on one plane alone has given rise to a very useful 
 modification of the one of orthogonal projections on 
 two jjlanes, and has been denominated one-plane de- 
 scriptive geonu'try; the plane of comparison being the 
 sole plane of projection, and the references taking 
 the place of the usual projections on a vertical plane. 
 By this modification the number of lines to be drawn 
 is less; the graphical constructions simplified; and the 
 relations of the parts are more readily seized upon, 
 as the eye is confined to the examination of one set of 
 projections alone. But the chief advantage of it con- 
 sists in its application to the delineation of objects, 
 like works of permanent fortification, where, from the 
 great disjiarity of the horizontal extent covered and 
 the vertical dimensions of the ixirts. a drawing, made 
 to a scale which would give the horizontal distances 
 with accuracy, could not in most cases render the 
 vertical dimensions with any approach to the same 
 degree of accuracy; or, if made to any scale which 
 would admit fif the vortical dimensions being accu- 
 rately determined, would reqviire an area of drawing 
 surface, to render the horizontal dimensions to the same 
 scale, which would exceed Ihe convenient limits of 
 practice. Taking' for exanijile an ordinary scale used 
 for drawing the |>l:ms of permanent forlitications of 
 one infli Utfiftj/fed, or the scale n^j,, the details of all 
 the bounding surfaces can lie determined with accu- 
 racy to within Ihe fractional part of a fool, whereas 
 a vertical projection to Ihe same scale would be alto- 
 gether too small for Ihe sjime puqioses. 
 
 For Ihe convenience of numerical calculation, the 
 position of a line, with respect to the plane of reference, 
 is often exjiressed in terms of the natural langeni of the 
 angle it makes with this plane; bul as this angle is the 
 sjime as that Ix'tween Ihe line and its jirojcclion, its 
 natural tangent can be exjiressed by the dillerence of
 
 TORTILAOE. 
 
 699 
 
 FOTHEKGILL PEOCESS. 
 
 level between any two points of the line, divided by the 
 hoirzontal distance between the points. Now, as the 
 ditference of level between any two points of the line 
 is the same as the difference of the references of the 
 points, and the horizontal distance between them is 
 the same as the horizontal [jrojection of the portion 
 of the line between the same points, it follows that the 
 natural tangent of tlie angle which the line makes with 
 the phme of reference is found by divkUng tlu: differeiice 
 of the referents ofthi- pointu by the distance in horizontal 
 jtrajeetion between them. The vulgar fraction which 
 exjjreases this tangent is known as the inclination or 
 declivity of the line. Thus the fraction \ would ex- 
 press that the Iiorizontal distance between any two 
 points is six times the vertical distance, or difference 
 of their references; llie fraction 5, that the vertical 
 distance between any two points is two thirds the 
 horizontal distance; the denominator of Vie fraction, in 
 all cases, repremnting the nvmher of parts in ki/rizontal 
 projection, and the numerator t/ie corresponding number 
 of parts in rertical dixtance. When the position of a line 
 js designated in this way, it is said to be a line whose 
 inclination or decli\itj' is one sixth, two thirds, ten on 
 one, etc., or simply a line of one sixth, etc. 
 
 Knowing the declivity of a line, tlie difference of 
 reference of any two of its points, the projections of 
 ■which are given, will be found by multiplying the 
 horizontal distance between them by the fraction 
 ■which exiiresses this declivity; in like manner the 
 horizontal distance of any two points will be obtained 
 by dividing the ditference of their references by this 
 fraction. To obtain, therefore, the reference of a point 
 of a line, having its i^rojection, the horizontal distance 
 between it and Ihat of .some other known point of the 
 line must be determined from the scale of the drawing 
 hy which the horizontal distances are measured; this 
 distance expressed in numbers, being multiiilied by 
 the fraction which exTiresses the declivity of the line, 
 will give the dilTcrence of reference of the two points; 
 the required reference of the point will be found by 
 subtracting tliis product from the reference of the 
 known poin*. if it is higher than the point sought, or 
 by adding if it is lowei. 
 
 When the projection of a line is divided into equal 
 parts, each of which corresponds to a tmit in vertical 
 distance, and the references of the points of division 
 are written, it is termed the scale of declirity of thi line. 
 In constructing tlie scale of declivity of any line, the 
 entire references are alone i>ut down; one of the divi- 
 sions of the equal parts being subdivided into tenths, 
 or hundredths if necessarj', so as to give the fractional 
 parts of the references corresponding to any fractional 
 part of an entire division. The true length of any 
 portion of an ol)li(iue line between two given points 
 is evidently the hypothenuse of a righl-angled tri- 
 angle of which the other two .sides are the differ- 
 ence of reference of the points, and their horizontal 
 distance. 
 
 The position of any plane oblique to the plane of 
 reference may be dctennined either by the projections 
 and references of three of its points; by the projections 
 and declivity of two lines in it oblique to the plane of 
 reference; or by the projection of two or more hori- 
 zontal lines of the plane witli their references. The 
 more iisual method of representing a plane is by the 
 projectioiLS on the plane of reference of the horizontal 
 lines determined when intersecting it by equidistant 
 horizontal planes. These projections are termed hnri- 
 zontals of the plane, those usually being taken the 
 references of which are entire numliers. If in a'given 
 plane a line be drawn perpendicular to any horizontal 
 line in it, the projection of this line on the plane of 
 reference will lie also peqiendicular to the projections 
 of the horizontals. The angle of this line with the 
 plane of reference is evidently the siune as that of the 
 given plane with it, and is greater than the angle be- 
 tween any other line drawn in the plane and the plane 
 of reference. This line is, on this account, termed 
 the line of greatest declirity of the plane. If the scale 
 of declivity of the line of greatest declivity be con- 
 
 structed, it will alone serve to fix the position of the 
 plane to which it belongs, and to determine the refer- 
 ence of any point of the i)lane of which the projection 
 is given. For, since the horizontals are |>erpendieular 
 to the scale of ileclivity, the point where the horizontal 
 drawn through the given ])rojection of a point in the 
 plane cuts this line v\ ill determine upon the scale the 
 reference of the horizontal, and therefore that of the 
 point. 
 
 The inclination or declivity of any plane with the 
 plane of reference may Ixf expressed in the .same way 
 as the inclination of its line of greatest declivity. 
 Thus a plane of one fourth, a plane of twenty on one, 
 a plane of two thirds, express that the natural tangents 
 of the angle between the planes and the plane of ref- 
 erence are respectively represented by the fractions J, 
 -i", and .ij. The horizontal ilistance between any two 
 horizontal lines in a plane, the angle of which is 
 given, can lie found in the same way as the horizontal 
 distance between two jioints of a line, the inclination 
 of which is given, bv' dividing the difference of the 
 reference of the two horizontal lines liy the fraction 
 representing the declivity of the plane; in like manner 
 the difference of references of any two horizontal lines 
 will be obtained by imdtipljing their horizontal dis- 
 tance by the SiUne traction. With the foregoing ele- 
 ments the usual problems of the right line and plane 
 can be rendilj- solved. See Drawing. 
 
 FORTILAGE.— The name formerly given to a little 
 fort or block-house. The word is now obsolete, as also 
 the v:oTd fortin, used in the same sense. Fortlet is 
 conuiionlv used at present. 
 
 FORT MAJOR.— The next officer to the Governor 
 or Commandant in any fortress. He is expected to 
 understand the theory of its defenses and works, and 
 is responsible that the walls are at all limes in repair. 
 He is on the Staff, liut has to resign his regimental 
 appointment, and receives an addition to his Calf-pay. 
 
 FORWARD. — The word of command given when 
 troops ai-c to resume their march after a temporary 
 interruption. 
 
 FOSS— FOSSE.— In fortitication, the ditch or moat, 
 either v\ ith or without water, the excavation of which 
 has contributed material for the walls of the fort it is 
 designed to protect. The foss is immediately with- 
 out the wall, and offers a serious obstacle to escalading 
 the defenses. 
 
 FOSSANO POWDER.— The " progrcs.sive powder of 
 Fossano," made at the Italian powder-mills of Fos- 
 siuio, is of peculiar manufacture. After ]iassing 
 through the tii-st stage of manufactiue, and Ixing 
 brought to the condition of nieal-powd<r, it is pres.sed 
 into a cake which has a density of 1.79. The cake 
 is then broken up into iiTegidar grains 01 about an 
 eighth to a quarter of an inch in thickness. The 
 grains are then mixed with a certain quantity of fine- 
 grain powder, and the whole mass is pressed into a 
 cake which has a density of 1.T5. This second cake 
 is then broken up into tolerably regular pieces about 
 2i inches square by 1? inches thick. These grains 
 are therefore composed of a num!)er of small pieces 
 with a higher density placed in a sort of conglomer- 
 ated ])ovvder-niaterial of a lower density, the intention 
 I)einii to proilucc more gas in a given time, when the 
 powder has been partly burne<l, than at the commence- 
 ment of its ignition. This is accomplished by the 
 lighter jiowdcr igniting tirst and producing inequali- 
 ties or indentations in tlie grains, when the denser por- 
 tions will burn with an increasing surface. The Fos- 
 sano powder has given remarkably high velocities with 
 moderate pressures, and has the great merit of cheap- 
 ness and simplicitv. See (rinijuiwder. 
 
 FOSSEWAY.— One of the military Hoir.an roads in 
 Enirland, so calle<l from the ditches on Ixith sides. 
 
 FOTHERGILL PROCESS.— This is one of the numer- 
 ous dry processes in ])liotography which have for their 
 object the preservation of sensitive plates ready for 
 expo.sure. It is named after the inventor, and' con- 
 sists in the partial removal of the free nitrate of silver 
 which adheres to the collodion film on withdrawing
 
 roircASE. 
 
 700 
 
 POUNDET. 
 
 it from the sensitizinf; bath bj* wnshiii|i ■HilU water, 
 and the subsequent conversion of the reniainintr free 
 nitrate of silver into albuiuimite and chloride of silver 
 by pourin!; over the jilate dilute albumen, eontiiininj; 
 chloride of ammonium, the excess of albumen being 
 finally washeii off by \iolent agitation with a copious 
 supply of water. I'he plates being si't aside to drain 
 on folds of blotlinp-papcr are, when thoroughly dry, 
 ready for use. See Pliotogmphy. 
 
 FOUCADE. — A term formerly and very commonly 
 applied to a small mine. Also written Amgadt: 
 
 FOnOASSES. — Mines are so called wlicn placed at 
 the biiltiim of small shafts from 9 to 12 feet deep. 
 The jiowder is lodged in one of the sides of the shaft, 
 and it is lire<l from a secure spot by means of a 
 powder-hose train, brought up one side of the shaft, 
 and carried in a trough, ])anillel to the ground, 5 or 
 6 feet Ik'Iow the surface. When there is no occitsion 
 to fear that shells may fall on the part where the 
 trough is laid, it will be sutlieient to place it 2 or 2* 
 feet under the ground. The powder-case and trough 
 should be well "pitched, the shaft tamped iu the strong- 
 est manner, and the earth round about the shaft be 
 dug over, that nothing may indicate to the enemy the 
 position of the fouga.s,se. 
 
 The chief difticully attending the use of fougasscs 
 is to explode them at the instant when the enemy is 
 passing over, as any variation in the time of explosion 
 from this instant renders them useless. It is recom- 
 mended to place an obstacle over them, as an abatis 
 or chevau.x-de-frise, so that the fougasses may be ex- 
 plo<led while the enemy is occupied in forcing his way 
 over. See Shell I<}>u;/tisscs and Stone Fougasses. 
 
 FOHGETTE.— An Indian sky-rocket, a species of 
 fire- work which is frequently used by the Asiatics. It 
 is made of the hollow tube of the bamboo, of a very 
 large size, tilled with the usual composition of rockets. 
 The rod is only a part of the same bamboo, the greater 
 part of which is cut away. 
 
 FOUILLER. — In a military sense, to detach small 
 bodies of infantry round the flanks of a column that 
 is marching through a wood, for the purpose of dis- 
 covering im ambuscade, anil of giving timely notice 
 that it may be avoided. The same precaution is nec- 
 essary when a body of men advance towards or enter 
 a village. 
 
 FOULING. — Smoke is a solid product of the explo- 
 sion in a tine state of division; but at the instant of 
 explosion this product is liipiid and a part of it cakes 
 together in the bore and cau.ses foultni). Each suc- 
 ceeding round, however, expels a good deal of that 
 which was previously deposited. Foulinn is more 
 likely to occur in a small-arm than in a large piece of 
 ordnance, and it is best prevented by the use of good 
 powder in the charge and careful sponging. It grad- 
 ually impairs the accuracy, sometimes makes the 
 breech difficult to open, and increases the recoil, as 
 the resistance to motion of the bidlet in the bore be- 
 comes greater, and consequently the charge exerts its 
 force for a longer time. 
 
 FOUNDATION.— The artificial structure on which 
 the remainder of an edilice rests. The hod;/ of the 
 foundation is the niiisonry or timber- work used; the 
 bnl. the prepared surface on which the body rests. The 
 bed may lie a leveled surface of rock, sjuid, or earth, 
 consolidated by lieatiiig or l)y driving piles into it; if 
 the tops of the piles are bound together by a flooring 
 of timbers— called a grillage— this flooring is deemed 
 the bed of the foundation. Hock is the best founda- 
 tion, but its beiiring jxtwer should be tested, and its 
 upper surface should be made normal to the direction 
 of the pressure. To avoid exi>en.se, the l)earing sur- 
 face may be left in steps, but the steps shoulil be filled 
 with well-fitted masonrj-, that there may not be undue 
 settlement upon the filled side, in ca.sc'lhe lowest step 
 should be much lower than the highest. Great care 
 «h(juld be taken to apportion the hiad to the sujiport- 
 ing ])OWerof the foundation; if the l.'itter be found 
 inadc()uate, the area of the foundation sIkhiM be in- 
 crea-scd until the weight distributed to each unit of 
 
 surface shall be brought within the proper maximum. 
 Engineering science has been severely tested by de- 
 mands for sure foundations in places where the soil 
 and substrata are by nature yieldiiig, or exposed to 
 the insidious action of ruiming water, or where both 
 evils are united. Except upon solid rock, .settlement 
 cannot be avoided. It is enough for the safety of the 
 structure if the settlement can be made uniform in all 
 its parts. 
 
 A method of constructing foundations in deep water 
 adopted in late years is called the " pneumatic;" the 
 manner of its application is either that of a" vacuum" 
 or a " plenum," according as the pressure of the air 
 within is below or above the usual pressure of the at- 
 mosphere. In either case, an iron cylinder, usually 
 constructed In .sections, is lowered into the water until 
 its lower end rests on the bottom, while its upper end 
 extends above the surface. If the vacuum process be 
 used, the cylinder is capi)ed, and an air-pumi) reduces 
 the pressure of the air within. The weight of the tube 
 with the atmospheric pressure on its head pushes it 
 into the groiui(l, while the water pressing in below the 
 lower end stirs the earth and a.ssists the descent. When 
 descent stops, the air-pump may be reversed, and the 
 water ii! the pipe will be slowly driven through the 
 earth; a sudden release of the inner ])rcssvire will cause 
 a second influx of water, a disturbance of the soil, and 
 i a further descent of the tube. If the earth contains 
 ] Iwwlders or buried timbers, the movement of the tube 
 may be stoi^jjcd before reaching the depth desired by 
 the Engineer; or he may wish to remove the interior 
 earth and replace it with masonry, even where the 
 [ ground is too gravelly to keep out the water. In this 
 case an air-lock is placed upon the top of the tube, 
 air is forced into the interior, driving out the water, 
 and workmen are employed within to excavate the 
 earth, and afterward to lav the masonry. The air- 
 lock is a chamber which serves as a vestibule to the 
 interior, and permits the maintenance of a nearly con- 
 stant air-pressure within. A man enters the air-lock 
 and closes the door behind him; he then opens com- 
 munication with the interior of the tube, and whea 
 the pressure of air is equalized in the two si>aces he 
 passes within. 
 
 FOUNDRY. — The principal points to be considered 
 in the erection of a foundry are the proper arrange- 
 ment of plants for the economical h.-mdling of the 
 iron and fuel, and the castings when made. The 
 grountl should be well drained." and if in the proxim- 
 ity of water, the lower floor should be several feet 
 above the highest level of the water. The foundry- 
 floor is filled with molding-simd, from five to ten 
 feet deep. Sometimes it is necessjiry to have pits, 
 made of boiler-iron, set in the ground, twenty to 
 thirty feet deep, as in the car-wheel fouiuhies, for the 
 annealing process. The main building, used for the 
 molding-room, should be at least twenty feet high 
 in the walls, and should be well lighted, especially 
 in the roof, by running a large sky-light the entire 
 lengtli of the building, and so arranged as to be easi- 
 ly opened for ventilation. Additional rooms should 
 be provided for storing and preparing the materials 
 of the molds, such as grinding and sifting the sand, 
 loam, sea-coal, coke, plumbago and the charcoal, and 
 likewise for cleaning the castings and milling them. 
 There should also be a workshop for making pat- 
 terns, and large ovens for drying the cores. The 
 molding-room should have an area ijroportionatc to 
 the amount of work and kind of castings to be made. 
 For (Example, the Detroit Car-wheel Company, De 
 troit, .Mich., have a molding-floor with ;ui area of 
 about lO.OOtI s(|uare feet, they cast 3()0 wheels per 
 day, melting 100 tons of iron. Barney & Smith, 
 Dayton, Ohio, tl.oor-area 0000 square feet, melt .50 
 tons of iron, making 170 car-wheels \wv day. Lotiis- 
 ville Car-wheel Company, floor-area HOOO scpiare feet, 
 melt 50 tons of iron, making 170 car wheels i>er day. 
 Union Foimdry and Pullman Car-wheel Works, 
 Pullman, 111. melt 120 tons of irim per day, making 
 ItiO wheels, oesidcs other castings. Area of floor.
 
 FOTTNDBY. 
 
 701 
 
 FOUHSBT. 
 
 The Victor CoUiau Cupola.— For Foundry Use.
 
 FOUB. 
 
 02 
 
 rouB. 
 
 SO.IKK) square foot. Walter A. 'Wootl Harvester 
 Coinpiiny, Hoosick Falls, N. Y., melt 40 tons of 
 reiiper and mower castings per day. Area of floor, 
 ltt,(HHt s(|uare feet. A stove-foundry requires a very 
 lar);^■ titwr area. The cujKila.s should be placed as 
 near the I'cnter of the building as possible, so as to 
 equalize the distance for carrying the melted iron 
 from the cupola to the molds. This is done very 
 economically, for small castings, in latUes on wheels, 
 running on rails, distrilmting the iron to small hand- 
 ladles at each si-parate tloor. For hea\y castings 
 large cranes are used, for lifting and moving molds 
 and castings, and conveying the mehed metal in 
 large laiUes. The cupolas should be outside of the 
 molding room, in a sei>arate buihliug, containing the 
 cupola loading-floor, elevator (if inclined plane is 
 not used), and a mill for cleaning the cupoladrop- 
 pings. The height of the charging doors above the 
 bottom plate should be not less than 13 feet; 14 to 16 
 feet is l)etter. It is a gooil plim to provide a sepa- 
 rate steam-engine to nm the blower. This is more 
 economical even in the first construction, as the en- 
 
 Vertical Section of Colliau Cuiwla. 
 
 glne and steam-pipes cost less than the transmission 
 of power by .shafting and belts, and it jirevents all 
 complaints from the machine-shop. The blower 
 should be selected with due regiird to the size of 
 the cupola and the amount of iron to be melted 
 per hour; a large blower re(|uiriug less speed, less 
 friction, and thus less power in jiroportion than a 
 small one for the same amount of blast. The blast- 
 pipe from the blower to the cupola should be as 
 large in diameter, short, straight, and as air-tight as 
 possible. Avoid all bends if possible; if not, niake 
 them as long and ea.sy as circumstances permit. 
 
 The foundrv is the ba.sis or starting-point of all 
 machinery ami heavy guns, and bad castings spoil 
 the work. The fouiidrv should receive as much, if 
 not more, care and stu(1y as the machine-shop, and 
 the best cupola should be used. The records of the 
 Colliau cupola show the most economy in fuel and 
 iron, the greatest rapidity in fusion, ami the largest 
 amoinit of iron melted in a gnvcn time and si/e. as 
 ■well as the greatest (pianlity of iron melted at a heat 
 in one cupola without clogging. This cupola is rep- 
 resented complete in the engraving on page 701. The 
 accompanying drawing npresi'iiis a vertical section. 
 1)1) is the air-lx).\, GG the lower tuyeres, FF the 
 ui)per tuyeres. A B is the line of horizontal section, 
 shown Ik'Iow the vertical wclion. E is the arch over 
 the tap-hole, L. E ' is the arch over the slag-bole, II. 
 
 The line from F to J shows the inclination of the 
 upi)er tuyeres, F F. K is the inside brick lining. 
 The peculiar features of the Colliau cupola are the 
 proportions and arrangements of the ujijier and lower 
 tuyeres. The six lower tuyeres are rectangular antl are 
 inicnded to furnish the air ncees.sary to the combus- 
 tion of the fuel. They are generally left open during 
 the fusion; but as they are provided with gates 
 inside the air-box, they can be shut more or less 
 during the working, to direct the blast more on one 
 side than the other if necessary, or may be closed 
 altogether (in case of accident to the blower). The 
 six upper tuyeres are round, and point downwards. 
 They are arranged to alternate with the lower tuy- 
 eres. Their inclination is proportionate to the diam- 
 eter of the cupola, in such manner that the bla.st from 
 them will reach the focus of combustion produced by 
 the lower tuyeres. Tlie upper tuyeres are closed 
 when the blast is turned on, and o|)ened when the 
 iron shows at the fai>-liole, and the eui>ola plugged 
 up to accinnulate the first draught of iron. This is 
 accomplished by moving the lever-himdle which is 
 shown on the top of the air-box in the 
 figure. The opening of these tuyeres pro- 
 duces a downward blast of air(on the prin- 
 ciple of a blow-pipe), and furnishes the 
 oxygen neees.sjny to the combustion of the 
 hydrocarbon gas, which, without it, would 
 be thrown oil' by the imperfect combus- 
 tion of the fuel at the level of the lower 
 tuyeres. This combined blast produces a 
 melting-point about 18 inches above the 
 ujiper tuyeres, and nowhere else, concen- 
 trating the heat in the smallest possible 
 compass, so that the metal in fusion has 
 less space to traverse while exposed to the 
 oxidizing influence of the blast, thereby 
 insuring tougher castings and more perfect 
 combustion of the infiammable ga.ses (with 
 corresponding economy of fuel), which is 
 contrary to the usual practice of spreading 
 the blast as much as is possible. In the 
 practical use of this cupola there is no 
 flame at the loading-doors, and no throw- 
 ing off of combustible gases, CArbonie-aeid 
 gas (the only product of perfect combus- 
 tion) alone escaping: little or no flame 
 being seen at the top of the stack until 
 the iron is about all melted. This cupola 
 melts more iron per hour in proportion to 
 its size than any other. B cupola is 73 in- 
 ches outside diameter of shell, HS inches 
 diameter inside of lining; melts 12 to 1.5 tons per 
 hour, and 100 tons at a lieat. I) cupola is 64 inches 
 outside shell, 49 inches in.si(le of lining; melts 8 to 10 
 tons i>er hotir, and .50 to 60 tons at a heat. P cuiwla 
 is .54 inches outside of shell. 4'i inches inside of lin- 
 ing; melts 5 to 6 tons per hour, and 40 tons at a heat. 
 Hcupola is 47 inches outside of shell, H6 inches in- 
 side of lining; melts 4 to 5 tons per hour, and 30 tons 
 at a heat. J cupola is 43 inches outsiile shell, 33 
 inches inside of lining; melts 3 to 4 tons per hour, 
 ami 20 tons at a heat. L cupola is 35 inches outside 
 of shell, 25 inches inside lining; melts h to 1 ton per 
 hour, and 4 to 5 tons at a heat. Jleltings of 10 to 13 
 pounds of iron to 1 pound of fuel are obtained in 
 this cupola, according to (juantity of metal melted at 
 a heat. One of the results of the Colliau cupola is a 
 decrea.se of time in melting as the operation advances, 
 that is to say, a better working of the cupola at the 
 end of the opeintinn than at the beginning; this is the 
 reverse of whut generally occurs in ctipolas. See In/ii. 
 FOUB. —A pliice of confinement in Paris to which 
 vagabonds and persons who could not give any satis- 
 factory account of themselves were committed; and 
 when once shut up had their names registered, and 
 were enlisted for the old French Government. These 
 Fours added annually 2000 men at least to the King's 
 regular army; and by which means the capital was 
 relieved of a multitude of thieves, pickpockets, etc.
 
 FOUBAGE. 
 
 703 
 
 FBANCHSS. 
 
 FOUBAGE. — A term used fjjruratively In artillery, 
 to signify hay, straw, or anything else of a vegetable 
 growth which is used to ram into the bore of a can- 
 non for the purpose of cleansing it. 
 
 FOUKGON. — 1. A tumbrel or ammunition-wagon. 
 2. A Frencli bagirage-vehicle, much used in the tield. 
 
 FOUBIEB. — A Quartermaster belonging to a cavalry 
 or infantry regiment. In France there were Fimritn 
 M<Ovis who composed a portion of the Cavalry Staff. 
 Sergeant Fourier and Corporal Fourier answer to our 
 Quartermaster Sergeant. 
 
 FOURNIMENT.-^A horn formerly in use, which 
 held about one pound of gunpowder, to prime can- 
 non. It was likewise useil by cavalry and infantry 
 soldiers, who slung it across their shoulders. The 
 artillerists kept it in a belt. 
 
 FOURQUINE.— A forked rest, furnished at its ex- 
 tremity with a point or spikes to tix it steadily in the 
 ground. The nuisket was at first very considerably 
 heavier than the arijuebuse, and it was neces.sary to 
 discharsre it from a rest. 
 
 FOWKE'S PONTON.— This ponton is formed of a 
 wooden skeleton, over which is strained strong can- 
 vas rendered water-proof. It can be used as a boat 
 and is water-tight. It is readily transported and has 
 a great buovancv. 
 
 FOWLING-PIECE.— A light gim for shooting birds. 
 In constructing the barrels of this sporting-weapon, 
 the maker endeavors to secure the greatest possiljle 
 lightness, but without detracting from the necesstiry 
 strength. Formerly wrought - iron only was used", 
 but cast-steel is now very generally preferred. The 
 breech-loading principle "has been" introduced to a 
 great e.vtent, but many sportsmen are still in favor of 
 the muzzle-loader. The manufacture of the best 
 specimens of fowling-pieces demands a very high de- 
 gree of mechanical skill. 
 
 FOX. — An early and common name given to the 
 old English broadsword. 
 
 FBAISEB.— To plait, knead, or to drill. In a mili- 
 tary sense, to fraise or fence; as.frainer un battalion, 
 to fraise all the infantrymen wnth pikes, to oppose the 
 irruption of cavalry, should it charge them in a plain. 
 At present it means to secure a battalion by opposing 
 bayonet.s obliquely forward, or crosswise in such a 
 manner as to render it impossible for horsemen to act 
 against it. 
 
 FBAISES. — These obstacles are formed of palisades, 
 placed in juxtaposition, either horizontally or slightly 
 inclined. The best position for a fraise is on the 
 berm, or a little below it, so as to be covered by the 
 counterscarp-crest. The part of the fraise under the 
 parapet is termed the tail, and is about tive feet long. 
 To make a fraise, a horizontiil piece of a four-inch 
 scantling, termed a cttshion, is first laid parallel to the 
 
 Fraise, with Pickets in the Ditch. 
 
 berm; each palisade Is nailed to this, and a thick 
 riband is nailed on top of the fraise near the end. 
 The point of the frai.se .should be at least seven feet 
 above the bottom of the ditch, and should not project 
 beyond the foot of the scarp, so as not to shelter the 
 enemy from logs, stones, etc., rolled from the parapet 
 into the ditch. The fraise is a good obstacle for 
 works without flanking, as a redoubt, etc. The 
 drawing shows the construction of the fraise, also the 
 
 location of small pickets in the ditch. See Accesgory 
 Mian^ (if IJifeime. 
 
 FBAMEA;— a lance employed by the Franks. The 
 entire head is of one piece, in which the end of the 
 shaft is inserted and riveted. 
 
 FEAME-BBIDGE. — A bridge formed of timbers 
 framed together in such a manner as to obtain the 
 greatest possible amount of strength with a given 
 quantity of material. The fundamental principle 
 upon which all such construction is based is that 
 the timbers shall be so arranged that the weight put 
 upon them shall exert a pulling or a crushing strain,, 
 instead of a transverse strain, and, if possible, that 
 the greatest strain shall act as a direct pull in the 
 direction of the tibers of the wood. The construc- 
 tion of a frame-bridge is veiT similar to that of a 
 roof, excepting that in the bridge a considerable out- 
 ward thrust upon the abutments is generally permis- 
 sible, while the walls of a house will not stand this ; 
 and that for the bridge a nearly level way on the top is 
 desirable, while for a roof a sleep incline is not objec- 
 tionable, or is even desirable. The celebrated frame- 
 bridge of Schaffhausen, constructed in 1757 l)y Gru- 
 benmann, a village carpenter, was built exactly in 
 the manner of a roof, with the horizontal pathway 
 superadded. It was composed of two arches, one 
 193 feet, the other 172 feet span. It was merely laid 
 uiion the piers, and did not abut against them to 
 exert any outward thi-ust, as will be noticed in the 
 drawing. The weight upon the bridge is transmitted 
 
 Bridge of Schafthausen. 
 
 by the oblique beams, which by analogy we may call 
 rafters, to the tie-beam ab, where it exerts a horizontal 
 pulling strain. These rafters are framed into the 
 tie-beam .so as to abut firmly against it in the same 
 manner as roof-rafters (see Rocf). This kinil of 
 frame-bridge is verj- common in Switzerland, where 
 timber-bridges abound ; and it has doubtless origi- 
 nated from the fact that most of the bridges have 
 been built by the local carpenters, who are accus- 
 tomed to the construction of roofs of considerable 
 span for the commodious scjuare-built wooden cot- 
 tages with overhanging roofs, so common in that 
 co\mtry. Frame-bridges of more complex structure 
 are sometimes built ; in some of these the timbers 
 are framed so as to present an arched form. In these 
 ca.ses the structure is very similar to those described 
 and noticed under C'einterino. The serious defect 
 of all such bridges is their liability to decay from 
 exposure to moisture, etc.. especially at the joints, 
 where water is apt to lodge and remain, from want 
 of free circulation of air to evaporate it. In the 
 bridge of Schaffhausen above described, it was found 
 that When it had stood but twenty-six years, the oak 
 beams, where they rested upon the masonry at a 
 and b, were rotted, and the frames began to .settle. 
 This was remedied by a carjienter named Spengler, 
 who raised the whole structure ujion piles bv means 
 of screw-jacks, and so replaced llie decayed wood. 
 Means should be adopted to admit the free circula- 
 tion of air in those parts where the timber rests upon 
 the masonry, and to prevent water from settling in the 
 timber joints. The covered bridges of Lueenie and 
 other parts of Switzerland are well known as objects 
 of special interest to tourists, who usually imagine 
 that the roofs are constructed for the comfort of 
 travelers, but their main object is the preservation of 
 the bridge. 
 
 FBANCHES. — Bodies of men detached and sepa- 
 rated from the rest of the army, having each a Chief
 
 FBANCIsaUE. 
 
 704 
 
 FBANKLIN HAOAZINE-OUN. 
 
 or a Commandant. They consistctl cliietly of dra- 
 goons, liu.sstirs, etc., and their jieculiar duly was to 
 make irruptions into an enemy's country. They 
 may not improperly be called Ijiud-pinites, as tJieir 
 chief occupation was to haro.ss and plunder the 
 enemy imd his adherents, in whatever manner they 
 i-ould", without twyini; any re.irard to military forms. 
 The iK'rstms who composed these corps were termeii 
 parlis;ms. They always accompanied the main army 
 in lime of war, anif were distributed amon^ the dif- 
 ferent garris<ins in France during' peace. 1 hey were 
 common to every power in Europe. The Pandours 
 and Iliilans were" of this description. They were the 
 worst attliitions of war ; and generally as fatal to 
 their fiienils as to their enemies. 
 
 FKANCISQUE. — A battle-axe generally in use 
 amonj: the Franks. It was either used as a hatchet, 
 or was hurled at the head or at the shield of the 
 enemy. It was made under several varieties of form; 
 and iis blows if properlv aimed took violent effect. 
 
 FRANC-TIREURS.— fiands of French soldiers that 
 sprang into existence during the progress of the 
 Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). They did not 
 form a part of the regular army, and at first their 
 military organization was very imi)erfect ; but this 
 defect "was afterwards in some measure remedied. 
 They exercised a species of guerrilla warfare, attack- 
 ing small detachments of the enemy, as also single 
 travelers, baggage-trains, etc., their attacks being 
 very often characterized by those siivageries incident 
 to this mode of warfare. They consisted mostly of 
 the country population; but their birth, education, 
 clothing, arms, age, and even their aim, were almost 
 in every case diilerent. At tirst they were not re- 
 cognizcil by the Germans as having any military 
 standing at all, and when seized they were shot ; but 
 after a time, wlien they received a better organiza- 
 tion, and CO operated with the regular French army, 
 such recognition was accorded them. The name was 
 also applied to French soldiers, during the Crimean 
 War, who were stationed as sharp-shooters, and to 
 certain corps of lisht infantry in the republican wars. 
 
 FRANKING LETTERS. -^ In the United States, 
 established as a system b<'fore th(' ado|ition of the 
 Federal Constitution, and coutiiuicd with various 
 moditications until the last day of June, 1873. At 
 first granted only on letters of iievolutionary soldiers 
 who were in actual service, its privilege was after- 
 wards extended to the President, the Heads of De- 
 partments, the Chiefs of Bureaus, and certain Clerks 
 designated by the Postmaster General. Public docu- 
 ments were also sent free. It was further extended 
 to Senators and Congressmen for matter addresseel 
 by or to them, with certain limitations, Ijefore and 
 after the .sessions of Congress; Postmasters could 
 frank official correspondence ; newspapers were ex- 
 changed free, and petitions to Congress were sent 
 free, but the weight of packages was limited to 4 
 ounces each. A further extension included the ex- 
 changes of the Smithsonian Institution, medals, and 
 testimonials granted to .soldiers. After .July 1, 1873, 
 the franking .system was in part set aside, and an 
 allowance of stamps wits made to the various Depart- 
 ments to cover the expense of correspondence and of 
 the transmission of reports and docmnenls. 
 
 In England, on the introduction of the uniform 
 pemiy-poslage on all inlaml letters in 1840, the privi- 
 lege formerly enjoyed by Peers and .Members of the 
 Uou.se of Commons, and many ollicial persons, of 
 fiiinh'iif/ was abolishcil. The privilege was claimed 
 by the lIou.se of Commons in l(!(iO, when the Post- 
 oilice was tii-st legally established, but it was after- 
 wards dropped upon a private as.surance from the 
 Crown that it should be allowed to mcndier.s. The 
 Postniiuster (Jeiural accordingly conslanlly issued a 
 warrant directing the allowance, till the privilege 
 was expressly conferred by statute. In the days of 
 frank-inn, each Meinlx;r of either House of Parlia- 
 ment Was entitled to send ten letters every day, not 
 cxcecdiiig an ounce in weight each, to any place iu 
 
 the United Kingdom, and to receive lifteen. free. As 
 it W!is not neces.sary that the letter should be either 
 written by or to the i)rivileged person, the privilege 
 W!is greatly abused; and most persons whose memo- 
 ries reaih bick to the jieriod when it existed will 
 rememl)er family arrangements for taking advantage 
 of it, by \vhich the whole correspondence of the 
 kindred, connections, and even the intimate acquaint- 
 ances of a Peer, or a Member of Parliament, was iu 
 general carried on duty free. Up to the passing of 
 the last-mentioned statute, all that was retjuisite was 
 that the Jlember should write his name or title on the 
 corner of the letter. From this time, however, till 
 the abolition of the ])riyilege, it was required that the 
 whole address should be written by the .Member; that 
 he should add not only his name, but the name of 
 the post-town, and the day of the month; and what 
 was most troublesome of all, that the letter should 
 be posted on the day on which it wsis written, or the 
 following tlay, and in a i^ost-town within twenty 
 miles of which the person fnin/,'iiir/ was then actually 
 resident. By this regulation the kindly cu.stom of 
 giving franks t(j friends, or leaving them with them 
 lor future use, was rudely interfered with, and the 
 public mind reconciled to the tinal abolition of what 
 many regarded as a time-honored abuse. See Official 
 Enrdojh's. 
 
 FRANKLIN MAGAZINE-GUN.— This gun belongs 
 to that system iu wliicli a tixed chamber is clo.sed by 
 a bolt b}' tlirect action, and iu which the lock is con- 
 cealed. The receiver has a vertical slot cut entirely 
 through it for the purpose of receiving cartridges 
 from above and affording egress to the empty shells 
 below. It has also a longitudinal slot through which 
 the handle on the breech-bolt slides, with a side cut at 
 the front end of the slot for the receiition of the hau- 
 tUe when the bolt is locked. The breech-bolt is com- 
 |)osed of three parts, viz., the locking-tul)e, the bolt- 
 head, and the cocking-piece. To the latter of these 
 the tiring-pin, which extends the whole length of the 
 breech-bolt, is .secured by a screw. The bolt-head, 
 which supijorts the cartridge at the instant of fire, is 
 secured to the locking-tube by a pin at right angles to 
 its axis. The tiring-pin spring, which is held Ijctwcen 
 the shoulder on the front of llie tiring-|iin and that at 
 the Imllomof the locking-tube, serves by its tension to 
 hold in contact the locking-tube and cocking-piece. 
 By means of the spiral surfaces of a projection on the 
 cocking-piece, and a corresponding rece.ss on the 
 locking-tube, the cocking-piece is cammed back, 
 withdrawing the point of the tiring-pin within the 
 face of the bolt-head when the piece is unlocked. 
 Accidental explosions are thus avoiiled in closing the 
 bolt. The form of the cut in the receiver is such as 
 to cam back the handle, and with it the boll, during 
 the unlocking, starling the empty shell. This is a 
 necessary feature of all bolt guns "which are intended 
 to fire copper-ease cartridges. The breech-bolt is pre- 
 vented from being pulled comiiletely out by the nose 
 of the .sear strikiiig on the bolt-head. The "magazine, 
 which is a metallic tube, lies on top of the barrel. 
 The magazine slop spring is fasteneil at its rear to a 
 lever, and its front is inclined to the axis of the re- 
 ceiver. When the handle is turned so as to uidock 
 the breech boll, a lever one extremity of which enlere 
 a groove, while the other is comiected with the maga- 
 zine stop-spring and its lever, is so moved as to cause 
 I he slo]>-spring to move forward, when its inclined 
 front springs through an oix-ning in the side of the 
 receiver and partially "covers the mouth of the ma.gsi- 
 zine, preventing escape of cartiidges. '\\'hen the 
 breech-bolt is returned to its locking iiosilion the slop- 
 spring is returned to its first position by means of a 
 .spring operating its lever; at the same time the in- 
 clined face of the slop-spring beating on the side of 
 the cut in the receiver is jtressed out of the way, and 
 a cartridge i.ssues from the magazine into the space 
 above the breech-boll. It follows, Iherefore. that a 
 cartridge always occupies the space aliove Ihe breech- 
 I bolt when the piece is locked, provided the magazine
 
 m&NES. 
 
 705 
 
 FBAin). 
 
 has been previously filled. When the bolt Is with- 
 drawn, this cartridge, uniler the influence of gravity 
 alone, falls into a position in line with the axis of the 
 bore. The bullet is supported by a shelf in rear of the 
 chamber. The base of the cartridge is prevented 
 from falling below the line of the axis of the bore by 
 the shape of the slot in the receiver, which is only 
 wide enough for the shell to fall through when its 
 bead is behind the extractor. This condition oidy 
 obtains when the shell is being withdrawn. When 
 the bolt is returned the cartridge is forced into the 
 chamber and another one enters the space above the 
 breech-bolt. A lid covers the opening at the top of 
 the receiver. A catch serves to keep the lid closed 
 except when the breech-bolt is unlocked. If the lid 
 be raised during that time, a shoulder on its interior 
 bearing against a lever prevents the stop-spring re- 
 turning to its original position. The lid remaining 
 open, the piece may be loaded and tired as a single- 
 loader. No ejector is required with this gun, gravity 
 again being called on to effect the fall of the empty 
 shell through the opening to the ground. As a mag- 
 azine-gun, three motions are necessary to operate it, 
 viz., opened, closed, tired. As a single-loader, four 
 motioas are necess;iry, \-iz., opened, l(jaded, closed, 
 fired. This gun carries ten cartridges in the maga- 
 zine, one in the space above the breech-bolt, and one 
 in the chamljer. See Miir/aziiu-gtin. 
 
 FRANKS. — The name a.ssumed by a Confederation 
 of Gennan tribes that api)earcd on the Lower Rhine 
 in the third century, anil afterwards overthrew the 
 Roman dominion in Gaul. It was onlv the name, 
 however, that was new; the indi\idual tribes compos- 
 ing the Confederation had been known on the Rhine 
 as early as the time of Augustus. The most impor- 
 tant of the.se were the Sigambri, Chama\i, Ampsi- 
 varii, Chatti, Chattuarii, and Brncteri of the lime of 
 the First Emperors. In the third and fourtli centu- 
 ries hordes of them began to pour through the Low 
 Countries into Gaul, imtil at last the country became 
 their prey. After the middle of the fourth century 
 they appear divided into two groups, the Salians 
 and the Ripuarians, the former inhabiting Holland 
 and the Low Countries, the latter on both sides of the 
 
 strong principle, although a series of thin coils helps 
 us to distribute the induced strain upon a gun by 
 shrinking on each coil separately, the method is open 
 to the serious objection that it is practically difficult 
 to calculate the respective proportionate amount of 
 extension, and, consequently, the greater the number 
 of pieces in a gun, the more likely that some weak- 
 ness will exist in the mass, owing to the undue strain 
 on some of its parts. Shrinking on the coils succes- 
 sively was adopted by Sir William Armstrong, as a 
 convenient mode of adhesion, and not on the distribu- 
 tion theorj'. In the formation of a triple coil, it is 
 generally a manufacturing necessity to have the first 
 coil cold before the second bar is wound round; but 
 the third bar is wound on while the second coil is 
 hot; the second and third layers, therefore, contract 
 nearly simultaneously, and are kept in a state of ten- 
 sion by the first, which they compress to a certain 
 degree, thus carrying out the theory of initial ten- 
 sion. 
 
 The barrel is made from a solid forged cyliuder of 
 cast-steel, drawn by beating and hammering; it is 
 turned, bored, and chambered, then heated to a uni- 
 form temperature in a vertical furnace and plunged 
 into a covered tank of rapeoil, where it cools and 
 soaks. The muzzle-coil is constructed of two single 
 coils, welded together endways. Each coil is formed 
 bj' hejiting a long bar and wrapping it about a man- 
 drel; this is next healed in a reverberatorj- furnace and 
 welded under a steam-hammer Before being united, 
 the two cylinders are turned and bored. The breech- 
 coil is composed of a triple coil, a trunnion-ring, and 
 a double coil welded together. The double coil is 
 formed by placing a single coil, when cold, on a 
 mandrel and winding over it, but in the reverse direc- 
 tion to break joints, a second bar; if over this a third 
 bar is immediately wound in the same direction as 
 the first, a, triple coil will result. These coils are 
 welded by being heated and hammered on end and 
 on the sides. The trunnion-ring is made by welding 
 slaljs of iron together on the fiat end of a bar, and 
 gradually forming a ring by dri\ing through the cen- 
 ter wedges and manilrels increasing in size; the trun- 
 nions, one of which comes from the bar, are at the 
 
 Rhine as far up as the Main. Each group had its i same time hammered into shape. The coils and the 
 
 own laws, afterwards committed to writing (i#j Stiliea 
 and IjCJ- R/'piuiriorum). Like the two peoples, these 
 laws differ little even in detail. 
 
 FBAS£S GUN.— This gun is an important modifica- 
 tion of the Armstrong gun, from which it differs 
 principally in building up a gun of a few long double 
 and triple coils, instead of .sevend short ones, and a 
 forged breech-piece. The Fraser 9-inch gun is repre- 
 sented in the drawing, where it is readilj' seen how a 
 
 Fraser 9-inch Gun. 
 
 great expense is -saved by this means of constniction, 
 as there is much less surface to be bored and turned. 
 With respect to theory, it may l)e urged in its favor, 
 in the first place, that a forge"d breech-piece (which is 
 comparatively exjjensive, and liable to fly into frag- 
 ments should" the gun burst) is not required with a 
 solid-ended steel barrel and long thick coils, although 
 it is necessjirk- with several short coils to compensate 
 for the longitudinal weakness of their joints. The 
 whole of the wrought-iron, therefore, can be coiled 
 round the barrel, and thus give an extra transverse 
 strength. Again, the trunnion-ring, which had to be 
 shnmk on in the first constniction, is welded on 
 to the breech-coil in the Fraser plan, so that there is 
 no fear of slipping. With regard to the second Arm- 
 
 ring liaAUig been turned and bored, the latter is 
 placed on a shoulder of the triple coil, the double 
 coil is dropped through the tnuinion-ring on to the 
 triple coil, and the joints welded in this position. 
 The cascabel is forged of good scrap-iron. 
 
 The different parts having been formed are accu- 
 rately turned and bored with a slight taper. The B- 
 tube, being healed, is dropped over the barrel, which 
 is stood in a pit, a stream of cold water circulating 
 through the bore. The half-formed 
 gun is then placed on its muzzle, water 
 forced through the bore, and the breech 
 coil heated and .slipped into position. 
 The cascabel is screwed into the breech- 
 coil abutting agairLst the barrel, great 
 care being taken that the contact is 
 perfect. A tell-tale hole is cut along 
 the thread on the cascabel to give warn- 
 ing by the escape of gas should the 
 barrel break in firing. The vent is 
 bored through hardened copper; it enters at near the 
 center of the serWce-cartridge. This gives greater 
 velocity, but also greater pressure. The large guns 
 have from seven to ten grooves. The twist is uni- 
 formlv increasing: the shape of the grooves is circu- 
 lar, with curved edges. Larger cannon are built up 
 of a greater number of pieces. In some a coil (the 
 lx>lt) is placed Ix-tween the muzzle and breech coils, 
 with an additional coil (the waistcoat) under the 
 breech-coil. Shoulders also are used, by which the 
 parts when hot are hooked together. See Armstrong 
 OiiriK, Ordnance, and Woolin'rh Oun. 
 
 FKAUD.— Any person in the military service of the 
 United States who makes or causes to be made anv 
 claim against the United States, or any officer thereof.
 
 FKAYS. 
 
 706 
 
 7BENCH ABHT. 
 
 knowing such claim to be false or fraudulent; or who 
 presents or causes to be presented to any person in 
 tlie civil or military service lliereof, for Tipproviil or 
 payment, any claim against the United Stales, or any 
 olllcer tliereof, knowing s\ich claim to be false or 
 traudulcnt; or who cuti-rs into any ajrrecment or con- 
 spiracy to defrauil the United Stales by obtiiining. or 
 alding\)thcrs lo obtain, the allowance or payment of 
 any false or fraudulent claim; or who, for the pur- 
 pose of obtainin;;, or aiding others to obtain, the ap- 
 proval, allowance, or payment of any claim aj?iinsl 
 the United States, or against any officer thereof, 
 makes or uses, or jjrocures or advises the making or 
 use of, any writing, or other paper, knowing the 
 same to contain any false or fraudulent stjitement; or 
 who, for the purpose of obtaining, or aiding others 
 to obtain, the approval, allowance, or payment of any 
 claim against the United States or any officer thereof, 
 makes, or prtK^ures or advises the making of, any 
 oath to any f:ict or to any writing or other paper, 
 knowing such oath to be false; or who. for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining, or aiding others to obtain, the ap- 
 proval, allowance, or paj-ment of any claim against tlie 
 United States, or any officer thereof, forges or coun- 
 terfeits, or procures or adWses the forging or counter- 
 feiting of, any signature upon any writmg or other 
 paper, or uses, or procures or advises the use of, any 
 such signature, knowing the same to be forged or 
 counterfeited; or who, having charge, possession, 
 custody, or control of any money or other properly 
 of the United States, furnished or intended for ihe 
 military service thereof, knowingly delivers, or causes 
 to be delivered, to any person ha\-ing authority to re- 
 ceive the same, any amount thereof less than that for 
 which he receives a certiticale or receipt, shidl. on 
 con\'iction thereof, be punished by tine or imprison- 
 ment, or by such other punishment as a Court-Martial 
 may adjudge. And if any person, being guilty of 
 any of the offenses aforesaid, while in the military 
 service of the United States, receives his discharge, 
 or is dismissed from the service, he shall continue to 
 be liable to be arrested and held for trial and .seulence 
 by a Court-Martial, in the same manner and to the 
 same extent as if he had not received such discharge 
 nor been dismissed. 
 
 FBAYS. — All officers of what condition soever have 
 power to part and quell all quaiTels, frays, and disor- 
 ders, though the per.sons concerned should belong to 
 another regiment, troop, or company, and either to 
 order officers in arrest, or non-commissioned officers 
 or soldiers into confinement, until their proper .supe- 
 rior officers shall be acquainted therewith; and who- 
 soever shall refuse to obey such officer (though of 
 an inferior rank, and of a different regiment, troop, 
 or company), or shall draw his sword upon him, shall 
 be punished at the discretion of a General Court-Mar- 
 tial. 
 
 FHEEBOOTEE.— A term commonly applied to one 
 ■who w anikr-i about for plunder; a robber; a pillager; 
 a plunderer. 
 
 FEEEDMENS BUREAU.— The branch of the War 
 Department of the United States, established in 1865, 
 to which W!is committed the supervision and manage- 
 ment of abandoned lands, and the control of all sub- 
 jects relating to refugees and freedraen from any dis- 
 trict embraced within the territory covered by the 
 ojxjrations of the army. It Wiis managed by a Cora- 
 mis.sioner, with a number of As.sistanls. ItWas cre- 
 ated to meet a special exigency: much of tlic work 
 was long ago accomplished, and Ihe principal func- 
 tions of the Bureau cea-sed in 1870. During its ex- 
 istence the Bureau exercised a general super\ision 
 over the freedmen and other loyal refugees, protect- 
 ing their rights, finding work and providing educa- 
 tion for them, and furnishing medical treatment. 
 More than 2100 day- and night-schools were in ope- 
 ration in 1H69, with 24.')5 tejichers and 114,.W3 pu- 
 pils. The Bureau was in.stnimenlal in establishing 
 institutions for the higher education of freedmen, 
 such as Howard University at Washington, Atlanta 
 
 Universilv, Claflin University in South Carolina, and 
 others. The number of rations i.ssued to freedmen 
 was over ir),000,000, and nearly 600,000 sick persons 
 were cared for. 
 
 FREE-LANCES. — Roving companies of knights and 
 men-al-arins, who, after the Crusades had ceased 
 to give them emiiloyment, wandered from Stale to 
 State, selling their .serWces lo any lord who was will- 
 ing to purchase their aid in the perpetual feuds of 
 the Middle Ages. They played their most prominent 
 part in Italy, where they were known as CondottVeri. 
 
 FREEMAN GUN.— A breech-loading rifle having a 
 fixed chamber closed by a movable breech-block, ro- 
 tating about a vertical axis at 90 to the axis of the 
 barrel, and lying in the plane of the axis of the barrel. 
 It is opened by cocking the piece and pulling back 
 the horn of the breech-block; and is closed by push- 
 ing the horn forward with the right hand, a bevel on 
 the left face of Ihe breech-block pushing the car- 
 tridge home. When locked by the position of the 
 breech-block it is also kept from turning by the front 
 segmeni of the hammer eng-aging with a correspond- 
 ing groove in the back of the block. It is fired by a 
 center-lock of the usual pattern. 
 
 Extraction is accomplished by a bent lever pivoted 
 below the chamber and struck by the ejector-cam, 
 which, turning with the breech-block in opening the 
 piece, rides over the curved horn of the extractor and 
 ilraws back its upper end, carrjTng with it tlie car- 
 tridge-shell. Ejection is caused b)' a flat spring riding 
 on a cam formed on the hub of the extractor, and 
 thereby accelerating its action on the cartridge-shell 
 when the latter has been started from its seat in the 
 chamber in the act of opening the piece. 
 
 The arm has been modified so thai Ihe horn of the 
 breech block, instead of being solid with the block, 
 is pivoted to it on a vertical axis, and has its lower 
 portion cam-shaped, with a bearing on the side of the 
 frame, so that a lever power is obtained in the first 
 movement of opening the piece, when, if at all, the 
 block is likely to stick. The hammer also has a pro- 
 jecting tooth on its forward surface, which engages 
 with a notch in the under si<le of the firing-pin and 
 retracts it when the hammer is cocked. The point of 
 the firing-pin may thus be withdrawn from its im- 
 pression in the cartridge-head, in order to allow the 
 block to open freelv- 
 
 FRENCH army".— One of the chief Continental ar- 
 mies of Europe. Early in 1868 a Bill was carried 
 through the French Chambers which raised the force 
 of that country, nominally, to 800,000 men. The 
 term of service was increased from seven to nine 
 years. The rate of recruiting per annum was fixed 
 at 100,000 men, selected by conscrii)tion; the propor- 
 tion of which to the population (37,000,000) being 
 about 1 to every 370. The nine years' service men 
 were divided (as regards the 70,000 men who were 
 called for service out of the 100.000) between five 
 yeare passed under the Regimental Colors and four 
 years in a General Reserve, culled the Second Re- 
 serve. The remaining 30,000 men were enrolled 
 in the First Reserve, and were not required to per- 
 form any military service in peace-time, except five 
 months' drill in each of the five years. Those 
 who were not drawn by conscription had to serve 
 five j-cars in the Oarde Mobile, being called upon to 
 take the field on emergency. Such was the mili- 
 fjirj- system of Prance when the war of 1870-71 
 broke out. It jiroved inefficient to produce a trained 
 Second Reserve; and in order lo insure the French 
 army an ample and constant supply of recruits, the 
 law of general military service of the First Republic 
 was restored in ils fullest vigor, in a Bill passed by 
 the French A.sscnibly in .July, 1873. The present sys- 
 tem alters entirely "the military recruiting of that 
 countn,', and is similar to the German one, as will be 
 seen by the following principal clauses: Every French- 
 man is liable to military .ser%-ice, and must serve per- 
 sonally, the system of substitute being aboli.shed. He 
 is called upon to serve from the age of 30 (instead of
 
 raZNCH ARHT. 
 
 707 
 
 FBENCH ABHY. 
 
 21, as by the former law) to the age of 40, the period 
 of senice being thus distributed: five years in tlie 
 Active Army; four years in the Reserve of the Active 
 Army; five jears in the Territorial Army; six years in 
 the Reserves of the Territorial Army. Every man en- 
 rolled in each yearly contingent "has to serve for 
 twelve mouths at least, except those for the service of 
 special arms — artillery, engineers, and cavalry, which 
 require a longer training — and they have therefore to 
 serve a much longer time. Notwithstanding all per- 
 manent exemption being abolished, there are certain 
 strictly determined cases of a temporary kind which 
 exempt men from the service, such as supporters of 
 families, eldest brother of orphans, only son or grand- 
 son of widows, etc. Young men who have obtained 
 university and college degrees, and those who belong 
 to government schools, and who desire to continue 
 their studies, may volunteer for one year. They are 
 called Volontaires d'uii an. The men of this class 
 must defray at their own expense the cost of their uni- 
 form, equipment, and horse, if in the cavalrj'. After 
 one year they have to pass an examination, and, if 
 not successful, have to remain another year in the 
 ranks. At the end of their term, they receive, as a 
 rule, certificates of qualilicjition as Xon-commissioned 
 Officers or OBicers in the Territorial Army. Like all 
 others, they are liable to be called upon to serve on 
 the outbreak of war. The rate of recruiting by this 
 new law is computed to give France a yearly contin- 
 gent of 1.50,000 men, deductions being made on ac- 
 count of the "dispensed with" class. Each contin- 
 gent is therefore, in different ways, subject to serve 
 for twenty years, and consequently at the end of that 
 period the forces of France will amount to an aggre- 
 
 fatc of twenty contingents of 130,000 each, with de- 
 uctions for deaths and casualties, gi\'ing a total of 
 2,423,164 men. In addition to these levies, France 
 has a Permanent Army of 81, 722 men, belonging to 
 the permanent effective, not recruited by means of 
 the conscription, composed of Officers, Staff, Admin- 
 istrative Corps, Gendarnwrk , etc. The active army 
 in time of peace has (18T.5) a strength of 480,000 meii, 
 and in time of war, by calling in the trained contin- 
 gents of 780,000 men, organized in corps, and ready 
 to take the field at once on the outbreak of a war, 
 has behind it " Troops of Reinforcement" amounting 
 to 279,000 men, who have all served at least one year 
 in the army. These Troops of Reinforcement will be 
 distributed in the corps depots, together with the 
 150,000 men of the last class called up and not yet 
 fully instructed. Thus the fighting army of 780,000 
 men may be increased by 429,000 men read)- to till up 
 vacancies in the fighting corps. 
 
 The organization of these forces was the subject of 
 the Bill passed by the Assembly, and promulgated in 
 March, 1875; it is known as the Loi dts Cadres. By 
 this law, France is divided into 18 military regions, 
 each garrisoned by an Armj- Corps, besides a special 
 Corps (19th) for Algeria. Each Army Corps has 2 
 infantry divisions, Ibrigade of cavalry, 1 brigade of 
 artillery, 1 battalion of engineers, and 1 squadron of 
 field-train, besides staff and auxiliarj- services. The 
 .several Army Corps are recruited indifferently from 
 the whole contingent, and during peace may be moved 
 from region to region; but the Reserves are organized 
 in their own regions. On the outbreak of war, the 
 men of the Reserve will be mobilized near their homes, 
 clothed and armed at depots already known to them, 
 within a day's walk, and sent to swell the ranks of 
 that Corps which happens to be stationed in the re- 
 gion at the time. The Territorial Army will, at all 
 times, belong to its own region. Its duties in war 
 will be to garrison fortresses, defend strategic points, 
 work the lines of communication, and set the active 
 army free for field-operations, but, when urgent, will 
 also co-operate in the field with it. The EVench army 
 is composed as follows: 144 regimen t.s of the line, 
 each regiment consisting of 4 battalions, and each 
 battalion of 4 companies, with 2 depot companies; 30 
 battalions of foot-chasseurs {chasseurs a pied), each 
 
 battalion of 4 fighting companies and 1 depot com- 
 pany. In addition, the 19th Corps d'armee. quartered 
 in Algeria, comprises four regiments of zouaves, 
 each regiment of 4 battalions, consisting of 4 fight- 
 ing companies and 1 depot company; three regi- 
 ments of Algerian sharp-.^hooters (liircos), organized 
 like the zoiiares; one foreign regiment of 4 battal- 
 ions, each 4 companies strong; five discipline com- 
 panies (zephyrs). Each fighting company consists of 
 1 Captain, 1 Lieutenant and 1 Sub-lieutenant, 1 Ser- 
 geant Major, 4 Sergeants, 1 Quartermaster Sergeant, 
 8 Corporals, 2 drummers or buglers, and 66 privates; 
 total per company on peace-footing, 3 officers and 85 
 rank and file. At 16 companies per regiment, this 
 gives an aggregate of 48 officers and 1312 rank and 
 tile. The two depot companies present an effective 
 of 6 Officers, 32 Noncommissioned Officers, and the 
 number of men remains unknown. On the war-foot- 
 ing, each company is increased by 1 Lieutenant or 
 Sub-lieutenant, 1 Quartenna.ster Corporal, 4 Ser- 
 geants, 8 Corporals, and 2 drummers. The cavalrj' 
 branch of the ser\ice consists of 77 regiments, viz.: 
 12 regiments of cuirassiers, 26 regiments of dragoons, 
 20 of chasseurs, 12 of hussars, 4 of chasseurs d'Afrique, 
 and 3 regiments of spahis (native cavalrj' of Algeria). 
 The 70 home regiments form 18 brigatles of 2 regi- 
 ments each, one of which is attached to each Carps 
 d'armie. This leaves 34 regiments available to form 
 independent cavalry biigades and divisions. Each of 
 the 70 home regiments consists of 5 squadrons, hav- 
 ing on peace-footing 45 officers, 830 men, and 740 
 horses. The African regiments are 6 squailrons strong, 
 and their effective amounts to 59 officers, 978 men, 
 and 930 horses. In addition there will be 19 squad- 
 rons of cavalrj' volimteers, who will supplj' the (Jen- 
 erals and Stall Officers with men capable, from pre- 
 vious instruction, of perfomdng, efficientlj', duties as 
 guides, escort, orderlies, etc. The artillirj' consists 
 of 38 regiments quartered in France, forming 19 bri- 
 gades, 2" per Armv Corps. The first regiment of each 
 brigade consists of 3 batteries n pied (without gims), 
 8 batteries montees (with guns), 2 mont-es depot batr 
 teries (provided with guns for drill and practice pur- 
 poses); in all 65 Officers, 1349 Non-commissioned 
 Officers and men, and 635 horses. The second regi- 
 ment of each brigade consists of 8 mounted batteries, 
 3 batteries of horse-artillerj', and 2 mounted depot 
 batteries; 68 officers, 1369 men, and 878 horses. There 
 are 2 regiments exclusively intrusted with the Bridge 
 and Ponton Department, 10 companies of Artillery 
 Artisans, 3 Rocket Companies, and 57 companies of the 
 Artillerj' Train. The Engineering Department con- 
 sists of 4 regiments of sappers and miners, and that 
 of the Military Tram of 20 .stjuadrons. 
 
 Besides the above forces, there are certain auxiliar- 
 ies, ^iz.: Military Clerks and Artisans; Ambulance 
 Staff and Attendants (injirmurs militaires); Military 
 Chaplains; the Oejidarmerie and a regiment of Fire- 
 men of the City of Paris, who are picked men from 
 the annv; a Corps of Militarj- Interpreters, a Tele- 
 graphic Staff and Corps, a Railway Staff and Corps, the 
 three latter being borrowed from" the German system. 
 The various railway lines in the rear of the army are 
 to be worked by these Corps, under militjiry superin- 
 tendence in front of the lines. To secure a compe- 
 tent militarj- Railway Staff, a certain number of sap- 
 pers and miners, after one year's service with the Col- 
 ors, will he told off to the various railways to com- 
 plete their professional instruction. 
 
 The French army is officered partlj' from the ranks, 
 
 partly from the Militarj- Colleges, spi-cially from the 
 
 latter. Major Brackenburj-, in the preface to his 
 
 translation of the law on the general organization of 
 
 the French army, adverts to the subject of the prin- 
 
 j ciples on which it has been remodeled, as follows: 
 
 1st. General obligation to milit;iry ser\ice. 2d. A 
 
 peace organization approaching as nearlj' as possible 
 
 ! the organizjilion for war. The Corps are alwaj-s 
 
 ready with their Slatis and administrative services, and 
 
 ; only require the addition of their Reserves — always
 
 FS£NCH ASMY OBDNANCE. 
 
 708 
 
 FRENCH ARMY ORDNANCE. 
 
 close at hand — in order to go into the field. Their 
 stores lire also on the spot. 3(1. Deceiitralizalioti. 
 Each General mobilizes his own Corps, is responsi- 
 ble for his own first supplies, iiiul can have no one 
 but himself to blame if he is slow or wants anylliini;. 
 4th. On the other hand, the Government has a Corps 
 of Inspectors, who will durinj; peace deti-ct the in- 
 competence of a Commander. 5th. The Control is 
 ciirefully si'pavatetl from the Administration, and 
 the Geiiends are expected to be good administra- 
 tors as well as good leaders of troops, (itb. Kecruit- 
 ing, remounts, hos|>iliils, etc., are managed by the 
 Territorial StulT in eacli region, but always under the 
 Geuend Conim:in(liMg the Corps tlieu iireseiit. When 
 a Corjis is mobilized and ipiils its region, the com 
 mand of the ri'gionand its territorial troops is handed 
 over to an officer jireviously appointed by the Minis- 
 ter. In order to act iij) to the spirit of the new law, 
 the War Office has been reconstituted under condi- 
 tions more in accordance with llie organization of the 
 army; and the Department of the Chief of the Gcn- 
 eralMinisterial Staff conipri.ses now a Ministerial Cab- 
 inet and live Bureaux, namely: First Bureau— gen- 
 eral orgimization and mobilization of the army; posi- 
 tions and strength; general correspondence; Second 
 Bureau— military slati.stics; historical office; Third Bu- 
 reau — militarj' operations; instruction of the army; to- 
 pographical olliee: Fourth Bureau — Ktajijitii and rail- 
 way service; execution of movements of troops; trans-' 
 port of troops by land and sea; Fifth Bureau (or war 
 depot) — technical services: collections; material and 
 accounts of the General Stall. Two Deputy Chiefs 
 of the Staff are altaebed to the Chief of the Staff. 
 
 FRENCH ARMY ORDNANCE.— The broad features 
 of construction of I lie army heavy ordnance are essen- 
 tially those finding [ilaee in the naval guns, but the 
 power deemed necessarj' for land piirjio.ses is much 
 more limited, of course, than for maiine and .sea-coast 
 uses; and hence we find that a 24"" gun is the high- 
 est type introduced into this branch of the service. 
 The steel guns are known as the Modele de Bange. 
 The body of the gun is composed of a tube of cast- 
 
 vice of France. There are no novelties to point out 
 in this construction other than tho.se staled. The 
 charges are 84 lbs. of powder and 336 lbs. weight of 
 projectile for the 24 '" steel; and 62 lbs. and 21)5 lbs. 
 for the 24"" cast iron and steel constructions. The 
 former gives (it is reported from olhcial sources) a 
 velocity of 1598 feet, and a resulting muzzle-energy 
 of 6000 foot-tons. 
 
 The Modele de Bange, 24'"', it will be seen on an 
 inspection of the accompanying drawing, is a well- 
 proportioned gun of extreme simplicity in design; the 
 only i)art of any moment in a coiisiruclive point of 
 view being the body. The weight of the entire guu 
 is only 13.75 tons. The frettes, trunnion-bauds, and 
 other parts outside of the core weigh 7 tons. All 
 these parts are .small in size, hence readily handled, 
 the rough-turned steel forgings from steel-works arc 
 readily obtained, the only prominent part being the 
 body. The assembling and finishing of the gun is 
 simple work, and wiibiu the capacity of ordinary 
 machinery and appliances. The only question is if 
 it has sufficient longitudinal (breech) strength. How 
 ever this may be, it is a construction well worthy of 
 consideration. 
 
 The following table gives the charges, etc., of the 
 more important ^uns of the French service, and also 
 shows their relative energies per ton of metal: 
 
 Caliber 
 
 Charge 
 
 Projec- 
 tile. 
 
 Initial 
 veloc- 
 ity. 
 
 .Muzzle- 
 energy. 
 
 Energy 
 
 per ton 
 
 of 
 
 Kind. 
 
 
 
 
 
 metal. 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 fiet. 
 
 Ft-tons 
 
 
 
 40cm 
 
 617.3 
 
 i,re6 
 
 1,738 
 
 36,628 
 
 485.8 
 
 ) 
 
 37"".... 
 
 .545.6 
 
 1,177 
 
 j.ar,6 
 
 31. ISO 
 
 415.7 
 
 ^Navy. 
 
 ;«'•"•.... 
 
 462 
 
 924 
 
 1,955 
 
 24,482 
 
 415 
 
 i 
 
 ST'™.... 
 
 237.6 
 
 464 
 
 1,9.W 
 
 12.294 
 
 396.6 
 
 Navy. 
 
 Sf".... 
 
 440 
 
 9:a 
 
 1.9.50 
 
 24.647 
 
 493 Schultz. 
 
 24™.... 
 
 84 
 
 3:36 
 
 1,600 
 
 U,033 
 
 430 Army steel. 
 
 It will be seen that the views of the French en. 
 gineers on construction arc al)out the same as those 
 now existing amongst English constructors, and that 
 
 ~T ' 1 ^ 
 
 Aiudele de Banpe, 24"". 
 
 steel (tempered in oil and annealed), reinforced by 
 frettes of puddled steel (tempered in oil or water). 
 Th(t breechfrette is prolonged in rear of the base of 
 the tube, forming a protection for the breech-me- 
 chanism. The trunnions, except in fieldgims, are 
 hollow. Pieces of a heavy caliber have carrying- 
 hnndle.s. The frette first placed in position abuts 
 against a shoulder on the tube, which prevents any 
 forward sliding. (In the 180"'"' and 240"'"' guns', 
 fretted all the way to the muzzle, it is the last cylin- 
 drical frette.) The extremity of the chase is strength- 
 ened by a swell of the muzzle shaped like a band. 
 The seat of the breech-mechanism has nearly the 
 same diameter as the bore. The threads of small 
 dimensions have a very short pilch. Their section is 
 a rectangular i.soscdes triangle, tlic lop of which is 
 tiatlened. The cylinilrical ixiwdcr-chamber, with a 
 diamel<'r nearly the same as that of the bore, is con- 
 nected with the latter by a tnmcatcd surface of short 
 length where the grooves commence and against 
 which the projectile abuts when seated home. The 
 ordinary screw fermeture, but with the De Bange 
 gas cheek, is used, The 24"" gun, model 1876, is a 
 cast iron gun similar in construction to the model 
 of 1870 for the body of the gun, the fermeture dilTer- 
 ing, however, in the substituting of the De Bange 
 gaS'Chcck, which is universally used in the lund-scr- 
 
 fhey arc striving to reach results in power combined 
 with lightness which are gradually rendering im- 
 penituv the ultimate discarding /// toUi of cast-iron in 
 their models. A brief summaiy may here be added 
 in closing this notice of FreiH'h heavy ordnance. 
 1. A long and patient test of, and an experience (in 
 breech-loading system?!) with, steel-fretted ca.st-iron 
 lias resuKed in failure and abandonment. 2. The 
 adoption of the model of 1870, <'asl-ii()n hooped and 
 tubed, has given good results, warranting the intro- 
 duction of this type in .service. 3. That with the 
 development of "the steel interests of France, the 
 French Authorities are not satisfied with cast-iron 
 entering into their constructions, and are resorting to 
 steel entirely, and that they contemplate the disuse 
 of the former. 4. That wire guns are being persist- 
 ently experimented with, and are looked to as promis- 
 ing to be introduced as the guns of the future. 5. 
 That constructions looking to the "division of 
 strains" are regarded as the probable solutions of the 
 dangers arising from the combination at the breech 
 of the longitudinal (Imcch) and tangential (breech) 
 stres.ses; and that the Schultz jilan is preferred. 6. 
 That a new, simple, and an apparently eifcetive 
 fermeture. other than the Broaihvell, has be<n tested 
 with success, aiiproved and adopted at least in the 
 land service of France. This fermeture is known as
 
 FBENCH FRICTION-TUBE. 
 
 709 
 
 FBETTAGE. 
 
 the De Bange. 7. The undoiit)tcd tendencj' in France, 
 in England, and in other countries is to resort to steel 
 constructions for ordnance. This leaves us to remark 
 that the use of this metal in some form or other — a.s 
 developments in production in our country may de- 
 cide — is a foregone conclusion; and that some plan 
 looking to its speedy, practical introduction in our 
 fabrications caimot too soon be inaugurated. See 
 Ordnance. 
 
 FRENCH FRICTION-TUBE.— The French primer, 
 of which ours is a modilicd and improved form, was 
 adopted in the French army in 1847. The large 
 tube with a cross-head at the top to prevent its en- 
 tering the \ent loo far, is stopjied at the top by a 
 wooden plug held in place by an indented girdle. 
 Below this and iusitle the large tube is a smaller tube, 
 the upper part of which is tilled with a fulminating 
 powder composed of ^ chlorate of potiis.sa and j 
 sulphuret of antimony mixed with gummed water 
 or alcohol. This is pierced through the axis to give 
 passage to the friction-wire, the lower end of which is 
 flattened and .serrated. This serrated part remains in 
 the empty part of the small tube, the lower end being 
 clinched arounil the end of the tube. The small tube 
 being preiiared with the fulminate, the wire is intro- 
 duced into the large tube, iia.ssing out through the 
 hole in the a.\is of the wooden plug. The wire is 
 then twisted on it.self and bent down along the tube. 
 The primer is then linished by filling the lower ends 
 of both tubes with musket-powder, and closing the end 
 of the large t>il)e with a mixture of wax and pitch. 
 The opening around the wire where it pas-ses through 
 the wooden plug is closed with a drop of wax. 
 
 FRENCH HORN.— A wind-instrameut, commonly 
 called in the United States lufrn ; in Italy, corno ; in 
 France, cnr de chasse. Its form is that of a lengthy 
 lul)e of brass, with a large bell-shaped ending. For 
 greater convenience the tube is coiled up into con- 
 tinuous circles, lying side bj' side, the coils being sol- 
 
 French Horn. 
 
 <lered together, to keep them in their position. It is 
 sounded by means of a mouth-piece, in form like a 
 little hollow cup. The thinner the sheet-brass is of 
 which the horn is made, the more easilj' can the sound 
 be produced. The sounds obtained on the Fn-nch 
 born are the harmonics of the soimd of its whole 
 length, a fimdamental sound which cannot be pro- 
 iluccd by the mouth. As tho.se sounds form only a 
 limited scale, the notes wanting are artificially made, 
 by the hand being inserted into the bell, so a.s to flat- 
 ten a higher note down to a lower one. These flat- 
 tened notes are called stufl'ed notes, as the sound of 
 them is muffled. The French horn in its natural 
 state can only be played in one key; but by means of 
 crooks, which are addetl to increase the length of the 
 tube, it can be transposed into any key. When at its 
 
 greatest length it mea.sures, from the mouth-piece to 
 the end of the bell, 16 feet. The music for the French 
 horn is always written in the key of C, with the key 
 of the composition marked at the beginning of each 
 movement; thus, corno in D, etc., guicies the perform- 
 er as to the crooks he must use in order to play the 
 notes in the key indicated. The stuffeil notes on the 
 French horn being very defective in quality of .sound, 
 in comparison with the great beauty of the oi)en notes, 
 many inventions have been from time to time tried to 
 remedy them, the most successful of which is the 
 valve-hom, which is constructed .so that the performer 
 can, by means of three valves, lengthen or shorten the 
 tube so as to pro<luce any note in the chromatic scale, 
 as a harmonic of the length of the tube, and conse- 
 quently all the notes are of the same quality of sound, 
 and open notes. The valve-horn is now generally 
 u.scd as a .«olo instrument with greater effect than the 
 common French horn. As a band and orchestral in- 
 strument the French horn is of great importance. 
 There are never less than two French horns in an 
 instrumental score, and in many great works four 
 are absolutely necessiry. The dale of its invention 
 is lost in :inti((uitv. See Band. 
 
 FRENCH PRO JECTILE.— The projectile used in the 
 French field-service is made of cast-iron, and has 
 twelve zinc studs on its sides, ar- 
 ranged in pairs, so as to fit the six 
 grooves of the gun. For the larger 
 cannon-projectiles but three studs 
 are used , and these are cast on the 
 projectile, nearly opposite to its 
 center of gravity ; the beating sides 
 of the studs are faced with white 
 metal to diminish friction against 
 the grooves of the bore. The shape 
 of the grooves is such as to center 
 the projectile. The latter projec- 
 tile is used with increasing, the for- 
 mer with grooves of tuiiform, twist. 
 Russian, Austrian, and Spanish ar- 
 tillery projectiles belong to this 
 studded or button class, but differ 
 from each other in the details of their construction. 
 See CotnpreMiiin-projectUts and Projectiles. 
 
 FRENCH SIGHTS.— In this system, employed when 
 the target is invisible, specially constructed sights 
 (used in the ordinary sight-slots) are provided, having 
 cross-bars on their heads, di\ided into scales of equal 
 parts, and parallel to the axis of the trunnions. 
 
 The whole of the rear bar can slide latenilly through 
 the head of the rear sight, and there is a scale of de- 
 grees and minutes on the cross-bar which registers 
 the amount of slidingor" deflection." The other bar 
 is a fixture. Each bar carries a sliding sight leaf. 
 
 If the target can be seen at any time from the l)at- 
 tery, the piece is laid in the ordinary way, both slid- 
 ers being clamped at the sjime graduation near the 
 middle of each bar. A plumlvline and a vertical 
 chalk-line drawn on a board (or, in confined positions, 
 two plummets hanging from frames in the rear) are 
 aligned on the sights, should firing through smoke or 
 by night be afterwards expected. These sights are 
 chiefly employed with the siege-artillerj'. See Siyhl. 
 
 FRET. — A figure, used in Heraldry-, resembling two 
 sticks laid sidtierwise, and interlaced with a mascle. 
 When six, eight, or more i>ieces are represented cross- 
 ing and interlacing like lattice work, the shield is said 
 to be fretti/. See Ilerdldry. 
 
 FRETTAGE.— The introduction and development 
 of hoopmg cast-iron with steel bands in strengthening 
 the former material in gun-construction have been 
 noted with much interest. It appears th.il the first 
 attempt was made in 1836, at the foundries of Liege, 
 in Belgium, where the minor powers of Europe, and 
 even Rus.sia, procured their cannon at that time; re- 
 sort being had, however, also to the well-known Swe- 
 dish foundries of Fingspong and Aker. The method 
 was first brought into notice at Ruelle, in 1843. It 
 was introduced a few years later by Blakely in Eng-
 
 FSEYT&G SYSTEM OF FOKTIFICATION. 7 10 
 
 FBICTION. 
 
 land: and in 1859 it was tested again in France, at 
 
 ViiKvniU'S. bv the Xa\y Di'parlnuiit, and ofticially 
 atloptcd for ail its rilKcl guns. In IStU. in the nRKlcl 
 then adopted, the exact allowances for shrinkage were 
 etitati|lsh<.'<l, bai*il uixin both praetiral and theoretical 
 oliscrvations. The allowance for shrinkage, it is in- 
 tended, shall be such as to secure a compression of 
 the interior strata according to the theories of Gado- 
 lin and Lanu's. The amount of diminution of «li- 
 ameter of tubes varies from .OO'i to .007 inch. It is 
 hardly nccessjuy to allude to the fact that the large 
 constructions for naval service have two series of 
 puddled steel frettes, made at Le Creusot and Rive 
 de Gier. The banded jiortion of the cast-iron body 
 is, according to general rules, about one caliber in 
 thickness, and the bands .25 caliber for each row. 
 giving a thickness at the seat of dangerous pressures 
 of about one and one half calibers. The operation of 
 shrinking on the hoops requires but simple and ordi- 
 nary appliances. An oven, modeled after the ones 
 employed in England for heating tires for wheels, 
 supplies the means for heating up the frettes to the 
 proper temperatures. They are transferred froin 
 thence by means of a small crane, and are placed in 
 their proper positions on tlic exterior of the prepared 
 cannou-botlv by two or three workmen. A circular 
 tube and colhii containing water, which escapes in 
 jets on to the superimposed frette, supplies the means 
 for cooling. It is applied not directly after the plac- 
 ing of the frette in position, but in about ten minutes 
 affer the latter operation ha,s "oeen completed. After 
 preparing the body, and the assemblage of the first 
 row of bands, the gun is transferred to the boring- 
 lathe, and the exterior of the frettes accurately turned, 
 and the preparations for the application of the second 
 row of bands completed. After this row has been 
 superimposed the gun is sent to the machine-shop for 
 the tiual process of titling the fermeture, rifling, and 
 other necessary work to complete the manufactiu-e. 
 Proof-frettes are tested for elasticity, and proof of 
 endurance by a shrinkage test. A cast-iron cylin- 
 der is used over which the experimental hoops are 
 placed under a definite tension by heat, and when the 
 parts are cut the cylinders are broken up and the 
 frettes under proof measured and otherwise examined. 
 A shrinkage determined upon, say, nearly up to .002 
 of the diameter, and a slightly less one for trunnion- 
 bands, should attain without any permanent set re- 
 sulting in enlargement. They should withstand an 
 enlargement not exceeding .004 without rupture, or 
 development of serious superficial defects sulficicnt 
 to warrant rejection. Based upon these trials, the 
 frettes are prepared which are to be used in construc- 
 tion. In the application of frettes or trunnion-bands 
 to the l)f)dies of guns the establishment of the limits 
 of shrinkage must largelj' depend upon the results- of 
 the testing-machine for phy.sical properties, and limits 
 which may be determined by one set of experiments 
 may be non-concurred in by another, operating on 
 different metals used in different countries. The data 
 resulting from French experiments are, therefore, 
 matters of interest, but furnish no definite standard 
 for following absohitely when other steels are used. 
 See Tii/iiir/, . 
 
 FREYTAG SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In this 
 system the maximum of the angles of bastions is 
 fixed at 90'. The tliUiks are jX'rpendicular to the 
 curtain, and the whole enceinte is surrounded by a 
 fausse-braye on a level with the ground. The sali- 
 ents of bastions are covered by lunettes, and the cur- 
 tains by ravelins. The escarps have no revetment. 
 The chief defense of this forlirtcalion rests on the wet 
 ditches; which, however, fail in frosty weather. The 
 ravelins are too small to cover even the curtain, and 
 the lunettes, when taken, afford a very advantageous 
 hxlgmint for the enemy. 
 
 FRICTION. — When one bo<ly rubs against another 
 as it moves, a certain force is felt to resist tlie motion. 
 This resistance is called friction. As a considerable 1 
 proportion of the motive power in all opcratious is I 
 
 spent in overcoming the friction of the parts of the 
 machine uix)n one another, and is thus lost for the 
 useful work, it is of great importance to undersUmd 
 the nature of this obstructive force, with a view to 
 reduce it to the least pos.sible amount. Accordingly, 
 a great many careful experiments have been made on 
 this subject, and the result is a number of precise and 
 valuable facts or laws regarding friction which are 
 now considered cert;»in and reliable. The more im- 
 portant may be thus stated and illustrated. When a 
 block of oak — say a cubic foot, which weighs about 
 60 lbs. — is placed on a horizontal table of cast-iron, 
 the two surfaces being flat and smooth, it requires a 
 force of nearly j the weight of the block, or 24 lbs., 
 pulling horizontally, to make it slide along the table. 
 This me;isures the friction between the two surfaces. 
 Another block of the same size and shape laid on the 
 sjime table would require the san\e force to draw it; 
 and if the two were laid side by side, imd fastened 
 together so as to become one block, it would evidently 
 reijuire double the force, or 4S lbs,, to draw the 
 double block: the amount of the friction being thus 
 still I of the weight, or of the pressure between the 
 two surfaces. But suppose that, instead of being laid 
 side by side, the second block were laid on the top of 
 the first, what is to be expected? Here the weight is 
 doubled as before, but tlie extent of rubbing surface 
 remains unaltered ; it would be natural, therefore, to- 
 expect that this would make a difference, and that, 
 though the friction would, of course, be increased,, 
 the increase would be less than in the former case. 
 Experiment, however, shows that there is no differ- 
 ence, and that the friction is exactly double in both 
 cases. In short, the unexpected and importimt fact 
 is estiiblished that, within certttiii limits, (lie friction 
 of any two surfaca increases in proportion to the force 
 irith which they are pressed together, and is wholly inde 
 ptndint if the extent of the surfaces in contact. The 
 amount of friction between two bodies is thus a con- 
 st;mt fraction or proportion of the force with which 
 they are pressed against each other. This fraction 
 differs for the different kinds of surfaces. Thus, be- 
 tween oak and cast-iron it is, as already stated, about 
 5, or more exactly, .38; for wTought-iron on wrought- 
 iron (we speak at present of dry surfaces, without 
 grease or unguent of any kind) it is .44; for brass 
 upon cast iron, .22. This constant fraction (express- 
 ing the proportion between the pressure of two sur- 
 faces and their friction) is called the coefficient of 
 friction for these two surfaces. Friction is very much 
 diminished by the use of grease or unguents. The 
 coefficient of wrought-iron upon oak, which, in the 
 dry state, is .49, is reduced by the application of 
 water to .26, and by dry soap to .21. TJie result of 
 experiments on this subject is slated to he "that 
 with the unguents hog's lard and olive-oil inter- 
 posed in a continuous stratum between them, surfaces 
 of wood on metal, wood on wood, metal on wood, and 
 metal on metal (when in motion), have all of them 
 very nearly the same coefficient of friction, the value 
 of that coefficient being in all ca.ses includi'd between 
 .07 and .08." Tallow gives the .sjiine coefficient as 
 the other unguents, except in the case of metals upon 
 metals, in which the coefficient rises to .10. In the 
 case of wood on wood, black-lead is frequently em- 
 ployed for the sjime purpose. The most imiwrtant 
 fact, perhaps, and one that could hardly have been 
 anticipated before experiment, is that tfie friction of 
 motion is wholly indejTcndfnt of the Telocity of the ino- 
 lion. The resistance lo the motion of a wheeled car- 
 riage proceeds from two sources — the friction of the 
 axle, and the ineq\ialities of the road. The resistance 
 of friction lo the turning of a shaft in its liearings, or 
 of an axle in its box, has cvidenflj' the greater lever- 
 age the thicker the journal or the axle is; the axles 
 of wheels are accordingly made as small a.s is consist- 
 ent with the re(iuire(l strength. The resistance that 
 occurs lK?twecn the circumference of the wheel and 
 the road constitutes what is cidled rolling friction. 
 There are on all roads, to a greater or less extent.
 
 FRICTION-CHOCKS. 
 
 711 
 
 FBICTION FBIMEBS. 
 
 visible rigid prominences, such as small stones, in 
 passing over which the wheel and the load resting on 
 it have to be lifted up against gravitj-. But even 
 if these were wanting, the hardest road jnelds, and 
 allows the wheel to sink to a certain depth below its 
 surface; so that in front of the wheel there is always 
 an eminence or obstacle, which it is at every instant 
 surmounting and crushing down. This i.s" the case 
 even on iron rails, though of course to a much less 
 extent than on any other road. Now, for overcom- 
 ing this resistance, it can be shown, on the principle 
 of the lever, that a large wheel has the advantage 
 over a small one; and by numerous e.\-perimcnts the 
 fact has been fully established that over horizontal 
 roads of a uniform quality and material tlif tracti'in 
 tariea diriTtly IIS the load, and inrirsdy as t/w radius 
 of the irhed. Tlie best direction of traction in a two- 
 wheeled carriage is not parallel to the road, but at a 
 slight inclination upward, in ijroportion to the depth 
 to which the wheel sinks in the road. On a perfectly 
 good and level macadamized road the traction of a 
 cart is found to be ^'^ of the load; that is, to draw a 
 ton, the horse requires to pull with a force equal to 75 
 lbs. On a railway the traction is reduced to 5I,,, of 
 the load, or I0 8 lbs. per ton. While frictioii thus 
 acts as an obstruction to motion, and wastes a portion 
 of the motive power, it has also important uses. It 
 is, in fact, an indispensable condition, no less than 
 gra\it}-, in the stability of every structure, and in 
 every mechanical motion on the earth's surface. 
 How essential it is to our own movements we expe- 
 rience when we try to walk on ice! Even on ice there 
 is still considerable friction, so that one foot can be 
 slightly advanced before the other; were it altogether 
 annihilated, we could not stir a fraction of an inch, 
 even supposing we could stand upright. Without 
 friction, a ladder could not be planted against a wall, 
 unless there were a hole in the ground to retain the 
 foot. In short, no oblique pressure of an}- kind 
 could be sustained. The advantage of railways con- 
 sists chiefly in the diminution of friction; biit were 
 this diminution carried much further, there could be 
 no motion whatever, at least by means of locomotives. 
 Without a considerable friction, the driving-wheels 
 of the locomotives would slide round on the rails 
 without advancing; and this sometimes happens 
 when particular states of the weather render the rails 
 as if they were greased. The force of friction is often 
 directly employed in mechanics. It is u.sed, for 
 instance, to communicate motion by means of belts, 
 chains, etc. It is the force that holds a knot. It is 
 specially useful when a machine, with greai momen- 
 tum, has to be checked or arrested in its motion. 
 The best example of this is the brake used on rail- 
 ways. By means of a system of levers, blocks of 
 wood arc made to pres.s upon the circumferences of a 
 number of the carriage wheels; and thus the momen- 
 tum of a train weighing hundreds of tons, and mo\-ing 
 with a velocity of perhaps 50 miles an hour, is gradu- 
 ally destroyed in a wonderfully short space of time. 
 Priction-wheets are employed to diminish the friction 
 of axles on their supports. Two wheels, of a large 
 circumference in proportion to their weight, are lo- 
 cated close together, parallel to each other, and so that 
 the one seems to overlap the half of the other; in the 
 notch thus formed by the upper circumferences of the 
 wheels one end of the axle rests; a similar arrange- 
 ment being made for the other end. The friction, 
 which formerly acted directly on the axle, is by this 
 arrangement referred to the axles of the friction- 
 wheels, and is, by the laws of mechanics, reduced in 
 the ratio of the circumference of the friction-wheel 
 to the circumference of its axle. In order to render 
 the friction of the friction-wheels themselves the least 
 pos.sible, they arc made as light and as large as is 
 pr.icticable. 
 
 FRICTION CHOCKS.— Brakes attached to the com- 
 mon standing garrison-carriages of gims, so as to raise 
 the trucks or wheels off the platform when the gun 
 begins to recoil, to prevent its running back. 
 
 FRICTION CONES.— A kind of coupling in which 
 motion is communicated by the friction of the surface 
 of a cone tixed on one shaft against the inner surface 
 of a similar cone, into which it may he thrust, fixed 
 on another shaft. The friction-cone prevents the ele- 
 vating gear from breaking on tiring, by enabling the 
 gun to twist the cone round inside the irorm-ieheel, 
 when it irives a severe blow. 
 
 FRICTION PLATE.— A plate of iron placed on the 
 side of the trail beam of wooden gun-carriages at that 
 point where the wheel locks with the carriage. The 
 plate is placed in that position to prevent injury to the 
 trail when the limber is being turned at an angle to the 
 gun-carriage. Friction-plates are also used to check 
 the recoil of irinis. Sec Elsiriek Compressor and Recoil. 
 
 FRICTION PRIMEES.—The friction primer for can- 
 non is a small tube of brass filled with gimpowder, 
 which is igtiited l)y drawing a flat wire w'ith serrated 
 edges briskly through friction-composition contained 
 in a smaller tube inserted into the first near the top 
 and soldered at right angles to it. A lanyard, with a 
 hook attached, is used to ignite the primer. Two 
 kinds are in use in the ser\ice — the long iirimer for 
 hea^■y, and the short for light cannon. "The friction- 
 primer is composed of one long tube, one short tube, 
 one wire igniter, friction-composition, musket-pow- 
 der, wax, and shellac varnish. 
 
 The long tube is made from a circular disk of sheet- 
 brass by means of a series of punches and dies, gra- 
 dually diminishing to the last, which is of the required 
 size of the tube. The brass must be annealed before 
 each drawing or reducing. This is done in open pans, 
 or in a revolving cylinder in a special furnace. The 
 bras-S should not be heated above a dark red color. 
 It is then allowed to cool in the air, and afterwards 
 pickled in a liath of forty parts of water and one of 
 sulphuric acid to remove the scale, and then thoroughly 
 washed to remove all trace of acid. Thickness of 
 .sheet-brass disk, .036 inch; diameter, .62 inch for 
 short, and .98inchforlongprimers. The tubeiscutto 
 the prescribed length, measuring from the closed end, 
 by means of a circular .saw, and the holes for the short 
 tube and wire igniter are drilled and the burs removed. 
 Length of long tube for .short primer, 1.75 inch; for 
 long primer, 2.35 inches; exterior diameter, maxi- 
 mum, .195 inch; minimum, .187 inch; interior diame- 
 ter for short primer, .175 inch; and for long primer, 
 .155 inch; diameter of holes, .15 inch and .06 inch. 
 
 The shnrt tube is de- 
 rived from the longer 
 one by using two addi- 
 tional punches and dies, 
 reducing the size each 
 time, it is made to the 
 proper length by circu- 
 lar saws placed at the 
 required distance apart, 
 and the Inu- is remov- 
 ed by rolling in a barrel. 
 Length of the shorter 
 tube, .44 inch; exterior 
 diameter. .15 inch; in- 
 terior diameter, .133 inch, 
 is dipi>ed in a solution of zinc chloride, inserted in the 
 hole drilled in the long tube, heated in the flame of a 
 spirit-lamp, until solder melts, and soldered with soft 
 solder; it is then washed and ilried. The itire igniter 
 is made of brass wire .05 inch diameter, annealed, cut 
 to the propiT length, and pressed flat at one end by a 
 machine for that purpose. The flat end is serrated 
 by a punch and die with dentated edges, and the tip 
 Is annealed in the flame of a spirit-lamp. Length of 
 \vire, 3.4 inches; length of flattened end, .65 inch. 
 The frirtion-composition is made of 55 parts antimony 
 trisulphide, 37 parts pota.ssium chlorate, 5 parts flow- 
 ers of sulphur, and 3 parts gum arable. The mate- 
 rials must be finely pulverized, and mixed thoroughly 
 in a bowl of stone-ware by stirring with equal quan- 
 tities of alcohol and water until the mixture attains 
 the consistency of paste. 
 
 One end of the short tube
 
 FBILL. 
 
 712 
 
 FKONT. 
 
 The smnll lubo is charfred by pressinjr the open end 
 in iho friction-<oMi|«isili(>n spread on a tlat piece of 
 zinc, and l)roui;hl to Ihe consistency of soft putly, the 
 lonj: tulie being closed its whole length with a wooden 
 or metal plug. A conical hole is made in the compo 
 sition while yet moist, with a conical drift, and the 
 stirplus composition removed; the wire igniter is 
 passi'd thixnigh the short tube and through tlie small 
 hole in the long tube, the round end lirsl, leaving the 
 annealed ti]) projecting out of the open end, which is 
 then closed by pressing the top and bottom together 
 lirmly with pincers, and bending the tip against the 
 Iwttom. The end of Ihe wire igniter is doubled on 
 itself and twisted, leaving a loop .2 inch diameter. 
 
 6.75 inches wide, for long primers; 60 pounds sheet- 
 brass, .036 inch thick, 6.75 inches wide, for short 
 primers; about i returned as scrap; 20 [Xjunds brass 
 wire. .05 inch; 1.25 pound solder; 1.5 ]x>und anti- 
 mony trisulphide; 1 pound potjussium chlorate; .125 
 pouiid Howersof sulphur; .094 pound gum arable; 7.5 
 pounds beiswax; 2.5 pounds rosin; 11 i)()uuds musket- 
 powder; 2 quarts pine-tar; 1.25 quart varni.sh (.75 
 pound shellac, 1 quart alcohol, .25 ounce lamp-black); 
 .5 pint alcohol for friction-composition. See Ekctric 
 Priiiwr, Fin-irorku, Freneh Friction-tube, Maynard 
 Primer, and Pircimon Primer. 
 
 FBILL. — An ornamental appendage to the shirt 
 which officers and soldiers generally wore with regi- 
 
 Frog o£ Officer's Overcoat, U. S. .\miy. 
 
 x^ssss^ 
 
 The head of the long tube, including the short tube 
 and the joint, is dipped into shellac varnish colored 
 with lamp-black. When dry, the long ttibe is filled 
 up with musket-powder (7 or 10 grains according to 
 length), and closed with beeswax mixed with tar and 
 rosfn. Both ends are touched with varnish, and the 
 tube thoroughly dried. The material for closing the 
 ends of the primer is made of 15 parts of beeswax, 5 
 rosin, and 8 pine-t;ir, boiled 2A hours on a slow lire, 
 constantly stirred to prevent burning, and then per- 
 mitted to cool. 
 
 To pack the primers, 
 rectangular wooden blocks 
 are made, having holes .38 
 inch and .57 inch in dia- 
 meter, bored in two oppo- 
 site ends. The primers 
 are placed in the boles, 5 
 or 10 to each block. The 
 block is covered with a 
 paper wrapper, which is 
 then varnished. A printed 
 label tells contents, place, 
 and year of manufacture. 
 The blocks arc packed in 
 W'oiiden boxes containing 
 1000 of live primers eacli, 
 or 100 of ten each. For 
 better preservation in sea-coast fortifications, the pri- 
 mers are also packed in rectangular tin ca.ses, contain- 
 ing five paper jiackages of 20 primers each. The tin 
 cases are hermetically si'aled, japanned, and stenciled 
 with contents, place, and year of manufacture. Fifty 
 tin cases arc packed in a wooden box. 
 
 The following are the principal dimensions and 
 weights of packing-boxes: 
 
 Depth. 'Weight 
 
 <!aj*es for short primers 
 
 Cas*-8 for lonK priiiuTH 
 
 Box for 1000 1)lc)cl(s 
 
 Box for 100 ( [..onK primers. 
 
 blocks. . , '* Sliort prinifra. 
 Box for 50 tin coses, short 
 
 primt^rs 
 
 Box for 50 tin cases, long 
 
 priiiifrs 
 
 Length 
 
 Width. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 7.85 
 
 2.2 
 
 7.8 
 
 2.(15 
 
 22 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 11.5 
 
 87.5 
 
 11.25 
 
 Inches. Pounds 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.2 I 
 12.5 
 6.125 I 
 6.125 
 
 7.5 
 
 7.75 
 
 1 
 1.56 
 
 26 
 
 70 
 SO 
 
 The following materials are required for 10,000 fric- 
 tion-primers: 136 pounds sheet-brass, .036 inch thick. 
 
 mentals. A small aperture was usually made at the 
 top to admit the hook and eye of the uniform-coat. 
 Enlisted men generally wore frills detached from the 
 coat. 
 
 FRISRUTTEH. — An instrument made of iron and 
 used for the purpose of blocking up a haven or river. 
 The beams through which the upright bars pass are 
 usuidly 12 feet in length, and the upright bars that 
 go through the beam are of such length that when 
 the frisrutter is let down into the river, they will at 
 high water reach within 5 feet of the surface. 
 
 FROCK. — In the British service, the undre.ss regi- 
 mental coat of the Guards, Artillery, and Royal Ma- 
 rines. 
 
 FROG. — 1. A button or toggle of spindle shape and 
 covered with silk or other material, which is passed 
 through a loop on the opposite side of the breast of a 
 military cloak or overcoat, serving to fivstcn the two 
 breasts together. The drawing rejiresents the frog 
 or agraffe for officer's overcoat as at present worn in 
 the United States army. — 2. The loop of a bayonet- 
 or sword-scabliard. — 3. A horny wedge-shaped sub- 
 st;ince within the cavity of a horse's hoof. The func- 
 tion of the frog is to share in the pressure on the 
 foot, and by its elasticity to relieve or distribute the 
 pressure on the hoof. 
 
 FR0G6ED. — A term used in regard to imiforras, 
 and ajiplied to stiipes or workings of braid or lace, 
 as ornaments, mostly on the breast, on the plain cloth 
 of whicli a coat is made. 
 
 FRONDE. — A sling used in France by the Hugue- 
 nots at Sancerre, as late as the year 1572, in order to 
 save their powder. There were two kinds, the one 
 which was used in throwing a stone from the arm, 
 and the other fixed to a lever and so contrived that a 
 large quantity of stones might be thrown into the 
 enemy's cjimp. The froiide or sling was used by the 
 Romans on three different occasions, viz. : w hen they 
 sent their light-armed men. called Velilt^i, forward to 
 skirmish before a general engagement; when they 
 w islu'd to drive the enemy from under the walls of a 
 town which they wore prcpaiing to storm; and finally 
 to haraw and wound the men in the enem.v's works. 
 This weapon, together with the bow and arrow, may 
 be nunilicred among the primitive arms of mankind. 
 
 FRONT. — 1. A word of command .signifying that 
 the men are to face to their front; also to ca.st their 
 eyes to the front after dressing. — 2. The ojiposite to 
 rear. The front, with reference to an alignment, is 
 the direction of the supposed enemy. Used as a gen-
 
 FEONTAGE. 
 
 713 
 
 FSONTIEK DEFENSE. 
 
 oral term, Ibe word signffies the direction in which 
 sokliei's face when occupying the same relative posi- , 
 tions as when last told oil. The front in artillery is j 
 the direction to which the horses' heads turn when 
 the liattery is limbered U|). j 
 
 FRONTAGE. — This term is expressive of the ground [ 
 troops in line occupy either on parade or in camp. 
 Cavalry in one line requires one yard to each tile, and 
 12 yards between squailrons. Artillery in line, whether 
 a field or horse-artillery battery, occuijies 95 yards, 
 and 19 yards between battery and battery, or between 
 other troops. The frontage required by infantry is 
 2 feet per file, with intervals of 30 paces between bat- 
 talions. In cam]), the frontage, as a general rule, of 
 cavalry and infantry should correspond with the space 
 covered by the reginienls when deployed into line (al- 
 lowance being made for intervals between corps), aiul 
 the lines of tents should be on the prolongation of the 
 squadrons or companies as the}' stand when in column. 
 When troops are encamped in two or three lines, from 
 200 to 500 yards should be left clear between the rear 
 of one line and the front of that behind. The front- 
 age of a battalion of infantry in camj) on war estab- 
 lishment occupies 820 yai'ds, a regiment of cavalry 
 256 yards, and a batterv of artillery 110 yards. 
 
 FRONTAL.— The metal faec-guard ot" the .soldier. 
 The term is freiiuently api^lied to anything worn on 
 the face or forehead. 
 
 FRONTIER DEFENSE.— Militiiry engineers, and 
 Other writers on tliis branch of the military art, have 
 proposed systems of defensive lines for retarding an 
 as.sailant at the frontier, of a more or less complicated 
 character; the |)oint aimed at in all eases being to 
 make the works of each line of siitlicient strength to 
 defy an open assault even when their garrisons are 
 reduced to their least number, and to combine this 
 obstacle \\ith the active effort of an army holding 
 the open field, and maneuvering in connection with 
 the fortified points, to threaten the flanks and rear of 
 an invading force that might attempt to force its wa}' 
 through the defensive lines without carrying .some of 
 the works by a siege. Although hypothetical cases 
 of this character do very well to hang an argument 
 upon, they are of little practical use, as the points j 
 that must necessarily be fortified will be those which 
 lie upon the main avenues of access to the interior 
 from the frontier; as u|)on these also must lie the prin- 
 cipal centers of population from the frontier to the 
 interior. The problem in each case will be therefore 
 a special one, and must I)e treated upon its own data. 
 In the organization of the Inland frontier fortifica- 
 tions of a State, the points to be princijjally regarded 
 are the principal aveimes of access to it, and their 
 topographical features as they lend themselves more 
 or less to strengthen the artificial defenses. In con- 
 ducting an invasion across an inland frontier, the 
 march of the enemy must necessarily be along the 
 roads that intersect it, a.s these afford the only means 
 for transporting the mat/rn'l, etc., of the army. The 
 points, therefore, or places in their ueigiiborhood 
 where the principal roads or other avenues of com- 
 munication cross the frontier. i)articularly those which 
 lead to the great centers of ])oi)ulation and wealth, are 
 the ones which would necessarily call for permanent 
 defenses. No absolute rule can be laid down for the 
 distribution and strength of such works along a fron- 
 tier. Everything must depend upon the more or less 
 of facility presented to an enemy for penetrating at 
 one point rather than another, and of tlie ulterior ad- 
 vantiiges the one may present to him over another. 
 Rivers and mountain-ranges are the natural fortifica- 
 tions of Stales; and where they form the frontiers 
 they greatly facilitate the application of artificial de- 
 fensive means, as they present but few. and those in 
 general, importjmt points of access. When these 
 points on a river are fortified, an invading force, 
 however powerful, cannot without great risk cross 
 the river without first gaining possession of them; 
 for, even should a sufficient detachment be left to ob- 
 serve and blockade the fortrcs.ses, the main army, in 
 
 case of retreat or any disaster, might be placed in an 
 extremely critical position, in its movements to recros.s 
 the river, with the garrisons of the fortresses threaten- 
 ing its tlanks and rear. In offensive oi)eralions for- 
 tresses ui)on a river frontier form one of the .strongest 
 bases of operations. If a river intersects the frontier, 
 the i)oiiit where it cro.sscs it. or some one in its vicin- 
 ity, should be occupied by a permanent work; among 
 such points those are more jx'culiarly necessary to be 
 held where a river forming the frontier is intersected 
 l)y another navigable one which lies wholly within 
 the frontier. The importance of thoroughly occupy- 
 ing such ijoints is obvious, as they afford an army on 
 the defensive the means of jia.ssing readily and siifely 
 from one side to the other of the river, cither to evade 
 a force too powerful for it to cope with in the o|)cn 
 field, or when an opportunity offers, from any impru- 
 dent movement of an invading force on one side, to 
 throw itself suddenly from the other on its fiank or 
 tear, and thus forcing it to a retrograde movement. 
 With resjieet to mountain-passes, the main roads alone 
 will require permanent woiks. If the i)asses are inde- 
 pendent of each (JtluT. a wiirk will be nece.s.sary for 
 each one separately; but where .several unite at the 
 same point, upon or within the frontier, a single work 
 placed upon Ibis point will sulHce Local tareum- 
 stances will determine the point in each pass which, 
 Ofcupied, will offer the greatest advantage for ob- 
 stnicting the march of an invading force, and retard- 
 ing the ijringing forward its iiinti'riel. The only rule 
 that can be given is that, whilst the position seiected 
 shall satisfy these conditions, there shall be every 
 facility of communication between the fortress and 
 the interior for receiving sujiplies and reinforcements. 
 This rule would lead generally to the selection of some 
 point of the outlet within the frontier as the proper 
 one. In the case of important commercial cities and 
 large naval depots l3'ing within harbors more or less 
 accessible both to sea and land attacks, the character 
 of the defenses called for must necessarily be eom- 
 mensiu'ale with the magnitude of the interests to be 
 guarded, and the consequent temptation to an enemy 
 to put forth great efforts for their occupation and de- 
 struction. The avenues of approach to these objects 
 by sea, which can be brought within range of cannon 
 and mortars in fortifications on the shore, or in ease- 
 mated works erected on natural or artificial islands, 
 should be occui)ied to a distance that will prevent a 
 fleet from approaching near enough to open a bom- 
 bardment, and if practicable also force the enemy, if 
 he ventures a land-attack, to disembark his forces 
 either at so great a distance from the object to be 
 reached that he will not be able, by a sudden move- 
 ment of this nature, to effect a surprise, or to limit 
 his landing to such points on the coast as, from their 
 exposed position, may render the co-operation of the 
 naval and land forces very uncertain, and, in ciuse of 
 a storm, place the latter in a very perilous condition 
 if attacked. These works will form the exterior chain 
 of the defenses. Within the.se, batteries either open 
 or ea.semated, as the locality may seem to demand, 
 should occupy all the most suitable positions for 
 sweeping the path that a fleet must follow by power- 
 ful cross, direct, and eufihuling fires, and for reach- 
 ing every point of anchorage within the harbor. On 
 the land-approaches, points should Ije occupied by 
 forts of a iiermancnt character, which will prevent 
 a suflBciently near apjiroach to bombanl the city or 
 depot, and, in combination with temporary works, 
 will alTonl an intrenched fielil of battle for the ti'oops 
 on the defensive. These will form the exterior line 
 of the liuid-defenses, the interior line being either a 
 continuous enceinte of permanent fortification, which 
 will require a regular sie.se for it.s reduction, or else a 
 suitable combination of either continuous or detached 
 field-works of such strength and armament that the 
 enemy, in any attempt to carry them by an open as- 
 sault, will be made to suffer heavily even if he is not 
 repulsed. The security of objects of this character 
 will be greatly increased when they lie at some dis-
 
 FBONT OF COUNTERGUAKOS. 
 
 714 
 
 FUEL. 
 
 taiice within the sea-coast frontier, and can only be 
 u]>|>roached by walor through such comparatively 
 narrow duljles as evtii our largest rivers present, and 
 by land after one or more marches. These detiles will, 
 for the most part, not onl^' present admin\ble jwsitions 
 on their biiiik><, from which an assjiilant's fleet can be 
 enfiladed within the range of the heaviest guns, but 
 frequently others, at points where the river narrows, 
 or changes its coup>e, where works occupying the op- 
 posite l)anks will give the means of rendering the 
 river impjissable by torpedoes, booms, rafts, or other 
 floating and sunken obstructions, which ainnot be 
 removed except by getting possession of the defenses 
 by which they are guarded, by a land-attack. In the 
 great military States of Continental Euroix', llie ques- 
 tion !is to wliat e.xtent the great centers of ])opulation 
 and wealth in the interior sliouUl be covered by for- 
 titications has been submitted to the investigation of 
 the ablest engineers and statesmen, from the time of 
 Vauban dowii to the present day. Whatever differ- 
 ences of opinion have been railed forth as to the mode 
 of accomiilishing this object, as sliown in the pub- 
 lished views on the proiiosition to fortify Paris, there 
 seems to have been none among those best qualitied 
 to decide upon it as lo the great importance of so forti- 
 fying thisJCapital and other large places in the interior, 
 as Lyons, etc., which from their position must be of 
 
 ing and stationarj' obstructions, like bombs and tor- 
 pedoes, combined with iron-clad floating batteries, to 
 si'curc them from all hazard. See Fortifieution and 
 
 I Ptrmiiiii lit Furtifieatioti. 
 
 FRONT OF COUNTERGUARDS.— A certain num- 
 ber of ((nintcrguanls so disixisi'd as to mutually flank 
 eacli (illicr. 
 
 FRONT OF FORTIFICATION.— All the works con- 
 structed iqion any one side of a regular polygon, 
 whether placed within or without the exterior side. 
 Some authors give a more limited sense to the term, 
 by confining it to two half-biistions joined by a cur- 
 tain. 
 
 , FRONT OF OPERATIONS.— All that part of the 
 theater of operations in front of the successive posi- 
 tions occupied by the army as it moves forward. See 
 titriitfffii. 
 
 FRONT SIGHT.— A sight usually attached to the 
 barrel, near Ihe muzzle, by means of a horizontal 
 screw at right angles to the barrel, which allows a 
 horizontal motion to the right or left of the true posi- 
 tion, which is marked by the of the scale and ver- 
 nier. To assure the vertical position of the sights, a 
 
 ' level is attached to the rear of the front sight, and 
 has a colored liquiil, which renders the bubble more 
 distinct to the marksman in aiming. 
 
 ! The shape of the sight proper is a subject about 
 
 Frout Sights. 
 
 the highest strategical value in the case of a successful 
 invasion by a large army, as not only to prevent their 
 wealth and resources from falling into the possession 
 of the invading force, but to make them safe rallying- 
 pointsfor Ixjaten and dispersed forces, and depots for 
 organizing new armies. The plan that has been adopted 
 for this end, both in Franee and in most of the other 
 cities of Europe which have been either newly fortified 
 or had their old works strengthened witliin this jieriod, 
 is to surround the city by a continuous enceinte of 
 greater or less strength, but one secure from a roiip-dt- 
 viaiii, and to occupy with forts of a permanent eliarac- 
 tcr the most suitable points in advance of the enceinte, to 
 prevent an enemy from bombarding the city, or jiene- 
 traling between them without first gaining possession 
 of them. By this |)lan it is proposed to gain all the ad- 
 vantages offered by the piussive resisUuiee of fortifica- 
 tions and Jhe activity of a disposable movable force 
 occupying the zone between the enceinte and the forts 
 as an intrenched camp, ui)on which the forts with 
 temporary works thrown up between them winild ren- 
 der an open assjuilt too perilous to be attempted. As 
 to wliat future changes will be called for in perma- 
 nent fortitications, both for inland and sea-coast de- 
 fense, time alone can develop. Judging from the 
 increitsing size and range of eannon, and their greater 
 dcslnietive effects, it fs probable that wrought-iron 
 will have to besubstituteil forstoue in positions where 
 the latter is c.vposeil lo the heavy projectiles coming 
 into use, as this material and earthen paiaiiets will 
 alone afford an inrlestruelible cover against such pro- 
 jectiles. Still, when we look to the time and care 
 which are given to the erection of permanent works, 
 the great superiority Ihiy have over teniporary struc- 
 tures for Ihe planting and hanclling the heaviest can- 
 non, besides the difficulty which the transportation of 
 such enormous weapons offers lo their use by the as- 
 sailant, there is no reason why these changes should 
 not inure lo the advantage of the defense, both on 
 land and water fronts. In the defense of harbors and 
 rivers against the most iinpo-*ing means of attack Ijy 
 heavily armed iron-clad steamers, there is every rcii-son 
 to suppose that adequate means will be found," in float- 
 
 which there is much difference of opinion among^ 
 marksmen, some preferring one variety and others 
 another. Provision is made for the ready substitu- 
 
 I tion of sight-pieces of different kinds. The drawings 
 show some of the varieties most commonly used by 
 the best marksmen. To avoid the reflection of the 
 sun on the sights, they should be blackened with 
 smoke, or, better, by lampblack mixed with shellac 
 
 ' varnish, and apjilied with a small l)rusli. A shade 
 made of metal or eard-board, and ])ainlcd black or 
 dark green, incloses the end of the barrel for a dis- 
 
 ' tance of three inches. See Sight. 
 
 FRUMENTARITJS.— A Roman soldier whose duty 
 was to bring supplies of pro\isions to Ihe army, and 
 the earliest notice of all hostile movements. They 
 were also, under the Roman Empire, officers who 
 acted as spies in the Provinces and reported to the 
 Emperor whatever seemed worthy of note. They 
 appear to have derived this appellation from their 
 gathering news in the same way that the Frumcntarii 
 or Purveyors collected corn. 
 
 1 FUEL.— This term is generally applied to combus- 
 tibles uscil for the ]iroduetion of heal ; also, le.ss fre- 
 
 i quently, to combustibles such asoil, paraffine-oil, used 
 
 : for lighting. Under articles Co.\l., Coke, etc., will 
 be found details of the physical properties and chemi- 
 cal composition of the various fuels; the following 
 observations bear chiefly on their economical applica- 
 tion as sources of motive power. The two elementary 
 hollies to which we owe the heating powere of all our 
 fuels, natural and artificial, are carbon and hydrogen. 
 Coke, wood charcoal, peat-charcoal, and anthracite 
 contain little or none of the latter element, and may 
 be regarded as purely carbonaceous fuels. But wood, 
 peat, and most varieties of coal contain hydrogen as 
 well as carbon; and in their combustion these two 
 substances combine to produce volatile and combus- 
 tible hydrocarbons, which are volatilized previous to 
 being consumed, while a i)urely carbonaceous fuel 
 evolves no volatile matter until comlmstion has been 
 effected. These hydrocarbons are numerous and 
 
 1 varied in composition; but when combustion is per- 
 
 I feet, the amount of heat produced by any hydrocarbon
 
 FITEL. 
 
 715 
 
 TtTEL. 
 
 is exactly what would have been produced had the 
 hydi'ogen and carbon been burned separately. It will 
 be of advantage, therefore, to study these two ele- 
 mentary combustibles in succession, in order to esti- 
 mate subsequently the combined effect where they 
 come together in the same fuel. The heating power 
 of a combustible, or the amount of heat generated by 
 it, is usually expressed in degrees Fahrenheit on so 
 many pounds' weight of water. But in estimating 
 the tempemture, or intensity of heat produced, we 
 have to keep in view that different substances have 
 different capacities for heat — that of water being 
 generally assumed as unity. The number expressing 
 this capacity Is called the specilic heat of the sub- 
 ■ stance. Water 1000, carbonic acid 221 , imply that 
 while 1000 units of heat are required to elevate the 
 temperature of water any given number of degrees, 
 only 221 units are required to elevate to the same 
 temperature an equal weight of carbonic acid. 
 
 Carbon as Fuel.— 1. Amount of Air required for 
 Combustion . — Burned in au-, carbon combines with the 
 oxygen to form carbonic acid (COj), mingled with 
 nitrogen, the other atmospheric element. The chemical 
 change may be thus represented, atomically: 
 
 Products of Combustion. 
 Carbon, 6.0-^^ 
 
 Air/«Qm j Oxygen, 16.0 Carbonic acid, 22.0 
 
 AirvQ».o; (Nitrogen, 53.6 Nitrogen, 53.6 
 
 75.6 75.6 
 
 Or, assuming carbon as unity: 
 Carbon, 1.000^^ 
 
 A,-rni«\ i Oxygen, 2.667— ^Carbonic acid, 3.667 
 ■aJT Ui-o; I Nitrogen, 8.933 Nitrogen, 8.933 
 
 12.600 12.600 
 
 Carbon therefore requires about twelve times its own 
 weight of air for perfect combustion. 
 
 2. Amount of Heat Produced. — Andrews found that 
 
 1 lb. carbon produced heat equal to 1° F. in 14,220 
 
 lbs. of water. Other observations agree very closely. 
 
 This may l)e othei-n'ise stated thus: 1 lb. carbon will 
 
 raise from freezing to boiling point (32' to 212° = 180°) 
 
 14220 
 
 — 79 lbs. water; from mean temperature to boil- 
 
 loU 
 
 14220 
 ing-point(60°to212° = 153°)^5- =93.5 lbs. water; 
 
 will boil off in steam from mean temperature (60° to 
 
 212° = 152°, add latent heat in steam 965' = 1117°) 
 
 14220 
 
 -r^j=- = 12.73 lbs. water; and will boil off in steam 
 
 14220 
 from boiling-point (latent heat in steam 965°) = 
 
 14.74 lbs. 
 
 3. UtmoKt Temperature or Intensity of Heat from 
 Carbon. — Here we .suppose the combustion effected in 
 a space inclosed by non-conducting material, so that 
 all the heat produced by 1 lb. carbon is retained by 
 the products of its combustion. Caloric sufficient to 
 raise 14,220 lbs. of water 1° F. is thus compressed, 
 a.s it were, into 12.6 lbs. of carbonic acid and nitrogen. 
 To determine the temperature thus produced, we re- 
 quire to know the specific heat of this gaseous com- 
 pound, that of water being 1. 
 
 3.667 lbs. carbonic acid. Specific heat 2210 
 
 8.933 " nitrogen. " " 27M 
 
 12.600 " products of combustion. Mean sp. " 2596 
 
 14,320° on water at 1.000 specific heat will give 
 54,776° on these products per pound weight. Dis- 
 tributed over 13.6 lbs., this heat will raise the tem- 
 perature to-js^ =4347° F., which is therefore the 
 
 utmost intensity of heat attainable in burning carbon, 
 suppo.sing no loss by absorption or radiation. 
 
 4. Effect of Kmfis of Air. — Excess of air has been 
 proved to have no effect on the qnantity of heat pro- 
 duced where combustion is perfect; but the intensity 
 
 of temperature is diminished. Suppose two equivalents 
 of air admitted; we then have as the products of com- 
 bustion — 
 
 3.667 lbs. carbonic acid. Specific heat 2210 
 
 8.9.33 '■ nitrogen. '* " 27M 
 
 11.600 " air in excess. '* '* '. 266& 
 
 21.200 " products. Meansp. " 2631 
 
 14,220° on water = 54,048° on this new mixture of 
 gases. But the heat is now diffused over 24.2 lbs. 
 
 .54048 
 matter in.stead of 13.6 lbs., ^^^ = 2347° F.: the ut- 
 most temperature produced by carbon burned in two 
 equivalents of air. The utmost temperatures attain- 
 able, with various proportions of air, are given below, 
 and also the appearance which the interior of the 
 furnace would exhibit. Flame at these temperatures 
 will present the same differences in color. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Ratio 
 of Fuel 
 to Air. 
 
 Highest 
 Possible 
 Tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 Appearance of a Body 
 exposed to such Tem- 
 perature. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Air. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 11.6 
 
 17.4 
 
 23.8 
 
 39.0 
 
 34.8 
 
 iW 
 
 69.6 
 
 Itol 
 1 "H 
 1 "8 
 1 "2i 
 1 "3 
 1 " 5 
 1 "6 
 
 4347« 
 
 2951 
 22.33 
 1797 
 1503 
 908 
 758 
 
 Intensely brilliant. 
 Dazzling white. 
 BriKlit itjuition. 
 Full elierry red. " 
 Commencing cherry red 
 Incipient red. 
 Blacl;. 
 
 5. Effeet of Defieienfy of Air. — If, before reaching 
 the superior laj-ers of carbon or cinder, the air has 
 parted with all its oxygen to form carbonic acid with 
 the production of heat, then the carbonic acid com- 
 bines with part of the remaining carbon to form 
 carbonic oxide, CO, but without producing heat. 
 The loss may amount, therefore, to one half of the 
 fuel: some have stated it as high as three fourths. If 
 this oxide, when it gets above the fuel, meet with air 
 before cooling, it burns with a pale blue flame, restor- 
 ing part of the lost heat; but to what extent has not 
 yet been determined. 
 
 6. Effeet of Water Present. — Passing into a vapor, 
 wafer absorbs both sensible and latent heat, and thus 
 diminishes the temperature. Heating power is also 
 lost, as products of combustion are generally passed 
 into the atmosphere at a high temperature. 
 
 Hydrogen as Fuel. — 1. Air Required. — Hydrogen 
 combines with the oxygen of the air to form vapor of 
 water, mingled with nitrogen: 
 
 Products of Combustion. 
 Hydrogen, 1.0-^^ 
 
 A- /Q^ a\ (Oxygen, 8.0 Vapor of water, 9.0 
 
 Air (d4.8) -J Nitrogen, 36.8 Nitrogen, , 26.8 
 
 85.8 35.8 
 
 1 lb. hydrogen therefore requires 34.8 lbs. air, while 
 1 lb. carbon requires only 11.6 lbs. 
 
 2. Amount of Heat Produced. — The amount of heat 
 produced from hydrogen is much greater than that 
 from carbon; the caloric from 1 lb. heating 60,840 lbs. 
 water 1° F. Part of this is, however, latent in the 
 water-vapor, and must be deducted in calculating 
 intensity of heat, and also heating effect under all 
 ordinarj' circumstances. This deduction amounts to 
 9 lbs. water X 965° latent = 8685°, leaving 53,155° as 
 the effective heating power of 1 lb. hydrogen. 
 
 3. UtmoHt Temperature or Intensity of Heat. — This 
 is lesn than in the ca.se of carbon, in consequence of 
 the high specific heat and greater quantity of the pro- 
 ducts. We have- 
 Vapor of water 9 lbs. Specific heat 8170 
 
 Nitrogen 26.8 " " " 2764 
 
 35.8 '• Meansp. " 4191 
 
 52,155° on water will be 124,445° on these products; 
 
 124445 
 and -- lbs. = 3476° is the utmost possible tem- 
 
 35.8 
 perature.
 
 rnOLEMAN. 
 
 716 
 
 FULLEK'S EAKTH. 
 
 4. Effect of E>eas of Air. — As in the case of carbon, 
 the intensity of heat is diminished, as under: 
 
 Wbioht. 
 
 Ratio of 
 Fuel to Air. 
 
 Hiehest Poaslble 
 Temperature. 
 
 Hydrogen. Air. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 lbs. 
 »4.8 
 69.6 
 J0».4 
 139.2 
 
 1 tol 
 1 •■ 8 
 1 •' 3 
 1 " 4 
 
 S176» 
 2187 
 1591 
 1250 
 
 5. Effect of Deficiency of Air. — No new product is 
 the result of deficiency of air, as in combustion of 
 carbon; the hydrogen simply escapes uiiconsumed. 
 
 0. Effect of iriiter la/X'r present is dimiiuition of in- 
 tensity and ultimate loss of heat in application, as in 
 the ca.se of carbon. 
 
 Teiiiperatiire of Ignition of Carbon and Hydrogen. — 
 Tlicsc substances must be themselves healed before 
 they can burn. Ilvdrosrcn bcjrins to burn at or below 
 :^(I0" , wliiU' cnrbiin "requires a rrd heat (SCO" to 1000° F. ), 
 and even at that ti-iuiHTaluru burns \iry slowly. Cou- 
 se(iucnlly, where they arc combined, as in common 
 coal, the Icmpuraliirc present is often suttlcieully high 
 to ignite and consume the hydrogen, while the carbon 
 remains luichanged as cinder or passes away as smoke, 
 uncousumed in either ca.si'. All that has been said above 
 of carbon, as to air required, heating power or value, 
 utmost temperature, lemiicrature of ignition, effect of 
 water jiresenl, and of excess or deficiency of air, ap- 
 plies without modification to one class of fuels— the 
 purely carbonaceous, induiling anthracite, coke from 
 coal, charcoal from wood and peat, and the cinder of 
 any descri])tion of fuel. The incombustible ash must 
 be allawed for in calculating heating power or value: 
 and also the volatile bodies — nitrogen, sulphur, etc. — 
 the latter of which frequently renders the fuel unsuit- 
 able for many purposes in the arts and manufactures. 
 Peat, wood, and coal, with the exception of anthracite, 
 conlain hydrogen to an extent rarely exceeding "> per 
 cent We have seen that, compared with carbon, 
 hydrogen recpiires three times as much air, and 
 generates nearly four times as much heat, but pro 
 duces 20 per cent less intensity of heat, and ignites at 
 a much lower ten\peraUire; aud the combustion of 
 wood, coal, etc., is in these respects modified accoid- 
 ing to Ihe proportion of hydrogen present in them. 
 The following table shows the composition of British 
 coal, as detennined by Playfair and De la Beclie. 
 Columns 8 to 12 are added to illu-strate the process of 
 combustion. 
 
 The elements of a hydrocarlion are consumed, not 
 simultiuieously, but in succession. First, the carlwn 
 is separated from the hydrogen in light lloating par- 
 ticles, subsequently seen as soot or smoke (if not con- 
 sumed); then Ihe hydrogen burns, anil communicates 
 heat to the carbon" jiarliclcs, which then appear as 
 tlamc. The color of the tlame indicates the tempera- 
 ture present; and if the temperature is sufficiently 
 high, the carbon of which the Hame is composed 
 hums also, producing a further increase of heat. If 
 not, the flame, as it moves onward, cools, becoming 
 red, dull red, and finally black and smoky, passing 
 
 ■ away as such. For complete combustion oi' ci'mmon 
 coal, wc therefore require not only air in sufllcient 
 quantity, l)Ut also intensity of heat above the fuel. 
 AVe re<iuire a low temperature to sejiarate the carbon 
 from the hydrogen; a higher temperature to consume 
 
 I the hydrogen; and a still higher to consume the car- 
 
 I bon of the flame. In closed furnaces, such as those 
 of .steam boilers, while the current of air supplied con- 
 tinues prelly uniform in quantity, ihe volatile bodies 
 are evolvetl alnujst immediately after fueling; and 
 would require, for the moment, perhaps four times 
 the quantity of air which is pa.ssing through. The 
 
 I volatile fuel is, iu consequence of the want of air, 
 carrietl otf partly unconsumcd; an<l the temperature 
 in such furnaces is frequently too low for the ignition 
 of carbon, as may be seen from the color of the flame; 
 the cold boiler haWng abstracted the heat before the 
 flame has been subjected to its influence. From the 
 lirinciples involved, we should exijecl most success 
 where the fuel is supplied by mechanical arrange- 
 ments as regularly and unifornfly as Ihe air, and 
 where, in addition, the body of the furnace is pro- 
 tected or removed so far from boiler-surface and 
 all other cooling agents as is necessjuy to maintain 
 a temperature within it sufficient for the thorough 
 ignition of the flame. See Ciipnliifirnxce. 
 
 FUGLEMAN.— An intelligent soldier posted in front 
 of a line of men at drill, to give the time and an ex- 
 ample of the motions in the manual and platoon exer- 
 cises, lie originally stood in front of Ihe right wing, 
 and hence the name. The word is frequently written 
 Fugelman, and more properly F/iigelinmi, from the 
 German fliif/el. a wing. 
 
 FULCEUM.— The cast iron post at the breech of a 
 large cannon >ised as a support for an iron bar in giv- 
 ing deviations; called also ratchet punt. Sec Lerer. 
 
 FULL BASTION.— When the interior is filled up to 
 the level of the terre-plein of the rami)art, the bastion 
 is called full. See Bastion. 
 
 I FULL CHARGES.— The charges of powder required 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 On Distillation, there is 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 Average Composition. 
 
 Left as Coke 
 or Cinder. 
 
 Expelled in Gaseous Form. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 5 = 
 
 As Volatile Hydro- 
 carbons. 
 
 .22 
 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 
 Water = 
 Hydro- 
 gen and 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 aud 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Incom- 
 bustible 
 Ash. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 n 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Total. 
 
 p 
 
 Wales 
 
 Newcastle . . . 
 LancaHbire . . 
 Seolland. ... 
 Derbyshire... 
 
 88.78 
 82 12 
 77.90 
 
 7S.53 
 79.08 
 
 1 
 
 4.27 
 4.60 
 4.53 
 440 
 3.66 
 
 S 
 
 4.67 
 6.40 
 10.78 
 10.90 
 11.56 
 
 3 
 
 2.41 
 2.59 
 2.74 
 2.11 
 2.42 
 
 4 
 
 4.91 
 3.77 
 4.88 
 4.03 
 2.65 
 
 6 
 
 4.91 
 3.77 
 4.88 
 4.03 
 2.65 
 
 6 
 
 67.69 
 56.90 
 55.84 
 50.19 
 56.67 
 
 7 
 
 668 
 8.99 
 13 46 
 13.01 
 13.98 
 
 8 
 
 4.27 
 4.60 
 4.53 
 4.40 
 3.66 
 
 9 
 
 16.09 
 25.22 
 92.56 
 28.34 
 23.01 
 
 10 
 
 20.36 
 29.82 
 26.69 
 32.74 
 26.67 
 
 11 
 
 lto8 
 1 "5.5 
 1 "5.4 
 1 "6.4 
 1 "6.8 
 
 18 
 
 Wlien coal is heated in a retort, it jnclds volatile 
 hydrocarbons amounting to 20 to 32 per cent of its 
 weight (see colmnn 11). The hydrogen has robbed 
 the fui-1 of six limes its own weight of c.irbon. When 
 fresh fuel is added to live coal in a furnace, Ihe same 
 result ensues; so that in using coal, .50 lo 07 per cent 
 of carlM)n burn on the grate, and 20 to ;i2 per cent 
 carbon and hydrogen have to be burned in Ihe open 
 space above the fuel, or escape unconsumed. 
 
 in actual service to produce the best or most useful 
 
 effect. See Charcje. 
 
 FULLER'S EARTH.— A mineral consisting chiefly 
 of silica, alumina, and wafer, with a little magnesia, 
 lime, and peroxide of iron. The .silica is about 50, 
 the ahnnina 20, and the water 24 per cent of the 
 whole. It is regarded as essentiallv a hydrous bisili- 
 cale of alumina. It occurs in beds, a.s9ocialed with 
 chalk, oolite, etc.; is usually of a greenish-brown or
 
 FULL PAY. 
 
 717 
 
 FULMINATES. 
 
 a slate-bhie color, sometimes white; has an uneven 
 earthy fracture ami a dull appearance; its specific 
 jrr.i\ity is from 1.8 to 2.2; it is soft enough to yield 
 readily to the nail; is very grea.sy to the touch; scarce- 
 ly adliercs to the tongue; falls to pieces in water, but 
 (Iocs not become plastic. It has a remarkable power 
 of absorbing oil or grease; and wa.s fonnerly very 
 much used for fulling cloth, for which purpose it was 
 considered so valuable that the exportation of it from 
 Enghuid was prohibited under seven' i)enalties; it is 
 .still used to a considerable e.\tent. The annual con- 
 sumption in England is sjiid to have at one time ex- 
 ceeded 6000 tons. It is found at Nuttield, near Rei- 
 gate, in Surrey, in cretaceous strata; where there are 
 two distinct lieds, the upper one of a greenish color, 
 and .5 feet thick, resting on the other, whicli has a bluish 
 tint, and is 11 feet thick. It is also found in Bedford- 
 shire, Xottinghamshire, and Kent; and on the Conti- 
 nent in Saxony, Bohemia, and near Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 There is a considerable deposit of it at Bath, where 
 the group of a.ssociated lilue and yellow clays and 
 marl has received the name of " The Fuller's Earth 
 Series." It is also found at Maxton, in Scotland. 
 
 FULL PAY. — The full imiount of an otlicer's or sol- 
 dier's pay, as fixed by law. In the British service, an 
 officer of thirtj- ycjjrs' full pay is permitted to retire 
 on the full paj' of his regimental rank, with a rank 
 one step higher than that which he holds bj' brevet or 
 otherwise. 
 
 FULL REVETMENT.— Any revetment is said to be 
 full when the w all is carried up to the superior slope 
 of the parapet. 
 
 FULL SAP. — The full sap is resorted to, in siege- 
 operations, when the fire becomes so destructive that 
 the flying .s;ip cannot be used. The trench is opened 
 and pushed forward by engineer troops alone; for 
 this ])urposc a working party, termed a brigade, of 
 eight Siippers, is requisite. The brigade is divided 
 into two eciual mclwns ; the .siipi)ers of the first sec- 
 tion dig the trench, and are numbered from 1 to 4, 
 No. 1 leading. The other four are termed amntanis ; 
 they bring forward the materials, and assist the first 
 section in all the necessary operations. The leading 
 sapper. No. 1, is provided with a pick and shovel, 
 
 Full Sap. 
 and wears a musket-proof helmet and cuirass; he ' slightest friction_betwcen two hard bodies produces a 
 
 the further precaution is taken of dri\'ing sap-fagots 
 along the Ixrm, at the junction of the gabions; these 
 are successively removed as they are no longer requi- 
 site. The trench-fascines are placeii upon the gabions 
 by the assistants; and the remainder of the trench 
 completed by working-parties of the line, so soon as 
 the brigade of s;ippers have proceeded far enough for 
 the others to commence w ithout hindrance. See Sap. 
 FULL SIGHT.— An aim in which the entire fore 
 sight is seen when looking tlirough the notch on the 
 rear siirht See Siqht. 
 
 FULMINATE OF MEECUEY. — Fulminating-mer- 
 cuiT (2HgO,C,NaU2) is best prepared by dissolving 
 3 parts of niercuiy in 3G of nitric acid of specific 
 gra\ity 1.34. without the application of heat, in a 
 Hask capable of holding 18 times the bulk of the acid. 
 The solution is then to be poured into a large vessel 
 containing 17 parts of alcohol of a specific gra\ity 
 0.830, and immediately to be re-trausferreil to the 
 flask, which is still full of nitrous vajwrs, and with 
 which it must be well shaken in order to effect their 
 absorption. Effervescence commences after a few 
 minutes, and soon becomes extremelj- violent; and at 
 ■the same time there is a deposit of metallic mercury, 
 which is gnjdually re-dissolved. The reaction must 
 be moder.ite'd by the gradual addition of 17 parts 
 more of alcohol; and on cooling, crystals of the ful- 
 minate, amoimting to 4.6 parts, are deposited. These 
 must be washed with cold water, and ilried at 100' F. 
 Fulminate of mercury forms white silky needles. 
 
 This is the composition used in the detonating 
 primers employed for the ignition of djnamite and 
 gim-colton. It is the substance in percussion-caps 
 that detonates and produces fire when the cap is 
 struck a sharp blow. Dry fulminate of m-ircury ex- 
 plodes violently when heated to 367 F., bj' the elec- 
 tric spark, or when stnrck. When wet it is inexplo- 
 sive, and therefore it is always kept wet, being dried 
 1 in small amounts when required for use. Great care 
 i is requisite in handling it. For the purpose of deto- 
 j nating nitroglycerine or its preparations 15 grains 
 i cf the fulminate are sufficient, but trt detonate gun- 
 j cotton 2.5 grains are nece.s.sar\-. The fulminate in 
 I detonating fuses should be inclosed in a copper case 
 or cap, and must never be loose. The ful- 
 minate should l)e w ct when charging the 
 detonatiii-s, ;ind afterwards dried. 
 
 FULMINATE OF SILVER.— Fulminating- 
 silver (2AgO,CiNiOj) is prepared in nearly 
 the same manner as the fulminate of mer- 
 cury. It is more ixjwerfully explosive than 
 the last-named s;dt. Even when moist or 
 under water, pressure with a hard body will 
 cause its explosion; and when quite dry, the 
 
 works on his knees, being covered, on his side toward 
 the defen.ses, by the parapet of the trench, from which 
 he delx)uches; and in front by a sap-roller, which is 
 placed perpendicular to the line of direction on which 
 lie is to work, and rests against the gabion he is till- 
 ing, covering it one foot. The portion of the sap 
 which he digs is 21 inches wide at top and 21 inches 
 ileep; it receives a slope of 4 perpendicular to 1 base 
 on the front, and is vertical in the rear; and its length 
 is 5 feet. So soon as this portion is finished. No. 2, 
 who is protected in all resijects like No. 1, commences 
 to widen and deepen the trench 8 inches at the 
 jioint from which Xo. 1 started, and follows on after 
 No. 1, keeping always 5 feet in his rear. When No. 
 2 has pushed forward 5 feet. No. 3 commences and 
 enlarges the trench in each direction 7 inches; he fol- 
 lows on also 5 feet in rejir of No. 2; but as the work 
 thrown up by the sappers preceding him affords 
 pretty good cover, he can work standing, taking the 
 precaution to bend forward for greater security. Fi- 
 nally, No. 4 begins when No. 3 has got on 5 feet, and 
 <leepens and widens 7 inches. As he is well covered 
 he cim work in an unconstrained jxjsture. Besides 
 the shelter given on the flank by the gabions, as they 
 are successively tilled, and by the sap-roller in front, 
 
 similar result. The preparation of the fulminates is 
 attended with verj* considerable danger, and should 
 be attempted by none but profe.s,sed chemists. 
 
 FULMINATES.— All the fulminates are easily ex- 
 plixlwl. and some are excessively sensitive; the mer- 
 eiiry mil is the only one of practi<al value. 
 
 The ex])losive force of the fulminate of mercury is 
 not much greater than that of gun|X)wder, on account 
 of the small amount of g-as given off, but it is much 
 more sudden in its action, and the effect is of a local 
 character. AVhon diT, a violent explosion is pro- 
 ducwl by a blow; by a heat of 186 (366.8 F.); by 
 contact with some strong sulphuric or nitric acid ; 
 by sparks from flint and steel; or by the electric 
 spark. If wet, it is inexplosive. 
 
 Fidminate of mercury is formed by the action of 
 mercuric nitrate and nitric acid upon alcohol. One 
 part of mercurj- is di.ssolved in 12 parts of nitric ncid, 
 and the solution poured into 11 parts of alcohol. 
 The vessel is placed in hot water until the mixture it 
 contains darkens, l)ecomes turbid, and begins to 
 evolve dense white fumes. It is then removed from 
 the water. The reaction is allowed to go on till the 
 liquid clears and the dense white fumes cea.se; fur- 
 ther action is then stopped by tilling up with cold
 
 FUMIGATION. 
 
 718 
 
 FUNERAL HONORS. 
 
 water. Should red fumes appear during this opera- 
 tion, cold alct)hol must In; added to check the vio- 
 lence of the action. The fulminate .'settles to the 
 bottom of the ves.-*'! as a jmiy crystalline precipitate. 
 The liquid is then poured oU.' and the fulmin.ile 
 wa.shed several times by decantatiou or upon a tiller. 
 
 Fulminate of mercury is u.'ied only for iifnilin'r 
 other sulwtances. It is employed mainly in ]x>rcus- 
 sion-caps, primers, fuses, detonators, etc. It is of 
 special importance from its jwwer to cause the \'io- 
 leut explosion called detonation; it has thus become 
 a retiuisite for exploding gun-cotton, nitroglycerine, 
 and preparations made from them. The fulminate 
 in a detonating fuse sho\dd be contjiined in a copper 
 case, and must not be loose; on account of danger, 
 it is necessary that it be charged wet. 
 
 In the application of fuses to the detonation of 
 modern explosives, some verv surprising facts have 
 recently been established which go far to induce a 
 belief that synchronism in vibration is an important 
 element. Titus, compressed gim-cotton may be de- 
 tonated by 5 grains of fulminating mercury, but re- 
 quires 50 grains of chloride of nitrogen; it fails with 
 100 grains of iodide of nitrogen, and even with 124 
 grains of nitro-glvcerine, though the latter <levelops 
 far more heat and mechanical force. On the other 
 hand, a small initial charge of gun-cotton readily de- 
 tonates nitro-glycerine. See Ej-pUmre Agents. 
 
 FUMIGATION. — To correct and purify an infec- 
 tious or confined atmosphere, such as is often found 
 in transports, fumig-ations are neces-sjiry. The ma- 
 terials recommended for the purpose are brimstone 
 with Siiwdust ; or niter with vitriolic acid ; or com- 
 mon salt with the same acid. One fluid ounce of 
 sulphuric acid mixed with two fluid ounces of water, 
 and then poured over four ounces of common salt, 
 and one ounce of oxide of manganese in ]M)wder, 
 these latter ingredients being previously placed in hot 
 sand, are also recommended. Burning charcoal is 
 also a good disinfectant. 
 
 FUNCTIONS.— A mathematical term of frequent 
 occurrence in the solutions of the problems of gun- 
 nerj-. When two or more variables are combined 
 with constants in an equation, and are such that a 
 change of value of one implies a corresponding 
 change of value of one or more of the others, then 
 such variables are said to depend on and to be func- 
 tions of each other; and the expression of the mode 
 of dependence is said to be a function of such varia- 
 bles. If such an expression involves but one varia- 
 ble, it is said to be a function of one variable ; if two 
 are involved, to be a function of two variables ; and 
 so on. Thus sin x, e", log x, Va^ - x', are func- 
 tions of one variable — \iz., of x; «•' - ''>■, tan (ax + by), 
 x>', are functions of two variables, j- and y ; so xyz, 
 ^' + .V ' + 2* lire functions of three variables; and so on. 
 Functions are denoted by the symlx)ls F, /, <p, il', etc. 
 Thus F(j) means a function of one variable, x com- 
 bined with constants or not, as the ca.se may be ; 
 iKxyzK n function of three variables. These "func- 
 tional symbols are general, and their specific forms 
 are the particular functions which arise from oijcra- 
 tions in algebra, trigonometry, etc. 
 
 Functions are implicit and explicit. When one 
 variable is expressed in terms of others, it is said to 
 be an explicit function of them; but when all the 
 variables remain involved in one expression, the 
 fuDCtion is said to tx' implicit. Thus, x- -}- y' — ;••' 
 = is an implicit function of two variables, but y = 
 ■V'r- — x' is an explicit function of one variable. In 
 explicit functions, the variable which is expressed in 
 terms of the others is called the dijiendint variable, 
 and the others the indtpeniknt variables. Explicit 
 functions are iLsually written in the form 2 = f{xy); 
 implicit, in the form v = Fixyz) = 0. Functions, 
 again, are algebraical or transcendental. Algebraical 
 functions are those which involve the operations of 
 addition, subtraction, etc., and of involution and 
 evolution. Transcendental functions are those where 
 the operations symbolized are such as e', log^ x, sin 
 
 X, etc. — i.e., exponential, logarithmic, or circular. 
 Functions, also, are simple or compound according 
 as they involve one or several o|)enitions. y = sin x 
 is a simple function ; but y — log sin x is com- 
 IX)und. Further, functions are div-ided into the 
 continuous and the discontinuous, the circidating and 
 the periodic. Continuous functions are such as 
 are subject to the following conditions: 1. As the 
 variable gradually changes, so the function must 
 gradually change ; 2. The law sjnnlKjlized by the 
 functional character should not abruptly change. 
 Circulating functions are those whose values lie 
 within certain limits for all values of the variables. 
 y = sin X is an example at once of a continuous and 
 of a circulating function. A function is said to be 
 periodic when it itssumes the form /"(x) — x, sig- 
 nifyinir that if on J a certain operation / be per- 
 formed n times, the resulting value will be x. 
 
 Thus/Cj) = ;j is a periodic function of the 
 
 third order. For performing the operation indicated 
 by / the second time on as the variable, we have 
 
 /%') 
 
 we have f'{x) 
 
 -('-) 
 
 and the third time 
 
 The ftinctional 
 
 calculus is a recent growth of the transcendental 
 analysis. The object of the differential calculus is 
 generally to ascertain the changes in functions arising 
 from the continuous and infinitesimal variation of 
 their subject variables. The object of the new func- 
 tional calculus is, speaking generally, to investigate 
 the forms of functions and their growth, when they 
 are subject to a continuous and infinitesimal change 
 as to form. According to Mr. Price (Treatise on the 
 Infinitesimal Calculus), as the differential calculus 
 investigates properties of continuous numbers, so 
 does the new calculus the properties of continuous 
 functions; and as there is an integral calculus of 
 numbers, .so there is an inverse calculus of functions. 
 Of the new calculus, the calculus of variations may 
 be regarded as the main branch. It includes, of 
 course, the subject of functional equations. Func- 
 tional equations are those in which it is required to 
 determine from equations the forms of the functions 
 entering them. 
 
 FUND. — There are several kinds of Funds in the 
 United States ser\ice, arising from certain savings 
 and assessments, and expended according to certain 
 laws. See Company Fund, Post Fund, and Regi- 
 int'ntifl Fif/id. 
 
 FUNERAL HONORS.— On the receipt of official in- 
 telligence of the death of the President of the United 
 States, at any post or camp, the Commanding Officer 
 on the following day causes a gun to be fired at 
 every half-hour, beginning at sunrise and ending at 
 sunset. When posts are contiguous, the firing takes 
 place at the post only commanded by the Superior 
 Orticer. On the day of the interment of a General-in- 
 Chief, a gun is fired at every half-hour imtil the pro- 
 cession moves, beginning at sunrise. When the 
 funeral of an ofticer entitled, when living, to a salute 
 takes place at or near a military post, minute-guns 
 are fired while the remains are being borne to the 
 place of interment; but the number of such guns is 
 not to exceed that which the officer was entitled to as 
 a salute when li\-ing. After the remains are depos- 
 ited in the grave, a salute corresponding to the rank 
 of the decea.s<'d officer is fired in addition to three 
 salvos of artillery or three volleys of musketry. In 
 the event of a Flag Officer of theNavy, whether of the 
 United States or of a foreign coimtVy, dying afloat, 
 and the remains are brought a.shore, minute-guns are 
 fired from the ship while the tody is Ixing conveyed 
 to the shore. If it be in the \icinity of a military
 
 FDNNEL. 
 
 V19 
 
 FUBLOUOH. 
 
 post, the flag of the latter is displayed at half-staff, 
 and minute-guas arc tired from the post while the 
 procession is moving from the landuig-place. These 
 minute-guns are uot to exceed in number that which 
 the officer was entitled to as a salute when living. 
 During the funeral of a civil functionary entitled, 
 when living, to a salute, the flag is displayed at half- 
 staff, and minute-guns fired as before; but neither 
 Balute nor salvos are fired after the remains arc de- 
 posited in the grave. On the death of an officer at a 
 military post, the flag is displayed at half-staff, antl 
 kept so, between the hours of reveille and retreat, 
 until the last salvo or volley is tired over the gi-ave, 
 or, if the remains are not interred at the post, until 
 they are remo%'ed therefrom. During the funeral of 
 an enlisted man the flag is displayed at half-staff, and 
 is hoisted to the top after the final volley or gun is 
 fired. All military posts in sight, or within si.x miles 
 of each other, display their flags at half-staff upon 
 the occasion of cither one doing so. The same rule 
 is observed towards a vessel of war. On all occasions 
 where the flag is displayed at half-staff it is luwi'red 
 to that position from the top of the staff. It is after- 
 wards hoisted to the top bi'frre being finally lowered. 
 
 Funeral escorts are allowed as follows: Oeneral 
 Commanding iii-C/uif, a regiment of infantry, a bat- 
 talion of cavalry, and two batteries of arfillerj-; a 
 Lietitenant Oeneral, a regiment of infantrj', a bat- 
 talion of cavalry, and a battery of artillerj'; a Major 
 Oeneral, a regiment of infantry, two companies of 
 cavalry, and a battery of artillery; a Brigadier Oen- 
 eral, a regiment of infantry, a company of cavalry, 
 and a platoon of artillcrj'; a Colonel, a regimeut;"a 
 Lieutenant-colonel, six companies; Major, four com- 
 panies; Captain, one company; Subaltern, half a 
 company; Non commissiimed Staff Offieer, and a S-r- 
 geant, sixteen privates, commanded by a Sergeant; 
 Corporal, twelve privates, commanded by a Corporal; 
 pricate, eight privates, commanded by a Corporal. 
 An officer's escort, when practicable, is commanded 
 by an officer of the same grade. The escort is formed 
 with the center opposite the tent or quarters of the 
 deceased; armsat a carry; bayonets unflxed; the band 
 on that flank of the escort towards which it is to 
 march. Upon the appearance of the remains, the 
 Commander commands: 1. Present, 2. Akms, and 
 the band plays an appropriate air; arms are then car- 
 ried, after which the coffin is taken to the flank of 
 the escort, opposite the music. The escort is next 
 wheeled into column of companies, platoons, or fours. 
 If the escort be small, it may be faced by the flank. 
 The procession is formed in the following order: 1. 
 Music; 3. Escort; 3. Clergy and Surgeons; 4. Re- 
 mains and Pall-bearers: 5. Mourners, including mem- 
 bers of the former command of the deceased ; 6. Dis- 
 tinguished persons, according to rank; 7. Delegations; 
 8. Societies; 9. Citizens. The proces.sion being 
 formed, the Commander of the escort commands, 1. 
 Beverte, 3. Arms, and then puts the escort in march. 
 The escort marches in slow time to solemn music; 
 the center of the column having arrived opposite the 
 grave, line is formed facing it. The remains are next 
 brought and placed over the grave, after which arms 
 are presented, the band playing an appropriate air. 
 The music having ceased, arms are carried, and the 
 coffin, by direction of the Commander of the escort, 
 is lowered into the grave. The Commander ne.xt 
 commands: 1. Rest on, 3. AuMS. The funeral ser- 
 vices are now completed, after which the Commander 
 commands: 1. Carry, 3. Arms, 3. With blank car- 
 tridges, 4. Load. He then causes the escort to fire 
 three rounds with blank cartridges, the muzzles of 
 the pieces being elevated. The escort is then formed 
 into column, and marched to the point where it was 
 assembled, and is then dismissed. The band does 
 not pla}' till it has left the inclosure. When the dis- 
 tance to the place of interment is considerable, the 
 escort, after having left the camp or garri.son, may 
 march in route-step imtil it approaches the burial- 
 ground, when it is called to attention and the arms 
 
 reversed. The music does not play while at route- 
 step. In all funeral ceremonies, six pall-bearers 
 may be selected from the grade of the decea.sed, or 
 the grades next above or below it. If a CommLs- 
 sioned Officer, the cottin is borne by six Non-com- 
 missioned Officers; if a Non-commissioned Officer, 
 or i)rivate, by six privates. At the funeral of a Gen- 
 eral Officer, the Commander of the escort, in forming 
 column, gives the appropriate commands for the cav- 
 alry, artillery, and infantry, which form in column, 
 from front to rear, in the order named. The trum- 
 peters or field-masic somid a march, flourishes, or 
 ruffles, according to the rank of the decea.sed, when- 
 ever arms are presented, after which the band plays 
 an appropriate air. In marching to the cemetery, 
 the trumpeters of the artillery and cavalry may alter- 
 nate, in playing, with the band of the infantry. If 
 the funeral be for a Mounted Officer, his horse, in 
 mourning caparison, follows the hearse. Should the 
 entiance to the cemetery prevent the hearse from ac- 
 companying Uie escort till the latter halts at the grave, 
 the column is halted at the entrance long enough to 
 take the remains from the hearse, when the column 
 is again put in march. The cavalry and artillery, 
 vv hen unable to enter the inclosure, wheel out of the 
 eolunm, face to the column, and salute the remains 
 as they pass. When necessary to escort the remains 
 from the quarters of the deceased to the ch\irch, be- 
 fore the funeral service, arms are presented upon re- 
 ceiving the remains at the quarters, and also as they 
 are borne into chapel. The Commander of the es- 
 cort, previous to the funeral, gives the clergyman and 
 pall-bearers all needful directions. 
 
 The usual badge of military mourning is a piece of 
 black crape around the left arm above the elbow, and 
 also upon the sword-hilt, and is worn when in full or 
 in undress. As family mourning, crape is worn by 
 offieei's (when in uniform) only around the left arm. 
 The drums of the funeral escort arc covered with 
 black crape or thin black serge. See Honors paid by 
 Troops. 
 
 FUNNEL. — An implcirient formed of sheet-copper 
 and used for pouring the charges from the powder- 
 measure into the shell. It is of the ordinarj' shape, 
 the upper edge being turned over, outwards, to slightly 
 stiffen it. 
 
 FURLOUGH. — A term usually applied to the absence 
 with leave of non-commissioned officers and other 
 enlisted men, granted at the discretion of the Com- 
 manding Officer. In the British service, the term is 
 very generally used in India when a servant of the 
 government proceeds on leave out of the country. 
 The English furlough-pay is as follows: An officer 
 drawing staff pay in addition to the pay of his rank 
 is allowed SO per cent of his .substantive appointment; 
 but in no case can the absentee draw more than 
 tlOOO per annum. Officers not on staff duty in 
 India receive half the Indian pay of their rank; but 
 in no case do they receive less than the minimum of 
 £350 per annum. 
 
 In the United States, under .authority of the 11th 
 Article of War, furloughs for twenty days may be 
 granted by the Commanding Officer of the post or die 
 Commanding Officer of the regiment actually quarter- 
 ed with the portion of it to wliich the.soldier belongs. 
 Furloughs may be prohibited at the discretion of the 
 Officer in Command. They are not granted to sol- 
 diers about to be discharged. 
 
 A Department Commander may grant furloughs to 
 enlisted men for two months; a Military Division 
 Commander for three months, or he may extend to 
 three months a furlough granted by a Department 
 Commimder under his command. The General of 
 the Army may grant furloughs not to exceed fovir 
 months, or extend to four months a furlough already 
 granted. 
 
 Furloughs are not granted by any Commanding 
 
 Officer to go beyond the limits of the ne.xt highest 
 
 command. To warrant a soldier in going l)eyond 
 
 . such limits the sanction of the superior authority
 
 FURNACE. 
 
 720 
 
 FUKNACE, 
 
 must prcvioiwly he indorsed on his furlou^'h. A fur- I 
 loutfli musl biivc the approval of the Secretary of 
 Wiir to enable the soldier to j;o beyond the limits of 
 the l"niled Slates. The prescribed limits are stated 
 ill tlie furlousrii, and if e.xceediil the man is liable to 
 arrest and the revocation of his furk)ugh. 
 
 IncasL'S of special urgency, where it seems most 
 judicious, and the applicant can show sufficient cause 
 for his inability to pay his own expenses, Department 
 Commanders, "in the exercise of a sound discretion, 
 may order tnuisportalion tickets to 1)0 purcha.sed Ijy 
 the Quartermaster for furlougbed stildiers, and where 
 this is done a report of the amount paid for such 
 transportation is made by letter to the Company 
 Conimander, who charges" the same apiinst the sol- 
 dier's pay on the next nuister-day. 
 
 Soliliers on furlough are not p"ermittcd to take with 
 them their arms or accouternients. 
 
 No payments can be made to enlisted men on fur- 
 
 solid fuel is mixed with the matters to be heated. 
 
 Crucible-furnaces are used for melting steel or brass, 
 and the furnace itself is embedded in the nuLss of 
 heating fuel. Forge-furnaces are such as are in ordi- 
 nary use liy blacksmiths, merely a combination of 
 draught ami blowing from a bellows. Blast and cupola 
 furnaces are u.sed in the smelling of iron and other 
 ores, and the fusing of hard metals. In these the 
 slutT to be melted and the fuel are charged in combi- 
 nation in the ujiper end of a vertical cylinder, and 
 the combustion is produced by air forced in at the 
 bottom. Flame-furnaces are of varied form and 
 character. Their elTect is tjbtained by bringing a 
 tlanie or current of highly heated gas into contact 
 with the thing to beaded "upon, inslead of imbedding 
 the substance with the fuel. The well-known rever- 
 beratory furnace, with tire-grate, IIuiir -chamber, etc., 
 is so arranged that by means of a low arched roof 
 the flame is reverberated or turned back upon the 
 
 <«*P"l«9iPiRi 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 lough, on their descriptive lists, without special 
 authority from the Adjutant General. 
 
 The following is the form of a furlough: 
 To fill ii'hom it ma;/ concern: 
 
 Tlie bearer hereof, . a Sergeant (Corporal or 
 
 private, as the <'a,sc niny be) of Captain com- 
 
 Eaiiy, rPKiniPiit of . ageJ — years. - feet — inclies 
 iKli. compii'xinn, eyes, hair, ant! t)y profession 
 
 a ; horn in the of . and enlisted at . in 
 
 the of , on the — day of . eitrhteen hundrecl 
 
 and , to serve for the period of , is herel)y per- 
 mitted lo go to . in the county of . State of ^ , 
 
 he having received a fiirlongli from the day of to 
 
 the day of , at wliicli perio<l lie will rejoin his com- 
 pany or regiment at , or wherever it then may be, or 
 
 be considerf<l n deserter. 
 
 Subsistence has been furnished to said to the 
 
 day of , and pay to the day of , both in- 
 clusive. 
 
 Oiven under my hand at this day of , 18—. 
 
 [Signntnre of the nflflcer giving the furlough.] . 
 
 Si'C hurt tif AfiMfnrr. 
 
 FURNACE.— A contrivance for the production and 
 utili7Jilion of heat, for wanning, ventilating, cook- 
 ing, anil for manipulation of metals and liquids in 
 the arts. Calcining-fumuccs are those in which the 
 
 materi.'il lo be operated upon. Gas-furnaces have 
 nTciilly come into i]s<- ihore are five or six diiTerent 
 kinds. There are funiuces for burning powdered 
 fuel, for natural gas, and for petroleum. Furnaces 
 are also very largely used in glass-making, and in 
 metallurgy and ironnianufaclure. 
 
 The mo'sl perfect and satisfactory furnace for gen- 
 eral armory and laboratory use is known as the 
 Murjiby Smokeless Furnace", and shown in section in 
 Fig. 1. CiiliUe (liber furnaces, the more it is crowded 
 the more iierfecl combustion. The grates are kept 
 constantly in motion, the clinkers cannot form upon 
 them, hence air always ]5asscs lielween them and 
 keeps them cool. The furnace is esiiecially adapted 
 to the use of fine or slack coal, wliich is" put into 
 large hoppers or magazines. By referring to the 
 drawing, there will be seen a casting resting on the 
 brick-work. This is a coking-plalc. The inclined 
 grates rest against it at their upper ends. On this 
 plate is placed the inverted open box, called the 
 stoker box. It has a ratchet in each end; a shaft, 
 workcil from the outside, has a section of a pinion
 
 Itm JOl^ '.'w.. 
 
 • •■«tb.(. ;, T, liodtwr*. B. ICoaailaii maiUHU. u. I^umufct.
 
 Tons. 
 
 721 
 
 FUB8. 
 
 fitted to each ratchet, moving the stoker-box back 
 and forth on the coking-plate every six, ten, or fifteen 
 minutes, as may be required. These stoker-boxes 
 push the coal on to the edge of the coking-plate and 
 grates; the coal then slides down toward the center 
 of the furnace by its own giavity. The triangular 
 piece above the box moves out and in by a lever 
 from the outside, which divides the coal and helps 
 bring it down in front of the stoking-boxes. Imme- 
 diately over the coking-plates and on the side of each 
 magazine is the arch-plate, on which the tire-brick 
 'arch rests. Where the brick come in contact with 
 the plate there are ribs about an inch apart on which 
 the brick arc placed. This leaves a small space be- 
 tween each rib. Air is admitted in front of the 
 furnace, regulated by a damper; it passes up through 
 a tiue in the brick wall, then over the arch, and there 
 takes up the heat from the brick-work, passes down 
 through the little openings and gives to the fresh fuel 
 on the coking-plate its supply of air; not only that, 
 but it is hot enough in itself to ignite any gsises 
 evolved, consequently immediate combustion takes 
 place, and no smoke is made. By the time the coal 
 reaches the grate the Ijituminous part is consumed, 
 and what remains is coke. This gets its needed sup- 
 ply of air through the grates. Less than a one-horse- 
 
 horizontal bar lying lengthwise the furnace in pillow- 
 blocks at the front iuid back of the furnace, and 
 moved forward and back on its axis by a lever at- 
 tached to an end protruded from the ash pit into the 
 fire-room. At the bottom of this grate, and entirely 
 independent of il , is a horizontal bar lying length- 
 wise the furnace in pillow-blocks, bristling with pro- 
 jecting teeth, and capable of being either vibnitcd 
 forward and back or revolved entirely aroimd its 
 axis by a lever attached to an end protnidcd from the 
 ash-pit into the tire-room. This is the clinker-erusher 
 and refuse remover. The crushing is done by the 
 teeth of the vibrating or revolving bar, and the 
 removing is done by the same process at the same 
 time, the entire refuse falling from the furnace 
 between the lower edge of the inclmed grate and the 
 side of the crusher along the lengthwise center of the 
 ash-pit. The drawing shows the crusher-bar placed 
 nearly but not exactly at the center, the grate form- 
 ing two planes, one on each side of this bar, inclin- 
 ing from the horizontal at an angle of 45 , or forming 
 a right angle with each other. The inner shape of 
 the whole apparatus is that of a hopper with vertical 
 ends, or, more nearly, that of an ordinary /lod. A 
 simple arrangement is for the grate to consist of only 
 one inclined plane extending nearly across the fur- 
 
 1 ooooooooooooooooo /■ 
 \ooooooooooooooooo/ / 
 
 Fio. 8. 
 
 power engine is placed at the side; to this is attached 
 a bar running across the front of the furnace. This 
 bar is connected by links to arms which move the 
 stoking apparatus, shake the grate-bars, and, if de- 
 sirable, the clinker-breaker can be connected in the 
 same manner. 
 
 The operation of the grates is very simple and 
 efifeetive. Fig. 2 shows their arrangement in a 
 recent United States Government test. The whole 
 apparatus consists of an inclined shaking grate com- 
 bined with a clinker-crusher and refuse-remover. 
 The purpose of this combination is, without opening 
 the furnace-door or using tire-tools, to keep the fires 
 free of ashes and holes, to cnish the clinker into 
 small pieces, and to remove from the furnace all 
 refuse, whetlier ash or clinker, resulting from the 
 combustion of the coal, these operations being per- 
 formed by simply working levers placed outside the 
 furnace. This is effected by arranging the grate-bars 
 at right angles to, instead of parallel with, the length 
 of the furnace, inclining them so as to form a hop- 
 per, and making the alternate bars stationary and vi- 
 brating, the latter being pivoted at their uiiper ends 
 upon the upper ends of the fonner, and viljratcd up 
 and down by means of a continuous feather on a 
 
 nace, instead of two inclined planes, each extending 
 across nearly half of the furnace, and for the crusher 
 to be placed against one side of the furnace, thus dis- 
 pensing with one of the vibrating bars. See Ciipola- 
 furDftec and Iron. 
 
 FURS.— In Heraldry, shields being often covered 
 with the skins of wild animals, on which the fur was 
 left, there came to be certain kinds of fur which were 
 used in coat armor, as well as in trimming and lining 
 the robes of knights and nobles, and the mantles 
 
 
 Potent. Counter-vair. 
 
 Ermine. 
 
 which were represented as surroimding the shields. 
 The principal heraldic furs are: 1. Ermine of which 
 the field is white, and the spots black; 2. Ermines 
 of which the field is black and the spots white; 3. 
 Emiinois, which has the field gold, with black spots; 
 4. Vair, which consisted of pieces of the shape of lit- 
 tle glass pots. It is said that the furriers used suck
 
 rvsK. 
 
 722 
 
 FUSE. 
 
 glasses to whiten furs in, and because thej; were com- 
 n\only of an azure (blue) color the fur in question 
 canu- to be blazoned iiryetit and nziirt ; whilst toun- 
 ter-vair, iu which the cups are rc])reseuted as placed 
 biise against base, in place of edge to base, as in vair, 
 was or and azure. '>. Potent and counter-potent, 
 which are supposed to resemble the heads of cnUches, 
 l>laced diflcrenlly, but having the same tinctures — 
 viz.. azure and argcut. 
 
 FUSE. — Fusi's for projectiles may l>e classified as 
 timefuses, percussion-fuses, and combination-fuses. 
 The tiine-fuite serves to explode a projectile during 
 flight, or at the end of a given period of time after 
 its discharge from the gun. 1\ie jurcussion-fiist', rifled 
 guns, serves to explode projectiles at the instant of 
 striking a resisting object. The eoinbinatitm-fiine 
 serves to explode a projectile either during flight or 
 on impact. 
 
 Ti.ME-Ki'SES. — The timefuse is composed of a col 
 xunn or ring of fuse-composition, driven or pressed 
 into a suitable metal, wood, or paper casi-. The pro- 
 portions of the composition vary according to the 
 time it is intended to burn. The service time-fuses 
 comprise three varieties, viz., irooden-ease inorUir- 
 fiiien, mttal-cuie (Bormanu) /«*», and paper-case 
 fuses. 
 
 Fuses fur Morinr-slteUs. — The hard, close-grained 
 Woods are best adapted for making fu.scs; beech or 
 ash is generally used. It should be dry, sound, free 
 from sap, kuois, worm -holes, or shakes. To turn the 
 fuse-plug, a helper .sjiws the plank into lengths equal 
 to that of the fuse, and then into prisms, taking off 
 the edges, and centering it on each end. The turner 
 puts the fuse-plug thus roughed out in the lathe, 
 turns its exterior, and graduates it, by means of a 
 steel ^luge, into inches and tenths of an inch, com- 
 mencing at the bottom of the cup. When a number 
 have been turned, the turner puts each fuse-plug into 
 a chuck, Iwres it, and makes the cup with a tool for 
 that purpose. The fuse-plugs should be carefully in- 
 spected, and verified with gauges, and those rejected 
 which have splits, knol.s, or worm-holes, or which 
 have not the proi)er dimensions. One turner can 
 turn 500 fuse-plugs, or turn and bore 350, in ten 
 hours. 
 
 The following utensils are required for dri\-ing the 
 fuses: driciitg-fjloe/iS, with holes of the size of the 
 fuse-plug; benches; malhts, for the 13-Lnch, 10 inch, 
 and 8-inch fuses weighing 1 pound, for smaller 
 fuses weighing A to J pounds; sted drifts, shod with 
 copper, the shortest with a mark .2 inch from the 
 end, copjier Indies, to contain sufficient composition 
 to make a height, when driven, equal to one diameter 
 of the bore; capper pax s ; brushes. 
 
 The composition for 8- and 10-inch light mortar- 
 fuses is 2 parts of niter, 1 of sulphur, and 3 of 
 mealed powder; for 10- and 13-iiich heavy mortars, 2 
 of niter, 1 of sulphur, and 2f of mealed powder. 
 The composition must lx> thoroughly sround and 
 mixed with a muller, or in a leathern barrel, with 
 bniss balls. The time of burning will vary accord- 
 ing to the quality of the materials used (especially of 
 the mealed powder) and the de'Tce of their adinix- 
 ture. Trials shoulil be n;ade with each composition 
 by driving several fuses and getting their lime of burn- 
 ing. There should ncjt Ijc any great vaiiation iu the 
 times of burning of the dillerent fuses of the same 
 composition. Fuse-composition should be prepared 
 only a short lime Ijcfore being used, and should be 
 preserved in clo.se ve.s.sels in a dry place. 
 
 When driving, the workman is seated, his drinng- 
 block in front of him, and a bemh to hdld a pan ()f 
 coniposilion at his right hand. Mc takes a fuse, 
 cleans it of all foreign matter, inserting the drift to 
 the bottom of the bore. He then drops the fuse-plug 
 into the driving-hole, takes a ladleful of composition, 
 passing the drift along the edges of the ladle to strike 
 oil the surplus; pours the composition into the fuse- 
 plug, strikes it two gentle blows with the mallet, in- 
 serts the drift, pressing it down on the composition, 
 
 giving the fuse two slight blows to settle the compo- 
 sition. The workman strikes the drift twenty-one 
 blows in volleys of threi', nusing the mallet about 
 one foot each blow, and moving tlie drift after each 
 volley. He puts in another ladleful, and continues 
 as for the first. Care should be taken to put in equal 
 charges of composition each time, and to give to each 
 ladleful the siune number of blows and with the same 
 force. Fuses are often driven by pressure in a screw- 
 press. 
 
 Fuses are all driven to the same height by means o£ 
 a mark on the short drift, or the composition is bored 
 out with the gouge to the sjime <lepth. They are 
 primed with mealed powder for about .2 inch, driven 
 with the same force as a ladleful of composition. 
 The cup is filled with a paste of mealed powder and 
 spirits of wine or strong whiskey, and laid Jiside to 
 dry; it is then covered with a small piece of paper, 
 over which is jiasted a cap of strong, water-proof 
 paper, marked with the number of seconds the fuse 
 burns to the inch. 
 
 Timefuse for Ouns. — This fuse consists of a paper 
 ra«(; charged with fuse-composition; it is inserted, at 
 the time of loading the gun, into a brass or wooden 
 plug previously dnven into the fuse hole of the shell. 
 The following utensils are required for making the 
 cases: puttent of wood, in the form of a rectangle 
 joined to a trapezoid; iron former, .35 inch diameter; 
 knife ; glue-pot ; brushes. 
 
 The paper is cut to the proper size by means of the 
 pattern. The whole length of the stri]> must be de- 
 teniuneil by a trial for each kind of paper, to give 
 the case the proper diauieter. The strip is rolled 
 hard on the former, beginning with the large end, 
 and is glued after the first turn. When the case is 
 dry, it is smoothed with a fine tile or siuid-paper. 
 
 There are diflferent compositions used, one inch 
 burning 2.5, 5, 10, 15, anil 20 secontls respectively. 
 Their time of burning is subject to considerable vari- 
 ation, according to Uie quality of the ingredients 
 and the manipulation iu mixing them; the exact pro- 
 portions must be determined by experiment. The 
 composition is carefully mixed, and several fuses are 
 first driven and their times of burning determined, 
 and the proportions varied, if necessary, to produce 
 the reqiured result. 
 
 The following utensils are required for driving the 
 fuses: brass molds in two parts, which are held to- 
 gether by a wedge or cam; the molds have holes for 
 i'our or five fuses; steel drifts, .35 inch diameter; 
 knife; mallet, weighing i pound. 
 
 The mold is put together and secured; the empty 
 ca.ses are inserted and drivi'u gently in; their upjx-r 
 ends, projecting above the mold, are slit with a knife 
 into four parts. The composition is put in and driven 
 as described above, giving 15 blows to each ladle- 
 ful, which will make .25 inch in length of the fuse. 
 They are next [irimed by covering the larger ends 
 with shellac varnish and dipping them into rifle- 
 powder; when the jniming has set, the entire fuse, 
 except the priming, receives a coat of shellac var- 
 nish. The fuse is stained the ])roper color, according 
 to the compo.sition used, and the number of seconds 
 that one inch will burn is marked on each fu.se. 
 
 To cut tbe fuse it is insi'rted in an iron gauge, 
 the bore of which is the same size awl taper as the 
 fuse, and its width is the true length of the fuse — 2 
 inches. The projecting ends of the fuse are first 
 sawed off with a fine saw and then trimmed with a 
 knife. They are packe<l in wooden blocks (]ioplar), 
 bored to receive five fuses each, and the.se blocks are 
 wrapp<'d in various-colored jiaper, to distinguish the 
 dilTerent times of burning, having a jirintcd label set- 
 ting forth the kind of fuse, and place and date of 
 manufacture, etc. 
 
 The fuses are apjilied to projectiles by inserting 
 them in wood or metal plugs, which are driven or 
 screwed into the fuse-hole of the projectile. For sea- 
 coast ser\ice, the pa))er-case time-fuse is inserted in a 
 metallic plug fitting the projectile. The metallic plug
 
 FUSE. 
 
 723 
 
 PT78E. 
 
 •'TrvTrvj-iinO 
 
 is fitted with a screw-cap, called a water-cap, having a 
 crooked passage, through which, by suitable priming, 
 tiaiiie is communicated to 
 the fuse, and the escaping 
 gases are intended to exert 
 sufficient pressure to pre- 
 vent the entrance of water 
 to extinguish tlie fuse, es- 
 pecially with spherical pro- 
 jectiles. The insertion of 
 the fuse in the rear end of 
 the rifle-])rojectile has been 
 proposed to dispense with 
 the use of the water-cap, 
 but the enormous force ex- 
 erted upon the projectile, 
 while in the gun, has been a serious obstacle to the 
 practical use of a rear fuse. 
 
 Fuses for Smooth-bore Fuld-guns and Mountain-liotc- 
 iUtrs. — A fuse for shells and spherical case-shot for 
 field and mountain service is that known as the " Bor- 
 mann fuse." It consists of a circular disk of soft 
 metal, containing an annular space charged with 
 mealed powder. The outer circumference of the disk 
 is chased with the tlirwids of a .screw to secure it in 
 the shell. The annular space for the composition is 
 concentric witli the outer circumference, andcoimects 
 at one end by a hole with a small magazine in the 
 center of the disk, filled with rifle powder, and closed 
 on the under surface by a thin disk of tin. The fuse 
 is charged from the under side by pressure, and a 
 ling of the same metal is pressed firmly on the com- 
 position. The composition is thus securely protected 
 from accidents, and the fuse is screwed into the shell 
 in the laljoratory. The metal covering the composi- 
 tion on top, being left thin, is easily cut with a linife 
 or cutter at the moment of loading, and the composi- 
 tion exposed at the required point to the action of the 
 
 and closing the molds to attach the two parts of the 
 mold for the fuse and also for the ring to the jaws of 
 a bench-vise, so that both molds are opened and 
 closed by the same movement of the .screw. The 
 fuse-mold is kept hot by means of iron disks, which 
 are heated and hung' on the arbor which supixjrts the 
 molds. A mold of more approved pattern has been 
 dertsed by which the casting is expedited. 
 
 The following utensils are required for charging 
 the fuse: a strong screw-press ; annular charger the 
 size of the ring; annular drift; flat drift; round 
 drift. 
 
 Take the mold in which the fuse was cast, place 
 the fuse in the parts of the mold containing the screw 
 and the upper or graduated side, and secure the mold 
 by a ring driven on it. Draw up the piston, and fill 
 the charger l)y jircssing it into the mealed powder 
 contained in a shallow pan; place the charger over 
 the groove and force down the piston, transferring 
 the powder into the fuse; insert the button in the 
 magazine and the pin in the priming hole to preserve 
 their shapes; place the ring on the powder, and, with 
 the armuiar drift, force it ilown by means of a strong 
 screw-press, bringing the ring flush with the surface 
 of the fuse; rivet the ring in its place with another 
 drift; withdraw the button and the pin, charge the 
 priming hole with rifle-jiowder, and till the magazine 
 with musket-powder; cover the magazine with a disk 
 of tin, and rivet it in place by means of, first, a flat 
 drift, and then a round one, which turns down apart 
 of the metal of the fuse over the disk. Remove the 
 fuse from the mold, place it in a screw-chuck made 
 to fit it, and turn off in a lathe the lower surface 
 smooth and to the proper thickness. The powder of 
 the fuse is now perfectly sealed up from the air. The 
 fuse should be varnished. 
 
 The following table shows the principal dimensions 
 and weights of the sernce-fuses: 
 
 Dimensions and Weights. 
 
 Wooden Fuses. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Paper 
 
 13 inch. 
 
 10-inch. 
 
 8-inch. 
 
 Fuses. 
 
 10.8 
 
 9.4 
 
 6.3 
 
 2 
 
 1.85 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.25 
 
 .53 
 
 1.25 
 
 1 
 
 .9 
 
 .4 
 
 .4 
 
 .3 
 
 .3 
 
 .35 
 
 2.8 
 
 2 25 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.55 
 
 1.15 
 
 
 .6 
 
 .5 
 
 .4 
 
 
 1.25 
 
 1 
 
 .75 
 
 
 .9 
 
 .8 
 
 .6 
 
 
 1.2 
 
 .9 
 
 .9 
 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 .86 
 
 .27 
 
 .27 
 
 .3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 4.5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 2.5 
 
 2 
 
 M 
 
 33 
 
 16 
 
 "ii" 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 2.25 
 
 
 
 
 .4 
 
 Whole length inches 
 
 Fii«p J (Attop do. 
 
 '^"""^ ' Diameter..- At bottom do. 
 
 ( Of l>ore do. 
 
 * Length do. 
 
 '* Diameter at lower end do. 
 
 I Depth do. 
 
 '^"■' ]l>'-eter. ]Atujp^^......................„^ do. 
 
 Thiclmess of wood at bottom of fuse do. 
 
 Length of composition , do. 
 
 ^ Diameter do. 
 
 "( Length, exclusive of handle. . -j g^ond ...... ... . '. '. . .... . . . . . ..!!.....!!' do! 
 
 ( Of composition for 100 fuses pounds 
 
 • ■( Of 100 fuses complete . do. 
 
 f Whole length inches 
 
 Paner for the case J length of rectangle do 
 
 i-aper ror tne case i Width of rectangle do. 
 
 I, Width of small end do. 
 
 First cone.. 
 
 Drifts 
 
 • Weight . 
 
 Bormann Fuse. 
 
 Diameter of fuse, including threads , . . . . '. 1 . 65 inch. 
 
 Thickness . 
 
 .45 inch. 
 
 Number of threads to the inch 12 
 
 Diameter of plug, including threads 1 .07 inch. 
 
 Thickness for field-guns 3 inch. 
 
 Number of threads to the inch 12 
 
 fiame. The graduations into seconds and quarter- 
 seconds are marked on the upper surface of the disk. 
 The time of burning of the whole length of fuse is 5 
 seconds. 
 
 The following utensils are required for casting the 
 fuse: ;;wW.« for the fuse; molds for the ring; hacksaw; 
 nippers; nmllit ; kettk ; ladle. 
 
 Melt the lead and tin to.sether; heat the molds so as 
 not to chill the metal in casting. Fill the mold with 
 the melted metal, and tap it gently with the mallet 
 to make the metal fill the small parts. Cut off the 
 gate with the saw, and the ends of the ring with the 
 nippers. It has been found convenient in opening 
 
 Percussion-fuses. — Many varieties of fuses have ' 
 been used in service, under the names of percussion 
 and concussion fuses. Among the simpler ones, the 
 Absterdam, Hotchkiss, Parrott, and Schenkl may be 
 named. They arc much alike in their general "fea- 
 tures. They consist of hollow metallic screw-plugs 
 to tit the fuse-hole of the projectiles. A loosely tit- 
 ting plunger is inserted in tie bore of the plug, the 
 front end of which is closed by a screw-plug or cap. 
 On the forward end of the plunger a percussion-cap, 
 or rather detonating de\ice, is arranged, to be ex- 
 ploded and communicate fire to the bursting-charge, 
 through an opening at the rear, by the plimger stnk-
 
 7U8£-AU0£B. 
 
 724 
 
 FUSE-HOLE. 
 
 ing ihe plug or cap when the motion of the projectile 
 is arrested. Various s;ifcty devices arc used, having 
 sufficient strcngtU to prevent the plunger being thrown 
 forward by shocks in transixjrtatiou, etc., but weak 
 enough to" be broken by the shock of discharge, or 
 iinpict of the projectile! :i.s the case may be. 
 
 Co.MBlN.\TioN KisEs. — Many varieties of combi- 
 nation-fuses have iK'en proposed and tested, but with 
 out satisfactory results. This varietv of fu.se would 
 be best adapted to general ser\ice if perfected. If 
 a perfect combination-fuse can be made, none other 
 would Ik- required, as it would have the proiX!rties 
 of the other two. capable of use separately or com- 
 binetl. Granting certainty of ignition of the time 
 element, only one kind of fuse^would be required 
 for all kindsof scr\nce. A good one should po.s.sess, 
 in one structure, the properties of the most perfect 
 time- and iiniiactfu.ses. It should be simple in con- 
 struction, siife to handle and transport, and easily 
 applied to the projectile. • 
 
 It is the opinion of many who have given the sub- 
 ject much study that no fulminate or friction com- 
 position should enter into its construction, except per- 
 haps to insure the ignition of the time element of 
 the combination. Certainty of ignition by the g-ases 
 in the gun is not always attainable, especially with 
 ritle - projectiles and breech-loading cannon which 
 have but slight windage; therefore some form of in- 
 ertia igniter is neces,s;iry. Such igniters are simple 
 and easily made, and may be arranged for attachment 
 to the fu.se at the last moment before loading the gim, 
 thereby avoiding all risk of accident in transporta- 
 tion, etc. The above conditions exclude all but a few 
 of the devices subjected to tiial, and the subject is 
 still unsettled and under test. Xo one variety of the 
 many offered for test has given sufficiently satisfactory 
 results to warrant its adoption. 
 
 It is impossible that any species of fuse should be 
 absolutely perfect. When suitable opportunities for 
 observation occur, it is noticed that in tiring a num- 
 ber of shells many do not explode. The failure of 
 the composition to ignite is probably generally due to 
 the absorption of moisture; and therefore all fuses 
 which have been more than one year in service should 
 be returned to the laboratory. Fuses of over two 
 years' date of mainifacture should not be issued for 
 service. Sometimes the fuse is extinguished after 
 having been ignited. This may occur when the shell 
 ricochets on soil or water. Water is not so detrimen- 
 tal as sjmd, and the fuse is rarely extinguished by 
 several ricochets upon it. Generally the gases evolved 
 by the combustion of the composition will repel with 
 great energy any obtrusive matter which woidd ex- 
 tinguish the fuse if once in contact with the ignited 
 surface. 
 
 Premature explosions may be caused by the in- 
 crea.se of the ignited surface of the composition re- 
 sulting from cracks in tlie ca.se or composition itself, 
 or by interstices between the ca.se and composition; 
 and m proportion to the extent of this cause so will 
 be the increased eeh'rily of the combiLstion. Crevices 
 may occur in the composition from some defect in the 
 tools or in the mode of using them, or they may be 
 created by bending the case. It may also hap|)en 
 that the displacement of the shell by the charge of 
 the gun will force in the column of "composition or 
 the ca.se with it. This would of course cause the 
 shell to explode very quickly. The shell may lie de- 
 fective in thickness or quality of metal, and be 
 crushed bv the force of the discharge, when the ex- 
 ])losion will take place in or near the gun. The 
 bursting of the shell near the muzzle of the gun is 
 sfunelimcs attributed to the detonating qualities of 
 the powder in the shell. It is manifest that the pre- 
 mature explosion of shells is far more detrimental 
 to their elHciency than the failure to be exploded at 
 all. See Almlerdiim Perrnsxion-fiiw, Di/riiiauu Fiixc, 
 B"Xfr Fifr, ('oHfuxiiiott-fiiite, Detoiiatingfusi , Dynamo- 
 elf trie Ij/iiiler, Egyo i'eriUMiiiin-fiise, Electrk J-'uiten, 
 Firt-icorks, German Percumon-fuse, German Tiine- 
 
 fiue. Gill Coinbiruilion-fiiiifs, lliitclihi»s Pfromsitm- 
 fuse, Liiisberger Fuws, Mclntire Fums, MorUir-futf, 
 O'ReHly Combination-fune, Pereuisitm-fu-ne, Petiman 
 Fuse, Pliimof/ter Perev*>ioii-fu»e, Bayal Ijoix/ratory- 
 fuse, Ruben and Fornerod Combination fuses. Run- 
 ning fuse, Sc/ienkl Percussion fuse, iyacoastfute, 
 Splinffurd Fuse, Thompson Combination-fuse, Time- 
 fuse. Treadwell Combination fuse, and Waee Combi- 
 nation-fuses. 
 
 FUSE AUGER.— An instrument for regulating the 
 time of burning of a fuse by removing a certain por- 
 tion of the composition. It consists of a steel bit, 
 fastened into a wooden handle, at the lower end of 
 which Is a brass socket, with a bar, under which a 
 graduated limb of the slider moves. The bit fits into 
 the slider, and is by a steel thumbscrew fiustencd to 
 it in any required position. The position of the 
 slider, which determines the depth to which the auger 
 bores, is regulated by a tine scale attached to it oy 
 a screw. 
 
 FUSE BLOCK. — A simple contrivance for holding 
 paper timefuses when being cut. It consists of 
 two blocks of wood hinged together so as to open and 
 shut after the manner of a book. In each end is a 
 recess into which the fuse is placed, and where it is 
 securely held by pressing the blocks tightly together. 
 The fuse is put in with the small end extending out 
 of the end of the block, the point at which it is to be 
 cut beinjj even with the end of the block. 
 
 Along one side of the recess is att;iched the brass 
 scale. This was intended for fuses of obsolete pal- 
 tern. As now made, each fuse is divided into as 
 many equal parts as the number of seconds for which 
 its entire length (two inches) is intended to burn. 
 These parts are marked, and are the guides in cutting 
 the fu.se; the latter operation being performed with 
 the fusi-knifi', which is a very sharp and thin-bladed 
 knife (preferably a shoe-knifc'), or a fine saw. 
 
 FUSE-ENGINE.— A name formerly given to an in- 
 strument for extracting a wood fuse wlicn tixed in a 
 spherical shell. As it was found faulty in construc- 
 tion it has Ix'cn replaced by the present fuse-extractor, 
 which is applicable to extracting wood fuses from 
 liHed shells. 
 
 FUSE-EXTRACTOR. — An implement used for ex- 
 tracting wooden fuses from the fuse-hole, when tliey 
 have been too firmly driven to be withdniwn by the 
 sliell plug-screw, or in any other way. It consists of 
 an inner screw and stem of steel, riveted to an iron 
 handle, and contained in a hollow steel screw, which 
 works up and down by me;uis of an iron nut with 
 two handles. The hollow screw is prevented from 
 tinning by a slot and a feather in the frame, which is 
 of brass. " The nut is kept in place by four iron set- 
 screws, the points of which enter into a groove in the 
 nut. To extract a fuse, the bottom of the frame is ' 
 placed on the shell over the fuse-head, and the inner 
 screw screwed into the fuse by means of the upper 
 handle. The handles of the "nut are then turned, 
 which raises the hollow screw, and with it the inner 
 screw and the fuse. 
 
 FUSE HOLE. — The hole in a shell prepared for the 
 reception of the fuse-stock. The loss of force by the 
 fuse-hole may be ascertained w ith sulbcient accuracy, 
 provided we know from an actual cxiieriment the 
 amount of the loss from the fuse-hole of any one 
 shell. 
 
 Let R and r be the exterior and interior radii of a 
 spherical projectile; T, the tenacity of the metal; i, 
 the radius of the fuse-hole; w' , the "weight of powder 
 neces.sarv to burst it under the supposition that there 
 is no loss of force at the fuse-hole; ir, the weight of 
 powder that is actually required to burst it. By for- 
 mulas approved we obtain the value of /r ; ir — w 
 is therefore the amount of loss from the fu.se-hole. 
 Take anollier projectile, and let (r rei)resent the 
 charge which is necessary to burst it, under the sup- 
 position that there is no loss, and ir the weight that 
 is found by experiment neces.sary to burst it; ic — it,' 
 will represent the loss. We are "at liberty to suppose
 
 FUSEHALLET. 
 
 725 
 
 FUSIKG AND FBEEZINS F0IKT8. 
 
 the loss from the two fuse-holes is proportional to the 
 size of the holes, and the density of the giises at the 
 moment of rupture; we shall" therefore have this 
 proportion: 
 
 w — w' : IP, — w,' :: i^d : i\-d,. 
 
 Or, 
 
 w = w' + (w, 
 
 
 From the experiments made at Metz in 1835, it was 
 shown that this mode of estimating the loss of force 
 by the fust-hole was sufficiently accurate for practical 
 purposes. See Bmichiiig and Shtlh. 
 
 FUSE-MALLET. — An implement for setting the 
 fuse home. It is cylindrical in shape, with a handle 
 on one end, and is turned out of a siugle piece of dog- 
 wood, oak, or other hard wood. 
 
 FUSE-PLUG. — Fuse-plugs are made of brass or of 
 close grained wood, well sea- 
 soned. They are turned to a 
 size a little larger than the 
 fuse-hole, but of the same ta- 
 per, — 2.0 inches long ; a hole 
 is bored through the axis and 
 reamed out to receive the pa- 
 per fuse, and the large end is 
 counterbored and tapped to 
 receive the water-cap. If a 
 wooden plug be used, a short, 
 hollow cylinder of brass, .5 
 inch long, .15 inch thick, is 
 inserted in the recess before 
 the plug is driven, and after- 
 wartls tapped to receive the 
 water-cap. 
 
 The irater-cap. shown in the 
 drawing, is a plug of brass, 5 
 inch long, .6 inch in diameter, 
 chased with 12 threads to the 
 inch. One end has a shallow 
 recess cut in it, .1 inch deep, 
 larger at bottom than at top; 
 a hole .1 inch in diameter is 
 bored through the middle of 
 the aip. and a hole is bored 
 from either end into this transverse hole, but meeting 
 it at points .25 inch or more apart; these and the re- 
 cess in the end arc tilled with mealed-powder paste. 
 Diameter of hole at bottom of recess, .53 inch; at 
 small end, .4 inch. 
 
 A little shellac is brushed around the s;ifety-plug 
 and lower end of fuse-plug; also around the leaden 
 patch and top of stock. A" pasteboard cap is put on 
 over the safetvplug end of the fuse-plug to prevent 
 the plug from being broken off, and the fuses thus 
 prepared are stowed in boxes. See Fuse and Water- 
 cap. 
 
 FUSE-KEAMER. — The implement used to enlarge 
 the hole in a fuse-plug so as to make it of the proper 
 size for the jiajier fuse. 
 
 FUSE SETTEE.— An implement for setting wooden 
 fuses in the fuse-hole. It is made of brass; the bot- 
 tom is countersunk and cup shaped, to prevent it 
 from slipping off from the head of the fuse. 
 
 FUSE-WRENCH. — A three-pronged wrench used 
 for setting fuse-plugs that are to be" screwed into the 
 shell. One prong "contains forks for the fuse plug, 
 and another oni- smaller forks for the water-cap. 
 
 FUSIBLE METAL.— Fusible metjil is composed of 
 2 parts of bismuth, 1 of lead, and 1 of tin. It fuses 
 at 201 ' F. , becoming pasty before it completely melts. 
 It expands in a very anomaloas manner; its bidk in- 
 creases regidarivfrbm 32° to 95°; it then contracts 
 gradually to 131 ; it then ex-pands rapidly till it 
 reaches 176', and from that point till it melts its ex- 
 pansion is uniform. The faculty of ex-panding as it 
 cools, while still in a comparatively soft state, ren- 
 ders the alloy very .ser\iceable to the die-sinker, who 
 employs it to test" the accuracy of his die, every line 
 being "faithfully produced in the cast made of the 
 alloy. The proportions of the three metals are some- 
 
 times varied, and another formula is given in the 
 table in Fusing and Freezing Polnts. 
 
 FUSIL. — 1. A firelock lighter than the musket, in- 
 vented in France about 1635, and deri\ing its name 
 from the Italian word /ocfTc, "a flint." In 1678 a 
 British regiment was armed with the fusil, and the 
 King added a company of men anncd with hand-gre- 
 nades to each of the oid British regiments, which, was 
 designated the Grenadier Com|)any. 
 
 2. FitJtil is represented heraldically as longer and 
 more acute than a lozenge. 
 
 FUSIL A CHEVALETS. -A species of fusils upon 
 rests, which was recommended by Marshal Vauban 
 to be used at the commencement of a siege, about 50 
 or 100 toises in front of the glacis, at the entrances of 
 narrow passages, etc. 
 
 FUSILIER. — Formerly a soldier armed with a short- 
 er and lighter musket than the rest of the anny, which 
 he could sling over his shoulder. The fusilier regi- 
 ments, of which there are ten in the British service, 
 are not distinguished from the Infantry of the Line as 
 they formerly were; the title is now purely honorary, 
 and they are armed anil dressed in every way like the 
 line regiments, except in the head-dress and the mode 
 of wearing their chevrons. The headdress of the 
 officers is a busby, the material of which is made of 
 raccoon-skin, for that of the non-commissioned officers 
 and of the men, of sealskin. On parade, or marching 
 in (juick time, or upon occasions of guard-mounting 
 paratle, or re\iew, they always march to the Grena- 
 diers' March. 
 
 FUSILLADE. — The simultaneous discharge of fire- 
 arms in various military exercises. 
 
 FUSIL-MOUSQUET.— A name applied to the Jfint- 
 loek gun, invented about 1640, and introduced into 
 the French army by Vauban. This gun had a bay- 
 onet with a socket. 
 
 FUSIL-RAYE.— The name given to the early long- 
 ranire ritle of the Imperial Guard. 
 
 FUSILS A L'EPPE.— Fusils with long bayonets, 
 shaped like a cut-and-thrust sword. These weapons 
 were recommended as extremely useful in the rear 
 rank of a battalion, or in detached bodies that are 
 stationed for the defense of baggage, etc. 
 
 FUSING AND FREEZING POINTS. — Terms ap- 
 plied to the temperature at which solids assume the 
 liquid form and liquids become solid. The following 
 table gives some of the best determinations of the fus- 
 ing- point: 
 
 Mercury — 39° 
 
 Oil of vitriol -30° 
 
 Bromine 9°. 5 
 
 Oil of turpentine 14° 
 
 Ice 32° 
 
 Lard 91° 
 
 Phosphorus Ill '.5 
 
 Pota.ssium 136' 
 
 Yellow w^ax 143° .6 
 
 Stearic acid 158° 
 
 Sodium 207° . 7 
 
 Fusible metal (5Pb,3Sn,8Bi) 212° 
 
 Iodine 226°. 4 
 
 Sulphur 239' 
 
 Alloy (lSn,2Bi) 286° 
 
 " (3Sn,2Pb) 333' 
 
 Tin 451° 
 
 Bismuth 512° 
 
 Nitrate of soda 591° 
 
 Lead 620° 
 
 Nitrate of potash 642° 
 
 Zinc 773' 
 
 Antimony (about) 900° 
 
 Silver 1773° 
 
 Copper 1996° 
 
 Gold 2016° 
 
 Cast-iron 2786' 
 
 Wrought-iron, higher than 3280° 
 
 We see from this table that alloys may have a fusing- 
 point far below that of any of the metals which enter
 
 7USS-STBEITAZT. 
 
 726 
 
 OABIONASE. 
 
 into tlieir composition. Similarly, mi.xturcs of vari- 
 ous silicates fuse at a teni|XTdlure far below that 
 which is rcquireii to melt any one of them, and the 
 Slime remark applies to mi.xtures of various chlorides, 
 carbonates, etc. 
 
 Most .solids, when heated to their fusing-points, 
 charisrc at once into perfect liquids: but some— as, for 
 exanii)le. platinum, iron, glass, phosphoric acid, the 
 resins, and man^- others — pass through an intermedi- 
 ate pasty condition before they attain perfect fluidity, 
 and, in these cases, it is dillicult, if not impossible, to 
 determine the e.vact fusing-point. This intermediate 
 condition is termed ritriviis fusion, because it is a 
 characteristic property of gla.ss. It is in this inter- 
 mediate state that glass is worked, and iron and pla- 
 tinum forged. 
 
 As a geiiend rule, the freezing-point is the same as 
 the fusing point— that is to sjiy, if a substance in the 
 liquid form be cooled below the fusing-point, it again 
 becomes solid; but there are cases in which we can 
 cool a liquid several degrees below its fusing-point ; 
 thus, by keeping water perfectly still, we can cool it 
 to 5 , or even to 1.4, before it freezes. If, however, 
 we drop a solid bodj' into water in this condition, or 
 if we shake the ve.s.sel containing it, congelation be- 
 gins at once, and the temperature rises to 33'. This 
 phenomenon is exhibited to a still greater degree in 
 \-iscid tiuids, like the oils. It is well known that the 
 freezing-point of water is depressed by the presence 
 of Siilt.s. Thus, sea- water freezes at about 36 .6, and 
 a saturateil solution of common salt must be cooled as 
 low as 4' before freezing. 
 
 FUSS-8TKEITAXT.— A German battle-axe, having 
 a Idiiir huudlc and ust>d bv the foot-soUliers. 
 
 FUST — FUST AGE. — The very early gun-carri- 
 age, upon which the ancient bombard was tixed by 
 means of iron work. Tlie.se carriages consisted of 
 bliK'ks of wood or frame structures, made in imitation 
 of the mountings of small-aniis. 
 
 FUSTIBALE.— A kind of .sling with a handle fas- 
 tened to it. It was u.sed as late as the sixteenth cen- 
 turv for liurlhig lireballs and grenades. 
 
 FUSTUARIUM.— In liomau antiquity, a method of 
 inflicting capital punishment upon any soldier guilty 
 of theft, desertion, or similar crimes. When the ac- 
 cused had been found guilty, he was made to stand in 
 front of the legion to which he Ueliinged. One of 
 the Tribunes tlien touched him lightly with a stick, 
 and all the soldiers immediately rushed upon the cri- 
 minal and beat him to death with clubs (fasles). If 
 he escai)ed — as he was allowed to do if he couUl, but 
 which was rarely if ever possible— he was forbidden 
 ever to return to his native country, and his nearest 
 relatives were not allowed to receive him into their 
 homes or houses. This method of capital punish- 
 ment continued to be enforced even under the Em- 
 pire. 
 
 FUTCHELLS. — Horizontal longitudinal bars which 
 rigidly connect the splinter-bar with the axletree-bed, 
 or with springs or other intermediate connection be- 
 tween them and the axletree. 
 
 FYROZ. — A Persian word signif j-ing rictorious, and 
 forming the name of several ruling kings in Persia 
 and Hindostan. Also written Feroze. 
 
 G 
 
 OABION. — A hollow cylinder of basket-work, em- 
 ployed in field or temporary fortification, and varying 
 in size from a diameter of 30 inches to 6 feet, with a 
 height of from 3 feet i) inches to 6 feet. In consti'uct- 
 ing it, stout straight stakes are pMccd upright in the 
 ground in a cinle of the required diameter, and are 
 then wattle<l together with osiers or green twigs, as in 
 the formation of baskets. The apparatus beingraised, 
 W'hen completed, from Ibe ground, the ends are fas- 
 tened, and the gabion is ready to be rolled to any 
 place where it is desiral)le to form the breastwork 
 against the enemy. Placed on end, and tilled with 
 earth, a single row of gabions is proof, except at the 
 points of junction, against musketry-fire, and by in- 
 creiising the number of rows any degree of security 
 can be obtained. The gabion has the advantage of 
 being highly portable, from its shape, while with its 
 aid a parapet c^n be formed with far less earth, and 
 therefore in less time, than in cases when allowance 
 has to be made for the sloiies on both sides, which are 
 ncccisarily present in ordinary earthen walls. The 
 »ap-rolkr consist.s of two concen- 
 tric gabions, one 4 feet, the other 
 2 feet 8 inches, in diameter, with 
 the space between them wedged 
 full of jiickels of hard wood. In 
 sap])iiii;, these serve as substitutes 
 for mantlets. .Stujf'ed gahions are 
 gabions rammed full of broken 
 branches and small wood; being 
 light in weight, they are rolled 
 before soldiers in the trenches, 
 and alTtird some, though not a 
 very etlicient, protection against 
 miisketry-tire. 
 
 To form a gabion, a directing 
 cirrle is made of two hoops, the 
 difference between their radii being such that, when 
 placed concentrically, there shall be alM)Ut 1} inches 
 between them. They are kept in this position by 
 
 placing small blocks of wood between them, to 
 which they are tied with pack-thread. The directing 
 circle is placed on the ground, and si'ven or nine 
 stakes, about 1 inch in diameter and 3 feet long, are 
 driven slightly into the ground between the hoops, at 
 equal distances apart ; the directing circle is then 
 slipped up midway from the bottom, and tied in thai 
 Ijosition. Twigs about half an inch in diameter, and 
 as long as they can be procured, are wattled between 
 the stakes like ordinary basket-work: when flnished 
 within about H inches of the top, the gabion is 
 placed with the other end up, the directing circle is 
 taken olT. and the gabion is completed within the 
 same distance from the other extremities of the pick- 
 ets. The wicker-work at the two ends is secured by 
 .several withes, and the ends of the ])ickets being 
 brought to a jioint, the gabion is ready for use. See 
 Oiihiiiii lit I'll mi lit , JoiuK Gahiiin, ami TyUr (lnhioii. 
 
 GABIONADE. — Traverses placed between guns or 
 on their Hanks lo cover them from an enfilade-fire 
 are u.sually termed (jahionad(». To form a gabionade, 
 gabions are placed in a row, side by side, inclosing a 
 
 rectangular space of about 15 feet in width from out 
 to out, and about 34 feet in length, perpendicular to 
 the para|)et. A second row is placed within this and 
 touching it, and a third row inside of Ibe second. 
 The n-eathus inclosed is filled in with earth to a level 
 with the top of the gabions. Six rows of large fas- 
 cines are next laid on the gabions to support a second
 
 OABION BEVETMSNT. 
 
 727 
 
 GALENA. 
 
 tier consisting of two rows. The second tier is tilled 
 in like the first, and the earth is heaped up on top. 
 Four rows of large fascines are placed on these to 
 support a third consisting of one row, making the 
 gabionade nearly twelve feet high. The ends are in- 
 closed by filling in with gabions, as for the sides. A 
 passage- waj' of about two feet is left between the end 
 of the traverse and the parapet. This space may be 
 roofed over with logs and earth to fonn a cover in 
 which the cannoneers may shelter themselves against 
 fragments of shells. Sjili/tUr-prmf Inii-erses may be 
 made by placing two thicknesses of g-abions side by 
 side filled with earth, with a .second tier of one thick 
 ness on top. When a service-magazine is to be placed 
 in a gabionade, the rows of gabions are set farther 
 apart, and the excavation for the magazine is made 
 between them. The chamber of the magazine is 
 constructed in one of the ways neretofore described. 
 h. parapet en gabionnade is a" parapet con-structed of 
 gabions. See Trarerse. 
 
 GABION EEVETMENT. — Gabion revetments are 
 rarely used for the interior slopes of ordiuarj' field- 
 works. They are much and usefully employed in 
 the trenches in siege-operations, in batteries, and in 
 embrasures. When ased as a revetment for the in- 
 terior slope, they give a height of three feet, in con- 
 sequence of the projecting ends of the pickets. They 
 are niaiie to rest upon a row of fascines half buried 
 in the banquette, and are so placed as to have the 
 same inclination as the interior slope. The gabions 
 are then tilled with earth, and the parapet is raised 
 behind them. When the parapet reaches the height 
 of the g-abion, a row of fa.scines is laid on top of the 
 gabions to give the requisite height to the interior 
 crest. 
 
 Profile of Gabion and Fascine Work. 
 
 To form this revetment, a fascine is first laid partly 
 embedded below the tread of the banquette; the gabi- 
 on, which is placed on end, rests on this, so as to 
 give it the requisite slope; it is then filled with earth; 
 others are placed in like manner, and the parapet is 
 raised behind them; another fascine is laid on top, 
 and in some cases two. The drawing shows the pro- 
 file of gabion and faspinc work, with small pickets 
 in the ditch, and an abatis behind the glacis. In 
 making the gabions, iron hoops, similar to baiTel- 
 hoops, may be used instead of wattling. The num- 
 ber of stakes should lie increased to eleven or thirteen. 
 Gabions made either of wattlings or hoops are not 
 good for holding dry s;»nd. Sheet-iron is preferable 
 to either iron hoops or brush for gabions. For this 
 purpose rectangular sheets of suitable dimensions to 
 form cylinders of the same height and diameter as 
 the ordinary- gabion arc prepared, with three holes 
 punched near to and parallel with the shorter sides of 
 the sheets. These are to secure the ends with wire 
 when the sheet is Ijent into the cvlindrical form. 
 The advantages of this description of gabion are 
 greater strength, liglitness, and durability than either 
 of the other two, offering great facility for transporta- 
 tion, and resisting Ijetter the blast of guns when ased 
 for revetting the cheeks of embrasures. Galvanized 
 iron is less liable to m.st than plain iron; when not 
 galvanized, the gsibions should be always lacquered 
 with coal-tar. See Reretment. 
 
 GABION TRIP. — The bands of Jones's iron gabions 
 may be formed into a network as an obstacle against 
 cavalry and even against infantry in night-attacks. 
 The bands are buttoned and jjlaced in line 3 or 4 feet 
 apart; each band is then connected with the next 
 by stout wire or rope passed through binding-holes. 
 
 Bands thus connected should be laid in parallel rows, 
 checkcrnise, 3 or 4 feet apart, the rows also con- 
 nected by wire or rope and secured at intervals to 
 pickets driven into the gi'ound. See Gabion. 
 
 GAD — GADLING. — An old Norman name given to 
 that part of the gauntlet which covers the knuckle, 
 and which Wius armed with knobs or spikes of iron. 
 In a trial by combat adjudged between John de Vis- 
 eonti and Air Thomas de la ilarche, fought before 
 Edward III. in close lists, at Westmin.ster, Sir Thomas 
 de la Marche gained the advantage by striking the 
 gadlings of his gauntlet into the face of his adver- 
 sarj'. The term gad is also applied to the point of a 
 spear or an arrow-head, and the withe used in the 
 construction of fascines. 
 
 GADASU. — The French term employed for a very 
 broad Tui kish .saber, formerly in common use. 
 
 GAFFLES. — A name applied to the steel levers by 
 means of which the ancients bent their cross-bows. 
 
 GAGE. — 1. A pawn or pledge. The word is de- 
 rived from the French gager. Hence, by changing g 
 into ir, we have irage and trager; as, " wager of law," 
 '■ wager of battle," wherein a person gave his pledge 
 that he would sustain his affirmation; and, in the 
 latter case, the glove was sent as a material pledge to 
 be redeemed by a mortal combat. Hence also in 
 England. 
 
 2. A tool for settmg out lines and grooves parallel 
 with the margin of the carpenter's work. The "stem" 
 of the gage is retained in the head or slock by means 
 of a small wedge, and the cutter is fixed in a hole 
 at right angles to the face of the stem by another 
 wedge. There are several forms of gages, such as 
 the iiiarking, cutting, router, mortise gage, etc. See 
 Gauge. 
 
 GAINE DE FLAMME.— A variety of linen 
 sheath or cover into which the staff of a flag 
 or pendant is put. 
 
 GAINE DE PA VILLON.— A cloth or linen 
 band which is sewed across llie flag, and 
 through which the different ribbons are in- 
 terlaced. 
 
 GAINING T'WIST.— Some of the rifles and 
 rifled ordnance in the service are made with 
 grooves which have a verj' slight twist at the 
 breech, but the twist is increased regularly until it 
 reaches the muzzle; this is known as the iiicreamng 
 or gaining tirixt. At the instant of discharge, when 
 the shot from a state of rest is instantly given a high 
 velocity, it would seem likely to be pushed across the 
 grooves, especially if they have a great inclination. 
 To avoid this, the inclination of the grooves is made 
 slight at the breech, and increased gradually toward 
 the muzzle, at which point they are sufficiently in- 
 clined to give the necessarj- rotatory motion. In the 
 increasing twist, though the projectile leaves the seat 
 or chamber of the gun with great velocity, and re- 
 lieves the breech a good deal from the strain of the 
 discharge, its velocity is less than from a gun with 
 uniform tiri.\t. See Tirist. 
 
 GAIN-PAIN.— A term applied in the Middle Ages 
 to the sword of a hired .soldier. 
 
 GAITEBS.— A sort of cover for the leg, usually 
 made of cloth, and either long or short. Those 
 reaching just above the ankle are termed half-gaiters, 
 and are worn by infantrj' soldiers in Europe. 
 
 GALEA. — Aniong the Romans, a light castjue, 
 head-piece, or morion, coming down to the shoulders, 
 and commonly of bra.ss; though Camillus, according 
 to Plutarch, ordered those of his army to be of iron, 
 as Ining the stronger metal. 
 
 GALENA. — A mineral which is e.s.sentially a sul- 
 phuret of lead, the proportions being 13.3 sulphur 
 and 86.7 lead; but usually containing a little silver, 
 and sometimes copper, zinc, antimony, or seleniuni. 
 It is of a lead-gray color, with a metallic luster, is 
 found massive, or sometimes gnmular, or crystallized 
 in cubes or octahedrons. It is verj- easily broken, 
 and its fragments are cubical. It occurs in veins, 
 beds, an4 embedded mas-ses, often accompanying
 
 GALE'S COUFOinn). 
 
 728 
 
 OALLEBT DESCENT. 
 
 other inctallic ori's. in primitive iinil seconflart' rocks, 
 but most of all in wlial is known as truiisition or 
 mounlainjimeslone. It is found very abundantly in 
 some parts of Britain. Almost all the lead of com- 
 merce is obtainwl from it. It sometimes contains so 
 much silver that the separation of that metal is protil- 
 ably carrieil on. The lead is extracted from it b)- a 
 verv simple process. See I^iid. 
 
 GALE'S COMPOUND.— Powdered glass with gun- 
 powder, rendering the latter non-explosive; so named 
 after the patentee. 
 
 OALET. — The French name for the German bal- 
 laitre, a crass-tiow alK)ve the ordinarj- size. The term 
 is also applied to a round stone thrown from a sling 
 or l)ow. and is sometimes written Galht and Jalif. 
 
 OALL. — The wound inflicted on draught or riding 
 horsis from the imperfect tilting of tjie liarnc.-;s or 
 .sadtllc. The slightest tendency to gall should be 
 promptly looked after. Hot water and poultices 
 make the iK-st early treatment. Leather burned to a 
 crisp and tinelv iwwdered, when spread over the 
 wound, causes it to heal very quickly. There is no 
 excuse for the frightful wounds on the backs of mules 
 anil horses due to improper saddling. 
 
 6ALLAS. — A warlike race occupying the South and 
 Ea.st of Abyssinia. The general name by which the 
 tribes designate themselves is Oroi/m (ui-iim, men). 
 Although generally belonging to the negro race, they 
 are not purely negroes, but form with the Fulahs, 
 Mandingoes, and ISubas, as it were, the transition to 
 the Semitic variety, and scen\ to belong to that great 
 family inhabiting llie Kast of Africa, from the fron- 
 tiers of the Cape land to Aby.ssinia, and usually 
 denominated the Kaffers. They are a \igorous, 
 well-fonne<l people of a dark brown color, with hair 
 frizzled but not quite woolly, round faces, and small 
 sharp eyes, and are distinguished not less by their 
 energy and warlike spirit than by their mental cap'»- 
 cities. They first apjiear in history in the sixteenth 
 century, as a barbarous people, extending their con 
 quests from the interior of Africa, laying waste, by 
 constant incursions, the countries of Eastern Africa, 
 to the mountains of Abyssinia, gradually subduing or 
 expelling the original iuhabitant.s (hence their name), 
 occupying great part of Abyssinia, and advancing as 
 far as the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. It is only of 
 late years that their power in Abyssinia, and their 
 incursions into that country, have been partially 
 checked, chiefly by the vigorous government of the 
 King of Shoa, who sulxlued some of the Gallas tribes 
 and induced them to profess such Christianity as ex- 
 ists in Aby.s.sinia. They still, however, occupy many 
 districts of Abyssinia, and extend their power to an 
 indefinite extent over the countries situated south 
 and southwest of it. Politically, the Gallas do not 
 form a single Nation, but are divided into numerous 
 tribes, forming separate Kingdoms and Slates, which 
 are frequently at war with each other. Most of the 
 Gallas follow pastoral avocations. Some, however, 
 through intercourse with the semi-Christian, semi- 
 civilized Ahyssinians, have become tillers of the soil. 
 The wandering Gallas are mainly engaged in bunting 
 and the slave-lnidc. The larger number of the Gallas 
 are still heathens, though Mohammedanism has lately 
 made great progress among them. Their religion 
 bears a res<'mblance to that of the Kaflers. 
 
 GALLERY.— A covered passage cut through the 
 earth or masonry in a fortification, either as a means 
 of conununication, or as a position whence a mus- 
 ketry-fire can be maintained through loopholes. For 
 the latter puriwse, gsillcries are formod occasionally 
 in the counterscarps of dry ditches, where their de- 
 fenders exercise a flanking fire upon the ditch. To 
 explain the practical operations in driving a gallery, 
 let an example l)e taken where the soil is loose, aiid 
 the floor of the gallery ri-^es from the iKiint of ilepart- 
 ure. In this ca."*- the first frame of the gallcrv must 
 l)e set up within the shaft and acainsi the shaft -frames, 
 on the side from which the gallery is to open. The 
 ground-sill of this frame being laid, the ^Aanchions 
 
 are secured to the inlennediate shaft-frames of the 
 last interval by battens, and the to]) sill fastened. A 
 horizontal Iwam is then secured to the under side of 
 the top shaft-frame of the same interval, to preserve 
 the proper slope for the top sheeting wIumi inserted; 
 wedges being placed iK'twecn this iH'ain and the -sheet- 
 ing-board for this purpose. A like arrangement for 
 the side sheeting may be made if ueces.sarv. The ex- 
 cavation of Ihc gallery Ls now commenced at top, b_v 
 forcing down with a crowbar the sheeting of the 
 shaft on the side of the gallery. The earth is re- 
 moved gradually forwards and downwards, and the 
 gallery -slieeting advanced at the same "rate. When 
 the excavation has reached as low as the intermediate 
 shaft-frame, the piece of it that sustains the lower 
 portion of the .sheeting is removed to allow the exca- 
 vation to proceed. When in this way the earth is re- 
 moved as far as the middle of the fi'rst interval, the 
 auxiliary gallerv-frame is set up, to support the top 
 and side sheeting until the .second gallcry-fniinfr is 
 placed. To phue this last frame, the position of the 
 ground-sill is first determined by placing the slope- 
 block on the ground-sill first laid, and then, bj' a 
 common mason's level upon the side of which the 
 interval is marked, laid upon the slope block, bringinc 
 the top of the ground-sill on the .same level as that oi 
 the slope-block. The sill being adjusted and firmly 
 secured, the .stanchions are next set up, and secured 
 by battens to the stanchions of the first frame, and 
 the cap-sill is secured in the last place. The adjust- 
 ments of the stanchions and cap-sills are made by an 
 ordinary plumb line, by means of which the edges of 
 the stanchions are placed vertically, and the scores on 
 the cap- and ground-sills brought into the vertical 
 plane of the axis of the gallery. The battens are 
 placed horizontally. In a level gallery they are nailed 
 alternately at 4 and 8 inches below "the cap-sill. In 
 others they are nailed 4 inches below the lower of the 
 cap-sills of the two frames which they unite; this will 
 bring them to 4 inches, added to the height of the 
 slope-block, below the other. The auxiliary frame 
 is not taken down until wedges have been placed be- 
 tween the sheeting and the frame last placed, in order 
 to introduce the boards for the next interval; and the.se 
 last are kept in the proper direction, as the excavation 
 is advanced, by wedges inserted between them and 
 the sheeting of the interval finished. See Aiiriliary 
 Frame, Jiniiirli Galkrks irith Dutch Canes, Galleri/ 
 Descent, Gallery Interi-ah, Scarp-gallery Shaft, Slope- 
 block, and Wimden Gallery. 
 
 GALLERY DESCENT.— A descent to a ditch is usu- 
 ally by blindage when the depth of the ditch does not 
 exceed 10 or 12 feet. For greater depths the com- 
 mencement of the descent is by a blinilage which is 
 continued to a point where the bottom of the descent 
 is about 9 feet below the surface of the ground; here 
 the blindage is terminated, and the remainder of the 
 descent is nuide by gallery, as the depth of the earth 
 aljove the gallery w ill l)e sufficient to allow the exca- 
 vation to be earned on without trouble. In a firm 
 soil, grand gallerj'-frnmes are used for the descent; in 
 a loose soil, common gallery-frames. The frames 
 used and construction of the gallery are the same as 
 for a mine-gallery. The point of departure of a ditch 
 descent is usually taken at only aliout 'i feet below 
 the bottom of tlie trench; the" usual landing being 
 made at this point. In a drj- ditch, the l)Ottom of the 
 descent should come out at the usual depth of the full 
 .sjip below the Iwttom of the ditch. In a wet ditch it 
 sho\dd come out about 1.") inches aliove the water- 
 level. The passage of a dry ditch is nothing more 
 than a fidl siip. which leads from the outlet of the 
 descent In the ditch to the bottom of the breach. 
 From this point the trench and parapet are directed 
 up the breach to the scarp- wall, which fonns the -side 
 of the breach towards the dangerous point. The only 
 lirecaulion neccssiirv in making this pa.ssage is to sink 
 the trench at the on"l.sel to its full depth of 43 inches 
 to g.iin secure cover. The passiige of a wet ditch is 
 a perilous and ditlicult operation under any circum-
 
 OAXLEBT INTEBVALS. 
 
 r29 
 
 GALLEEY TAEGET-PEACTICE. 
 
 Stances, but particularly- so when a strong current can 
 be produced, by the besieged, in the ditch. The meth- 
 ods usually recommended are to form a dike, or bridge 
 of fascines and hurdles, laid in successive layers, and 
 limily connected by pickets. To form a footing for 
 the dike, a grand gallery is excavated, directly Ijehind 
 the counterscarp-wall, "to a distance of 12 or 15 feet 
 on each side of the descent, and the earth from it is 
 thrown into the ditch, through the outlet of the de- 
 scent. The dike or bridge of fascines is gradually 
 pushed forward from this point, Ix'ing secured in the 
 best way practicable to the earth thrown into the ditch. 
 The sappers who carrj- for^^ard the head of the dike 
 are covered from the lire of the dangerous point by 
 
 Which leaves 39 feet to be divided into suitable inter- 
 vals; which may be done by constructing twelve of 
 them each 3 feet 3 inches. 
 
 The intervals of the portion C D will be found as 
 follows. From 44 feet take the following sum: 
 
 Half the width of the landing at C 2 ft. i in. 
 
 Thickness of the landing- frame 5 " 
 
 The distance from D (as found from 
 
 sketch) to the landing-frame back 9 " 
 
 Thickuessof gallerj-frame at landing D. 44 " 
 
 3ft. Tin. 
 Which leaves 40 feet 5 inches. This can be divided 
 
 Longitudinal Section of Blinded and Gallery Descent into Ditch. A, Blindage-frames; B, GaUery; C. Passage of Ditch; 
 
 D, Covered-way. 
 
 a musket-proof mask of fascines and Iwards, attached 
 to a raft on which they work. The dike should tie 
 from 12to lo feet wide at toi). A gabionade parapet, 
 formed of two tiers of g:ibions tilled with earth, is 
 placed on it towards the dangerous side. The bottom 
 tier consists of two rows of gabions, each crowned with 
 two fascines, the two rows being in iu.xt.iposition; the 
 top tier is a single row crowned with three fiv«cines. 
 The top of the dike is covered by a layer of earth, and 
 the parapet with raw hides, to prevent the effects of 
 incendiary comix)sitions that might be thrown on 
 them. liift-Iiridges, on barrels, protected by a gabi- 
 onade parapet, have also been proposed, particularly 
 ■where a strong current is to be contended with. See 
 Oalkrij. 
 
 GALLERY INTEEVALS.— The portion of the floor 
 of the gallery l]etween the frames that bound the en- 
 trance 10 a return is termed a landing. The landing 
 is in all cases horizontal, as well as that portion of an 
 oblique return between the oblique frame and the one 
 next succeeding, which last should not be jjlaced fjir- 
 ther than an ordinarj- interval from the farthest point 
 of the oblique frame. 
 
 Having determined, by means of the working 
 sketch, the landings and their frames, with respect to 
 the points of intersection of the axis of the gallery of 
 departure with those of the returns, the intervals of 
 this gallery can Ix' calculated, and their jiositions 
 marked out on the sketch. The manner of mak- 
 ing this estimate will be best illustrated by observing 
 the following example: 
 
 Let A B = 118 feet he the total length of a gallery 
 of departure, estimated horizontally along its axis, 
 from the central picket of the shaft frmn which the 
 gallerr starts. At the point C. 44 feet from A, the 
 axis of a rectangular return commences: and at D, 44 
 feet farther, that of an oblique one. The part A C of 
 the gallery is to lie a common great gallery, the part 
 CD a common gallery, and the portion DB a great 
 branch. With these data it is required to determine 
 the intervals for the different portions of the gjdlery. 
 
 To tind the interval for the first portion, AC, sub- 
 tract from the total distance, 44 feet, the following 
 agcreirate: 
 
 Half the width of the shaft in the clear. . . 2 ft. 2 in. ! 
 The thickness of the lowest shaft-frame. .. 4i " 
 
 Half the width of the landing at C 2 " i" 
 
 Thickness of a gallery -frame'at the landing 5 " 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 into nine intervals, each 3 feet 1 inch, and four of 
 3 feet 2 inches each. 
 
 To find the intervals for the part D B, from 30 feet 
 take the following aggregate: 
 
 Distance from D to frame of landing beyond 
 
 i' 4ft Sin. 
 
 Thickness of landing-frame beyond D 3+ " 
 
 Thickness of last frame at B 3i " 
 
 5 ft 
 
 This leaves 25 feet, which can be diWded into six in- 
 tervals of 3 feet 2 inches each, and two of 3 feet. See 
 GiitUry. 
 
 GALLEEY TAEGET-PEACTICE.— The method of 
 using round balls and reduced charges in the service 
 cartridge-shells solves practically and satisfactorily in 
 many respects the question of unlimited target-prac- 
 tice. For this practice the targets are reduced direct- 
 ly as the ranges. The balls should 1x3 of sufficient 
 diameter to slug in the rifling of the Ixire, and tit 
 clo.sely over the powder in the bottom of the shell. 
 Any motion of the ball in the shell would vary the 
 position the powder takes when poured in, and gives 
 uncertain shooting. There is less fouling of the'inm- 
 barrel when the balls are slightly lubricated with 
 Japan wax. paraffine, or seme lubricant that solidities 
 in cooling, as distingliished from oils that remain 
 liquid. Good results have been obtained by melting 
 Japan wax, immersing the balls in it, and .shaking 
 off the excess of the lubricant in a sieve. In firing 
 100 rounds with l)all lubricated, the weight of foul- 
 ing was ,50 grains, without lubricant 1.50 grains. 
 When no lubricant is at hand, wiping out the bore 
 after every 5 or 10 rounds, and then running a 
 slightly oiled rag through it, will answer. The 
 firing is more accurate when the shells and gim are 
 cleaned after every 5 or 10 rounds; the shells washed 
 in warm water, and the hoK of the gun wiped out by 
 pushing a wet rag through it, and afterwards an oiled 
 one. The ondujance of the FViinkford, Lowell, and 
 Winchester shells is from 200 to 3(X) rounds fired with 
 round balls and smsill charges. They give out by the 
 bottom of the pockets getting knocked in by reiK-ated 
 blows of firing-pin, which causes the primers to miss 
 fire. When short of shells, the e.V|)ed:ent could lie 
 resorted to of putting a thin disk of metal in the lK)t- 
 tom of the pocket, with a vent hole in the middle, 
 until the bottom of the pocket is entirely knocked 
 through. Charges of 3, 4, and 5 grains of Oriental
 
 GALLIC SWOKO. 
 
 730 
 
 0ALTANI8H. 
 
 standard muskclpowder pive gixxi accuracy at 50, 
 T'l. and KK) fwl respectively, tiring from a shoul- 
 der- and iiuizzle-rest. A w(x")dcn drift, with shoulder 
 to prevent the twil from iH'ins driven in too tightly, 
 is convenient. When any shell l»ecomes expanded so 
 as to tit the chanilxT of the gun lightly, it can be re- 
 sized in the resizini; die accompanying the reloading 
 tools. This will not often happen. The penetnition 
 of round ball with 5 grains powder at 50 feet is aljout 
 1 inch in while pine, aud slightly more in hemlock. 
 A lioard from 2 to 4 inches thick is soon cut through 
 by the balls. A bos or Iwrrel filled with dirt and 
 placed in rear of target will catch the spent lead and 
 prevent injury to the gallerv. A butt made larger 
 and filled with earth or sjuid will afford a better pro- 
 tection. If the balls are fired into and lodgcfi iu 
 thick wood, ditliculty will l)e experienced iu digging 
 them out. An iron screen would cause the balls to 
 splash and rebound about the target; hence earth 
 would seem to be best to tire into. The above gives 
 some idea as to what should lie done to prevent the 
 gallery from being deface<l and persons being in- 
 jured standing near the target for scoring shots. A 
 pound of powder furnishes 1400 five-grain charges, a 
 pound of leail 50 balls. The lead can be recast as 
 long as it la-sLs, taking care that it is not burned in 
 remelting. Fifty shells will answer for 10,000 rounds 
 at 200 roimds csich, requiring 10,000 primers for re- 
 loading. With 50 men to a company, 10.000 primers, 
 50 shells, 40 pounds of lead, aud 7 pounds of powder 
 will give 200 rounds per miui, assuming that the balls 
 can be remelted and recast four times before the lead 
 is entirely consumed. Friction in shooting wears 
 away the lead. It appears evident that by the use of 
 the round ball with reduced charges in the ser\ice- 
 rifle the recrtiit may rnorc readily than otherwise be 
 taught to hold his guu with steadiness, pull trigger 
 without deranging his aim. and overcome a very 
 natural tendency to shut his eyes and shrink from 
 the recoil of his jiiece at the moment of its discharge, 
 while the trained soldier ma_v thereby conveniently 
 and economically preserve and improve that accord 
 between the brain and the mu.scles without which the 
 best marksmanship is impossible. See Targd-prac- 
 iice. 
 
 GALLIC SWOKD.— This sword was made of bronze. 
 It was long, sharp-pointed, edged on both sides, and 
 in the graceful curves of its form it somewhat resem- 
 bled the leaf of the sage-plant. The weapon was like 
 the Greek sword in general appear.mce. 
 
 GALLING FIRE.— The sustained discharge of can- 
 non or small-arms, which by its execution greatlj' 
 annoys the enemy. 
 
 GALLI VATS. — Large row-boats, formerly and still 
 to some extent us<.'d in Eastern waters. They rarely 
 exceed seventy tons, carry two masts with lilgh tri- 
 angular sails, and are generally armed with a few 
 small swivel-guns, fastened on "the bulwarks. The 
 Malay pirates employ these swift but rather fragile 
 vessels. 
 
 GALLOP.— The word of command in the School of 
 the Soldier Mounted, by which the trooper is directed 
 to cause his horse to lift alternately the fore-feet and 
 the hind-feet together, in successive leaps or bounds. 
 The horse gallops on the right foot when the right 
 fore and hind legs move in advance of the left fore 
 and hind legs; he gallops on the left fool when the 
 left fore and hind legs are in adv.nnce. He gallops 
 Inic when he g-allops on the right foot in marching to 
 the; right hand, or on the h'ft Um\ in marching tothc 
 left hand; and gsillops fiilut if, in marching to the 
 right hand, he gsiUops on the left foot, or conversely. 
 A horsi' isf/iVi/H/to/when he gallops with the nearfoi-e- 
 leg followed by the off hind-leg, or the off fore-leg 
 followed by the near hind-Jeg: in either case his cen- 
 ter of gravity is deranged, and his strength impaired. 
 When the horse gallops on the left foot the rider feels 
 a sensible movement in his iK>sition from left to right; 
 when he gallops on the right foot the movement of 
 the rider is from right to left; when the horse is dis- 
 
 united the rider experiences irregular movements. 
 To cau.se the horse to gallop, pither him and keep 
 him perfectly straight; carry the hand slightly for- 
 ward, aud to the left, to enable the right shoulder to 
 move in advance of the left ; close the legs U-hind the 
 girth so as to urge the horse forward, causing him to 
 feel the left leg most. When the horse obeys, keep 
 the hand light that the g-.iUop may be free aud regu- 
 lar, and hold the legs close to keep him at the giiit. 
 To keep a horse true the riiler must acconmicxlate 
 himself to all his motions, partieuUuly in changing 
 direction. 
 
 GALLOPER. — A carriage on which very small guns 
 are conveyed, having shafts on which the gun may 
 be borne without a limber. This caniage is seldom 
 or never used in late years. 
 
 GALLOPER-GnNS.— Light gims of small caliber. 
 Formerly these guns were attached to English infan- 
 try regiments, but they have long been alwlished. 
 
 GALLOWGLASS. — In ancient times, a hea^•y -armed 
 foot-soldier of Ireland and the Western Isles. 
 
 GALVANISM— That branch of the science of elec- 
 tricity which treats of the electric currents arising 
 from chemical action, more jiarticularlv from that 
 attending the dis.solutlon of metals. It is sometimes 
 called dynamical electricity, because it deals with 
 current electricitj', or electricity in motion, and is 
 thus distinguished from frictional electricity, which 
 is called statical in consequence of its investigating 
 the electric condition of bodies in which electricity 
 remains insulated or stationary. These terms, al- 
 though in the main thus properly applied, are in 
 all .strictness applicable to both sciences. Fric- 
 tional electricity, though small in quantity, cim 
 pass in a sensible current, and galvanic electricity, 
 though small in teu-sion, c:ui lie made to manifest the 
 attractions and repulsions of stationary electricity. 
 Thus the series of discharges which are transmitted 
 in a wire coimecting the prime conductor of a ma- 
 chine in action with the ground posses,ses, though 
 feebly, the characteristics of a gidvanic current; and 
 the insulated poles of a many-celled galvanic battery 
 manifesl before the current begins the electric ten- 
 sion of the friction-machine. The other branches of 
 current electricity will be found under Ixdvction op 
 
 Ei.ECTUIC CrURENTS, M.VGSETO-ELECTRICITY, and 
 
 TitEKMo-Ei.ECTRiciTV. The scieuce of galvanism 
 dates from the closeof the eighteenth century. In the 
 year 1780, Gal v;ini, in making investigations on the ner- 
 vous iiTitability of cold-blooded animals, discovered by 
 accident that the limbs of a recently killed frog, when 
 hung liy the crural nerve on a metal support near an 
 cleelric machine, contracted convulsively at the recur- 
 rence of each spark. This he properly accounted for 
 by the back-stroke. Six years afterwards, in exiK'ri- 
 menting on atmospheric eicctricity with frog limbsaa 
 delicate elect ro.scopes, he oljtained, also accidentally, 
 the .same convulsions by bringing the copper hook 
 on which the nerve hung, and the limb it.self, simul- 
 taneously in contact with an iron railing. The simi- 
 larity of the result led him to attribute it to the same 
 cause — viz., electricity either existing in the limb 
 it.self or produced in the conducting arc of metal. 
 On consideration, he adopted the former hypothesis, 
 and looked upon the limb as a self charging Leydcn 
 jar. with the nerve as the brass knob and wire, the 
 interior of the muscle as the inner coating, its exterior 
 the outer coating, and the metal arc as the discharg- 
 ing tongs. He first published his researches in 1791. 
 Volta, 1792. discarded the account given by Galveni 
 of his experiment; and from the fad that the convul- 
 sions in (pieslion took place with more energy when 
 there were two metals in the conducting arc instead 
 of one, attributed the source of electricity to the 
 heterogeneity of the metals employed. He main- 
 tained that at the surface of contact of two different 
 nu tals an electric force arising from their heteroge- 
 neity is generated, which throws them into <lifferent 
 tensions. This doctrine forms the fundanu iilal prin- 
 ciple of the contact theoi-y of galvanism. In rei»ly to
 
 OALVANISK. 
 
 731 
 
 OALVANISU. 
 
 Volta, Galvani proved incontestably that the contrac- 
 tion in tlie limbs of the frog took place when only 
 one metal was employed, and even when the con- 
 ductor was not of metal at all. Subsequent discovery 
 has proved Galvani to be partly right in attributing 
 the cause of these convulsions to animal electricity, 
 and Volta also to be partly right in attributing them 
 to electricity generated in the metal arc, for both 
 causes may be at work in producing the result. 
 Volta 's theory of contact is still maintained, though 
 another theory obtains no less support which attri- 
 butes the .source of g-alvanic electricity to the chemical 
 action of a liquid on a metal coupled with another 
 metal less easily acted on than itself. Fabroni, a Pro- 
 fessor at Florence, was the tirst (1792) to suggest 
 chemical action as one of the aiuses at work in Gal- 
 vani's experiment. Volta did not accept of Galvani's 
 vindication, but supported his theory by several ap- 
 parently conclusive experiments. In 1799 he con- 
 structed, as the crowning evidence of the truth of 
 his reasoning, his pile, and with it properly begins 
 the history of galvanism. To Galvani is thus due 
 the merit of discovering a new manifestation of 
 electricity; to Volta is due the merit of displaying 
 in it a source of power of incalculable impor- 
 tance, and which, but for his genius, might 
 have remained among the barrencuriosities of 
 science. Hence it becomes a question of some 
 difficulty to decide to which of the two the 
 science we are discussing owes its origin — 
 whether it is to be called Galvanism or Volta- 
 ism. Priority of discovery has led men gener- 
 ally to decide in favor of Galvani, although 
 Volta has almost equal claim to have his name 
 attached to the science. The first account of 
 Volta's pile reached England in a letter to Sir 
 Joseph Banks by the inventor (1800). A few 
 weeks afterwards Carlisle and Nicholson de- 
 composed water with it. and afterwards several 
 salts. They were the firet to use platinum elec- 
 trodes. Da\T, in the sjime year, traced the 
 electricity of the pile to chemiail action. Wol- 
 laston (1801) reiterated the same thcon,-, and 
 went the length of attributing even frictional 
 electricity to chemical action. He proved like- 
 wise the identity of the two electricities, and 
 showed that by diminishing the electrodes to 
 mere points, the electricity of the machine 
 could produce the same chemical effects as 
 that of the pile. In 1802 Cmikshank im- 
 proved the construction of the pile by dis- 
 posing the plates horizontally in a trough in- 
 stead of vertically in column. The main 
 features of electro-chemical decomposition were 
 discussed by Davj' in his famous Bakerian lecture 
 of 1806. In 180t the same philo-sopher obtaineil, 
 for the first time by galvanic agency, the metals po 
 tassium, sodium, barium, strontium, calcium, and 
 magnesium. Dcluc (1809) first made drj- jnles of 
 gold and silver iiaper, and these were altered and im- 
 proved by Zamboni (1812). In 1813 Davy discovered 
 the electric light and voltaic arc by means of the 
 colossal battery then placed at his' disposjtl at the 
 Royal Institution. CErsted (1820) first observed the 
 action of the current on the magnetic needle; and a 
 few months afterwards Ampere discovered the law 
 of this action, and originated an electric theory of 
 magnets which has proved wonderfully fertile in 
 practical results. In the same year Schweigger in- 
 vented the galvanometer. In 1825, Becquerel, with 
 the aid of his differential galvanometer, investigated 
 the condiictibility of metals. Kemp, in 1826, fii-st 
 ti-sed amalgamated zinc for the galvanic battery. In 
 1827 Ohni' gave a mathematical theory of the pile, 
 rigidly deduced from Volta's fundamental principle, 
 and in perfect keeping with experiment. Faraday 
 (1831-32) published his'discoveries of the inducticin of 
 electric currents, and of the evolution of electricity 
 froqji magnets, which have since enriched the science 
 with the induction-coil and the magneto-electric 
 
 machine. This distinguished electrician discovered 
 (1833-34) the definite nature of electro-chemical de- 
 composition, and proved that electro-chemical and 
 chemical equivalents were identical. In LSiO Dan- 
 iel! constructed his constant battery. Spenser in 
 England, and Jacobi in Russia, made," simultaneously 
 (1837), the discovery of electro- metallurgy. Grove 
 
 (1839) constructed his nitric-acid balterj-." Faraday 
 
 (1840) gave his proof of the truth of the chemical 
 theory. Smee's battery dates also from this year. 
 In 1843 Wheatstone, by means of his rheostat and re- 
 sistance-coils, investigated the resistances offered by 
 various conducting substances to the current. In the 
 same year Bunsen introduced his carbon battery. 
 The rivalry between the chemical and contact theo- 
 rists has favored the advancement of the science, 
 each party calling in the aid of experiment to sup- 
 port their views. Among the more distinguished con- 
 tad theorists may be mentioned Volta, Uitler, Pfafl, 
 Biot, Deluc, Ohm, and Fcchner; and among the 
 chemical theorists, Fabroni, Da\'}', Wollaston, Par- 
 rot, De La Rive, and Faradaj*. Davy latterly 
 maintained a theory of distribution and equilibriiun 
 of electricity midway between the two, which num- 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 bered among its supporters Jaeger, Berzelius, Er- 
 mann, and Jh^chtl. Recently (1860 onwards). Sir 
 William Thomson has given what he considers to be 
 convincing proofs of Volta's contact thcorj', but he 
 modifies the theory so far as to render it consistent 
 with the conservation of force. 
 
 When two plates of copper and amalgamated zinc 
 (zinc whose surface has been rubbed over with mer- 
 cury) are placed in a vessel containing water to which 
 a small quantity of sulphuric acid has been added, so 
 long as they are kept from touching, either within or 
 without the liquid, they remain apparently unaf- 
 fected. If, however, they be made to touch, bubbles 
 of hydrogen gas are formed in abundance at the cop- 
 per plate, and their formation continues until the 
 plates are again separated. If the contact be main- 
 tained for some time, and the plates and liquid be 
 afterivards examined, it is fotmd that the copper 
 plate weighs exactly the same as before, that the zinc 
 plate has lost in weight, and that the liquid contains 
 the lost zinc in solution in the form of the sulphate of 
 that metal. The contact need not be affected by the 
 plates themselves. If wires of copper, or any other 
 conductor of electricity, be soldered to the plates, or 
 fixed to them by binding-screws, and be made to 
 touch, tlie changes just mentioned take place as if the
 
 OALVANISK. 
 
 732 
 
 OALTANISU. 
 
 plates were in contact. When the wires arc thus 
 joined iind, so to s|)eiik, form one connecting wire 
 iK'lwivn the plates, Ihey exhibit very peculiar proper- 
 ties. If a jx)rtion of the connecting wire be placed 
 parallel to a magnetic ne<'dle, and the needle brought 
 near, its north end no longer points to the north, but 
 to a ix)int either to the east or west of it. and this 
 deviation ceases with the sejiaration of the wIr's. It is 
 not even necessary that the wires be in contact, for if 
 their i luU lie put into a ve.s.sel containing a conduct- 
 ing lii|uid thesiune changes occur, though to a dimin- 
 Lslied extent, the contact l)eing completed through 
 the liquid. The ends of the wires, when so immersed, 
 show strong chemical affinities. If the conducting 
 li<iuid were a solution of the sulphate of copper, the 
 wire from the zinc becomes coated with the copper of 
 the solution, whilst the other attracts its o.xygen and 
 sulphuric acid, and wastes away in entering into com- 
 bination with them. The comiecting wires are 
 found, therefore, in actual or virtual combination, 
 to possess very marked magnetic and chemical prop- 
 erties. The arrangement just descrilx-d constitutes a 
 galmnic pair, which may be generally defined to be 
 tiro dmiiiiiltir condiictinr/ phiUn Immersed in n liquid 
 tthirh can aft chemicaUji an one of them, and eniHible 
 of being placed in eondueting connection ; and the 
 properties just referred to form the characteristic 
 powers of galvanic electricity. These properties 
 arise from the wires in connection being Ihe seat of a 
 constant discharge or tlow of electricity, for they are 
 IX)ssessed, though to a very feeble e.xlcnt, by the elec- 
 tricity of the friction electric machine. If the prime 
 conductor of a powerfid electric machine be coimected 
 with one of the binding-screws of an insulated gal- 
 vanometer, and a wire connected with the groimd be 
 fixed into tl>e other, the plate on being turned causes 
 a current of electricity to pass from the machine to 
 the ground through Ihe coil of the gidvanomeler, the 
 needle of which will then show a deviation of one or 
 two degrees. The deviiition. so far as direction Ls 
 concerned, is the same as that which would be pro- 
 duced by placing the wires coming from the copper 
 and zinc respectively in the same binding screws as 
 those connected with the machine and the ground. 
 This would indicate that the copper plate stands 
 electrically in the sjime relation to the zinc plate as 
 the prime conductor of the machine to the ground. 
 The electricitj' of the conductor is ]io.sitive, anil that 
 of the ground by inducti<jn negative; so that in the 
 galvanic pair the copper plate, by analogy, gives off 
 the positive electricity, and the zinc plate negative. 
 Again, let the wire from the machine end in an insu- 
 lated vessel containing a solution of the sulphate of 
 copper, and let the end of a fine platinum wire con- 
 nected with the groimd be made to di]i below the 
 surface of the solution, and let the machine be kept 
 in action so as to send a current of electricity through 
 the wires and liquid: at the end of some minutes 
 the point of the platinum wire will be covered with a 
 minute quantity of copper. The win; connected 
 with the zinc in the gsilvanic pair and that connected 
 with the ground are tlnis shown to <lisplay the same 
 chemical power; and this, again, sliows us that the 
 zinc plate, like the ground in the above experiment, 
 is the .seat of negative electricity. The electric con- 
 dition of the plates before contact reveals, with the 
 aid of a delicate electrometer, positive electricity in 
 the copper plate, and negative in the zinc plate. If 
 the wile joined to Ihe zinc plate, or, as we may write 
 it shortly, zinc wire (not, however, necessarily a zinc 
 wire), be connected with the ground, and the insulated 
 copper wire l)e made to touch tlut lower plate of a 
 condenser whilst the linger touches the upper, on 
 both being withdrawn, the leaves of the elcctro.scope 
 <livcrge with Ihe positive electricity sent to it from 
 the copper plate. It can be shown, moreover, that 
 the current is not contined to the connecting wire, for 
 if a nnignetic needle be suspended between the plates 
 when lliey lie north and .south, slightly above the 
 .surface of the liquid, it will deviate from its usual ! 
 
 I)Osilion when the wires arc joine<l, and in the oppo- 
 site way to that which it shows when held atove the 
 wire placed in the .same direction. The current thus 
 )ias.ses within the liijuid from the zinc to the copper 
 the opposite waj' to that in which it nins in the con- 
 necting ■wires, so that it makes a complete circuit. 
 Hence we may eoncluile, generally, that in the gal- 
 vanic jxiir 11 current of electricity runs within the 
 liquid fnmi Ihe chemically actire to the chemically pas- 
 fire jtltite, and without the liquid, from the chemically 
 jMHisire to the chemically actire plate, n;?iing a cmnplete 
 circtiit; and that if Ihe connection be interrupted the 
 pair shows electric polarity, the cheniieaUy passive 
 plate being the pitsitire jxile, and the chemicallg actire 
 plate the negatire pole. The theory of the action of 
 the galvanic pair may be thus given. When the two 
 plates are put into the water and sulphuric acid they 
 iissume opposite electric states. There is developed 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 at the surface of the zinc an electric force arising 
 from its affinity for the o.xygen of the water which 
 throws the whole arrangement into a state of polarity, 
 The zinc plate with its wire becomes polarized, 
 showing negative electricity at the extremily farthest 
 from the liquid, and po.siiive electricity at Ihe ex- 
 tremity next the liipiid. The copjier plate with its 
 wire is polarized in Ihe ojipo.sile way, being positive 
 at itsouterend and negative at ilseiul next the liquid. 
 The compound molecules of water (H:(>), consisting 
 of oxygen ((Ji and hydrogen (Hj), are likewise polar- 
 ized, but the polarization lakes place in the individ- 
 ual molecules. It appears, moreover, to have refer- 
 ence to their compound niiture. an<l we may imagine 
 them placed in series, with their oxygen or negative 
 ])ole toward the zinc, and their hydrogen or positive 
 pole towards the copjHT. When the ends of the 
 wires are brought near each other, we might antici- 
 pate thai a spark discharge \vould restore quiescence. 
 This, however, is not the case, for the electric tension 
 is .so low that nothing short of contact can effect a 
 discharge. When Ihe discharge thus takes place, the 
 polarity of the circuit lor the instant ceases; the ten- 
 dency to union of Ihe zinc with the atom of oxygen 
 next it is completed by the formation of the oxide of
 
 GALVANISH. 
 
 733 
 
 GALVANISM, 
 
 zinc. But in order to accomplish this, the hydroRcn 
 of the molecule of water next the zinc thus" set free 
 unites with the oxygen of the neighboring molecule 
 to re-form the water, and the same transference and 
 union is continued along the whole series until the 
 hydrogen of the molecule next the copper is tlirown 
 on the copper, where, being unable to unite chemi- 
 cally with it, it is given off a.s a gas. From the fact 
 that pure water has almost no action on zinc, a more 
 probable hypothesis is held that it is not the water 
 but the sulphuric acid (IIjSO,) that is concerned in 
 the action. We have Hj as before; but instead of O 
 we have SO,, a compound molecule forming zincic 
 sulphate (Zn^SO)) at once. In either case the zinc is 
 left clean, either by the acid dissolving the oxide or 
 the water present di.s,solving the sulphate. After the 
 first discharge, therefore, the whole is as at first, so 
 that a seconddischarge instantly follows, thena third, 
 and so on. A series of discharges is thus transmitted 
 through the circuit, constituting what is known as a 
 ftrrent. 
 
 In a wire where a current of galvanic or frictional 
 electricity is passing there is no point which forms the 
 seat of positive or negative electricity, but it appears 
 electrically homogeneous throughout. It exerts no 
 statical inductive action on surrounding object.s, 
 neither attracting nor repelling them, for the electric 
 action being more easily propagated along the wire 
 than in any other direction, lakes place only in it. 
 The laws of induction and distribution applicable to 
 frictional statical electricity hold true in a current 
 electricity only at the section of the wire or conductor 
 along which the action is transmitted. As tested 
 by the magnetic needle, there Ls no part of the circuit 
 which pos.sesses more power than another. This 
 homogeneity gives rise to the hypothesis that every 
 molecule of the circuit, whether solid or liquid, acts 
 in the transmission of the electric force, and is simi- 
 larly affected in its passage. In this way the plates 
 and connecting wires show the same molecular polar- 
 ity as the liquid, only the discharge does not effect 
 an interchange among the molecules, but leaves them 
 in the sjime condition as before. Each molecule of 
 the connecting wire may be viewed to be the seat of 
 electric polaritj' and discharge with its negative faces 
 turned towards the copper, and its positive towards 
 the zinc ; whenever, therefore, we go with the cur- 
 rent we meet each molecule on its negative side, and 
 whenever we go contrary to the current we meet each 
 molecule on ita positive side. Any portion of the 
 circuit shows its negative face to the approaching 
 current, and its positive face at the other extremity. 
 A break in the connecting wire thus separates two 
 contiguous molecules; that ending the copper wire 
 shows itself positive, and that ending the zinc wire 
 negative. This is in perfect keeping with experiment, 
 for wherever a break or change of medium is made 
 in the circuit without stopping the current— as in the 
 electric light, chemical ilecompositions, the visible 
 passage of electricity in vacuous tubes, and the like — 
 the ends or poles exhibit opposite powers, from the 
 pole meeting the curient discharging negative, and 
 the other positive, electricity. The polarity displayed 
 at such interruptions, or visible passages of tlie cur- 
 rent, is necessarily different from the polarity of fric- 
 tional electricity, for the dynamical manifestation of 
 electric force cannot be the same as the statical; in 
 the same way that motion, for instance, the dynami- 
 cal manifestation of the force of gravity, is essentially 
 different from weight, or its statical manifestation. 
 Within the galvanic pair itself the same polarity is 
 shown: the zinc plate, without the liquid or the wnre 
 connected with it, is foimd to act as a negative pole, 
 and the similar copper plate and wire as a positive 
 pole; but within the liquid of the cell the zinc plate 
 shows the same chemical alTinities as the exterior 
 positive pole, and the .similar copper plate acts as the 
 exterior negative pole. The terms positive and nega- 
 tive poles are merely relative, for cverj- molecule or 
 series of molecules would thus appear to have its op- 
 
 posite poles. They serve, however, conveniently to 
 express the relations of two consecutive parts of the 
 circuit. Considerable confusion sometimes arises fiom 
 speaking of the zinc plate as at once the positive ele- 
 ment and negative pole, and the copper the negative 
 element and positive pole of the galvanic pair, and 
 such expressions seem even inconsfetcnt. The truth 
 is that the zinc and copper plates must have each 
 both poles from the very nature of the circuit; but as 
 the outer poles only of these plates are of practical 
 importance, these are considered to be the poles. Ac- 
 cording to the one-fluid theory of electricity, a force 
 is developed at the seat of the action which has the 
 power of liberating tlie electric fluid, and of maintain- 
 ing it in motion throughout the circuit, constituting 
 a current in the true sense of the term. According 
 to the two-fluid theory, two such currents, one of the 
 positive and tlie other of the negative fluid, are made 
 to move in opposite directions throughout the circuit. 
 The propelling force is consequently termed eltclro- 
 motire, and the galvanic pair is called \h.eiitctro)uotor. 
 The temis current and electromotive have their ori- 
 gin in the supposed fluidity of electricity, but being: 
 quite definite in their application, they may be use<l 
 without any such admis.sion. A current may be taken 
 to signify, apart from all supposition, simply the 
 peculiar electric condition of the conductor, which 
 forms the line of discharge between a positive and a 
 negative source of electricity, and electro-motive force 
 may be used simply to denote that which propagates 
 and maintains this discharge. In the same way, when 
 we speak of the direction of the current, we onl}' use 
 a convenient way of showing at which end the posi- 
 tive and negative electricities ari.se, the current being 
 always represented as moving from the positive to 
 the negative. The greater the electro-motive force is, 
 the more powerfully is the discharge effected, and 
 the more is it able to force its way through imper- 
 fect conductors. It would seem probable that the 
 source of the electro-motive force in the galvanic 
 pair is Uie chemical action which takes place at the 
 zinc plate. It must have appeared, even to the 
 most cursory observer, highly probable that the 
 seat of the most active change going forward in the 
 pair is likewise the origin of the force accompanying 
 it. It is found, moreover, when we tax the galvanic 
 current with electro-chemical work, that the amount 
 of work done by it is exactly proportionate to the 
 quantity of zinc dissolved. These and similar con- 
 siderations seem to argue strongly that galvanic ac- 
 tion has its source in chemical action. Volta, how- 
 ever, and several of the most eminent authorities in 
 the science, maintain that the electro-motive force has 
 its seat at the surface of contact of heterogeneous 
 metals, and that chemical action is not the cause but 
 the manifestation of it. This view of the origin of 
 galvanic electricity is called the cmiiaH theory, as dis- 
 tinguished from the chemical theory, the one we have 
 hitherto followed. The contact theorj' supposes that 
 at the surfaces of contact of two heterogeneous sub- 
 stances an electro- motive force, invariable in direc- 
 tion and amount, is generated and subject to modili- 
 cation only by the resistance offered by the conducting 
 circuit. The galvanic pair is accounted for by this 
 theory in the following way: Let us suppose, for the 
 sake of explanation, that both zinc and copper plates 
 are connected by copper wires. The seat of electro- 
 motive force is at the junction of the copper wire with 
 the zinc. At this point the two metals assiune oppo- 
 site electricities— the copper the negative, aftd the 
 zinc the jwsitive ; and since a conducting circuit 
 through wires, plates, and liquid is estjililished, these 
 electricities travel in opposite directions, and, meet- 
 ing, neutralize each other within the liquid, to give ' 
 place to succeeding similar discharges of electricity. 
 The discharge within the liquid takes place electro- 
 lytically. The theory is, in this ca,se, sufficient and 
 consistent, but it must be kept in mind that in a cir- 
 cuit so [lerfectly homogeneous the source of force 
 may be placed anywhere without altering its condi-
 
 eALTAinsx. 
 
 734 
 
 0ALVAHI8M. 
 
 tions. It is, however, so far wron.s in assuming; tbnt 
 the eontacl of the metals, where lliere is no force lost 
 or transfornie«l, niaintiiins a never-failing develop- 
 ment of energy in the circuit— that, in fact, force can 
 be created from nothing. Sir William Thomson and 
 the modern advocates of the contact theory nuxlify 
 Volla's tlieory in this way. They admit with Volta 
 that the contact of the 'metals charges them with 
 different electricities, but that the chemical energy of 
 the liquid in contact with the metals is necessary to 
 discharge them and maintain the current. In the ac- 
 tion of the pair three elements are to be considered — 
 the elfttvo-motite foref, the resistmici-, and the stniir/l/i 
 of the current. The electro-motive force is propor- 
 tional to the force tending to chemical action, if wc 
 adopt the chemical theory, or, on the contact theory, 
 to difference of potential produced by the contact of 
 the two metals. It ismeasured directly by the charge, 
 or, as it is called, the potential (tension)'which a cell 
 rives to a delicate electrometer. In Thomson's re- 
 flecting quadrant electrometer, for instance, a single 
 DanieU's cell detlects the needle so much that the 
 spot of light moves some 3* inches from the 
 zero-point of the scale. The relative electro-mo- 
 tive powers of the various forms of cells can be 
 ascertained by the amount of detlcclion indicated 
 by such an instrument. The resistance in the cir- 
 cuit which is offered by the liquid of the cell and 
 the interpolar wire or other coimection, is that 
 ■which tends to redvice the current or flow of elec- 
 tricilv pro<luccd by the electro-motive force. As 
 stated in Ohm's law, the current strength is equal 
 to the electro-motive force divided by the resis- 
 tance. The elect ro-motivc forces of the different 
 cells can also be compared by observing the effect, 
 on the current strength, of "a given resistance in- 
 terposed in the relative circuits, whose own proper 
 resistance has been previotisly known. The unit 
 of electromotive force now adoptetl by British 
 electricians is called a mil. This is about 7 per 
 cent less than that of a Daniell's cell. The unit 
 of resistance is called an ohm or H. A. unit. 48.1 
 meters of pure copper wire 1 millimeter in dia- 
 meter offer an ohm of resistance; so does about 
 A of a mile of ordinary telegrapli-wire (No. 8). 
 The unit of current strength is called afnmd, and 
 is the amount of flow of electricity that would 
 be produced in a second if the cell of a volt in 
 power were to act in a circuit of one ohm of 
 resistance. One million volts are called a mega- 
 volt; one millionth of a volt, a microvolt. The 
 same proportion holds for a megohm and a mi- 
 crohm, ft megafarad and a microfarad. In the centi- 
 meter, gram, second series of electro-magnetic tmits, 
 an ohm is expressed as 10', a farad as 10 ', and a volt 
 as 10'. 
 
 When a number of copper and zinc pairs, similar 
 to the one already referred to, are put together, so 
 that the copper plate of one cell is jjlaced in conduct- 
 ing connection with the zinc plate of the next, they 
 constitute a galvanic battery. The term battery is 
 sometimes also applied to a number of cells acting as 
 one combination, in whatever way they may be con- 
 nected. When the terminal copper and zinc plates 
 are connected, the current runs from each copper to 
 each zinc plate without the li([uids, and from each 
 zinc to each copper plate within the liquids; and 
 when the contact is broken, the zinc ]>ole shows nega- 
 tive, and the copper pole positive, electricity. The 
 galvifnii- batteiy acts thus in all respects as a com- 
 pound galvanic pair. If the polar wires be con- 
 nected with a tangent galvanometer, the deflection of 
 the needle auisi'<i by the battery will be exactly the 
 same as that effected by one of the cells, ]>ro\nded the 
 wire l)e thick and a good conductor; but if the zinc I 
 end i)e connected with the ground, and the electric 
 tension of the insulated copper pole be tested by a 
 condenser and torsion-balance, it.'i tension is found to 
 be as many times greater than the tension of the same 
 pole of one cell examined in the same way sis there j 
 
 are cells in the combination. Thus, if two cells be 
 taken, the tension is doubled; if tliree, tripled; and 
 so on. T/w electro-motire force of a battery in therefore 
 proportional to <.'«■ number of celh, .supix)sing, of 
 couitse, that they are arranged consecutively. Hence 
 the electricity of a battery is Ix'tter able to force its 
 way through imperfect conductors than that of the 
 simple pair. Wlicn the iuteriw)lar communication is 
 formed bv a thick short wire, a single cell jiroduces 
 as powerful an effect on the magnetic needle as a 
 battery; but if it be formed by a bad conductor, such 
 as a long and thin wire, or a li(iuid, the elTect is verj- 
 diffeR'iit. The current of the pair is then nearly 
 stoppetl, and its inlluence on the needle .small, while 
 that of the battery continues to flow comparativelv 
 luiimijaired. When a battery is i>ut up in series, it 
 is sjiid to have a tension arrangement ; when put up 
 so that several of the cells are grouped together, .so 
 as to act iis one large cell, it is said to have a tension 
 arrangement. Thus 20 cells are arranged for tension 
 when joined in succession; but they may be dispos<]|k 
 so as to act as one large cell 20 times sjs large, or as 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 10 cells twice as large, or as 5 cells four times as 
 large, and so on. The disposition or size of the cells 
 is determined from tlie circuit. 
 
 The two most reliable evidences of the strength of 
 the galvanic current are its power to deflect the 
 magnetic needle and to effect chemical decomposi- 
 tion. To measure one or other of these is the object 
 of a galvanometer or voltameter. A magnetic gal- 
 vanometer shows the strength of the current by the 
 amotint of the deflection of the needle, and shows its 
 tiireetion by tlie way in which it deflects, as ex- 
 plained in tile article 'Gai-v.\nomktkh. The tangent 
 galranometer consists es.sentially of a thick strip of 
 copper, bent into the form of a circle, from one to 
 two feet in diameter, witli a small magnetic needle, 
 moving on a grailuated circle, .it its center. When 
 the needle is small compared with the ring, it maj- l>e 
 assumed that the needle in any direction it lies holds 
 the same relative position to the disturbing power of 
 the ring. Tliis being the case, it is easy to prove 
 that the stretif/ths of currentJi rircukitiiiy in the ring 
 are proportionate to the tangents (f the angleit of deria- 
 tiim of the nfedle. Thus, if the deflection cau.sed by 
 one gidvanic cou]ile was 45\ and of another flO", the 
 relative strengths of the currents .sent by each would 
 be as the tan^jent of 4t to the tangent of CO — \iz., 
 as 1 to l,7;i. The needle can never be deflected 90^, 
 for since the tangent of 90° is iufluitely large, the
 
 OALTANISU. 
 
 735 
 
 GALVANISM. 
 
 strength of the debating current must be inlinitely 
 great, a strength manifestlj- unattainable. The tan- 
 gent galvanometer can consequently be ust>d to meas- 
 ure the strongest currents. The diffcniitidl galmno- 
 vteter, adapted to the requirements of battery, tests 
 and all line, accurate measuremen of resistances, 
 is shown in Fig. 1 It is used with tlie rheostat to 
 measure any resistance from one one-himdredth of 
 an ohm upward. The roUnmeter w;vs invented bj' 
 Faraday for testing the strength of a current. In 
 this apparatus two platinum plates, each alxjut half a 
 square inch in size, are placed in a bottle containing 
 water acidulated with sulphtirie acid; the plates are 
 soldered to wires which pass up through the cork of 
 the bottle; binding-screws are attachecl to the upper 
 ends of these wires; a glass tube fixed into the cork 
 serves to discharge the gas formed within. When 
 the binding-screws are coimected with the jiolcs of a 
 battery, the water in the bottle begins to be decom- 
 posed, and hydrogen ;uid oxygen rise to the surface. 
 if, now, the outer end of the discharging-tube be 
 placed in a trough of mercury (mercury does not dis- 
 solve the gases), and a graduated tube, likewise tilled 
 with mercury, be placed over it, the combined ga.ses 
 rise into the tube, and the qtmntHy <if ijiis giri n off in 
 a ffieen time measures the strerifjth of the rum lit. The 
 voltameter chooses as a test the work which the cur- 
 rent can actually perform, and establishes a uniform 
 standard of comparison. The indications of the tan- 
 gent galvanometer are comparable only with its own, 
 but the quantity of gas discharged liy the voltameter, 
 corrected for pressure and temperature, is something 
 quite absolute. However, by comjiaring the indica- 
 tions of both instnimcnts with each other when jilaced 
 in the s;ime circuit, an absolute standard may like- 
 wise be got for the tangent galvanometer. If, for in- 
 stance, the current given by a battery should give 60 
 cubic centimeters of gas in a minute, and produced 
 at the same time a deflection of 45' in the galvanom- 
 eter, the ratio of 60 to the tangent of 45' — viz., 60 to 
 1 .= 60 — is constant, for correct mea.surenients of the 
 strength of currents, however taken, must bear to 
 each other a constant ratio. If the angle of (knnation 
 for another current was 30°, we have therefore only 
 to multiply 60 by the tangent of 30 , to ascertain the 
 amount of gas that would l)e*liberated by a current 
 of that strength in a minute. This found, we know 
 the meaning of a deflection of 30' of the galvanome- 
 ter in question in a perfectly comparable standard. 
 The plates of the voltameter must be small, for when 
 they are large a small quantity- of electricitv is found 
 to pass without decomposing the water, ft is found 
 also that a minute quantity of the oxvgen forms hy- 
 dric peroxide with the water, and remains in solu- 
 tion, so that when very great accuracy is required 
 the hydrogen alone ought to be measured. 
 
 It is foimd that the dimensions and material of 
 substances included in the circuit exercise an impor- 
 tant influence on the strength of the current. It is 
 of the greatest importance to a.scertain the relative 
 amount of the resistance offered by conductors of 
 various forms and materials. The rheostat, invented 
 by Wheat.stonc, is generally employed for this pur- 
 pose, and for this object is constructed so as to intro- 
 duce or withdraw a considerable amount of highly 1 
 resisting wire from the circuit without stopping the 
 ■current. It is represented in Fig. 2. Two cylinders, 
 B, L, about 6 inches in length and li inches in di- 
 ameter, are placed pai~allel to each other, both being 
 movable round their axis. One of them is of brass, 
 the other is of well dried wood. The wooden cylin- 
 der has a spiral groove cut into it, making forty 
 turns to the inch, in which is placed a tine metallic 
 wire. One end of the wire is fixed to a brass ring, 
 and its other end is attached to the nearer end of the 
 brass cylinder. The brass ring just mentioned is 
 connected with the binding-screw h by a strong 
 metal spring. The further "end of the cylinder, B, 
 has a similar connection with the binding-screw 6. 
 The key, M, fits the projecting staple of either cylin- ; 
 
 der, and can consequently turn both. As the brass 
 cylinder. L, is turned in the .same direction as the 
 hands of a watch, it imcoilsthe wire from the wocRlen 
 cylinder, B. making it thereby revolve in the same 
 •way. When the wooden cylinder is turned contnirj' 
 to the hands of a watch, the reverse takes place. 
 The number of revolutions is shown by a scale, mii, 
 placed between the two, and the fraction of a revo- 
 lution is shown by a pointer moving on a graduated 
 circle. AVhen the binding-screws b and b are in- 
 cluded within a circuit, say b with the positive, and 
 b with the negative ix)le, tlie current passes along the 
 wire, on the wooden cylinder, till it comes to the 
 jioint where the wire crosses to the brass cylinder; it 
 then passes up the cylinder B to the spring and 
 binding-screw b. The resistance it encounters within 
 the rheostat is met only in wire, for as soon as 
 it reaches the large cylinder the resistance it encoim- 
 tei's up to b may be considered as nothing. When 
 the rheostat is to be used, the whole of the wire is 
 wound on the wooden cylinder, the binding-screws 
 are put into the circuit of a constant cell or batterj' 
 along with a galvanometer, astatic or tangent. If, 
 no^v, the resistances of two wires are to be tested, the 
 galvanometer is read before the first is put in the cir- 
 cuit. After it is introduced, in consequence of the 
 increased resistance offered by it, the needle falls 
 back, and then as much of the rheostat wire is un- 
 wound as wiU bring the needle back to its former 
 place. The quantity of wire thus uncoileil in the 
 rheostat is showTi by the scales, and is manifestly 
 equal in resisting power to the introduced wire. The 
 first is then removed, the rheostat readjusted, and 
 the second wire included, and the same imwinding 
 goes on as before. To fix our ideas, let the quantity 
 of wire unwound in the first case be 40 inches, and 
 in the second case 60 inches; 40 inches of the rheo- 
 stat wire offer as much resistance to the current as 
 the first wire, and 60 inches of it as much as the 
 second. We have thus 40 to 60 as the ratio of the 
 resistances of the two wires. The wire of the rheo- 
 stat, from its limited length, can only be comparable 
 with small resistances; and where great resistances 
 are to l)e measured, supplementary resistance -coils of 
 wires, of a known number of ohms, are introduced 
 into the circuit, or removed from it, as occasion re- 
 quires, leaving to the rheostat to give, as it were, 
 only the fractional readings. This Vieiug premised, 
 it will be easily understood how the following results 
 have been ascertained. It is proved, for instance, 
 that the resistances of vires of ihf same material, and 
 of uniform thickness, are in the direct ratio of their 
 lengths, and in the inrerse ratio of the squares of their 
 diameters. Thus a wire of a certain length offers 
 twice the resistance of its half, thrice of its third, and 
 so forth. Again, wires of the same metal, whose di- 
 ameters stanil in the ratio of 1, 2, 3, etc., offer resist- 
 ances which stand to each other as 1, J. ^, etc.; there- 
 fore the longer the wire the greater the resistance; 
 the thicker the wire the less the resistance. The 
 same holds true of liquids, but not with the same ex- 
 actness. For this reason, the larger the plates of a 
 galvanic pair, and the nearer they are placed to each 
 other, the less will be the resistance offered to the 
 current by the intervening liquid. The following 
 table of the resistances, expressed in ohms, offered 
 by a wire one meter long and one millimeter in di- 
 ameter at 0° Centigrade, has been determined by Dr. 
 Mathiessen : silveir annealed, 0.01937 ; copper an- 
 nealed, 0.02057; gold annealed, 0.02650; ahmiinium 
 annealed, 0.03751; zinc, 0.07244; platinum annealed, 
 0.1166; iron annealed, 0.1251 ; tin, 0.1701 ; lead, 
 0.2526; mercurj', 1.2247; and German silver, 0.2695. 
 With copper at 32° F. as 1, the following liquids 
 stand thus: saturated solution of the sulphate of 
 copper, at 48' F., 16,8*5.520; ditto of chloride of so- 
 dium at 56' F., 2,903,.5:«; sidphate of zinc, 15,861.- 
 267; sulphuric acid, diluted to ^V, at 68 F., 1,032,- 
 020; nitric acid, at 55' F., 976.000; distilled water, 
 at 59° F., 6,754,208,000. The slightest admixture of
 
 OALVANOKETEK. 
 
 736 
 
 OALVANOHETEB. 
 
 a foreign metal lUters thi> resistance very decidedly: 
 J per tx'iit of iron in ci)p|KT wire increases Ibe resist- 
 ance more than 25 per leut. It has l>een found also 
 that the resistance offered by a wire increases as its 
 tcmperiituri' rises. It is almost needless to add that 
 tile conducting powers of metals arc invcrsi^ly as 
 their sju'citic resistances, the least resisting being the 
 l>esl conducting. A combined galvanonteter and 
 rheostat, made" specially for field-service, is repre- I 
 R-nted in Fig. S. It is I'nuch used for measuring the 
 resistance of all instruments, batteries, and Hues not 
 exceeding two thousjind ohms. It is graduated from 
 one tenth of an ohm upward, is accurately adjusted ' 
 for exact, quick tests, and is found invaluable in 
 testing circuits, apparatus, etc., and in locating faults. 
 The apparatus is very {xn-lable, weighing, complete, 
 only five pounds. See Daitidl Batteri/, Electricity, 
 Ekdric LiyM, Ehdrolysh, Firinghatttry, Galranom- 
 eUr, Iiuliiction of Eketric Currents, Magneto^Uclrki- 
 ty, and Olim's Lair. 
 
 OALVANOUETEE. — Two of the most reliable evi- 
 dences of the strength of the galvanic cuncnt arc its 
 jiower to deflect the magnetic needle, and to effect 
 chemical decomposition. To measure one or other 
 of these is the object of a galvanometer or voltame- 
 ter. A magnetic g-alvanometcr shows the strength of 
 the current by the amount of the deflection of the 
 needle, and shows its direction by the way in which 
 it detlccts. The manner in which a needle should 
 turn when influenceil by a current is easily kept in 
 mind by Ampere's rule: Suppose the diminutire 
 Jigiire of a man to be placed in the circuit, so that the 
 current ghetll enter by his feet, and leave by his head; 
 irhen, he looks irith his face to the needle, its north pole 
 alieays turns to his left. The deflecting wire is sup- 
 posed always to lie in the magnetic meridian. The 
 astatic galmnonu'ter, or galranometer. is used cither 
 simply as a galvanoscopc, to discover the existence of 
 :i cuiTcnl, or as a measurer of the strengths of weak 
 cvirrents. When a needle is placed imder a straight 
 wire, through which a current passes, it deflects to a 
 certain extent, and when the wire is bent, so as also 
 to pa.ss l)elow the needle, it deflects still more. This 
 is ea.sily understofxl from the alxive rule. The sup- 
 posed figure has to look down to the needle when in 
 the ui)i)er wire, and to look up to if in the lower wire, 
 so that his left hiuid is turned in ditTerent ways in 
 the two positions. The current in the upper and the 
 lower wire moves in opixssite directions, thus chang- 
 ing in the same way as the figure ; and the deflection 
 caused by both wires is in the same direction. By 
 thus doubling the wire, we double the deflecting 
 force. If the wire, instead of making only one such 
 circviit round the needle, were to make two, the force 
 would be again doubled; and if several, the force 
 (leaving out of account the weakening of the current 
 caused by the additional wire) would be increased in 
 proportion. If the circuits of the wire be so multi- 
 plied as to fonn a coil, this force would be enor- 
 mously incrcitsi'd. Two needles, as nearly the sjime 
 !is poasible, placed parallel to each other, with their 
 poles in opposite ways and suspended, so as to move 
 freely, by a thread without twist, have little tendency 
 to place them.selves in the magnetic meridian, for the 
 one would move in a contrary direotion to the other. 
 If they were exactly of the s;une power, they would 
 remain indifferently in any position. They cannot, 
 however, be so accurately iiaired as this, so that they 
 always lake up a fixed jiosilion, arising from the one 
 being somewhat slrongir than the oilier. This posi- 
 tion is sometimes in the magnetic meridian, some- 
 times not, according as the needles are less or more 
 perfectly matched. Such a compoimded needle is 
 called astatic, as it stands apart from the directing 
 magnetic influence of the earth. If an astatic needle 
 lie placed in a coil, so that the lower needle be within 
 the coil, and the upper one above it, its deflections 
 will be more considerable than a .simple needle, for 
 two reasons : in the first place, the power which 
 keeps the needle in its fixed position is small, and the 
 
 needle is con.sequently more easily influenced; in the 
 second place, the force of the coil is exerted in the 
 same direction on two needles instead of one, for the 
 upper needle being much nearer the upper part of the 
 <(>il than the lower is deflected alone by it, and the 
 deflection is in the sjune direction as that df the lower 
 needle. An astatic needle so placed in a coil consti- 
 tutes an astatic galvanometer. Round an ivory bob- 
 bin, in one of these instruments, a coil of fine copper 
 wire, carefully iiisulatcil with silk, is wound, its ends 
 being connected with binding-screws. The astatic 
 needle is placed in the bobbin, which is provided with 
 a vertical slit to admit the lower needle, anil a lateral 
 slit to allow of its oscillations, jmd is suspeniled by a 
 cocoon thread to a hook supported by a ba.ss frame. 
 The upper needle moves on a grailuated circle; the 
 compound needle hangs freely, without touching the 
 bobbin. The whole is included in a glass ca.se, and 
 rests on a stand supported by three leveling-screws. 
 When used, the Imbbin is turned round by a screw 
 imlil the needle stands at the zero-point, and the 
 wires through which the current is s(>nt are fixed to 
 the binding-screws. The munber of degrees that the 
 needle deflects may then be read off. \ erj' sensitive 
 galvanometers, now taking the places of all others 
 in militarv mining, are tliose designed by Messrs. 
 Queen and Company, United States. The engraving 
 
 Queen Convertible GalTanometer. 
 
 shows the instrument provided with leveling-screws 
 and astatic needles, suspended from a brass arm by a 
 fiber of unspun silk, with an arrangement for adjust- 
 ing the zero of the scale to the a.xis of the coils. It is 
 convertible by a moment's adjustment from an ordin- 
 ary quantity galvanometer into one for intensity, or 
 into a differential galvanometer for either intensity or 
 f/uantity. 
 
 With these most essential instruments, the cables 
 are from time to time examined to ascertain if their 
 insulation is effective, and if they have a sufficient 
 amount of electricity ; if the firing battery is in a 
 condition to insure certain ignition ; if the electrical 
 connections of the circuit-closers are correct ; if the 
 electrical resistance of the fuse is such as to indicate 
 certainty of ignition, and other similar information. 
 A separate galvanometer should be used for each 
 mine, and a special battery, distinct from the firing- 
 battery, employed in connection with the testing- 
 circuii.s ; thus obviating the necessity of detaching 
 the firing-battery while testing, — an important matter 
 likely to occur at the critical period when vessels are
 
 OAHA-GBASS. 
 
 737 
 
 GASDE-GENERAL D ABTILLESIE, 
 
 attempting to break through the lines. Should any 
 leak be discovered in a cable, the extent of it is shown 
 by the galvanometer; and if considerable, the defec- 
 tive cable is detached from the battery and the fault 
 repaired. When a mine is tired, it is important that 
 its cable should be disconnected at once from the 
 tiring-battery, to prevent loss of power through the 
 broken end of the conductor. When a separate 
 galvanometer is supplied for each cable of a system 
 of mines, it furnishes a constant indicator to point 
 out the fact of a circioit-closer being struck by a 
 ship, imd in many cases it may be convenient, or 
 even necessary, to perfonn the operation of throwing 
 in the firing-battery without the aid of a personal 
 operator. A self-acting apparatus has been devised 
 for doing it. By making the apparatus purely self- 
 acting, all chances of error consequent upon the in- 
 attention or want of dexterity of the man in charge 
 is, of course, eliminated. No mine or circuit-closer 
 can be tampered with by an enemy without the fact 
 being instantly known in the testing-room, and pre- 
 cisely what mine. See Oahanism. 
 
 6AMA-GRASS. — A genus of grasses distinguished 
 by unisexual flowers placed in spikes which are fer- 
 tile at the base and barren towards the exlremity, the 
 spikelets having two glumes and about twf> tlorets, 
 the female florets immersed in the thick and sinuous 
 joints of the rachis, so that the spike, when the seed 
 has ripened, presents the appearance ot a cylindrical 
 bone. Only two species are known of which the 
 gama-grass of Mexico, distinguishetl by having spikes 
 usually three together, ha-s a high reputation as fod- 
 der-gra.ss. is excellent for the stock in the field, and is 
 cultivated not only in Mexico, but also in the United 
 States of America, and to .some extent in Europe. 
 In favorable circumstances this grass yields a very 
 abundant crop, and attai:5s a height of nine or ten 
 feet, its root-leaves measuring six feet in length. It 
 pos.sesses what for some climates is an almost invalu- 
 able property of bearing excessive drought without 
 injurj-. It suffers, however, from frost. It seems 
 eminently adapted to the climate of the Australian 
 Colonies. The other species, the gama-grass of Caro- 
 lina, distinguished by solitary spikes, is not so much 
 esteemed. — Gama-gra.ss is said to have derived its 
 name from a Spanish gentleman who first attempted 
 its cultivation in Mexico. 
 
 GAMBADO. — A case of leather formcrlj- used to 
 defend the leg from mud, and when riding on horse- 
 back. 
 
 GAMBESON— GAMBOISON.— A coat of mail worn 
 under the cuirass. It consisted of a doublet of leather 
 or linen cloth without sleeves, and quilled so that it 
 was entirely covered with stitches. The high gnmlie- 
 son with cuishesand leggings, which in the fourteenth 
 century was worn under the earliest suits of plate- 
 armor, was also in leather or linen lightly quilted. 
 Sonitimes written Oambesan. 
 
 GAMELLE.— A wooden or earthen bowl formerly 
 used among the French soldiers for their messes. It 
 generally contained the quantity of food which was 
 allotted for three, five, or seven men belonging to the 
 same room. During the Monarchy of France subal- 
 tern oflScers and volunteers were frequently piuiishcd 
 for slight offertses by being sent to the gamelle and 
 excluded from their regular mess. On such occa- 
 sions they were put upon short allowance, according 
 to the nature of their transgressions. 
 
 GANG-DRILLS.— -A number of drills so attached to- 
 gether, or to a common stock, as to act together. In 
 a form of vertical gang-drill, much used in the manu- 
 facture of smalj-arms, the spindles are of steel, hav- 
 ing anti-friction curved bearing at lower end, with 
 take-up in boxes for wear, also answering the purpose 
 of a step, doing away with the troulde caused by ex- 
 pansion in the length of spindle. The spindles are 
 driven by a belt longer than is usually found on this 
 class of drills, which overcomes the objection com- 
 monly raised against them. These drills, for armory 
 purposes, are constructed in sizes as follows: 
 
 
 
 
 di'g 
 
 c 
 
 _ 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^. 
 
 o 
 
 %? 
 
 •a 
 
 « 
 
 
 1 
 
 © 
 
 •3 
 
 a 
 
 % 
 ■s 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 Is® 
 
 S5 a 
 
 ol 
 
 s 
 
 ^2 
 % a 
 
 .£ S. 
 SCO 
 
 
 ! 
 
 o 
 
 E 
 
 cS 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 26 X 33 in. 
 
 32 in. 
 
 5 ft. 9 in. 
 
 73 in. 
 
 11 in. 
 
 11 in. 
 
 1,750 
 
 
 
 or smaller. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 26 X a in. 
 or smaller. 
 
 " 
 
 it t4 
 
 4J" 
 
 11 " 
 
 IJ" 
 
 1,950 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 12Jx22Jin. 
 
 20 in. 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 6 " 
 
 7 '* 
 
 1 " 
 1 " 
 
 1,350 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 '* " " 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 4 " 
 
 7i 
 
 1,350 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 10X20 " 
 
 *' 
 
 3 ft. 6 in. 
 
 5 " 
 
 7 " 
 
 1 " 
 
 720 
 
 ' 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 SJ" 
 
 7 " 
 
 1 " 
 
 reo 
 
 No. 1 has 4-change cone-pulley for 3-inch belt. No. 
 3 has 3-change cone-pulley for 2i-inch belt. No. 3 
 has 4-change cone-pulley for 3-inch belt. Pulleys on 
 countershaft, Nos. 1 and 3, 13 inches diameter; No. 3, 
 10 inches diameter. Speed — No. 1, 350 revolutions; 
 No. 3, 300 revolutions; No. 3, 350 revolutions, per 
 minute. See Drilling-machine, Drill-press, and Mul- 
 tiple Drill. 
 
 GANGUE. — The stony matrix in which metallic ores 
 occur. Quartz is the liiost common gangiie, but calc- 
 spar is also very frequent, sulphate of barytes and 
 fluor-spar not un frequent. Large portions of the 
 gangue are generally worked and submitted to metal- 
 lurgic processes for the sake of their contents. The 
 term is also applied to the superfluous earthy matter 
 of a smeltine-furnace. 
 
 GANTLET— GAUNTLET. — A glove of iron which 
 formed part of the armor of knights and men-at-arms. 
 The back of the hand was co\ered with plates jointed 
 together, so as to permit the hand to close. Gantlets 
 were introduced about the thirteenth century. They 
 were frequently thrown down by way of challenge, 
 like gloves. They are frequently used in Heraldry, 
 the fact of their being for the right or left hand 
 being expressed by the words " dexter" or "sinister." 
 In the phrase "To run the gantlet." the word is 
 probably a corruption for gunglitpe (from gang, a 
 passage, and the root occuiTing in c-lope — D. loopen, 
 Ger. laufen, to run). The German has gassfnlavfen 
 (lane-run), meaniu.ir the military punishment, which 
 consists in making the culprit, naked to the waist, pass 
 repeatedly through a lane formed of two rows of sol- 
 diers, each of whom gives him a stroke, as he passes 
 with a short stick or some other similar weapon. 
 The term is frequently applied to a long glove cover- 
 ing the wrist and used generally as a riding glove. 
 See Glores. 
 
 GANTLOPE— GANTLET.— A militarj' punishment 
 which consisted in making the culprit, naked to the 
 waist, pass repeatedly through a lane formed by 
 two rows of soldiers, each of whom gave him a blow 
 with an iron glove or gantlet as he passed. Sub- 
 sequently whips and canes were used instead of gant- 
 lets, until such a mode of punishment became ob- 
 solete. Sec Gatitlet. 
 
 GAOL. — A withe used for binding fa.scines or secur- 
 ing cabions. Also a prison. See Gabion. 
 
 GARCON MAJOR.— An ofliccr so called in the old 
 French ser\icc. He was selected from among the 
 Lieutenants of a regiment to assist the Aid Majors in 
 the general details of duty. 
 
 GABDANT. — A term iii Heraldry, said of an animal 
 which is represented full-faced and looking forward. 
 See Fnfmnt-fjrirdnnt. 
 
 GABDE-FAUDE.— Over the flanks, on each side of 
 the figure, to \\k fniideg or tacf« was appended a plate 
 or small shield, called a garde-faude (usually called 
 Uiille in England). These plates appeared in almost 
 every variety of forms — square, hexagonal, lozenge- 
 shaped, serrated, etc. In front and behind, the hau- 
 bergeon was shown uncovered. 
 
 GABDE - GENEBAL DABTILLEBIE.— An officer, 
 under the old Government of France, who had charge 
 of all the ordnance and stores belonging to his Majesty
 
 OABSE ITATIOKAUE. 
 
 738 
 
 OASDKIB HACHIIT£-OTJK. 
 
 for the land-siTvico. He jrave receipts for all amniu- 
 nitiou. etc.. anJ his bills were paid by the Treasurer 
 Ocnenil of the Armv. 
 
 GARDE NATIONALE.— The Garde Narionale, the 
 celebrated Imr-ther defenders of order in Paris and 
 certain other French towns, was for the tirst lime in- 
 titxluced into Paris during the lievolution of 178U. 
 It had existed for a Ions: tinie previous in some of the 
 French towns, having l)eeu at tirst employed to de- 
 fend the riL'hts and privileges of the city, and subse- 
 queiitlv to guanl the persons and property of the citi- 
 zens. SVhen, in July, lT8Jt, the entire lower orders of 
 the Capital rose anil demanded arms, the leaders of 
 the Revolution, sitting at the Hotel de Ville, seized 
 the opportunity to decree, without considting the Gov- 
 ernment, the formation of a National Guard for Paris 
 of -l^.OOl) citizens, which, in the tirst instance, they 
 named the Parisian Jlilitia. Each electoral district 
 ■was to enroll a battalion of 800 men, divided into 4 
 companies of 200 men each, 15 of these companies 
 forming a legion. The officers of the battalions were 
 to be electiKl by the privates; but the higher officers 
 were named by the Committee. The dc\ice chosen 
 as the badge of the service was of l)lue and red, the 
 colors of the city, to which white, the color of the 
 army, was added, to denote the intimate union which 
 shoiild subsist between the defenders of national lib- 
 erty and the military. Thus arose the celebrated tri- 
 color, afterwards adopted as the national badge, and 
 now borne in honor wherever the French name ex- 
 tends. On the King consenting to the removal of the 
 regular troops from Paris, Lafayette was named Com- 
 manilant of the National Guard of the City. Ere many 
 more davs had elapsed, the friends of municipal free- 
 dom had organized themselves into burgher troops in 
 everj- important town, and the National Guard had 
 become a recognized institution of the whole kingdom, 
 the entire nuinber raised being not under 300,000. 
 The force soon acquired an extraordinary degree of 
 discipline and efficiency — in a great degree from the 
 number of old soldiers who, ha\ing deserted the 
 crown, were elected to commissions by the municipal 
 troops. By an ordinance of Jime, 1851, the Garde Na- 
 tionale was placed nearly on the footing of Louis Phi- 
 lippe's reign; but by a decree of 1852, which held till 
 September 4, 1870, the entire force was dissolved, and 
 reformed on a more military basis, in certain Depart- 
 ments only. During the Franco-Prussian War the 
 Garde Nationale was di\ided into sedentary and active 
 battalions. After the defeat of the Commune, in 
 1871, the French National Assembly decreed to dis- 
 solve the Garde Nationale, learing the Prefects of De- 
 partments to choose the time of executing the decree. 
 At present this body may be considered abolished, as 
 its existence is incompatible with the new law of re- 
 cniiting. 
 
 GAKDE PLUIE. — A machine originally invented by 
 a Frenchman, and submitted to the Prussians, who 
 adopted it for the use of their infantry. Under the 
 cover of these machines, the besieged or the troops 
 stationed in the i>osts attacked would be able to keep 
 up a brisk and cireitivc discharge of musketry during 
 the heaviest fall of rain, and thereby silenceto some 
 extent the tire of the enemy. 
 
 GARDE-REINS.— A part of the plate-armor of tlic 
 Middle Al'cs, intended to protect the lower part of 
 the back. See Armor. 
 
 GARDES-BRAS.— A piece of armor for the protec- 
 tion ol the arms. See Arm-r/imrdn. 
 
 GARDES DE LA PORTE.— A company so called 
 during the .Monaich.v of France, and of "so ancient a 
 date, indeed, with respect to original institution, that 
 it appears to have been coeval with it. Mention is 
 made of the Gunlts ih la PurU in the oldest archives 
 or records pertaining to the King's Ilotiseliold, in 
 which scr\-ice they were eniploye<l, without being re- 
 sponsible to any particular Treasurer as other compa- 
 nies were Tliis company consisted of one Captain, 
 four Lieutenants, and fifty Guards, The Caiitain an(l 
 officers received their commissions from the King. 
 
 The first took an oath of fidelity to the King in per- 
 son, and accepted the batt)n from his haniis. His 
 duties were purely iliscretionary. The lieutenants 
 served by detachment, and took their tours of duty 
 every quarter. Their specific sernce consisted in 
 guarding the principal gjite belonging to the King's 
 apartments. They were relieved at night by the 
 l)ody-guards, and delivered the keys to a Brigadier 
 belongini: to the Scotch garrison. 
 
 GARDES DU CORPS.— Under the old French Gov- 
 ernment, a certain number of gentlemen or cavaliers 
 whose immediate tlutv was to attend the King's per- 
 .son. They were di\^ded into four companies, under 
 as many Captains, whose lour of duly came ever)' 
 quarter. They took rank above the Gens d'armes and 
 the King's light cavaliy. The first and most ancient 
 of the four companies was called the Scotch Company, 
 which was establishetl by Charles VII. of France m 
 1423. 
 
 GARDES FRANCAISES. — A regiment formed by 
 Charles IX., King of France, in 15G3, for the imme- 
 diate protection of the Palace. The Colonel of the 
 Gardes Fran(;aise was on duty throughout the ycjir, 
 and was entitled to the Ix'iton deeomiiiande in common 
 with the four Captains of the body-guards. Peculiar 
 Iirivileges were attached to every officer belonging to 
 this body. No stranger, not even a native of Stnis- 
 burg. Savoy, Alsjice, or of Piedmont, could hold a 
 commission in the French Guards. In the Revolu- 
 tion of 17S9 tliev took a very active and leading part. 
 
 GARDES MAGAZINS.— In the old French service 
 there were two sorts of magazine-guards, one for the 
 military stores and the other for the artillery. The 
 first was subject to the Grand Master, and the second 
 was appointed by the Sccrctarj- at War. Gardes jmr- 
 tiriilinrn dfn ituigazinsd'artillerieweTe officers appoint- 
 ed by the Grand Master of Ordnance for the specific 
 purpose of attending lo the ammunition, etc. Their 
 pay was in proportion to the quantity of stores with 
 which they were intrusted. 
 
 GARDES SUISSES. — A celebrated corps in the 
 French army, constituted " Gardes" by royal decree 
 in 1610. They comjirised upwiu-ds of 2000 hien, were 
 always un.swer\'ing in their fidelity to the Bourbon 
 kings, and are quite remarkable for their heroic end. 
 On August 10, 1702, they withstood the Parisian re- 
 volutionary mob, and defended the Palace of the 
 Lou\Te till ahnost every man was cut down. During 
 the resistance they offered, the Royal Fanuly was en- 
 abled to escape to such shelter as the National Assem- 
 bly atTorded. 
 
 GARDE-VISURE. — The heraldic t«rm used for what 
 is conmionly called the visor or front part of the hel- 
 met, used for the defense of the fact and eves. 
 
 GARDNER MACHINE-GUN.— The improved Gard- 
 ner gun, as shown on carriage and tripods, consists of 
 two simple breech-loading rifie-barrels, placed paral- 
 lel to each other, about 1.4 inch apart, in a cani or (•oin- 
 partiiieiit. These two barrels are loaded, fired, and re- 
 lieved of shells by one revolution of the hand-crank. 
 The working of the gun is simple. One man inserts 
 the heads of cartridges projecling from a feed-block 
 into the feed-guide, drawing.the block from the car- 
 tridges; another man turns the crank by which the 
 gun is fired, and as the cartridges disjippear dowTi the 
 feed-guide, their places are supplied from another 
 block: in this manner the firing may be made contin- 
 uous. The barrels are open from end to end, and 
 chambered at the rear to admit a Hanged center-fire 
 metallic cartridge. The barrels are firndy screwed 
 into a rear barrH-ring,\\\\\c\\ is piiuiedfast lo the rear 
 case, and the muzzles pass through jjuiother similar 
 ring called frnut barrd-riiii], which is fitted into the 
 front case and made last with a taper jiin. The 
 rear case exiends from rear barrel-ring far enough 
 to contain all lock parts, together with the driring- 
 eraiik and mfitii-iitnp. A swinging cover, hinged at 
 forward end of case, is finnly locked in position by a 
 cascabel having a screw-thread cut on ils stem that 
 enters the rear case. When the cover is raised, which
 
 GARDNER MACHINE-GUN. 
 
 739 
 
 GARDNER MACHINE-GUN. 
 
 can be quickly done after turning back the cascabel, 
 all the working parts of the gun are fully exposed; 
 and should an accident occur, like the bursting of 
 cartridge-heads, or derangement of locks, the trouble 
 can be instantly discovered, and as quickly reme- 
 died. The u;md-crank that operates the gun is pinneil 
 fast to the main crank, which is supported by journal- 
 boxes. The boxes are locked into the rear case, and 
 serve as a protection to the swinging cover from side 
 thrusts. The body of main craiif; is eircidar, having 
 journals, or crank-pins, for operating the locks, di- 
 ametrically opposite each other (the "tiring being al- 
 ternate), and eccentric enough to give tlic required 
 motioa to the locks as they are moved forward and 
 back, dri\ing in cartridges and withdrawing shells. 
 The outer portions of crank-pins or journals are tlat- 
 tened to the circle of the periphery of main crank for 
 the pui-pose of holding the lock stationary while tiring, 
 about one-tifth part of revolution of hand-crank, and 
 allowing ample time ioT/iangJiira. The lock in form 
 resembles the letter U, having an extension from its 
 side which contains the firing pin, the main (spiral) 
 spring, sector or spring compressor, sector-sleeve, ex- 
 
 the flange of the cartridge when the lock is forced 
 forward, and when the lock retreats withdraws the 
 empty sliell until it comes within reach of the ejector, 
 by which it is positively thrown out. The shell- 
 starters have a positive movement in connection with 
 the lock-head. Should the cartridge be driven by 
 the extractor into the barrel, to it.s head (as is the case 
 when the gim is worked rapidly), before the lock is 
 in firing position, it is forced from the chamljer by 
 the shell-starter as the locked vanccs, and is held long 
 enough for the extractor to engage with the head, 
 when the lock, extractor, and cartridge are driven 
 home together. The ejectors, hinged to the case, are 
 driven by projections on the sides of the locks which 
 give them positive movements to eject the empty 
 .shells. They also setTe as stops to prevent cartridges 
 from falling through the perforated plate as they are 
 forced down through the feed- valve. The lock-guide 
 extending across the rear case, to which it is fastened 
 by a pin, has two parallel semicircular grooves, which 
 are enlarged e.Tlension» of the chambers in barrels. 
 From tlie back part of the groove, slots large enough, 
 to pass freely the cartridges (being wider at the rear, 
 
 Gardner .Machine-gun mounted on Carriage. 
 
 tractor, and lock-head. The U part of the lock, that 
 works vmder and around the crank-pin, is curved at 
 the inner front to correspond with the outer circle of 
 the crank; the office of the curved front being to hold 
 the lock in position for firing. The circular tiring- 
 pin is llattened a portion of its length near the front 
 end, to allow it to pass under the extractor by which 
 it is held in position. It extends from the head of the 
 lock through the mainspring and sector-sleeve, termi- 
 nating in a tlange or head for locking into a sear. 
 The sear, having the form of a bell-crank, pivoted in 
 the center to the lock, holds the firing-iiin securely, 
 and prevents it from touching the cartridge until it 
 is released from its hold liy the action of the crank- 
 journal when the lock is in its extreme forward posi- 
 tion. The sector, or spring compressor, hinged in a 
 recess of the lock, and engaging, by means of gear 
 teeth, with the sector-sleeve, has its arm forced against 
 the Sijfety-stop as the main crank advances, thus com- 
 pressino;, through the medium of the sector- sleeve, 
 the mamspriugTand holding it tense until released by 
 action of the sear. 
 
 The lock-heads serve as breech-plugs, and receive 
 the recoil when the cartridges are lired. Each lock 
 carries a hook extractor, which rides over and catches 
 
 behind the ejector, than at the front) are cut down- 
 ward through the plate. When the retractor has 
 drawn the shell back nearly to the extent of tlie throw 
 of the crank, the ejector forces the shell through the 
 slot, and is then in position to receive another car- 
 tridge from the feed plate or valve. The feed-\alve, 
 attached to the swinging cover, has a reciprocating 
 motion across the perforated plate. It has two angu- 
 lar openings of the size and shape of the outlineof 
 the cartridge, with centers equidistant with centers of 
 barrels. After a cartridge has dropped one half its 
 diameter into the valve, it is forced by the action of 
 the latter into its true jjosition, and held jwsitivel}' 
 against the rartridge-mppnrt. ^Tien the valve is 
 again moved back, the cartridge is forced downward 
 into the perforated plate, and tlie cohnnn of cartridges 
 is cut off in the swinging cover feed ways, which are 
 extensions of the feed-guide that is located above and 
 in line with the lock-guide. The feed valve is driven 
 by the feed plnte lever; this also is attached to the 
 swinging cover and is operated by tlie locks, using 
 abo\it one eighth the stroke of the crank in its for- 
 ward motion, thereliv giving the valve ample time to 
 hold both cartridge aiid shell down in position as tliey 
 move in and out from the barrel. The feed-guide
 
 GARDNER MACHINE GUN. 
 
 (40 
 
 GARDNER MACHINE-GUN. 
 
 is a simple plate having two parallel T-grooves, ex- 
 tending from end to end, their centers equidistant 
 with the centers of the barrels. The upper end of 
 the guide has a trumpet shaped motith to facihiale 
 tlie entnmce of the cartridge-heads. The lower end 
 is provided with a cartridge stop, which lifts all car- 
 tridges contained in the guide when it is taken out 
 from the swinging cover liy which it is supjiorted. 
 The guide is helil fast in tiring position by a spring 
 catch. It can be quicklf released by drawing back 
 
 The carriage of the gim is of new design and con- 
 struction, and is made entirely of steel and bronze. 
 The frame for tlie carriage, iiicluding the side walls, 
 bed -plate, and axle-support, is made in one casting. 
 The lunette body and ring, the handsiiijie ring imd 
 socket, and ground-recoil stop-supixirt are also in one 
 casting. The top and side trail-plates are supported 
 at their upper corners by angle-irons, to which they arc 
 riveted. These angle-irons extend from the frame to 
 the body and are ris-eted to them. Lost motion is pre- 
 
 Ganlner Machine-gun mounted on Tripod. 
 
 the spring catch by pressure on its exposed arm. In 
 placing the guide in position, the spring catch becomes 
 self-acting. These operations require but one hand, 
 lca\ing thfe other free to place the safety-stop arm in 
 position. The safety-stop is an oblong block having 
 an angidar face against which the arm of the sector 
 in the lock may engage when the locks are moved 
 forward by thecrank. It is held in |)osition by two 
 links wliich are moved by an arm that is pinned fast 
 to a shaft passing through the rear case, to the outer 
 end of which is pinned the stop-arm. This arm is 
 constructed in the form of a hand crank, having a 
 stop-spindle placed in its haniUe, behind the shoulder 
 
 vented in the wheels on the arms of the axles by coni- 
 cal sleeves sliding mto the boxes of the wheels (their 
 ends being cuijped to receive the same) against conical 
 washers supported by linch pins. The sleeves are 
 forced outward by a toggle-joint actuated by a hand- 
 lever (underneath the trail), and can be locked either 
 in or out. Ami)le compensation is made for wear of 
 .surfaces by right- and left-hand .screws locked l)y jam- 
 nuts. Th(! circular bed-plate of the carriage, that sup- 
 ports the swivel-plate of the mount, is provided with a 
 taper socket to receive the spindle of the swivel-plate, 
 which has a circular groove into which is inserted, by 
 means of a lever, a sliding-bolt for holding down the 
 
 Gardner Gun-carriage and Limber. 
 
 of -which is placed a spiral spring that forces the ' 
 spindle out from the arm into the stop holes, two in I 
 number, in the rear case. When the stop-spindle is 
 in the upper hole, the arm is in line with barrels, the 
 .safety-stop is thrown within reach of the sector-arm i 
 by wliich the mainsprings are compressed, and the [ 
 gim is in firing position. When the spindle is in the 
 lower hf)le the stop is carried forward out of the way 
 of the sector- arm, and in no case can the springs be 
 compressed while the safety-stop arm is down. 
 
 swivel-jilate which pas,ses over and around the bed- 
 plate, and may he secured to it in any desired position 
 by the grip ring, which is fastened in such a manner 
 that it iias no movement \ip or down, while it has am- 
 ple room to move outward, after being released by the 
 grip-ring screw-handle, and the mount then has full 
 range of the horizon. The base of the mount slips 
 overand around the swivel-plate, and is held from up- 
 rising by the nut and the lock-pin on a round bolt that 
 passes through the spindle of the swivel-plate. On
 
 GAEDNER MAGAZINE-GUN. 
 
 741 
 
 GARRISON COURT MARTIAL. 
 
 the upper face of the swivel-plate is a segmental T 
 groove to receive thcheatlof a clamp-bolt that projects 
 upward through the front of the base i)late. A handle- 
 nut clamps the parts fast when the oscillator is not in 
 use. The amplitude of oscillation is twenty degrees, 
 and can be decreased at will bj' turning the oscillator 
 stop-screw on the upper face of the biuse. From the 
 base-plate project upwards two walls, forming the outer 
 portion of a joint in which rest the walls of the mount- 
 body. On the inner side of the Iwdy are two circular 
 beveled frictiou-iilatcs. the outer surfaces of which are 
 forced against the inner sides of the mount; these in 
 turn are forced against the walls of the base, and that 
 is supported by a bolt passing through the whole and 
 secured by a washer and mit. The friction-plates are 
 held from rotjiry motion by a stout pin that passes 
 through the whole. On the friction-plates is a grip 
 ring, the screw of which passes imderneath the rear 
 body of the mount far enough to form a pointing- 
 lever with its cross-handle, thus instantly performing 
 two functions, as the hands do not leave the screw 
 imtil the gun is pointed and secured, in any position 
 from thirty degrees elevation to forty degrees depres- 
 sion. At the front of the mount-bod}' extending up- 
 ward is the arm for sujiporting the gun-casing, which 
 is bored for attachmeiU liy an onlinary pin-hinge. 
 The mouut-ljody extends far enough back lo receive 
 the nut for the elevating-screw, in the upper part of 
 
 Ammunition-drawer. 
 
 Tvhich is a sliding bo.x to receive the pin that makes 
 conriection with the rear of the casing. The caisson 
 that accompanies the gun is of the usual L'nited States 
 pattern. The chest is of oak and carries cisht am- 
 munition packing-drawers, having also sufficient space 
 for appendages and tools. The accompanying draw- 
 ing reijresents one of the eight drawers to be carried in 
 the limber-chest. Each drawer holds forty-five paste- 
 board i>aper-covered cartridge packing cases, which 
 may Ix- made water proof . Each case holds twenty 
 cartridges. The total amount of ammunition carried 
 in the caisson is 7200 rounds. The cases are packed 
 on end, and are suj^ported by each other in such a 
 manner that they cannot be shaken arotmd or up- 
 turned, and all liability of jamming bullets or shells is 
 prevented. The drawers have on their inside walls a 
 series of grooves eqtial in number to one third of the 
 paper cases to be packed. A movable ])ailition (that 
 can be withdrawn by one motion of the hand) is ar- 
 ranged to fit the grooves. After the drawer has re- 
 ceived its full amount of cases, the movable partition 
 is inserted into the grooves at the end of tlie drawer, 
 thereby forming an inner wall, supporting and locking 
 the cases firmly in position. In order to break bulk, 
 the partition is removed, thus leaving space enough to 
 admit the fingers to break out the first case, after which 
 there can be no diffictdty. When a portion of the cases 
 have been removed from the drawer, it is absoluMy 
 necessarj- to secure those remaitiing, and the movable 
 partition can be inserted into the grooves nearest the 
 cases, thus securing them, even to the laM rujv. as firm- 
 ly as though the bulk had uot been broken. The par- 
 
 tition is securecf to the drawer by a stout cord, so that 
 there is no danger whatever of its becoming lost. See 
 Miicliinc-'iini. 
 
 GARDNER MAGAZINE-GUN.— In this arm the bar- 
 rel and tip-stock slide forward and Ijackward on ways 
 connected with the butt-stock. They are released to 
 move forward, and secured when back by a hook 
 into which the forward end of the trigger-guard is 
 formed. This guard revohes, to a sufficient extent 
 for this purjiose, on a jiiii passing through it, at the 
 forward end of the guard-bow. It locks the piece 
 automatically, when it is closeil, Ijy the action of a 
 spring at its rearmost end. In mo\ing out the bar- 
 rel the hammer is cocked by an internal connection 
 between the barrel and the liunbler. A cartridge 
 having been expelled backward from the magazine 
 by the action of the magazine sjiring, it is raised by 
 the striking of a projection on the lower end of the 
 banel against the forward end of a bent lever, the 
 rearmost end of which lies iK'ueath the cartridge. 
 This pas.«es it up a pair of guides on the face of the 
 frame, so shaped as to hold %\ithin their jaws the 
 head of the cartridge by the rim. When it arrives 
 opposite to the mouth of the chamlier it is i)assed into 
 it by closing the piece. By rejieating the movements 
 as described, the succeeding cartriilge will pass up 
 the guides as before, and striking from below the 
 empty one just fired, will throw it up the guides 
 with sufficient force to send it clear of the gim. The 
 magazine is charged through the trough into which 
 the space between the ways is formed. The issue of 
 the cartridges from the magazine is limited to one at 
 each forward motion of the barrel by the interposi- 
 tion of a s])ring stop, which is pressed out of the way 
 by the barrel at the end of its stroke. The maga- 
 zine can be cut off and held in reserve by a revolving 
 eccentric stop, moved by a thumb piece on the out- 
 side. The arm can then be used as a single loader 
 b}' inserting the rim of the cartridges into the guides 
 at each opening of the piece. B.y a cam-motion of 
 the movable trigger-guard power is obtained to start 
 the barrel slighllv away from the butt, anil thus to 
 overcome the chief obstacle to the removal of the 
 empty shell, viz., its sticking at the start. 
 
 GARLAND. — A variety' of chaplct made of flowers, 
 feathers. aw\ sometimes of precious stones, worn on 
 the head in the manner of a crown. Both in ancient 
 and modem times it has been customarj' to present 
 garlands of flowers to warriors who have distinguished 
 themselves. A beauriful young woman was gener- 
 ally selected for that purpose. 
 
 GARNISHED.— A term in Heraldry. Any charge 
 is said to be i/iiriiMt<l with the ornaments set on it. 
 
 GARNISH-NAILS.— Diamond-headed nails, in ear- 
 ly times used to ornament artillery -carriages. 
 
 GARRET. — A temi formerly and commonly used 
 to signifj' a tmret or battlement. It is now obsolete. 
 
 GARRISON. — A body of troops stationed in or near 
 a fort or fortified town to defend it, or to keep the 
 inhabitants in sidijection. The garrison of a work, 
 when it is practicable, should always be a complete 
 organization, or composed of detachments belonging 
 to the same unit of force. Garrisons should not live 
 within field-works unless there is a pressing necessity 
 for this to be done. As a nde, the}' should encamp 
 near the works they are to defend, and only keep 
 guards within the works. Nevertheless the engineer 
 or other officer who lays out a field-work should 
 always consider the i)Ossil)ility of its being occupied 
 by a garrison, and should provide the necessary ac- 
 commodations, so far as interior space may be re- 
 quired. The proportion of men given for the protec- 
 tion of a garrison generally has for its object 1)oth the 
 number required for the immediate .security of the 
 1 place and that requiretl to sustain a siege ; an ar- 
 rangement which in peace avoids the nece.s.sity of 
 sluitting up a considerable body of troops without an 
 immediate object. See Pout. 
 
 GARRISON COURT-MARTIAL.— A legal tribunal 
 i for the examination and pimishmeut of all offenders
 
 GA££ISON D£S JANISSABI£S. 
 
 V42 
 
 OABBISON sliho-cabt. 
 
 against martial law, or against good order and mili- 
 tary discipline. 
 
 Tlic following is a form of record for a Garrison 
 CourlMurtial: 
 
 Garkison Courts-Martial. 
 First Dull. 
 
 Proceedings of a Garrison Court-Martial held at Fort , 
 
 , pursuant to the foUowing order: 
 
 Ukadquabters Fort 
 
 - — , 18^ . 
 Post Orders I 
 
 A (iarrison Court-Martial will convene at this Post on the 
 
 ^ 1S7 , at 10 o'clock A.M.. or as soon thereafter as 
 
 practicable, for the trial of such prisoners as may properly be 
 broueht before it. 
 
 D-lail for llie Court. 
 
 First Lieutenant A. B., Artillery. 
 
 First I,ieut«-nnnt C. D.. Artillery. 
 
 Second Lieutenant E. F., Artillery. 
 
 Second Lieutenant G. H., Infantry, J. A. 
 
 By command of 
 
 (Signed) 
 
 l$t Lieutenant - 
 
 Fort 
 
 Artillery, 
 
 Post Adjutant. 
 
 ' , 187 . 
 
 The Court met, pursuant to the foregoing order, at 
 o'clock A.U. 
 
 Preseii t : 
 
 First Lieutenant , Artillery. 
 
 First Lieutenant , Artillery. 
 
 Second Lieutenant , Artillery. 
 
 Second Lieutenant , Infantry, J. A. 
 
 The Court then proceeded to the trial of l>rivate 
 
 , Battery , Regiment U. S. Artillery, who was 
 
 then brought before the Court, and having thereupon heard 
 the order couvenint^ il read, was asked if he luid any objec- 
 tion to being tried bv any member nam^d tlierrin. to wliich 
 he replied in the negative? The Court, including the Recorder, 
 was tnen duly sworn according to law in the presence of the 
 prisoner. 
 
 The mode of swearing a Regimental or a Garrison 
 Court is as follows: 
 
 The junior member of the Court is its Recorder, and 
 administers to the other two members the oath pre- 
 scribed in tlie article for members, after whicli the 
 Presiding Ofticer administers to the Recorder the fol- 
 lowing oiith, wliieh combines with the oath of a 
 member the additional obligation required of the 
 Judge Advocate, or person officiating as such: 
 
 "You, A B— , do swear that you will 
 
 well and truly try and determine, according to evi- 
 dence, the matter now before you, between tlie United 
 States of America and the prisoner to be tried, and 
 that you will duly administer justice, according to 
 the provisions of ' An Act establishing rules and arti- 
 cles for the govenuncnt of the armies of the United 
 States,' without partiality, favor, or affection; and if 
 any doubt shoultl arise, not explained by sjtid articles, 
 according to your con.science, the best of your under- 
 standing, and the custom of war in like ca.ses; and 
 you do further swear that you will not divulge the 
 sentence of the Court to any but the proper authority, 
 until it shall be duly disclosed by the Siime; neither 
 will you disclose or discover the vote or opinion of 
 any particular member of the Court-Martial, imless 
 required to give evidence thereof, as a witness, by a 
 Court of Justice, in a due course of law. So help 
 you God." 
 
 The record from here on is made up in the same 
 general manner as indicated for the proceedings of 
 General Courts- .Martial. The junior member, as Re- 
 corder or Clerk to the Court-Martutl, should, with the 
 President, authenticate its proceedings in each and 
 every case. 
 
 In the absence of a Judge Advocate, or person offi- 
 ciating as such, as a prosecuting attorney for the 
 United St;itcs. with lef/a( obligjitions to the prisoner — 
 confined, however, simply to objecting to any leading 
 or criminating question — the Court it.self proceeds 
 with the business referred to it, summons all neces- 
 sarj' witnc.s.scs, and asks all questions tending to eluci- 
 date the matter, pro and con, without denial to the 
 prisoner of his right to a.sk any additional question 
 pertinent to the issue, or to make any statement re- 
 spectful in its character. 
 
 Equal obligation rests on each member of the Court 
 
 to well and tndy try and determine, according to evi- 
 dence, the matter before it, and to duly administer 
 justice. 
 
 Questions by the Recorder, or any other member, 
 if not obiected to, become ■'Questions by the Court." 
 
 The "decision luid orders" of the Reviewing Offi- 
 cer, confirming, dis)ippro\'ing, or remitting the sen- 
 tence, should follow immediately after the signature 
 of the President and Recorder, and be signed o^//i;«, 
 and not by his command, and then forwarded, with- 
 out delay," together with a copy of his Post or Regi- 
 mental Order promulgating tne proceedings, to De- 
 partment Headquarters, for the super%'ision of the 
 Department C(>mmander. See CoiirtuMartial. 
 
 GAEEISON DES JANISSARIES. — The I'Ute or 
 flower of the Janissjiries of Constantinople was fre- 
 quently sent into garrison on the frontiers of Turkey, 
 or to the places where the loyalty of the inhabitim'ts 
 was doubted. The Janissjiries did not indeed assist 
 in the immediate defense of a besieged town or for- 
 tress, but they watched the motions of all suspected 
 persons, and were subject to the orders of their offi- 
 cers, who usually commanded the garrison. 
 
 GABBISON FLAG. — In the United States ser^-ice, 
 the garrison-rtag is the national flag. It is made of 
 bunting, thu-ty-si.\ feet fly and twenty .feet hoist, in 
 thirteen horizontal stripes of equal breadth, alter- 
 nately red and white, beginning with the red. In 
 the upper quarter, next the statf , is the Union, com- 
 posed of a number of white stars, equal to the num- 
 ber of States, on a blue field, one third the length of 
 the flag, extending to the lower edge of the fourth red 
 stripe from the top. This flag is furnished only to 
 verj- important posts, or those hann" large garrisons, 
 and is hoisted only on gala-days and great occasions. 
 See Ftags. 
 
 GAKEISON-GIN.— The largest size of gin. It is 
 strongly built and used for raising heavy ordnance, 
 driving piles, etc., and consists of three poles, each 
 from 12 to 15 feet long, and 5 inches in diameter at 
 the lower end, tapering to 3| inches at the upper. 
 The poles are tniited at the top, either by an iron 
 ring which passes through them or by a rope which 
 is twisted .several times around each, and to this 
 I "joint" a pulley is fixed. Two of these poles are 
 kept at an invariable distance by means of an iron 
 rod, in order that they may support the wipdlass 
 which is attached to them, its pivots running in iron 
 cheeks fixed to the poles. When the machine is to 
 Ije used, it is .set up over the weight to be raised; two 
 r blocks arranged according to the Second System of 
 Pulleys are fixed, the one to the top of the poles, 
 the other to the weight; and the rope, after passing 
 around both bk)cks, and over the pulley before men- 
 j tioned, is attached to the windlass, by ihe revolution 
 of which the weii^ht ran then be raised. See ('in. 
 
 GABBISON SLING-CABT.— A form of sling-cart for 
 mo\ing very heavy weights. It is attached by its 
 pole to a siege- or field-limber, and may be drawn by 
 horses. With this cart the weight is raised by first 
 
 attaching to it a sling, and then applying to the sling 
 the hooks forming the lower part of a powerfid 
 screw passing up through the axle of the cart. Above 
 the axle is the nut of the screw, provided with long
 
 6AEKIS0N TOWN. 
 
 743 
 
 OAS. 
 
 Star of the Order of the 
 Garter. 
 
 bandies. Power is applied to these handles, and the i 
 screw is run up, thus rai.sing the weight. ' 
 
 This sling-cart is capable of carrying 20,000 pounds; i 
 but with such heav}' weights the handles of the screw 
 are difficult to turn. To overcome this difficulty a 
 niodilication has been made in the cart by substitu- 
 ting for the screw a hydraulic jack. Through the 
 axle-body two vertical mortises are cut, each at a dis- 
 tance of "twenty inches from the middle of the axle- 
 body. Through these mortises slide two stout bars of 
 iron, with hooks below for the sling-chain, and holes 
 above for pins to support them as I hey are raised; the 
 pins pass through the bars above the axle-lxxly. A 
 strong crossbar cormccts the upright bars neai" their 
 tops; under this the head of the jack is applied, the 
 jack resting on the axle-body. See Hand Sling-cart I 
 and lili>i<i-c-aH. 
 
 GAEEISON TOWN.— A strong locality in which I 
 troops are quartered and do duty for the security 
 thereof, keeping strong guards at each post, and "a 
 main guard in or near the marketplace. 
 
 GAKTEB.— The Order of the Garter was instituted 
 by King Edward III., and though not the most an- 
 cient, is one of the most famous of the milifctrj- orders 
 of Europe. Selden says 
 that it "exceeds in ma- 
 jesty, honor, and fame 
 all chivalrous orders in 
 the world." It is said to 
 have been devised for the 
 purpo.se of attracting to 
 the king's party such sol- j 
 diers of forttme as might ! 
 be likely to aid in assert- 
 ing the claim which he 
 was then making to the 
 crown of France, and in- i 
 tended as an imitation of j 
 King Arthur's round ta- j 
 l)le. The round table was erected at AVindsor, and 
 the knights and nobles who were invited from all 
 parts of the world were exercised at tilts and tourna- 
 ments as a preparation for the magniticcnt feasts that 
 were spread before them. That general " jousts and 
 tournaments" of this description were held at Wind- 
 sor is assured from the letters summoning them 
 bearing date January 1, 1344, and quoted by Sir 
 Harris Nicolas in his Orders of Knightlimd, and also 
 from the narrative of Frois.sart, who connects them ; 
 with the institution of the order. The original num- i 
 ber of the Knights of the Garter was twenty-live, his t 
 Majesty himself making the twenty-sixth. The story 
 that the Countess of Salisbury let fall ber garter when 
 dancing with the King, and that the King picked it 
 up and tied it round his own leg. but that, observing 
 the jealous glances of the Queen, he restored it to its 
 fair owner with the exclamation, lloiii luiit (jui mal y 
 pense, is about as well authent icated as most tales of 
 the kind, and has, moreover, in it.s favor that it ac- 
 counts for the otherwise unaccountable emblem and 
 motto of the order. Sir Harris Nicolas, whose error 
 does not usually lie in the direction of credulity, .says 
 that though the writers on the order have treated it 
 with contempt, they have neither succeeded in show- 
 ing its absurdity nor suggested anv more probable 
 theory. Various dates arc assigned to the Order of 
 the Garter. Froissart, as above mentioned, gives 
 1344, and fixes on St. George's Day (April 23), 1344; 
 but Stow, and, it is said, the statutes of the order, fix 
 it six years later, vii., 1850. The original statutes 
 have long since perished, and little reliance can be 
 placed on the modern copies of them, and nothing is 
 known on the subject with precision till the compi- 
 lation of the Jilack Btxik in the latter jiart of the reign 1 
 of Henry VIII. In these cireumstimces Sir Harris 
 Nicolas is of opinion that, though founded at tlie for- 
 mer period, it was not till the latter that the order 
 ■was finally organized and the Comijanions chosen. It 
 was founded in honor of the Holy Trinity, the Vir- : 
 gin Mary, St. Edward the Confessor, and St. George; 1 
 
 but the last, who had become the tutelary saint of 
 England, was considered its special patron; and for 
 this rea.son it has always born the title of " The Order 
 of St. George," as well as of " The Garter. " A li.st 
 of the original Knights, or Kjiights founders, is given 
 by Sir Harris Nicolas. The well known emblem of 
 tiae order is a dark blue ribbon edged with gold, 
 bearin the motto Htmi mit qui iiial // peiise, in gold 
 letters, with a buckle and pendant of gold richly 
 chased. It is worn on the left leg below the knee. 
 The mantle is of blue velvet lined with white taffeta, 
 and on the left breast a star is embroidered. The 
 hood and surcoat are of crimson velvet lineil with white 
 taffeta. The hat is of black velvet, with a i)hmie of 
 white ostrich-feathers, in the center of which there is 
 a tuft of black herons' feathers, all fastened to the 
 hat by a band of diamonds. The collar is of gold, 
 and consists of twenty-.six pieces, each in the form 
 ofagarter. The "George" isthcflgmeof St. George 
 on horseback encountering the f)ragon, and is worn 
 hanging from tlie collar; there is a " le.sser George" 
 pendent to a broad dark blue ribbon over the left 
 shoulder. The star, which is of eight points, is sil- 
 ver, and has upon the center the cross of St. George, 
 gules, encircled with the garter. The officers of the 
 order are — the Prelate (the Bishop of Winchester), 
 the Chancellor (the Bishop of Oxford), the Registrar, 
 (the Dean of Windsor), the Garter King of Arms, and 
 the Usher of the Black Rod. 
 
 GARTER KING OF ARMS.— The Garter King of 
 Arms is also the principal King of Anns in England. 
 Though held by the same person, they arc distinct 
 offices. The first was instituted for the service of 
 the Order of the Garter, not on its first foundation, 
 but afterwards by Henry V. as Sovereign, with the 
 ad\ice and consent of the Knightscempanions. The 
 jieculiar duty of Garter King of Arms is to attend 
 upon the Knights at tlieir solemnities, to intimate 
 their election to those who are chosen by the order, 
 to call them to be installed at Windsor, to cause their 
 anns to be hung up over their stalls, and to marshal 
 their funeral processions, and those of royal jierson- 
 ages, and of memliers of the higher nobility. In 
 the capacity of Principal King of Arms, he grants 
 and confirms arms, under the authoritv of the Earl 
 Marshal, to whom he is not sul)ject as darter King of 
 Arms. All new grants or patents of arms in England 
 are first signed and sealed by Garter King of Arms, 
 and then by the king of the province to which the 
 applicant belongs. See Garter. 
 
 GAS. — The term gas was employed by the older 
 chemists to designate any kind of air or vapor. Van 
 Helmont was the first chemist who limited the term 
 gas to such elastic fiuids as had not been rendered 
 liquid or solid by the reduction of temperature. In 
 common language .some distinction is made between 
 gases and vapors. Gases are understood to be in- 
 variably al'riform at ordinary temperatures and at- 
 mospheric pressures, while vapors imder these con- 
 ditions are solid or liquid, and only assume a vapor- 
 ous or apparently gaseous form at relatively high 
 teiiijieratures. "fhus oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, 
 chlorine, etc., are considered true gases; while water, 
 sulphur, iodine, etc., when heated to certain definite 
 points, become transformed into vapors. There is, 
 however, no distinction between gases and vapors in 
 a theoretic point of view. The kiiuiie i/ie^n/ of gases, 
 first put forth by Daniel Bernouilli, is to the effect 
 that they are formed of material particles, fiee in 
 space, and actuated by verj- raiiid rectilinear move- 
 ments, and that the tension of elastic fluids results 
 from the shock of their particles against the sides of 
 the containing vessels. This theory has been recently 
 reWved and developed chiefly bj- Clausius and Clerk 
 Maxwell. Their perfect elasticity is one of the most 
 important physical peculiarities of gases. Within 
 the limits of all ordinary experiments it is generally 
 true that " the volume of a gaseous body is inversely 
 as the compressing force." In consequence of their 
 extreme elasticity, gases exhibit an entire absence of
 
 GAS. 
 
 744 
 
 GAS. 
 
 cohesion among their particles, and in this respect 
 thev differ esseutially from liquids. A vessel may 
 l)e tillid L-ilher partially or completely wilh a liijuid. 
 and this liquid «ill have a dclinile level surface or 
 limit. With jrases it is otherwise; they always per- 
 fectlv till the vessel that contains them, however ir- 
 regular its form. IiLstead of cohesion, there is a 
 mutual repulsion among their particles, which have 
 a continual tendency to recede further from each 
 other, and thus exert a pressure in an outward direc- 
 tion upon the sides of the vessel in which the gas is 
 Inclosed. This outward pressure is greater or less 
 according as the elasticity of the gas is increased or 
 diminished. Dalton long ago remarked that " there 
 can scarcely be a douht entertained resiiecling the re- 
 ducibility of all ela.stic Huids, of whatever kind, into 
 liquids; and we ought not to despair of effecting it 
 at low temix-ratures and by strong )»ressure exerted 
 upon the unmixeil gases." This prediction has been 
 completely fultilleu. It occurred to Faraday, who 
 led the van in these investigations, that the most 
 probable mo<le of obtaining gases (or rather what, 
 under ordinary circtmistances, would be gases) in the 
 liquid state, would be to generate them under strong 
 pressure. When thus proiluccd in strong bent glass 
 tuhes, they continued liquid at low temperatures 
 while the pressure was maintained; but on remo\-ing 
 
 thus confirming the bold and ingenious idea of Fara- 
 day, who tirst suggested that hydrogen is a nietjil." 
 Tile distinction between permanent and condensable 
 gases is thus abolisheil. 
 
 Graham's experiments with the simple diffusion- 
 tube show that the diffusiveness or tliffiifioii rolume 
 of a gas is in the inverse ratio of the .•square root of 
 its density; consequently the squares of the times of 
 eciual (lirfusi(m of the ilifferent gsi-ses are in the ratio 
 of their specilic gravities. Thus, the density of air 
 being taken as the standard of compari.sou at 1, the 
 .•iiiuare root of that density is 1, and its diffusion vol- 
 ume is also 1 ; the density of hydrogen is 0.0692, the 
 square root of that density is 0.2(532, and its diffusion 
 volume is 7r-n>Vss. or 3.T994; or, as actual experi- 
 ment shows, S.ki — that is to say, if hydrogen and 
 comiuon air be placed under circumstances favoring 
 their mutual diffusion, 'A.K\ volumes of hydrogen will 
 change place with 1.00 of air. The following tjible 
 gives: 1. The density; 2. The square root of the 
 density; 3. The calcidaled, and 4. The observed 
 velocity of diffusion or diffusiveness of several im- 
 l)orlant gases; the numbers in the last column, headed 
 " Rate of effusion," being the results obtained by ex- 
 periment upon the rajiidity with which the different 
 gases escape into a va<uum through a minute aper- 
 ture about 505 of an inch in diameter. 
 
 Gas. 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Light carburetted hydrogen, 
 
 Carbonic oxide 
 
 Nitrogen • 
 
 Oletiunt gas 
 
 Bino.Yide of nitrogen 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen 
 
 Protoxide of nitrogen 
 
 Carbonic acid 
 
 Sulphurous acid 
 
 Density. 
 
 0.0G936 
 
 0.559 
 
 0.9«T8 
 
 0.9713 
 
 0.978 
 
 1.039 
 
 1.1056 
 
 1.1912 
 
 1..5-J7 
 
 i.wnoi 
 
 2.iM7 
 
 Square root 
 ot density. 
 
 2632 
 0.7476 
 0.9837 
 0.9859 
 0.9889 
 1.0196 
 1.0515 
 1.0914 
 1.2337 
 1.2365 
 1.4991 
 
 Calculated 
 velocity of 
 diffusion. 
 
 3.7994 
 1.3.r5 
 1.0165 
 1.0147 
 1.0112 
 0.9808 
 0.9310 
 0.9162 
 0.8092 
 0.8087 
 0.6671 
 
 Observed velocity 
 
 ot diffusion. 
 
 Air = 1. 
 
 3.83 
 1.344 
 
 1.0149 
 1 0143 
 1.0191 
 
 9487 
 
 0.95 
 
 0.82 
 
 0.812 
 
 0.68 
 
 Rate ot 
 effusion. 
 
 3.613 
 
 1.322 
 
 1.0123 
 
 I.OIM 
 
 1.0128 
 
 0.950 
 
 831 
 0.821 
 
 the pressure (breaking the tube), they instantly passed 
 into the ga.seous state. In his 3Iemoir published in 
 the Philmophical Triinmctiuns for 1823 he annoimccd 
 that he had succeeded in liquefying chlorine, euchlo- 
 rine, sulphuretted hydrogen, nitrous oxide, cyanogen, 
 ammonia, and hyilrochloric, sulphurous, and car- 
 tonic acids. Subsequently, under the joint action of 
 powerful mechanical pressure and extreme cold, the 
 numl)er of liquefiable gases was so far extended as 
 to include all except oxjgen, hydrogen, nitrogen, ni- 
 tric oxide, and coal-gas; and all the following gases 
 were obtained in a solid form: hjdriodie acid, hydro- 
 bromic acid, sulplnnous acid, sulpliuretted hydro 
 gen, carlwnic acid, cyanogen, ammonia, euchlorine, 
 fluoride of silicon. The researches of Andre%vs es- 
 tablished the fact that for every gas there is a certain 
 minimum tcmperalure at which the energy of the 
 molecular movement is exactly balanced by the force 
 of cohesion, irhaterer be the j)res»uri: to irhieh the rnpiir 
 is siihjicted; this temperature is the " critical point" of 
 the gas. It was because the critical points of certain 
 ga.ses are very low that they so long resisted all ef- 
 forts to condense them. No amount of pressure with- 
 out the necessary cold could be effectual. At last, 
 in the end of 1877, by the use of powerful apparatus 
 and ingenious contrivances for producing cold, the 
 dillicullies have been overcome by M.M. Cailletet and 
 Ilaoul Pictet of Geneva. By combining a cold of 
 120 to 140 below zero, with enormous pressures of 
 550 and even 6.50 atmospheres, M. Piclet was able 
 to liquefy oxygen. " He has also liquefied and even 
 soliditie<l hydrogen, which he has seen to issue from 
 the tube iti the form of a steel-blue liquid jel, whieh 
 partly soliditied. The .solid hydrogen, in falling on 
 the floor, produced the shrill noise of a metallic hail. 
 
 The process of diffusion is one which is continually 
 performing an important part in the atmosphere 
 around us. Accumulations of gases which arc unfit 
 for the support of animal and vetretable life are by 
 its means silently and speedily dLspersed, and this 
 process thereby contributes largely to maintain that 
 uniformity in the composition of the at'rial ocean 
 which is so e.s.sential to the comfort and health of the 
 animal ci'eation. Rcsi)iratinn itself, but for the pro- 
 cess of diffusion, would fail of its appointed end, in 
 ra|iidly renew ing to the lungs a fresh sujiply of air, 
 in ])Iace of that which has been rendered unfit for the 
 .support of life by the chemical changes which it has 
 undergone. A reference to the last two columns of 
 the above table shows that, within the limits of ex- 
 perimental errors, the rate of effusion of each gas 
 coincides with its rate of diffusion. Graham's ex- 
 periments .show that the velocity of tni impiration (the 
 term which that chemist applied to the pa.ssage of 
 gas through long capillary tubes) is entirely indepen- 
 (lent of the rate of (liffusion, or of any other known 
 I)ropcrty. It \aries with the chemical nature of the 
 gas, and is most probably " the resultant of a kind of 
 elasticity depending ui)on the absolute quantity of 
 heat, latent as well as sensible, wliieh different gases 
 contain imder the same volume; and therefore will 
 be found to be connected more immediately with the 
 siiecific heat thiwi with any otiier property of gases." 
 Oxygen is found to have the lowest rate of transpira- 
 tion. Taking its transiiiiation velocity at 1, that of 
 air is 1.1074; of nitrogen, 1.141; of carbonic acid, 
 1.369; of sulphuretted hydrogen, 1.614; of ammonia, 
 1.93."); of olefiant gas, 1.980; and of hydrogen, 2.288. 
 In the passage of gases through diaphragms, the law 
 of the diffusion of gases is more or less disturbed or
 
 OAS. 
 
 745 
 
 6AS. 
 
 modified according to the force of adhesion in the 
 material of which the diaphragm is comiX)sed: the | 
 disturbance being the greatest in the case of soluble 
 gases and a moist thin diaphragm, such as a bladder , 
 or a rabbit's stomach. I 
 
 All gases are more or less soluble in water and other 
 liquids. Some gases, as, for e.xamplc, hydrochloric [ 
 acid and ammonia, are absorbed by water very ; 
 rapidly, and to a great extent, the liqiiid taking up ' 
 400 or GOO times its bulk of the gas; in other ca.ses, | 
 as carbonic acid, water takes up its own volume of 
 the gas; whilst in the ca.se of nitrogen, oxygen, and 
 hj'drogen it does not take u]) more than from ^K to 
 jV of its bulk. As the elasticity of the gas Is'the 
 power which is here opposed to adhesion, and wliich 
 at length limits the quantity dissolved, it is found 
 that the solubility of each gas is greater, the lower 
 the temperature, and the greater the pressme exerted 
 upon the surface of the liquid. Dr. Henry found 
 that at any given temperature the xoluiite oi any gas I 
 which was absorbed was uniform, whatever might 
 be the pressiu-e ; consequently that the weight of anj- 
 given gas absorbed by a given volume of anj' liquid 
 at a fixed temperature increased directly with the j 
 pressure. If the pressure be uniform, the quantity j 
 of any given gas absorbed by a given liquid Is also 
 imiform for each temperature; and the numerical 
 expression of the solubility of each gas in such 
 liquids is termed its coefficioil of absorption or of 
 solubility, at the particular temperature and pressure, 
 the volume of the gas absorbed being in all cases 
 calculated for 32" Fahr., imder a pressure of 29.92 
 inches of mercurj-. Thus, one volume of water at 
 32°, and under a pressure of 29.92 Inches of the ba- 
 rometer, dis.solvcs 0.04114 of its volume of oxygen ; 
 and this fraction represents the coefficient of absorp- 
 tion of oxjgen at th;tt temperature and pressure. 
 Similarlj', the coefficient of absorption of common 
 air is 0.02471. In consequence of this solubility of 
 the air, all water contains a certain small proportion 
 of it in solution ; and if placed in a vessel under the 
 air-pump, so as to remove the atmospheric pressure 
 from its surface, the dissolved gases rise in minute 
 bubbles. Small as is the quantity of oxygen thus 
 taken up by water from the atmo.sphere, it is the 
 means of niaintaiiang the life of all aquatic animals. 
 If the air be exi)elled from water bj' foiling, and it 
 be covered with a layer of oil, to prevent it from 
 again absorbing air, fish or any aquatic animals 
 placed in such water quickly perish. Even the life 
 of the superior animals is depentlent upon the solu- 
 bility of oxygen in the fluid which moistens, the air- 
 tubes of the lungs, in consequence of which this gas 
 is absorbed into the mass of the blood, and circula- 
 tion through the pulmonary ve.s.sels. 
 
 The following table, drawn up from the researches 
 of Bunsen and Carius, shows the solubilit)' of some 
 of the most important gases, both in water and in al- 
 cohol. 
 
 Each of these gases, wth the exception of hydro- 
 chloric acid, may be exi)elled from the water by 
 long-continued boiling. Gases are not abs<jrbed by 
 all liquids in the same order; for example, naphtha 
 absorbs most olefiant gas, oil of lavender most pro- 
 toxide of nitrogen, olive-oil most carbonic acid, and 
 solution of chloride of [lotassium the most carbonif' 
 oxide. If a mixture of two or more gases be agitated 
 with water, or probably any other liquid, a portion 
 of each gas will be absorbed, and the amount of each 
 so absorbed or dis.solved will be proportional to the 
 relative volume of each gas multiplied with its co- 
 efficient of solubility at the observed temperature and 
 pressure. As all ordinary liquids exert a greater or 
 less solvent action on gases, a gas to be examined 
 quantitatively should be collected over mercury. 
 
 The adhesion of gases to solids next requires a 
 notice. Illustrations of this jihenomenon periietually 
 occur. Thus, wood and other solid substances im- 
 mersed in water or other liquids ajjpear covered with 
 airbubl)les. It is this adhesion of air to the .surface 
 of gla.ss lubes which causes the difficulty of olitaining 
 barometers and thennometcrs completely free from 
 air. It is in consequence of the adhesion of air to 
 their surfaces that many small insects are enabled to 
 skim lightly over the surface of water which docs 
 not wet them. A simple method of illustrating this 
 phenomenon is by gently dusting iron filings over the 
 surface of a ves.sel of water ; if we proceed carefully, 
 a considerable mass of the iron may accumulate upon 
 the surface ; till at last it falls in large flakes, carry- 
 ing down with it numerous bubbles of air. As the 
 particles of iron are nearly eight times as heavy as 
 water, it was only the adherent air that enabled them 
 to float upon the surface. Closely allied to this ad- 
 hesion is that remarkable property of condensation 
 which porous bodies, and especiallj' charcoal, exert 
 over gases. Owing to this property of charcoal — 
 especially freshly burned vegetable charcoal — various 
 ^ses maj' be separated from their watery solution by 
 filtration of the latter through it ; for an example, 
 sulphuretted hydrogen may be removed from water 
 so completely that it cannot be detected either by its 
 well-known odor or by the ordinary tests. Saussure 
 found that 1 volume of freshly burned box-wood 
 charcoal absorbed 90 volumes of ammonia, 85 of 
 hydrochloiic acid, 65 of sulphurous acid, 55 of sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, 40 of protoxide of nitrogen, 35 
 of carbonic acid, 85 of bicarburetted hj'drogen, 9.4 
 of carbonic oxide, 9.2 of oxygen, 7.5 of nitrogen, 
 5.0 of carbiuetted Indrogen, and 1.7 of hydrogen. 
 These results follow an order very nearly the same 
 as that of the solubility of the gases in water. Sten- 
 house has Investigated the differences in the absor- 
 bent power of the different kinds of charcoal ; the 
 table on page 746 shows his most important results: .5 
 of a gram of each kind of charcoal being employed, 
 and the numbers in the table indicating in cubic cen- 
 timeters the quantity of absorbed gas. 
 
 Gks. 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Hydrochloric acid 
 
 Sulphurous acid 
 
 Sulphuretted hj-drogen 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Oarbouic acid 
 
 Ppotoxiiie of nitrogen. . , 
 
 defiant gas 
 
 Bino*ide of nitrogen. . . 
 
 Marsh pas 
 
 Carbonic oxide 
 
 Ox.vgen 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Air 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Volume of eacli gas dissolved in 
 one volume of water. 
 
 ' At 32 degrees F. At 59 degrees F. 
 
 1049.69 
 505.9 
 68.861 
 4.3706 
 Solid. 
 1 .7907 
 l.:i052 
 0.3563 
 
 0.05449 
 0.(13-*l7 
 04114 
 0.0-J035 
 0.1)--'l71 
 0.01930 
 
 727. a 
 
 468.0 
 43.564 
 3.8386 
 2.368 
 1.002 
 0.0778 
 0.1615 
 
 08909 
 0.0S43S 
 0.IW989 
 01478 
 0.01795 
 0.01930 
 
 Volume of each gas dissolved in 
 one volume of alcohol. 
 
 At 32 degrees F. 
 
 328.63 
 17.181 
 
 4. 3295 
 
 4.1780 
 
 3.5950 
 
 0.31606 
 
 0.52259 
 
 0.30443 
 
 0.28397 
 
 0.12634 
 
 0.06925 
 
 At 59 degrees F, 
 
 145.55 
 9.539 
 
 3!i993 
 
 8.2678 
 
 2.8825 
 
 0.27478 
 
 0.48280 
 
 020443 
 
 0.28397 
 
 0.12142 
 
 0.06723
 
 OAS-CHECK. 
 
 746 
 
 OAS-ENOINE. 
 
 Gas csed. 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 hydrochloric acid 
 
 Siilpliurous acid 
 
 Sulpliuretted liydrogen 
 
 Caroouio acid 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Kind of Charcoal employed. 
 
 Wood. 
 
 »8.S 
 4S.0 
 82.S 
 30.0 
 14.0 
 0.8 
 
 Peat. Animal. 
 
 96.0 
 60.0 
 27.5 
 28. .5 
 10.0 
 0.6 
 
 43.5 
 
 i¥.s 
 
 9.0 
 5.0 
 0.5 
 
 So rapid is this action of charcoal, that Stenhouse 
 has |)ropos<.'il to use a respirator tilled with it to pro- 
 tect the mouth and nostrils in an infected atmosijherc; 
 and the erai)loyraent of trays of powdered wood- 
 charcoal in dissecting rooms, in the wards of hospi- 
 tals, and in situations where jiutrescent animal mat- 
 ter is present, is found to act very heneticially in 
 purifyinsr the air by absorliing the offensive giLses. 
 Its u.se in reference to the filtration of water has been 
 already alluded to. The determination of the exact 
 specific gravity of the different gases is of great im- 
 portance in calculating the proixirlions of the differ- 
 ent ingredients of compounds into which they enter ; 
 and the whole series of numbers expressing the 
 chemical e(|uivalents or atomic weights of bodies de- 
 pend upon the accuracy of the determination of the 
 speeitie gravity of hydrogen and o.vygen. 
 
 The following table gives the specific gravity and 
 the weight of 100 cubic inches of some of the most 
 important gjtses at a barometric pressure of 30 inches 
 and at a teinperature of 60% together ■with the name 
 of the observer : 
 
 Gas. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 Air = "l. 
 
 Air 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Carbonic acid 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Carhuretted hydrogen . 
 
 Oleflant gas 
 
 .\rseniuretted hydrogen 
 Sulphuretted liydrogen. 
 
 C\'anogen 
 
 Hydrocliloric acid 
 
 Sulphurous acid 
 
 1.0000 
 1.1056 
 0.9713 
 0.069!! 
 
 i.ijago 
 
 2..'i000 
 0.5902 
 0.5555 
 0.972-J 
 
 5290 
 
 1 1805 
 1.8(K>5 
 1.2847 
 
 2 2222 
 
 Weight of 
 
 100 Cubic 
 
 Inches in 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Observer. 
 
 30.935 
 31.203 
 30.119 
 2.143 
 47.303 
 76.250 
 18.003 
 16.944 
 29.652 
 li; 130 
 30.007 
 .^^.069 
 39.1^83 
 67. 7< ( 
 
 Regnault. 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 Tromsdorff. 
 Thomson. 
 Gay-Lussac. 
 Thomson. 
 
 Regarding the chemical properties of gases, most of 
 the different gases, when \nirv. can be readily dis- 
 tinguished by some well-marked physical or chemi- 
 cal property. Some are distinguished by their col- 
 or, others by their very peculiar odor ; but several 
 of the most important "ones— viz., oxygen, nitrogen, 
 hydrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic o.xide, light'cjir- 
 buretted hydrogen, olefiant gas, and the iirntoxide of 
 nitrogen -require various other means for their dis- 
 crimination. 
 
 GAS CHECK.— Soon after the introduction of the 
 Woolwich guns it became evident that a great evil 
 had to be combated. This was that the heavy charges 
 used, and the consequent rush of gas along the bore, 
 especially at that portion of it immediately over the 
 scat of the shot, seriously eroded the steel tubes of the 
 guns. To such an extent does this erosion take place 
 that an impression of the rear jxirtion of the bore of 
 a heavy Woolwich gun reseml)1es, in ils roughness, 
 the bark of an elmtree; and obviously this erosion 
 shortens the lives of the gtnis. (Jasehccks, originally 
 introduced to ])revent erosion of the bore, have been 
 found not only to fulfill this purpose, but also to in- 
 crease range and accuracy, and to be cap.ible of giv- 
 ing the requisite rotation to the i>rojeclile so as to 
 reniler the use of studs tmncces.sary. This is accom- 
 plished by boiling a ttanged copper disk to the ba.se 
 of the shell. In the larger calibers the studs are going 
 
 out of use. The projectile for the 100-ton gun receives 
 it.s motion of rotation from an expanding (copper) gas- 
 cheek on its base fastened by 12 screws on the base 
 of the jirojectile. Under the action of the powiler- 
 gas, the check is expanded and compres.sed; its for- 
 ward portion is compressed between the walls of the 
 bore anil the surface of the projectile, which is den- 
 tated near the ba.se. The copper is molded to the 
 lands and grooves exactly, giving the motion of rota- 
 tion antl preventing the escape of the gas. On the cir- 
 cumference of the ga.s-check are buttons which take 
 to the grooves. These are not necessary except as a 
 conveiiience in loading. They prevent the projec- 
 tile from being forced down too far by the hydraulic 
 rammer, and so crushing the powder. 
 
 In experiments with tlie H-inch breech-loading rifle, 
 both copper and sleel gas-checks were used. The 
 former proved the better gas-checks, but at times 
 stuck to the face of tlie breech-block after tiring, to 
 such extent as to make it ditiicult to withdraw the 
 block. With the steel gas check, however, no diffi- 
 culty was found in withdrawing the block after firiiig, 
 though there was at times a slight escape of gas. To 
 remedy the defective operation of the checks con- 
 structed of a single metal (either copper or steel or 
 other metjils), a gas-check was designed and made of 
 steel and copper combined, thus insuring in the ring 
 the hanlness and elasticity of steel at the base \vith 
 the compressibility and extensibility of the copper 
 part in contact with the walls of the gas-ring seat. 
 This construction secures through the extensible cop- 
 per a perfect and close check at the sides of the seat 
 in the chamber' of the gun, while at the stune time, 
 the check having its base of hard and luiyielding steel, 
 any binding or sticking of the breech fermeture in 
 opening the breech is prevented. The mode of con- 
 struction of an 8-inch gas-check is as follows: Two 
 holes are punched, near either end, through a steel 
 bar about 14 inches long, 2A inches wde, and * inch 
 thick. The bar is then slit with a cliisel between 
 these two holes, and the slit first enlarged by a man- 
 drel, and tinally foraicd into a circle on the anvil. It 
 is then placed ui the latlie, its bearing surface with 
 the co])per finished, anil only suHicient excess of metal 
 left elsewhere to allow subsequi'Ut slight corrections. 
 The steel sabot is then carefully heated over a slow 
 charcoal-fire until it attains a dull red heat, and is 
 then immersed in a lialh of lape-oil and left to cool. 
 A 'J-inch rotuid coppiT liar, 14 inches long, is then 
 similarly sliaped into a ring; then placed in tlie lathe, 
 its face and shoulder which bear agsiinst the steel 
 sabot is finislied, and its interior diameter roughly 
 shaped. See BmiKhnll Ring. 
 
 GASCON— GASCONNADE.— The term gaJie/>n is now 
 emiiloyeil, in the French language, to denote a boaster 
 or braggart, and (inncoiiiHKh' to signify any extrava- 
 gant or absurd vaunting — the inhabitants of the dis- 
 trict once known as Gascony ha\ing long been notori- 
 ous in this respect. An example may be mentioned: 
 A Gascon, on a visit to Paris, was asked by his ci- 
 ty-friend what he thought of the Colonnade of the 
 Louvre. His reply was, "Ah, it's not had ; it resem- 
 bles pretty closely the back jiart of the stables at my 
 father's castle! " There arc in French volumes filled 
 with the origiiial and numerous stiUies of these hu- 
 morous boasters. 
 
 GAS-ENGINE.— Many attemiits have been made in 
 the ai'sinal to utilize a« a motive power the expan- 
 sive force aiising from the explosion of a mixture of 
 common coal-pis, such as is in general use for illumi- 
 nating purposes, .and conunon air. The first attempt 
 of this kind which had any commercial success was 
 that of Lenoir, a French inventor. It resembles in 
 its general features an ordinary horizontal steam-en- 
 gine. Il has two .slides, one on each side of the cyl- 
 inder, which are opened and closed by eccentrics in 
 the usual way. Through one of the slides, air imd 
 gas flow into the cylinder, in the proportions of about 
 I 11 of air to 1 of gas, until the cylinder is marly half 
 i full, when the connection with the galvanic battery
 
 GAS-ESCAFE. 
 
 747 
 
 GATLING QXrS, 
 
 is made by the revolution of the shaft, causing a spark 
 inside the cylinder, and consequent explosion of the 
 mixture of air and gas. This explosion forces the 
 piston from the middle of the cylinder to the fur- 
 ther end. The products of the explosion then escape 
 from the cylinder by the other slide-valve, which 
 opens at the proper instant. The momentum which 
 the fly-wheel has now acquired ^v^ll carry the piston 
 back to the middle of the cylinder, sucking in be- 
 hind it, through openings which are made by the 
 action of the eccentric on the slide, a fresh supply of 
 air and gas; and when the piston has reached to the 
 middle of the cylinder, the further inflow of air and 
 gas is stopped liy the slide closing, and at the same 
 mstant a spark of electricity Ls sent into the air and 
 gas, exploding it as before. The first half of the 
 stroke of the piston is thus employed in sucking in 
 the requisite quantities of air and ga-s, and the last 
 half of the stroke gi\'ing off the power arising from 
 the explosion of the mixture of air and gas. Better 
 gas-engines than Lenoir's are now in use, and one of 
 the best is styleil the Otto Silent Gas-engine, shown 
 in the drawing. In several respects it resembles Le- 
 
 Otto Silent Gas-Engine. 
 
 noir's, but it differs from it in others. Instead of an 
 electric spark, a small, constantly burning gas-flame 
 is used to tire the charge. But the main difference 
 lies in the use of a more dilute mixture of gas imd air, 
 placed under a pressure of above 30 pounds above the 
 atmosphere, by which only a portion of the charge be- 
 comes combustible; the remainder is simplj' expanded, 
 and so not only is the shock of a full explosion avoid- 
 ed, but there is a more sustained pressure on the piston 
 throughout the stroke. We may compare the interior 
 of the cylinder to that of a soda-water bottle with 
 straight "sides lengthwise, only it has no constricted 
 portion or neck. One third of its length at the bot- 
 tom end is taken up bj* the combustiom-chi.mber; an- 
 other third by the piston; and the remaining third, or 
 rather more, by the space over which the piston travels. 
 A jacket of cold water surrounds the cylinder to keep 
 it cool. There are two openings in the combustion- 
 chamber — one for the admission of the charge, and 
 the other for the escape of the products of combus- 
 tion. Attached to the combustion chamber there is 
 a slide-valve whose movements are so arranged that 
 it first admits the air and gas in due proportions, 
 which the return of the piston compresses, and then 
 another movement of the valve fires the mixture by 
 exposing it to the gas-flame. The explosion, so to 
 call it, occurs once in two revolutions when the en- 
 gine is fully loaded, but less often when it is not. In 
 the Otto it acts on the piston at the beginning, not as 
 in the Lenoir at the middle of the stroke; but the 
 piston is connected in a very similar way with the 
 fly-wheel in both engines. "The cost for the gas is 
 about one penny per hour per horse-power. 
 
 GAS-ESCAPE."— Rifled muzzle-loading built-up and 
 convened gims are provided with small channels 
 called ga>i-exmpeit, through which smoke is.sues on 
 firing, if the inner tube is cracked through, thus giv- 
 ing warning that it is time to cease firing. 
 
 GASKETr— In artillery, a flat plaited cord used for 
 "stoppering the fall." It may also be made (on the 
 
 same principle as the sehagee) by placing the same 
 number of rope-yams in a straight line and marling 
 down. 
 
 GAS-EING.— A thin plate of steel or copper, per- 
 forated to the exact size of the caliber of the gun, and 
 used as a face-plate to the breech-block in Sharp's 
 breech-loading rifle and Broadwell's breech -loading 
 ordnance. It is used by the Prussian Government. 
 The breech block is chambered out larger than the 
 hole in the plate, so that the gas from the explosion 
 of a charge in the gun flies back into the chamber 
 and presses the plate or ring well forward against 
 the breech of the gun. 
 
 GASTEAFETES.— A verj" ancient variety of cross- 
 bow, so called because the crossbow-man used to 
 rest it on his stomach. 
 
 GATE. — A door of strong planks with iron bars to 
 oppose an enemy. Gates are generally fixed in the 
 middle of the curtain, from whence they are .seen and 
 defendetl from the two flanks of the bastions. The 
 gate, being a most important jjoint in all fortified 
 places, is usually protected by various devices. It is 
 flanked by towers with loopholes, from which a.ssail- 
 ants may be attacked, and is frequently overhung by 
 a machieolated battlement, from which missiles of 
 every description were poured upon the liesiegers. 
 City gates, and gates of large castles, have in all age& 
 been the subjects of great care in construction; and 
 when from some cause, such as the cessation of con- 
 stant fighting, or a change in the mode of warfare, 
 gateways have lost their importance in a military 
 point of view, they have maintained their position as 
 important architectural works, and where no longer 
 useful have become ornamental. In very ancient 
 times we read of the "gate" as the most prominent 
 part of a city, where proclamations were made, and 
 where the kings administered justice. The Greek 
 and Roman gates were frequently of great magnifi- 
 cence. The propyla?a at Athens is a beautiful ex- 
 ample, and the triumphal arches of the Romans are 
 the ornamental offspring of their city gates. Most of 
 I the towns in England have lost their walls and city 
 gates; but a few, such as York and Chester, still retain 
 them, and give an idea of the buildings which form- 
 erly existed, but which now remain only in the name 
 of the streets where they once stood. English castles- 
 retain more of their ancient gates, and from these we 
 may imagine the frowning a.«pect ever}' town pre- 
 sented during the Middle Ages. Abbeys, colleges, 
 and every class of buildings were shut in and de- 
 fended by similar barriers; manv of these still exist 
 in Oxford and Cambridge, and the abbey gates of 
 Canterbury and Bury St. Edmunds are well-known 
 specimens of monastic gateways. 
 
 GATE'WAY. — In works witli large garrisons, where 
 the means of frequent communication with the ex- 
 terior are requisite, posterns of ordinary tlimensions 
 are found not to aflFord a suflicient convenience for 
 the daily wants. In such cases a passage-way of suf- 
 ficient width to admit of at least a single carriage- 
 road with narrow foot paths on each side has to be 
 opened through the ramparl, which, whenever it is 
 practicable to do so, should be arched and covered 
 with earth to render it bomb-proof. The passage- 
 way should for securitj- have the bottom of its outlet 
 at least twelve feet above the bottom of the enceinte 
 ditch; and when this difference of level cannot be 
 obtained the main ditch should be deepened suf- 
 ficiently for the purpose below the outlet. A gatc- 
 way of sufficient height and width for the passage of 
 the ordinary vehicles for the ser\-ice of the garrison 
 is made through the scarp-wall. This gateway is 
 arched at top, where a machicoulis defense may also 
 he arranged to guard the outlet on the exterior. See 
 CommiinifatioDS and GnU. 
 
 GATLING GUN.— Among the many important and 
 valualjle invcniions in fire-arms, of which the present 
 centurj- has been prolific, there is none that equals 
 the Galling gun in originality of design, rapidity of fire, 
 and effectiveness. The severest tests and trials, and
 
 OATLINO OITN. 
 
 748 
 
 OATLINO 60N. 
 
 its practical use in warfare, have imlisputahly estab- 
 lished its hisih reputation as a most formidalile dcath- 
 dealiuir weaixin. Trials i>i the gun have been made 
 from its invention to the present day by the military 
 authorities of the United States, by ^lexico, by every 
 isatiou of EuroiK- (except llie Greeks and Beljjians), 
 by several of the South Americ;\n States, by hjiypt, 
 aiid by China and Japan. These trials have made 
 the irun well known, and its position as an important 
 part of the armament of modern armies is now well 
 assured. Besides, the gun has t)een formally adopted 
 as an auxiliary .service-arm in many of the countries 
 mentioned. iThe gun was first introduced to Euro- 
 pean Qoveruments in 1867. At this time the manu- 
 
 These barrels are loaded and lired while revohing, 
 the empty cartridge-.shells being ejected in continuous 
 succession. P^ach barrel is tired only once in a revo- 
 lution, but as many shots are delivered during that 
 time as there are barrels, so that the ten-barrel Gat- 
 ling gun tires ten times in one revolution of the group 
 of barrels. The action of each part is therefore de- 
 liberate, while collectively the discharges are fre- 
 fpient. The working of the gun is simple. One man 
 places one end of a feed case full of cartridges into a 
 liop|ier at the top of the gun, while another man 
 turns a crank by which the giai is revolved. As soon 
 as the supiily of cartridges in one feed-case is ex- 
 ha\isteil, another case may be substituted without in- 
 
 # 
 
 Tlie Improved GaMing Gun and Feed-magazine. 
 
 facture of metallic cartridges was in its infancy, and 
 the ammunition furnished for the gun was necessarily 
 imperfect. With this iini)erfcct ammunition and 
 with guns that had not the important improvements 
 made during the last few years, the earlj' trials \vere 
 conducted, The new-model g\m and tlie cartridges 
 recently improved work perfectly, and commend 
 themselves to the critical exatnination and highest 
 consideration of Governments. The accomi)anying 
 drawing rcprasents the improved Gatling gun and 
 feed-magazine. This new feed is jiositive in its adion, 
 and by it the gtin can be tired, al the rale of 12fM) shots 
 per minute, at rtWdegreesof elevation and depression. 
 These results have never been attained liy any other 
 lire-arm, and will be noticed in detail farther on. 
 
 The gim consists of a number of very simple 
 breech-loading rifled barrels grouped around and re 
 volving about one shaft to which they are parallel. 
 
 tcrrupting the revolution or the succession of the dis- 
 charges. The average number of liarrels composing 
 the gun is ten. The bore of every barrel extends 
 through from end to end, and the breech is cham- 
 liercd to receive the flanged center fire metallic-case 
 cartridge. The breech ends of all the barrels arc 
 flrmly screwed into a disk or rear bnrrelplatc, which 
 is fa.stened to the .shaft, and the muzzles pass through 
 another similar disk, called front barrel plate, on the 
 same shaft. The shaft is consideiably longer than 
 the barrels, and projects beyond the muzzles, and 
 also extends backward for some distance l)ehind the 
 breeches of the barrels. Directly bchinil the open 
 barrels a cylinder of metal, ealleil a carrier block, is 
 fastened to the shaft, .'ind in the exterior surface of 
 this carrier-block ten semi-cylindrical channels are 
 cut, which form trough like extensions of the car- 
 tridge-chambers of the barrels to the rear, and are
 
 GATLIK6 GUN. 
 
 749 
 
 GATLING GUK. 
 
 designed to receive and guide the cartridges while 
 they are thrust into the barrels, and to guide the 
 empty cases while they are withdrawn. Behind the 
 carrier-block the shaft carries another cylinder, called 
 the lock-cylinder, in which ten guide-grooves are 
 formed, which are parallel to the barrels, and in 
 which slide ten long breech-plugs or locks, by which 
 the cartridges are thrust into the barrels, anil which 
 close the barrels and resist the reaction of the charges 
 when they are fired. Each plug or lock contains a 
 spiral mainspring acting on a tiring-pin, by which 
 the charge is tired, so that the plug performs all 
 the functions of a gun-lock, as well as of a breech- 
 plug. The shaft, to which the group of barrels and 
 
 Barrels, Shaft and Casing. 
 
 both the carrier-block and the lock-cylinder are rig- 
 idly attached, is free to turn on its axis, the front 
 end being jounialed in the front part of the frame, 
 and the rear end in a diaphragm in the breech casing. 
 The breech-casing extends to the rear far enou.ch to 
 contain not only the diaphragm through which the 
 main shaft is journaled, but also to form in the rear 
 of the diaphragm a cover for the gearing by which 
 the shaft is revolved. This mechanism or gearing 
 consists simply of a toothed wheel fastened to the 
 shaft and worked bj' an endless screw on a small axle 
 which i)a.>i.ses transversely through the case at right 
 angles to the shaft, and is furnished outside the case 
 
 with a hand-crank. A cascabel-plate closes the end 
 of the case. Each lock carries a hooked extractor, 
 which snaps over and engages the cartridge-flange 
 when the lock is pushed forward, and which, when 
 the lock retreats, withdraws and ejects the empty 
 case. The cartridge carrier-block is covered above 
 the frame by a semi-cylindrical shell, which is pro- 
 vided at the top with an opening of suitable size and 
 shape to permit a single cartridge to fall through it 
 into one of the channels of the carrier-block, which 
 it overlies. There is a trough extending upward 
 from this opening and forming a hopper, in which a 
 straight feed-case can be placed in a vertical position, 
 containing a number of cartridges lying lengthwise 
 across the case, one above another. Beneath the 
 carrier-block everything is open so as to allow 
 the cartridges or shells which are withdrawn 
 by the extractors from the barrels to fall to the 
 ground. Within the cylindrical breech-case at- 
 tached to the frame a heavy ring not quite the 
 length of the lock-cylinder is fastened to the 
 case and diaphragm, which nearly fills the space 
 between the inside of the case and the cylinder. 
 Portions from the inside of this ring are so cut 
 away as to leave a truncated, ■wedge-shaiied, 
 annular or spiral cam projecting from the inner 
 surface of the ring, having two helicoidal edges 
 inclined to each other and united by a short, 
 flat plane. Against these edges the rear ends of 
 the locks or breech-plugs continuallj' bear, there 
 being room enough for the locks to lie loosely 
 within the parts of the ring which are cut away. 
 The apex of the wedge-shaped cam points to 
 the barrels. Each lock is held back against the 
 cam by a lug or horn, projecting laterally from 
 the end of the lock, and entering a groove made 
 at the base of the cam, in the thin part of the 
 ring. 
 
 The distance of the apex of the cam from the 
 ends of the barrels is such that the breech-plugs 
 
 • or locks exactly fill the space, so that each plug 
 
 * there forms an abutment, which closes the breech 
 of it,s barrel and abuts against the apex of the 
 cam, which serves to resist the recoil of the plug 
 when the charge is fired. It will be remembered 
 that the locks are guided in grooves formed in 
 the lock-cylinder, and therefore cannot deviate 
 from their alignment with the barrels. From 
 what has before been explained it will be un- 
 derstood that the ten barrels, the cartridge car- 
 rier-block, and the lock-cylinder canying its 
 ten locks, will, by turning a crank, revolve to- 
 gether about the axis of the central shaft, the 
 lock-cylinder revolving within the stationary 
 case and cam-ring, and the cartridge carrier- 
 block revohing beneath the half-cylindrical shell 
 which carries the hopper. The cartridges will, 
 as the carrier-block channels come succes.?lvely 
 under the hopper, drop into the channels in 
 front of the locks, and be kept in place by 
 the hopper-shell. The revolution of the lock- 
 
 ** cylinder carries the locks around with it, and 
 causes them to receive a longitudinal recipro- 
 cal motion, by their ends sliding along the 
 inclined surfaces of the stationary cam. Each 
 lock, then, one after the other, is pushed forward 
 toward its barrel. As the revolution of the parts 
 keeps the locks in contact with the advancing .side of 
 the cam, each lock in succession closes its barrel, and 
 its longitudinal motion ceases, while it passes the flat 
 surface to the cam, and then each slides backward 
 from its barrel when constrained to move along the 
 retreating side of the cam by the corresponding cam- 
 groove, and so on, each lock repeating these move- 
 ments at each successive revolution of the shaft. 
 
 The position of the cam relatively to the cartridge- 
 hopper is such that each lock is drawn backward to 
 its full extent when it ijasses the hopper, so that the 
 cartridges may fall into the carrier in front of the 
 locks. The explosion of each cartridge takes place
 
 OATLINO GUN. 
 
 750 
 
 OATLINO OUN. 
 
 as ils particular lock passes over the flat apex of the 
 cam which resists the recoil. 
 
 The liaiiimer is cockeil hy the knob or head at its 
 rear eiul coming into contact wilh a tiat rib located 
 inside of the cam. This rib restrains the hammer 
 from niovinjt forward, while the forward movement 
 of the bovly of the lock continues; the spiral main- 
 sprinir is compressed imtil the revolution carries the 
 hammer knob beyond the end of the cockingrib, 
 when the hammer will spring forward, and strike 
 with it.s point the center of the cartridge-head, and 
 explode the charge. The point in the revolution at 
 which the barrels are discharged is below and at one 
 side of the a.xis. Thus it will be seen that, in the ten- 
 barrel gun, one revolution of the barrels corresponds 
 to one revolution of the locks, and delivers ten shots; 
 a process which is repealed continuously, so long as 
 the crank is turned and the cartridges are supiilied. 
 The gun can be unloaded of any cartridges not fired 
 by removing the feed-case, opening the hopper, and 
 reversing the motion of the crank. The 
 locks are inaile interchangeable, and are 
 strong and dural)le, but should they get 
 out of order the gun is so constructed 
 that any one or all of them can be in a 
 few moments taken out and others in- 
 serted in their places, anil so the gun can 
 be kejit in perfect working order at all 
 times on the field of battle. In the new 
 model the mechanism of the locks has 
 been greatly strengthened as well as 
 otherwise inijiroved, and there are means 
 at hand for their insertion and removal 
 ■without taking olT the cascabel-plate. 
 These means consist of the perforation 
 of the covering and back diaphragm in 
 the outer casing, and by the closure of 
 the apertures through both these plates 
 by a single removable plug. 
 
 This is a very valuable imiirovement, 
 inasmuch as the repairing or inspection 
 of the locks is theret)y greatly- facilitated. 
 The absence of one or more locks does 
 not iiffect the working of the gun, ex- 
 cept to diminish the intensity of tire in 
 proportion to the number of locks re- 
 moved. For each lock removed, how- 
 ever, one unexploded cartridge falls to 
 the ground at each revolution of the gun. 
 The gun is encased in a frame which has 
 trunnions, and is mounted in the ordi- 
 nary way, like a field-piece. The screw 
 for elevating and depressing the breech 
 •works in a nut attached to the rail of 
 the carriage in the usual way. An au- 
 tomatic traversing ai)])aratus is ajiplied 
 by which a limited angular movement in 
 a horizontal plane may be given to the 
 gun , as follows: A cylinder having a cam- 
 groove in its periphery is apiiliell to the 
 crank-axle, and the end of a cylindrical 
 pin enters this groove. The cylindrical pin is attached 
 loan arm which is connected to the elevating-screw- 
 when the crank is turned the cam-groovi" travels 
 back and forth on the cylindrical pin. swinging the 
 gun from side to side through a sector of three de- 
 grees. The pin may be thrown out of gear wilh the 
 cylinder and the gun be tired without swinging. The 
 sector, covered automatically by the traverser, may 
 be changed almut five degrees on each side w-'ithout 
 moving the trail or suspending the lirinsr. The cases 
 ■which contain the cartridges, and whicji are applied 
 to the hopper when it is (Icsired lo feed the gun, are 
 long narrow- boxes of sheet-tin reinforced bv gun- 
 metal, open only at the lower ends. The cross-sec- 
 tion of the Citse is trapezoidal, the edge next to which 
 the heads lie being wider than the carl rid ire- heads, 
 while that which receives Ihe points of the balls is of 
 the width of the ball. This form enables all the 
 cartridges in the ca.se to assume a horizouta 
 
 because the heads of the contiguous cartridges have 
 room to roll over slightly, so as to lie partly along- 
 side of each other, while the ball-ends are kept verti- 
 cally over each other. Above the cartridges in the 
 ctuse is a weight which can be moved up ami dow-u 
 by a thumb-piece. By the action of the h:ind press- 
 ing on the Ihumb-pieceanydesired pressure, regulating 
 the rapiility of feed, can be given to the cartridges. 
 Each straight feed-case holds just forty cartridges. 
 The supply of cartridges lo the gun may also be made 
 by what is called the feed-drum (iLsed only with the 
 smaller calibers). This contains sixteen radial sec- 
 tions groui)cd vertically about the axis of the drum. 
 Each .section holds twenty cartridges, or each drum 
 holds three hundred and twenty cartridges. The 
 inunber of sections in the drum and the number of car- 
 tridges in each section may l>e varied. The drum 
 rests vertically over the hopi^er, and feeds the car- 
 tridges automatically from the several sections in suc- 
 cession. Five men, including the gunner, are neces- 
 
 m 
 
 D" 
 
 « 
 
 3' 
 
 position. 
 
 Posts of Cannoneers. 
 
 sary for the service of the piece. Wilh a greater 
 number of cannoneers an exceptionally rapid and 
 continuous tire can be sustained by assigning more 
 men to the duties of exchanging empty for full feed- 
 cases, and bringing uji ammunition; b'ut it is advis- 
 able not to e.xiiose too ni:iny men around the gun to 
 the enemy's tire. The delachnient may bt maneuvered 
 by the usual cominanils and means. 
 
 The cannoneers are mnnlwred from oneXofive. and 
 their posts at the piece unlimbered will be as' follows: 
 Kos. 1 and 3, on the right Hank of the piece— Xo. 1 
 o|)posi(e the cascabel, and No. .3 opposite the rear 
 end of tlic handspike; No.s. 3 and 4, on the left flank 
 of the piece— No. 2 o^iposite Ihe c.nscabel, and No. 4 
 opposite the rear end of the handspike; No. 5, is in 
 rear of the limber-chest,— all facing to the front. 
 Nos. 2, 4, and 5 wear haversacks slung from the left 
 shoulder. 
 
 As soon as the piece is mulunbered. No. 1 ungears
 
 CATLING QVV. 
 
 751 
 
 GATLING GUK. 
 
 the crank and sees that it works easily. No. 2 sees 
 that the hopper is clear for the insertion of a feed- 
 case. Xo. 3 places the handspike, gets the travers- 
 ing apparatus in action, and points the piece in the 
 general direction required. Nos. 2. 4, and .5 jro to the 
 limber and place live tilled feed-case.s in their haver- 
 sacks. After these duties are performed, all resume 
 their positions. 
 
 At the command Load, No. 1 steps in to the crank, 
 takes hold of the handle with his risht hand, and is 
 ready to turn the crank. No. 2 steps in and places a 
 feed-case in the hopper, grasping it with his left hand 
 
 on the top, taking hold of the weight-stud with his 
 right hand, .so that he can gently press on the car- 
 tridges as they move, keeping the" ca.se perpendicular 
 to the line of the bore. No. 3 scats himself on the 
 trail-seat and sees that the gun is properly pointed. 
 Nos. 4 and 5 stand fast. At the command Fike, 
 No. 1 turns the crank regularly without jerks. No. 2 
 attends the fecdca.se on the gvln, seeing that it feeds 
 regularly, withdrawing the empty case, and replacing 
 it with a filled one, until he has inserted his last tilled 
 case in the hopper. lie then calls out " ca.se," when 
 No. 4 steps forward and replaces the empty feed-ca.ses 
 ■vrith filled ones, and removes the empty ones. He i 
 
 then takes the empty ca.ses to the limber, exchanges 
 them for tilled cases, or refills them as may Ije neces- 
 sary, and places five tilled cases in his haversack, and 
 stands fast, when No. 4 steps forward to No. 2. No. 5 
 steps forward to the position just left by No. 4, and 
 when No. 2 again calls " case," he i^erforms the same 
 duties that have just l)een designated for No. 4, and 
 ' Nos. 4 and ."> jjerfonn these duties in succession dur- 
 ing the continuance of the tiring. No. 2 may drop 
 the empty feed-cases on the ground, or place them in 
 his haversiick, taking care to have an tminterrupted 
 I flow of cartridges imo the hopper kept up. At the 
 ' conmiand Ce.\se Firixo, No. 2 withdraws the feed- 
 i ca.se from the hopper, places it in his haversack, and 
 resumes tlie position which he had before the com- 
 mand Lo.\D was given. No. 1 turns the crank 
 until the cartridges in the hopper have been fired, 
 and then resumes his original position. No. 3 takes 
 his original position, after No. 1 has stopped turning 
 the crank. Nos. 4 and 5 stand fast, unless they are 
 mo\ing at the time the command is given, in which 
 case they take care that No. 2 has five filled feed-cases 
 in his haversack, and then resurre their original posi- 
 tions. Should feed-drums be used instead of feed- 
 I ca.ses. No. 2 should place the drum on the pintle as 
 soon as the piece is unlimbered. Haversacks will not 
 be worn by Nos. 2, 4, and 3, and when No. 2 gets to 
 feeding from the last compartment of the feed'drum, 
 he will call out " drum," when No. 4 or No. .5, as the 
 case mav be, will replace the empty drimi, which 
 No. 2 wdl lift off, by a filled drum, and will at once 
 take the empty drum to the limber to Iw refilled. At 
 the command'C'EASEFrRrsG, when the drum is used, 
 j No. 2 will continue to feed until all of the cartridges 
 I in the compartment of the drum then in use are ex- 
 hausted. The methods of limbering and unlimber- 
 ing, mounting and dismounting of the cannopeers, the 
 intervals between the pieces, .service of the piece with 
 reduced luimbers, etc., are all dependent upon the 
 Fiekl-ailillery Tactics of the Nation using the gun. 
 AVhen the piece is limbered, Nos. 1 and 2 are opposite 
 and one yard outside the naves of the can-iage-wheels, 
 Nos. 3 aiid 4 opposite and one yard outside the naves 
 of the limber-wheels, the gunner in front of the lim- 
 Ijcr-wheel, on the .same line with Nos. 2 and 4, who 
 are on the right of the piece, the odd numbers being 
 I on the left. The cannoneers are mounted and dis- 
 mounted as prescribed in Artillery Tactics, except 
 iliat the gunner and Nos. 1 and 2 mount on the lim- 
 licr of the piece. No. 2 in the middle. In drilling at 
 ilie school of the piece, in garrison or camp, it will 
 lie well to remove the locks to prevent the unneces- 
 sary snapping of the spiings, and the cartridges can 
 then be nm through the hojjper at will, familiarizing 
 the men with the use of the gun without waste of 
 ammunition or injury to the locks. 
 
 The style of carriage depends somewhat upon the 
 service for which the gim is intended. In the United 
 States an ordinary field-carriage with limber has been 
 used. The drawing shows the musket-caliber, ten- 
 barrel Galling gun, on carriage with limlier complete. 
 Recently a two-wheeled cart, with shafts for a horse, 
 has l)eeh proposed by the Ordnance Department, in- 
 tended to carry the gun and two ammunition-boxes, 
 containing together 40 feed-ca.'«?s, each holding 40 
 cartridges, so that the caniage takes with it 1600 
 cartridges in feed-cases. A space is also resen"ed in 
 front of the axle for two boxes of cartridges contain- 
 ing 1000 each. The weight of the carriage without 
 cartridges is abotit .lOO lbs. This carriage is intended 
 specially for service with cavalry. 
 
 The cartridge for the Gatlir.g gun is made of No. 
 18 sheet-copper. The roin'iiltr consists of a ease 
 terminated at one extremity by a hemispheioid of 
 lead called the head ; it contains for the 1-inch gun 
 lii bullets, .48-inch in diameter. The charge for this 
 gun is } ounce of mortar-powder and 6 grains of fulmi- 
 nate; that for the ..W-inch gun is TO grains of musket- 
 powder and i grain of fulminate. " The fulminate 
 used is composed of fulminate of mercury, 3 parts;
 
 G&.n6K. 
 
 752 
 
 OATIOE. 
 
 pulverized niter, 2 parts; glass dust, i part; chlorate 
 of potassa, 2 parts. This is well moistened with 
 gum-arabic water. 
 
 The dw/iV/ »liot consists of a case contiiining the above 
 composition and charge of powder, with an elongated 
 bullet weighing 8 ounces for the 1 inch, and 450 
 grains for the .oO-incli and .4r>-inch guns. Canister 
 is only used with the linch gun. Tlic cartridges are 
 put \ip and issued from the arsenals in pastelxrard 
 jKiekages. and when retpiired for service enough are 
 opened to till the tin feed-cases carried in the limbers 
 of the pieces. The ammunition-chests of the caissons 
 arc tilled with unbroken packages. For the .4oinch 
 gim the anunimition is intcrcluuigeable with that for 
 the regulation infantry ritle. 
 
 The character of the rifling of Gatling guns is uni- 
 form groove, making one turn in 72 inclics for the 
 1-inch gun, one turn in 42 inches for the ."jO-inch, and 
 one in 22 inches for the .45-inch gun. The etfective 
 range Is contemplated at from 200 to 1200 yards, or 
 the zone of infantry fire. 
 
 The Gatling gim has recently undergone a great im- 
 provement, both in the matter of its details aiid in its 
 feed. The drawing at the head of this article repre- 
 sents one of the improved ginis, ha\'ing si.x, eight, and 
 ten barrels, each barrel having its corresponding lock. 
 The barrels and locks revolve together, inside the 
 outer stationary ca.se. But in addition to this action, 
 the locks have a forward and backward motion of 
 their own. The forward motion places the cartridges 
 in the chambers of the barrels and closes the breech 
 at cjich discharge; while the backward motion ex- 
 tracts the empty carlriiige-case after tiring. The 
 cartridges are supplied to the gun by magazines con- 
 sisting of a circular drum of a width slightly greater 
 than the length of the carlridge. On the two circular 
 plates which form the ends of the drum are spiral 
 grooves running from the center to the outer edge, in 
 which the ends of the cartridges are supported and 
 guided in and out of the magazine. In the center of 
 the magazine, between the two aforesai<l grooved 
 plates, arc two other circular plates which revolve 
 round the central shaft, having a number of slots 
 radiating from the center, and joined near the outer 
 edge by pins. The.se two plates when revolved force 
 the cartridges along the aforesaid grooves in the enil 
 plates out of the ifiagazinc into the receiver of the 
 gun, and in front of the locks. The center plates of 
 the magazine are revolved by projections on the re- 
 ceiver which engage with pins that join the center 
 plates in the form of gear. The magazine is held in 
 its place over the receiver by flanges on each side of 
 the hopper with two imder-cut slots in which two 
 projections on the magazine fit so as to lock it in its 
 place. The slots are of unequal size, so that the 
 magazine camiot be wrongly inserted. On the left- 
 hand side of the hopper are two wedge-shaped points 
 that are let down into the receiver, which eject the 
 empty shell from the receiver when extracted from 
 the chambers by backward motion of tlie lock. The 
 extractor is so "formed that its hook remains always 
 in front of the cartridge-head, and it is rendered 
 stronger by making it (louble its former width cir- 
 cumfcrentially. It has no spring and does not lift 
 the lock by springing over the cartridge-bead. The 
 cartridge is therefore always struck centrally instcail 
 of at the side. The extnictur is so arranged that after 
 each discharge it holds l)ack the firing-pin so that its 
 point does not project in front of the lock-face until 
 relea.sed by the cocking-ring, making it impossil)le 
 for a premature explosion of the carlridge to take 
 l)lace by the forward motion of the lock coming in 
 contact with the cartridge-heads. In tiring at high 
 elevations, the cartridges are prevented from sliding 
 t)ack into the mechanism through the oritice in the 
 front lock-flange, either when the locks are in or out 
 of the gun, bj- flanging the openings and making the 
 lock to corres])ond. The gun has been fired in a ver- 
 tical position with as much case and |)erfection as 
 when horizontal. The rear portion of the lock is 
 
 sup]X)rted by a T-way at the center instead of at the 
 bottom, in order to prevent all iwssibility of jamming 
 by dust or sand. The gun is mounted on trunnions 
 two inches below the center, and is elevated and de- 
 pressed by meaiLs of a circular elevating arc connected 
 at Ixjth extremities with the gun, and actuated by 
 gearing so arranged that elevation and depression are 
 indicated in degrees and min\ites. A horizontal limb 
 for direction is graduated in the sjimc way. Both 
 kinds of gear are so arrange<l that they can l)e in- 
 stantly thrown o\it, allowing the gim to move rapidly 
 in all directions by means of a long lever. The au- 
 tomatic oscillator is dispensed with, the effect being 
 produced by hand movement of the rear lever. An 
 adjustment of the lateral training is obtained by 
 means of stops on the turn-table of the carriage, 
 which can be set to any required number of degrees. 
 The gun can be elevated to 74 degrees and depressed 
 to 78 degrees. It is provided with two sights, viz. , one 
 on each side. A device is added to .serve the purpose 
 of throwing the cocking-ring ovit of tise at will, and 
 prevents the cocking of the firing-pins. This is of 
 advmitage during (hill, and allows firing motion to 
 take place without snapping and thereby injuring 
 the firing-pins. The barrels are locked into the rear 
 flange-jiiate instead of being screweil as heretofore. 
 In case of accident to lock or barrel the lock can be 
 instantly removed, and the firing continued with the 
 remaining locks. 
 
 The gun can be fired with the crank either at the 
 rear or side. When at the side, the gun fires at each 
 turn of the crank about one half the number (.f shots 
 to the number of ban-els in the gun ; when at the rear, 
 it fires at each turn of the crank as many shots as 
 there are barrels in the gun. The feed-magazines 
 hold from 65 to 104 cartridges each, and weigh from 
 10 to 24J lbs. when full of cartridges. The musket- 
 caliber gims weigh from 100 to 237 lbs. each, accord- 
 ing to the number and length of the barrels. 
 
 It is believed that the best organization for Gatling 
 guns is that of the battery in field-artillery, and that 
 the batteries should belong to the division rather 
 than to a smaller organization. Circumstances may 
 arise that will make the use of the guns in batteries 
 of si.x or eight pieces enormously valuable; but in any 
 event, better care can be taken cf the guns, better iii- 
 slruction given to the men, and a better discipline 
 and tsprit de corps kept up by a battery organization 
 than by distributing them singly or in .sections to 
 serve with infantry regiments. Before any action, 
 the batteries could, if nece.s.sary, \ie assigned to bri- 
 gades, and the pieces could be used at the discretion 
 of the Commanding General in field-works, trenches, 
 to guard, or drive the enemy from hollow roads, 
 fords, bridges, and ravines, or to a.ssist infantry in 
 holding exposed positions. For detailed description 
 of parts, see the appropriate headings. See Caincl- 
 giiii and Mndiiiiefiun. 
 
 GAUGE. — An apparatus for measuring any special 
 force or dimension; thus we havcpiriiitiin-gtiuge, in'nd- 
 gatige, riiiii-gaiige. miv-gniige, etc. The simplest form 
 ' of gauge of dimension is the common trire-tjaiige, by 
 j which the diameter of wire is measured. It is simply 
 I an olilong plate of steel, with notches of different 
 I widths cut upon the edge; these are luimbered, and 
 the size of the wire is determined by trying it in the 
 I different notches until the one is" found which it 
 \ exactly tits. The thickness of sheet-metal is tried by 
 the same gauge. There is a great want of uniformity 
 in all these gauges — the Birmingham gauge for iron 
 wire, sheet-iron, and steel differing from that used for 
 brass, silver, gold, etc., and thcsi-, again, from the 
 Lanca.shire gauges. It has been projioscd. in order 
 \ to obtain uniformity, and to enable definite descrip- 
 tions and orders to be given with accuracy and cer- 
 j tainty, that instead of the arbitrary numl>eis of vary- 
 ! ing signification now in n.se. decimal jiarts of an inch, 
 Iciiths', hundredths, ihousandths, or still smaller 
 fractions, if necessary, be used, and that these lie used 
 I for all diametei's and thicknesses, such as wires, sheet-
 
 GAimTLET. 
 
 753 
 
 GAUTIEB TELEMETEB. 
 
 i 
 
 r 
 
 M 
 
 metals, buttons, watch-glasses, etc. ; but such a scale 
 has not yet come into general use. The gauge com- 
 monly u.sed for large diameters is a rule with a 
 groove cut lengthwise down the middle. Another 
 metal rule, with a brass head, slides in 
 this, and by means of a thumb-pin may 
 be pushed out at pleasure. The object to 
 be UHasured is placed between the inside 
 of the slide and the end of the rule, and 
 the ^\-idth of this space is measured by 
 graduations on the middle metal slide. 
 The engraving shows a combination of 
 sizes known as step-gauges. This de\ice 
 is very valuable lor general use in the 
 arsenal and armorj-, for testing holes, ad- 
 justing calipers, etc. They arc made in 
 sets of any number of gauges, as may be 
 desired for the particular kind of work. 
 The width of the disks increases with 
 their diameter. A. very elegant and deli- 
 rate gauge has recently come into use for 
 measuring watch-glasses, and is applica- 
 ble to many other purposes. On an ob- 
 long piece of sheet-metal two straight 
 metal ridges are tixed in such a manner 
 that they shall be inclined at a given angle 
 to each other. Now, let us suppose the 
 angle to be such that the distance betneen 
 the upper extremities is 3 inches and that 
 between the lower ends is 1 inch, while 
 the len^hs of the metal ridges are 10 in- 
 ches. It is e\ident that forevery inch of 
 descent from the upper to toward the 
 lower ends there will be a narrowing 
 equal to ^'j of an inch; and for every 
 tenth of an inch of such descent there 
 ■will be a narrowing of yj^ of an inch, 
 and so on: thus we may, by graduating downwards 
 from the top, measure tenths by imits, hundreiltlis 
 by tenths, and so on to still liner quantities if re- 
 quired. This is applicable to lengths as well as dia- 
 meters. By means of line .screws with large gradu- 
 ated heads Messrs. Whitworth have measured small 
 pieces of steel to the one-millionth of an inch. See 
 Anemometer, Caliptrs, C'orrtctire Gouges, Micrometer , 
 Pre»sure-fin>ige, Stnr-gnuge, and Wire-gauge. 
 
 GAUNTLET. — Armor for the hand and arm, made 
 either of scales or mail, and used in the Middle Ages. 
 It formed part of the armor of knights and men-at- 
 anns. See Gantlet. 
 
 GAUTIEE TELEMETER.— This telemeter, invented 
 by Captain Gautier, of the French army, is an in- 
 stnunent for measuring, \\ith a great degree of ap- 
 proximation, any difference, not exceeding three 
 degrees, which may be exhibited in the bearing of a 
 distant object by viewing it from different points of a 
 ba.se-line transverse to its general direction from the 
 observer. The instrument, in its simplicity, accu- 
 racy, and portability, recommends itself in all ca.ses 
 where a knowledge of distances is desired at an}- 
 moment and with the least possible delay; such, for 
 instance, as range-finding, river-crossing, reconnoiter- 
 ing, and the like. A slight acquaintance with its use 
 on such occasions enables the observer to estimate, 
 ■with more than ordinary promptitude and precision, 
 the distance which It might be all-important to ob- 
 tain. The instrument, shown in Fig. 1, resembles in 
 
 Step-g.liis 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 shape and size one barrel of an ordinary reconnoiter- 
 ing or field glass. The ca.se in which it is carried is 
 fadiioned so as to answer as a handle for holding the 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 instrument when making obser\'ations. 'Within the 
 barrel of the instrument are placed two mirrors at an 
 angle of about 45 degrees with each other; this angle 
 can be varied within certain limits by means of a 
 millcd-headed screw acting on one of them. The 
 mirrors are thus made to operate upon the principle 
 of the sextant. A slot on one side of the baiTel per- 
 mits the raj's of light from an object to fall upon one 
 of the mirrors, from whence they are reflected upon 
 the other mirror, and the image is seen through the 
 eye-glass at the small end of the instrument. At the 
 front or large end is tixed, in a ring siurounding the 
 barrel, a prism, whose displacement modifies the di- 
 rection ot any object seen through it. At the rear 
 of the instrument is a small eye-glass, by means of 
 which the observer sees, orer the mirrors and through 
 the prism, the object which is before him, and by 
 double relieetion tn the mirrors the object to the side 
 of him. The semi-revolution of the movable ring 
 containing the prism corresponds to a displacement 
 of the object toward the left of about three degrees. 
 The ring is provided with a graduated scale contain- 
 ing numbers, the use of which will be explained. 
 
 Suppose C, in Fig. 2, to be the object, and A the 
 point from which the distance AC is to be deter- 
 mined. Select some distant object, as M, for the 
 signal, the direction A M to it making ■nith the line 
 A C an angle a little great- 
 er than 90 degrees. From 
 the point A measure the 
 ba.se, A B, in the prolon- 
 gation of the line to the 
 nignal. After having ad- 
 justed the telemeter upon 
 the case, w^ich serves as 
 a vertical handle, turn the 
 ring until the word "in- 
 finiU'" is brought opposite 
 the fixed index or arrow. 
 This brings the prism to its initial position . A small 
 opening in the luider part of the instrument, exhibit- 
 ing the mirror index, enables the observer to assure 
 himself that the movalile mirror is at its mean posi- 
 tion, which is indicated by a fixed mark. The te- 
 lemeter is then ready for operation, and the observer 
 places himself at A, so that the object C will be on 
 his right. (The right is here chcscn merely for pur- 
 pose of illustration. The observation can be as easily 
 made with the object on the left.) The instrument 
 is held in the left hand, the fingers of which clasp the 
 barrel firmly to the handle (the case). The observer, 
 facing the signal M and sighting through the eye- 
 glaiis upon the signal, turns, with the right hand, the 
 milled screw until the image of the object C coin- 
 cides with the signal M. leaving the screw in this 
 position, he retires to the other end, B, of the base- 
 line, where, holding the instrument as before, he 
 sights upon the signal, and turning the graduated 
 ring on the front end, makes the images again coin- 
 cide. This done, there will be found on the ring 
 opposite the fixed index a num1)cr which, being multi- 
 plied by the number of units in the base-line, will 
 give the required distance A C in terms of the unit 
 used in measuring the base. This is the method of 
 a liMd base. Another method is by meaas of a pro- 
 jxirtional base, which is, instead of measuring a base 
 as just described, a certain factor is selected on the 
 ring and the instrument set to it ; then by moving 
 back in the direction A B until the images coincide, 
 the distance thus moved over will be the base, which 
 is then measured and multiplied by the selected 
 factor. This method has the advantage of eliminat- 
 ing the errors of reading the movable ring. 
 
 A ba.se of ,J j of the distance suffices in general for 
 obtaining the ex.-ictness of measurement required in 
 militarj' operations. It is necessary alwavs that the 
 object and the signal be well defined and of a con- 
 venient form and size, and that the observer be 
 sufficiently skilled with the instrument to make ■with 
 precision "the necessary sightings, and to make the
 
 CAZE. 
 
 754 
 
 GENDAKMES. 
 
 proper alig:nmeDt of tbe two stations upon the signal. 
 In II case where a good natural sisnal is found, dis- 
 tances up to 2000 meters c«ii be readily measured in 
 less than two miinites. If the conditions are less 
 favorable, the measurements may be effected by em- 
 ploying bii-scs of sV or of a'o. Whatever be the 
 method employed, the immediate result of the opera- 
 tion is the knowledge of the relation between the dis- 
 tance sought and the base. The base may Ix; ex- 
 pressed accoriliiig to any unit of measurement, and 
 tile distance will \)c correspondingly expressed. If 
 the base is measured in yanls, the distance will be 
 yards, etc. See Tileiiuter. 
 
 GA2E.— A term in Heraldry. When a bejist of the 
 cha.'i<', as a hart or stag, is represented as affroiit^e, or 
 full-faced, it is said to be at gaze. 
 
 GAZETTE.— A gazette was a Venetian' coin worth 
 somewhat less than a farthing; and the name was 
 hence apiilied to a sort of gossiping sheet, or primi- 
 tive newsijaper, that was sold for that sum at Venice. 
 In its English acceptation it means the official news- 
 paper in which proclamations, notices of appoint- 
 ments, and the like, are published by the Government. 
 The Gazette is said to have been "published for the 
 first time at Ojcford in 1665. On the removal of the 
 Court to London, the title was changed to the London 
 Gazette. It is now published on 'Tuesdays and Fri- 
 days. Proclamations printed in the Oiizitte are ]3ro- 
 bative, without production. But the rule is different 
 as to presentations or grants to private persons. 
 
 GAZONS. — In fortification, pieces of fresh earth or 
 sods, covered with grass, and cut in the form of a 
 wedge, about one foot long and half a foot thick, to 
 line the outsides of a work made of earth, as ram- 
 parts, parapets, banquettes, etc. The first bed of ga- 
 zons is fi.xed with pegs of wood, and the second bed 
 is so laid as to bind the former, by being placed over 
 its joints, and so continued till the works are finished. 
 Between those it is usual to sow all sorts of binding 
 weeds or herbs, in order to strengthen the rampart. 
 
 GEAR-CUTTING MACHINE.— A machine used for 
 making cog-wheels, etc., by cutting out the inter- 
 dental material. In one form of this machine the 
 disk to be cut is fixed on a spindle or mandrel, to 
 whose end is attached a graduated di\iding-wheel. 
 This wheel has a number of circles, each having its 
 own series of graduations, at which are holes with 
 •which the stop-pin engages to hold the blank while 
 
 Oear-cuttlng Attacliznent. 
 
 the circular cutter on the slide-rest docs its work. 
 This cutter has a shape coinciding with that of the 
 interdental si)ace of the wheel required. The man- 
 drel of the cutter wheel is rotjited by a band, and 
 the cutter is fed by a hand-crank and" feed-screw, so 
 as to traverse past the face of the whciO under treat- 
 ment. The drawing .shows the, gear-cutting attach- 
 ment to the milling-machine, use<l in armories for 
 cutting larger and heavier wheels than can be cut 
 with the ordinary apparatus. It swings 13 inches, and 
 
 is .supplied with a 20-inch index which contains 4294 
 holes. It will divide all numl)ers to 75, and all even 
 numbers to l.")0. 
 
 GEARING. — 1. Warlike accoutemicnts; military 
 harness and apparatus for lifting and training hea\-y 
 ordiiaiice; eijuipage. 2. A term applied to the parts 
 of machinery by which motion in one part of a ma- 
 chine is communicated to another; gearing consists 
 in general of toothed-wheels, friction-wheels, endless 
 bands, screws, etc., or of a combination of these. 
 '\\'hen the communication Ixtween the two parts of 
 the machine is iMl(_Tni|>te(l, the machine is said to be 
 out of </t'<ir ; and when the communication is restored, 
 it is said to be in gnu: In the ca.se of the grinding- 
 mill, e.g., driven by a .steam engine, the gearing usu- 
 ally consists of an endless band which comnnmicates 
 motion from the axle of the fiy-whi-el to that of the 
 drum. If the band were slipped off from one wheel, 
 or slackeneil so that motion could not be commimi- 
 caled by means of it, then the machine woidd be out 
 of gear. Gearing which can he placed in and out of 
 gear is called morable gearing ; that which cannot, 
 as, for instance, the wheel-work of a watch, is called 
 fited gearing. Gearing which consists of wheel-work 
 or endless screws is put out of gear either by means 
 of one of the wheels sliding along its axis, or being 
 moved out of its place horizontally or vertically by 
 means of a lever. Straight gearing is used when the 
 planes of motion are parallel to each other; beveled 
 gearing, when the direction of the plane of motion is 
 changed. Gearing has also for its object the increas- 
 ing or diminishing of the original velocity, and in 
 reference to this is distinguished by the term " mid- 
 tiplying" or " retarding." 
 
 GEAT. — The hole through which the metal is con- 
 veyeil to the mold in casting ordnance. See Casting. 
 GEBEGIS.— A term formerly applied to the armor- 
 ers among the Turks. It is now nearly obsolete. See 
 Gelibaeh. 
 
 GEBELIS. — A Turldsh corps of picked men, re- 
 nowned for their perseverance and fighting qualities. 
 GEBELUS.— Every Timariot in Tvirkey, during a 
 campaign, is obli/;ed to receive a certain number of 
 horsemen, who are called tfebettiD, and to support 
 them at his own expense. He is directed to take as 
 many as would anmwlly cost 3000 aspres for subsist- 
 ence. 
 GELIBACH.— A sort of Superintendent or Chief of 
 the Gehegin among the Turks. Ue is only subordi- 
 nate to the Toppibachi, or the Grand blaster of 
 the Turkish artillery. 
 
 GEMOTE —Besid"cs the great Council of the Na- 
 tion — the Witena gemot, or, as we more usually 
 spell it, the Witenagemot — which corresponded to 
 the Reichstage of the Franks, and which, though 
 it took the pface of the still more ancient meetings 
 of the whole Nation, to which Tacitus refers as 
 characteristic institutions of the Teutonic tribes 
 in his day, was a representative, though not per- 
 haps an elective body, there were amongst the 
 Anglo-Saxons numerous minor motes or moots, 
 which did not take part of the representative 
 character. The existence of these is an in.stance 
 of the manner in which the spirit of localization 
 has always maintained its ground, and balanced 
 that of centralization amongst the Germanic Na- 
 tions, and more itarticularly in England. There 
 was the Shiregenwt, or County Court, which met 
 twice in a year; and the Burg-geinot. which met 
 thrice; also the J/nnilred gemot, which met every 
 month, and an extraordinary meeting of which was 
 held twice a year; the llallcgemote, or Coart-biiron. 
 These institutions excluded "not only central despot- 
 ism, but local tyranny in the shape of individual 
 caprice. The Ealdofinan decided only with the 
 assent of the Shire-gemotc, just as the King was dc- 
 Iiendciit u|)on that of the Witan. (Lappenburg by 
 Thorpr, ii. p. ;)22.) 
 
 GENDARMES— GENS DAEMES.— Originally, and 
 up to the time of the first French Revolution, tbe most
 
 OENESAL. 
 
 755 
 
 GENZaAL COnST UABTIAt. 
 
 distinguished cavalrj- corps in the service of the Bour- 
 bon Kings, to whom they formed a sort of bod j- -guard. 
 Under existing arrangements, the Gendamies con- 
 stitute a military police, and comprise both cavalry 
 and infantry. The force con.sisLs principally of sol- 
 diers taken from the army, generally on account of in- 
 telligence and good conduct. Tlie men receive much 
 higher pay than the rest of the army, of which, how- 
 ever, the corps is a part, and they are liable in cases 
 of emergency to be sent on active senice. The Gen- 
 darmes amount to about 27,000 men, and are in- 
 trusted with the execution of many of the most deli- 
 cate details of government. 
 
 GENERAL.— 1. A term for the roll of the drum 
 which calls the troops together. To "beat the gen- 
 eral " is a phrase drawn from the French drum-in- 
 structors, Battre higinirak. — 2. The highest military 
 title in the United States army until verj- recently, 
 and the highest military title l)eIow that of Field Mar- 
 shal in European armies. A General ordinarily com- 
 miuids DO body of men less than an armj'. See Gen- 
 eral Officer. 
 
 GENERAL COURT MARTIAL.— In the army, a tri- 
 bunal for the general examination and pimishinent of 
 offenders against martial law, or against good order 
 and discipline. 
 
 The following is a form of record for a General 
 Court-Martial: 
 
 Pagel. Case 1. 
 
 Proceedings of a General Couht-IIarttal which convened 
 
 at . , prrspant to the following order: 
 
 HEADQUARTERS DEPARTMENT OF , 
 
 , , 187 . 
 
 Special Orders i 
 
 No. — . )' 
 
 [extract.] 
 
 A General Conrt-Martial is hereby appointed to convene at 
 
 . on the of at 10 o'cloclc a.m., or as soon 
 
 thereafter as practicable, for the trial of such persons as may 
 be brought before it by authority from these Headquarters. 
 
 1. Colonel - 
 
 2. Major — 
 
 3. Surgeon - 
 
 4. Captain - 
 
 5. Captain 
 
 6. Captain 
 
 7. Assistant Siu-geon 
 
 8. First Lieutenant — 
 
 9. First Lieutenant — 
 First Lieutenant 
 
 Detail for the Court. 
 
 , Artillery. 
 
 . Cavalry. 
 
 . L'. S. Army. 
 
 . Infantry. 
 
 - Artillery. 
 
 -. Infantry. 
 
 , U, S. Army. 
 
 , Infantry. 
 
 , Ordnance Dep't. 
 
 . U. S. .\rtiUery, is ap- 
 
 pointed Judge Advocate of the Court. 
 
 No other officers tlian those named can be assembled with- 
 out manifest injury to the service. 
 By command of Major General : 
 
 Assistant Adjutant General. 
 
 JViSeS. 
 
 Case 1. 
 
 BARRACKS, 
 
 , 187 
 
 The Court convened, pursuant to the foregoing order, at 10 
 
 o'clock A.1I. 
 
 Present: 
 
 1. Colonel , U. S. Artillery. 
 
 2. Major , U. S. Cavalry. 
 
 8. Surgeon , V. S. Armv. 
 
 4. Captain , U. S. Infantry. 
 
 5. Captain , U. S. Artillery. 
 
 6. Captain , U. S. Infantry. 
 
 7. Assistant Surgeon . U. S. Army. 
 
 First Lieutenant , U. S. Artillery, Judge 
 
 Advocate. 
 
 Absent: 
 
 1. First Lieutenant - 
 
 2. First Lieutenant - 
 
 -, U. S. Infantry. 
 
 -, Ordnance Dep't. 
 
 (Here set forth the cause of absence of any absent 
 member, if the same is known. It is the duty of the 
 Judge Advocate to ascertain, if pos.sible, the cause 
 of absence and record it, and in cases of sickness 
 medical certificates should generally, when practica- 
 ble, be fvirnished by the absent members, and ap- 
 pended to the record.) 
 
 The Court then proceeded to the trial of . 
 
 Regiment T. S. Infantry, who thereupon came before 
 
 the Court, and having heard tije order convening it read, was 
 asked if he had any objection to any member present, named 
 
 in the order: to which he replied in the n^ative, [or, the 
 Accused (or Prisoner, as the case may be) submitted the fol- 
 lowing objection to J. 
 
 (Here insert the objection.) 
 The challenged member stated that: 
 
 (Here insert the statement of challenged member.) 
 
 The Coiu-t was thereupon closed, the challenged member 
 and the Prisoner retiring, and. after due deliberation, the 
 Court having reopened, the challenged member and the Pris- 
 oner resmned their seats, and the decision of the Court was 
 announced by the Judgt- Advocate that the objection of the 
 Prisoner is sustained, and [Here insert challenged member's 
 name and raukj Ls therefore excused from ser\'ing as a mem- 
 ber of the Comt in this case; [or, that the objection of the 
 l*risoner is overruled]. 
 
 (Objection can only be urged to one member at a 
 time, for cause stated to the Court, and a record as 
 above must be made in each instance. ' If the person 
 on trial has no objection to offer, the record will con- 
 tinue as follows:) 
 
 The memijers of the Court were then severally duly sworn 
 by the Judge Advocate, and the Judge Advocate was then 
 duly sworn by the President of the c'ourt; all of which oaths 
 were administered in the presence of the Prisoner, or Accused. 
 
 (The oaths are given in the 84th and 85th Articles 
 of War. Should the. person on trial desire to intro- 
 duce counsel, he should now make application, and the 
 record will continue as follows:) 
 
 The Prisoner now requested permission of the Court to in- 
 troduce as his Counsel, which request was 
 
 granted. 
 
 (The Cotmsel for Prisoner, when needed by him to 
 assist in an objection to a member or examination on 
 the voire dire, may be introduced to the Court imme- 
 diately after reading the order appointing it. The 
 practice of all Courts-Martial is to receive as Coun- 
 sel any officer of the anny or any lawyer in good 
 standing, or oilier competent person, but Courts- 
 3Iarlial may, like the Civil Courts of the United States 
 of criminal jurisdiction, decline to receive any indi- 
 \idual as Cotmsel who, by reason of character or ig- 
 norance, woidd, in the Court's judgment, be an im- 
 proper person to appear before it. In such ca.se the 
 record should state the reasons. If any delay in the 
 trial is desired, application should now be made, and 
 in passing upon the request the Court should be gov- 
 erned by the 93d Article of War.) 
 
 The Prisoner was then duly arraigned upon the following 
 charge and specification: 
 
 Charge: 
 
 Specification: . 
 
 To which the Prisoner pleaded as follows: 
 
 To the specification: " Guilty" [or, " Not Guilty"]. 
 
 To the cnarge: " Guilty" [or, " Not Guilty"]. 
 
 (Or the Prisoner may, in lieu of pleading to the 
 merits, ijut in a plea in bar of trial — to the jurisdic- 
 tion, or special plea, such as autrefois acquit or con- 
 vict, pardon, on which the Court wUl have to pass.) 
 
 Captain , of the U. S. Infantry, a witness 
 
 for the prosecution, then came before the Court and was duly 
 sworn by the Judge Advocate, and testified as follows: 
 
 (The oath is given in the 92d Article of War.) 
 Question, by the Judge Advocate: « • • 
 
 ATiswer: » , « . . « 
 
 CROSS-EXAMINATION. 
 
 puesfion, by the Prisoner:' » » » • 
 
 An.'ncer: «...*•• 
 
 (If the person on trial declines to cross-examine the 
 witness, it should so appear on the record. If new 
 matter has been elicited in the cross-examination, 
 bearing upon the is.sue of the trial, the Judge Advo- 
 cate may re examine the witness, should the facts re- 
 quire it." After the cxamiiiation-in-chief , the cros.s-ex- 
 amination and re-examination, the Court can ask such 
 questions as it may deem neccs-sarj-. A question by 
 a member of the Court, if objected to and rejected, 
 must be recorded as "by a member." If not ob- 
 jected to, the record will continue as follows:) 
 QuMtion, by the Court: • • » » 
 
 Anineer: «»••••
 
 OENEBAL DE8 GALEKES. 
 
 foT) 
 
 GENERAL UAJOB. 
 
 (After all the testimony for tlie prasecution has 
 been adduced, the record will continue us follows:) 
 The Judgv Advocate then announced that the prosecution 
 
 The Court then, at — o'clock p.m., adjourned to meet to- 
 morrow at 10 o'clock A.M. 
 
 l«t Lieutenant - 
 
 - U. S. Artillery, 
 
 Judge Advocate. 
 
 Second Day. 
 BAERACKS, 
 
 -,187 
 
 The Court met, pursuant to the foregoing order and ad- 
 journment, at 10 o'clock A.M. 
 
 Present: 
 
 (Here give names, rank, etc., of members present 
 and of Judge Advocate in manner stated.) 
 
 Absent: 
 
 (Names, rank, and caase of absence.) 
 
 The Prisoner (and , his Counsel) also present. 
 
 The proceedings of the instant were then read and ap- 
 proved. 
 
 Sergeant , of the U. S. Infantry, a witness 
 
 for the defense, then came before the Court and was duly 
 sworn, and testified as f()llows: 
 
 QnestioH, by the Prisoners » « * 
 
 Answer: « « * « « 
 
 CROSS-EXAM INATIOK. 
 
 Ouestion, by Judge Advocate: » • * 
 
 Answer: ...» * 
 
 « * # # * « 
 
 Question, by the Court: * * • * 
 
 Answer: ***** 
 
 * ***** 
 
 The Prisoner having no further testimony to offer, made 
 the tollowiui; statement in hisdefeu.se, (.:i-, sulimitted a writ- 
 ten statement in his defense,] which was read to the Court by 
 the Prisoner, [or by his Counsel, or by the Judge Advocate,] 
 and is hereto aimexed, marked "A." 
 
 (The statement of the Accused, when in writing, or 
 written argument in his defense, and all written ])lcis 
 in bar of trial or abatement, .should Ijc signed by the 
 Prisoner himself and aijpended to tlie record, and re- 
 ferred to in the proceeding.s as having been submit- 
 ted by him, whether he is defended by Counsel or 
 not.) 
 
 The Judge Advocate replied as follows: 
 
 (Here insert the remarks of the Judge Advocate, if 
 verbal; if wiitten, they shoidd be reatl and annexed 
 as in ca.se of the defense; or,) 
 
 [The Judge Advocate submitted the case without remark.] 
 The Court was then eleared and closed f«ir deliberation, and 
 
 having maturely considered the evidence adduced, flnds the 
 
 Prisoner. , U. S. Infantry: 
 
 Of the specification: •• Guilty" fur, " Jtot Guilty"] 
 
 Of the charge: "Guilty" [or, "Not Guilty"] 
 
 And the Court does therefore sentence him, - 
 
 of Regiment U. S. Infantiy, to 
 
 the Court does therefore ac<iuit him, 
 
 Regiment U. S. Infantry.] 
 
 , [or. And 
 — of 
 
 Colonel U. S. Artillery, 
 
 President. 
 
 l8< Limt. U. S. Artillery, 
 
 Judge Advocate. 
 
 (The following will be added to the record of the 
 last ca.sc Ijrought before the Court :) 
 
 There being no further business before it, the Court then, 
 at o'clock — M., adjourned .sint' die. 
 
 Colonel - 
 
 U. S. Artilleni. 
 
 President. 
 
 Itt Lieut. U. S. Artillery, 
 
 Judge Advocate. 
 
 (A space of one page should be left at the close of 
 each record, for the decisions and orders of the Ke- 
 viewing Authority. The proceedings shoidd be re- 
 corded on legal-cap paper, each record folded in four 
 folds, and indorsed on the tirst fold us follows :) 
 
 - BARRACKS, 
 
 Proceedings of a General Court-Martial, 
 convened by Special Orders No. — , 
 dated Heaaquarters Depart- 
 ment or the , 
 
 , 1ST . 
 
 ,187 
 
 1st Lieut. A - 
 
 Colonel I- 
 ■ B G- 
 
 - Artillery, 
 
 President. 
 
 ■ Artillery, 
 Judge Advocate. 
 
 Case Tried. 
 
 Private E F - 
 
 Artillery. 
 
 Sec Cr)iirt.iMnrtitil. 
 
 GENERAL DES GALERES.— A Commander of the 
 Galleys, an otlicer of high rank and extensive juris- 
 diction in France. 
 
 GENERAL DES VIVRES.— A sort of Chief Commis- 
 sary or Siiiierinteiident General of Stores, whose fimc- 
 tions were to provide ammunition, bread, and biscuit 
 for the French armv. 
 
 GENERAL GUIDES.— In each Infantry Battalion of 
 the United St;itcs iirmy there are two general guides 
 selected liy the Colonel from the Sergeants most dis- 
 tinguished for carriage under arms and uccuracy in 
 marching. The general guides are posted in the line 
 of file-closers, ojjposite the right and left flanks of the 
 l)attalion; the one on the right of the battalion is 
 designated right general guide; ihe oiher , left generaC 
 guide. 
 
 GENERAL HOSPITALS.— ITospitnls specially form- 
 ed, on the outbreak of a war, for the reception of the 
 sick and wounded who can no longer be kept in the 
 tield-hospital. They are of such im])ortance in a 
 campaign that the best position should be chosen for 
 them, both as re,sards safety and for .s:initary reasons. 
 General hospitals should be witliin e:isy distance of 
 the army by rail or w:iter. In .selecting buildings 
 for such ]iurposes, ventihitinn and drainage are of 
 ]irimary importance. Huts and tents are frequently 
 used as general hospitjtls, and are always jjieferable 
 to private houses, as the latter are often too small 
 for the purpose required of them, and do not always 
 afford the regul;ition cubic space of air. The .size of 
 general hospitals should l)e limited to the reception of 
 500 or (iOd men at a time; and when it can be man- 
 aged, they shouUl be cleared out as quickly as ])o.ssi- 
 ble, and the invalids sent home to be clistributed 
 among the miliUiry hospitals. Considering the vast- 
 ness of the annies of the present day, the subject of 
 hospital accommodation is a diflieidt question; the 
 c:ire of the sick and wounded must therefore, to some 
 extent, lie left to the many kind and liberal peojile 
 who follow :innies with tlie view of attending on the 
 sick, and of distributing the many comforts they take 
 with them, such us clothing, medical !ind other stores, 
 tluit h;ive been collected and forwarded, not only 
 from the country of the sick and wounded, but from 
 foreign nations. Such, it is hajiiiy to think, is the 
 sympatlietie and hiving feeling evinced nowad;iys by 
 tlie good and licncN olciit when war bre:iks out. 
 
 GENERALISSIMO.— The Chief Ollicer in^-ommand 
 of an army. This woril is used in most foreign 
 countries, and was first emiiloyed to designate the 
 ab.solute authority of Cardiiial Kiehelieu when he 
 went to comnuind the French ;irmv in Italy. 
 
 GENERAL MAJOR.— .\ particular rank or appoint- 
 ment, \v!i(is<> fiinctioiis correspond with those of a 
 Ci-ilev:ml .Marslail of France. This .situation is in- 
 trusted to a General Ollicer, and is only known among 
 the armies of Hussia and some other Northern Powers. 
 He takes precedence in the same manner that our Ma- 
 jor Generals do of all Uriuiidier Generals and Colo- 
 nels, and is subordinate to lyieutenunt Generals. Fre- 
 (luently called Geiural dt Balailk.
 
 6ENESAL OFFICEB. 
 
 757 
 
 GENEVA CONVENTION. 
 
 GENEEAL OFFICEE.— An officer of tlie General 
 JStafi' of au army to wboni is intrusted tlie command 
 of a body of men not less in strength than a brigade. 
 In an army of very large [jroporlious the normal 
 sequence of command would be the following: the 
 General Commanding-inChief, the Generalissimo, or 
 Field Marshal, would command the whole force; the 
 Generals would have the separate Corps d'Armee; the 
 Lieutenant Generals, wings of those Corpn d'Ariiu'e; 
 the Major Generals, divisions in the wings; and Briga- 
 dier Generals, brigades in the di\isious. In practice, 
 however, an army is rarely large enough to allow of 
 this exact schemeof a military hierarchy being strictlj^ ' 
 carried out. , 
 
 In the British service Colonels become Slajor Gen- \ 
 erals (except in ca.ses of selection for veiy distin- I 
 guished service) in order of seniority, provided each 
 has served on full pay for a certain number of years; 
 promotion to be Lieutenant Generals and Generals 
 follows in exact order of seniority. From the last, 
 promotion to the exceptional rank of Field Marshal 
 is conferred in rare instances by the special favor of ! 
 the Sovereign, who represents in person the sole com- 
 mand and posse.'i.ses the patronage of the whole land 
 forces. In addition to the Colonels who become \ 
 eflfective Generals, officers who have retired on half- 
 pay at earlier periods of their careers rise by seniority 
 to the rank of General Officers; but they continue, 
 notwithstanding, to receive onh' the half-pay of the 
 rank in which they retired. With regard to remu- 
 neration. General Officers hold 164 honorary Colonel- 
 cies of regiments, worth, with few exceptions, £1000 
 each per annum, and the remainder receive unat- 
 tached pay of £600 a year, if they have been in the 
 Guards; £1 Qs.'id. a day , if in the Artillery or Engineers; 
 and £1 os. a day, if previously in the Line. This ]iay 
 is received during non-activity, but when employed 
 actively a General receives, in addition, £5 VAs. 9rf. a 
 day; a Lieutenant General, £3 15«. lOrf. ; and a Major 
 General, £1 17*. llrf., besides various allowances. 
 The onlj- Generals' commands in the British service 
 are, during peace, the command-in-chief of the army 
 generally and of the forces in India, and sometimes 
 in Ireland. In the estimates for 1876-77 there are 7 
 Lieutenant Generals, 18 ^Major Generals, and 5 Briga- 
 dier Generals employed actively, exclusive of the 
 numbers serving in India. The last-named rank is 
 only a temporarj- one in the English .service, and con- 
 feiTed verj- commonly on the senior regimental officer 
 of the corps composing the brigade: during duty as 
 Brigadier he receives £1 Hs. 6rf. a day in addition to 
 regimental or other pay. Captain General is a rank 
 verj' rarel}' conferred by the Sovereign, who holds it 
 ex officio. There has been no Captain General other 
 than the Sovereign during the present century. 
 
 In the United States the word Ociteral is used with 
 much license, both in military and civil affairs. Be- 
 sides Brigadier and Major General we have a Lieu- 
 tenant General, Commissars' General, Quartermaster 
 General, etc. In the militia of tlie several States 
 there are officers with similar designations and duties. 
 In law we find the Attorney General of the United 
 States, and similar officers in most of the States. 
 The head of the powerful Society of the Order of 
 Jesus is known as the General. The French anny 
 has Generals of Division and Lieutenant Generals. 
 
 GENEEAL OF THE AEMY.— A title given to the 
 General in the United States army. The Re\-ised 
 Statutes provide that when a vacancy occurs in the 
 ofHce of General or Lieutenant General such office 
 shall cease, and all enactments creating or regulating 
 such offices shall, respective! v, be heldto be repealed. 
 While the office existed, the military establishment 
 was under the orders of the General of the Army in 
 all that pertained to its discipline and military coii- 
 trol, and all orders and instructions relating to mili- 
 tary operations, or affecting the military control and 
 discipline of the army, issiied by the President or the 
 Secretary- of War, were promulgateil through the 
 Gcneralof the Army. With the retirement of Gen- 
 
 eral William T. Sherman in 1884, the office of Gen- 
 eral of the Army ceased, and at present the rank of 
 liieutenant General is the highest in the United States 
 army. The General of the Anny, while in oftice, was 
 permitted to have a number of Aids, not exceeding 
 six, who held, while .scr\'ing on his Staff, the rank of 
 Colonel of caxalrv. See Geiwral Officer. 
 
 GENERAL ORDEES.— Ordei-s issued to announce 
 the time and place of issues and pajiiients; hours for 
 roll-calls and duties; the number and kind of order- 
 lies, and the time when they shall be relieved; police 
 regulations, and the prohibitions required by circum- 
 stances and localities; returns to be made, and their 
 forms; laws and regulationsfor the army; promotions 
 and appointments; euk)gies or censures to corps or 
 individuals, and generally whatever it may be im- 
 portant to publish to the whole command. See Or- 
 ders and Specieil Orders. 
 
 GENEEAL SEEVICE.— In the United States army, 
 the whole number of the general-service men of all 
 grades and designations allowed as clerks for Division, 
 Department, and District Headquarters, and for Su- 
 perintendents of the Recruiting Ser\ice, is as follows: 
 14 Sergeants, 28 Corporals, 109 Privates, and 9 Topo- 
 graphical Assistants. The rates of commutation of 
 rations, fuel, and quarters of the general-service 
 clerks are fixed by the Secretary of War. The Gen- 
 eral of the Army determines from time to time the 
 distribution that shall be made of the clerks, accord- 
 ing to the exigencies of the service, among the several 
 commands, and the above number must include all 
 those on duty in the Adjutant General's, Quartermas- 
 ter's, Subsistence, Jledical, and all other Staff de- 
 partments. The men of the general-ser^•ice detach- 
 ment are not employed on any other than clerical 
 duties. If Hospital Stewards are employed for cleri- 
 cal duty in the offices of the Medical Directors, they 
 must also be included In the total number allowed, 
 and rated, so far as commutation is concerned only, 
 as privates. In addition to the above mmiber for 
 clerks, the Commanding Generals of Jlilitary Divi- 
 sions and Departments, the Commanding Officer, Dis- 
 trict of New Mexico, and the Superintendents of the 
 Recruiting Service, may, if it be necessary, detail en- 
 listed men from troops under their command as tnes- 
 sengers, not to exceed five for each Division Depart- 
 ment, two for the District named, and one to each 
 Superintendent. Enlisted men so detailed as messen- 
 gers receive the commutation and extfa pay as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 COHUUTATION. 
 
 Extra pay 
 per day. 
 
 Rations per 
 day. 
 
 Fuel per 
 montli. 
 
 Quarters per 
 month. 
 
 80 50 
 
 £8 00 
 
 $10 00 
 
 $0!!0 
 
 Whenever a headquarters is at a militarj' j)ost, fuel 
 and quarters are furnished the clerks and messengers 
 in kind, if practicable. When furnished in kind, 
 commutation therefor also is not paid. The several 
 Commanders may, at their discretion, discharge any 
 of their general-ser%ice clerks and fill the vacancies 
 in the authorized strength of the detachment by 
 transfers from companies or enlistments in the gen- 
 eral service. When, however, the service of any can 
 l)e dispensed with, they are discharge<l or transferred 
 to companies and their places not filled. 
 
 GENEEAL-SERVICE WAGON.— A wagon of ordi- 
 nary eonsiniction, ha\ing a long body covered with 
 water proof canvas; it is fitted for double draught, 
 and has wheels and axletrees of great strength. It 
 will carrv U tons, or take '20 powder-ca.ses. 
 
 GENEEALSHIP.— The office of General: the exer- 
 cise of the functions of a General; the skill and con- 
 duct of a General Officer; military skill in any Com- 
 mander. 
 
 GENEVA CONVENTION. — An agreement concluded 
 at the International Conference which was held at
 
 OEHIirS. 
 
 758 
 
 OENS. 
 
 Geneva, 1864. under tlic presidency of General Du- 
 four, tlie Swiss Plenipotentiary, fur the purpose of 
 amelioniting the eoiidilion of the sick and wounded 
 in time of war. The credit of orijrinating this Con- 
 ference must be fjiveii to two citi/eus of Geneva, 
 Dunant, a physician, who published a startling ac- 
 count of what he had witnessed in two military hos- 
 pit^ils on the field of Solferino, and his friend M(n- 
 nier, Chainnau of the Society of Public Utility, who 
 took up the idea of " neutralizing the sick- wagons," 
 formed associations for its agitation, and at length 
 pressed it upon the Governments of Europe, most of 
 ■which sent representatives to the Conference. The 
 Convention was drawn up and signed by them on the 
 22d of August, and since then it has received the ad- 
 herence of everv Europcjin Power, and one Asiatic 
 (^^z. , Persia), "fhe Convention consists of ten articles, 
 of which the last two are fonnal. The others pro- 
 vide (1) for the neutrality of ambulances and military 
 hospitals as long as they contain any sick; ('») for that 
 of the Staff; (3) that the neutrality of these persons 
 shall continue after occupation of their hospitals by 
 the enemy, so that they ma)' stay or depart, as they 
 choose; (4) that if they depart, they can only take 
 tlieir private property with them e.\cept in case of 
 ambulances, which they may remove entire; (0) that 
 a sick soldier in a house shall be counted a protection 
 to it, and entitle its occupants to exemption from tlie 
 quartering of troops and from part of the war requisi- 
 tions; (6) that wounded men shall, when curetl. be 
 sent back to their own country on condition of not 
 bearing arms during the rest of the war; (7) that hos- 
 pitals and ambulances shall carry, in addition to the 
 flag of their nation, a distinctive and uniform flag 
 bearing a red cross on a white ground, and that their 
 Staff shall wear an arm-badge of the same colors; (8) 
 that the details shall be left to the Commanders. A 
 second Conference was held at Geneva on the same 
 subject in 1868, and a supplementarj- Convention 
 drawn out, which, though not fonually signed, has 
 been acquiesced in by all the signatories of the orig- 
 inal Convention, c.\cept the Pope, and which, while 
 still unratified, was adopted provisionally by France 
 and Germany in the War of 1870. It consists partly 
 of the interpretations of the former Convention, and 
 partly of an application of its principles to maritime 
 wars. Its main pro\nsions are these: That when a 
 person engaged in an ambulance or hospital occupied 
 by the enemy desires to depart, the Commander-in- 
 Chief shall fix the time for his departure, and, wlien 
 he desires to remain, that he be paid his full salary; 
 that account shidl he taken in exacting war requisi- 
 tions not only of the actual lodging of wounded men, 
 but of any display of charity towards them; that the 
 rule wliich jicrmits cured soldiers to return home on 
 condition of not .ser\-ing again shall not apply to 
 „«« fpf jijpjj knowledge' might be useful; that 
 
 officer 
 
 hcspital-sliips, merchantmen having woimded on 
 board, and boats picking up wounded and wrecked 
 men shall be neutral; that they shall carry the red- 
 cross flag, and their men the red-cross armlet; the 
 hospital ships belonging to Government shall be 
 painted while with a green strake, those of Aid Soci- 
 eties white with a red strake; that in naval wars, any 
 strong presumption that the Convention is being 
 abused by one of the belligerents shall give the other 
 the right of siLspendlng it towards that Power till the 
 contrary is proved, and, if the iiresum|ilion liecomes 
 a certainly, of suspending it to the end of tlie war. 
 
 GENIUS.— This word, which convevs the most lofty 
 eulogium that can be applied to intellet'lual excel- 
 lence, meant originally the tutelary god or demon 
 that was anciently supjiosed to preside over the birth 
 and destinies of everj- individual human being. The 
 pccidiarities attendiiig the character and career of 
 each person came thus to be attributed to the higher 
 or lower nature of their allendiint genii. Thus arose 
 one of the meanings now attached to the word — 
 namely, the special bent, ai>titude, or facvdty which 
 any one possesses; as a genius for generalship, etc. 
 
 In a military sense the tenn implies a natural talent 
 or disposition to every kind of warlike employment, 
 more than iinv other. 
 
 GENOUILLERE.— In fortification, a term for that 
 part of the jiaraiH-'t of a battery which lies under the 
 embrasure. The name is derived from French genoii, 
 knee, as representing the ordinary height of the ge- 
 nouillere above the platform on which the gim is 
 worked. The height of the gcnouillere is regulated 
 by that of the gun-carriage, generally from 2 to S 
 feet. 
 
 GENOUILLIERES.— Small plates of iron, of various 
 shapes, tixed by straps and buckles over the mail, in 
 order to give an increased security to the joints at the 
 knees. See Armor. 
 
 GEMS. — This Latin word, to which so many im- 
 portant political and social meanings came to be at- 
 tached, signifies, properly, a race or lineage. From 
 it our own words — gentleman, gentility, etc., have 
 come to as through the French gintilhoinme, the 
 ))rimary meaning of which was, one who belonged 
 to a known and recognized stock. By the Romans 
 it was sometimes used to designate a whole commu- 
 nity, the members of which were not necessarily con- 
 nected by any known ties of blood, though some such 
 connection was probably always taken for granted. 
 In this seiLse we hear of the Gens iMtinorum, Cam- 
 punorum, etc. But it had a fjir more definite mean- 
 ing than this in the Constitutional Law of Rome. 
 According to Scwvola, the Pontifcx, those alone be- 
 longed to the same gerts, or were "gentiles," who 
 satisfied the four following conditions, viz.: 1. Who 
 bore the same name; 2 Who were bom of freemen; 
 3. Who had no slave amongst their ancestors; and 4. 
 Who had suffered no capitis diiiitn iitio (reduction from 
 a superior to an inferior condition), of which there 
 were three degrees, maxima, media, minima. The 
 first (maxima capitis diminutio) consisted in the re- 
 duction of a free man to the condition of a .slave, and 
 was undergone by those who refused or neglecteil to 
 be registered at the census, who had been condemned 
 to ignominious punishments, who refused to perform 
 military service, or who had been taken prisoners by 
 the enemy, though those of the last class, on recover- 
 ing their liberty, could be reinstated in their rights of 
 citizenship. The second degree (media capitis dimi- 
 nutio) consisted in the reduction of a citizen to the 
 condition of an alien (Latin us or ping rin us), and in- 
 volved, in the case of a Latinus, tlie loss of the right 
 of legal marriage (eonnuMum), but not of acquiring 
 property (cvinmercium); and in the case of the pere- 
 grinus, the loss of both. The third degree (minima 
 capitis diminutio) consisted in the change of condition 
 of ;i juiUrfuiHilids into that of nfliusftinn'liiis, either 
 by adoption ((idrogalio) or by legitimation. In the 
 identity of name, .some sort of a|iproach to a common 
 origin seems to be here implied. The gens thus con- 
 sisted of many families, but all these families were 
 supposed to be more or less nearly allied by blootl — 
 to be, as we should say, kindred. A Roman gens 
 was thus something very nearly identical with a Celtic 
 clan, the identity or similarity of name IxMng always 
 siipi)osetl to have arisen from relationship, and not 
 from similarity of occupation, as in the case of the 
 Smiths, Taylors, Lorimers, etc., of modern Europe. 
 There was this peculiarity, however, alx)ul the gens 
 which did not belong to the clan — \iz., that it was 
 p()s>;ilile for an individual born in it to cease to be- 
 long to it by ropitis dimiuutii', or by adoption, or ad- 
 rogation as it was called when the person adopted 
 was sui juris. If the adoption was by a family of the 
 Siime gens, the gentile name, of course, remained un- 
 changed. In the case of a person dying intestate, his 
 gfiitiles, failing nearer relatives, were liis heirs, and 
 lluy \inderlook the duties of guardianship in the like 
 circumstances. The gens was further bound together 
 by certain siiered rites, which were imposed on the 
 whole of its members, and for the celebration of which 
 it jirobably posscs,sed. in common proiierty, a sunUum 
 or sacred spot, inclosed and containing an altar and
 
 6£KTII,H0HHES BE LA GARDE. 
 
 •59 
 
 GEOEGE. 
 
 the statue of the gori to whom it was dedicated. Ac- 
 cording to the traditional accounts of the old Roman 
 Constitution, the Gentes were a subdivision of the 
 Curia?, as the Curiie were subdivisions of the Tribe. 
 In this \-iew of the matter, the original idea of the 
 gens becomes simply that of the smallest political 
 diWsion, without any relation to kindred or other 
 ties. — An excellent article on the gens by >Ir. George 
 Long, in which references to the principal (Jerman 
 authorities on the subject are given, will be found in 
 Smith's Dktionnri/ of limnnn AntiquitUn. 
 
 GENTILHOMMES DE LA GAEDE.— A company 
 commonly called Aiihu-ih Corbiii, from the battle-a.xe 
 which they carried. The company went through 
 many alterations during the Monarchy of Prance. 
 During the last yeai's of that government it consisted 
 of 200 guards, under the command of a Captain, a 
 Lieutenant, and an Ensign. The Captain had the 
 power of giving away the subaltern commissions, 
 and had, moreover, the entire management of the 
 rest; e\erj- vacancy being in his gift. When the 
 company was first raised its particular duty was to 
 attend the King's pereon, and to be constantly near 
 him on the dav of l)attle. 
 
 GENTLEMEN-AT-AEMS.— The body-guard of the 
 British Sovereign, and. with the exception of the Yeo- 
 men of the Guard, the oldest corps in the British ser- 
 vice. It was instituted in 1509 by Henry VIII., and 
 now consists of 1 Captain, who receives £1200 a year; 
 1 Lieutenant, £500; 1 Standard-bearer, £310; 1 Clerk 
 of the Check, £120; and 40 Gentlemen, each with £70 a 
 year. The pay is issued from the Privy Purse. Until 
 1861, the commissions were purchasable, as in other 
 regiments; but by a royal command of that year pur- 
 chase has been abolished in the corps, and hence- 
 forth the commissions as Gentlemen-at-Anns are to 
 be given only to military officers of service and dis- 
 tinction. The attendance of the Gentlemen-at-Arms 
 is now rarely required, except on the occa-sions of 
 drawing-rooms, levees, coronations, and similar im- 
 portant state ceremonies. The appointment, which 
 is in the sole gift of the Crown, on the recommenda- 
 tion of the Commander-in-Chief, can be held in con- 
 junction with half-pay or retired full-pay. but not 
 simultaneously with any appointment wliich might 
 involve absence at the time of the officer's services 
 being required bv the Sovereisn. 
 
 GEOGEAPHICAL DEPARTMENTS AND DIVISIONS. 
 — In the Unite<l States, a Geographical Military Di- 
 vision consists of a number of Geographical Military 
 Departments, and is usually under the command of 
 a General Officer. Military Geographical Divisions 
 and Department.s are established and their Command- 
 ers are assigned by orders from the War Department. 
 In time of peace. Army Corps, Divisions, or Brigades 
 are not fonned. Officers commanding Military Divi- 
 sions and Departments exercise supervision and com- 
 mand over all the military forces of the United States 
 within their territorial limits, whether of the Line or 
 Staff, where special exception is not made by the War 
 Department Subject to the approval of the General 
 of the Army, a Division Commander regulates the 
 establishment of military districts and posts, and 
 originates, directs, or approves military operations 
 v\ithin his Departments. In case of emergency, he 
 transfers troops from one of his Departments to an- 
 other requiring reinforcements. Division and De 
 partment Commanders are expected to decide all mat- 
 ters properly coming within their jurisdiction, or to 
 make appropriate remarks upon such papers as they 
 forward for decision of higher authority. A Division 
 Commander decides cases sent him by way of appeal. 
 Department Commanders exercise a general super- 
 vision of all military reservations within the limits of 
 their commands, aiid will use force to remove squat- 
 ters or trespassers when, in their judgment, it be- 
 comes necessary. See Drpardiunt Commander, Di- 
 rmon CiiniiiKiiiflir, and Military Dipartment. 
 
 GEOMETEICAL PEOGEESSION.— A series of quan- 
 tities are said to be in geometrical progression when 
 
 each term of the .series is equal to that which pre- 
 cedes it nmltiplied by some constant factor — i.e., 
 some factor which Is tlie s;ime for all the terms; or, 
 in other words, when the ratio of any two successive 
 tenns is the same. Thus a, ar, ar-, ar*. . . and 2, 6, 
 18, 54 . . . are geometrical series. The sum of n terms 
 of the former series mav be easily obtained. Let it 
 be S. Then S = a -f «/■ + «r* + . . . -f ar" - '. Mul- 
 tiply both sides by r, we have rS = ar-\-nr--\- . . . 
 + ar". Subtracting the former of these expressions 
 from the latter, we have (r — 1)S = ar" — a. Whence 
 
 we have S = a . 
 
 r" 
 
 — r. If the series be one whose 
 
 terms constantly diminish, i.e., if r < 1, and then if 
 we suppose « indefinitely great, /■" will be indefinitely 
 
 a 
 
 small, and we shall have 8 = 
 
 1-r 
 
 for the sum of 
 
 the series extended ad infimtiim. For example, the 
 
 3 3 3 
 sum of the series --r + Ta^. + ttw + • ■ • '^^ infinitum is 
 
 i. It is obvious that any three of the four quantities 
 
 7'° — 1 
 
 a, r, n, S being given, the equation S = a . r will 
 
 r — X 
 
 enable us to find the fourth. Series of this cla,«s are 
 
 frequently encountered in the solutions of problems 
 
 in gunnery. 
 
 6E0METEIC CHUCK.— A chuck having a radial 
 slider to which the work is attached, the said slider 
 oscillating in a plane at right angles to the axis of 
 motion, so as to produce curved lines in various pat- 
 terns, as regulated by sjiecial devices. See Chuck. 
 
 GEOMETET. — A science discussing and investigat- 
 ing the properties of definite portions of space under 
 the fourfold division of lines, angles, surfaces, and 
 volumes, without regard to any physical properties 
 which they may have. It has various divisions, e.g., 
 plane and solid geometry, analytical or algebraical 
 geometry, descriptive geometiy, and the higher ge- 
 ometrj'. Plane and solid geometry are occupied with 
 the consideration of right lines and plane surfaces, 
 and with the solids generated by them, as well as 
 with the properties of the circle, and, it may be said, 
 the sphere; while the higher geometrj' considers the 
 conic sections and curved lines generally, and the 
 bodies generated by them. In the higher geometry, 
 immense advances have recently been made through, 
 improved methods, the application of -modern analy- 
 sis, and the various calculi in algebraical geometry, 
 the nature of which is explained in the article Co-or- 
 dinates. Descriptive geometry, a division of the 
 science, so named by Monge, is properly an extension 
 or general application of the principle of projections, 
 its object being to represent on two plane surfaces 
 the elements and character of any solid figure. It 
 has many practical applications. When one surface 
 penetrates another, for instance, there often result 
 from their intersection curves of double curvature, 
 the description of which is necessary in some of the 
 arts, as in groined vault-work, and in cutting arch- 
 stones, etc., and this is supplied by descriptive geome- 
 try. On geometry likewise depends the theory of 
 gunnerv. mininar, mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, 
 etc. 
 
 GEOPHAGISM.— The custom of dirt-eating, indul- 
 ged in by the lowest order of savages, but most par- 
 ticularly in Terni del Fuego. A kind of femiginous 
 clay is regvilarly sold for food in certain parts of Bo- 
 livia. The practice is usual among the negroes of the 
 West Indies, and to some extent among North Amer- 
 ican Indians, while Laplanders mix clay with the 
 flour of which they make their bread. 
 
 GEOEGE.— 1. The badge of the Order of the Gar- 
 ter, exhibiting the figure of St. George on horseback 
 piercing the fallen dragon, which lies on a mount. 
 
 2. The banner of St. George — white with a red cross. 
 According to Sir N. H. Nicolas, the cross of St. 
 Greorge was worn as a badge over the armor by every 
 English soldier "in the tourteenth and subsequent
 
 GEBBE. 
 
 Y60 
 
 OEBHAN AKMT. 
 
 centuries, although the custom did not prevail at a 
 mucli niriier poriixl," to indicate that he was in the 
 ser\icc of the Crown. On the invasion of Scotland 
 by Richard II. in 1386 it was ordained that "even 
 man of what estate, condicion, or nation they be of, 
 so that he Im? of onrc partie, bcre a signe of the 
 amies of Saint George, large boihe before and be- 
 hynde, upon parell that yf he be slayne or wound- 
 eel to deth, he that hath" so doon to hym shall not 
 Ix; putte to deth fur dcfaulte of the crosse that he 
 lacketh. And that uou enemy do here the same 
 token or crosse of St. George, notwithstandyng if he 
 be prisoner, upon payne of delh." A simihir ordi- 
 nance was adopted by Henry V. for the government 
 of his army in France. 
 
 3. St. George, patron of England and Russid. His 
 origin is e.Nt^cmely obscure, and the very oldest 
 accounts of him which arc extant contain a strange 
 adniixtnre of history and legend. He is honored 
 both in the Esist aiid the West as a martjT, and 
 the Greek acts of his martyrdom fix the date of 
 his death as the persecution under Diocletian; but 
 these acts are, by the confession even of Roman 
 Catholic hagiologists, undoubtedly spurious. On the 
 other hand, it is asserted that the canonization of 
 George is one of the many errors which Protestant his- 
 torians freel.v impute to the Roman calendar, and 
 that the George who is thus reputed a saint and mar- 
 tvr is no other than the turbulent and unscrupulous 
 Arian partisan, George of Cappadocia, whom his 
 Arian followers revered as a saint, and imposed as 
 such upon the crcihility of their Catholic countrymen. 
 It must be coufes.sed, however, that the best modern 
 authorities. Catholic and Protestant, agree in admit- 
 ting the great improbability of this allegation. Hey- 
 lin is of one mind in this matter witb the Jesuit Pape- 
 broch, and Dean Jlilman adopts the arguments and 
 agrees in the opinion of the Roman Catholic Bishop 
 Milner. The truth is, that whatever is to be said of 
 the early accounts of the martyrdom of George, the 
 fact of his being honored as a martyr by the Catholic 
 Church, of churches being dedicated to him, and of 
 the Hellespont being called "St. George's Arm," is 
 traced by Papebrocli^ by Milner, and by other writers 
 to so early a date, and brought so immcdiatel}' into 
 contact with the times of the angry conflicts in which 
 George of Cappadocia figured as an Arian leader, that 
 it would be just as rea.sonable to Ijelieve that the 
 Catholics of England at the present day would accept 
 Lord George Gordon as a Catholic Saint, as to sup- 
 pose that the Catholics of the East — while the tomb 
 of Athanasius was hardly closed upon his honored 
 relics — woidd accept as a sainted martyr his cruel and 
 unscrupulous persecutor. Indeed, it cannot be doubt- 
 ed that the St. George of the Eastern Church is a real 
 personage, and of an earlier date than George of Cap- 
 padocia — very probably of the date to which tliese 
 acts, though otherwise false, assign him. The legend 
 of his conflict with the dragon arose most probably 
 out of a symbolical or allegorical representation of his 
 contest with the pagan persecutor. As in this ancient 
 legend St. George appears as a soldier, he was early 
 regarded as one of the patrons of the militarv pro- 
 fession. Under this title he was honored in I^rance 
 as early as the sixth century; but it was not until 
 after the Crusaders, who ascribed their success at the 
 siege of Antioch to his intercession, returned to Europe 
 from the Holy War, that the religious honor paid to 
 him reached its full development. He was selected 
 as the Patron Saint of the Republic of Genoa, and also 
 of England. At the Council of Oxford in 1222 his 
 feast was ordered to be kept as a National Festival. 
 In 1:530 he was made the Patron of tlie Order of the 
 Garter by Edward III.; and even since the Reforma- 
 tion the ancient sentiment is still quite popularly 
 maintained. 
 
 OEEBE. — An ornamental fire- work, in the shape of 
 a strong paper tubi> filled with a burning com]X)sition. 
 The ends are tamped with moist plaster of Paris or 
 clay. See Pyrokchny. 
 
 6EBIT. — The French name of a Turkish dart about 
 two and one half feet long. It was formerly in verj' 
 ConmKin use. 
 
 GERMAN AKMY. — One of the largest Continen- 
 tal armies of Europe. By the Treaty of Prague, con- 
 cluded between Austria and Prussia after the war of 
 1!?66, a new German Confederation was formed. A 
 few months later Pru.ssia concluded Conventions with 
 States forming the new Confederation, by which they 
 were bound to adopt any quarrel of Prussia arising 
 out of the recent events, and to place their militarj- 
 strength at the absolute disposal of the Prussians. 
 In order to insure a unity of organization, the mili- 
 tary system of the latter was adojited by these St;ites. 
 And liow, by the Constitution of the German Empire, 
 bearing date the Kith of April, 1871, the land forces 
 of all the States form a \mited army under the com- 
 mand of the Emperor. Tlie Gennan ai-my thus in- 
 cludes the Contingents of Prussia (with Hanover), 
 Bavaria, Saxony, Wurteni))erg, Baden, and a num- 
 ber of other States. The military system of the Ger- 
 man Empire is as follows, and it will be remarked 
 how clo.sely the French system resembles it. Every 
 man is liable to militarj' ser\'ice, and must render 
 such service personally, neither substitutes nor pur- 
 chase of exemption being allowed. There are, how 
 ever, certain social exemptions made, such as for sons 
 of widows, supports of families, etc. The number 
 of recruit.s annually raised is about 143,000 men, and 
 the peace strength of the army is fixed at 401,659 
 men (one-year volunteers not included), or about 1 
 per cent of the population. The age of conscription 
 is 21; the period of military ser\ice is 12 years, di- 
 vided into three portions of 3, 4, and 5 years; 3 years 
 are passed by the Conscript in a Regular Regiment, the 
 next 4 years (on furlough) in the Reserve, and the 
 final period of 5 years in the Landtcehr or Second 
 Reserve of his district. This brings the soldier to 
 about 32 years of age. After this he is incorporated 
 in the Landstnrm , or service for home defense in 
 case of war. Every young man can be called up 3 
 years in succession; those who are exempted in their 
 third year are passed into the Ersatz-Rt'sercf, and are 
 free from military service, but can be called upon in 
 time of war. In order that civil professions may not 
 be affected by military exigencies, youths of good 
 character and education, and who have taken univer- 
 sity or college degrees, can qualify themselves for one 
 year's sernce. These Eiiijuhrir/eii Preiwilligen (one- 
 year volunteers) have to provide themselves with 
 everything, \iz., their accouterments, equipment, and 
 horse, if in the cavalry. The regiments of the regu- 
 lar army during peace-time are, on the breaking-out 
 of war, raised to double their number by recalling an 
 equal number of men from the Reserve, and each re- 
 serve-man so recalled returns not merely to the same 
 battalion, but even to the very company in which he 
 had passed the first years of his military life. The 
 lAindicehr battalion is the basis of the local organi- 
 zation, both for recniiting and mobilization. In 
 peace-time these battalions exist only in cadi'es. By 
 this system Germany can easily place in the field an 
 army of 1,350.000 men, not including the Laiulnfunn, 
 and has now a peace-establishment of about 428,000 
 voted for 7 vears, including officers and volunteers, 
 with a budget of ,£16,000,(H)0. The German army is 
 organized on the territorial system, and divided into 
 18 army corps, of which 13 are furnished by Prussia, 
 including the Contingents furnished by Hanover, 
 Schleswig-IIolstein, and the minor States annexed to 
 Prussia in 1866; 2 by Bavaria, 1 by Saxony, 1 by 
 Wurtemberg, and 1 "by Baden, and the Contingent 
 by Alsace Lorraine. Each Corpud' Arm/e has a dis- 
 trict, wliich is formed by the Pro\'ince within which 
 it is raised, recruited, and slalioned. These corps 
 districts are subdi\ided info divisions and brigades, 
 and these asjain into Ln ndirehr battalion districts. 
 Districts an' further subdivided into company dis- 
 tricts, of which there are from 3 to 6 to a battalion. 
 The Cori)i d' Annie of the Guard and one furnished
 
 c 
 
 r)
 
 OEBMAN LIFS-SATIN6 BOCK£T. 
 
 761 
 
 6£BHAN LIF£-SAVING BOCKET. 
 
 by Saxony consist of 2 infantry divisions and 1 of cav- 
 alry. The otliers have 2 dirisions, except tlie 11th, 
 which has 3. Each division has 2 infantiy brigades 
 and 1 of cavalry. The Saxon and the i2th corps 
 have 2 brigades of infantry; the cavalrj- of the Guard 
 has 3, theSaxon and the loth corps "2 brigades of 
 cavalry each. Indepentlently of these divisions, each 
 corps posses-ses 1 or 2 battalions of Rifles (the Guards 1 ' 
 of Rifles and 1 of Sharp-shooters, and the Bavarian 
 army Id battalions of Ritlcs), 1 regiment of Field- 
 artillery, 1 regiment or battalion of Foot-artilleiy, 
 
 1 battalion of Pioneers, and 1 of Military Train, 
 as well as 1 battalion EUippen troops, 1 of Instruc- 
 tion, 1 of Gendarmerie, belonging to the Staff or per- 
 manent army. There are 74 brigades of infantry; 
 each brigade is conipo.sed of 2 regiments of the Line 
 and 2 of the Landirehr, giving a total of 148 regi- 
 ments of the line. A regiment on war-footing has 60 
 officers, 3000 men, 73 non-combatants, with 105 hoi-ses 
 and 19 wagons. The regiments of infantrj- consist 
 of 3 battalions, the third one being Fusiliers. Each 
 battalion has 4 companies, and has a peace-strength 
 of 552 of all ranks, and a war-strength of 1022. Be- 
 sides these field-battalions, a fourth or depot battalion, 
 1240 strong, is formed on mobilization. The Rifles 
 and Sharpshooters (Juger and SeJiiitzi /i)ave not orga- ! 
 nlzed in rcgiment.s, but form independent battalions. 
 They are recruited from picked men, chosen through- 
 out the army corps district. The cavalry of the Ger- 
 man array is divided into 38 brigades; 1 brigade is 
 composed of 4 regiments, 15 of 3, and the 22 others of 
 
 2 regiments, giving a total of 93 regiments — 12 of 
 Cuirassiers (including those of the Guard), 34 of Dra- 
 goons, 18 of Hussars, 25 of Lancers, and 4 Sa.xon 
 regiments. In peace-time these regiments consist of 
 5 squadrons, of 4 officers and 135 men each; in war- 
 time they take the field with 4 squadrons of 150 each, 
 ■while a fifth remains behind to form the depot. The 
 brigades of field-artillery are generally composed 
 each of 2 regiments, of which 1 is composed of 2 sec- 
 tions of 4 batteiies, forming the division artillerj-; 
 and the other, consisting of 2 sections of 3 batteries, 
 and 1 section of horse-artillery of 3 batteries, forming 
 the artillery of the Corps d'Armre. Each battery has 
 4 guns. The Foot-artillery brigade is, with few ex- 
 ceptions, composed of 2 battalions of 4 companies 
 each; to these must be added 1 company of Instruc- 
 tors for the School of Gunnery, and 1 company for 
 laboratory purposes. The battalions of Pioneers have 
 each 4 companies— 1 of pontons, 2 of sappers, and 
 1 of miners. The Etappen battalion, which is under 
 the direct command of the Chief of the Staff, has also , 
 4 companies. The peace-establishment of each com- 
 pany is 146 men, but on the war-footing it is increased 
 to2i8men. Further, there are 1 Riilwaj- battalion and 
 13 sections of Field-telegraph. The Train is a mere 
 skeleton on a peace-footing, and has 37 companies 
 with a strength of 5049, which amounts to nearl_v 
 49,000 men when it takes the field. The German ar- 
 tillery is armed i\ith guns of cast-steel (Krupp's sys- 
 tem); the field-batteries have8.8-cm. guns, and throw 
 shrapnel weighing 17.9 lbs.; the horse-arfilleiy h.'A-e 
 7.85cm. guns, throwing the same nature of shell, 
 weighimj 12.2 lbs. On war being declared, the dif- 
 ferent (Jorjys d'Armee are formed into armies; and to 
 obtain the necessary strength to place them on a war- 
 footing, the Government calls under the Colors the 
 yearly Contingent of Conscripts, the Reserves, and 
 the men of the Lnndirehr. The whole army is then 
 di\ided into (1) field, (2) depot, and (3) ganison troops. 
 The field troops of a Corps d'Anrne comprise — 
 
 (a) Two divisions of infantry, each ha\-ing 1 regiment 
 of cavalry and 1 detachment of artillery (24 guns). 
 
 (b) Tiie artillery of the Corps d'Armee, of 1 regiment 
 of field-artillerj-, of 6 field batteries, and 2 horse-artil- 
 lery batteries, (r) Three independent companies of 
 Pioneers, (d) Section* of columns, v\z.: lOcolumnsof 
 ammunition, 3 of pontons and train, 5 of provisions, 
 
 3 sanitarj- detachments, 1 remoimt depot, 1 column 
 ot field-batteries, 5 columas of land-transport, and 12 
 
 ambulances, the inUndance (commissariat), field-post, 
 etc. The other cavalry regiments, not attached to 
 the diffcient divisions, are formed into cavalry din- 
 sion.s of 2 and 3 brigades, and 3 batteries of horse- 
 artiller}-. These di\isions are under the immediate 
 command of the General-in-Chief. The army is com- 
 manded by the Emperor, with a War Minister, and a 
 Chief of the Staff under him. The War Department 
 is divided into three principal offices, as follows: 
 1. Central oftice, including the Ministerial one. 2. 
 General War Department, comprising organization, 
 mobilization, quartering, training; strategical and 
 purely military questions. 3. Military Finance De- 
 partment : pay, clothing, equipment, and supply. 
 The great General Staff of the German army is thus 
 divided: 1. Central Bureau; general correspondence 
 and direction of all the other sections. 2. Three 
 sections; collect all available and latest information 
 concerning European armies, etc., each section hav- 
 ing a certain number of coimtries under its charge. 
 3. Railway section. 4. Militarj- history section: his- 
 torical records, histories of great wars, annals, etc. 
 5. Geographical statistical section, connected with 
 the topographical section: topography and statistics 
 of foreign nations; statistics of Germany. 5. Topo- 
 graphical and land triangulation: survey (land anil ca- 
 dastral), •nith special regard to military requirements. 
 7. Intelligenceotfice. 8. Map-room: store-room for 
 original surveys, maps for distribution. There are 
 61 officers on the General Staff at Berlin, and they 
 are divided into two classes: 1. Active Staff, liable to 
 serve with corps and di\'isions in their turn; and 2. 
 The Keben-Eint, or accessory establishment, consisting 
 of from 30 to 40 officers noted for special acquirements, 
 but who do not belong to the first dinsion. There 
 are besides 113 employes, such as registrars, draught.s- 
 men, etc. Bavaria and other German States have 
 similar establishments, under the supervision of the 
 Great General Staff at Berlin. The mode of officer- 
 ing the German army is in two ways: 1. By candi- 
 dates passing the required examination in general 
 subjects, ser\ing a short time in the ranks or other- 
 wise as nou-commis.s1bned officers, and qualifying in 
 the theoretical knowledge of their profession after a 
 nine months' course of study at the Kriegsschule, or 
 School of War. 2. By paiising the latter examina- 
 tion direct from a special superior class of the Corps 
 of Cadets. There is no examination for promotion 
 to any commis-sioned rank in the army, promotion 
 being" obtained by relative merit. Men of ability are 
 noticed by those "in authority and promoted; those of 
 , inferior capacitv do not progress. See Army. 
 
 GEBMAN LIFE-SAVING ROCKET.— The •5-centime- 
 ter German life-sa\ing rocket (5"' Rettungsrakcte) is 
 composed essentially of a body, head, base, rocket- 
 stick, and chain. The rocket-case or body is cylin- 
 drical, made of sheet -metal .05 inch in thickness. 
 The head is ogival, with a shoulder that extends one 
 fourth of an inch beyond the case, and has a cylin- 
 drical tenon to fit the front end of the rocket-case. 
 The latter is secured to the head by screws. The in- 
 side of the rear end of the ca.se is' reinforced for 1.1 
 inch of its length by a cylindrical metallic ring, 
 which serves as a seat for the screws that attach the 
 l)ase to the body. The base e.xlends to the rear, 
 forming three ribs, placed triangularly, with all the 
 metal removed from the axial portion "to facilitate the 
 escape of gas. These ribs conjoin at their posterior 
 ends. An axial hole is drilled through this portion, 
 ha\ing a femjile-screw thread cut upon its interior 
 surface to receive the screw on the end of the rocket- 
 stick. When prepared and packed for service the 
 composition is covered by a water-proof cap, from 
 which projects a fuse, extending 2.5 inches towards 
 the rear. The fuse is steadied in its position by a 
 strap of laboratory -paper reaching to one of the ribs. 
 The fuse and capare covered with a coat of shellac 
 varnish. Care must l)c taken in handling not to 
 break off the fuse, which is more or less exposed. 
 The rocket-stick is of wood, enveloped at the front
 
 GEKMAN LIFE-SAVING ROCKET. 
 
 762 
 
 GERMAN LIFE-SAVING ROCKET. 
 
 end by a metallic frustum of a cone, whose Inrger 
 base receives the end of the stick, and whose smaller 
 base is pcnelmted by the shank of a screw, intended 
 to enter in the hole in the base of the rocket. The 
 stick, frustum, and screw -shank arc bound together, 
 and held in place by two wrought-iron bolts of small 
 diameter. The rear end of the rocket-stick is armed 
 ■with an iron loop, with flattened arms, slightly curved 
 to lit the outside of the stick. This loop serses as the 
 point of connection for the rocket-chain. The dia- 
 meter of the rocket-stick is slightly greater in the 
 middle than at either end. All tlie "metallic parts of 
 this line-carrying projectile are painted black. 
 
 The following are the principal dimensions and 
 weights: 
 
 Total length of 5"° lite-saTing rocket. 
 Case or body: 
 
 Leugch 
 
 Exterior diameter 
 
 Interior diameter 
 
 Hcati: 
 
 Total length 
 
 Point- 
 Length of 
 
 Diameter of l>ase 
 
 Base-ring: 
 
 Lengtii 
 
 Exterior diameter 
 
 Interior diameter 
 
 Base: 
 
 Total length 
 
 Diameter, front end 
 
 Diameter, rear end 
 
 Length, embracing ease 
 
 Length of female screw in rear end. 
 
 Width of ribs 
 
 Rocket-stick: 
 
 Total length 
 
 Diameter at junction with rocket.. . 
 
 Diameter at larger base of frustum 
 Rocket-chain: 
 
 Total length 
 
 Ring- 
 Exterior diameter ,. 
 
 Interior diameter 
 
 Link.s — 
 
 Length 
 
 Width 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Total length of rocket and stick 
 
 Weight of rocket 
 
 Weight of rocket-stick and chain 
 
 Total weight of rocket complete 
 
 Inches. 
 
 23.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 a.i5 
 
 2.05 
 
 5.2 
 
 3.6 
 2.65 
 
 Centime- 
 ters. 
 
 59.69 
 
 38.10 
 5.45 
 5.20 
 
 13.20 
 
 91.44 
 6.73 
 
 l.I 
 
 2.79 
 
 2.05 
 
 5.20 
 
 1.65 
 
 4.19 
 
 5.8 
 
 14.73 
 
 2.65 
 
 6.73 
 
 1.25 
 
 3,17 
 
 0.9 
 
 2.28 
 
 1.2 
 
 3.05 
 
 0.35 
 
 0.89 
 
 39.4 
 
 100.07 
 
 1.2 
 
 S.Oo 
 
 2.2 
 
 5.58 
 
 87.0 
 
 220.98 
 
 1.5 
 
 3.81 
 
 0.7 
 
 1.78 
 
 1.5 
 
 .3.81 
 
 0.75 
 
 1.90 
 
 0.20 
 
 0.51 
 
 61.7 
 
 156.71 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 10.0 
 
 4.53 
 
 5.5 
 
 2.49 
 
 15.5 
 
 7.02 
 
 The Germans also use a large 8"" life-saving rock- 
 et. The form and construction of this rocket is es- 
 sentially the same as the .5"" rt>cket, from which it dif- 
 fers only 'in dimensions and weight. The description 
 of the 5"" rocket will answer for this one. 
 
 German R» Life-saving Rocket. 
 
 The German rocket-stand is trough-like in shape, 
 and is supported by two legs near the front cud and 
 a cur\-ed iron foot or tang at the rear end. The 
 trough like body of tlie lube is made of sheet-iron or 
 steel, and is coiistnicted from a single piece of metal, 
 cur\'od over a former of the required shape. A 
 longitudinal slot in the liottom, lO.U inches long and 
 1 inch wide, extends from the front end to the first 
 
 exterior rib. This slot is for the reception of the 
 rocket-chain, which is led along the bottom of the 
 trough uuder the rocket and stick, and allowed to 
 pas.s"downward through this slot. The longitudinal 
 edges of the trough are stiffened and strengthened by 
 angle-pieces of iron running the whole length. These 
 angle-pieces have one side riveted to the inside of the 
 trough, forming the bearing surfaces for the rockets, 
 imd the other forming an exterior jirojectiug flange. 
 A rolled bar of iron, 1 inch wide and .3 inch thick, 
 runs from the rear end of the longitudinal slot the 
 whole length of the trough on the under side. The 
 lower or rear end of this metallic iMir projects about 
 10 inches beyond the frame, is decurved and pointed, 
 to form the claw or tang for the svip)>ort of this end 
 of the trough. This is matle of wood, shod at one 
 end with a shnrp-jKiiuted steel socket, and armed at 
 the other with a hollow brass tube, bent and split to 
 form a hinged clamji. The latter is actuated by a 
 lever and a spring. This staff is u.sed to hold "the 
 pilknUchU: for igniting the rocket-fuse. The sharp- 
 pointed socket is for convenience in thrusting it into 
 the ground in an upright position. If carelessly 
 thrown aside, it is liable to be lost in the sand. The 
 staff is painted the same color as the rocket-stand. 
 The rocket line is made of hemp. The line is twisted, 
 and is maile with three strands, each composed of four 
 yarns. The diameter of this line is .31 inch, or a little 
 greater than " No. 9 Silver Lake braided cord." The 
 rocket-line is stowed in the faking-box in the usual 
 maimer. The combined weight of the faking-box 
 and line is 100 pounds, or 9.5 pounds greater than 
 the United States service-box A, with a Xo. 9 linen 
 line. 
 
 The foUoAving is the method of using the German 
 rocket apparatus: 
 
 The apparatus is supposed to Ix; at the firing-iwint. 
 First remove the rocket-stand from its box, spread 
 the legs, and place the stand with the axis of the 
 trough pointing in the desired direction. Then give 
 the proper elevation by raising or lowering the front 
 end by means of the legs. A quadrant or combina- 
 tion-level is used to adjust the elevation. Place the 
 faking-box several feet in front of the stand, turn it 
 upside down, remove the fnmie and pins and false 
 bottom. Incline the box to the front with its length 
 in the direction of the Hue of fire, and place the false 
 bottom or frame transversely on edge beneath the 
 rear end of the box, to preserve the proper incli- 
 nation towards the front. Then screw a rocket- 
 stick into the base of one of tbe rockets, put the 
 chain in the slot at the front end of the trough of 
 the stand, and lead it along the bottom of the trough. 
 Place the rocket in the trough over the chain, draw- 
 ing the latter taut, and allow the end of the stick to 
 abut against the ])Iate at the loAver end of the trough; 
 carrj' the other end of the rocket-chain to the front 
 and tie the rocket-line to the ring. The rocket is now 
 ready to be fired. Take a piUfiiUchte and put the 
 .square end in the ciamp of the firing-staff, which 
 brings the end with the fulminating primer to the 
 front. Next place the bell-shaped mouth of the 
 tiring lock, with tlie firing-pin withdrawn, over the 
 outer end of the pillenlichtf; press the thumb upon 
 the rear end of llie firing-lever. This action relieves 
 llie firing-pin, the spiral spring throws it to the front, 
 exploding the primer, which sets the composition on 
 fire. Approach the rocket-stand, extend the firing- 
 staff until the burning pilbnliehte comes in contact 
 with and ignites the fuse in the base of the rocket. 
 After seeing that the fuse is proi)erly ignited, stand 
 clear of the apjiaratus. As soon as the fuse burns up 
 to the ba.se of the rocket, the composition takes fire, 
 and the rocket, guided by the inclined trough of the 
 stand, is launched to the front, carrying with it the 
 stick, chain, and rocket line. The object of the stick 
 is to give steadiness to the flight, that of the chain to 
 preserve the line from being burned off by tlie flames 
 issuing from the rocket. " See Ancfiorrvcket, Life- 
 sating Rockets, PilUnlic/ik', and Rockets.
 
 GERMAN NAVAL CABBIAGE. 
 
 7r,3 
 
 GEBHAN FERCUSSION-FTTSE. 
 
 GERMAN NAVAL CARRIAGE.— Carriages of this 
 kimi have been recently constructed for light guns and 
 introduced into the German naval serrice. They be- 
 long to the class of truck-carriages, are light, easily 
 moved into battery, take up but little space, and are 
 provided with a circular friction-brake, by which the 
 recoil of the gun may be controlled at pleasure. A 6- 
 inch gun mounted on one of these carriages was fired 
 a number of times at Krupp's proof grounds for test. 
 The carriage worked well, checking the recoil within 
 a short distance. As the principle on which the 
 recoil is controlled may be as well used in the con- 
 struction of some of the carriages for the land-service, 
 it may not be out of place to give a short de.scription 
 of its leading peculiarities. The cheeks are made of 
 thick iron plates, each cheek of a single piece, rein- 
 
 ing a certain resistance to the turning of the windlass 
 and the unwinding of the rope. Carriages of this pat- 
 tern are made in Dantzic, for the Prussian na\'y, by 
 ilr. Wagenknecht, who also designed it. See Sea- 
 coa»( mill frHrri^iii Curriiigin. 
 
 GERMAN PERCUSSION-FUSE.— In this fuse a metal 
 plunger, A, having a central fire-hole, B, is let into 
 the fuse-hole and rests against the shoulders, DD. Let 
 into the top of the plunger and across its center is a 
 metal bar, P, having a projecting ])oint on its top side, 
 the point being in center of fire-hole. The plunger is 
 retained in its place by a pin, C, which i)a.s.ses trans- 
 versely into the fuse-hole, the side of which is put in 
 contact with the point of the cap. The outer end of 
 the pin projects on the side of the shell, the projection 
 being limited by the line of the cylindrical portion. 
 
 German Naval Carriage. 
 
 forced aromid the trunnion-holes hv a semicircular 
 plate of iron on each side of the cheek-plate, the two 
 riveted together through the latter. The cheeks are 
 joined together by a front and rear bottom transom 
 and a front vertical transom of thick iron plate. The 
 carriage is supported on two front and one rear truck- 
 wheels, the latter being on an eccentric axle, thrown 
 in or out of gear by the handspike projecting to the 
 rear. When the rear wheel is not bearing, the rear 
 end of the carriage rests on wooden bolsters, made fast 
 to the under side of the rear bottom transom. When 
 the carriage is in battery, two bolsters under the front 
 ends of the cheeks rest on a traverse-circle raised 
 slightly above the level of the platform. The shock 
 of the discharge is thereby thrown on these bolsters, 
 and not on the wheels and axle. In rear of the front 
 truck-wheels there are two shafts rtmning across the 
 carriage, and having journal-boxes in the cheeks; the 
 first one carries a pinion inside of the right cheek- 
 plate and has a crank on each end, out-sideof the cheek; 
 the other carries a windla.ss, with a cog wheel on one 
 end and an iron drum on the other, just inside of the 
 cheeks. The teeth of the wheel engage in those of the 
 pinion. The drum is enveloped by a band-brake, 
 ■which can be tightened bymeans of a .screw, orwithin 
 narrow limits by a lever placed on the outside of the 
 left cheek, and held in any desired position by a pin 
 through the lever and cheek-plate. A strong rope is 
 made fast at its middle to the side of the vessel, or the 
 parapet in front of the gun, and the two ends are 
 wound around the windlass and made fast to it. A 
 certain pressure is applied to the brake by means of 
 the screw and lever for that purpose. When the gim 
 is fired, the recoil of the carriage is overcome by the 
 rope, the friction between the brake and the drum offer- 
 
 The fuse-hole is closed by a screw-cap, F, having a 
 small central screw-hole into which the fulminate cap, 
 G, is screwed. When fired from a rifle-piece, the cen- 
 trifugal force generated by the revolution of the shell 
 throws out the pin, C; the plunger by its inertia is re- 
 tained at the bottom of the chamber during the flight 
 of the projectile; at the moment of impact the project- 
 ing point on the phmger impinges against the fulmi- 
 nate, which, exploding, ignites the charge in the shell. 
 
 A i 
 
 The fulminate-cap, G, and pin, C, are not applied to 
 the shell until the instant of loading, when the loader, 
 who carries these articles in a pouch, screws in a ful- 
 minate<-ap and in.serts the pin, previously feeling that 
 the plunger does not stick. To keep the bursting- 
 charge in place in the shell, a bni.ss thimble, H, with 
 a flange about the top, and .small holes in the bottom, 
 is first pres.sed into the fuse-hole and takes against the 
 shoulder, D. A piece of cloth is jiasted over the fire- 
 holes in the bottom of the thimble. In this thimble 
 the metal plunger rests. See Fuse.
 
 OEBHAN STEEL. 
 
 764 
 
 GERMAN SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 
 GERMAN STEEL. — A metal made of charcoal-iron 
 oliUiimd from boi;-iron or ibc sparrv carboniitc. Sec 
 
 GERMAN SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— In the 
 large additions made to the forlitications of the Grcr- 
 niiin Stales since ISl.'i, the German en^neers have 
 for the most part of these new structures adopted for 
 the plan of their enceintes the polyironal system with 
 Hanking caponieres, conibininj: with these niuiicr- 
 ous casemates for defense, for bomb proof shelters, 
 for quartering the troops and preserving the nuuii- 
 tions and other stores. The following appear to be 
 the leading features upon which these works are 
 ba.sed: 1. To occupy the principal ius-Siiilable points 
 of the position to be fortified by works which sludl 
 contain within themselves all the resources for a 
 vigorous defense by their garrisons; these works being 
 placed in reciprocal defensive relations with each 
 other, but so arranged that llie falling of one of them 
 into the besieger's hands will iK'ither compel the loss 
 of the others, nor the surrendering of the position. 
 These are styled independent itorks. 3. To cover 
 all the space to the rear of these independent works 
 either by a continuous enceinte, usually of the poly- 
 gonal system, with a revetted scarp of a sufficient 
 height to secure it from escalade; the parts of this 
 enceinte being so combined with the independent 
 works in advance that all the approaches of the be- 
 siegers upon each, both during the near and distant 
 defense, shall be swept in the most effective manner 
 by their fire; or else to connect these works by long 
 curtains; or, finally, to employ them, as in a system 
 of detached works, either to occupy important points 
 in advance of the main work, or for forming capa- 
 cious intrenched camps with a view to the eventuali- 
 ties of a war. 3. To provide the most ample means 
 for an active defense by covered-ways strongly orga- 
 nized with ca.semated redoubts, and ■nith spacious 
 communications between them and the interior for 
 sorties in large bodies. 4. So to organize the artillery 
 for the near defense that it shall be superior to that of 
 tlie besiegers at the same epoch, and be placed in 
 positions where it will be sheltered from the besieger's 
 guns up to the time that it is to be brought into play. 
 
 In the profiles of their works, the German engineers 
 follow nearly the common rules for the forms and 
 dimensions of their parapets. They employ three 
 kinds of scarp revetments: 1. The ordinary full re- 
 vetment, or sustaining wall, with counterforts. 2. 
 Revetments with relieving arches, either with or 
 w ithout defensive dispositions, as circumstances may 
 demand. 3. Scarp-walls either partly or wholly de- 
 tached from the rampart and parapet. In all these 
 cases, they give their scarp-walls a height from 27 to 
 30 feet for im portant works ; and about i .") feet for those 
 less so. The batter of these walls is usually one base 
 to twelve perpendicular. For the full revetment with 
 counterforts, they regidate the dimensions of lioth so 
 as to afford the same stability as in the revetments of 
 Vauban. In their revetments with simple relieving 
 arches, they u.se either one or two tiers of arches; 
 placing the single tier either near the top, or towards 
 the middle of the wall, according to the nature of the 
 soil and the pressure to be sustained. Revetments 
 with relieving arches for defense, or scarp-galleries, 
 are arranged for one or two tiers of fire. 1'he back 
 of the gallery is sometimes left open, the earth falling 
 in the natural slope in the rear; or it is inclosed cither 
 with a plane or a cjlindrical wall, according to the 
 pressure to be sustamed. When the upper part of 
 the wall is detached, to form a corridor between it 
 and the parapet in its rear, the top portion alone is, 
 in .some ca.ses, arranged with loo])holes and arcades, 
 or with recesses to tlieir rear, to cover the men from 
 shells; in others, a seaiii-gallery is made below the 
 floor of the corridor to give two tiers of fire. The 
 corridors are from 8 to 20 feet in width; and when 
 <leemed requisite, they are divided, from distance to 
 distance, by transverse loop holed traverse-walls for 
 defense. When the scarj) walls arc entirely detached. 
 
 they arc arranged for either one or two tiers of Are, 
 with arcades to cover the men; the banquette tread 
 of the upper tier of loop-holes resting on the arches 
 of the lower tier of itfcadcs. The counterscarps are 
 revetted either with the ordinary wall, or arranged 
 with a defensive gallery with the full center arch, 
 parallel to the face of the covmterscarpvvall. 
 
 The i^lan of the independent works may be of any 
 polygonal figure which is best adapted to ihe part as- 
 signed them in the defense of the position; but they 
 are generally in the form of lunettes, having a rev»et- 
 ted scar]i and coimterscarp to secure them from esca- 
 lade. In the gorge of the work a casemated defen- 
 sive barrack is placed, which serves as a redoubt or 
 keep; a simple loop-holed wall which is flanked by 
 the barrack closing the si)ace between it and the 
 flanks of the work, and securing the latter from an 
 as-sault in the rear. The ditches of the work are 
 either flanked from the enceinte in the rear; or, when 
 the work is a detached one, by caponieres or coun 
 terscarp-galleries. The work is usually organized 
 with a covered-way having one or more ca.sc'mated 
 redoubts, and a svstcm of mines both for the exterior 
 and interior defense. The defensive barrack is 
 usually arranged for two or three tiers of covered fire, 
 and aii up|K'r one with an ordinary i)arapet and tcrre- 
 plein on which the guns are uncovered and destined 
 for the distant defense. The two up|ier tiers of cov- 
 ered fire are for artillery, to sweep the interior of tile 
 work, and to reach by curvatcil tires the approaches 
 on the exterior. The lower tier is loop-holed for 
 musketry to sweep the interior. The barrack is sur- 
 rounded by a narrow ditch on the interior, and this, 
 whenever necessary, is flanked by small caponieres 
 placed in it, which are entered from the lowest story. 
 The barrack communicates with the interior by a 
 door at some suitable point; and the communication 
 between the interior of the work and the exterior is 
 through doors in the wall inclosing the gorge. Con- 
 siderable diversity is shown in the profiles of these 
 works. They usuall.y consist of a parapet and ram- 
 part of ordinary dimensions for the luicovercd defense ; 
 of scarps either partly detached and loop-holed, with 
 a corridor between them and the parapet; or of scarps 
 with relieving arches arranged with loop holes for 
 musketry; or of a combination of these two. The 
 height of the barrack, and the command of the para- 
 petof the exterior work, are so determined that the 
 masonry of the former shall l)e jicrfectly covered from 
 the direct tire of artillery, and the exterior l)e perfectly 
 swept by the artillery of the work. The portions of 
 the counterscarps at the siditnts are also arranged 
 with defensive galleries to sweei> the ditches; usually 
 •nith musketr)-, but in some cases with artillery. 
 
 Ca.semates are arranged for mortars in the salient 
 angles of the work, to tire in the directions of the 
 capitals; while one or more casemated traverses are 
 placed on the terre-plein, to obtain a fire on the ex- 
 terior and to cover the. terre-plein from ricochet. 
 The masonry of these traverses is masked by the 
 parapet. Posterns lead from the interior of the work 
 to the scarp-galleries, the corridors, the dilch-caponi- 
 eres, and to the casemated mortar-battery in the 
 salient. The systems of mines for the exterior de- 
 fense consist simply of the listening-galleries leading 
 outwards from the" counterscarp-g'.dleries. That for 
 interior defense is similarly arranged; the communi- 
 cations with it being either from the barrack cajw- 
 nieres, or from the countei-scarp of its ditch. The 
 work is provided with povviler magazines which are 
 placed at the jwints of the interior least ex-posed to 
 the fire of the enemy; and covered guardrooms, store- 
 rooms for mining tools, etc., are made in connection 
 with the posterns. The caiionicres for flanking the 
 main ditch usually consist of two faces and two case- 
 mated flank-batteries of two stories each; the lower 
 story being loop-holed for musketry, and the upper 
 pierced for artillery. Each battery consists of sev- 
 eral rectangular chambers; each chamber for a single 
 gun being 12 feet wide and 24 feet deep; or of smaller
 
 GEKMAN SYSTEM OF RIFLING. 
 
 765 
 
 GHENT TEEATY. 
 
 dimensions, according to the caliber of the gun and 
 the kind of carriage on which it is mounted. The 
 upper cbamliers are covered with bomb-proof arches, 
 tlie lower one by arches of sufficient strength for the 
 weight thrown upon them. The front mask-wall of 
 the casemates is C feet thick; the wall in the rear is 3 
 feet thick, and is pierced with windows for light and 
 ventilation. Openings for the escape of the smoke 
 are also made in the front ma.sk wall immediately 
 below the crowns of the arches. An interior court 
 30 feet in width is left between the two flank-batteries, 
 and when the batteries are detached from the scarp- 
 wall the space between is inclosed Ity a loop-holed 
 wall built on each side in the prolongation of Uic 
 front ma.sk-wall. The faces of the caponiere form 
 a salient of 60 degrees. They are separated from the 
 flanks by two stories of arched corridors, in front of 
 which are two arched chambers of two stories; the 
 upper chamber being arranged for mortars. An open 
 triangular court is left between the front walls of 
 these chambers and the faces of tlie caponiere. The 
 upper part of the walls of the faces along this court 
 are arranged with arcades and loop-holed for mus- 
 ketry, and have an open corridor in their rear on the 
 same level as the chambers of the second story. See 
 Polygonal System of Fortification and System of Forti- 
 fication. 
 
 •GEEMAN SYSTEM OF EIFLING.— In this system 
 the grooves are thirty in number for all calibers, 
 quite shallow, their sides being radial and forming 
 sharp angles with the bore. The rifling has a uni- 
 form twist of one turn in 'Z^ feet. The grooves are 
 wider at the bottom of the bore than at the muzzle, 
 so that tlie coinpres.sion of the lead-coated projectile 
 is gradual, and less force is expended in changing 
 the shape of the projectile. The change of shajie is 
 effected by making the whole groove of the same 
 size at the muzzle, and then cutting awa}' gradually 
 upon the loading-edge of the groove. Of course, as 
 the twist is uniform, the dri%nng-side of the groove 
 cannot vary. The outer surface of the lead coating 
 of the projectile is in raised rings with grooves be- 
 tween, to allow space for its being drawn down in 
 pas,sing through the bore. In all except his smaller 
 calibers, Krupp makes the chamber eccentric with 
 the bore, the axis of the chamber lieing above that of 
 the bore. This is to have the projectile enter the 
 bore as tndy as possible, by having their axes nearly 
 coincident! See System of Rifling. 
 
 GEEMAN TIMEFUSE.— This fuse consists of the 
 body, or fuse proper, in two parts, A and B, and the 
 igniter, C. The lower part, B, is of lead and tin, and 
 is cast around a brass stem: the upper part of this 
 stem is provided on the inside and outside with screw- 
 
 German Time-fuse. 
 
 threads; into the inner thread is screwed the igniter, 
 C; into the outer thread works a screw assembling- 
 disk, which is prevented from turning when screwed 
 down by a brass screw; at the bottom of the brass 
 stem anil projecting from its center is a sharp project- 
 ing pin. The stein has upon its exterior a grooved 
 channel, and through it, near the point of the pin, 
 radial holes, which permit the flame from the fulmi- 
 nate to communicate with the priming-chamber. 
 The upper part, A, or the "regulator" of the fiLsc, is 
 a ring of a truncated conical form; it has a priming- 
 
 chamber and a circular groove on its under side, in- 
 closing compressed mealed powder. The external 
 opening of the chamber is covered by a thin strip of 
 lead and tin, and the internal by a piece of paper. 
 The rim of the " regulator" is diWded into regularly- 
 increasing spaces from 2 to 22, indicating meters and 
 half-meters. Separating A and B is a washer of felt. 
 A channel through the lower part of B, filled with 
 rifle-powder, allows a communication between the 
 burning composition of fuse and powder-charge of 
 shell; the position of the upper opening of this chan- 
 nel is indicated on the rim of B by a triangular notch; 
 the lower opening is closed by a disk of lead and tin, 
 thin enough to be blown out by the rifle-powder. 
 The igniter, C, is composed of four parts— the brass 
 slAJck, which incloses all; the screw cap, which closes 
 the end; the leaden-shouldered plunger, with its re- 
 cess at tottom to receive the fulminate irafer. The 
 fuse works a.s follows: At the instant of discharge, 
 the plimger, by its own inertia, is forced back, shear- 
 ing off the soft shoulders, and the fulminate strikes 
 the projecting pin-point; the resulting gas escapes 
 through the radial holes around this point and into 
 a grooved channel, igniting the powder in the prim- 
 ing-chamber and circular groove, which bums till 
 the channel of rifle-powder is reached, when the thin 
 disk of metal at bottom of the channel is blown out, 
 and the flame reaching the powder in the shell, ex- 
 plosion takes place. See I^ise. 
 
 GEEEHES. — Shields used by the ancient Persians. 
 They were usually made of wicker-work, and were 
 rhoniboidal in form. 
 
 GESATES. — Formerly the Gallic mercenary .soldiers, 
 who volunteered scrx-ices beyond their native coim- 
 try. ■ All these adventurers, or knights-errant, were 
 called Gesates, either on account of the gese. or large 
 dart, which they earned; or, as Polybius imagines, 
 on account of the subsistence they received, which 
 was called bv that name. Also written Gtssates. 
 
 GESES AND MATERES.— "Weapons adopted by the 
 Allobroges (a body of ancient Gauls), independently 
 of the broad cut-and-thrust sword which the Swiss 
 still wear. These instruments were onlj' one cubit 
 long; half the blade was nearly square, but it termi- 
 nated in a round point which was exceedingly sharp. 
 Not only the Romans but the Greeks received it into 
 their armies. The former retained the full appella- 
 tion and called it gese, but the latter corrupted it into 
 ysse. The term gese was also applied to a sort of 
 javelin. Geserne is the Anglo-Norman term for bat- 
 tle-axe. See Gesates. 
 
 GETX. — The people of Thracian extraction, who, 
 when first mentioned in history, inhabited the coun- 
 try which is now called Bulgaria. They were a war- 
 like people, and for a long time successfully resisted 
 the attempts of Alexander the Great and Pyrrhus to 
 subdue them. They afterwards removed to the 
 north bank^of the Danube, having the Dnieper as 
 their boundary on the east, while westward they en- 
 croached ou the Roman Empire, with which, from 
 this time, they were continuallv at war. They were 
 called Daci by the Romans, and their countrv- Dacia, 
 and are often mentioned in the literature of the Au- 
 gustan Era a.s savage and unconquerable foes. Dur- 
 ing the reign of Domitian, they overcame the Romans, 
 and exacted an annual tribute. But in 106, their 
 giiUant King, Decebalus, was defeated by Tnijan, 
 and the people completely subdued. A Roman 
 Colony was settled in the country, and becoming in- 
 corporated with the Getae, gave rise to a mixed race, 
 the nioilern Wallachs. 
 
 GHENT TEEATY.— A treaty between the United 
 States and Great Britain which ended the war be- 
 tween tlie two countries known as the " War of 1912.'' 
 The treaty was concluded December 24, 1814, two 
 weeks before the battle of New Orleans. The main pro- 
 visions were: 1st. Restoration of all territory, places, 
 and possessions taken by either party from the other 
 during the war, except certain Islands. Public prop- 
 erty remaining in such places at rime of ratifying the
 
 GHORCHAHA. 
 
 766 
 
 OILL DTNAHOMETEK. 
 
 treaty was not to be destroyed or carried away, and 
 the same promise was made for slaves and all private 
 property. 2d. Article IV. provides the apiwintment 
 of a Commission to decide to which of the two Powers 
 certain Ishmds in and near Passamaquo<ldy Bay be- 
 Ion<;; and if the Commission should fail to come to a 
 decision the subject is to be referred to some friendly 
 Sovereiirn or State. M. Articles V. to VIII. provide 
 for sevenil Commissions to settle the line of boundary 
 as described in the treaty of 1783— one Commission 
 to settle the line from the river St. Croix to where 
 the fortytifih parallel cuts the river St. Lawrence 
 (called the Iroquois or (Jataraqua in the treaty) ; 
 another to determine the middle of the water commu- 
 nications from that point to Lake Superior; and a 
 third to adjust the limits from "the water-commu- 
 nication between Lakes Huron and Superior to the 
 most northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods." 
 4th. Article IX. binds both parties to use their best 
 endeavors to alx)li.sh the slave-trade, as being " irre- 
 concilable with the principles of humanity and jus- 
 tice." It is remarkable that the treaty fails to speak 
 of the impressment of American seamen, a main cause 
 of the war, and passes over the claims of the LTnited 
 States to participate in the fisheries, noticed in the 
 treaty of 1783; nor does it conclude the question as to 
 British and American naval forces on the northern 
 lakes. 
 
 GHOECHANA.— The irregular Sikh yeomanry who 
 served in the wars in the Punjab between the Sikhs 
 imd the English. 
 
 GHURRIf. — An Indian term; a circular plate of 
 gun-metal, issued to troops in India, in the proportion 
 of one per regiment, for the purpose of striking the 
 hours. This kind of plate is made up in the country. 
 
 OIAHBEUX. — Greaves or an armor for the legs, 
 made of metal or waxed leather, and much worn in 
 the Middle Ages. 
 
 GIANT POWDER.— A mi.xture of nitro-glyeerine 
 ■with absorbents, by w liich this dangerously-explosive 
 liquid is made into a perfectly safe .solid substance, of 
 a. consistence and appearance not unlike light-brown 
 sugar. It is not possible to explode this powder by 
 ordinary accident, nor even by the ajiplication of a 
 match. A qustntity of it placed upon a rock and tired 
 with a lighted match will burn away very much as 
 a piece of camphor or resin would burn, with little 
 tlame but much smoke, and will Iwil and bubble until 
 only a crust is left. There is not the least danger, 
 therefore, of igniting the powder dangerously, imtil 
 properly placed for the blast. In this respect it has 
 a very great advantage over ordinary' blasting-powder, 
 which may be exploded by a spark. The powder, as 
 it is manufactured, is made into cartridges about eight 
 inches in length, anil of any required diameter. The 
 cartridges are wrapped in strong parchment-paper, 
 and covered with paraftine. They are tired by a cap 
 which is in.serted into the end of the carii-idge. The 
 fuse, which is of the common kind, is inserted into 
 the open end of the cap, which is pinched close upon 
 it with a small pair of pud's, so as to hold it firmly. 
 The cartridge is then opined at one end, the cap with 
 the fuse attached inserted, and the paper is tied tight- 
 ly around the fuse with a piece of twine. See Dyna- 
 mite and High Kj-phmnes. 
 
 GIBERNE. — A sort of ba" in which the grenadiers 
 held their hand-grenades. It was worn like a powder- 
 flask. 
 
 OILL COMBINATION FUSES.— The metallic slock, 
 A, of the fuse shown in Fig. 1 is open at both ends, 
 the front half being bored conically to receive the 
 time-fuse, B. At the bottom of the recess for fuse B 
 is a small disk of metal, C, having a vent-hole, D, 
 through its center; about one eighth of an inch below 
 the disk C is a second and heavier one, E. having a 
 central projecting point, F, on the under side; 
 through this disk and equidistant from its center are 
 three small holes. The space between disks is tilled 
 with pres.sed musket-powder, pieces of thin paper pre- 
 venting its falling through holes in disks. The re- 
 
 mainder of the stock, A, is bored cylindrically for the 
 play of the triangular plunger, G, the hole through 
 center of which is sumiomited by a ]>ercussion-cap, 
 H. On one of the triangular edges of the plunger, G, 
 is a single stud running full length of plunger; both 
 of the other edges have two studs, so arranged that 
 the ones in front shall be in adilTcrent plane to insure 
 freedom at impact. The cylindrical hole through the 
 plunger is tilled with pressed musket-i>owder and end 
 stopped by a leather plug. A safetyi)in secures the 
 plunger in place. A metal pin, L, prevents the plun- 
 ger from falling out, and a paper washer closes the 
 rear end of stock. The fuse acts as follows: the time- 
 fuse, B, cut for a certain munber of seconds, is ignit- 
 ed at the instant of discharge by the gjts from powder- 
 charge, and the flame from fuse-i-omposition ignites 
 the pressed musket-powder between the disks C and 
 E, which in turn ignites the bursting-charge of shell. 
 Should, however, the flight of the projectile oe arrested 
 before the burning out of fuse-composition, the plun- 
 ger, G, is thrown forward, the cap striking the pro- 
 jecting point, F, on disk E, igniting mciiled powder 
 in the center of plunger, G, thus igniting the burst- 
 ing-charge and exploding the shell. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 The fuse shown in Fig. 2 consists of a metal stock, 
 A, open at the rear but closed at the front end by a 
 screw-plug, B, having atransversal projection, C, on 
 the out, and a central one, D, on the in side, both bored 
 to form right-angled channels, which, when filled 
 with pressed gunpowder, constitutes the igniter for 
 time-fuse. At the bottom of the cylindrical i)ocket 
 of the stock. A, there is a recess to receive the wedge- 
 shaped, soft-metal valve or stopper-ring, F, which is 
 held, after being pres.sed tightly into place, by two 
 pins, G. The stock terminates" in a slightly conical- 
 shaped projection bored to receive and hold securely 
 the time-fuse, H. The bottom of the recess for valve, 
 F, is open, except at the three points or shoulders. 
 The screw-plug, B, is provided also with two holes, 
 KK, through which maybe passed a strand of quick- 
 match to insure ignition of time-fuse. The operation 
 of the fuse is !is follows: The gas from the Imrning 
 powder-charge starts the igniter, which in turn ig- 
 nites the time-fuse — cut as desired; should the shell s 
 progress be arrested before burning out of fuse, the 
 soft-metal ring is thrown forward, allowing gas from 
 burning fuse free conuir i.iication with bursting-charge 
 in shell. See Fukc. 
 
 GILL DYNAMOMETER.— This in.strumcnt consists 
 essentially of a hyilniulic jack for producing pressure, 
 and a system of levers and weights for recording 
 same. There are two distinct methods of applying
 
 GIHBAL. 
 
 767 
 
 6IN6&L. 
 
 the pressure; one by band, the other by the accumu- 
 lator. Both methods involve the use o"f the jack; but 
 in the first the pressure is intermittent, while in the 
 second it is continuous. Automatic checks are ar- 
 ranged so as to relieve the pressure where the required 
 effect has been produced. The combination leverage 
 is 1 to 200. The capacity of the machine is 10,000 
 pounds, and any pressure up to that limit can be 
 measured by the" proper adjustment of the weights in 
 the scale-pan and the slide on the graduated levers. 
 
 GIMBAL. — A mechanical contrivance for keeping 
 a suspended body vertical, whatever be tlie derange- 
 ments to which the points of suspension are liable. 
 It consists of two brass rings which move within one 
 another, each perpendicularly to its plane about two 
 axes, placed at right angles to each other. 
 
 6IHL£T. — A tool for boring holes in wood to re- 
 ceive nails, screws, etc., and generally used when the 
 hole is to be larger than can be bored with a brad-awl. 
 It has a conical screw-point, followed by a groove for 
 clearing, and is fitted in a cross or T handle. An im- 
 provement has lately been made by twisting the 
 grooved part of the gimlet, so that it forms a long 
 spiral groove. A great vaiiety of gimlets are used in 
 the arsenal and laboratory. 
 
 GIN. — The gin is a tripod formed of three poles. 
 Two of these poles, called legs, are joined together 
 by braces of wood or iron, and contain between them 
 the windlass. The third pole is called the pry-pole, 
 and is joined to the legs, at the top, by a bolt. This 
 bolt supports a clevis, to which the upjjer block of 
 the tackle is hooked. The windla.ss is worked by 
 two handspikes fitting into brass sockets, one at each 
 e.xtremity of the windlass; the operation of the hand- 
 spike is made continuous by the action of a pawl at- 
 tached to the socket on the ratchet of the windhuss. 
 To prevent the legs and pry-pole from sinking into 
 the ground, or injuring the pavement of casemates, 
 stout pieces of wood, called shoes, are placed under 
 them. The hoisting apparatus consists of two blocks 
 through which thefall is rove. The fall is wound 
 two or more times around the windla.ss. There are 
 three kinds of gins used for artillerj' purposes: the 
 sicje, the garrison, and the casemate. The last two 
 diner froiii each other only in height; the first differs 
 ■ from the others in construction and size. Piper's gin 
 is an improved modification of the siege-gin. When 
 the gin is put together and raised, that part included 
 between the legs and pry -pole is called the in.side, the 
 outside l)eing the part without the legs; the right cor- 
 responding to the right hand of a man standing at 
 the middle and outside of the windla.ss, facing to- 
 wards it, the left corresponding to his left hand. 
 
 When mounting a siege-gun, it is immaterial upon 
 which side of the piece the legs of the gin are placed, 
 but for uniformity they are generally placed on the 
 right. The gun is suspended either by a sling or by 
 a bail; the latter is preferable. It consists of a stoiit 
 piece of iron passing like a handle over the piece and 
 fitting against the ends of the trunnions, to which it 
 is fastened by iron bolts passing through the ends of 
 the bail into holes bored for the purpose, one in the 
 end of each trunnion. A clevis, attached to the mid- 
 dle of the bail, gives a place for hooking the lower 
 block of the tackle. The piece may be conveniently 
 slung by a rope passed around each trunnion, and the 
 ends fastened together on top of the piece; or trun- 
 nion-rings may be used. Hook the pulley to this 
 sling or to the trunnion-rings; bear down with one or 
 two men on the handspike in the bore to balance the 
 piece, and when it is raised sufHcicntly high run 
 the carriage under it, and place a handspike in the 
 trunnion-beds and a block on the stock. Lower the 
 gun, the trunnions directly over the trunnion-beds, 
 until the piece rests on the block and on the hand- 
 spike. Remove the sling or rings from the trunnions, 
 and nin the carriage, with the gun on it, back until 
 the head of the cheeks is in rear of a perpendicu- 
 lar let-fall from the head of the gin. Pass the sling 
 around the chase, hook the pulley to it, and work the 
 
 gin until the weight no longer bears on the handspike 
 in tiie trunnion -beds; remove the handspike, and 
 lower the trunnions to their places; t)ear down on 
 the muzzle, and remove the block from under the 
 breech 
 
 To sling and hoist a siege-mortar mounted on its 
 carriage, a gun-sling or sling-chain is used. In either 
 case, the middle of it is passed under the front notch- 
 es; the ends carriefl up, and, crossing over the top of 
 the mortar, are pas.sed under the rear notches. The 
 gin is erected over the mortar, and the lower block of 
 
 the tackle is hooked into the sling where it cros.ses the 
 top of the mortar. The mortar is raise<l and lowered 
 upon a wagon in the manner prescribed for a gun. 
 By removing the prypole, the legs of the gin may be 
 used as shears, ^^^^en the garrison or casemate gin 
 is to be thus used, a block of wood of the same di- 
 mensions as the head of the pry-pole, with a hole in 
 it to receive the clevis-bolt, mus't be inserted in i>lace 
 of the pry-pole. The fall and windlass are operated 
 the same as for the gin. See Casemate-gin, Gin-der- 
 rick, Mfchnnicnl Maneurers, and Piper Gin. 
 
 GIN-DERBICK. — The garrison gin-derrick consists 
 of two legs framed together, one pry pole, two drums 
 or windla.s.ses with geared wheels, and two wagon- 
 wheels, serving the double piupose of moving the 
 derrick from point to point and for working the wind- 
 lass. The axle passes through one of the windlasses, 
 and can at plea.sure be geared into a wheel on the 
 other windlass. Length of legs, 254 inches; gi-eatest 
 width of legs, 86 inches; weight, 1725 pounds. It is 
 hoisted by being pulled over to the front; the feet of 
 the k'gs then rest on the ground, and the pry-]K)le is 
 carried out over the object to be raised. The wheels 
 are now free, and the method of operating the gin is 
 similar to that for other gins, the power being applied 
 to the wheels instead of to handspikes. See Gin and 
 Meehtiniral Maneurers. 
 
 GINDI. — The term applied to Turki-sh horsemen 
 who perform extraordinary feats in horsemanship, 
 
 GINGAL. — A weapon used by Asiatic armies in the
 
 GIONULES. 
 
 768 
 
 GIRONNI. 
 
 defense of fortresses. It may be dcscril)ed aa a large 
 and rude musket, which is tired from a rest. ITlie 
 Chinese employ it lo a considerable extent. Also 
 ■n-ritteii Giiiijd'il and Giiijiiitl. 
 
 GIONDLES. — Turkish volunteer cavalrj- renowned 
 for ihfir tinivery and excellent horsemanship. 
 
 GIRANDOLE."— 1. In fortification, several chamliers 
 in mines connectctl for the defense of the place of 
 arms of the covered-way. 2. Any firework turning 
 upon a wheel, or any wheel whose circumference is 
 studded with rockets. 
 
 GIRDEB. — A main beam used to support joisting, 
 walls, arches, etc. Girders may be of wood or iron, 
 and are now very commonly made of cast-iron. They 
 are much u.sed in supportinj; the upper walls of houses, 
 while the lower part is cut away to allow of rearrange- 
 ment. Wooden girders are sometimes strength- 
 ened with iron tru.sses, and are then called tnis.sed 
 girders. Sometimes a beam is cut in two, and an 
 iron plate inserted between the pieces, and the whole 
 boiled together. This kind of girder is called a sand- 
 wiched beam. Girders are much used in railway and 
 fortification works, in which case they are generally 
 of wrought-iron. The Menai and Britannia bridges 
 are simply very large boxed girders. The lattice gir- 
 der is another form, in which the sides are made 
 somewhat like wooden lattice-work. 
 
 GIRDLE. — A band of leather or of other material 
 worn round the waist, either to confine the loose and 
 flowing outer robes so as to allow freedom of move- 
 ment, or to fasten and support the garments of the 
 wearer. In southern Europe and in all Eastern coim- 
 tries the girdle was and still is an important article of 
 dress. Among the Romans it was used to confine the 
 tunica; and so general was the custom that the want 
 of a girdle Wius regarded as strongly presumptive of 
 idle and dissolute projwnsities. It also formcil a part 
 of the dress of the Greek and the Roman soldier; the 
 phrase eiiigiilum depoiiere, to lay aside the girdle, was 
 as equivalent to quitting the service. It was used as 
 now in the East to carry money in; hence zonarn per- 
 dere, to lo.se one's purse. Girdles and girdle-buckles 
 are not found in early Celtic mterments, nor are they 
 frequent in Gallo-Roman graves. But in Frankish 
 and Burgimdian graves they arc almost constantly 
 present, often omamenled with plaques of bronze or 
 silver, and the clasps and moimtings clia.scd or inlaid 
 with various ornamental designs, occasionally includ- 
 ing figures of the cross, and rude representations of 
 Scripture subjects. In later times girdles are fre- 
 quently represented on brasses and monumental efti- 
 gies from the twelfth lo the sixteenth century. They 
 were either of leather or of woven materials," often of 
 silk and adorned with gold and gems. The mode in 
 which they were worn is shown on the eflicfies; usu- 
 ally fastened by a buckle in front, the long free end 
 of the girdle was carried up imdenieath and then 
 down over the cincture, and through the loop thus 
 formed the ornamented end hung down in front. 
 
 GIRL.— A term in Heraldry, used to signify the 
 young of the roe in its second vear. See llrrnMn/. 
 
 GIHOLAMO MAGGI SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 — A system in which the liastions are small, and pro- 
 vided with double flanks. The curtain has four 
 double flanks. Vauljan borrowed from this system 
 the curtain of his thinl .system. See Ffn-ttfication . 
 
 GIRONDISTS. — The name given during "the French 
 Revolution to the moderate Republican Parlv. When 
 the Legi.slative As.sembly met in October, 1791, the 
 Gironde Department chose for its Representatives the 
 advocates Vergniaud, Guadet, Gensonne, Grange- 
 neuve, and a young merchant named Ducos, all of 
 whom soon acquired great influence by their rhetori- 
 cal talents and political principles, which were de- 
 rived from a rather hazy notion of Grecian republi- 
 canism. Thev were joined by Brissot's party and the 
 adherents of Roland, as wellas by several leaders of 
 the Center, .such as Condorcet, Fauchet, Lasource, 
 Isnard, and Henri La Riviere, and for some time hail 
 a parliamentary majority. They first directed their ' 
 
 ' effort-s against the reactionary policy of the Court, and 
 the King saw himself compelled to select the more 
 moderate of the party, Roland, Dumouriez, Cla\if re, 
 and Servan, to be .Ministers, lllimately, however, 
 i he dismissed them, a measure which led to the In- 
 ' surrection of the '.JOlh .lune, 1792. The encroach- 
 ments of the populace, and the rise of the Jacobin 
 leaders, compelled the Girondists to a.ssume a con.ser- 
 vative attitude: but though their eloquence still pre- 
 vailed in the Assembly, their popularity and [xjwer 
 out of doors were wholly gone, and they were quite 
 \inable to prevent such hideous crimes a-s the Septem- 
 ber ma.ssacres. The principal things which they <it- 
 tiiiiptnl to do after this — for they never succeeded in 
 accomplishing anything — were to procure the arrest- 
 ment of the leaders of the September massacres, Dan- 
 ton, etc. ; to overawe the mob of Paris by a guard se- 
 lected from all the Departments of France; to save 
 the King's life by the absurdest of all possible means, 
 \\z., by first voting his death, and then by intending 
 to appeal to the Xation; and, finally, to iiiipeach Ma- 
 rat, who, in turn, induced the various sections of Paris 
 to demand their expulsion from the Assembly and 
 their arrestment. This demand, backed up as it was by 
 one hundred and seventv iiieces of artillery under the 
 disposidof Henriot, leader of the Sansculottes, could 
 not be resisted; thirty of the Girondists were arrested 
 on a motion of Coutlion, but the majority had escaped 
 to the Provinces. In the Departments of Eure, Cal- 
 vados, and all through Brittany, the people rose in 
 their defense, and, under the command of General 
 Wimpfen, formed the so-called FederalM Army, 
 which was to rescue the Republic from the hands of 
 the Parisian populace. Movements for the cause of 
 the Girondists took place likewise at Lyons, Marseilles, 
 and Bordeaux. The progress of the Insun-ection was, 
 however, slopped by the activity of the Convention. 
 On the 20th .July the Revolutionar;' Army took pos- 
 session of Caen, the chief station of the insurgents, 
 whereupon the Deputies of the Convention, at the head 
 of the Sans-culottes, forced heir way into the other 
 towns, and commenced a fearful retribution. On the 
 1st Octol)er, 1793, the [irisoners were accused before 
 the Convention by Amar, as the mouthpiece of the 
 Committee of Public Safety, of conspiring against the 
 Rcpul)lic with Louis XVI., the Royalists, tlie Duke 
 of Orleans, Lafayette, and Pitt, and it was decreeil 
 that they shoidd be brought before the Revolutionarj- 
 Tribunal. On the 24th their trial commenced. The 
 accusers were such men as Chabot, Ilebert, and Fabre 
 d'Eglantine. The Girondists, however, defended 
 themselves so effectually that the Convention on the 
 30tli was obliged to come forward and decree the 
 closingof the investigation. That very night Brissot, 
 Vergniaud, Gensonm'-, Ducos, Fonfri-dc, Lacaze, La- 
 source, Valaze, Sillerr, Fauchet, Dujierret, Carra, 
 Lehardy, Duchatel, Gardien. IJoileau, Beauvais, 
 Vigee, Duprat, Mainvielle, and Antiboul were sen- 
 tenced to death, and, with the exception of Valaze, 
 who stabbed himself on hearing his sentence pro- 
 nounced, all perished by the guillotine. On their 
 way to the Place de Grrve. in the true spirit of French 
 republicanism, they sang the ^far^lel7l(l^l^e. Coustard, 
 Manuel, Cussy, Xool, Kersjunt, Rabaut St. Etienne, 
 Bernard, and Mazuyer were likewise afterward ginl- 
 lotined. Biroteau, (jrangeneuve, Guadet, Salles, and 
 Barbaroux ascended the scaffold at Bordeaux; Lidon 
 and Charabon, at Brivcs; Valady, at Perigueux; De- 
 elu'zeau, at Kochelle. Rcliecciui drowned himself at 
 Marseilles, I'ction and Buzot slabbed themselves, and 
 Condorcet poisoned himself. Sixteen months later, 
 after the fall of the Terrorists, the outlawed mem- 
 bers, including the Girondists Lanjuinais, Defermon, 
 Pontecoulant, Louvet, Isnard, and La Riviere, again 
 appeared in the Convention. A rather flattering pic- 
 ture of the party has been drawn by Lamartine, in his 
 Ilint'iirf diM (rirnndhis. 
 
 GIRONNE—GYRONNE—GYRONNY.— Terms used 
 in Heraldry to indicate that the field is divided into 
 six, eight, or more triangular portions, of different
 
 GIRTH. 
 
 r69 
 
 6LAND£SS. 
 
 tinctures, the points of the triiuigles all meeting in the 
 center of the shield. Nisbet object.s to this as a vul 
 giir mode of blazoning; and, in speaking of the "pa- 
 ternal ensign of the ancient surname ol Campbell," 
 he siiys that it is "composed of the four princi|ial 
 partition-lines, parti, coupe, traunche, taille, which 
 di\ide the tiold into eight gironal segments, ordi- 
 narily blazoned with us, girony of eight, or, and 
 sable." The t riangle in dexter -chief has been called 
 a giron or gyrun. 
 
 GIKTH.— A band or strap made of web pa.ssing 
 round the belly of a horse or other animal, to keep 
 the saddle in its place. There is a girth known as 
 Ihe Axutraliiiii girt/i, which is made of a network of 
 hide or cord. It is very nmch approved of in the 
 German army, and has been adopted by the cavalry 
 of that Nation. It never gets siiturated with .sweat, 
 and is therefore less likely tfc gel stiff and hard, and 
 hence causes fewer girtii-galis. The term yirl/i is 
 also u.sed with reference to the circumference of lim- 
 ber, etc. 
 
 GISARME.— This -n-eapon is quite dilTerent from 
 the irar-acythc and lireachknife, as it is double-edged, 
 like the cut-and-thrust sword, and ar.med with hooks. 
 Its origin dates from the Age of Bronze among the 
 Keltic and Germanic Nations, at which time many 
 tribes were in the habit of fastening glaives or sera 
 mas-axe swords to very long shafts. Frequentl)' call- 
 ed glaiee-gisdrme. See Gumtnin . 
 
 GISTES. — Pieces of wood w hich are made use of in 
 the construction of platforms to batteries, and upon 
 which the madriers or broad jjlanks are placed. 
 
 GLACIS. — In fortilication, the slope of earth, com- 
 monly- turfed, which inclines from the covered-way 
 towards the countrv. Its object is to bring assail- 
 ants, as they approach, into a conspicuous line of tire 
 from the parapet of the fortress, and also to mask the 
 general works of the place. 
 
 In the fortiliealions like Noizet's, one principle is 
 chiefly to be attended to in disposing the different 
 planes of the glacis. They should all be swept by 
 the artillery-fire of the works immediately in their 
 rear, and by the musketry -fire at least of the bastion- 
 face. The glacis of the bastion covered-way should 
 be swept by the artillery of the bastion-face. The 
 glacis of the re-entering place-of-arms .should be 
 swept by the tire from its redoubt. The glacis of the 
 demi-lune offers more difficulty in its arrangement, 
 owing to the cremailli^re form of the interior crests. 
 The best method seems Ihe following : Planes are 
 passed through each long branch, so as to be swept 
 by the artillery-fire of a portion of the face of the 
 demilune; these are connected by another series of 
 planes, which are passed through the sidient point of 
 each crotchet, and below the plane of musketry -fire 
 of at least one half of the bastion-face, and that of 
 artillery-fire of a part of the demilune face. It will 
 be readily seen, from the nature of this problem, that 
 it admits of many solutions. In selecting amongst 
 them, the following considerations may serve as 
 gtiides : 1. When the planes of the glacis have a very 
 gentle slope, they are better seen by the works in 
 their rear ; but the construction is more expensive, 
 on accomit of the greater quantity of embankment. 
 2. When the slope is more steep, the enemy's works 
 on the glacis are better exposed to the reverse views 
 of the collateral works, although not so well .seen by 
 those directly in rear of the glacis; but the quantity 
 of embankment is smaller. See Fortification. 
 
 GLADIATOR. — In antiquity, from hIakHiik, a sword, 
 one who fought in the arena, at the Amphitheater at 
 Rome, and in other cities, for the amusement of the 
 public. The gladiators were generally slaves, bought 
 and trained for the purpose, by masters who made 
 this their business. The custom is suppo.sed to have 
 been borrowed from the East, and to have had its 
 origin in the practice of htmuin sacrifices, or that of 
 taking the lives of captives or prisoners of war, in 
 honor of heroes who had died in battle. Thus, in 
 the Iliad we read that Achilles sacrificed twelve 
 
 Trojan prisoners to the manes of his friend Patroclus, 
 and Virgil speaks of captives si^nt to Evander, to 
 be sacrificed at the funeral of his son Pallas. The 
 " Great Custom" of the King of Dahoniey thus finds 
 warr.uit in classic antiquity; and tlie North American 
 hulians, in putting their prisoners to death with tor- 
 tures, have only refined upon an ancient barbar- 
 ism. After a time, all funerals were .solemnized by 
 human sacrifices, which took the form of combats, 
 in which, to increa.se the interest of the spectators, 
 the pri.soners were required to sacrifice each other; 
 and as prisoners, and afterwards other slaves, were 
 keiJt for this purpose, they were tndned to fight with 
 skill and courage, to make the spectacle more im- 
 pressive. These contests first took place at funerals, 
 but afterwanls in the Amphitheater; and in process 
 of time, instead of a funeral rite, became a conunon 
 amusement. The first we read of in H(jman historj' 
 was the show of a contest of three pairs of gladiators, 
 given by JIarcus and Decius Brutus, on the death of 
 their father, in the year of Rome 490. In the year 
 Ti'i"! a show of twenty-two pairs was given in the 
 Forum. In 547 the first Afrieanus diverted his army 
 at New Carthage with, a gladiatorial exhibition. The 
 fashion now rapidly increased. Magistrates, public 
 otficers, ciiudidates for the popular suffrages, gave 
 shows to the peoi)le, which consisted chiefly of these 
 bloody and genemdly mortal encoimters. The Em- 
 perors exceeded all others in the extent and magnifi- 
 cence of these cruel spectacles. Julius Ca?.sar gave a 
 show of 320 couples; Titus gave a show of gladia- 
 tors, wild beasts, and .sea-fights for 100 days; Trajan 
 gave a show of Vi!A days, in which 2000 men fought 
 with and killed each other, or fought with wild 
 beasts for the amusement of the 70,000 Komans, 
 Patricians and Plebeians, the highest ladies and the 
 lowest rabble, assembled in the Colos.scum. A vast 
 mnnber of slaves from all parts of the world were 
 kept in Home, and trained for these exhibitions. 
 There were so many at the time of Catiline's Con- 
 spiracy, that they were thought dangerous to the 
 public safety, and it was proposed to distribute them 
 among the distant garrisons. Efforts were made to 
 limit the number of gladiators, and diminish the 
 frequency of these shows. Cicero proposed a law, 
 that no man should give one for two years before be- 
 coming a candidate for office. The Emperor Augus- 
 tus forbade more than two shows in a year, or that 
 one should be given by a man worth less than half a 
 million sesterces; but it was difficult to restrain what 
 had become a pa.ssion, and men even had such con- 
 tests for Ihe amusement of their guests at ordinary 
 feasts. These shows were announced by show-bills 
 and pictures, like the plays of our theaters. The 
 gladiators were trained and sworn to fight to the death 
 if they showed cowardice, they were killed with 
 tortures. They fought at first with wooden swords, 
 and then with" steel. When one of the combatants 
 was di.sarmed, or upon the ground, the victor looked 
 to the Em])eror. if present, or to the people, for Ihe 
 signal of death; if they raised their thumbs, his life 
 was spared; if they turned them down, he executed 
 the fatal mandate." A gladiator who had conquered 
 ^vas rewarded with a branch of palm, and sometimes 
 with his freedom. Though the gladiators at first 
 were slaves, freemen afterwards entered Ihe profes- 
 sion, and even knights. Senators and knights fought 
 in the shows of Nero, and women in those of Domi- 
 tian. The Emjieror Constanline prohibited the con- 
 tests of gladiators, 335 a.d. ; but they could not at 
 once be abolished. In the reign of Ilonorius, Tele- 
 machus went into the arena to slop the tight, when 
 the people stoned him. They were finally abolished 
 bv Theodoric, 500 a.d. 
 " GLADIUS. — A Roman sword with a single cutting 
 edire, and having a grooved 1 lade. See Olfididtor. 
 
 GLANDERS.— A malignant disease of the equine 
 species, characterized by the appearance within the 
 nostrils of little holes or ulcers, remarkable for their 
 rugged, inflamed, tindermined edges, their discharge
 
 GLAIB£. 
 
 r7o 
 
 GLAZING-BABBEL. 
 
 of sticky, greenish, unhealthy pus, their tendency to 
 spread, "and their resistance of treatment. The blood 
 of glanderous subjects is deficient in red globules, 
 contains an excess of albumen and librinc, and in 
 this vitiated ami deteriorated state is inadequate 
 properly to nourish the l)ody, which consequently be- 
 comes weal; and wasted. The mucous membranes 
 are also irritable and badly nourished; there is conse- 
 quently impaired respiration, an obstinate choking 
 cough," and relaxed bowels. The lymphatic glands 
 and vessi'ls become inflamed, and in their swollen 
 stale may be distinctly felt about the throat and 
 imdemcath the jaws, and also in the limbs, where 
 they frequently run on to ulceration, constituting 
 farcy. Glanders is produced by any cause which in- 
 terferes with the purity or integrity of the horse's 
 blood, or produces a deteriorated or depraved state 
 of his system. It has been frequently developed in 
 health v" animals by their breathing for a short time a 
 close, impure atmosphere, and cases of this sort were 
 thus pro<luced amongst the horses of several cavalry 
 regiments, whilst being transported in badly-con- 
 structed, overcrowded vessels to the Crimea in 1854. 
 Confined, overcrowded, badly ventilated stables are 
 almost equally injurious, for they prevent the perfect 
 aPration of the blood, and the prompt removal of its 
 organic impurities. Bad feeding, hard work, and 
 such reducing diseases as di:ibetes ^md influenza also 
 rank amongst the causes of glanders. A 
 small portion of the nasal discharge from a 
 glandered horse coming in contact with the 
 abraded skin of miin, communicates the 
 loathsome and fatal disease from which so 
 many attendants of horses have died, and 
 Government very properly compels the im- 
 mediate destruction of every glandererl horse. 
 \Vhilst oxen and dogs are exempt from it, 
 donkeys suffer generally in the acute form, 
 often dying in eight or ten days. Horses 
 frequently have it in a chronic form, and if 
 well fed and managed sometimes live and 
 work for years. In the old coaching-days 
 some stages were known to be worked by 
 a glandered team, but no animal with glan- 
 derous ulcers or discharge should on any 
 account be preserved, for, besides being 
 jierfectly incurable, the fatal disease is com- 
 municable not onlj' to healthy horses, but also to 
 human beings. See Veteriimry Art. 
 
 GLAIEE. — A broad-sword or falchion fixed upon a 
 pike. The mime is sometimes applied to the weapon 
 used in the days of knighthood, and to that used for 
 executions. 
 
 GLAIVE. — A modified form of the warscytlie. The 
 blade of the weapon curves from the edge and has a 
 hook or spur at its base. The point is double-edged. 
 The glaive was much used in France during the four- 
 teenth centurj', and is especially mentioned in the 
 poem of the ""Trente." Also written Gluir. 
 
 GLAIVE GISARME.— This weapon, which British 
 authors usually confound with the halberd, is simply 
 a glaire fixed on a shaft, or a yisarme. See Oisarme. 
 
 GLAIZE. — A kind of hallwrd, much used by the 
 Saxons in carlv limes, and liv whom so called. 
 
 GLASSER SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION.— A sys- 
 tem having a bastioned enceinte, ravelins with reduits, 
 counter-guards, envelope, and reentering places-of- 
 arms with reduits. The ramparts have a demi-revct- 
 ment with a chemin-des-rondes or fans.se braye on the 
 level of the ground. On the capitals of bastions and 
 ravelins are casemated caponieres, which are well 
 covereil and powerfully defend the ditches. 
 
 GLASS-PAPER, — A polishing material made by 
 powdering gla.ss more or less finely, and siirinkling 
 it over paper or calico still wet with a coat of thiii 
 glue; the powdered glass adheres .as it dries. Gla.ss- 
 paper is very extensively employetl as a means for 
 polishing metal and wood-work; it is sold in sheets, 
 and is very largely manufactured at Birmingham and 
 other places. 
 
 OLAZING-BARREL.— Some manufacturers ghize or 
 polish large-grain powder by using a small quantity 
 of black-lead, at)out half an ounce to every UK) pouiufs 
 of powder. The black-lead, with the powder in these 
 proportions, is put into a glazing-barrel, and from 
 three quarters of an hour to one hour is found to be 
 sufficient time to polish the grain. Black lead is also 
 sometimes u.sed with the small or fine-grain powder; 
 but, although its use has some advantages, such as 
 lessening the formation of dust, and also preventing 
 the moisture in the atmosjihere from affecting the 
 powder so readily, still it is an imi>urily, and i»s such 
 should l)e useil sparingly and with much caution. 
 Recently plutnbago has lieen used for glazing gun- 
 powder, and if obtained pure is preferred to black- 
 lead, inasmuch that while a little more than half the 
 quantity is sufficient to give a perfect glaze to the 
 powder, it is found to protect it more effectually from 
 the action of moisture in the atmosphere. The glazing 
 upparaHis consists of a large strong wooden barrel 
 supported, as shown in the drawing, on an iron shaft 
 which runs through the center. The barrels, two of 
 which are generally placetl in line on one shaft, are 
 formed of oak, and are about 5 feet Ion" and 2* in 
 diameter; the shaft is cased with wocki where it 
 passes through the barrels. Each barrel is provided 
 with a small scjuare tloor for charging and uncharg- 
 ing. The barrels are found to be peculiarly well 
 
 Glazing Apparatus. 
 
 adapted for the purpose, owing to their shape. For- 
 merly wooden cvlinders with straight sides were used, 
 but it was founS that the different sizes of grain had 
 a tendency to separate in them, so that all did not 
 receive an equal amount of polishing. But in the bar- 
 rels, which are larger in diameter at the center, there 
 is a constant intermingling of the grain and a more uni- 
 form action. A set oi glazing-barrels consists of four, 
 each pair being supported on a shaft. These shafts 
 are of wrought-iron, covered on the inside of the bar- 
 rels with wood, and receive their motion by means of 
 bevel gearing direct from a main shaft driven by the 
 water-wheel or steam-engine. The barrels are inclosed 
 in wooden casings, with feeding-hoppers on the top. 
 Inioeaeh hopper four ca.sks of fine-grain powder (each 
 cask containing 100 pound.s) are emptied, the barrels 
 are turned with their doors uppennost, and the con- 
 tents of the hoppers pass into tliem; the doors are then 
 closed and secured. The apparatus is now set in mo- 
 tion, and after riuniing for five or six hours it will t>e 
 found that a fine gloss has been imparted to the powder 
 by the mere friction of the grains rubbing one again.st 
 the other, whilst at the same time all the sharp angles 
 and corners are niblx'd off, and the powder thereby 
 rendered much better for keeping or for transiJort. 
 Each pair of baiTels can be stopped or put in motion 
 at pleasure, independently of the others, l)y simply 
 throwing a clutch in or out of gear, so that after the 
 barrels have l)cen at work a sufticient time this clutch 
 is thrown out, and they are brought to rest with their 
 doors downwards. Upon the.se being unfa.stened and 
 opened, the ix)wder is delivered into casks alrejidy 
 placed for its reception. This operation, as may be
 
 GLISSADE. 
 
 771 
 
 GOBONY. 
 
 imagined, produces a small quantity of dust, which 
 is removed bj' passing the glazed powder once through 
 a slope-reel kept expressly for the puriwse. The tine- 
 grain powder is now in the same state as the large- 
 grain powder. Both contain about the same degree 
 of moisture, which it is necessjirj' to extract before 
 the powder is complete and tit for sending into store; 
 this is effected in the dr>ing-stove, where both the 
 fine and large-grain powder can be dried at one and 
 the same time. See Gimpmeder. 
 
 GLISSADE.— The term formerly applied to the for- 
 ward or backward movement of the pike. 
 
 GLOBE OF COMPRESSION.— The phrase eommtm 
 mine is applied to tlie crater when its radius is equal 
 to the line of least resistance. When the crater radius 
 is greater than the line of least resistance, the terms 
 otercharged mine and globe of cmiqyressinn are used. 
 When the crater radius is less than the line of least 
 resistance, the mine is termed undercharged. 
 
 GLOBE-SIGHT.— A form of front sight used mostly 
 on target and sporting rifles. It consists of a pin with 
 
 a small ball on the end of it, or a disk with a hole in 
 it. For protection it is set in a tube open at both 
 ends. The sight, with interchangeable disk, is repre- 
 sented in the drawing. See Front Sight. 
 
 GLOIBE. — An artificial fire-work of great splendor 
 which resembles a large sun. 
 
 GLOEIOUS virgin:— An ( )rder of Knighthood in 
 Venice, founded by Bartholomew of Vicenza, and 
 approved b.y Pope Urban IV. in 1262. This institu- 
 tion was ecclesiastical as well as military, and its ob- 
 jects were the protection of widows and orphans, 
 and the furtherance of the peace of Italy. The badge 
 was a purple cross between certain stars, and the cos- 
 tume a white surcoat on a ru.s,set cloak. 
 
 An Order of Knighthood of St. Mary the Glorious 
 also existed in Rome about the seventeenth century, 
 ■whose purpose was the suppres.sion of the Barbarj' 
 Corsairs who infested the Jlediterranean. 
 
 GLORT. — The honor, reputation, and fame acquired 
 by military achievements. That precarious splendor 
 which plays around the brows of a warrior, and has 
 been collected by hard service, extraordinary genius, 
 and unblemished integrity: but which may desert the 
 greatest hero through one unfortunate failure, occa- 
 sioned by the fatality of human imperfection. 
 
 GLOVES. — Covers" for the hands, or for the hands 
 and wrists, having a separate sheath for each finger. 
 Gloves are worn by all officers and soldiers when 
 under arms or when wearing side-arms. In the 
 United States army they are prescribed .is follows: 
 For General Officers, Officers "f (he General Skiff, and 
 Staff Corps. — Buff or white gauntlets or gloves. For 
 Field Officers of Artiller!/, Cavalry, and Infantry; for 
 the Officers of Light Artillery and Cavalry. — White 
 gauntlets or gloves. All other officers and enlisted 
 men, while gloves. To throw t^ie glove is the old ex- 
 pression which formerly meant to challenge to single 
 combat. 
 
 GLUE.— An impure desiccated gelatine, procured 
 from various sources, such as the scraps of ox and 
 other thick hides, the debris of tan-yards, the tendons 
 and intestines of many animals, rabbit-skins deprived 
 of their fur, scraps of parchment, old gloves, and 
 many other apparently worse than useless matters, all 
 contributing their portion in the manufacture of 
 "glue." Glue is an invaluable article in the labora- 
 tory and arsenal. It iliffers only from gelatine in the 
 care taken in its manufacture, and in the selection of 
 the materials from which it is made; almost everj' 
 animal substance will yield it, hence all kinds of am- 
 
 mal refuse find thdr way to the glue-makers' boilers. 
 Nevertheless, the impossibility of preserving for any 
 length of time the materials required for this manu- 
 facture renders it necessary to adopt some system in 
 choosing and preserving them, until sufficient quanti- 
 ties are collected, without fermentation or decompo- 
 sition. Hence the refuse of tanneries, consisting of 
 the clippings of hides, hoofs, ear and tail pieces of 
 ox, calf, and shee]>, are preferred, because they can 
 be dressed with lime, which removes all tlie hair and 
 acts like an anti.stiitic. For this purpose they are 
 placed in tanks with quicklime and water for two or 
 three weeks, during which the lime is sexeral times 
 renewed, and the pieces frequently turned over. They 
 are afterwards washed and drietl, and are ready for 
 use b_v the glue-maker, who \isually gives them an- 
 other slight lime-dressinir, and subsequenllj- washes 
 them; they are afterwards exposed to the action of 
 the air for a while, to neutndize] the caustic lime. 
 When well drained, the pieces are placi-d in Hat-bot- 
 tomed copper boilers, which have a perforated false 
 bottom placed a little distance alwve the true one, to 
 prevent the burning of the materials, and which have 
 been supplied with rain or other soft water up to two 
 thirds the depth of the boiler, the pieces being piled 
 up to some height above the top of the open boiler. 
 The w hole is kept at a gentle boiling heat until all 
 the gelatinous part has dissolved out, and the mass of 
 material has sunk down into the fluid. The boiling 
 is .sustained until, by repeated trials of small quanti- 
 ties, the operator kiiows the fluid is of the right con- 
 sistency, when it is drawn off carefully into the con- 
 gealing boxes, and fresh materials are added to the 
 residue left behind in the boiler, and the process is 
 repeated. 
 
 Besides its use in joinery, in cabinet-making, and 
 similar operations, glue is used by paper-makers and 
 in dressing silks; and for these last two purposes tine 
 light-colored kinds in thin cakes are made. Large 
 quantities are employed also for sizing walls in the 
 state called size, wiiich is the glue simply gelatinized 
 after boiling in the first process. A very fine and 
 pure white ^ize is made by the bonnet-makers of Bed- 
 for<lshire and other places of the skins c)f calves' head, 
 ears, and the under part of tlie neck and belly: this 
 is employed for stiffening straw, cotton, hoi-se-hair, 
 and other plaits for making bonnets and hats. 
 
 GLYACYLINE. — .\n explosive substance composed 
 principally of gim-cotton imd nitro-glycerme. See JNV- 
 tro.gbieerine. 
 
 GNOMON. — The hand of a sun-dial. It is placed 
 at such an incUnation with the plate of the dial that, 
 when properly set, the gnomon will be directed to 
 the north pole of the heavens, and its shadow will 
 fall upon the same lines of the dial at the sjmie hours, 
 whatever be the season of the year — that is, for one 
 particular latitude; but dials must be differently con- 
 structed for places which have different latitudes. It 
 is shown in Astronomy that the elevation of the celes- 
 tial pole is equal to the latitude of the place, and, 
 consequently, the inclination of the gnomon of a sun- 
 dial must be also equal to the latitude of the place 
 where the dial is intended to be set. It follows, 
 therefore, that a dial constructed for London would 
 not be suitable for Edinburgh. 
 
 GOAT'S-FOOT CROSS-BOW.- A fonn of cross-bovy 
 anciently used by the cavalry. It was much lighter 
 than the infantry cross-bow, and the string was al- 
 ways stretched by means of a simple lever, called a 
 goat's fcn^t. 
 
 GOBILLE. — A small copper ball, one fourth of an 
 inch in diameter, several of which are put into a re- 
 volving cask for the purpose of more intimately in- 
 corporating the ingredients of powder, carcass, and 
 rocket-composition. 
 
 GOBISSON. — A quilted and padded dress worn un- 
 der the hatx-rgeon. Also written Gambasson. 
 ' GOBONY.— A term in Heraldry, the same as com- 
 pone. A gohonatcd bordure is frequently carried in 
 , place of 5ie baton sinister, not only by the lawful
 
 OOD SAVE THE QUEEN. 
 
 772 
 
 GOODCONDTJCT PAT. 
 
 issue of baslanls, who, after tlie third lawful genera- 
 tion, are oonsidorcd entitled to make the change, hut 
 hy bastards themselves. See Jianttird Bur. 
 
 "god save the queen.— The iLitional anthem 
 of Great Briiaiii. ami In ailoplioii that of several of 
 the German Sl.ates. and" which is plaved and sung in 
 every part of the British Empire alike on solemn and 
 festive occasions, has lieen a subject of controversy 
 with resjH'Ct to its origin. Its words are apparently 
 imitated from the Domine Salvum of the Catholic 
 Church Ser\-ice. In Kngland the authorship has 
 been generally attributed to Dr. John Bull, l)orn l."iti3; 
 in 1.591 Orgjuiist in Queen Elizabeth's Cli.ipel; l.^JOG, 
 Professor of .Music in Gresliam College, and Cliamlxr- 
 musician of .lames I. About the period of tlie dis- 
 coveiy of llie Gunpowder Plot, Bull composed and 
 played on a small organ before the King an ode be- 
 ginning with the words, " God save great .James our 
 King." He died at Lttbeck, 1622. It does not ap- 
 pear, however, that this or any other old composition 
 of a similar title had any coniiection with that which 
 we now pos.sess. The words and music were com- 
 posed in honor of a birlliday of George II., and per- 
 formed for the tirst lime at a dinner given on that oc- 
 casion in 1740 by the Mercers' Company of London. 
 The words and music were first published in the 
 Hannonm Anglkana, 1742, and appeared in the Gen- 
 tlemaii'n Magazine, 1745. Tlie air. according to Dr. 
 Ame, has preserved its oridnal form, but its harmo- 
 nies have been modified by various artists; and the 
 words were changed on the accession of William IV., 
 and on that of Queen Victoria. 
 
 GOLADAR. — \n East Indian term signifying a sut- 
 ler or storekeeper. Also written Goldnr. 
 
 GOLANDAAZEE.— The Indian term foran artilleiy- 
 man. Also written (rolimilanzee and Golundamee. 
 
 GOLD BEATEK'S SKIN.— The prepared external 
 membrane of the large intestine of the ox, frequently 
 used to protect primings and fiise-composit'ons from 
 dampness, as in the construction of the Breithaupt fuse. 
 
 GOLD-COAST CORPS.— A corps in the British ser- 
 vice made up of ilrilled Africans, and oflicered from 
 the West India regiments. It is kept uji for the pur- 
 pose of protecting the possessions of Sierra Leone and 
 Gambi 1. 
 
 GOLDEN EAGLE. — The t.\-pical eagle and impeiial 
 emblem of ancient Home and Persia. It is generally 
 of brown color, and about 'A feet long. 
 
 GOLDEN FLEECE.— In Greek tradition, the fleece 
 of the ram Chrysomallus, the recovery of which was 
 the object of the .\rgonjmtie expedition. The Golden 
 Fleece has given its name to a celeliraled Order of 
 Knighthood in .Vusiria and Spain, founded by Philip 
 III., Duke of BurgiuKly and tlie Netherlands, at 
 Bruges, on tlie lOtli .January, 14".!il, on tlie occasion 
 of his marriage wiih Isabella, daughter of King John 
 I. of Portugal. This Order was instituted for the 
 pretection of the Church, and the fleece was probaTily 
 a.ssumcd for its emblem, as much from being the ma- 
 terial of the staple manufaclureof the Low Covintries 
 as from its connection willi lieroic limes. The foun- 
 der made himself Grand .Master of the Order, a dig- 
 nity appointed to desceml to his successors; and the 
 number of Knights, at tirst limited to 24, was subse- 
 quently increased. After the death of Charles V., 
 the Burgundo Spanish line of the House of Austria 
 remained in jio.^session of the Order; but at the close 
 of the Spanish War of Succession, the Emperor, 
 Charles VI., laid claim to it in virtue of his jkisscs- 
 sion of the Netlierlands, and taking with him the ar- 
 chives of the Order, celebrated its inauguration with 
 great magnificence at Vienna in 17i:l. Philiii V. of 
 Spain contested tlie claim of Charles; and thedisimte, 
 several times renewed, wiis at last tacitly adjusted by 
 the introduction of the Order in Inith countries. The 
 insignia arc the golden lleece hanging frf>m a gold 
 and blue enameled flintstone emitting flames, and 
 borne in its turn by a ray of tire. On the enameled 
 obverse is inscrilied Pn'tiiiiii Uihnrnin non rile. The 
 deco»ation was originally saspendcd from a chain of 
 
 alternate firestone-s and rays, for which Charles 'V. 
 allowed a red riblMtn to be .substituted, and the chain 
 is now worn only by the Grand-Ma.xfer. The Spanish 
 decoration differs slightly from the .Vustrian. The 
 costume consists of a long rolie of deep rv'd velvet, 
 lined with white taffetas, and a long mantle of purple 
 velvet lined with white s;itin, and richly trimmed with 
 embroiderv contjiining firestones and steels emitting 
 flames and sparks. On the hem, which is of white 
 satin, is embroidered in gold, ./<■ rai/ em/yriti. There is 
 also a cap of purple velvet embroidered in gold, with 
 a hood, and the shoes and stockings are reil. In Aus- 
 tria, the Emperor may now create any number of 
 Knights of the Golden Fleece from the olil nobililv; 
 when Protestants, the Pope's consent is required. In 
 Spain, Princes, Grandees, and personages of peculiar 
 merit are alone eligible. 
 
 GOLDEN HORDE.— A force of Tartars who invaded . 
 Kiev and Moscow, destroyed several other cities, and 
 in 1241 massacred a M.-igyar army. Their first leader 
 was the grand.son of Genghis Klian. At the battle 
 of Bielawisch, in 1481, tl.ey were destroyed bj' Ivan 
 III. and the Xogay Tartai-s! 
 
 GOLD RAIN. — An ornament for rockets formed of 
 small stars, all of the sime size. Those .stars are 
 cubes, the length of the side being .5 inch. The 
 composition consists of 16 parts of niter, 10 parts of 
 sulphur, 4 iiarfs of mealed powder, 3 i^arts of lamp- 
 black, 1 part of flowers of zinc, and 1 ])art of gum 
 arable. The sodium nitrate may be replaced by the 
 bicarbonate of soda or the oxalate of soda. The 
 copper suliihate is well ammoniated. See Composi- 
 tion'' and Fii'i-irori'K. 
 
 GOLD STICK. — Superior Officers in the English 
 body-guard, and Captains in the Corps of Gcntlcmen- 
 at-Arms; so called because on state occasions they 
 carry a gilded baton. 
 
 GOLLETTE.— A shirt of mail worn by foot-soldiers 
 in ancient times. S{'e Animr and Hauberk. 
 
 GOMER CHAMBER.— This chamljer, named after 
 its inventor, consists of the frustum of a cone con- 
 nected with the bore by a portion of the surface of a 
 sphere. This kind of chamber is considered very 
 advantageous for mortars. Being large at the mouth, 
 it allows the powder to act on an entire hemisphere 
 of the projectile, and no risk is run of breaking it. 
 It. however, gives a less range than either the cylin- 
 drical or ^i>herical, but its capacity is greater. 
 
 GONFALON.— 1. One of the "arms borne by the 
 Xormans in the elev(>nth century. It was a spear, 
 sometimes ornamented with a small flag, fixed just 
 below the metal point, and similar to the present 
 Entrlish lance. — 2. .Vii ensign or standard. 
 
 GONFALONIER.— A Turkish General and^ Staiid- 
 ard-keciier who always precedes the Grand Seignior 
 during war. 
 
 GONG. — An Indian instrimient of percussion, made 
 of a mixture of niet;ils (78 to 80 parts of copper, and 
 22 to 20 parts of tin), and shapeil into a basin-like 
 form, flat and large, with a rim a few inches deep. 
 The sound of the gong is produced by striking it, 
 while hung liy the rim, with a wooden mallet, which 
 puts the meti'il into an extraordinary state of vibra- 
 tion, and produces a loud, piercing sound. It is used 
 bv the Chinese as an instrument of martial music. 
 
 "GONG'WALLAS.— A term applied to the Militia in 
 India. It is thus called from Gonu, a village, and 
 M'lilloa, a man. 
 
 GOOD-CONDUCT BADGES,— Marks of distinction 
 for good coiuluct which are bestowed >ipon .soldiers 
 in tiie English army. Each badge carries with it a 
 reward of a penny Ji day. The badges are worn by 
 soldiers below the elbow, with the jioinls up. 
 
 GOOD. CONDUCT PAY.— .\ reward of additional pay 
 to corporals and I'rivate .soldiers for good conduct. 
 It is granted und<'r the following circumstances: A 
 soldier whose name <loes not aj^pear in the re.dmenfal 
 defaulter-book for at least two years ])rcccding his 
 claim receives— after 2 years, \il. per diem, with 
 one good-conduct badge; after 6 years, 2d. per diem,
 
 GOOD SEBVICE PENSION. 
 
 773 
 
 GORGE OF MOUNTAINS. 
 
 with one additional badge for each pennj-; after 12 ] 
 years, 3(/. per diem; after 18 years, id. per diem; ' 
 after 23 years, orf. per diem; after 28 years, 6d. per ; 
 diem. A soldier of 16 and less than 18 yeai-s' service, 
 and who.se name has not been entered in the regi- 
 mental defaulter-book for 14 years next preceding 
 the date at ^^ liich he shall become entitled thereto, 
 shall receive the rate grunted by Article 911 of the 
 Warrant, after 18 years' service, on completion of such 
 14 years' continuous good conduct; and shall receive 
 the rate attached to 23 and 28 years after 21 and 26 
 years respectively. The Warrant further states that a 
 soldier shall not be advanced to a higher rate of good- 
 conduct pay imless he shall have been in the unintcr- 
 rupte.l receipt of the next lower rate for the two years 
 immediately preceding his claim. But this "con- 
 dition shall not apply to Uie accelerated rates spccitied ' 
 in Article 914. Non-commissioned otlicers do not re- 
 ceive good-conduct pay. but receive instead 'id. a day 
 as an increase to their regular pay. They receive, as 
 well, rewards for distinguished or meritorious ser- 
 vices, annuities and medals, either while serving or 
 after discharge. A Warrant, dated May 29. 1875, 
 has been issued by the Secretary of War, revising the 
 regulations contained in the Warrant of December 27, 
 1870, relative to the forfeiture of the service of sol- 
 diers, and to amend in certain respects the regula- 
 tions relative to aood conduct pa}'. I 
 
 GOOD-SEEVICE PENSION.— An annuity of £100 a 
 year given to General or Field Officers in the English 
 army as a reward for distinguished or good service. 
 Only a certain number of annuities is granted. This 
 reward is held either for life or until an officer suc- 
 ceeds to his Colonel's Allowance. 
 
 GOOD'WIN COEHORN.— A small Coehom mortar 
 fixed on a stake driven into the ground at a suitable 
 angle, and tired by a trigger and a lanyard. It is a 
 surprisingly effective little piece, throwing a 3inch 
 shell to a very great distance, and may be carried 
 one under each arm. 
 
 GORDIAN KNOT.— The traditional origin of this 
 famous knot was as follows: Gordius, a Phrygian 
 ])ea.sant, was once plowing in his fields, when an 
 eagle settled on his yoke of oxen, and remained till 
 the labor of the day was over. Surprised at so won- 
 derful a phenomenon, he sought an explanation of it, 
 and was informed bj' a Prophetess of Telmissus that 
 he should offer sacrifice to Zeus. He did so, and ovit 
 of gratitude for the kindness shown him married the 
 Prophetess, bj- whom he had a son, the famous ilidas. 
 When Midas grew up, disturbances broke out in 
 Phrygia, and the people sent messengers to the oracle 
 at Delphi, to ask about choosing a new King. The 
 messengers were informed that a King would come 
 to them riding on a car, and that he would restore 
 peace. Returning to Phrygia. they announced these 
 things, and, while the people were talking about them, 
 Gordius, with his father, very opportunely arrived in 
 the requisite manner. He was immedi.itely elected 
 King, whereupon he dedicated his car and yoke to 
 Zeus, in the acropolis of Gordium (a city named after 
 himself), the knot of the yoke being tied in so skillful 
 a manner that an oracle declared whoever should 
 unloose it would be Ruler of all Asia. When Alex- 
 ander the Great came to Gordium, he cut the knot in 
 two with his sword, and applied theprophecv to him- 
 self. 
 
 GORE. — In Heraldry, a charge consisting of one 
 third of the shield cut off by two arched lines, one 
 drawn from the dexter or sinister 
 chief, and the other from the bottom 
 of the escutcheon, meeting in the 
 fess point. A gore sinister is enume- 
 rated by Heralds as one of the abate- 
 ment.s or marks of dishonor borne 
 for unknightly conduct. See &us- 
 set and Heraldry. 
 
 GORGE. — 1. A cavetto, hollow 
 member, or round concave mold- 
 ing, containing the quadrant of a circle, and used as 
 
 an ornament in cornices. The term is commonly ap- 
 plied to the entrance into any piece of a fortification, 
 which consists of the distance or space between 
 the inner extremities of the two faces. See Oorge of 
 MonnUiina. 
 
 2. lu fortification, the opening on that side of the 
 work corresi>onding to the bodj- of the i)lace, or the 
 side whence comes the defense. In isolated works, 
 the gorge is sometimes intrenched. The gorges of 
 works not attached to a fortress, but which are its 
 dependencies, are in general open, or without para- 
 Ijets, in order that the enemy piay not cover himself 
 from the tire of the place if he should seize sucli de- 
 tached works. If the works- are liable to surprise, 
 and their corges cannot be shut, a row of palisades 
 are planted there, and mines are prejiared so as to 
 overthrow the enemy if he should seize the work and 
 attempt to construct a lo<lgmcnt there. The .gorge 
 of a bastion is usually an open space between the ex- 
 tremities of the tianks of the bastion. The larger 
 this gorge is, the better is the defense; for when the 
 ruined bastion is about to fall by siege into the hands 
 of the enemy, the defenders can construct defensive 
 works or dig small ditches in the gorge of the aban- 
 doned bastion. Such resistance sometimes drives the 
 besiegers to the necessitj" of battering in breach the 
 curtain. 
 
 A stockade is the best inclosure for the gorge of a 
 work. The outline or plan of the gorge should be 
 
 Gore. 
 
 Section and EleTation of Stockade of Gorge. 
 
 a small bastion front, or a tenaille, for the purpose 
 of obtaining a flank defense. The trunks for the 
 stockade should be ten or twelve inches in diameter 
 and eleven feet in length. It will be best to square 
 them on two sides, so that they may have about four 
 inches of surface in contact. The top of the stockade 
 should be at least eight feet above the ground. To 
 arrange it for a defense, a banquette is thrown up 
 .against it on the interior; the height of the banquette 
 one foot nine inches. A strip about two feet in length 
 should be cut from the top of two adjacent trunks 
 •nith a Siiw, so that when they are placed side by side 
 there shall be an opening at top, between them, eight 
 inches wide on the interior and two and a half inches 
 on Ihe exterior; this opening, through which the 
 muzzle of the musket is run out in firing, is termed 
 a hmp-hoU. The distance between the loop holes 
 should he three feet. In this arrangement the bottom 
 of the loop-holes will be six feet above the ground 
 on the exterior, to prevent the enemy from clo.sing on 
 them to stop them >ip or use them in the attack. 
 About four feet in front of the stockade a ditch is 
 made, twelve feet nide and three feet deep. The 
 earth from the ditch is thrown up again.st the stock- 
 ade, in a slope, to the level of the bottom of the loop- 
 hole, to prevent the enemy from attempting to cut 
 down the stockade. 
 
 GORGED. — When a lion or other animal has a crown 
 by way of collar round its neck, it is s;iid heraldically 
 to be gorged. 
 
 GORGE OF MOUNTAINS.— The passage, more or less 
 compressed, iK'tween two mountains, which is used 
 as a passage- way into valleys. Gorges are important 
 militarj' points. If they le.ad to an intrenched camp, 
 it is necessary to fortify them, and there post grancl 
 guards; these positions are the principal theaters for 
 affairs of posts.
 
 OOBGEBIN. 
 
 774 
 
 GOVEENOE. 
 
 GOEOEBIN. — A portion of armor at the Iwttom of 
 the hehii and bt'low the Ixiriire. It was used instead 
 of the mail camail to protect the neck. Sec Gorget. 
 
 OOBGET. — That part of the ancient armor which 
 defended the neck. Also a crt-scent-shapeil ornanieiit 
 formerly worn by military ofticrrs on the breast. The 
 gorget ceased to Ix- worn, like other articles of body- 
 annor, during the reign of Queen Anne. 
 
 GOEGONS.— In military antiquity, a warlike female 
 nation of Libya, in Africa, that hail frequent quarrels 
 with another "nation of the same sex, callod Amazons. 
 
 GOTHS. — The name of a powerful nation of an- 
 tiquity, belonging to the Germanic race. By some 
 writers they are thought to have had a Scandinavian 
 origin, which was the belief of their own historian, 
 Jornandes. Indeed, Jornandes, Procopius Capitoli- 
 nus, and Trebellius Pollio identified them with the 
 Getse, a branch of the Thracian group of nations; but 
 later researches, especially those of Dr. Latham, leave 
 it almost without a doubt that the Goths were origi- 
 nally Germans, The earliest notice of them extant 
 among the writers of antiquity is that of Pytheas of 
 Marseille, who lived about the" time of Alexiinder the 
 Great, and wrote a book of travels, some fragments 
 of which have been preserved in the works of other 
 writers. In one of these fragments we tind mention 
 made of a tribe of Outtorn's bordering upon the Ger- 
 mans, and who lived round a gidf of the .sea called 
 >Ieutonomon, a day's sail from Uie Island of Abalus, 
 where they used to gather amber and sell it to the 
 neighboring Teutones. This gulf, there is every rea- 
 son to believe, was the Priiti-hes Huff, situateil on the 
 Prussian shore of the Baltic. The next notice that 
 occurs of the Goths is in the Oennania of Tacitus, in 
 ■which they are called Got/iones, and are represented 
 as dwelling beyond the Lygii; in the same direction, 
 that is, as the one pointed out by Pyihe;i.s, though 
 not on the sea-coast. Tacitus also distinguishes them 
 from the Gothini, a tril)e east of the Quadi and Mar- 
 comanni, and who are represented by him as using 
 the Gallican tongue. The Gothones, according to 
 this historian, were under regal government, and on 
 that account not quite .so free as the other tribes of 
 Germany, but still they enjoj'Cd a considerable 
 amount "of liberty. The tribes next beyond them, 
 and dwelling immediately on the sea-coast, were the 
 Rugii and Eemovii, whose form of government was 
 also monarchical, and their weapons, like those of 
 the Gothones, round shields and short swords 
 
 GOUDEONS. — Small fascines, or fagots, which are 
 •well steeped in wax, pitc^, and glue, and then are 
 lighted for the puposcof setting lire to beams, planks, 
 traverses, galleries, pontons, etc. They are likewise 
 wscd in various shapes and ways to convey light into 
 the ditches or upon the ramparts. 
 
 GOUB. — An article of forage fed to elephants in 
 India. It consists of wheaten cakes mixed with mo- 
 las.ses, and the daily ration is from 15 to 30 pounds, 
 according to the size of the animal. 
 
 GOUBDIN.— A flat stick, two or three fingers in 
 breadth, which was used by the French to punish 
 galley slaves. 
 
 GOVEENMENT.— The Constitution of the United 
 States provides that Congress shall make rules for the 
 government and regulation of armies. By govern- 
 ment is understood not only the body of fundamental 
 laws of a State, hut also the body of persons charged 
 with the management of the executive power of a 
 country, direction, power or authority which rules a 
 community, administration, rule, management. Gov- 
 ernment of the militjiry is that branch of the code 
 which embraces the creation and regulation of the 
 mililaiy /lierarchy, or the gradual distribution of in- 
 ferior authority. The power of making rules of gov- 
 ernment is that of Supreme Conunand, and from 
 this living principle |>roceeds llie localization of 
 troops; their organization and distribution; rules for 
 rewards and punishments; and generally all rules of 
 government and reguUttiun what.soever which the 
 legislature may judge necessary to maintain an effi- 
 
 cient and well-disciplined army. All authority over 
 the land forces of the United States must therefore be 
 derivcii from Congress. For although the President 
 is the Conunander in-Chief , yet his functions as such 
 must be regulated by Congress, \inder the 17th clause 
 of Section 8 of the "Constitution, as well as under the 
 general authority of Congress to make rules for the 
 government and regulation of the land forces. The 
 President cannot be divested of power which Con- 
 gress may assign to any inferior Jlilitary Commander, 
 Ijccause the authority of the greater includes that of 
 the le.ss. But all authority over the land and naval 
 forces save the appointment of the Conunander-in- 
 Chief rests with Congress, and no authority can be 
 exercised not delegated by Congress, except such as 
 may be fairly deduced from powers given for the ef- 
 fective discharge of the duties annexed to his oflace. 
 
 60VEBN0B.— 1. The officer placed by royal com- 
 mission in the military command of any fortress, not 
 only over the garrison but over the inhabitants. In 
 time of Avar it is an office of great responsibility, and 
 at all times requires considerable experience and mili- 
 tary information. In the United States a Governor is 
 invested with supreme authority in a State. 
 
 2. A device which regulates the admission of steam 
 to the engine according to the rate of motion. The in- 
 tention is to maintain uniform velocity, and any accel- 
 eration of speed above a given rate causes a valve to 
 be partially closed, diminishing the area of steam-pas- 
 sage: contrariwise in case of Sagging in the sjiced of 
 motion of the engine. Fig. 1 shows a veitical section 
 through the center of the governor and iLs parts, 
 together with a cross-section of the girder of the Cum- 
 mer engine; this section being along the center line of 
 the governor-shaft shows the main eccentric, cast solid 
 with if. The cut-off eccentric, with its sleeve, it will be 
 ob.served, fits loosely on the governor-shaft, and is con- 
 nected with the flj"ing ends of the governor-weights 
 by means of rods or links (as shown in Fig. 2) in such 
 a manner that the cut-off eccentric, with its .sleeve, is 
 moved around the governor-shaft, either forward or 
 backward, as the flying weights change their position; 
 by this means the steam is cut off correspondingly 
 earlier or later in the stroke as the governor or fljing 
 weights adjust themselves to the load. 
 
 The governor-shaft istlriven from the main shaft by 
 a train of gears, one of which appears in section in Fig. 
 1. The governor case, to w-hicll is attached the fljing 
 weights, is keyed to the governor-shaft, and revolves 
 with it. It will be noticed the governor-shaft is hollow, 
 and has passing through it a thrust-rod. One end of 
 this thrust-rod is attached to a crossbar, which, pa.s.s- 
 ing through a slot in the governor-shaff, is thereby 
 made to revolve with if. The cross-bar just referred 
 to is connected with the governor or fljing weights by 
 suitable connections and bell-cranks shown in Fig. 1. 
 The other end of the thrust-rod fits into a step which 
 is jointed to the vertical arm of the large bell crank 
 shown in Fig. 1. It will be clear that anj' movement 
 of the weights in the governor case would cause the 
 thrusl-rod U) move correspondingly out or in, and thus 
 operate (jr change the relative position of the large 
 bell-crank and cause the weight located under the en- 
 gine and attached to the end of the horizontal arm of 
 the bell-crank to be raised or lowered in an amoimt 
 corresfKJnding to the outer or inner position of the gov- 
 ernor-weights. 
 I Referring once more to the cut-off eccentric. Fig. 2 
 ' shows how the Hying ends of the governor-weights 
 are connected by means of two rods and a clamp col- 
 lar with the sleeve of the cut-off eccentric, so that, as 
 the governor-weights change their position, the eccen- 
 tric, with its sleeve, moves around the shaft either for- 
 ward or backward. When the cut-off eccentric is ro- 
 tated forward, the steam is cut off earlier in the stroke; 
 when the eccentric is rotated backward, the steam is 
 cut off later in the stroke. The extreme range of cut- 
 off as controlled by this governor may be from to 8- 
 10 of the stroke measured from the 'beginning; these 
 extremes eoirespond to the extreme positions of the
 
 OOVXBITOS. 
 
 775 
 
 OOVESNOR, 
 
 flying weights, or, in other words, the engine is con- 
 trolled by the governor from a simple friction load 
 to the full capacity of the engine. It will be seen that 
 the dead weights suspended from the horizontal arm 
 
 tion in speed as they were before. This balancing of 
 the centrifugal force, which is generated by the flying 
 weights of the governor, is accomplished by the 
 weights suspended from the horizontal arm of the 
 
 of the large bell-crank can be varied or adiusted in 
 amount. This provision is made in order to reculate 
 the speed of the engine. Whenever a change, either 
 faster or slower than standard speed, is desired, the re- 
 quired variation is efl'ected by simply adding to or 
 taking from these loose weights under the bed; the 
 change is easily made without the necessity for stop- 
 ping the engine. 
 
 The object of the governor is to preserve a certain 
 determined speed with the smallest possible variation 
 from constant speed as changes in the load occur. 
 The cut-oflf must always be proportioned to the load. 
 When no load is on, steam is cut off very early in the 
 stroke, and the flying weiglit.«i are at their extreme 
 outer position; with a heavy load steam follows fur- 
 ther, and the weights are nearer their inner position. 
 Between these two limits any number of positions of 
 the weights and corresponding angular positions of 
 the cut-off eccentric may be had. and in each position 
 as the steam is adapted to the load, the slightest in- 
 crease or decrease in speed must make a change in the 
 cut-off and bring the engine agjiin to standard speed. 
 In order that the governor may be very sensitive and 
 instantly feel any variation of speed, it is neces.sary 
 that the centrifugal force of the flying wciirbts and the 
 opposing centriiietal force exerted by the dead weights 
 and spring on the large bell-crank be exactly balanced 
 in every position they can possibly take; then any 
 change of sjiecd will cause the flying weights to in- 
 stantly move in or out and be just as well balanced in 
 their new position and as sensitive to any other varia- 
 
 large bell-crank and the spring attached to the same 
 arm. The governor is adjusted for whatever speed 
 may be desired. 
 
 The mechanism of the governor is such as to per- 
 mit of a delicate adjustment. Referring to Fig. 1, it 
 will be seen that the point of attachment of the spring 
 
 Fio. 9. 
 
 may be shifted so as to get more or less leverage and 
 extension of the spring, and therefore more or less 
 centripetal force. There is a series of holes on the
 
 OOV£BN0B-O£N£BAL OF INDIA. 
 
 776 
 
 SIEHTEB. 
 
 !inn for this purposi'. The governor-weights and the 
 tension of the spring are all calculated its closely as 
 may he; then the final iwljustnieiit is made bj- attiich- 
 iug" the spring at a greater or less distance Irom the 
 fiiTerum of the lu'llcrank, and thus the balance be- 
 tween the opposing fi)roes may be exactly determined, 
 and the adjustment so accuiiitely ma(le that these 
 forces increase and decrease in the siune ratio. 
 
 There is a jmint to l)e noted in connection with this 
 spring: the dead weights furnish a constant centripetal 
 force to balance the centrifugal force of the weights 
 when at their inner position. All the spring liiis to 
 ilo is to furnish what is necessary to balance the in- 
 crease of centrifugal force as the weights move out 
 from the center; Uie initial tension is 0; its duty is 
 light, it is never severely strained, and it has periods of 
 rest, so that its elasticity does not become impaired. 
 In this respect this governor differs from all those in 
 which a spring is required to furnish all the necess;ny 
 centripetal force. It is quite obvious thai such a spring 
 has a more severe and verj- injurious duty to perform, 
 because it is always luider tension, so that its elasticity 
 soon becomes impaired and the Governor does not act 
 properly. A comparison of the two methods of con- 
 struction will show clearly the superiority of this gover- 
 nor and explains the very close governing under vary- 
 ing loads for which the Cummer engine has achieved 
 an excellent reputation. 
 
 The effectiveness and force of a governor-weight 
 varies in the ratio of the squares of the velocities; and 
 as the velocity depends upon the radius of gyration, it 
 is easily seenWhy the weights should approach and 
 recede from the center by only a small amount, and 
 this is permitted by the small movement recjuired to 
 operate the eccentric; and it follows also that, when 
 the weights arc at their inner position, and the en- 
 gine is following i to i of the stroke, the weights have 
 moved inward so little, or from Ho j of what would be 
 necesary if the governor was placed on the main shaft, 
 that the governor lias the valves and the engine as 
 much under control as when in any other position. 
 It is important that the governor- weights be given such 
 an adjusting movement that, when at their inner po- 
 sition, their force and value for governing shall not be 
 impaired. From what has been said, it wMl be seen 
 that the weights are always in an effective position 
 ami the governor acts equally well from up to | of 
 the stroke. See Stjdm eiir/iiu: 
 
 GOVEKNOB-GENERAL OF INDIA. — The Chief 
 Executive Officer of that Dependency, who has also 
 the rank and position of a Viceroy. He is appointed 
 by the Crown for a period of tjve years, which, how- 
 ever, can be extended. The Goverror-Gencral is sub- 
 ject in all matters of moment to the control of the 
 Crown, through the Secretary of State for India. He 
 is assisted by an Executive Council, composed of six 
 members, should he see the necessity of so many, 
 viz.. two civilians, a law and financial member, a 
 military member, and a member of public works. 
 All acts of the Government are performed in the name 
 of the Governor-General " in Council;" not that he 
 is necc.ssarilji' bound to the majority of his Council, 
 as he can dissent altogether from their oi)inion, and 
 act accordingly, if he thinks tit. The above niem- 
 liers, with the addition of a civilian from Madras and 
 Bombay, a few non-ollicial nicinbei-s selected from 
 the European commercial community, and one or two 
 native noblemen, constitute the Supreme Legislative 
 Council for making laws and regulations. But the 
 Governor-General has the power of making rules and 
 regulations, on an emergency, with reduce<l numbers 
 of his Council. 
 
 GOWEIE CONSPIRACY.— One of the most singular 
 events in the history of Scotland, which took place in 
 August. 1600. (Jn the .'ilh i>f that nioiilli, as King 
 James VI., then residing at Falkland Palace, in Fife, 
 wits going out to hunt, Alexander Kulhv<n, brother 
 of the Earl of Gowrie, whose father had lieen exe- 
 cuted for trea.son in 1584, came to liis Majesty, and 
 infonneil him that, on the previous evening, he had 
 
 st'ized a person of a suspicious apiMarance, and evi- 
 dently disgnisi'd, with a pot full of Idrcign gold hid 
 under his cloak, and had confined him in his brother's 
 house at Perth. Conceiving him to be an agent of 
 the Pope or the King of Spain, the King agreed to 
 examine the man himself, and without waiting to 
 change his horse, set out for Perth, attcii<ied only by 
 the Duke of Lennox, the Earl of .Mar, and about twenty 
 others. Soon after his arrival, while his relinue were 
 at dinner, Hulhven conducted the King up a winding 
 st.iiicase and thrnugh several aiiarlnients. the doors 
 of which he locked behind him, and brought him at 
 last to a small study, where stood a man in armor, 
 with a sword and dagger by his side. Snatching the 
 dagger from the man's girdle. Huthven held it to the 
 King's breast, and siiid, " Who murdered myfather':' 
 Is not thy conscience burdened by his innocent blood'? 
 Thou art now my jirisoner, and must l)e content to 
 follow our will, and to be usi^d as we list. Seek not 
 to escape; utter but a cry, make but a motion to open 
 the window, and this dagger is in thy heart." The 
 ' King expo.stulated with Huthven, who so far relented 
 i that he went to consult his lirother, leaving the King 
 1 in charge of the man in armor. In the mean time, 
 ! one of Gowrie's .servants hastily entered the apart- 
 ment where the King's retinue were, and announced 
 1 that the King ba<l just ri<iden olf towards Falkland. 
 I All hurried into tlie street, and the Earl, with the 
 utmost eagerness, called for their horses. On Alex- 
 ander Rulhven's return to the King, he declared that 
 there was now no remedy, but that he must die, and 
 proceeded to bind his hands with a garter. The 
 King grappled with him, and a tierce struggle ensued. 
 Dragging Kuthven towards a window looking into 
 the .street, which the man in armor had opened, the 
 King cried aloud for help. His attendants knew his 
 voice, and hiustened to his assistance. Lennox and 
 Mar, with the greater number of the royal train, ran 
 up the principal staircase, but found all the doors 
 shut. Sir John Ramsay, of the Dalhousie family, 
 one of the royal pages, ascending by a back stair, en- 
 tered the study, the door of which Wiis open, and 
 seizing Ruthven, stablM^d him twice with his dagger, 
 and thrust him down the stair, where he was killed 
 by Sir Thomas Erskine and Sir Hugh Herries. Upon 
 the death of his brother, Gowrie rushed into the 
 room, with a drawn sword in each hand, followed by 
 seven retainers, well anned, and was instantly at- 
 tacked. Pierced through the heart by Sir John 
 Ramsay, he fell dead without uttering a word. The 
 inhabitants of Perth, by whom Gowrie, who was 
 their Provost, was much beloved, hearing of his fate, 
 ran to arms, and. surrounding the house, threatened 
 revenge. The King addressed them from a window, 
 and admitted the Magistrates, to whom he fuUj- re 
 lated all the circumstances, on which they dispersed, 
 and he returned to Falkland, Three of the Earl's 
 servants were executed at Perth. The man in armor, 
 Andrew Henderson, the Earl's steward, was pardoned. 
 All who were examined were totally ignorant of the 
 motives which pronijited the brotliers Ruthven to 
 such a deed, and they still remain in some degree of 
 mystery, although recent discoveries have led to a 
 pretty general belief that the object of the conspira- 
 tois was to iios.sess themselves of the King's person, 
 to convey liini by water to Fa.st Castle, and either to 
 give him up to England, or to administer the Oovern- 
 nient in his name in the interest of that country and 
 of the Presbyterian leaders at home. Most of the 
 documents relating to the plot are printed. 
 
 GRADE. — X term synonymous with rank, and pe- 
 culiarly applicable to the dilTerent ranks among offi- 
 cers, beginning from an Ensign to the Commander- 
 in-Chief of an army. See liiiiik. 
 
 GRADIENT,— In" Heraldry, a tortoise when walking 
 is said to be gradient. The term is used chiefly in 
 connection with earthworks and roads to signify a 
 departure of the line from a perfect level. 
 
 GRADIENTER. — An attachment often used with 
 tiiinsits for tixiiig grades, determining distances, etc.
 
 OBADIVUS. 
 
 777 
 
 GRADUATION. 
 
 It is shown in the drawing, and consists mainly of a 
 screw attached to the semicirciilar expanded arm of 
 the ordinaiT clamp of the telescope axis; the screw is 
 accurately cut to a given number of threa<ls, and pass- 
 ing through u nut in one side of the arm, presses 
 against a little stud, A, fixed to the inside surface of 
 the right-himd standard. In the other side of the 
 semicircular arm is inserted a hollow cylinder con- 
 taining a pin actuated by a strong spiral" spring, the 
 end of the pin pressing against tlie side of the stud 
 opposite that in contact with the screw. Near the 
 other end of the screw, and turning with it, is a 
 wheel, or micrometer, the rim of which is plated with 
 silver, and divided into one hundred equal parts. A 
 small silver scale, attached to the arm and just above 
 the micrometer-wheel, is divided into spaces, each of 
 which is just equal to one revolution of the .screw; so 
 that by comparing the edge of the wheel with the di- 
 visions of the scale, the number of complete revolu- 
 tions of the screw can be ea.sily counted. It will be 
 seen that when the clump is made fast to the axis by 
 
 Gradienter. 
 
 the clamp-screw, and the gradienter screw turned, it 
 will move the telescope vertically, precisely like the 
 tangent-screw ordinarily used. Xnd as the value of a 
 thread is such that a complete revolution of the screw 
 will move the horizontal cross-wire of the telescope 
 over a space of one foot on a rod at a distance of one 
 hunilred feet, it is clear thai when the screw is turned 
 through fifty spaces on the graduated head, the wire 
 will pass over fifty one hundredths, or one half a foot 
 on the rod, and so on in the same pro])ortion. In this 
 way the gradienter can be used in the measurement 
 of distances, precisely like the micrometer already 
 described in the article on the Engineer's Transit. 
 Grades can also be established with great facility, ivs 
 follows: First level the instrument; bring the telescope 
 level to its center liy the clamp and gradienterserew; 
 move the graduated head until its zero is brought to 
 the edge of the scale; and then turn otf as many 
 spaces on the head as there are hundredths of feet to 
 the hundred in the grade that is to be established. 
 See Mievoineler. 
 
 GBADIVUS.— The Roman Mars, who as a war-god 
 was sumamed Ontdieiis ( = f^rrindi^ dims, the great 
 god), also bore the surname of SUmiiiix. and ajjpears 
 to have been originally an agricultural deity; and 
 propitiatory offerings were presented to him as the 
 guardian of fields and flocks; but as the fierce shep- 
 herds who founded the city of Rome were even more 
 addicted to martial than to pitstoral pursuits, one can 
 •easily understand how .\f. Silraniis should have, in 
 
 the course of time, become the " Giod of War." See 
 
 Mars. 
 
 GRADUATION.— The art of di\iding mathematical, 
 astronomical, and other instruments. The simplest 
 problem in graduation is the dividini; of the straight 
 line, such as an ordinary scale or nile. This is com- 
 moidy done by copying from a standard scale, for 
 which purpose a di\-iding scjuari' and a suitable knife 
 for eiuting the divisions are used. The dividing 
 scjuare Is a hard steel straight-edge, with a shoulder 
 at right angles like a carpenter's square. This is made 
 to slide along the standard scale, and halt at each re- 
 quired division, when a corresponding one is cut upon 
 the nUe, etc., by using tlie steel straight-edge as a 
 guide to the kiiife. The original araduatioii of a 
 straight line into equal divisions, as in making a first 
 standard scale, etc., is performed either on the princi- 
 ple of Imectio)! or Mippiiig. In bisecting, the jjoints 
 of a beam-compa.ss arc adjusted to nearly half the 
 length of the line to be divided; one jioint is then 
 placed at one end of the Hue, and a faint are struck 
 towards the middle: this is repeated at the other end* 
 the small distance In-tween these arcs is then carefully 
 bi.sected with the aid of a fine pointer and magnifier, 
 which gives an accurate half of the line. The half 
 thus obtained is again liisected in like manner, and 
 these quarters bisected again, and so on until the re- 
 quired subdivision is attained. Stei)ping is performed 
 with delicately pointed spring-dividers, which are set 
 at once as nearly as possible to the opening of the 
 small division required; then the points are made to 
 step on, leaving at each stej) a very fine dot; and 
 when it is found that the last dot either falls .short of 
 or overpasses the end of the line, the opening is ad- 
 justed accordingly, mitil perfect accuracy is obtained. 
 Thus, if a line were ili\ided into a thousand parts, 
 and each division were y,,',,; too long or too short, the 
 error would amount to a whole division at the end of 
 a thousand steps. The method of bisection is prac- 
 tically the most accurate, aud has been adopted by 
 Graham, Bird, Ramsden, Troughton, and all other 
 eminent artists in original graduation. Curved lines 
 are divided on this jirinciple. The chord of an arc 
 of 60° is equal to the radius; therefore the opening 
 of the compa.sses required for striking the circle gives 
 this arc at once to start with. An arc of 90°, or a qua- 
 drant, is obtained by bisecting 60° and adding the 
 
 I half.- By continual bisection of 60°, the finer gradu- 
 ations are produced. The amount of care, patience, 
 skill, and delicacy of touch required in the original 
 graduation of important astronomical instruments is 
 such that not above one or two men in a generation 
 have been found competent to the task, and these 
 have become almost as famous as the astronomers 
 who have successfully used the instruments. It 
 would be out of place here to point out in detail the 
 minute precautions and methods of correction that 
 are adopted in this most delicate manipulation; but, 
 as one example, we may mention the fact that 
 Graham, when di\'iding the mural quadrant for the 
 Greenwich observatory, measured his larger chords 
 from a scale made for the purpose: but before laying 
 these down on the quadrant, he left the scale, beam- 
 conii)a.sses, and quadrant to stand for a whole night, 
 in order to acquire exactly the sjune temiierature, and 
 Ihat neglect of this precaution would have involved 
 a notable amount of error. The necessity of such 
 
 j extreme accuracy will be understood when we con- 
 sider the application that is made of these di\nsions. 
 When, for example, the nntriiier determines his lati- 
 tude by taking the meridian altitude of the sun, the 
 graduated are of the limb of the sextant or quadrant 
 he uses represents, practically, the curved surface 
 of the globe, and the error is magnified just to the 
 same extent as the radius of the earth exceeds that 
 of the divided arc of the instrument. Supposing 
 this arc to be part of a circle of 60 inches circum- 
 ference, each degree will occupy J of an inch. An 
 error of tJ[[ of an inch in the division woidd thus 
 mislead the marine* to an extent of more than four
 
 GSADUATION OF BEAR SIGHTS. 
 
 i ( 
 
 8 
 
 GRAND GUARDS. 
 
 statute miles as regards his position on the waters. 
 But such a ship's quadrant is but a coarse and rude 
 inslrunicut compared with astronomical instruments 
 for nioivsuring celestial angular distances by means of 
 a divided arc; in these an error of a thou.sandth part 
 of an inch would lie regsirded as one of verj- serious 
 magnitude. See Diridiiiq-t iit/iiif. 
 
 GRADUATION OF REAR SIGHTS.— The rear sights 
 of small-arms are graduated with elevation-marks for 
 certain distances, generally every hundred .yards; in 
 aiming with these, as with all other arms, it i.s first 
 necessary to know the distance of the object. This 
 being known, and the slider being placed opposite 
 the mark corresiionding to this distance, the bottom 
 of the rear-sight notch and the top of the front sight 
 are brought into a line joining the object and the ej'e 
 of the marksman. Tlie term oiirse sight is used 
 ■when a considerable portion of the front sight is seen 
 above the bottom of the rear-sight notch; and the 
 temi/n«' fight, when but a small portion of it is seen. 
 The graduation-marks being determined for a fine 
 tight, the effect of a coarse sight is to increase the 
 true range of the projectile. If the form of the tra- 
 jectorj- be known, the rear sight of a fire-arm can be 
 graduated by calculation; the more accurate and re- 
 liable method, however, is by trial. Suppose it be 
 required to mark the graduation for 100 yards; the 
 slider is placed as near the position of the required 
 mark as the judgment of the experimenter may indi- 
 cate; and, with this elevation, the piece is carefully 
 aimed, and fired, say, ten times at a target placed on 
 level ground, at a distance of 100 yards. If the as- 
 sumed position of the slider be correct, the center of 
 impact of the ten shot-holes will coincide with the 
 point aimed at; if it be incorrect, or the center of 
 impact be found below the point aimed at, then the 
 position of the slider is too low on the soile. Let P 
 be the point aimed at, iuid P' the center of impact of 
 
 the cluster of shot-holes; we have, from close similar- 
 ity of the triangles, AF: FP::AA' : PP , from 
 which we can determine A A", the quantity that 
 must be added to AA to give the correct position of 
 the graduation-mark for 100 yards. If the center of 
 impact had been above P. the trial-mark would have 
 been too high. Lay off the distance AA' above .1", 
 on the scale, and we obtain an api)roximate gradua- 
 tion for 200 yards, which should be corrected in the 
 same way as the preceding, and so on. The ilistance 
 PP' is found by taking the algebraic sum of the dis- 
 tances of all tiie shots from the point /', and diWd- 
 ing it by the mmil)er of shots. It will be readily 
 seen that an approximate form of the trajectory may 
 be obtained by drawing a series of lines through the 
 different graduation-marks of the rear sight, and the 
 top of the front sight, and laying off from the front 
 sight, on each line, the corresponding range. The 
 points thus determined are situated in the requireci 
 trajectory. See Sight. 
 
 GRAINOIR.— .V term used in the French artillerj- 
 to signify a sort of sieve, in which there are small 
 roiiixl holes for moist powder to be pa.s,sed through, 
 in order to make the grains perfectly round. 
 
 GRAINS D'ORGE.— A coat of mail in riveted rings. 
 It is entirely formed of metal rings, and has neither 
 wrong side nor lining. 
 
 GRAND DIVISION.— A battalion or regiment being 
 told olT l)y two companies to each di\ision is said to 
 be told oil in grand divisions; hence grand-division 
 firing is when the battalion fires by two companies at 
 the same time, and is commanded bv one officer only 
 
 GRAND GUARD MOUNTING.— The grand guard- 
 mouiitini; is c<in(lu(ted upon the same principle as the 
 regimental guard mounting. EaMi regimental de- 
 
 tachment is assembled on its parade and verified by 
 the Adjutant, after which it is marched to the general 
 parade by the senior officer or non-commissioned offi- 
 cer of the detachment. The officer of each detach- 
 ment, having formed it in open order, places himself 
 two yards in front of its center, the guides taking 
 their places in the line of file-closers as the detach- 
 ment is halted. A Staff-officer counts the files, veri- 
 fies the details by reference to written orders, causes 
 the guard to count fours, divides it into two or more 
 platoons, and then dresses it to the right. A space 
 for the guide is left between the platt>ons, which is 
 lem|>orarily occuiiied by a file closer, and through 
 which the file-closers pa.ss at the command: 1. C^S- 
 Cfrs and non roniiiiixni'iiu'd officers to the front and cen- 
 ter, 2. ^Iarch. Each platoon is inspected by its Chief. 
 The guard having pas.sed in review before the Field 
 Officer of the Day is formed to the left into line, and 
 halted by the Staff-officer. The Field Officer of the 
 Day then sends the guard by detachments to the vari- 
 ous posts. See (hiard-inoiniting. 
 
 GRAND GUARDS.— The main guards covering an 
 army or camp from an attack l)y the enemy. Inas- 
 much as the grand guards furnish the outposts, and 
 serve as their supports, not more than one third of 
 their force should be taken for the outjxwts. The 
 grand guards are posted on the principal avenues 
 leading to the detachments on which they are to fall 
 back, if driven in; and, when of infantry, alwut 200 
 paces, and of cavalry, 600 to 80^ paces, in the rear of 
 the outposts. The points which they occupy should 
 be selected both to secure them from the enemy's 
 view and to give a ready communication between 
 them and their respective outposts. Xo difficult or 
 broken ground should lie between the grand guards 
 and their outposts; if. any such occur, iJarticularly if 
 it be of a nature to offer facilities to an enemy to 
 penetrate to the rear, the whole should be posted on 
 the farther or hither side; and in preference in 
 the latter position, if by it the chain of posts can 
 be kept unbroken. Grand guards are chiefly to 
 ■watch the enemy in front; their flanks are protect- 
 ed ))y each other, and the camp must furnish ix)sts 
 to protect their rear and secure retreat. In broken 
 or mountainous coiuitries, particularly if the in- 
 habitants are ill-disposed, intermediate posts must tx; 
 established when it is necessary to post the grand 
 guards at a distance from the camp. The General of 
 Division, if he thinks proper, changes the stations and 
 orders of the.se guards, and establishes |X)sts to con- 
 nect the brigades or protect the exterior flanks. 
 
 The following are the standing instructions to 
 grand guards, liesidc the special orders given in each 
 case: To inform the nearest posts and the Field Officer 
 of the Day, or the General of Biigade, of the move- 
 ments of the enemy, and of the attacks they receive 
 or apprehend; to examine every person pa.ssing near 
 the jiost, particidarly those coining from without; to 
 arrest suspicious persons, and all .soldiers and camp- 
 followers who try to pa.ss out without jiermission, 
 and to send to the General, unless otherwise directed, 
 all counti^V" iJcople who come in. Deserters are dis- 
 armed at the advanced-posts, and sent to the Cora- 
 nninder of the grand guard, who gets from them all 
 the information he can. If many come at night, 
 they are received cttiiti/iusly. afeiraf a time. They 
 are sent in the morning to the Field OtHeer of the 
 Day, or to the nearest post or camp, to be conducted 
 to the General of the Brigade. All suspected persons 
 are .searched by the Commanders of the posts. Grand 
 guards are often charged with the care and working 
 of telegraphic signals. The Commandants of grand 
 guards visit the~.sentinels often; change their posi- 
 tions when necessary; make them rejieat their orders; 
 teach them under what circumstances and at what 
 signals to retire, and particularly not to fall back di- 
 rectly on their guard if i)urs»ied, but to lead the 
 enemy in a circuit. The fires of grand guards should 
 be hidden by some sort of screen. To deceive the 
 enemy, fires are sometimes made on ground not occu-
 
 GSAin) HASTEB. 
 
 < I 
 
 9 
 
 OBANULATING-MACHIKE, 
 
 pied. Fires are not permitted at small posts liable to 
 surprise. 
 
 GEAND-MASTEB.— The title of the Head of the Mil- 
 itarj- Orders, the Hospitallers, the Templars, and the 
 Teutonic Knights; see these articles. The title ori^- 
 nally borne by the Superior of the Hospitallers was 
 simply " Master" (MngiMer); but iu 1268 Hugh de 
 Reval took that by which they are since known— 
 Grand-Master, Magnus-Mugisle'r. In the Teutonic 
 Order, the title " Master," with different modifica- 
 tions, was applied to the several Superiors of the 
 Order in the various countries. Thus, the Superior 
 of Glermany was styled TeutMh-Mekter, "Grerraan 
 Master." The Superior of Livonia was called Ileer- 
 Meister, " Military Master." In all these Orders the 
 office of Grand-Master was held for life. The name 
 was also used in the Dominican ( )rdcr. 
 
 GEAND MASTEE OF CtLOSS-BOWS.— The peritoniiel 
 of the French artillerj- was for a long time prior to 
 1420 retained, together with the engineers, under the 
 general direction of an officer who was titled Oraud 
 Master of Cross-bows. In 1420 the ^Blaster-General of 
 Artillcrs- was made independent of this officer. 
 
 GBAND BOUNDS.— Every General Officer, or the 
 Commander of a Post or Garrison, may ^-isit the 
 guards of his command, and go the Grand Rounds, 
 and be received in the same manner as prescribed for 
 the Officer of the Day. The Officer of the Day, wish- 
 ing to make the Rounds, takes an e-scort of one non- 
 commis-sioned officer and two men. Whenever the 
 Rounds are challenged by a sentinel, the Sergeant 
 answers, "Grand Rounds!" and the sentinel replies, 
 " Halt, Grand Rounds! Advance, Sergeant, with the 
 countersign!" Upon which the Sergeant advances 
 and gives the cotmtersign. The sentinel then cries, 
 "Advance, Rounds!" and stands at a carry till they 
 have passed. When the sentinel before the guard 
 challenges, and is answered. " Grand Rounds!" he 
 replies, " Halt, Grand Rounds! Turn out the guard; 
 Grand Rounils! " Upon which the guard is drawn up 
 with arms at a cany. The Officer Commanding the 
 Guard then orders a Sergeant and two men to advance; 
 when within ten paces, the Sergeant challenges. The 
 Sergeant of the Grand Rounds answers, " Grand 
 Rounds!" The Sergeant of the Guard replies, "Ad- 
 vance, Sergeant with the countersign !" The Sergeant 
 of the Rounds advances alone, gives the countersign, 
 and returns to his Round. The Sergeant of the Guard 
 calls to his officer, "The countersign is risht !" on which 
 the Officer of the Guard calls, "Advance, Rounds!" 
 The guard being at a carrj-, the Officer of the Rounds 
 advances alone to the Officer of the Guard, who keeps 
 his post and gives to him the parole. He then ex- 
 amines the guard, orders back his escort, and, taking 
 another one. proceeds in the same manner to other 
 guards. All material instructions given to a sentinel 
 on post by persons entitled to make Grand Rounds 
 are promptly and fully reported to the Commander 
 of the Guard. See Rounds. 
 
 GEAND SEEJEANTY.— The most honorable of all 
 the ancient feudal tenures. According to Lyttleton, 
 tenure by Grand Serjeanly is where a man holds his 
 lands or tenements of the Sovereign Lord the King by 
 such ser\ices as he ought to do in his proper person 
 to the King, as to carry his banner or his lance, or to 
 lead his army, or to be his Marshal, or to carry his 
 sword before him at his coronation, or his Carver, or 
 his Butler, or to be one of his Chamberlains of the 
 receipt of his Exchequer, or to do other like ser\ices. 
 This tenure must have been held of the King. Where 
 lands were held of a subject, on condition of perform- 
 ance of services identical with those which were ren- 
 dered to the King, the tenure was not Grand Ser- [ 
 jeanty, but Knight's Ser\-ice. Thus, lands on the 
 Scottish border held of the King by coruage — i.e., on 
 condition of winding a horn to give notice when the : 
 Scots had crossed the border — were held in Grand 
 Serjeanty ; but lands held of a subject for the same ser- 
 vice were held in Knight's Ser\-ice. Tenants holding 
 by Grand Serjeanty were free from escuage, which 
 
 usually appertained to Knight's Sernce, and in gene- 
 ral could only be called upon to perform their services 
 infra quataor maria, within the Kingdom. The ser- 
 vices in Grand Serjeanty were to be performed by the 
 tenant in jjerson, where he was able to do so. "The 
 office of attendance on the Sovereign's person was es- 
 teemed so honorable that no one below the dignity of 
 a Knight could perform it. Hence, where lands held 
 by Gnind Serjeanty were in the possession of a citi- 
 zen, he was permitted to perfonn his service by 
 Deputy. This tenure by Grand Serjeanty was, in 
 common with other military tenures, reduced to com- 
 mon Socage, except so far as regards the honorary 
 services, which continue to be observed to this day. 
 Thus, the Duke of Wellington holds of the Crown 
 his estate of Strathfieldsaye on condition of present- 
 ing to the Sovereign a flag bearing the national colors 
 on each succeeding anniversary of the Battle of Wa- 
 terloo. The manor of Woodstock, with the demesne, 
 in which is situated Blenheim Park, is held by the 
 Duke of Marll)orougli by Grand Serjeanty, on condi- 
 tion of presenting to the Queen and her heirs, at the 
 Castle of Windsor, a standard of France on the 13th 
 of August yearly, being the anniversary of the day 
 on which the Battle of Hochstiidt was" fought, near 
 the village of Blenheim, on the banks of the Danube. 
 The tenure of Grand Serjeanty was observed through- 
 out the Continent of Europe. " The free-bom Franks, " 
 says Mr. Hallam, Middle Ages, " saw nothing menial 
 in the titles of Cupbearer, Steward, Marshal, or Master 
 of the Horse, which are still borne by the noblest 
 families in every country in Europe, and by Sovereign 
 Princes in tlie Empire. " The Count of Anjou. under 
 Louis VI., claimed the office of Great Seneschal of 
 FVance — i.e., to cany dishes to the King's table on 
 state-days. Thus the feudal notions of Grand Ser- 
 jeanty prepared the way for the restoration of royal 
 supremacy, as the military tenures had impaired it." 
 In Scotland, Grand Serjejmty was not known as a 
 separate temire — that is to say, lands held on condi- 
 tion of honorary services rendered to the Sovereign 
 were not attended with any privileges other than 
 those attaching to lands held in a similar manner of a 
 subject superior. In that country a tenure by hono- 
 rarv service was known as a Blanch Holding. 
 
 GEAND TACTICS.— Tactics, or that branch of the 
 art of war which treats of the methods of drawing up 
 and moving troops systematically, has two modifica- 
 tions. 1. Jf(n«r or drill tactics, which embraces that 
 setting up and preliminary drilling of soldiers essen- 
 tial to discipline, expertness in handling their wea- 
 pons, and facility of movement preparatorj' to their 
 emplo.yment on the field of battle. 2. Grand tactics, 
 or the art of combining, disposing, and handling the 
 troops on the field of battle. It is this latter branch 
 of tactics that supplements strategy. In case the prin- 
 ciples of lK)th branches cannot Ik^ carried out at the 
 same time, it is recommended to adhere to the rales 
 of Strategy at the expense of Taetirs, for some means 
 may generally be found to modify bad tactical dispo- 
 sitions; as a change in the formation of the troops, 
 the use of intrenchments, etc. See Strategy and Tac- 
 tics. 
 
 GBANULATIN6 MACHINE.— The machine used 
 for granulating or reducing the pressed cake into 
 grain-powder is somewhat similar in construction to 
 the breakingdown machine; it is, however, fitted 
 with four pairs of cutting rollers, and rectangular 
 screens below the three upper pairs; these screens 
 convey any grain not properly reduced by the one 
 set of rollers to the next under them. The machine 
 is composed of two side frames of gun-metal, which 
 carry the rollers, screens, and all the other moving 
 parts. The rollers are placed in pairs at an inclina- 
 tion of about 33, and have a vertical height of 2 feet 
 5 inches between each pair; they are 7 inches in di- 
 ameter, and make from twenty-five to thirty revolu- 
 tions per minute, thus giving a speed of about 48 
 feet per minute to their toothed surfaces, the length 
 of which for operating upon the powder is 2 feet 6
 
 GRANULATING-MACHINE. 
 
 780 
 
 GRANULATING MACHINE. 
 
 inches. The press-cake is fed to the machine hy an 
 
 eiulles.s liaiid at the rate of about 30 lbs. per minute. 
 The ttetli in the soviral pairs of rollers vary in size 
 and form. Those on the upiier rollers are Jiamoiid- 
 shaped, and resemble a series of small inrainids 
 standing out from the surface of the rollers; these 
 teeth are a quarter of an inch apart and the siune in 
 depth, and so arranged that those in the one roller 
 work into the spaces of the other. The .si'cond pair 
 of rollers have smaller teeth, but of the sjime form as 
 the upper pair; they arc a quarter of an ineli ajiart, 
 but only one eighlh of an inch in depth. Th(| teeth 
 of the third and fourth pairs are dilferently shaped; 
 in these they arc formed by cutting V-shaped ribs 
 longitudinally along the rollers and the rectangular 
 grooves a ({uarler of an inch apart by one eighth of an 
 inch in depth round their circumferences. The ribs 
 of the one roller work into the grooves of the other, 
 and rice eii-sa, and their top and bottom edges are 
 slightly rounded. On the side bearings, and behind 
 each roller, there is fixed a scraper, the edge of which 
 is provided with teeth corre!»onding with the grooves 
 in the rollers, so that as Ihe latter revolve, any 
 powder adhering to them is cleared out, and this pre- 
 vents their ever becoming clogged. The back roller 
 of each pair is ])rovidcd with a sliiliug bearing find is 
 pressed forward towards the front rollers by weighted 
 levers; this arrangement admits of their opening 
 when necessjiry, and permits a glut of cake or any 
 hard material lo pass them with safety. This is "a 
 
 Granulatingr-niachiue, 
 
 very e&sential matter, ina.smuch as the process of 
 granulating is the most dangerous in the whole manu- 
 facture of gunpowder. All the rollers are inclosed in 
 copper covers for confining the dust from the cake, 
 and preventing it spreading over the granulating- 
 house. Three screens, one under each set of rollers, 
 for conveying the broken cake from one pair to the 
 ne.\t, are placed at an inclination of about 28 , and 
 consist of copper wire gauze of eight meshes to the 
 inch; while underneath, and embracing all the rollers, 
 are three tiers of light .separating-screcns, contained 
 within a deep frame set at an angle of 33". The 
 upper screen is of copper wire gauzc'of eight meshes to 
 the inch; the .second is likewise of copper wire gauze, 
 but of sixteen meshes to the inch; while the third is 
 a very fine (nearly close) screen, and receives the dust i 
 from the upper ones and conveys it into a box placed 
 for the purpose. The separating screen frame is 
 slung from the gun-metal framing of the machine ! 
 by light springs nuide of lancewood. The screens 
 themselves are also carried from the frame by the 
 same means, and Ihe whole has a longitudinal move- 
 ment given to it of 182 vibrations per minute, pro- 
 duced by polygonal wheels on the driving shaft, 
 which press against circular but loose-running wheels 
 attached to tlie separating-screen frame. The sur- 
 faces of these wheels are kept in contact by the 
 weight of the screen itself. The process of granulat- 
 ing the i)ress-cake may be described as follows: The 
 
 < cake, having been broken into pieces, is put into a 
 
 wooden hojijier, which holds 700 pounds; the side of 
 this hopjier next the in(line<l frame is open 1o a shoot, 
 and the hopper itself — when the machine is at work — 
 moves slowly up this inclined frame, the speed being 
 regidated so as to suit that of an endless feed-ban(l 
 niiide of canvas, with strips of leather sewn across it. 
 A rope, set in motion by one of the niachine-.shafts in 
 connection with a worm and wheel, is u.sed to raise 
 the hopper, the cake in which, falling through the 
 shoot on to the endless band, is carried forward to 
 the tippermost or first pair of rollers, h'nnn these it 
 is conducted to each successive l)air by the screens, 
 and these, having a quick vibrating motion, allow any 
 grain that has heen broken small enough to pass 
 through them into the upper long separating-screen 
 in the frame underneath. Such grain as is too large 
 to go through any of the screens is called " chucks," 
 and is collected and jias-scd through the machine a 
 second tinu\ The grain which pa.sses the upper, or 
 eight-mesh long screen, is used for common powder; 
 that which jiasses through the sixteen-mesh long 
 screen is suitable for rifie or small ann powder; and 
 that which passes through into the lower screen is 
 dust. The powder as it falls from the surface of the 
 different screens is collected in separate boxes placed 
 underneath the machine for its reception. When the 
 hojiper has reached the limit of its \rsi\e\ upwards, and 
 all the cake has passed on to the feeding-band, which 
 it will do in from twenty-five to thirty minutes after 
 the machine has been set in motion, the hopper acts, 
 by a self-acting arrangement on a clutch, which 
 throws the rope-wheel out of gear, and thus stops 
 the further travel of the hopper, while a counter- 
 balance weight prevents its descent. At the same 
 time that the clutch throws the wheel out of gear, it 
 relieves a catch connected with a wire spring and 
 bell; the latter, by ringing in the bomb-proof house, 
 wherein the workmen remain while the machine is in 
 operation, gives them notice that the hojiper is empty. 
 After allowing about five minutes for the band and 
 machine to become quite cmiity. the apparatus is 
 stopped, and the attendants, now leaving their place 
 of sjifety, enter the granulating-house, and empty the 
 grain from the several boxes into tubs for removal. 
 No one is on anj' account pennitted to enter the 
 granulating house whilst the machine is working, 
 and as a further precautionary measure the attend- 
 ants or others who have occasion to enter the house 
 at otlier times wear sewn Iiide-leather boots. After 
 all the powder is removed, the hoiiper is let down to 
 its proper place and refilled with cake, and the 
 machine is now again ready for use; the attendants 
 therefore leave the gramdating-house and retire to the 
 bomb-proof building, where they set the machine in 
 motion, and remain under cover until the bell again 
 rings, when, after allowing a few minutes to elapse, 
 they stop the machine, both the starling and the 
 stopping Ixing effected in Ihe bombproof hou.se. 
 When a fine-grain powder is required, rollers with 
 smaller teeth are \ised, togctlier with screens of 24 
 and 32 meshes to the inch. The dust iiroduccd by this 
 machine, as well as from all the other machines, is 
 collected and taken back to the incor|)oratin,g-mill, 
 where .'iO pounds of it are sjiread out on the bed. and 
 after being well damped it is worked under tlie edge 
 runners for about one hour; it is then fit lo be .sent 
 forward to the breaking-down machine, the press, and 
 other subsequent operations. The (|uantity of dust 
 produced varies considerably, acconling lo Ihe con- 
 dition of the teeth of the granulating rollers; if they 
 are much worn, or become fold, as they are apt to do 
 during damii weather, Ihe (luantity of dust will be 
 considerably iticreased; or if only fine-grain powder 
 is being n\;ide, Ihe percentage of dust will be great. 
 As in the case of Ihe breaking-down machine, so with 
 the granulating-ir-achine, no iron or steel is exposed, 
 and indeed there is very little of either used in its 
 construction, Ihe .shafts and bedplate being the only 
 parts made of those metals; the former, as well as
 
 GEAPE SHOT. 
 
 781 
 
 GRAVIMETEIC DENSITY. 
 
 the whole floor of the granulating-house, is covered 
 w-ith soft leather bide, and the shafts arc all encased 
 in copper or gun metal. The side frames, rollers, 
 wheels, bolts, nuts, and all other parts of the machine 
 are made of gun-metal, copper, or wootl. A machine 
 of the size described is capable of granulating from 
 130 to 140 barrels of gunpowder in a day of twelve 
 hours, supposing each barrel to contain 100 pounds. 
 See GiDipi/irrli r. 
 
 GBAPE-SHOT. — The grape shot is composed of a 
 number of small shot arranged 
 around a spindle on an iron disk. 
 Formerly the shot were inclosed 
 in a canva.s bag, which was drawn 
 together between the balls, or 
 "quilted" bj' a strong line; but 
 the present method is more simple 
 and durable. It consists of nine 
 shot of a size approiiriate to the 
 caliber used, which are held to- 
 gether by two lings and a plate at 
 each end of the stand, connected 
 bj'a rod, as shown in the drawing. 
 The diameter of balls for grape- 
 shot varies with the caliber,"being 
 In all cases larger than those used for canister. Grape- 
 shot are jiarticularly valuable for use against torpedo- 
 boats. Sec (Jitsi-xhot, Projectiles, and Siege and Oarri- 
 so'n Amiiiunitidii, 
 
 GEAPHITE.— A crystalline modification of carbon, 
 very diffen^nt in appearance and physical properties 
 from the diamond. It is found in Cumberland, Sibe- 
 ria, Ceylon, Gennany and France, and in North and 
 South America. Graphite is a very good conductor 
 of electricity; like the diamond it is unalterable by 
 heat. It may be jjreiiarcd arliticially by bringing an 
 excess of charcoal in contact wijh fii.sed cast-iron; a 
 portion of the carbon dissolves, and separates out 
 again on cooling in large scales. It is used sometimes, 
 amongst other purjioses, in glazing gunpowder. 
 
 GEAPHOMETEE. — A name sometimes, though in- 
 appropriately, given to the protractor, an instrument 
 us<'d in plotting surveys. It is a semicircle, marked 
 with 180 , and, in the large instrmnents, with i)art.s of 
 degrees. Its use is to lay off angles. See Protrac- 
 tor. 
 
 GEAPNEL. — A small anchor of several flukes, used 
 in mooring boats or pontons for military bridges. A 
 grapnel having five prongs is also used forescalading 
 purposes, to aid the assailants in effecting an entry 
 into the i)laee. When it is thus used, it is thrown 
 over any spot where it is likely to anchor itself. A 
 2-ineh rope, 60 feet in length, is attached to the 
 shank. 
 
 GEASP. — The handle of a sword, also of an oar. 
 Also, the small part of the stock of a mu.sket. 
 
 6EAS EIFLE.— The Chassepot rifle, modified by 
 !Major Gras, and now the arm definitively adoiitcd by 
 the French army. The barrel of the Chassepot has 
 been retained in the conversion, keeping the same 
 caliber of A'-i'i inch, with four grooves from right 
 to left, with one turn in 21i inches. But in the new 
 biurel the depth of the grooves is slightly diminished, 
 and the ledges roimded off. The same caliber has been 
 retained in order that the same cartridge may be used 
 in all arms. A metallic cartridge has been adopted, 
 in lieu of the " self -consuming" one used for the 
 Chas.sep6t; the bullet is of compressed lead, conse- 
 quently the densest and most homogeneous. Its di- 
 ameter at the base is .429 inch, instead of .468 inch, 
 in order to reduce, within the smallest limits, the 
 enormous friction the bullet undergoes in the barrel, 
 which considerably diminishes the initial velocity. 
 Thus the bullet of "the Gras rifle, being smaller than 
 the bore, is forced by dei)ression, whilst in the Chas.se- 
 pot it is forced longitudinally. This diminution of 
 friction, combined with the removal of the " chambre 
 ardente," or space behind the cartridge in the old 
 rifle, has produced this effect, and the initial velocity, 
 which was 1365 feet in the Cha.ssep6t, has attained 
 
 1491 feet in the new arm. The length of the bullet 
 i^ 1.092 inch, mstead of .993 inch as formerly; that 
 is, two and a half calibers. A greased wad i^; placed 
 between the i)owder and the bullet. The bullet is 
 covered with a strip of paper, in order to i)revent 
 leadimj; that is, deposits of lead in the grooves, which 
 are fatal to accuracy. The barrel of this converted 
 weapon has been modified in such a manner as to en- 
 able it to receive the new cartridge: 1st, by an altera- 
 tion in its caliber; 2d, by the removal of the ti'tf mo- 
 bik', or movable head, in the breech mechanism, and 
 by a mo<lification of the cylinder, whereby the car- 
 tridge fit.s in closely; and, lastly, by the substitution 
 
 j of a striker or piston for the needle, and by the addi- 
 
 ! tion of a stronger spring and a cartridge-extractor. 
 The breech action remains, as before, on the bolt prin- 
 ciple. The conversion of the Chassepot to the Gras 
 rifle is computed to cost ten francs apiece. 
 
 GEASS-CUTTEES.— Natives of India attached to the 
 artillery and cavalry branches of the service in that 
 covmtry, whose sole duty is to collect and bring in 
 ^rass daily for the hoi'se8»of their regiment. There 
 
 j IS one to each horse or one to every two horses; the 
 latter is called a jorawa/lah, and receives the pay of 
 two men, b\it unrler these circumstances he has to 
 keep a pony, and bring in gra.ss equal to the load of 
 two men. The grass-cutter's pay is from 8«. to 10s. 
 a month. 
 
 6EASSIN. — A verj' early name for all militia com- 
 posed of light troops. Now obsolete. 
 
 GEATIFICATION.— In a general acceptation of the 
 term, this word meant, among the French, certain 
 rewards which Generals gave to the troops, after a se- 
 vere engagement, in testimony of their valor and 
 good conduct. These rewards were distributed ac- 
 cording to rank. By gratifcatimi was likewise meant 
 the accumulation of a certain sum which was de- 
 posited for the specific purpose of burying a deceased 
 
 I soldier. The term also meant a certain allowance in 
 money allotted to prisoners of war. 
 
 I GEATUITIES. — In the English army, sums of 
 money given to soldiers under the following circum- 
 stances: To soldiers on re engagement, that is, when 
 thej' engage to serve on for a longer term of service; 
 
 ' to soldiers settling, on discharge, in the Colonies; and 
 to all good-conduct soldiers on discharge. This latter 
 
 j gratuity is taken from a fund formed of the fines im- 
 posed u)i(in drunken soldiers. 
 
 GEAVEL WALLS.— In fortification, walls made of 
 a conglomeration of cement, or lime, and pebbles and 
 small stones or slag. They are built in casings, ancl 
 the planks may be taken away after the ma.ss has 
 properly hardened. Apertures for doors antl win- 
 dows, or embrasures, should be made while the wall 
 is in process of building. 
 
 I GEAVEURS.— Persons employed and paid by the 
 founders of caimon for repairing damaged pieces of 
 artillery. Some individual, however, was distin- 
 guished by the name of Grnreiir rie L'artillerii', and 
 
 1 was permitted by the Grand-Master of the Ordnance 
 
 ' to exhibit over his shop-door the Arms of the Royal 
 
 I Artillerv. 
 
 I GEAVIMETEIC DENSITY.— The gravimetric den- 
 .'^ity of a powder is the 
 weight of a cubic foot 
 of the powder cxprcs.sed 
 in ounces. It .should 
 fall between 8T.5 an<l 900 
 oimces. This cannot be 
 relied upon for the true 
 density, as the shape of 
 the grain may make the 
 denser powder .seem the 
 ligh'er. It is only of 
 v.due as giving a tolera- 
 bly correct idea of the 
 volume of the air-space 
 in a ^iven weight. The 
 griiri meter, shown in the drawing, is weighed when 
 
 I tilled loosely, and again when filled by packing the 
 
 Oraviineter.
 
 OBAVITY. 
 
 782 
 
 GBAT CAST-IBON. 
 
 powdiT. The powder, as it is poured in, is allowed 
 to adjust itself nntundiv, witboul any packing. Tlie 
 scttli'd weijrht is obtained by packing the powder 
 through tlie ]iroc'ess of ro<'king, shaking, turning, 
 and jarring the graWineter on a cradle, shown in 
 the ligure, and ailding gradually to the contents, 
 as a space is made by the packing together of the 
 gniins. In either case, when weighed, the gm\i- 
 meter must be level full. This is shown by placing 
 a pane of plate-gla.ss over its top, and noticing 
 whether it touchi-s the rim of the gravimetcr all 
 around, and also if the powder is up to the surface of 
 the glass all the way across. The only value attached 
 to the use of a irranmeter is that of obtaining a tol- 
 erably correct itlea of the volume of the air-space in 
 any given weight. The air-space is dependent on the 
 shape and size of the granules, and on the amount of 
 settling or shaking together to which the powder is 
 subjected. Knowing the specific gravity of the pow- 
 der under examination, the air-space is found as fol- 
 lows: If w = the weight in ounces of 1 cubic foot of 
 homogeneous powder, or the specific gravity multi- 
 plied by 1000, and it' = the weight in ounces of 1 
 cubic foot of same powder granulated, or the ascer- 
 tained gravimetric density; then — = P is the pro- 
 portion or per cent of the cubic foot occupied by the 
 powder, and 1 — P = p is the proportion or per cent 
 of the cubic foot occupied by air. These percentages 
 are determined for the powder, both loose and settled. 
 See Innpeetioii of Pmcdir. 
 
 GRAVITY.— Projectiles and all other bodies, when 
 raised into the air and left unsupported, fall to the 
 earth in lines perpendicular to it. The force which 
 CiUises them to do so is termed gravity, and acts to- 
 wards the earth's center; more strictly, it acts peipen- 
 dicularly to the surface of still water. But if a pro- 
 jectile be projected obliquely into the air, it is made 
 to describe a curved path, ha\ing a highest point, 
 vertex, or apogee; and when it meets the earth in its 
 descent, its direction is not towards the center, but in- 
 clined to it at the angle of projection. Observing 
 this, and that the body, if not interrupted by the 
 earth's surface, would continue to move in a curve, 
 with its tangent always away from the center, it is 
 ea.sy to imagine that if not interrupted it might circu- 
 late round the center as the moon does round the 
 earth. Next, knowing that the force of gravity is ex- 
 erted at all accessible heights above the earth, the 
 question arises — May it not be e.\erted as far off as the 
 moon, which we know to be influenced by same force 
 which continually deflects her from the" tangent to 
 her orbit, and makes her circulate round the earth'? 
 Observing now the time of revolution of the moon, 
 and calculating its centrifugal force, which we know 
 must equal the centripetal force, we put the question. 
 Is this force the same as gravity? The answer is that 
 it is a force 3600 times less energetic. If, then, gra\'ity 
 be the force which really holds the moon to her path, 
 it must be explained wliy it acts upon her so much 
 more feebly than it would were she a body on the 
 earth's .surface. The explanation is given lit once if 
 we suppose gravity to be a force whose energy di- 
 minishes with increase of distance, and is inversely 
 as the squares of the distances at which it is exertecl ; 
 for the distance of the moon from the earth's center 
 is just about 60 times that of the earth's surface from 
 its center, and 3600 : 1 : ; 60' : 1. We infer that it 
 does so from the fact that there is nothing inadmis- 
 sible in such a <liniinution of energy with increase of 
 distance— that, on the contrary, there are many anal- 
 ogies for it, as in the emanations of light and heat; 
 and in the argiunent drawn from the necessity of 
 otherwi.se supposing some other force than gravity to 
 be employed in deflecting the moon, and the force of 
 graWiy to cease at some unknown level. On these 
 views, and a generalization to be afterwards men 
 tioned, Newton is underst(K)(l to have at first rested 
 his law of universal gravitation: " Every particle of 
 matter in the universe attracts every other particle 
 
 with a force directly proportioned to the mass of the 
 attracting particle, and inversely to the square of the 
 distance between them" — a law the truth of which, 
 since it was fii-st Ijroached, has been i)ut Ix'yond all 
 question by the most complete body of predictions, 
 fulfilled to the letter, that can be cited in support of 
 any law of nature. 
 
 Before, however, the argument on the extension of 
 terrestrial gntvity to the sphere of the moon could 
 have become pregnant with so great a result, much 
 investigation had to take iilace in other fields; and, in 
 fact, Newton had, previously to conceiving the law, 
 explained the three great Kcplerian laws of order ob- 
 taining in the solar system by reference to an attrac- 
 tive force residing in the sun. The.se laws are — 
 1. That the planets revolve round the sim in ellipses, 
 having the sim for a common focus; 2. That every 
 planet moves in such a way that the line ilrawn from 
 It to the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal times; 
 3. That the squares of the times occupied by the seve- 
 ral planets in their revolutions in their elliptic orbits 
 are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances 
 from their common focus, the sun. From the law of 
 equal areas, Newton inferred that every planet is re- 
 tained in its orbit by a force of attraction directed 
 towards the center of the sun; from the orbits being 
 elliptical, he inferred that in each case tliis force 
 varies in intensity according to the inverse square of 
 the body's distance from the sun; while from the third 
 law he inferred the homogeneity of the central force 
 throughout the solar system. It was then, after being 
 familiar with the notion of terrestrial gravity and its 
 action, through the researches of Galileo, Huyghens, 
 and Hooke, and with the iiotion of a central force 
 acting inversely as the square of the distance of its 
 object, through his explanations of the laws of Kep 
 ler, that he put to himself the question, — Is not the 
 force with which the moon gravitates to tlie earth the 
 same with gravity'? — the force which ca'Uses a stone 
 to fall on its sm-face. A question answered afflrma- 
 tively on the supposition of gra\-ity, like the sun's at- 
 traction, being a force diminishing with increase of 
 distance, and according to the same law. The result 
 was to bring the whole solar system, the planets and 
 the sun, and satellites anil their planets — tjie Siitellites 
 being ob.ser\-ed to obey the same laws of order with 
 reference to their primaries that the latter obeyed in 
 reference to the sun — under the law of gravitation. 
 And the imagination, lifted up by the grandeurof the 
 conception, would refuse to limit the operation of that 
 law to our own system, were there no facts to entitle 
 us to extend it beyond. The phenomena of double 
 stars, however, of themselves justify the extension 
 and the statement of the law as we have given it m 
 univei-sal terms. It may be observed, in conclusion, 
 that the Kcplerian laws, which may be said to have 
 been the basis of Newton's researches, are, owing to 
 perturbations caused by the mutual action of the plan- 
 ets, etc., onlj' approximately con-ect; and that these 
 perturbations afford, when examined, a further proof 
 of the truth and universality of the law of graritation. 
 See Central Farces, Falling Bodies, Force, and IVo- 
 jecU>rti. 
 
 GRAY CAST IRON.— This variety of cast-iron is 
 softer and less l)rittle than white iron; it is in a slight 
 degree malleable and flexible, and is not sonorous; it 
 call be easily drilled and turned in the lathe, and does 
 not resist the tile. It has a brilliant fracture, of a 
 gray or somelimes a bluish-gray color ; the color is 
 lighter as the grain becomes closer, and its hardness 
 increases at the same time. A medium-sized grain, 
 bright gray color, lively aspect, fracture shaip to the 
 touch, and close, compact texture indicate a good 
 quality of iron. A grain either very large or very 
 small.a dull, earthy aspect, loo.se texture, dis,similar 
 crystals mixed together, indicate an inferior quality. 
 Gray iron melts at a lower temperature than white 
 iron, becomes more fluid, and preserves its fluidity 
 longer; it runs smoothly; the color of the metal is 
 red, and deeper in proportion as the heat is lower, it
 
 GBAZE. 
 
 78P, 
 
 GBEAX BBITAIN. 
 
 does not stick to the ladle; it fills the mould well; ' 
 contracts less; and contains fewer cavities than white I 
 iron; the edges of a casting are sharp, and the surface 
 smooth, convex, and c(>vered with carburet of iron. 
 Gray iron is the onlj' kind suitable for making cast- 
 ings which require great strength, such as cannon. 
 Its tenacity and specific gra\ity are diminished b}' slow 
 cooling or annealing. See Cant-iron. 
 
 GEAZE.— The point at which a .shot strikes and re- 
 bounds from earth or water. A grazing-fire is that 
 which sweeps close to the surface it defends. 
 
 GEAZING EICOCHET.— The description of ricochet 
 fire, when the iingl.i of full does not exceed 4'. In 
 this fire the ball is given a great velocitj', and the 
 curve described is long and flat. 
 
 GBEAT BEITAIN.— The Arms of the United King- 
 dom of Great Britain and of Ireland are borne by 
 her Majesty Queen Victoria. Quarterly, first ani 
 fourth gules, three lions passant gardani in pale, or, 
 for England; second, or, a lion rampant within a 
 double tressure flory counterflory gules, for Scotland; 
 third, azure, a harp or. stringed argent, for Ireland; 
 all siu'rovmded by the garter. Crest. — Upon the royal 
 helmet, the imperial crown proper, thereon a lion 
 statant gardant or, imperially crowned, also proper. 
 
 Royal Arms of Great Britain. 
 
 Supporters.— TtexXev, the lion rampant gardant or, 
 crowned as the crest. Sinister, a unicorn argent, 
 armed crined, and unguled or, gorged with a coronet 
 composed of crosses pattee and fleur-de-lis, a chain 
 affixed thereto, passing between the fore legs, and re- 
 flexed over the back, also or. Motto. — Dieii et inon 
 Droit in the compartment below the shield, with the 
 imion rose, shamrock, and thistle ingrafted on the 
 same stem. Arms have l>een ascribed by heralds to 
 the Saxon and Xorman Monarchs of England in the 
 tenth and eleventh centuries; but as Heraldry was, 
 in point of fact, unknown till the middle of the 
 twelfth century, they must be dealt with as fabulous. 
 However, at a period almost before the earliest dawn- 
 ings of hereditan,- coat- armor, the Sovereigns of Eng- 
 land, in common with various other Monarchs of 
 Christendom, adopted the lion as their de\iee. Rich- 
 ard I., in his earliest seal, hiis two lions, which are 
 borne counter-rampant; but in the latter part of his 
 reign, after his return from the Third Cnisade, the 
 great seal of Coeur-dc-lion represents the three lions 
 in pale and pa.s.sant gardant, as they have been almost 
 uniformly depicted since. The only sub.si'i|uent in- 
 stance of" which we are aware of any variation in the 
 number is on a seal of the Carmelites at Oxford, in 
 Avhich Edward III. is represented in the surcoat 
 charged with four lions in pale passant gardant, a 
 proof of the latitude which heralds occa.sionallv al- 
 lowed themselves as late as the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century. In 1340, Edward III., in virtue 
 of the supposed right of his mother, assumed the title 
 
 of King of France, and quartered the Arms of France 
 with those of England, giving to the former the pre- 
 cedence. The fleurs de lis were then generally borne 
 mins nonibre; but in the latter part of the reign of 
 Henrj' IV. they were reduced to three, borne or on a 
 field azure. No further change took place in the 
 roj-al escutcheon until the tune of James I., except 
 that Mary, on her second great seal, made after her 
 marriage with Philip II.. impaled the Arms of Spain 
 and England. James VI. of Scotland, on succeeding 
 to the throne of England, quartered the Arms borne 
 by preceding Sovereigns with those of Scotland and 
 Ireland, the first and fourth quarters being France 
 and England quartered as before, the second quarter 
 the lion rampant of Scotland within the double 
 tressure, and the third quarter the harp of Ireland. 
 The Royal Anns were similarly bonie by all the Sov- 
 ereigns of the House of Stuart till the reign of Anne, 
 except that William III. bore over all the coat of 
 Nas.s;m on an escutcheon of pretense. In the reign 
 of Anne, the legislative union with Scotland brought 
 about a materia! change. England and Scotland im- 
 paled were placed in the first and fourth quarter, 
 France in the second, and Ireland in the third. The 
 accession of George I. displaced England and Scotland 
 from the fourth quarter, to make way for the Arms of 
 his Majesty's German dominions. A further altera- 
 tion took place on the imion with Ireland, when 
 George III. laid aside the titular assumption of King 
 of France, and abandoned the French ensigns. The 
 Arms of England were now made to occupj- the first 
 and fourth (|uarter, Scotland the second, and Ireland 
 the third, while the German ensigns were relegated 
 to an escutcheon of pretense. These last were finally 
 abandoned on the severance of Hanover from the 
 Crown of Great Britain, which took place on the ac- 
 cession of Queen Victoria, and the royal escutcheon 
 thus assumed its present arrangement. 
 
 From the union of the Crowns of England and 
 Scotland under James I., up to the union of the 
 Kingdoms in 1707. the Royal Arms were somewhat 
 differently marshaled in Scotland, Scotland being 
 allowed in all Scottish seals, ensigns, and Arms to 
 occupy the first and fourth quarter, and England the 
 second, while the whole were ensigned with the 
 Crown of Scotland; but the Act of Union of 1707 
 recognizes no iwal ensigns but those of the United 
 Kingdom, which are to be "such as her Majesty 
 shall think fit;" and on the union with Ireland, it. 
 was enacted that the armorial bearings of the United 
 Kingdom " shall be such as his Majestj' by his royal 
 proclamation under the Great Seal of the United 
 Kingdom shall be pleased to appoint." The prac- 
 tice, which prevails to a certain extent in Scotland, of 
 giving the precedence to the Scottish lion in the rojal 
 shield, is incorrect, though the error has been com- 
 mitted in several of the official seals of the Kingdom. 
 
 The lion passiint as the crest of England first ap- 
 pears on tlie Great Seal of Edward III. 
 
 The siippt/rters borne in former times by the Kings 
 of England varied much, particularly during the 
 earlier period when these appendages of the shield 
 were invested with more of a decor!iti\e than a he- 
 raldic character, and perliaps often left to the fsmcy 
 of the engraver. When the Arms of any of the 
 English Sovereigns from Richard II. to Edward r\'. 
 are represented with supporters, the animals selected 
 are almost indifferently lions, antelopes, or white 
 harts, and occa.sionally their place is supplied by an- 
 gels. Edward TV. 's shield is sometimes supported 
 on one side by a black bull, and Richard III.'s in one 
 inst;mce — in a MS. in the British Museum — on both 
 sides bv white boars. During the reigns of HeiuT 
 VII. and Henry VIII.. Edward VI., Mary aiul 
 Elizabeth, the lion, red dragon, and greyhound were 
 the supporters most in vogue, and as the herald or 
 engraver had it not in his power to represent all three 
 at once, he seems to have been allowed to .select any 
 two at pleasure. James I. for the first time clearly 
 defined the royal supporters, adopting the lion of
 
 GREATCOAT. 
 
 784 
 
 GREENLEAF LITTEE. 
 
 England and unicorn of Scotland as thej' have ever 
 since Iiecn Iwrne. the unicorn having been, up to 
 1707. allowed precedence in Scotland. See Armf. 
 
 GREAT-COAT. — The overcoat is.sued to enlisted 
 men. In ihe Uniteii States army it is of sky-blue 
 cloth, douhle-brejisted. or singlc-bn'asted with the 
 additional rape; Ihe linings and facings conforming 
 to the trimmings of the uniform. On the frontier 
 and campaign, officers may wear the soldier's great- 
 coat with insignia of rank on the sleeve. See Oar- 
 coat. 
 
 GREAT CULVERIN.— A cannon of the French ar- 
 tillery, under Henry II., carrjing a projectile weigh- 
 ins frnni 1-") lbs. i ounces to 1.5 lbs. 4ounccs. 
 
 GREAT FORTIFICATION.— One of the divisions of 
 the first system of Vauban. It consists in a fortifica- 
 tion whose exterior side is from 185 to 260 toises, or 
 from 370 to 520 yards, and is seldom adopted but to- 
 wards a river or a marsh. 
 
 GREAVES. — Pieces of armor formerly used as a 
 defense for the legs (in the patois of Burgundy, grirr 
 still signifies "shin "). They were originally made of 
 leather, quilted linen, etc., and afterwards of steel, 
 hollowed out to fit the front.* of the legs, and fast- 
 ened with straps behind. The Greeks termed them 
 knimidt'S (whence the frequent expression in the 
 Ilmd. f}ikiiemitl,:') Ar/uiioi, or the " well - greaved 
 Greeks"), and the Romans i>c>r(F. 
 
 GRECIAN ARMY.— Under a law promulgated in 
 1876, the militarv forces of Greece are divided into 
 four jiarts — the l^egular Army, the Regular Reserve, 
 the Militia, and the Militia Reserve. All Greeks 
 between 19 and 30 years of age, not .serving in the 
 Regular Army, are placed in the Regular Reserve; 
 those from 31 to 40, in the Militia; and those from 41 
 to 50, in the Mililia Reserve. The whole strength of 
 the army under the bill is estimated at 200,000^ 120,- 
 000 of whom belong to the Regular Armv and its 
 Reserve, 50,000 to the Militia, and 30,000 to the Jlilitia 
 Reserve. The number of the Regular Army is usu- 
 allv about 15,000. See Aniii/. 
 
 GREEK BUCKLER.— This shield was distinguish- 
 ed by its two handles, — one in the center through 
 which the arm pas.sed. and one at the edge for the 
 hand. In addition to this there was a leathern strap 
 to hang the shield round the neck. 
 
 GREEK FIRE. — A composition supposed to have 
 l)ccn of niter, sulphur, and naphtha as a principal in- 
 gredient, with which the Greeks of the Byzantine 
 Empire were wont to defenil themselves against their 
 Saracen adversaries. The aecoimts of its effects are 
 so mingled with obvious fable that it is difiicult to 
 arrive at any just conclusion as to its power; but the 
 mixture appears to have been highly intlamraable, 
 and to hiive possessed the power of burning under 
 water. It was projected either on blazing tow, tied 
 to arrows, or through a tube, the precursor of cannon. 
 Wherever Ihe comiaisliblc fell, it made great havoc, 
 from the inextinguisbable nature of the fire. The 
 invention of this material has u.sually been ascribed 
 to Callinicus of Ileliopolis, and the year 668 A.U.; 
 but there seems to 1k' reason to believe that it was 
 rather imported from India. At Constantinople, the 
 process of making Greek fire was kept a profound 
 secret for several centuries. The knowledge, how- 
 ever, of its composition gradually spread; and at the 
 time of the discovery of gvmpowder, Greek fire 
 fonned a recognized defensive element in most wars 
 from western Europe to Asia Minor. Subsisting for 
 sometime concurrently with gunpowder, it gradually 
 died out before the advances of that still more effec- 
 tive competitor, till now little vestige remains of 
 Greek fire bcjond a Norman corruption of its name 
 in our firework "Cracker," which, derived from 
 " Crcyke" of the Middle Ages, is but a corruption of 
 " Grc((|ue." 
 
 GREEN CHARGE.— In the manufacture of gun- 
 powder certain ]iroces.ses have to be carried out, the 
 primarj' one being that of " mixing the ingredients" 
 after tliey have been weighed and brought into con- 
 
 ] tact previous to being incorporated. The process of 
 iiiu-iiig is performed l)y putting the composition into 
 
 , a cylindrical gun-metal or copper dmm, about 2 feet 
 
 ' in diameter, with an axle passing through its center, 
 on which there are metal fiyeiv like forks; the ma- 
 chinerj- is so arranged that the fivers and drum re- 
 volve in opposite directions, at a rate of about 100 
 revolutions a minute; five minutes is long enough for 
 a thorough mixture; the charge is then drawn off by 
 a slip into a canvas bag capable of holding a 50-lb. 
 charge, which is tightlv tied and removed to a small 
 magazine until required for the incorporating process. 
 In this form it is called a green c/mrr/e. 
 
 GREENE GUN.— A breech loading rifle, ha\nng a 
 fixed chamlKT clo.sed by a movable breech-block 
 which slides in the line of the barrel by direct action. 
 This piece has a concealed spinil-spring lock. It is 
 loaded through a mortise cut in the side of the re- 
 ceiver, and is locked bv projections on the bolt en- 
 gaging with corresponding cavities in the receiver. 
 The handle of the breech-bolt is so formed as lo lie 
 close to the stock, when turned down and closed. A 
 detachable magazine or pannier, made of tin, can be 
 connected with the right side of the receiver, and is 
 worked by canting the gun to the left, and allowing 
 a cartridge to roll into the receiver in front of the 
 bolt, when it is withdrawn to load. 
 
 GREENER BULLET.— About 1836 ^Ir. Greener in- 
 vented and submitted for trial at Tynemouth, imder 
 the authority of the JIaster General, and Board of 
 
 i Ordnance, a bullet to expand by the action of the 
 powder. It was shaped like an egg, ha^nng an open- 
 ing at one end to receive a taper plug, with a head 
 like a round-topped button, of a composition of lead, 
 tin, and zinc. This plug, which was rather larger 
 near the head than the opening, .was driven home on 
 the explosion of the powder, when Ihe sides of the 
 bullet were dilated, and forced into the grooves of 
 the rifle, thereby stopping all windage, and increas- 
 ing the accuracy of shooting as compared with the 
 Government bidlet. The Board of Ordnance rejected 
 this bullet on the ground of its being compound; in 
 1857, however, Mr. Greener was awarded t'lOOO "for 
 the first [lublic suggestion of the principle of expan- 
 sion, comnionlv called the Minie principle, for bullets, 
 in 1836." 
 
 GREENLEAF LITTER.— A combination horse and 
 hand-litler, constnicted after the plan of the Indian 
 traeail. It consists of four ash poles, two for shafts 
 and two for litter-poles; Ihe former are 7i feet long, 
 2 inches wide, 2J inches deep at the butt, and fj 
 by If inches at the point; the latter are 8+ feet long. 3 
 inches wide, and 2J inches deep, with rounded edges 
 and corners. On one end of the litlcr-pole are riveted 
 two WTOught-iron bands ^ inch thick and IJ inch 
 wide. (Jne of these collars is set 2 inches from the 
 end of the lilter-pole, and has a diameter of 4| inches 
 by 2 inches; (be other is set 12 inches from the end 
 of the poles, and lias a diameter (<f 5| by 2 inches. 
 The o])p(isit(' end of Ihe litter-pole is shod with an 
 iron tliinible 1 foot long. Two cro.s.s-bars, 30 by li 
 by 2i inches, with a square collar of iron i inch thick 
 by lA inch wide on each end, serve to keep the poles 
 separated and steady; the collars should have a 
 diameter of 2 by 2J inches, and the liller-iiole must 
 be square at its front end and 21 feet from the rear 
 end for their reception. A canvas bed 6 feet by 33 
 inches, with strongly bound eyelets 8 inches apart on 
 the upper end and upper three feet of the sides, and 
 permanently fastened to the lower three feet of the 
 sides, compUlis the affair. The litter is dragged by a 
 horse or mule hitched into the shafts, — Ihe rear ends 
 of the litler-polcs resting on the ground, the patient 
 occupying the canvas bag in Ihe middle. To put it 
 together, Ihe small end of Ihe shaft is pa.ssed from 
 behind forward, through Ihe rear and larger collar 
 on Ihe front end of the lilter-pole, thence through the 
 smaller collar, and then "pulled home," until the 
 butt of the shafts is tightly einbniced by the collars; 
 the cross-bars are then put into their resijcctive places
 
 OBENASE. 
 
 785 
 
 GEENET BATTEET, 
 
 by slipping their collars over the front and rear ends 
 of the litter-poles and pushing them securely home, 
 the canvas bed lashed to the poles by ropes "passing 
 through the side eyelets and aroimd" the poles, and 
 through the end eyelets and around the cross-bars; 
 the ropes at the head of the bed should be slack, to 
 afford " bag" enough to the cjinvas to bring the 
 head and shoulders of the i)atient nearly on a level 
 with his feet. By the arrangement of "splicing the 
 shafts to the litter-poles through collars of unequal 
 sizes, a constant tightening of the parts goes on hy the 
 force exerted by the animal in pulling the litter) and 
 no opportunity for loosening occurs; while as the 
 greatest weight occurs at this point, additional 
 strengUi is gained through the iron collar and the 
 
 ployed in throwing hand-grenades, but in modem 
 parlance a member of the first company of every bat- 
 tidion on foot, in which the tallest and finest men of 
 the regiment are placed. This company used to be 
 distinguished from the rest bj' tall l)car-skin caps; it 
 holds the place of honor, viz., the right, when in line, 
 and the front when in oohnnn of attjick. 
 
 GEENADIEH GUARDS.— The first regiment of foot- 
 guard.s in (he British Hou.sehold Brigade of Guards, 
 and generally considered the finest corps in the arm}'. 
 It comprises 2540 othcci-s and men, divided into three 
 battalions. The ofiicei-s of this fashionable corps are 
 usually from the families of the nobilit v or more distin- 
 guished landed gentry. The First Foot-guards, under 
 which name the regiment was originally known, was 
 
 Greenleaf Litter. 
 
 double thickness of pole, '^itb a collar and harness, 
 which can be carried without much trouble, the litter 
 can be hitched to an animal by a chain attached to the 
 harness, and having on its end a goose-neck pin to 
 pierce the shaft from below, and be fastened above 
 by a nut or linch pin. To unship the latter, give a 
 smart blow on the small end of the shaft which will 
 drive it back through the collars, when it can be 
 taken out; remove the cros.s-bars, unfasten the ropes, 
 and wrap the poles and cross-bars in the canvas, 
 packing the whole thing like a tent on a pack-mule. 
 For use as a hand-litter, it is only necessary to unship 
 the shafts. See Litter. 
 
 GEENADE.— A small shell, about three inches in 
 diameter, of iron or annealed glass, tilled with pow- 
 der, and thrown from the hand. Hurled among 
 dease masses of troops, as those assembled in the 
 ditch of a fortress during an a.ssault, grenades are 
 partictdarly embarrassing, the splinters inflicting deep 
 ■wounds and causing gi-eat confusion. The discharge 
 
 Hand-grenade. 
 
 is effected by means of a sm.all time-fuse. Grenades 
 are occasionally rolled over the ])arapet, through 
 ■wooden troughs, into the trench below; there is also 
 a species of handgim fired from a rest, called " mus- 
 keton," from which grenades may l>e projected to a 
 short distance. These missiles are said to have been 
 first used in the year 1.594. See Hand-grenade, Pro- 
 jectiles, Rii mparl-grennde, and Sfiells. 
 GEEHADIER.— Originally a soldier who was em- 
 
 I first raised in 1660; since then it has ever borne an 
 honorable position in all the wars of the country, and 
 especial!}- in the Peninsula, at Waterloo, and in the 
 Crimea. 
 
 GEENADIEES AUXILIARIES.— During the siege, 
 and when a place was closelj- invested, a certain 
 I number of grenadiers were chosen out of the battal- 
 I ions belonging to the trenches, for the purpose of 
 I making headway against the besieged, whenever they 
 j might risk a sally, or assault the works. It was the 
 I peculiar duty of these men to stand forward on every 
 occasion, to set fire to the gabions attached to the bat- 
 teries, and to crush every attempt which might be 
 made by the garrison to aimoy the men that were 
 posted in the trenches, etc. 
 
 GEENET BATTEEY.— A variety of battery much 
 used for military puqioses. 
 It occupies but little space, 
 furnishes an immense quan- 
 tity of current, is beauti- 
 ful in design, and, as the 
 zinc can be raised from the 
 fluid, may be kept charged, 
 ready for use, for many 
 months, and can be set in 
 action any time when re- 
 quired, by simply depress- 
 ing the rod of bra.ss which 
 slides through the center of 
 the cover of the cell, and to 
 which the zinc is attached. 
 For operating induction-coils 
 and electro - medical instni- 
 ments it is unequaled. 
 
 To Make the Soluiiem.— To 
 three pints of cold water add 
 five fluid ounces of sulphu- 
 ric acid. When this has be- 
 come cold, add six ounces „ . „ „ 
 (or as much as the solution «'^'"" ^"^--y- 
 will dissolve) of finely pulverized bichromate of potas- 
 sa. Mix well. 
 
 To Charge the Battery. — Poiu' the above solution 
 into the glass cell until it nearly reaches the top of 
 the spherical part, then draw up the zinc, and place 

 
 OEEVIEKES. 
 
 r86 
 
 OROHMETS. 
 
 the elements in the cell. The fluid should not quite 
 reach the zinc when it is dniwn up. 
 
 WhiTf it i.s designed to have a batterj- for occa- 
 sional siTvice, such as is needed for operating large 
 induction-coils, electric-light experiments, charging 
 larirc magnets, and for genend laboratory work, the 
 plunge-battery is probably the most efficient and con 
 venient yet devised. When not in ase the plates are 
 lifted from the solution, but are always ready at a 
 moment's notice. The fluid used is that of the (irenet 
 battery. The plates can be rcailily detached and re- 
 placeil at slight expense when neccs.sary, and the jars 
 easily emptied, cleaned, and refilled \\ithout taking 
 the plates apart, which, together with the crank-lift, 
 make this battery one of the most convenient ever de- 
 vis^'d for the ]uiriioses to which it is adapted. 
 
 GREVIERES. — Pieces of armor for the protection 
 of the legs and thighs. See TriniitliiiYs. 
 
 GRIBEAUVAL SYSTEM OF ARTILLERY.— About 
 17G5, various iniprovtments were introduced into Eu- 
 ropean artillery by General Gribeauval. He sepa- 
 rated Jitl<l froni xifffi' artillerj', lightened and shortened 
 field-guns, anil diminished the charges. He adopted 
 elevatinj-screws, strengthened the carriages, and in- 
 troduced neater uniformity in the dimensions, ena- 
 bling spare parts to be carried for repairs. See Syilem 
 of Alii //try. 
 
 GRICES.— A term used in Heraldry to signify the 
 young wild-boars. See Hcniklri/. 
 
 GRIENDEL DACH SYSTEM OF FORTIFICATION. 
 — This system is a combination of the bastion and 
 tenaille tracings. The enceinte is bastioned and serves 
 as retrenchment; the tcnailles are formed of great 
 ravelins traced on the prolongation of the faces of 
 the bastions. The four flanks of the ravelin and its 
 reduit must be destroyed by the mine when the be- 
 sieger has breached the ravelin. The ditch of the 
 reduit is defended by a double flank constructed on 
 the face of the bastion. Between the tenailles are 
 ravelins with long flanks. The outlay is very great, 
 and the i)lace is much exposed to enfilade. 
 
 GRIFFIN. — ^A chimerical creature, which the fancy 
 of the modern has adopted from that of the ancient 
 world. The griffin is first mentioned by Aristeas, 
 perhaps about 560 b.c, though the accounts of Aris- 
 teas seem to be about as fabulous as those of the 
 griffin. The origin of those monstrous conceptions 
 in general, of whicli the griffin is one, has already 
 been considered under Dragox. The griffin is vari- 
 ously described and represented, but the shape in 
 which it most frequently appears is that of an ani- 
 mal generated between a lion and an eagle, having 
 the body and legs of the former, with the beak and 
 wings of the latter. In this form it appears on an- 
 tique coins, and as an ornament in cla.ssical architec- 
 ture. Like all other monsters, griffins abound in the 
 legendary tales of the Teutonic nations, and the name 
 in various forms, slightly differing 
 from each other, is to be found in 
 most Teutonic dialects. Whether in 
 the two cases both the name and the 
 notion might not be traceable to a 
 common source, or whether it was 
 through barbarian or cla.ssical chan- 
 nels that they found their way into 
 the nomenclature and the |irac"tice of 
 heralds, are subjects on which we do not venture an 
 opinion. Certain it is, however, that there are few 
 fabulous conceptions with which the science of Her- 
 aldry is more conversiint than the grilfin. Nor were 
 they regarde<l by the patiiarclis of that science alway;» 
 as mere creatures of the imagination, for, incredible 
 as it may seem, we find Gerard Leigh, a herald of 
 great reputation in the time of Elizabeth, talking of 
 them with entire sincerity as existing animals. "I 
 think they areof great hugeness," hesays, " for Ihnre 
 a elaw of one nf their paim, v,-h\ch should show them 
 to be as big as two lions." In the heraldic griffin, the 
 claws of the eagle are usually substituted for the fore- 
 paws of the lion. Gwillim blazons a griflin in this 
 
 Grimn. 
 
 attitude " nunpant," alleging that any fierce animal 
 may l)e so blazoned as well a.s a lion. But the more 
 appropriate and usvial term is " segreant." In re|)re- 
 senting the griffin, the cars ou^ht not to lie omitted, as 
 they indicitte the attribute of watchfulness, which, 
 along with strength and swiftness, went to make up 
 theclas>;i<al conception of his character. See Wyrern. 
 
 GRIFFIN GUN. — A name sometimes given to the 
 3-inch rifle used in the United Stjites field-.service, 
 from its inventor, Mr. Grilfin, of Uie Pha'iiix%ille 
 Iron works, Feunsvlvania, where the gun was made. 
 
 GRINDING MACHINE.— The u.se of emery giind- 
 ingniachiues in almost everj' branch of accurate 
 machine construction is extending every year. Wher- 
 ever exact cylindrical forms or true plane metal sur- 
 faces are required, emery-wheels have been found to 
 be the most ellective means of supplementing the work 
 of the lathe and planing-niachine in producing exact 
 work. Sir Joscjth Whitworth was among the first to 
 develop the true surface-plate .system, which he ar- 
 rived at by scraping the surface and correcting the 
 errors and inequalities by fitting the plates to each 
 other. Two plates may be made to fit each other 
 perfectlj' and neither be a true plane, because one 
 may be convex and the other concave to correspond: 
 but if one plate is fitted to two others and the latter 
 are both convex or concave, they will not fit each 
 other. Latterly, however, true surfaces are repro- 
 duced by moving an object on a perfectly true plane 
 or table over a grinding- wheel in the ndddle which 
 removes all the projections of the object, and in this 
 way the perfect plane of the table is, so to speak, 
 transferred to the object. 
 
 The machine shown on page 787 is intended to 
 produce perfectly true wearinsj surfaces on various 
 work in this way. The engra\ing illustrates its con- 
 struction so clearly that little or no description is 
 needed. The distance from the floor to the center of 
 the spindle is 27 inches. The latter is of steel, 2 
 inches in diameter, and two- or three-cone pulleys are 
 furni.shed as may be required. The machine is 
 intended for emefv-wheels of 20 inches diameter and 
 4 inches face, which it will wear down to 9 inches 
 in diameter. The plate for the surface-grinding is 5 
 feet long and 11 inches wide, and can be elevated and 
 lowered. These machines, in great numbers, are em- 
 ployed in arsenals. See Emery-griinhr. 
 
 GRIP. — 1. In some guns the bore is slightly en- 
 larged to within about a caliber in front of the shot- 
 chamber; the intervening portion, which has a less 
 diameter than any other part of the bore, is termed 
 the grip. The diameter of this rjrip is the caliber of 
 the gun. 2. The handle of a sword. 
 
 GRIPES.— A complaint with which horses are often 
 attacked; the remedy recommended is as follows: On 
 the horse being observed to be in pain, he should be 
 trotted about until his bowels are emptied. Should 
 this fail, he must be bled to the extent of two or three 
 quarts, and a ball composed of one drachm of gum 
 opium and two of powdered ginger, made up with 
 bruised meal, given to him, and a clyster of oatmeal 
 gruel every two hours. See Veterinary Art. 
 
 GROGNARDS. — A term applied to the old soldiers 
 of the Frpn<h Empire, who weri' noted for iirumbling. 
 
 GROINED VAULTING.— In forlification'and build- 
 ing, that kind of vaidting in which the vault is not a 
 plain l)arrel-va\iU from end to end. but where one vault 
 cuts into another. The angle fonned by the intersec- 
 tion is called the groin. In Roman architecture the 
 groins were generally left as a plain sharp edge; in 
 Gothic, they were usually protected and strengthened 
 with libs. 
 
 GROMA. — A Rom.an measuring-rod, abovif 20 feet 
 lonir. visi'il for setting olT di'^taiiccs in ji camp. 
 
 GROMMETS— GRUMMETS.— Circular pieces of rope 
 attached to shot to keep the shot steady in the l>orc. 
 They are made of various sizes. Grummet-wads are 
 also used when firing at angles of depression, or at 
 angles of elevation less than 3 ; the grummet is 
 placed over the shot to prevent it from nmjiing out of
 
 OBOOH. 
 
 787 
 
 GROOVES. 
 
 the piece. The use of grummet- wads with rifled 
 muzzle-loading guns has been discontinued for hind- 
 ser\ice, except when these guns arc firing at a depres- 
 sion. The tenn griinuiui is applied to a rope ring 
 worked in a particular manner. See Wad. 
 
 6EO0M. — One of several otficers of the English 
 Royal Household, chiefly in the Lord Chamberlain's 
 Department; as, the Groom of the Chamber; Groom 
 of the Stole, or Robes. 
 
 GKOOM-PORTER.— An officer in the Household of 
 the King of England, who succeeded the Master of 
 Revels, and gave directions as to sports. 
 
 GROOVES.— The width of the groove generally de- 
 pends on the diameter of the bore and the peculiar 
 manner in which the groove receives and holds the 
 projectile. Wide and shallow grooves are more easilj- 
 filled by the expanding portion of a projectile than 
 those which are narrow and deep; and the same holds 
 true of circular-shaped grooves when compared to 
 those of an angular form. An increase in the num- 
 
 groove may be used with advantage, as it diminishes 
 the friction of the projectile when it is first set in 
 motion, and thereby relieves the breech of the piece 
 of a portion of the enormous strain which is thrown 
 upon it. If the twist be too rapid toward the muzzle, 
 there will be a thuicer of bursting the piece in the 
 chase. It is claimed by some that the variable groove 
 is well adapted to expanding projectiles with short 
 bearing surfaces; but the uniform groove, being more 
 simple in its construction, and nearly as accurate in 
 its results, is gcnemlly preferred for military fire-arms, 
 both large and small. 
 
 The width of a groove depends on the diameter of 
 the bore, and on the peculiar manner in which the 
 gioove receives and holds the projectile. Wide and 
 shallow grooves are more easily filled by the expand- 
 ing portion of a projectile than tho.se which are nar- 
 row and deep; and the siime holds true of circular- 
 shaped grooves, when compared to those of angular 
 form. An increase in the number of grooves increases 
 
 Emery QrindiDg-machine. 
 
 ber of grooves increases the firmness with which a 
 projectile is held, by adding to the nimibcr of points 
 which bear upon it. The effect of decreasing the 
 depth of rifle-grooves is, generally, to increase the ac- 
 curacy but diminish the range. The increase of ac- 
 curacy undoubtedly arises from the fact that the pro- 
 jectile is held more firmly by the grooves as it passes 
 along the bore; while the diminution of range arises 
 from an increase of friction between the projectile 
 and the grooves. The comparative advantages of 
 unifomi and variable grooves depend on the means 
 used to connect them' with the projectiles. If the 
 bearing of the projectile in the grooves be long, and 
 the metal of which it is made be unyielding, il will 
 be unsjife, if not impracticable, to emijloy variable 
 grooves; and if the metal be partially yielding, a por- 
 tion of the force of the charge will Ix- expended in 
 changing the form of that part of the projectile w hich 
 projects into the grooves, ivs it moves along the bore. 
 When the portion in the grooves is so short that its 
 form will undergo but slight alteration, the increasing 
 
 the firmness with which a projectile is held, by add- 
 ing to the number of points which bear upon it. It 
 has been suggested that rifle-cannon, intended for 
 flanged projectiles, should have four grooves; as a 
 greater number incre;ises the difl[iciilties of loading, and 
 a lesser number does not hold the projectile with suffi- 
 cient steadiness. For expanding projectiles, an odd 
 number of grooves is generally employed, for, as this 
 places a groove opposite to a land, less expansion will 
 be required to fill Ihcm. The mmilx;rof grooves used 
 in the 3-inch field-gun is seven, and the number used 
 in 41-ineh siege-guns is nine. The number of grooves 
 in the 4-inch Armstrong gun \s fifty. 
 
 The object of rifle-grooves being to communicate 
 an effective rotary motion to a projectile throughout 
 its flight, it remains to determine what velocity of ro- 
 tation, or inclination of grooves, is necessary for dif- 
 ferent projectiles. The velocity of rotation will de- 
 pend on the form and initial velocity of the projectile, 
 the causes which retard it, and the time of flight; 
 therefore tliere is cme particular inclination of grooves
 
 GBOS. 
 
 788 
 
 GRUSON SEA-CO&ST CABBIAGE. 
 
 iffiieh i» bftt suited to each caliber, form of pr^jeetilf. 
 charge of poirder, and angle of fire. It hiis liecn no- 
 tioed tliiit if very long projectiles be fired from the 
 rillc-musket, they nre less aecurate than the ordinary 
 projectile, the length of which is less than two cali- 
 bers. 5Ir. Whitworth states that lie has known a bul- 
 let twice this h'liirlli turn over end for end within six 
 feet of the niu/./.le of the Knglish ritle-musket, the 
 caliber of which is nearly the same as that of the 
 American ritle musket. This instability undoubtedly 
 arises from the want of sullicient rotation arounii the 
 long axis. What increase of angular velocity must, 
 therefore, be given to compensate for a given increji.sc 
 of length of an oblong projectile? 
 
 The resistance which a projectile offers to angular 
 detlection, when rotating around a priiicipitl axis, is 
 proportional to the moment of its quantity of motion 
 taken with reference to this axis, or M k"ir, M l)eing the 
 mass, k the radius of gjTation, and ir the angular veloc- 
 ity. Let this ex))ression represent the moment of the 
 quantity of motion around the long axis, and k and ir 
 the radius of gjration, and angidar velocity, around a 
 short axis, and suppose the angular velocity ir and c, 
 to be such that the resistance to a deflection from the 
 
 bore 4 inches in diameter. See Increasing Twist, Tirist, 
 anil Uniform Twint. 
 
 GSOS. — Any body of soldiers; a detachment. The 
 French frequently .say, Un gros d'infanterie, a body 
 of infantry. 
 
 GROUND. — A common term in military phraseolo- 
 gy, meaning the field or a place of action. What is 
 termetl diking ground is the extension of a body of 
 troops in any direction. To gain ground is toad- 
 vance; to li/si ground is to retire or retreat. 
 
 GROUND ARMS. -An old word of command, di- 
 recting the soldiers to lay down their arms upon the 
 ground. It is omitted from tlie present tactics. 
 
 GRUSON SEA-COAST CARRIAGE.— Carriages for 
 guns of isinch caliber only have been furnished by 
 Gruson. They dilTer from the corresponding car- 
 riages made by Krupp in this essential particular, that 
 cast-iron is used for several of the imjiortant parts in 
 place of cast-steel or wrought-iron, and in conse- 
 quence a cheaper but heavier carriage is made. The 
 8-inch guns are of two distinct cla.s.ses, differing from 
 each other in the distance between the rimbases, 
 being 35 inches and lio.H inches respectively, and re- 
 quiring separate carriages. The top-carriage consists 
 
 Gruson Sea-coast Carriage.. 
 
 axes shall be equal: we have MA-'ir = "iiikhr , and by 
 reduction !c, = — - (c. Hence, if we determine by ex- 
 periment the value of w, the angular velocity neces- 
 sary to give pniriieable stability of rotation," we can 
 determine the value of ir , and consequently the siijieri- 
 or limit of the deflecting forces. Substituting the value 
 of w, in a similar expression for any other projectile, 
 ■we can determine the angular velocity, and from this 
 the inclination of grooves necessary to give the second 
 projectile .steadiness in flight. 
 
 The foregoing method of determining the relation 
 between the lengths of two ritle projectiles, and the 
 inclination of gi-ooves necessiiry to give them equal 
 steadiness of flight, is true only inider the supposition 
 that they preserve throughouttheir range the relative 
 angular velocities with which they started. It is 
 neces.sary, therefore, to consider the causes which af- 
 fect rotiilion. The inclination of grooves for a rifle- 
 cannon best suited to a given projectile hsis not yet 
 been determined by experience; and the consequence 
 is that a wide cliversity of "twists" is eniiiloyed in 
 the various services, aiid by dilTercnt expeiimenters. 
 Colonel Cavalli, in his experimenis in Sweden, ol)- 
 tained good residts from twists of one turn in 12 feet, 
 and one turn in :!."> feet, in a 32-pdr. gun; and a still 
 greater variety of twists have been erajiloyed in our 
 own ser\'ice. For a projectile one luid a lialf diame- 
 ters long, and O-pdr. calilier, excellent jiractice has 
 l)ecn obtained with a twist of 25 feet; and in a certain 
 form of the Armstrong gun the twist is 13 feet for a 
 
 of two cheeks of cast-iron, each in one .single piece, 
 with a rib on the outside extending around the edge 
 and forming on the lower side a shoe which slides on 
 the rail. TIw cheek is cut out in the middle to make 
 it lighter, and is reinforced with a rib around the 
 edge of the hole thus formed. The cheeks are con- 
 nected together by two cast-iron transoms, front and 
 rear, at right angles to the shoe, each held in place 
 by two pins and three bolts, The spaces between the 
 ends of the transoms and the cheeks are filled up with 
 melted zinc, and whenever two pieces of cast-iron are 
 connected together without planing the surfaces, 
 nulled zinc is" poured into the space between them. 
 The front transom has a cross-head cast to it on its 
 under side to operate the (liston rod. and guides to di- 
 rect the niotion of the lopcariiage on tin- rails. Guide- 
 hooks are bolted on the uniler side of this transom to 
 prevent any vertical motion of the top-carriage and 
 the binding of the piston-rod, A sheet-iron step 
 rests on two brackets which are boiled to the cheeks 
 in rear <if the rear transom, for the man to stiind 
 on who elevates or <lepresses the gim. The lib on 
 the outside of the cheek fonns a recess at the front 
 anil rear corner for the tnick\vheels, which are made 
 of cast-iron bushed with while metal, and provided 
 with luliricating-holes. The axle of the front roller 
 is bellied to the cheek. The rear rollers are slightly 
 larger than the front ones, and are mounted on an ec- 
 centric axle. The portion of the axle which pa.sses 
 through the cheek is made larger than the rest and 
 has a circular slot extending about a quarter of the
 
 6UAEANTEE ASSOCIATION. 
 
 789 
 
 OUABI). 
 
 circumference around it. A screw set in from the 
 rear end of the check plays in this slot and acts as a 
 stop to limit the turning o"f the axle, and also to pre- 
 vent it from moving in the direction of its length. 
 There is a hole in the axle on the inside of the cheek 
 for the end of a handspike by which to turn the axle 
 and throw the rollers in or out of gear. The elevat- 
 ing-apparatus consists of a strong screw pivoted on 
 a shaft secured to the left cheek, and a female screw 
 of brass which is operated by means of four handles 
 •cast to the lower part of the female screw. India- 
 rubber rings are interposed between the female screw 
 and box to lessen the force of the shock of the recoil 
 on the screw box. The top-carriage for the smaller 
 gim differs from that just described in this, that the 
 cheeks are bent outwards at the bottom to preserve 
 the same distance between the shoes in the two car- 
 riages, so that the same chassis may be used for 
 •either, and in having a different elevating-apparatus. 
 The preponilerance of these guns, 992 pounds, allows 
 the application of a single elevating-screw under the 
 breech of the gun, a female screw being titled in a 
 boss on the rear transom. In order to obtain high 
 angles of elevation without having a screw of very 
 great length, a cast-iron cap is placed on the head of 
 the screw between it and the gun, and is kept there 
 for all angles of elevation less' than 8', which corre- 
 sponds to a range of 3280 yards. 
 
 The rails are 12-inch rolled beams, connected to- 
 gether by three transoms of boiler plate, two at the 
 front and one at the rear end. "Wooden hurters are 
 secured to the front end of the rails for the front 
 truck-wheels to strike against. India-rubber counter- 
 hurters are secured to the box-flange of the hydraulic 
 cylinder, and are struck by the guides on the rear 
 transom of the top carriage. The hydraulic cylinder 
 is of cast-iron, 75 inches long and 1.1 inch thick. It 
 has a flange or seat cast on the bottom at each end for 
 securing it to the bottom transom. The rear seat 
 takes the form of an open box, the length equal to 
 the distance between the rails to which it is bolted, 
 as well as to the bottom ti-an.som. The ends of the 
 cylinder are turned off square, and are closed by cast- 
 iron covers fitted closely and bolted to the cylinder, a 
 piece of pasteboard .s;iturated in linseed-oil being in- 
 terposed between the surfaces to make a close joint. 
 The front cover cont;iins the stuffing-box, which is of 
 brass. The rear cover has a recess in the inside, so 
 that the nut on the end of the piston-rod shall not 
 strike it. There is a gauge-cock in the center of this 
 cover to regulate the height of the gljxerine in the 
 cylinder. The piston-head is of cast-iron. The four 
 holes in it are reamed out to be parabolic in section; 
 the least diameter is .78 inch. The traverse-wheels 
 are of cast-iron; the front ones are solid and smaller; 
 the rear have spokes. The sole is flat, and the front 
 flange is much stronger than the rear one. The front 
 flange of the rear wheel has holes in it.s periphery to 
 receive the end of a handspike to traverse the chassis 
 in case the traversing-gear should fail to operate. The 
 traverse-wheel forks are also of cast iron. The front 
 fork has no rear branch, the wheel being supported 
 only on the front side. The traversing-gear is held 
 in a frame formed of two parallel iron plates bolt- 
 ed by means of angle-irons to the rear bottom tran- 
 som. It consists of a large grooved wheel for the 
 chain, and four guide-rollers; two with their axles 
 horizontal are grooved like the large wheel; the oth- 
 ers have their axles vertical. A large spur-wheel is 
 shrunk on the nave of the chain- wheel, and is driven 
 by a pinion and bevel gears on a cro.ss-shaft which 
 is turned by a crank. The projectile crane consists 
 of a crane-box of cast-iron bolted to the outside of 
 the right chassis-rail. The crane proper is composed 
 of two parts — the body, which is a round iron rod, 
 and moves freely up and down in the circular hole 
 in the crane-box, and the bent neck, made of two 
 flat bars riveted to the flattened iip|)er end of the 
 ix)dy. The neck has two fixed pulleys between the 
 flat bars for the chain to work over. A straight rack 
 
 is secured to the body at their upper ends, the end of 
 the former being bent at a right angle to itself, with a 
 circular hole in the bent end for the body of the crane 
 to pass through. A shoulder on the top of the body 
 rests on the rack where the Ixjdy passes through the 
 bent end. The nick is operated 'by means of a wheel 
 and pinion turned by a crank. A chain with a hook 
 on each end is fastened at one end to the crane-box, 
 passes over the two pulleys, hangs from the end of 
 the neck, and is fastened to the projectile-cart. In 
 raising the crane the projectile is also raised by the 
 shortening of that part of the chain which hangs from 
 the upper roller. The implements are the same as 
 for Krupp's carriage, with the exception of the hand- 
 spike, which is entirely of iron; and the traversing- 
 gear has two cranks. The weights of the two car- 
 riages are as follows: 
 
 ' 
 
 Krupp'B. 
 
 Gnison's. 
 
 Weieht of top-carriage 
 
 Weight of chassis 
 
 Poundt. 
 4,608 
 10,880 
 
 Point ds. 
 .5.512 
 
 8,819 
 
 
 Total weight 
 
 15,482 
 
 14,331 
 
 
 See Sea-i-ooKf nitd Garrimin Ciirriages 
 
 GUARANTEE ASSOCIATION.— An Association in 
 England which for a small percentage imdertakes to 
 vouch for the prudence and fidelity of such public 
 officers as Paymasters, Ordnance Storekeepers, Com- 
 missaries, Staff Officers of Pensions, Barrack Mas- 
 ters, etc. The Government accepts the guarantee of 
 this particular office in preference to that offered by 
 private individuals. 
 
 GUAED.— 1. A body of men whose duty it is to se- 
 cure an army or place from being surprised by an 
 enemy. Camp and garrison guards are relieved 
 every twenty -four hours. The guards at outposts are 
 ordinarilj' relieved in the same manner, but this 
 must depend on their distances from camp, or other 
 circiimstances, which may sometimes require their 
 continuing on duly several days. In such cases they 
 are previously warned to provide themselves acconl- 
 ingly. All persons, of whatever rank in the service, 
 are required to observe due respect toward sentinels. 
 The cuunterifign, or watchword, is given to such per- 
 sons as are entitled to pass during the night, and to 
 officers, non-commissioned officers, and sentinels of 
 the guard. Interior guards receive the countersign 
 only when ordered by the Commander of the troops. 
 The parole is imparted to such officers only as have a 
 right to visit the guards, and to make the grand 
 rounds; and to officers commanding guards. Senti- 
 nels are relieved everj' two hours, unless the state of 
 the weather, or other causes, should make it neces- 
 sary or proper that it be done at shorter or longer in- 
 tervals. Those at the guard -house or guard-tent are 
 the first relieved and left behind. Each relief, before 
 being posted, is inspected by the Commander of the 
 Guard. The Corporal reports to him, and presents 
 the old relief on its return. If the sentinels are nu- 
 merous, the Sergeants are employed, as well as the 
 Corporals, in relieving them. Sentinels do not take 
 orders or allow themselves to be relieved, except by 
 an officer or non-commis-sioned officer of their guard 
 or party, the Officer of the Day, or the Commanding 
 Officer; in which ca.se the orders are immediately no- 
 tified to the Commander of the Guard by the officer 
 giving them. Sentinels report ever}' breach of orders 
 or regidations they arc instructed to enforce. 
 
 2. A position in bayonet and saber exercises, exe- 
 cuted as follows: 
 
 With the Bai/onet. — Bring the left toe nearly to the 
 front; carry the right foot three inches to the rear, 
 the heel two inches to the right of the left, the feet at 
 right angles. (Two.) Carry the right foot fifteen 
 inches to the rear, feet at right angles, knees slightlv 
 bent, the body resting equallj' on both legs; at the 
 same time bnng down the piece into the left hand.
 
 OUABS-DETAIL. 
 
 790 
 
 GUAKO-HOTTNTINO, 
 
 the little linger at the lock-plate, thumli along the 
 stock, the right hand at the small of the stock, the 
 barrel turned slightly to the left, the butt three inches 
 in front of the l)<)dy and a little below the belt-plate, 
 the jwint of the bayonet in front of and at the height 
 of the chin, both arms half extended, the left elbow 
 near the body. All movements in the bayonet-exer- 
 cise, not specially excepted, are executed from guard, 
 to which position the piece is restored after evei^' 
 movement In' the command guard. The position is 
 shown in Fig 1 . 
 
 With the Saiier. — Carrv' the right foot about two 
 feet to the right, heels on ihe same line; place the 
 left hand, closed, six inches from the body, and as 
 
 FlQ.l. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 high as the elbow, the fingers toward the body, little 
 finger nearer than the thumb (position of the bridle- 
 hand); at the same time place the right hand in tierce 
 in front of and a little higher than the right hip, 
 thumb extended on the back of the gripe, little 
 finger by the side of the others, the point of the saber 
 inclined to the left, and two feet higher than the 
 hand, which grasps the saber without constraint. 
 The position is shown in Fig 2. To return to the 
 carry, the Instructor commands: 1. Carry, 2. Saber. 
 At the command saber, the recruits resume the posi- 
 tion of the soldier, and come to the carry. See Bayo- 
 ■net-1'Jrcrci.ie, Ferwing, and Sdber-exercise. 
 
 GUARD-DETAIL.— The men from a company, regi- 
 ment, or other organization detailed for guardnduty. 
 The First Sergeant keepis the roster and makes tliis 
 detail. 
 
 GUAED-DUTY. — In a general sense, that duty per- 
 formed by a sentinel. This duty in peace is much 
 more severe than is generally supposed, and usually 
 requires that during the 24 hours of its continuance 
 the sentinel shall make a march under arms of some 
 16 miles for one third of the time, and be "present 
 for duty equipped " at a moment's notice always. If 
 this happened once a week it would be often enough. 
 Coming, as it does, twice or thrice, it impo.ses more 
 labor and exposure than all other militar)' dtity, and 
 year after year of it tells. There are two ways of 
 meeting this trouble; one by relaxing the regiments 
 of guard-duly to some extent, and one by enlarging 
 the numlKT of men upon whom it is imposed. Its 
 proper performance, so far as security of buildings 
 and stores is concerned, or even the restriction of 
 tmvel to certain directions, does not require a full 
 uniform or even a 14-poiind musket. "To tjike 
 charge of all public property in view," when nothing 
 can be seen by the naked eye but a 20-ton gun and a 
 chain pump, hardly demands that a man should pace 
 majestically back and forth from one to the other 
 forever. lie would be just as useful if he carried a 
 switch and came round at intervals; if, in fact, he 
 dared to consider himself less of a sentinel and more 
 of a watchman. In these days of telephones, when 
 offices, stables, quarters, etc., "can all be put into im- 
 mediate communication with one another, and a man 
 at his desk may in a moment summon into his jires- 
 ence, or receive a report from, anj'body, whether a 
 Police Sergcjint or Post Surgeon, the time-honored 
 formalities and display of guard-duty may well be 
 
 relieved of much that is out of date and out of use. 
 It can Ix! made much less mechanical and tedious 
 with no loss of value. See Guard. 
 
 GUARD-HOUSE. — The buildmg occupied by the 
 guard. The prisoners being kept in the building, it 
 is frequently used as a synonj-m for prison-room or 
 lock-up. 7o take one to the guard-houte is to confine 
 him. See Ouard-room. 
 
 GUARD MESS.— The table which is kept for the 
 ofticers of the Life and Foot Guards in St. James's 
 Palace. The sum of £4000 per annum is allowed 
 for the Mess. 
 
 GUARD-MOUNTING.— The military ceremony of 
 marching on guard. At the assembly of guard-details, 
 the men warned for duty fall in on their company 
 parade-grounds, in two ranks, facing to the right, 
 non-commissioned officers and supemimieraries falling 
 in as file-closers; each First Sergeant then faces his 
 detail to the left, verifies it, fixes bayonets, brings the 
 detail to rear open onler, inspects the dress and gene- 
 ral appearance, replaces bj- a supernumerary any man 
 whose condition makes him luitit to march on guard, 
 and then brings the detail to close order. The band 
 takes post on the regimental parade, so that the left 
 of its front rank shall be twelve yards to the right of 
 the front rank of the guard when the latter is formed. 
 At adjutant's call, the Adjutant and Sergeant-major 
 mareli to the regimental or garrison parade, the Ser- 
 geant-major on the left; the details are conducted to 
 the parade bj' the First Sergeants, the band playing in 
 quick or double time. Upon arriving on the parade- 
 ground, the Sergeant-major takes post facing to the 
 left, 12 yards to the left of the front rank of the band; 
 the Adjutant takes post so as to be 12 yards in front 
 of and facing the center of the guard when formed. 
 The detail which arrives first is so conducted to the 
 line that, upon baiting, the breast of the right front- 
 rank man shall be near to and opposite the left arm 
 of the Sergeant major. The Sergeant having halted 
 his detail, places him.self in front of and facing the 
 Sergeant-major, at a distance equal to or a little greater 
 than the front of his detail; he then commands: 
 1. Rear open order, 2. March. At the second com- 
 mand, the ranks are opened, the front rank dresses 
 up to the line of the Sergeant-major and Krst Sergeant, 
 the right front-rank man placing his breast against 
 the left arm of the Sergeant-major; the rear rank steps 
 back and halts three yards in rear of the front rank; 
 the non-conmiissioned ofticers three yards in rear of 
 the rear rank; and the supernumeraries three yards in 
 rear of the non-commissioned officers. Seeing the 
 ranks opened, the Sergeant commands, Frokt; sa- 
 lutes the Sergeant-major, and reports: The detail is 
 correct; or, (So many) Sergeants, Coijxn-als, or privates, 
 are absent. He then passes by the right of the guard, 
 and places himself three yards in rear of his supernu- 
 meraries. The other details, as they arrive, form in 
 a similar manner on the left of the fii-st; each First- 
 Sergeant places him.self oppo.site the left of his detail, 
 faces the Sergeant major, opens ranks, salutes, reports, 
 and places himself in rear of his supernumeraries as 
 already prescrilwd; the rear rank, the non-commis- 
 sioned officers and supernumeraries of each detail, 
 dress on the rear rank, the noncommissioned officers 
 and supernumeraries of the detail next ]ireceding ; 
 the rear rank closes to the right. The company de- 
 tails alternate in taking the right of the line. The 
 Sergeant-major returns the salutes with the right band, 
 draws his sword, verifies the details, causes the guard 
 to count fours, completing the left four as in the 
 School of the Company, if nece.s.sary, and then di\'ide8 
 the guard equally into two platoons; after which he 
 commands: 1. /J/V^/f?, 2. DuKss. The Sergeant major 
 verifies the alignment of the ranks, file-closers, super- 
 mmierarics, and First Sergeants, and then returns to 
 the right of the front rank, faces to the left, commands, 
 3. Front, pas.ses to the center of the guard, turns to 
 the right, halts midway to the Adjutant, sidutes, and 
 reports: >**(>.' The details are correct; or, Sir.t (so 
 many) Sergeants, Corporals, or pritates, are absent. At
 
 GUABB U OTTNTING. 
 
 791 
 
 GUABD HOTTNTING. 
 
 the order. Take your jxtst, the Sergeant-major faces 
 about, approaches to within two janls of the center 
 of the guard, and, turning to the right, places himself 
 facing to the front, three yards to the left of the front 
 rank. The Sergeant major having reported, the Offi- 
 cers of the Guard post themselves facing to the front, 
 three j'ards in front of the front rank, and draw 
 sword, the Senior opposite the center of the first pla- 
 toon, the Junior opposite the center of the second pla- 
 toon; if there he but one officer, he places himself in 
 front of the center of the guard. The Adjutant 
 superintends the formation, returns the sjilute of the 
 Sergeant-major with the right band, draws his sword, 
 and commands: 1. Officers and non-commumoned offi- 
 een, to the front and center, 2. M.uiCH. At the com- 
 mand march, iheOfficersof the Guard advance, closing 
 toward each other, and halt at three yards from the 
 Adjutant; the non-commi.ssioned officers pass bj- the 
 flanks, and form in the order of rank from right to 
 left, three yards in rear of the officers. The Adjutant 
 then assigns their places in the guard according to rank, 
 as follows: Senior Officer, Commander of the Guard, 
 and chief of the first plat'ion; Junittr Officer, chief of the 
 second platiwn ; Senior Sergeant, right guide and guide 
 cf the first platoon; Second Sergeant, left guide and guide \ 
 cfihe seceind plntoon; 1}ie remaining non-<'oinmi«!ioned 
 officers as fiU-closers of the first and second platoons. 
 The Adjutant then commands: 1. Officer and non- 
 commissioned officers, 2. To your posts, 3. March. At 
 the command march, the Junior Officer of the Guard 
 and the non-commissioned officers take the posts 
 assigned them, the Junior Officer placing himself three 
 yards in front of the center of the second platoon, the 
 non-commissioned officers passing around the flanks. 
 If there be but one Officer of the Guard, the Adjutiint 
 commands: 1. Non-commissioned officers, 2. 7'o your 
 posts, 3. March. The Senior Sergeant takes his post 
 in the line of file-closers opposite the center of the 
 second platoon. The officers and non-commis.sioned 
 officers having taken their posts, the Adjutant directs 
 the Commander of the Guard, Inspect your guard. Sir; 
 at which he faces about, commands, 1. Order, 2. Asms, 
 8. Insitection, 4. Arms, returns his sword and inspects 
 the guard. During the inspection the band plays. 
 The Adjutant, during the inspection, returns his 
 sword, observes the general condition of the guard, and 
 replaces any man who does not present a creditable 
 appearance bj' a supernumerary from his company. 
 He a!so, when so directed, selects, as Orderly for the 
 Commanding Officer, the soldier who is neatest in gene- 
 ral appearance, and notifies the Officer of the Guard of 
 his selection. When there are two Officers of the Guard, 
 the Junior maj', at the discretion of the Senior; inspect 
 the rear rank. If there be no Officers of the Guard, 
 the Adjutant inspects, and the Sergeants designated as 
 chiefs of platoon place themselves in the line of file- 
 closers, opposite the centers of their platoons. If the 
 fuard be too small to be divided into platoons, the 
 enior Sergeant, who commands the guard, places 
 himself on the right of the front rank, and is covered 
 by the right guide in the rear rank. The inspection 
 ended, the Adjutant places himself about thirty yards 
 in front of and facing the center of the guard, and 
 draws sword; the Officers of the Guard place them- 
 selves three yards in front of the centers of their 
 respective platoons, and draw sword; if there be but 
 one, he places himself three yards in front of the cen- 
 ter of the guard; at the same time the Officers of the 
 Day take post in front of and facing the guard, about 
 thirty yards or more from the Adjutant, the old Offi- 
 cer of the Dav three yards to the right and one yard 
 to the rear of "the new Officer of the Day. The Adju- 
 tant then commands, 1. Parade, 2. Rest. 3. SorXD 
 OFF. The band, commencing on the right, plays 
 along the line in front of the Officers of the Guard to 
 the left, and hack to its place on the right, when it 
 ceases. The Adjutant now commands: 1. Guard, 
 3. Attention-, 3. Carry, 4. Arms, 5. Close order, 
 6. >L.\Rcn. At the command march, the officers face 
 about, and place themselves two yards in front of 
 
 their respective platoons. The Adjutant then com- 
 mands, 1. Present, 2. Arms; faces to the new Officer 
 of tlie Day, salutes, and reports: Sir' The guard is 
 formed. The new Officer of the Day, after acknow- 
 ledging the salute with the right hand, directs the Ad- 
 jutant : J/<nrA the guard in rerieir, Sir. If the Adjutant 
 he senior to the Officer of the Day, he reports without 
 saluting; the Officer of the Da)' then sjilutcs and gives 
 the Adjutant the same directions as before; the Adju- 
 tant returns the salute. The Adjutant faces about, 
 brings the guard to a carry, and commands: 1. Pla- 
 toons right irheel, 2. JIarch. At the first command, 
 the chiefs of platoon, if not already there, place them- 
 selves two yards in front of the centers of tieir respec- 
 tive platoons. At the command march, the platoons 
 wheel to the right on a fixed pivot, as explained in 
 the School of the Company; the band wheels to the 
 right and places it.self twelve yards in front of the 
 first platoon. The Adjutant places himself abreast of 
 the first platoon and six yards from its left flank; and 
 the Sergeant-major six yards from the left flank of 
 the second platoon. The Adjutant then commands: 
 
 1. Pass in rerifw, 2. Foritard, 3. Guide right, 4. 
 M.tRCH. The guard now pa.s.ses in quick time past 
 the Officer of the Day, according to the principles of 
 re%iew, the Adjutant, the chiefs of platoon. Sergeant- 
 major and Drum-major saluting. If senior to the Offi- 
 cer of the Day, the Adjutant does not salute. The 
 band, having pa.ssed the Officers of the Day, wheels to 
 the left out of the column, and places itself opposite 
 the Officers of the Day, and facing them, ceasing to 
 play when the rear of the column has- pa.s.sed; the 
 trumpeters or field-music detach themselves ftom the 
 band when the latter wheels out of the column, and 
 remain in front of the guard. The guard having 
 passed the Officers of the Day, the Adjutant and Ser- 
 geant-major halt, return their swords and retire. 
 The Commander of the Guard wheels it into line to 
 the left without halting, breaks it into column of 
 fours to the right, places himself on the left of the 
 leading guide, and, preceded by the trumpeters, who 
 begin lo play when the band cea.ses, conducts his 
 guard to its post. The Officers of the Day face toward 
 each other and salute, the old Officer of the Day giving 
 the old or standing orders to the new Officer of the 
 Day. While the "band sounds off, and the guard is 
 marching in review, the Officers of the Day stand at 
 parade rest with arms folded. They Ixjth come to 
 attention before the guard is to be presented, and as 
 the head of the column approaches. The new Officer 
 of the Day returns the salute of the Drum-major, 
 should there be one, with the right hand, and uncov- 
 ers while the guard is passing, holding his hat with 
 the right hand over the left shoulder. The First 
 Sergeants and supernumeraries come to order arms, 
 parade rest, and attention, with the guard; they re- 
 main at order arms while the guard is being presented 
 and wheeled into column. The senior First Sergeant 
 commands, 1. Parade, 2. Rest, at the command 
 march for passing m review, and, 1. Supernumeraries, 
 
 2. Attention, when the Officers of the Day come to 
 attention. The First Sergeants come to parade rest, 
 and to attention with the supernumeraries. The rear 
 of the column ha\-ing pas.se<l the Officers of the Day, 
 the senior First Sergeant commands, 1. Carry, 2. 
 .\rms, after which each First Sergeant marches his 
 supernumeraries to the company parade and dismisses 
 them. The guard, if too small to be divided into 
 platoons, may be wheeled to the right and pa.ssed in 
 re\iew as alwve; the Commander of the Guard is two 
 yards in front of its center; the Adjutant is six yards 
 ■from its left flank, the Sergciint major covers him on 
 a line with the file-closers. The Officer of the Day 
 may direct the Adiutant: .Varch the guard to its post, 
 Sir. The Adjutant faces about, brings the guard to 
 a earn/, and then commands: 1. Guard to its }>ost, 
 2. Fours right, 3. March (or. Double time. March). 
 At the second command, the Senior Officer places him- 
 self facing to the right, two vards in front of the right 
 
 . guide; the Junior Officer places himself in the line of
 
 GUARD-MOUNTING. 
 
 792 
 
 GUARD MOUNTING. 
 
 flie-closers in rear of the center of the second platoon. 
 At the coniinand luareh, the {luard wheels I)y fours to 
 the right; the IruniixMers or lichliimsic place them- 
 selves in Its front: the Senior Olliier takes ponimand 
 and places himself on the left of the leailiuir ijuide; 
 the Adjutant and Sergeant-major return swords and 
 retire, and the First Sergeants march olf their super- 
 numeraries; the Ollicers of the Day sidute each other 
 as before, and the band retires. As the new guard 
 approaches the guard-house, the old guard is formed 
 in line, witli the trumpeters or field-music two yards 
 to its right; and, when the trumpeters or field-music 
 of the new guartl arrive opposite its left, the Com- 
 mander of the old guard commands: 1. Present, 
 2. Arms. The new guard having passed, he com- 
 mands: 1. C'lrry, 2. Akms. The new guard marches 
 in quick time past the old guard, arms at a carry, 
 officers saluting. The trumpeters having marched 
 three yaids beyond the trumpeters or lield-music of 
 the old guard, change direction to the right, and, 
 followed l>y the guard, change direction to the left 
 when on a line with the tile-closers of the old guard. 
 The change of direction is without command; the 
 Senior Officer of the Guard halts on the line of the 
 front rank of the old guard, allows his guard to march 
 past him, and, when its rear approaches, wheels it bj- 
 fours to the left, halts it, establishes the left guide 
 three yards to the right of the trumpeters or tield- 
 niusic of the old guard, and on a line with its front 
 rank, and then dresses his guard to the left ; the 
 trumpeters or field-music of the new guard are two 
 yards to the right of its frfint rank. The new guard 
 being dressed, the Commander of each guard, in 
 front of and facing its center, commands, 1. Present, 
 
 2. Arms, resumes his front, and salutes. The offi- 
 cers, having sjduted, face their guards, and command: 
 1. Carry, 2. Arms, 3. Order, 4. Arms. Should the 
 guards be commanded l)y Sergeants, they present 
 ■with their guards, standing on the right or left of the 
 front rank, according as they command the old or 
 new guard. If one guard is commanded by an offi- 
 cer, the other by a non-commissioned ofncer, the 
 latter stands on the flank of his guard and .sjilutes 
 with it. The Officer of the new guard now divides 
 the guard into three reliefs, numliers them first, second, 
 and third, from right to left, and directs a list of the 
 guard to be made ; experienced soldiers are placed 
 over the arms of the guai'd and at the remote and re- 
 sponsible pi«ts; the Officer of the Guard then proceeds 
 to take posses.sion of the guard-house or guard-tent, and 
 the articles and prisoners in charge of the guard. 
 During the time of reliex-ing the sentinels and of call- 
 ing in the small posts, the two guards stand at place 
 rest, and the old Commander gives to the new all the 
 information and the instructions relating to his post. 
 The lirst relief ha\ing been designated and brought 
 to a carry, its Coqjoral conmiands": Call off. Com- 
 mencing on the right, the men call off alternately 
 front and rear rank: one, tiro, three, four, ancl so on; 
 the Corporal then commands : 1. Right, 2. Face, 
 
 3. Sitj/pt/rt (or, Ili//ht shoulder), 4. Arms, .'J. Forward, 
 C. March. The Corporal marches on the left, and 
 near the rear tile, in order to observe the march. The 
 Coi-poral of the old guard marches on the right of the 
 leading rank, and takes command when the hist one 
 of the old .sentinels is relieved, changing places with 
 the Corporal f)f the now guard. When the relief ar- 
 rives at fifteen yards from a sentinel, he halts and 
 faces to it, with anns at a carry. At si.x yards from 
 him the Corporal commands : 1. Helitf, 2. Halt. 
 The Corporal then adds, according to tlie number of 
 
 the post: 1. No. ( ), 2. Anns, 3. Pout. At the 
 
 third command the two .senlinels come to arms port, 
 and approach each other. The old .sentinel, under the 
 supervision of both Corporals, whispers his instruc- 
 tions to the new sentinel; lK>tli then come to a carry. 
 The Coqioral then commands: 1. Siipiutrt (ur, Rifjht 
 shMilder), 2. Arms, 3. Forward, 4. >IarcH. As the 
 relief passes, the old sentinel lakes his place in its rear 
 at a support (or right shoulder) arms; the other senti- 
 
 nels are relieved in a similar manner. The sentinel 
 at the guard-house is the lirst relieved, and is left be- 
 hind. The detachments and sctnlinels of the old 
 guard, having come in, form on its left, and both 
 guards are brought to a carry; the Senior Officer of 
 the old guard then marches if, with the guide right, 
 six yards to the front, when he conmiands: 1. Fours 
 right, 2. March. At the command march, the guard 
 wheels by fours to the right, the trumi)elcrs or lield- 
 music begin to play, and the guard marches in quick 
 time pa.st the new guard, which stands at present 
 arms, officers of both guards saluting. The Com- 
 mander of the new guard, if an officer, stands two 
 yards in front of its center while the old guard is piuss- 
 ing; if a non-commissioned officer, he stands on the 
 right of the front rank. The new guard is brouglit 
 to a carry as soon as the old guard has ])assed, and, 
 when the latter has marched about fifty yards from 
 the post of the guard, the Commander of the new 
 guard orders his men to stack arms, or to place them 
 in the gun-racks. The Conunander of the Guard 
 then mak( s himself acquainted with all the instruc- 
 tions for his post, visits the .sentinels, and questions 
 them and the noncr)nmiissioned officers relative to 
 the instructions they have received from the old guard. 
 On arriving on the regimental or giurison parade, the 
 Officer of the old guard forms it in line and halts it, 
 orders the company details composing it two yards to 
 the front, and sends them, under charge of non-com- 
 missioned officers or privates, to their respective com- 
 panies. Before the men are dismissed, the cartridges 
 are drawn, or discharged at a target. When the de- 
 tails return to their companies, the chiefs of squad 
 I examine the arms and accoutemients of their men, 
 I and cause them to be put away in good order. The 
 ' Officers of the Day visit and inspect the guard-house, 
 or tents, while the old guard is being relieved, verify 
 the number of prisoners, .and then proceed to the office 
 or presence of the Commanding Otlicer, who receives 
 the report of the old Officer of the Day, relieves him, 
 and delivers his instructions to the new Officer of the 
 Day. In visiting the guard-house the Officers of the 
 Day will each be saluted hy his own guard, its Officer 
 i commanding : 1. Present, 2. Arms. 'When other 
 officers entitled to a salute approach, the Senior Offi- 
 cer of the two guards commands: 1. Old and new 
 guards, 2. Present, 3. Arms. In rendering honors, 
 j the Commander of the Guard, if an officer, stands in 
 front of its center, faces about to command present 
 1 arms, resumes his front, and then salutes ; he also 
 j faces about Ix'fore commim<ling carry arms, and again 
 1 resumes his front. If a non-commissioned officer 
 j conmiands the guard, he jircsents and carries arms 
 with it, standing on the right of the front rank. 
 When a small detachment is mounted for guard, as 
 at a one-company post, the officer mounting it brings 
 the detachment to rear open order, and, after having 
 inspected it, places himself in front of and facing it, 
 and commands: 1. Parade, 2. Rest, 3. Sound off. 
 The trumjieters or tield-music sound otf , standing on 
 the right, after which the guard is brought to close 
 order, and without presenting (unless there bo an 
 (Officer of the Day') is marched direct to its post by the 
 conunands : 1. Guard to its post, 2. liight, 3. Face, 
 4. Forward, 5. >Iarcii. The non-conunissioned 
 officer commanding the guard during the mounting 
 stands on the right of the front rank. In conducting 
 the guard to its post he marches near its left and rear, 
 where he can see its movements. A tile-closer, if 
 there be one, takes his place as guide. The same 
 honors are rendered at the guard-houiie as already ex- 
 plained. If the guard be armed with the .saber, the 
 commands at guard mounting are modified to meet 
 the rt'cpiiremenis of the iirm used. 
 
 Mounted guard-mounting is conducted in single 
 rank on the same principles as guard-moimting dis- 
 mounted, with the following modifications: Nosupcr- 
 ninneraries are formed with the guard; the First Ser- 
 geant inspects the dre.ss and general appearance of 
 his detail before causing it to mount. The sabers of
 
 GUAED OF HONOE. 
 
 793 
 
 GUAED-SHIF. 
 
 the First Sergeants are drawn ; the sabers of the details 
 are in the scabbard. The officers and non-commis- 
 sioned officers take the distance of six yards from the 
 rank when at open order, and one yard when at close 
 order; the First Sergeants, in reporting, s;dute with 
 the saber, and then place themselves six yards in rear 
 of the non-commissioned officers of the guard. The 
 assignment of officers and non-commissioned officers 
 is omittetl, the non-commissioned officers remaining 
 in the position above prescribed; the guide of each 
 platoon is the file on the flank toward which the guide 
 is annomiced. If any man does not present a credit- 
 able appearance, the "Captain is notiticd through the 
 First Sergeant, and sends a man to the Officer of the 
 Guard, at the guard-house, to replace him. If there 
 be no Officer of the Guard, the Adjutant, when 
 inspecting, notifies the senior two non-commissioned 
 officers to serve as chiefs of platoon; or, if the divi- 
 sion of platoons be omitted, he notifies the senior non- 
 commissioned officer to command the guard ; the 
 non-commissioned officer places himself on the right 
 of the rank. The Adjutant omits the commands 
 parade rest and guard nttenthn, and, to present the 
 
 fard, commands: 1. Drair, 2. S.\ber, 3. Present, 
 Sabek. The platoons wheel to the right. The 
 Officers of the Day do not fold their arms, and the 
 First Sergeants, having taken their posts, remain at 
 attention till the rear of the guard has passed the Offi- 
 cers of the Day, when they return their sabers and 
 immediately retire. See Grand G-uard-mounting and 
 Undress Quard-mounting. 
 
 GUAED OF HONOE.— The guard drawn up to re 
 ceive royal personages and persons of distinction, 
 and to attend at state ceremonials. It consists, as a 
 general rule, of 100 rank and file, with a Captain 
 in command, two subaltern officers (one carrying the 
 first color), and a proportion of Sergeants. Tlie regi- 
 mental band attends when the Queen or other exalted 
 person is to be received. 
 
 GUAEDEEPOET.— The report which the Officer 
 or Non-commissioned Officer in Charge of a Guard 
 sends in to headquarters on dismounting. The re- 
 port of his tour of ser\-ice always includes the out- 
 posts. The following is the form of the report: 
 
 Beport of a Guard mounted at - 
 and relieved on the ■ 
 
 , on the- 
 
 Parole. 
 
 
 f 
 
 c 
 
 % 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 1 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 £ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 B 
 CJ 
 
 Articles in 
 
 CHilBGE. 
 
 i Received 
 tfie forego- 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ing. 
 
 Count- 
 ersign. 
 
 A. B.. 
 
 Officer of 
 
 \the Guard. 
 
 DetaU. 
 
 
 LIST OF THE GUARD. 
 
 Reliefs 
 
 AND WHEN POSTED. 
 
 2 
 
 
 First relief from 
 
 Second relief! [Third relieti 
 from toijfrom to 
 
 •2 
 
 to and 
 
 and , and 
 
 
 s 
 
 to . 
 
 to . 
 
 to . 
 
 % 
 
 « 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 *i 
 
 « 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 £ 
 
 
 .i 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 bO 
 
 £ 
 
 
 -1* 
 
 a 
 
 
 6fi 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 Ai 
 
 !Z 
 
 o 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sergeant: 
 
 Corporal: 
 
 
 Orderly for Commanding OfBcer: Best Shot: 
 
 LIST OF PRISONERS. 
 
 Name first the prisoners under sentence by G. C. M., com- 
 mencing with those who have longest to be conaned. 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 Confined. 
 
 1 
 
 Sentence. 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 d 
 Z 
 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 t 
 
 i| 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Regimen t of , 
 
 ComuKindiny the (ixtard. 
 
 GUABD-EOOM. — The room occupied Ijy the guard 
 during its tour of duty. There is a room in the guard- 
 house in which prisoners awaiting the investigation 
 of their crimes are kept. Under the s;ime roof a 
 room is attached in whic-h the Officer Commanding 
 the Guard resides during his tour of duly. 
 
 GUAEDS. — The elite of the troops in all armies, and 
 usually those most heavily armed. In the British ser- 
 vice, the Guards constitute, in time of pc:ice, the gar- 
 rison of London, and the guard of the Sovereign at 
 Windsor. The Guards compose what is called the 
 Household Brigade, and include in cavalry the 1st and 
 2d Life-guards, and the Royal Horse-guards (blue), 
 :ui(l in infantry the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream 
 Guards, and the Scots Fusilier Guards. The.se dis- 
 tinguished corps comprise 1303 cavalry in three regi- 
 ments, and 59-W infantry in seven battalions. Before 
 the abolition of purchase, the officers of the regiments 
 
 Royal Horseguardsman (1T42). 
 
 of Foot-guards held higher army rank than that they 
 bore regimentally; that is, Ensigns ranked with Lieu- 
 tenants of other regiments, Lieutenants with Captains, 
 Captains with Lieutenant-colonels; and on exchanging 
 into the Line, they were thus enabled to exchange into 
 the higher positions, a circumstance which often placed 
 officers of comparatively short service over veterans 
 of the Line, and caused," perhaps, more heart- burning 
 than any other anomaly among the regulations When 
 purcha.se was the rule, every officer in the G\mnis was 
 quite ready to accede to it; when it was abolished in 
 1871, this "exceptional rank was also aboli.shed in re- 
 gard to all officei-s newly entering the Guards. 
 
 GUAED SHIP. — The s"hipof war in charge of a port. 
 She generally acts also as a depot for seamen raised 
 there until appropriated to other vessels, and her Cap-
 
 GUARD'S INSTITUTE. 
 
 794 
 
 QTTERBILLAS. 
 
 (ain is responsible for the safely and proper preser- 
 vation of the men-ofwar which may be laid up — out 
 of commission— in the harbor. The Superintendent of 
 a dockyard, if a Flas-orticer, carries his flae at the 
 mast-head of the gruard-ship; if he Ik- only a Captain, 
 the ffuard-ship is usually under his nominal command, 
 although the actuul duties arc carried on by the Com- 
 mander or next Senior Otticer. j 
 
 GUABD'S INSTITUTE.— An establishment in Lon- 
 don which consists of reading-rooms, lecture-rooms, 
 etc., for all officers and soldiers in the metropolis. It 
 was inaugurated by the Duke of Cambridge, July 11, , 
 1887. 
 
 OUABDS OF THE TBENCHES.— In a siege-opera- 
 tion, to protect the workmen from sorties, as many 
 battalions of the line as may be requisite, termed the 
 (Tiianls of t/if Trauht)', are thrown forward about 
 thirty paces in advance of and on the flanks of the '^ 
 mcn"who open the first parallel. The flank compa- 
 nies of these battalions, divided into sections, cover 
 the front of the battalions, and are posted about j 
 thirty paces from them ; and each section posts two 
 sentinels at about the same distance to its front. The 
 sentinels keep a lookout, kneeling on one knee; the 
 remainder of the troops lie flat on the ground to avoid 
 the tire of the defenses. When the working-parties 
 are all posted, the men of each lying flat until all are 
 ready to commence the work, the order is given to 
 rise, ground their arms a few paces to the rear, and 
 break ground. The guards of the trenches keep their 
 position until near dawn, when they are withdrawn 
 and take post in the parallel, which, by this time, is 
 nearly excavated to its full width. 
 
 GUARD-TENTS.— The tents occupied by the guard, 
 when a cimiinand is in the field or camp. 
 
 OUASTADOUBS. — Turkish Pioneers. Armenians 
 and Greeks are generally employed in the Turkish 
 armies to do the fatigue-work that is necessary for 
 the formation of a camp, or for conducting a siege. 
 
 GUDDA.— The Indian term for a fool; also a small 
 fort erected upon a hill or eminence. 
 
 GUDDEELAH.— Indian name for a padded cloth 
 placed on the back of a draught-elephant before the 
 harness is put on. It is made of kurwah cloth stuffed 
 with cotton, the edges being bound with leather. 
 
 GUDGEON.— The circular part of a shaft or axle 
 upon ^hich a wheel revolves. The gudgeons on 
 cast-iron axles are simply parts of the extremities of 
 the axles turned exactly circular in a lathe. The cir- 
 cular apertures in which the gudgeons turn are called 
 brasses; they are made of a composition of copper 
 and tin, and are very durable, as well as not readily 
 worn by the friction of the iron axles. The beams 
 in which the bras,ses are fixed are called " bcarinffs." 
 GUELPHIC OBDEB.— An Order of Knighthood for 
 Hanover, instituted by George IV. when Prince Re- 
 gent, on August Vi, 181.5. It is both a military and 
 civil order, unlimited in number, and consisted origi- 
 nally of three cla.sse.s — Knights Grand Cross, Com- 
 manders, and Kniglits — to which the Revised Stat- 
 utes of 1H41 have added another cla.ss of simple mem- 
 bers. The Grand-Mastership is vested in the Crown 
 of Hanover. The badge of the Order is a gold cross 
 surmotmtcd by the Hanoverian Crown — between each 
 division of the cross is a lion pas.sant gardant. In the 
 center is the liorsc courant of Hanover, surrounded 
 by a bhic circle, and llic niotlo, Sic aspera terrent. 
 
 GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. — The names of 
 two great parties, the conflict of which may almost 
 be said to make up the history of Italy and 6ermany 
 from the eleventh till the fourteenth centur)'. The 
 origin of these names was fonnerly the sui)ject of 
 much speculation; but antitjuarians are now agreed 
 in tracing them respectively to the two families, 
 Waiblingen and Welf, which in the twelfth century 
 were at the head of two rival parties in the German 
 Empire, tuid whose feuds came to be identified his- 
 torically with the respective principU'S for whicli these 
 parlies contended. The actual origin of the a.ssuni])- 
 tion of the names is commonly fixed at the great bat- 
 
 tle of Weinsltcrg, in Swabia, 1140 a.d., in which the 
 two rival claimants for the Empire, Conrad of IIo- 
 henstaufen, Duke of Fnmconia, and Hcnrj" the Lion, 
 of the House of Welf, Duke of Saxony, ridliiil their 
 followers by the respective war-cries, " Hie Waiblin- 
 gen!" " Hie Welf !" but it is certain that the names 
 were in u.se from an earlier date, although, probably, 
 rather as representing the family feud than the po- 
 litical principles which the two families afterwards 
 severally supported. As the chief theater of the con- 
 flict of "these parties was Italy, the original names 
 took the Italian form of O/iiMlini und Guelfi. The 
 former may, in general, be described as the support- 
 ers of the imperial authority in Italy, the latter, as 
 the opponents of the Emperors; and as the opposi- 
 tion to imperial authority in Italy arose from two 
 distinct parties, which, for the most part, made com- 
 mon cause with each other— from the Church, which 
 a.sserted its own spiritual independence, and from the 
 minor principalities and free cities, which maintained 
 their provincial or municipal rights and liberties— the 
 history of the struggle is involved in much confusion, 
 and is variously related, and its merits variously ap- 
 preciated, according to the point of view from which 
 it is regarded. To the churchman, it is the struggle 
 of the Church against the State; to the friend of popu- 
 lar principles, ft is the conflict of liberty asainst ab- 
 solutism and centralization. The same individual — 
 as, for example, the poet Dante — is found to change 
 sides in the struggle. For the most part, however, 
 the interests of the Church in these mediaeval contests, 
 although regarded by Protestants as excessive in de- 
 gree, must be confessed to have fallen in with the 
 claims of political and personal freedom. Five great 
 crises in the strife of the Guelph and Ghibelline par- 
 lies are commonly noted by historians: under Henry 
 IV., in 1055; under Henry the Proud, in 1127; under 
 Henry the Lion, in 1140; under Frederick Barbarossa, 
 in 1159; and in the pontificate of the great champion 
 of churchmanship. Innocent III. The cities of north- 
 ern Italy were divided between the two parties — 
 < Florence, Bologna, Milan, and other cities, as a gen- 
 eral rule, taking the side of the Guelphs; while Pisa, 
 Verona, and Arezzo were Ghiljelline. The great 
 Italian families, in like manner, took opposite sides; 
 but the policy of each family frequently varied from 
 1 one generation to another. In general it may be said 
 ; that the nobles of the more northern Provinces of 
 Italy inclined to the Ghibelline side, while those of 
 the central and southern Provinces were Guelph. By 
 degrees, however, especially after the downfall of the 
 preponderance of the German Emperors in Italy, the 
 contest ceased to be a strife of principles, and degen- 
 ; crated into a mere struggle of rival factions, availing 
 themselves of the prestige of ancient names and tra- 
 ditional or hereditarj- prejudices. Even in 1273 Gre- 
 ' gory X. could with truth reproach the Italians with 
 j their siuiguinary animosities for the sake of what 
 were but names, the meaning of which few of them 
 I could understand or explain; and in the following 
 [ century, in 13S4, Benedict XII. practically disjdlows 
 I altogether the reality of the grounds of division be- 
 tween the parties, by prescribing, under pain of the 
 ; censures of the Church, the further use of those once- 
 stirring names which had long been the rallying- 
 words of a .sanguinary warfare. 
 
 GUEEITE. — A small loop-holed turret in the wall 
 of a fortress, from which a sentry may command a 
 view and fire over the ditch. Gucrites are generally 
 fixed to the acute points of bastions. 
 
 GUEBBE. — War; warfare; art of war; dissension; 
 strife. A';i .7'/( ;•/■(', at war; inaction; ready for action; 
 any piece of ordnance unlimbered, trunnions shifted, 
 and everything made ready for firing. 
 
 GUERRILLAS. — The name given in Spain to the 
 armed bands, composed of peasants and shepherds, 
 who, on occasion of foreign invasion or civil wars, 
 carry on an irregular warfare on their own account. 
 From 1808 to 1814 they were regularly organized 
 against the French, and, being favored by the charac
 
 GUEBSILLSRO. 
 
 795 
 
 OUID£S. 
 
 ter of the country, were successful on various occa- 
 sions, especially at the commencement of the war, 
 under Empecinado, the Pastor Merino, Mina, and 
 oilier leaders. The country itself sulTered from the 
 Guerrillas, who revenged political treachery, or even 
 the barest suspicion of it, by fearful devastations. 
 Many of them, and particularly Mina's band, joined 
 Wellington, and after ha\ing undergone a course of 
 discipline, rendered signal service as regular troops. 
 In all the recent civil wars of Spain, the Guerrillas, 
 especially those of the Basque Provinces, acted a 
 prominent part on the Carlist side. 
 
 When Guerrillas are taken captive, they should be 
 treated according to the usual customs of war. In 
 the Franco-German War, the Germans refused to 
 recognize as .soldiers, or extend the privileges of war, 
 to the Pranc^-Tireurs—a, body of French volunteer 
 sharp-shooters who, to a great extent, adopted this 
 system of guerrilla warfare. See Parlimn. 
 
 GUERBILLERO. — An irregular soldier; a member 
 of a guerrilla band or party. See GucrriUas. 
 
 GUET. — A term attached to those persons belong- 
 ing to the French body-guard who did duty during 
 the night. It also signified roimds, or those duties 
 of a soldier, or palrolling-party, which are prescribed 
 for the security of a town, etc., and to prevent sur- 
 prises. It is also t;iken in a military sense in con- 
 junction with other words; as, guct n pied, foot-patrol; 
 gud I'l' c/iffal, horse-patrol, etc. 
 
 GTJEITX. — The name assumed by the confederated 
 nobles and other malcontents who opposed the 
 tyracmical policy of Philip II. of Spain in the Low 
 Countries. Philip ha\ing sent nice Inquisitors to 
 that country to put into execution the decrees of the 
 Council of Trent, provoked by this act the bitter re- 
 sentment of the Protestants, as well as of the Catho- 
 lics and nobility, who saw in it an attempt to curtail 
 their ancient liberties. A party of opposition was 
 thus formed, and, headed by Counts Louis of Nassau 
 and Henry de Brederode, decl^ired in an Act called 
 the " Compromise," which was remitted to the Regent 
 Margaret, their fixed determination to ignore utterly 
 the authority of the Inquisitors. On the admission of 
 a deputation from them to an audience, the Regent 
 seemed somewhat unnerved b^- their bold front, and 
 inclined to yield to their demands; when one of her 
 Council ajiproached her, and whispered that she 
 " need not be afraid of these gatherings of beggars." 
 The remark having been overheard by some of the 
 deputation, the abusive epithet was assumed as the 
 title of their Association. As the sign of fraternity, 
 each of the " Beggars ' wore a medal known as the 
 "Beggar's Denier," formed of gold or .silver, and 
 stamped on the obverse with the image of Philip II., 
 and the inscription, "In everything faithful to the 
 King;" and on the reverse with a wallet, such as the 
 mendicant monks carried, held in two hands, with 
 the words, " Even to carrying of the wallet." The 
 "Beggars" maintained a long and vigorous contest 
 against the despotic proceedings of Philip and his 
 advisers, but were ultimately compelled to succumb 
 to superior force. A branch of them, " The Beggars 
 of the Sea," under the bold leadership of the sjivage 
 Count de la Marck, were almost uniformly successful 
 in their enterprises: they several times defeated the 
 Spanish fleet, captured transports with supplies for 
 Alva's army, captured several fortresses, and succored 
 besieged places along the coast. 
 
 GDICHETS.— Small doors or outlets which are 
 made in the gates of fortified towns. They are gene- 
 rally four feet high, and two broad, so that a man 
 must stoop to get through. In garrison towns the 
 guichet is usually left open for the space of one 
 quarter of an hour after retreat, in order to give the 
 inhabitants time to enter. 
 
 GUIDES. — 1. The non-commi.ssioned officers, and 
 other enlisted men, who take positions to mark the 
 pivots, marches, formations, and alignments in mtxlern 
 discipline. The French call Uiem }<///'«/ »rs. Guides 
 and file-closers always execute order arnis.Jij; and 
 
 vnfx bayonets, and carry arm^. In rendering honors 
 they execute the present, reverie, and re»t on afm*. 
 On drill they execute the support and right shoulder 
 arms, except the guide of each subdivision in column 
 when marching in common or quick time, and the 
 .guides who mark the line of battle during its forma- 
 tion. They execute the other movements of the 
 manual oidy when specially directed. 
 
 2. In military ixffuirs, guides are usually persons 
 drawn from the country in which an army is en- 
 camped. A sufficient body of intelligent men is col- 
 lected at headquarters to enable one or more to be 
 sent with every detachment of troops which leaves 
 the camp. A guide should be quick of eye, experi- 
 enced in the topography of the country, and, above 
 all, faithful. As, however, guides must on most 
 occasions be drawn from the midst of a hostile popu- 
 lation, and have probably only a pecuniary interest 
 in serving well, their conduct is always watched with 
 the utmost jealousy, death being awarded as the pun- 
 ishment for the least departure from trustworthiness. 
 Any treason or incompetence on the part of a guide 
 might involve the most disastroas consequences to a 
 whole ex]3edition. In the French army a consider- 
 able corps of cavalrj' and infantry bear the name, but 
 the name only, of " guides. " They were first formed 
 in 1744, as a small company of messengers on active 
 .service. The number was gradually increa.sed until 
 the time of Napoleon I., who formed them into a 
 guard 10,000 strong. 
 
 Trustworthy guides are invaluable, but most rare, 
 in an enemy's country. The best, from the informa- 
 tion they acquire by their habits of life, are to be 
 found among those classes who.se avocations keep 
 them much abroad, going from place to place within 
 a certain sphere constantly; such as common carriers, 
 hunters, smugglers, etc. jVmong the first things to 
 be attended to by an officer, in taking post at any 
 point, is to find out persons of this class, and to ascer- 
 tain their whereabouts when wanted. Kind treat- 
 ment, doueei/rx. and promises should not be spared, 
 to enlist either their good-will or their interests; and, 
 if policy requires it, Ihcy may openly be treated with 
 apparent harshness, to screen them from odium 
 among their neighbors. If none of this class can be 
 found, then resort must be had to a higher; local 
 authorities being in preference selected, and if neces- 
 siiry forced to act. Here very careful treatment is 
 requisite; when the necessity of the case is admitted 
 by them, much may be gleaned by kindness, cour- 
 tesy, and a certain deference, from such persons, 
 that cannot be looked for from their inferiors. Before 
 starting on his mission, the officer should question 
 his guide thoroughly; and if he has several, question 
 each apart ; like precautions should be taken with re- 
 spect to other inhabitants. Care must be had to find 
 out the usual beats of one taken as a guide, so as not 
 to take him out of his own neigh Ijorhood. In all 
 cases, the guide must be well watched, however trust- 
 worthy he may seem. If tmwilling or sulky, he 
 must, if needs be, be tied, and attached to a strong 
 man, with a rope around his middle; being first 
 strictly .searched for any cutting instnnncnt about 
 him. Should there be but one guide, he must neces- 
 s;irily be placed with the most advanced portion of 
 Uie detachment accompanying the officer. If there 
 are several, one must be there also; the one apparently 
 the mo.st intelligent with the officer, who should ply 
 him with questions; and the others in the rear, strictly 
 guarded. It may be well to remark that guides are 
 useful even in a country of ea.sy communications; as, 
 in case of a renconter, they may point out byways 
 convenient for retreat, if necessary. 
 
 3. In the Indian army the name of "guides" is 
 given to a regiment of cavalrj- and infantry attached 
 to the Punjab frontier force. It was rai.sed by the 
 late Sir Henry Lawrence, ehiefiy with the Wew to 
 the men acting as scouts, and obtaining everj' avail- 
 able information about the country they happened 
 to be in; also to act in expeditions as aaint-courriers
 
 OTTIDOHT. 
 
 796 
 
 GTJN. 
 
 of the force to which they Ix'loiigcci, and (the cavalry 
 bniifilO in carryinsr onU'i-s that rc<iuircd dispatch. 
 
 GUIDON. — 1." Oiie who carries a tiaj;. Also, one 
 of a community of {niides established at Rome by 
 Charlemagne to" accompany the pilgrims to the Holy 
 Land. 
 
 2. A small flag or streamer usually carried by the 
 mounted troops. It is broad at the one end and is 
 nearly ix)iuteil at the other. It is .sometimes used to 
 <iirect the movements of infantry, and to make sig- 
 nals at sea. 
 
 In the United Slates army, each company of the 
 mounted troops has a silken miidon, ami the names 
 of battles in which companies or b.it levies in the 
 .service of the I'nilerl Stales have borne a nierilorious 
 part are inscril)ed upon their guidons. W'illiin the 
 spirit of this regulation, battles are imporlant en- 
 gjigemenls between independent armies in llieir own 
 theaters of war, in contradistinction to eontiicts in 
 which but a small portion of the opjiosiug forces are 
 actually engaged — the latter being called, according 
 to their nature, "affairs," "combats," skirmishes," 
 etc. A battle has for its object the determination of 
 important iiucstions of policy or strategy; an engage- 
 ment may be partial, and yet, if il tend to lliese ends, 
 it is also entitled to Ihe dignity of being termed a 
 battle. The portion of a regiment which must be 
 engaged in a battle to entitle Ihe Tegimetrt to have 
 inscril)ed upon itSfColors Ihe name of the bailie is 
 that number of companies which by ladies and the 
 regulations is enlilled as a battalion, habitually, to 
 carry the colors of Ihe regiment. The inscriptions 
 on Ihe guidons of artillery batteries do not include 
 the honors to which the regiment is enlilled, but 
 those won separately by detached mounted batteries. 
 
 The guidons for cavalry are made of silk, with 
 stars and stripes like the national flag; made swallow- 
 tailed. Stjirs gill, one and one eighth inches in diam- 
 eter from point to point. The guidon measures from 
 the lance three feet live inches to the end, and lifleen 
 inches to the fork of swallow-tail, and two feet three 
 inches on the lance. The fork of the swallow-tail is 
 equidistant from ihe lop and bottom of guidon. The 
 letter of the company is embroidered in yellow silk, 
 or painted on one of Ihe while bars of the Hag. The 
 lance is one and one fourth inches in diameter, and 
 nine feet long, including spear and ferrule. 
 
 When mounted, the heel of the staff resis in Ihe socket 
 attached to the right stirrup; Ihe right hand grasps 
 the staff at the height of the cllx)W. The guidon 
 salutes as follows: (Firnt itwtioii:) Lower the staff by 
 .straightening the arm to its full extent. (Second mo- 
 li'iii!) Bring back the slalT to the habitual position. 
 Dismounted, the heel of the staff is supported at the 
 right hip, and, in saluting, the guidon, in the first 
 motion, .slips the right hand along Ihe staff to the 
 height of the eye before lowering the staff. 
 
 OUIGE.— A bell of Ihe Middle Ages, by which the 
 shield wa-s secured to the person of the" wearer, and 
 also carried by him without inconvenience, suspended 
 about his neck. 
 
 GUILLOTINE.— The inslnmieni of decapitation in- 
 troduced during the French Kevolulion by Ihe Con- 
 vention, and named after its supposed inventor, 
 Jo.sephe Ignace Guillotin, al'hysician, who, however, 
 it is ascertained, was only Iheperstm who lirst pro- 
 posed its adoption. Il is coniposi'd of two upright 
 po.sts, grooved on Ihe inside, and comiectcd at the lop 
 by a cross-beam. In the.si' grooves, a sharp iron 
 blade, placed obliquely, descends liy its own weight 
 on the neck of the victim, who is bound to a Iwiird 
 laid below. The sjieed and cirlainly wiib which this 
 machine separates the head from the Inud; gives it a 
 great superiority over Ihe a.xe or sword. The in\'en- 
 tion of machines of this kind is ascrilied to the Per- 
 sians. In Italy, from Ihe lliirleenlh century, it was 
 the iirivilege of the nobles lo lie put to death by a 
 machine of this kind, which was called ma ii mi in. 
 Conradin of .Swabia was executed by such a machine 
 al Naples, in 126«. An iustrunieut re.sembling ihe 
 
 guillotine was likewise employed in Gernuinv during 
 Ihe Jliddle Ages. During th"e si.xteenlh and till late 
 in the .seventeeulh century, a machine called the 
 makkn, which differed but .slightly from the guillo 
 tine, was employed in Scotland for the purpose of 
 decapitation, 'fhat such an apparatus was known 
 and used in France at an earlier jH-riod is proved bv 
 Ihe execution of Ihe Due de -Monlmoniicv, who fs 
 described as having been executed by a falling axe at 
 I Toulouse, in ICIW. The Dutch, loo, "in the eighteenth 
 I century employed a decapitating machine in execut- 
 ing sla\es in llieir Colonies. 
 
 Guilty. — The form of verdict given by a Jury or 
 Court in criminal ca.scs when the crime charged has 
 been found i>ro\cd. In England, there are oidy two 
 verdicts which can be given in such cases, viz., (Suilty 
 or Not Guilty; but in Scotland llure is an intermediate 
 verdict, called " Not Proven," w liich, though in real- 
 ity a verdict of Not Guilty (and it is .so entered in 
 England), yet is allowed to lie given by Juries when 
 they are not satisfied that suflicient legal evidence has 
 been given, but nevertheless consider there was some 
 foundation for the charge, or al least some ground 
 for suspicion. It has been objected to this verdict 
 that it leaves a stigma on the party; nevertheless it is 
 firmly adopted in the law and iiractice of Scotland. 
 
 GUISARME. — A lance having a small axe fixed at 
 the fool of ils blade or lancehead on one side jind a 
 spike projecting on the other side. It was popular in 
 the sixleenth < inlurv. See Gisdrme. 
 
 GUISARMIERS.— 'French fool-soldiers (pietons) of 
 Ihe free archers, arme<l with the f/iiiminin: 
 
 GULES. — The tenn by which the color red is known 
 in Heraldry. In engraving it is marked by perpen- 
 dicular lines traced from the top of the shield to the 
 bottom. It is supposed to indicate valor, magnanimi- 
 ty, and the like, and is regarded as the most honora- 
 ble heraldic color. See Heraldry. 
 
 GUN. — A term applied in its most general applica- 
 tion to fire-arms of any description, liul in the more 
 restricted and technical sense to cannon. A gun is a 
 frustum of a right cone, with a cylinder excavated 
 round the axis, to serve as a bore. Close home to the 
 end of this cylinder the powder is driven, and out- 
 side it is the ball to be expelled. The trunnions are 
 cast in one mass with the piece, and are placed in the 
 second reinforce in such a position that the breech- 
 end of Ihe gun outweighs the muzzle. Their axis is 
 generally about half their diameter below the axis of 
 the piece. This locality has several conveniences; 
 but for 'he maximum of steadiness in the recoil, it 
 has been shown that the a.xes of the trunnions and of 
 the gun .should exactly intersect. The use of the 
 trunnions is to suspend the cannon on ils carriage in 
 such a manner that it may be readily depressed or 
 elevated, but so that it shall have no horizontal mo- 
 tion which is not shared Ijy Ihe whole carriage. The 
 vent or touch-hole, Ihe channel llirough which the 
 charge is fired, is a small cylindrical orifice leading 
 at an angle from Ihe breech of the bore towards the 
 base-ring. The explosion within reacts with great 
 force on the lower iiorlioii of Ihe vent, and in case of 
 rapid or long-conliinicd firing soon lumcycombs the 
 iron or brass, often dislodging considerable fragments. 
 This, besides diminishing the regularity of Ihe action 
 of the iiowder ui)on the projectile, \vould involve 
 danger of bursting if permitted to any great extent. 
 The gun so affected is therefore honclied, that is, has 
 a new vent constructed. This process consists of 
 drilling a female screw, of larger than the required 
 diameter, in the metal of the gun. Into this matrix a 
 bar of |)urc cojijier is screwed (cojiper being the metal 
 least liable to fuse under the intense heat of ignited 
 gunpowder), and the vent is then drilled through the 
 copper. Sir A. Dick.soii devised the following simple 
 mode: he rammed a cartridge of sand lirmly into the 
 breech, then tilled Ihe vent and all Ihe interstices with 
 molten copper, and had only lo bore a hole through 
 Ihe latter to com|)lcte the operation. In cases of 
 great urgency, even this simple procedure may be
 
 QuKB. J. Gun with match-lock. S. Roinrj-.Ioi'k. 3. Flint looU. 4. Freuch hunter's gun. 5. Cossack guD, 0. Man infantry gun. 7. Prussiau ueeUlL- guu. 9. Section of lock of Prussian need!e-grun. 9. Prussian 
 needlegun cartridge. 10. Piussian ovatft-ball cariridge. 11. Lefuucheux gun, with shot cartridge 13. %vemn gun. 14. Chassepot rifle, 15 Engiieh Enfield rifle. JO. Its cartridge. IT. Section of latter. 
 18. Austrian giin, Wflnzel's patU-ru. 19. Reniinglon rifle. 20. Peabody gun. 21. Cartridge, and 23. bull tbeffl gg, Pryffei- gun. 24. Speiicei's repeating cariiine. 25. Section thereof, and 2l!, cartiidge. 27. Ileno's 
 repeater. 28. Prussian needle carbine. 20. American carbine 30, Colt's revolver. 81. Lefauclieiix rev^. ^2. Lefaucheiix cartridge. a). Russian Mini^gun. at. Bavarian case -carl ridge. 35. Bavarian 
 expanding hall. 36. English expanding ball, with wooden plug, 37. French expanding ball, ancient form. I Recent form of the same. 31). SwisF ordnance cartridge, with compressed powder. 40. Box cartridge, 
 with peripheral fire. 41. Baden expanding projectile. 42. Ploenuis' expanding projectile. 4a. Loren;c'Be<%eBsed projectile. 44. Old pointed pro jet- tile. i 
 
 TH-ioe.
 
 OTTN-BARREL. 
 
 797 
 
 Gim-BARBEI. 
 
 shortened by the inserlion of the stem of a tobacco- 
 pipe during the tilling; the pipe, on being removed, 
 leaves a perfect vent. A gun is suited to tire hollow 
 as well as solid projectiles; and the only limit to the 
 charge is the strength of the projectile "to resist rup- 
 ture in the piece. The emplox-ment of shells in the 
 heavy cannon, after the manner of solid shot, con- 
 stitutes the basis of what is known as General Paix- 
 han's System of Artillery, and not the iieculiar fonn 
 of the ^n, as is generally supposed. The caliber of 
 a gun IS generally expressed in terms of the weight 
 of a solid cast-iron ball of the size of the -bore. See 
 Cannon, Ordnance, and Small-eirnis. 
 
 GUN-BARREL.— The iron for all good musket-bar- 
 rels contains a portion of steel, or imdergoes some 
 kind of steeling process. Horseshoe-nails or stubs, 
 after much violent usage, yield a very tough kind of 
 iron when reheated; and English gun-makers have 
 been accustomed to buy such refuse on the Continent. 
 The best barrels are now made of laniinaled, twisted, 
 and Damascus steel. To prepare hiininated steel, Mr. 
 Greener, a celebrated Birmingham gunsmith, collects 
 scraps of saws, steel pens, files, springs, and steel tools 
 from the various workshops; cuts them into small 
 and nearly equal pieces; cleans and polishes them by 
 revohing in a cylinder; fuses them into a semi-fluid 
 state; gathers them into a "bloom" or mass; forges 
 this bloom with a three-ton hammer; hardens and 
 solidities it with a tilt-hammer; rolls it into rods; cuts 
 each rod into pieces six inches long; welds these 
 pieces together; repeats the rolling, cuMing, and weld- 
 ing several times; and thus finally brings the metal 
 into a very hard, tough, fibrous, and uniform state. 
 Twisted steel for baiTels is made by taking thin plates 
 of iron and steel, laving them alternately one on an- 
 other in a pile, welding them by heat and hammer- 
 ing, and twisting them by very powerful mechanical 
 agency, until there are twelve or fourteen complete 
 turns to an inch; the length becomes reduced one 
 half and the thickness doubled liy this twisting. Da- 
 mascus steel barrels are made of steel which lias un- 
 dcfgone a still further series of welding and twisting 
 operations. .SV'/i2><(;n/Mr(;sbarrelsare madeof a mix- 
 ture of old files with old horseshoe-nails; the files are 
 heated, cooled in water, broken with hammers, and 
 pounded in a mortar into small fragments; three 
 parts of these fragments arc mixed with five of stub; 
 and the mixture is fused, forged, rolled, and twisted. 
 An inferior kind of Damascus twist is made by in- 
 terlaying scraps of sheet-iron with charcoal, and pro- 
 ducing an appearance of twist, but without the proper 
 qualities. Threepenny-slelp and tirupenny-skelp are 
 infeiior kinds of barrel iron; and the worst of all is 
 sliani-denn sirlp, of which gim-banels are made for 
 hawking at a cheap price at country -fairs, and for 
 barter with the natives in Africa and the backwoods 
 and prairies of America. The gun barrel manufac- 
 ture of England is now almost wholly conducted at 
 Birmingham and at Enfield, very few barrels being 
 made elsewhere. The best barrels are all twisted into 
 form. The skelps, or long strips of prei>ared steel, 
 are twisted into a close i-piral a few inches long; sev- 
 eral of these spirals are welded end to end; and the 
 fissures arc dosed up by heating and hammering. 
 The rough barrel, with a core or mandrel lemporarily 
 thrust in it, is placed in a groove, and hammered cold 
 until the metal becomes very dense, close, strong, and 
 clastic. The interior is then bored tnily cylindrical | 
 by a nicely-adjusted rotating cutiing-tool. If, on nar- 
 row inspection, the interior is found to be straight and 
 regular, the exterior is then giound on a rapidly revol- 
 ving stone, and finally turned in a lathe. Commoner 
 barrels are not twisted: the skelps are healed, laid in a 
 semi cylindrical groove, hammered till they assume 
 the form of that groove, placed two and two together, 
 and heated and hammered until one barrel is made 
 from tlu! two halves. Common barrels are browned 
 externally with some kind of chemical stain; but the 
 best arc rubbed with fine files, and polished with steel 
 burnishers. 
 
 Comparatively few realize the amoinit of lalwr and 
 expense required to manufacture shotgun-barrels 
 that have a fancy figure, and the component parts of 
 which are iron and steel. These barrels must be 
 light, therefore thin, and yet sufficiently strong^on- 
 ditions which can only be obtjiined bj" an cxtraordi- 
 narj- tenacity of the material. In these combination.s 
 this tenacity is secured by mixing and blending the 
 iron and steel so intimately together that the peculiar 
 proportions of each, toughness and ela-sticity, are im- 
 parted to every portion of the ma.ss, and "the barrel 
 thus receives the degree of hardness and .softness re- 
 quired. The barrels of the celebrated Parker gun 
 are manufactured in the following manner: The iron 
 and steel are placed in layers according to the figure 
 that may be desired, which operation is called piling. 
 These layers are securely welded together into a com- 
 pact bar, as shown in Fig. 1, whichiuust be absolute- 
 
 y-'s-i 
 
 |T> 
 
 Fro. 1. 
 
 ly sound and perfect in every weld, as the slightest 
 spot left imwelded or unsound in this operation will 
 be sure to cause a total loss of the barrel. The pro- 
 cess now consists in reducing this bar to such a sized 
 rod as may be required for a certain weight of barrel. 
 This rod is now twisted similar to a rope, as shown 
 at E in Fig. 2, care being taken to have the twist 
 uniform and even. Several of these tw isted rods are 
 now placed side by side, being careful to have the in- 
 clination of the twist arranged in opposite directions, 
 as shown in the illustration. These .several rods are 
 welded together w ith the same care and precision as 
 in the pre\ious operation, to insure perfectly sound 
 barrels. This is now termed a ribbon and is coiled 
 sjiirally around a mandrel, as shown at F in Fig. 2. 
 This spiral ribbon is raised to a welding heat and 
 jumped by striking the end against the anvil, thereby 
 welding the edges firmly together. They are then 
 placed upon a welding-mandrel, reheated, and welded 
 from end to end. JIuch skill and care are reijuired in 
 this operation to reduce the outside diameter to cor- 
 rect size and at the same time preserve the caliber, and 
 also maintain the proper taper, the barrel being much 
 larger at the breech than at the muzzle. Tlie tine 
 figure that appears in the figured barrel is dependent 
 upon the correctness of this and the previous welding 
 operations, for if hammered unevenlv, the figure itself 
 will be correspondingly imeveu. "then follows the 
 process of hammering in nearlv a cold state, whereby 
 the texture of the metal is condensed, closing its pores
 
 Oim-BOAT. 
 
 798 
 
 OUN-CABBIAOEB. 
 
 and makiDg it harder. This finishes the operation of 
 barrel-foririnir, and the Iwirrel is now ready to be 
 bored, turned, and finished U|H>n lathes manufactured 
 txpressly for the purpose. Tlie curly tisrure that ai)- 
 IX'ars in" the Dama.srus, Bernard, and laminated bar- 
 rels, as shown at G in Fig. 2, is obtained by twistin;; 
 the rods before refened to, as appears in the illustni- 
 tion at £ in Fig. 2, the variation of figure being ob- 
 
 tained by Taryinp the piling. The white marks that 
 appear in the finished barrel are iron, and the dark 
 ones the steel. The fine fijnire that is on the barrels 
 of the hisrh-priced f?uns is obtained by an increa.sed 
 numlKT of pieces in the oi)eration of pilins;. This 
 larger number of pieces necessarily renders the opera- 
 tion of securing perfect welding m\ich more diflicull, 
 and the liability of loss is greater. Some imagine 
 
 that the curly figures of the barrels are simply etched 
 on the out-sidc, when they are, in fact, the \isible 
 proof of a superior strength Ixith ilesirable and im 
 portant to every sliixJter who cares for his personal 
 safety; for if an iron barrel, no matter how strong 
 and thick, is defective and docs not stand the test, tlie 
 I defective Jiart will splinter into more or less small 
 pieces, while the Dama.scus, Bernaixl. and laminated 
 barrels will tear like a woven fabric. This proves 
 clearly the extraordinary tenacity of the material. 
 These fine barrels are not, therefore, workeil and 
 twisted so neatly and nicely that they may look beau- 
 tiful alone, but ratlicr for the rea.son that greatest 
 lighlucss, combined with greatest durability, may be 
 produced. 
 
 Each barrel, after manufacture, should be carefully 
 tested and submitted to the necessjiry proof . The di- 
 ameter of the bore should be verified with the stand- 
 ard and limit gauges. The standard gauge Wa cyl- 
 inder of the diameter of the liore, and the limit gauge 
 is .0025 inch greater. The fonner should pass freely 
 through the bore, and the latter should not enter it. 
 The barrel should enter the groove of the stock, one 
 half of its diameter, and it shovdd bear uniformly 
 throughout, particularly at the breech. The rent 
 should be accurate in its dimension, position, and di- 
 rection, and a wire should be pas.sed through it, to 
 see that it is free. The cmic should be sound. The 
 shoulders of the hrorh-nrrvir should fit closely to the 
 end of the barrel, and it should be free from cracks or 
 flaws about the tang screw hole. The straightnem 
 of the barrel ma.v be ascertained by turning out the 
 brecch-screw, and holding the barrel up to the light, 
 and reflecting the image of a straight-edge from the 
 siu'face of the bore. If the l)aiTel be straight, the re- 
 flected image will be straight in all pcsitions of the 
 barrel. The bore must be free from all hammer- 
 marks, ring-bores, cinder-holes, flaws, cracks, etc., as 
 such uTcgularities cause an inaccuracj' of fire. See 
 B<iml. 
 
 6UN-B0AT. — A small boat or vessel armed with 
 one or more guns of hea%'j' caliber. From its small 
 dimensions, it is capable of nuuiing close inshore or 
 up rivers, and from the .same cause it has little chance 
 of being hit l>y a larger vessel at the long nuige which 
 the carrying power of its guns enables it to maintain. 
 On the outljreak of the Russian War (1854-56), as the 
 British Navy was without a single gun-boat, a large 
 squadron of them was hastily constructed in 1855 
 and 1856, but too late for that special war. From the 
 haste with which they were put together, most of 
 these vessels proved defective. Their tomiage was 
 small; and their armament usually consisted of one 8- 
 inch gim and one 100-pounder Armstrong gim. In the 
 last two wars with China, gim-boats performed excel- 
 lent service, ha%'ing penetrated nearly to Peking, and 
 far up the Yang-tze-kiang. Gun-boats in their more 
 modern form are .small niastless ves.sels mounting one 
 large gmi in the bow, and propelled by an engine 
 ■nith single or tw in screws. The gun is" pointed by 
 means of the helm or the screws, and the gun-boat is 
 in fact a floating gun-carriage. The Sliiinn-li, the 
 first gun-boat built on this princiiile for the English 
 navy, has given her name to the whole cla.ss. Tl)i>sc 
 gun-boats usually carry an amior-piening gun of 18 
 tons, on a draught of only 4 feet. But they have 
 been designed to carry even 35-ton guns. Four have 
 lately been built by the Messrs. Armstrong for the 
 Chinese na\'y -the Alpha, JicUt, Gaiiuiia, and Delta; 
 two of these carry a 25-ton gun, and two a gun of over 
 30 tons. A small flotilla of such gtm-boats, protected 
 only by their small size, would Ix; in coast-defense 
 formidable opponents even for ironclads. At tJie 
 begiiming of the century the United States had over 
 250 of these vessels; but the " gim-lwat system" was 
 soon ab.mdoned. Some of the Continental Navies 
 are well provicied with gun-boats. 
 
 GUN CARRIAGES.— Gun-carriages are designed to 
 transi)ort cannon from one point to another, and to 
 support them when fired. A suitable gun-carriage.
 
 <JUN CAEBIAGES. 
 
 799 
 
 OUN-CABBIAGES. 
 
 therefore, should allow the piece to be easily and 
 promptly pointed in the direction of its object; it 
 should be capable of being served by the smallest 
 number of men, and transported with the greatest 
 ease; its recoil, under fire, should be restrained within 
 suitnlile limits; and it should have sutlicient strength 
 and stability to resist overturn or injury from the 
 greatest service-charge. The injurv to the carriage 
 arismg from the recoil of the piece increases with the 
 square of the velocity of the recoil, which is deixjnd- 
 ent on the relation between the weight of the carriage 
 and the weight of the piece. Generally speaking.^he 
 piece should be hea\'ier than the carriage. Artillery- 
 carriages, like the cannon which they sujjport, are 
 classified into feld, motiniain, prairif, ififgc, and »m- 
 conM carriages. The sea-coast carriages, not being re- 
 quired for the transportation of their ijieces, differ 
 materially from the others in their construction. 
 
 Itwfevery case the carriage must be so constructed 
 as to effectually meet the forces to act upon it. As 
 the axis of the bore intersects the a.^is of the trun- 
 nions, the entire force of the charge, acting on the 
 bottom of the bore, is communicated to the carriage 
 at the trunnion-beds. The carriage being constructed 
 symmetrically with regard to the a.\is of the piece, 
 ■we are at liberty, in the following discussion, to sup 
 pose that the wheels, trunnion-beds, and tniil are all 
 situated in the siime plane, and that the resultant of 
 the force of the charge is applied at the point where 
 the axis of the trunnions pierces this iihuie. The 
 action of the force of the charge is to move the car- 
 riage along the surface of the grounil (supi)osed to he 
 horizontal), to press the wheels and trail upon the 
 ground, and to rotate the carriage around the point of 
 contact of the trail with the ground. Let c be the 
 
 ^<9^^ 
 
 « i--'"^''!^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 T 
 
 ^^>^ 
 
 o% 
 
 iL„ 
 
 qi-.... 
 
 1 
 
 position of the axis of the trunnions, and me repre- 
 sent the amount and direction of the force of the re- 
 coil, and the angle of fire. Let L be the point of 
 contact of the trail and ground, a the distance of this 
 point from the trunnions, a the angle which the line 
 joining these two points makes with the horizontal, Cf 
 the position of the centre of gravity, and p its hori- 
 zontal distance from the point L. If mc he the force 
 of the recoil, R and C the pressures exerted by it 
 upon the wheel and trail respectively, we have the 
 relation 
 
 mv sin = R -{- O. 
 The horizontal component acts to overcome the 
 friction of the wheel and trail, and to set the car- 
 riage in motion. By making /the unit of friction, 
 and MV the quantity of motion impressed on the 
 carriage, we have 
 
 7)10 cos =f(C+ R) + MV; 
 or, by substituting the value of iJ+ f from the above 
 equation, and solving with reference to V, we have 
 
 _._ VI B (cos — / sin 0) 
 
 ■which is the velocity of recoil. As the unit of fric- 
 tion of the wheel and trail are not exactly the same, 
 the foregoing equation will not give a stnctly correct 
 value for T'for field- and siege-carriages, but it will be 
 correct for fortress carriages and mortarbeds, which 
 do not move on wheels. In recoil. The force dif also 
 acts to rotate the carriage around the point L with an 
 effect proportional to its lever-arm Ld, which is equal 
 to a sin ilrL; but sin di-Z = sin [180° — (<r + */)], and 
 the moment of the force of the charge, with ref- 
 erence to the trail , is m va sin [180° —(« + (/)]. This 
 moment being equal to the moment of the weight of 
 
 the piece, and the moment of the quantity of motiou 
 impressed upon the carriage, or P, we have 
 mta sin (180°- tt — S) = Wp + P. 
 
 ButP = 
 
 Ji'Te'w 
 
 ; A- being the radius of gyration of 
 
 the gun and carriage taken with reference to the 
 trail, ,9 the force of gra\it_v, and f the angidar velo- 
 city of the gun and carriage. Substituting this value 
 of P in the above equation, and reducing, we have 
 
 iD-g 
 
 711 m sm (180° -a- '>) - Wp 
 Wlfi 
 
 With this relation we can discuss, by giving differ- 
 ent values to 0, a, a, and p, the effect of the angle of 
 fire, length of trail, position of trunnions, and center 
 of gravity, on the stability of the caiTiage, or the rc- 
 sistiuicc which it offers to overturning by the force of 
 the charge acting at the center of the trimnions. 
 
 Stationary carriages consist of two parts, the car- 
 riage — or, as it is usually called, the top-carriage — and 
 the chassis, and, with the exception of that for the ^ 
 flank-casemate howitzer, are always constructed of 
 wrought-iron. The tojx'arriage is composed of two 
 cheeks, held together by two plates of boiler-iron, 
 called the front and rear transoms. Each cheek is 
 formed of two plates of Ix)iIer-iron cut to a triangidar 
 shape, separated by interposing at the edges the ver- 
 tical portion of a T-shaped bar. The horizontal 
 branches jiroject over each side to form a double 
 flange, giving stiffness to tho .cheeks. Flat l)ai-s of 
 iron are placed between the plates at .suitable inter- 
 vals to stiffen the cheeks in the direction in which the 
 weight and recoil of the piece bear u|)on them. All 
 these parts are held together by screw-bolts. The 
 jiiece rests between the cheeks, and is supjiortcd on 
 them by the tininnions, which work in circular cavi- 
 ties called tru>uii<>n-b(dK. This permits the piece to 
 have free play for purposes of elevation and depres- 
 sion. 
 
 For most pieces, the motion of the top-carriage 
 to and from battery is regulated by a pair of truck- 
 wheels, one on each side, which work on an eccentric 
 axle placed underneath and a little in front of the 
 axis of the trunnions. The wheels are thrown into 
 f/iYir by means of handspikes in.serted into sockets 
 upon the ends of the eccentric axle; the wheels 
 then rest upon the top of the chassis-mils, and only the 
 rear part of the soles of the top-carriage rest on the 
 cha.ssis-rails and have sliding friction. The wheels 
 \ are thro\\^l out of gear in the same manner; the entire 
 I soles then have sliding friction upon the chassis-rails, 
 thus checking recoil. In the 15-inch gun carriage 
 there arc two pairs of truck-wheels, one pair being 
 placed in front, as just described, and the other pair 
 near the rear end of the carriage; the rear wheels 
 only arc on eccentric axles, and when these are out of 
 gear the soles of the top-carriage rest fairly on the 
 chassis-rails, and the motion is on sliding friction. 
 When the rear wheels are in gear the front wheels 
 also touch the chassis-rails, and the top carriage 
 moves on rolling friction. To prevent the rear wheels 
 from working '»/# (/.yea/' while the gun is l)eing run 
 from batteryror jumping in gear when llie iiiece is 
 fired, pawls are pro^^dcd"for locking the rear axle. 
 
 When the rear wheels are in gear, motion is com- 
 municated to the carriage by means of a handspike 
 on each end of the front axle. This handspike car- 
 ries a double pawl, which works in ratchets or cogs 
 on the truck-wheels. The handspike is arranged 
 with a counterpoise, consisting of a heavy piece of 
 iron on the short ann of the lever. In the 10- and 15- 
 inch guns, as also in mortars, the elevation and de- 
 pression are given by means of a lever, called the 
 elemting-har. The point of this bar works in ratchets 
 cut in tile breech of the piece. The fulorum— usually 
 called the ratelwt-jiost — rests on the rear transom of 
 the gun-carriage. It is of cast-iron, and has several 
 notciies for adjusting the position of the elevating- 
 bar. Carriages for the 8-inch rifle (converted) have
 
 OUH-CABTBISOE. 
 
 800 
 
 GUN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 an improved elcvating-apparatiis. Guns of the Par- 
 rott pattern bave an elevating-screw. This is attachetl 
 to the rear transom of the earriajre at its lower end, 
 whik' the nut is connected to the cjuscabel of the gun. 
 The screw is worked by a handle pa.ssing through it 
 above the nut. Both screw and nut admit of move- 
 ments by which the screw can take any position rc- 
 ((uired in the various degrees of elevation. See C/ias- 
 »iti, FuUI-ctirriages, Ordnance, SeacoasI and Garrison 
 Carriii<]()i, Si>gt-rarriagifi, and I'rareling-earriage. 
 
 GUN'cARTEIDGE.— A bag in which the charge of 
 powder is placed before the cartridge is inserted in the 
 gun. The size and form of cartridges depend on the 
 nature of the guns with which they are to be used, 
 and the purpose for which they are required. They 
 are made of serge, silk (a material nunle entirely from 
 refuse silk), and raw hide — serge for service, silk for 
 .saluting or exercising, and raw hide for drill purposes. 
 Experience has shown that serge is hardly strong 
 enough for heavy charges; silk cloth, therefore, which 
 is much stronger, is likely to t;ike its place. Serge or 
 tiannel cartridges are hooped (stitched round with 
 rings of thread or broad braid), which tends to keep 
 theTn in their proper shape when tilled. In examin- 
 ing cjinnoncarlridges (tilled or empty) care should be 
 taken to see that the flannel is perfectly sovind through- 
 out, and the sewing uninjured, and free from all ap- 
 pearance of moths. If tilled, the powder shoidd be 
 free from all lumps or dust. Dust in powder in any 
 package or parcel of car'tri<lges will be shown by the 
 flannel appearing black anil dusty on the outside. To 
 restore the cartridge, if the jjowderhas become caked 
 by pressure, gentle rolling will bring it to its proper 
 state; but if it has been caked from wet, it cannot be 
 restored without injury to the grain. Cartridges 
 which are injured by moths, or have the flannel torn 
 or damaged, or of which the powder has been wetted 
 and caked, or which is verv dustv, are unserviceable. 
 
 GUN-CONSTRUCTION.— the change from the for- 
 mer comparatively light smooth-bore gun to the heavy 
 rifled cannon of the present day, throwing an elon- 
 gated projectile of at least three times the weight of 
 a spherical shot of the same caliber, has led to the 
 almost entire abandonment of cast-iron, imaided by 
 other metals, for gun-construction, and to the trial 
 and adoption in its stead of metals of higher tensile 
 .strenglhs and elastic limits, as forged iron and steel. 
 It is tnie that the Italian military authorities, and es- 
 pecially those of France, have experimented ciuite ex- 
 tensively with combinations of cast-iron and steel for 
 heavy guns with good results; the present naval and 
 sea-coast armament of the latter nation being made 
 up in great pait of such guns. 
 
 It seems, however, that neither of these nations is 
 disposed to rest satisfied with this combination of ma- 
 terial for gim-construction. In fact, the French have 
 instituted trials with all steel, and recently with steel 
 wire-wrapped guns. Herr Krupji's rifled guns are 
 inade solely of forged steel. They have been adopted 
 in Germany, Austria, and by some of the minor Pow- 
 ers of Eurojie. Though tlie Armstrong and Wool- 
 wich guns are constructed essentially of wrought-iron, 
 we infer from various sources that" English opinion, 
 in common with that of the Continent, points to the 
 use of steel in some shape as the fviturc material for 
 heavy gims both for land and naval ser\nce. The 
 combinations of this material, as well as those of 
 wrought iron, known as the built-up system, thus far 
 tried with more or less success, consist of a lining 
 tube surrounded by concentric rings or cylinders of 
 greater or less length, coimected together by methoils 
 varying with the ideas of the designers, as in the 
 Krupp, the Woolwich, and the Armstrong .systems. 
 
 The.se dilTercnt systems all agree in this," that the 
 a.ssemblage of parts shall produce com|)ression upon 
 the inner layers and extension upon the outer, so as 
 to call forth in the nu)st cfTcctive manner the resist- 
 ance of tli<> several rings when subjected to the .strains 
 due to the explosion of the charge. Though long 
 since a recognized fact that the penetration of projec- 
 
 tiles into iron increases far more rapidly with velocity 
 of impact than with weight of shot, it 'is only within 
 a few years that changes in gun-construction have 
 been initiated looking to a large increa.se of initial ve- 
 locities. These recent changes have involved great 
 increase in the length of gun and in the cajiacitv of 
 the powder-chamber, by which means about one third 
 additional velocity of projectile has been reached, and, 
 notably, in the 9.4.5-inch Krupp gun, and in the wire- 
 bound Armstrong gun recently constructed and tried, 
 alxiut one half. The leading inilitary nations of the 
 world, though already provided to some extent with 
 guns of ricdium power, more or less satisfactory, are 
 now looking for such combinations of melals as will 
 produce a stronger gun capable of burning a very 
 large charge of powder so as to attain the highest 
 pos.sible initial velocities with Siifety. 
 
 Steel in some form seems to be regarded as the best 
 metal to accomplish that end. The fact th.at steel 
 wire can lie iiroiluccd with more than twice the ten- 
 sile strength of steel forged as rings has probably in- 
 duced the recent construction, for trial, of wire-bound 
 guns both in England and France. It is understood 
 that so far as these trials have i>rogressed the results 
 are favorable, indicating the attainment of high ve- 
 locities. Now, the forging of the large ma.s.ses from 
 which the rings are produced by boring, that consti- 
 tute the successive layers of the steel gun, involves a 
 very expensive plant, is a verj' slow and costly pro- 
 cess, and docs not result uniformly in the attainment 
 of a perfectly homogeneous metal. It would there- 
 fore be economy and probably give better results if 
 the outer layers of the gun could be replaced by steel 
 in a shape more readily produced and possessed of 
 greater tensile strength." It is in part with this view- 
 that steel w ire seems to have been suggested for wrap- 
 ping under initial strains the interior tube and next 
 consecutive concentric bands of the steel gun. The 
 wire by its great tensile strength cannot fail to impart 
 the requisite tangential strength to the structure. The 
 only apparent difficulty of the combination is in the 
 parts that give resistance to longitudinal strains de- 
 veloped in the firing. Dr. W. E. Woodbridgc, who 
 seems to have been the inventor or suggested of the 
 wire gun. has attempted to attain resistance to trans- 
 verse rupture, other tli.m that due to the great fric- 
 tion of the parts, by uniting them by brazing with 
 bronze. In Sir William Armstrong's wire gim, re- 
 sistance to longitudinal strains is effected bj- the in- 
 troduction of length wise layers of steel wire siirroimd- 
 ing the barrel between layers of the wrapping wire, 
 and in Schultz's gun the breech is bound to the trun- 
 nion-ring by round bars of steel. 
 
 It is claimed by the representatives of cast-iron in 
 this country that it has never been tested using the 
 slower-burning and large-sized gi-aincd powders now 
 in vogue. Guns, nnide of any material, should evi- 
 dently be so constructed in dimensions and chamber- 
 ing as to cojie in power and cfTcctiveness with their 
 rivals, caliber for caliber. In order to do this, large 
 charges would necessarily have to be employed with 
 cast-iron, and however judiciously air-spacing and 
 chambering may be done, and even using the most 
 perfect powders, the jiressures resulting from the 
 j large masses consumed would rise beyond what is 
 ordinarily deemed a safe pressure (17.1 tons per 
 square inch), even for gmis using steel and iron. To 
 illustrate: The two Armstrong 10.2:i()inch w ire gtms 
 have been tired 60 rounds, and the pressures have 
 been (i7,(K)0 poimds per square inch. This is not 
 deemed by authorities on these matters as safe for 
 I any of the ordinary constructions now in use, and 
 ' cannot hence Ix; regarded a.s by any means a safe one 
 ' for cast-iron, however thick tlie walls are made with- 
 I in the limits of reasonableness of weight, and hence, 
 I although its use might have been entertained as pos- 
 sibly a safe structure some time since, when large 
 charges in stronger gun-constniclions did not obtain, 
 the conclusion has now to be drawn that no good rea- 
 I sons, even on the groimds of insufBcicncy of trial, ex-
 
 GUN COTTON. 
 
 801 
 
 GUN-COTTON. 
 
 ist for the further test of the metal which, owing to 
 high pressures, will be unable to cope in power, gun 
 for gun, with stronger systems susceptible of endur- 
 ing the enormous strains arising from heavj' charges, 
 and which are beyond the capacity of any cast-iron 
 ^'o withstand. 
 
 It is not understood that any important moditica- 
 tions are at present intended in the general features 
 of the present constructions using wrought-iron exte- 
 rior tubes, the change being confined principally to 
 the substitution of the one metal for the other. The 
 change hjus, however, so far progressed and been so 
 well established as an improvement, that steel coils 
 for 80-ton guns have already been produced at Wool- 
 wich, and applied in the more recent fabrication of 
 these heavy pieces; the heaviest proilucts, in fact, as 
 yet turned out by the Royal Gun-factory. See.4;v«- 
 strong Guns and Ordiuince. 
 
 GnN-COTTON.— The prevailing .'^ntiment in mili- 
 tary circles on the Continent is adverse to the use of 
 this powerful explosive. This opinion is based on 
 the belief that the substance is not a stable one, but 
 is liable, under the ordinary circumstances attending 
 its use for military purposes, to spontaneous combus- 
 tion. A claim for reliable stability was set up for it 
 in 1862 by Baron General von Lenk, who contended 
 that gun-cotton when carefully prepared and thor- 
 oughly cleansed from all remaining free acid is as 
 stable a compound as gunpowder; but the subsequent 
 explosion in Austria of a magazine in which both 
 gunpowder and gun-cotton were stored did not fail 
 to excite suspicions against the latter as being in 
 some way implicated in the explosion, which could 
 not be othemise sjitisfactorily ex^plained, to ttmi the 
 tide of public opinion against the new compound, 
 and confirm the doubts which had previously existed, 
 ■whether it possessed in a sufficient degree the quality 
 of stability', without which it could not be trusted. 
 The experiments commenced in 1863 by direction of 
 the English Government to test thoroughly, upon a 
 large scale, the question whether gun cotton, prepared 
 after the process of General Lenk, posses,sed the re- 
 quired stability to warrant a sure confidence in its 
 remaining indefinite!}' in an unchanged condition 
 when subjected to all of the changes of temperature 
 that it would meet with in actual service, have been 
 so entirely siilisfactory as to lead to its general use for 
 desti'uctive effects in mines, torpedoes, etc. In order 
 to remove all trace of free acid from the gun-cotton, 
 which is an absolute e.s,sential in all cases, the process 
 of General von Lenk required long-continued wash- 
 ings in running water, sometimes extending over 
 several weeks, to accomplish thoroughly this prime 
 requisite. The capillary action of the long fibers of 
 the cotton formed a great barrier to the ready and 
 complete removal of the acid, and consequently the 
 operation of washing was a long, tedious, inconven- 
 ient, and uncertain one. Professor Abel, the Chem- 
 ist of the War Department, to whom was committed 
 the chemical and manufacturing part of the investi- 
 gations, made several important improvements in the 
 process of manufacture, chief of which is the reduc- 
 tion of the gim-cotton to a state of pulp. This, 
 though originally adopted for another purpose, has 
 much improved its quality, especially in regartl to 
 stabOity, which has been greatly assured In- the more 
 thorough and complete means of getting rid of the 
 free acid, while the long washings in running water 
 have been avoided, and the time required for the 
 whole process of manufacture reduced from three or 
 four weeks to as many days. The terrific accident 
 which occurred at Messrs. Prentiss's works at Stow- 
 market in 1871, where gun-cotton was being manu- 
 factured for the Government, and when VSi tons were 
 explofled, would have destroyed all confidence in its 
 stability and caused its use for military purposes to 
 be discarded forever after; but it was conclusively 
 shown, after a thorough and .searching examination 
 into the causes of the accident, that the explosion did 
 not result from spontaneous combustion of the gun- 
 
 cotton as it came from the last of>erations of the manu- 
 facture, but was caused by impure gun-cotton, ren- 
 dered so by acids which had been poured on it will- 
 fully by some unknown pei-sons after it had pa.ssed 
 through the finishing processes. The evidence taken 
 at the examination is conclusive, and the exjierimenls 
 made in England, on which this evidence was based, 
 go to inspire entire confidence in the stability of gun- 
 cotton when it has been carefully prepared. Sam- 
 ples which have been subjected for eleven years or 
 more to everj' degree and change of temperature that 
 would be encountered in actual service in any known 
 climate show no appearance of change, but remain 
 in exactl}' the same state as when first made. 
 
 E.xperience has shown that in the manufacture of 
 gun-cotton it is a matter of the greatest importance 
 for the success of the process and the reliability of 
 the product that the manufacture should be con- 
 ductetl with the greatest care and circumspection; 
 and to s<'cure this it is desirable that il be in the 
 hands of responsible persons who have no interest in 
 slighting any part of the work. Impre.s.sed with the 
 importance of adhering closely to the minutest detail 
 in the different operations, the neces,sity for which 
 was brought out clearly in the investigation above re- 
 ferred to, the English Government determined to es- 
 tablish a gun-cotton factorj- under the immediate 
 supervision of army officers, and accordingly one was 
 established at Waltham Abljey, imder the direction 
 of the Superintendent of the gunpowder-mills. In 
 all of the various stages of manufacture the gun-cot- 
 ton is in a wet state, entirely harmless, and the mani- 
 pulations unattended with danger. It is not neces- 
 sary, therefore, that the buildings shoidd be removed 
 at a great distance from eiich other, as in a gunjiow- 
 derfactory, but, for the convenience of furnishmg 
 the necessjiry power to drive the machinerj-, the build- 
 ings, built of brick, are placed near together, like 
 ordinarj' shops, with a steanie-engine for the motor. 
 The material required by Von Lenk's process for 
 making gun cotton was raw cotton of long staple and 
 high quality: but Professor Abel prefers to all others 
 the waste cuttings from spinning-machines, such as 
 is used in workshops for cleaning machinery, for the 
 rea.son that it has already imdcrgone so thorough a 
 cleansing in the process of spinning through which it 
 has pas.sed that it requires no further purification 
 to prepare it, and the gun-cotton made from it is free 
 from those impurities foreign to cellulose, which arc 
 removed from the raw cotton with so much difficidtj-, 
 and are apt to form with the acids protlucts of some- 
 what an indefinite and comparatively unstiible nature, 
 and become the initial points of any change or de- 
 composition which might be started by long exposure 
 to high temperatures. The points to be particularly 
 attended to are to see that the waste is entirely free 
 from impurities, such as portions of seed-husks and 
 foreign substances, and is thoroughly dry. The waste 
 is received in bales, the cotton in a rough tangle. It 
 is first picked over by hand, to remove all impurities 
 that can be thus culled out, and is then passed through 
 a machine which, by means of toothed rollers, opens 
 and loosens the cotton, and subjects it to the strong 
 blast of a fan, which blows off other foreign matters. 
 Raw cotton at ordinary temperatures absorbs from 
 the atmosphere about 6 per cent of moisture. To 
 remove this thoroughly the cotton-waste is subjected 
 to a temperature of 126' for the space of 20 minutes. 
 For this purpose a drjing-chamber, long and narrow, 
 is made of boiler-plate, covered over on all sides with 
 a non-conductor, to keep in the heat, and for econo- 
 my of labor and fuel is so arranged that its action 
 shall be continuous and not require to be stopped to 
 introduce or remove the cotton. It is heated by air 
 which has just been in contact with coils of hot pipes, 
 through which steam is kept circulating. The neces- 
 sary ventilation is provided to carry off the moisture. 
 It is provided with five horizontal endless belts run- 
 ning from one end of the chamber to the other, one 
 above the other; to each of which is communicated
 
 OUW-COTTOW. 
 
 802 
 
 GUH-COTTOW. 
 
 a slow nintioD by tUc mnchinery, acting; by means of 
 l)elts on pulleys" outside of the cbaniber, fixed to the 
 same axles as those on which the endless belts move. 
 The cotton is fed by hand into a trouirh in the pick- 
 ing-room, and piisses thence to an endless Ijelt, which 
 conveys it to the upper belt in the drying-chamlx'r. 
 This belt carries it through the length" of "the cham- 
 l)er and deposits it on the next lower belt, which per- 
 forms a corresfmnding service, anil so on to the last, 
 ■which leaves it in a close closet prepared for its recep- 
 tion. The cotton, now thoroughly dry and warm, is 
 weighed out in parcels of If pounds each: and, to pre- 
 vent it from ab.sorbing moisture from the air before 
 it is usi'd (it camiot be dipped in the acids imtil it 
 ha-s cooled), it is placed in tin boxes, with closclv- 
 litting covers, and stored away until cool and ready 
 for lise. The acids arc procured by contract from 
 private manufacturers. It is p.'irticularly required 
 that they should be in a highly concenfnited state 
 and of uniform specific gravitv, the nitric acid 1.52 
 smil the stil])huric acid 1.H5. 't'he presence of hj-po- 
 nitric acid in the former (from which, when concen- 
 trated, it is witli ditliculty eliminated) is not regarded 
 as an objectionable impurity. The acids are thor- 
 oughly mixed together in the proportion of three of 
 sulphuric to one of nitric, bj' putting a certain weight 
 of nitric acid into one tank, and into another of equal 
 height three times the weight of the sulphuric acid. 
 These two tanks are provided with outlet-pipes which 
 ■will empty Ixith tanks at the same time. These out- 
 lets are brought together into a single pipe, which 
 conducts the acids to a considerable distance into a 
 third tank, in which there is a mixer, to which 
 motion is coninumicaled by tneans of a pulley on the 
 outside. After the acids are well mixed together, 
 thej' are forced into tanks above the dipping-room, 
 where they remain well covered for a considerable 
 time before being used — in all ca.ses mili! their tcm- 
 jjerature, which was raised by mingling the acids 
 together, has been reduced to that of the atmosphere. 
 The immersion of the cotton in the acids gives rise 
 to active chemical action, that of the nitric acid 
 upon the cotton, and this with the union of the acids 
 ■with the lilxrated water causes the evolution of con- 
 siderable heat which it is necessary to control and 
 regulate. To caiTy off and keep down this heat, the 
 ve.s.scls in which the cotton and acids are brought 
 together are surrounded by cold ■nater. A large 
 deep trough extends along one side of the dipping- 
 room, and a stream of running water is kept con- 
 stantly passing through it. In this trough is placed 
 a long row of tanks, each some 14 inches wide, 2A 
 feet long, and 16 inches deep. These are kept filled 
 with a certain measure of acid, into which the Im- 
 pound charges of cotton are dipped. The partition- 
 ■wall along the line of tanks has a row of holes cut in 
 it, each lar^e enough to pa.ss a charge of cotton 
 throiigh it into the dipping-room. The holes are 
 about 8 feet apart and are provided with close shut- 
 ters, which are kept closed except when required for 
 the delivery of cotton. Each workman is charged 
 •with three consecutive tanks, which he uses for dip- 
 ping. He tills the first to a fixed height with the 
 acids, ra|)s on the shutter for a charge of cotton, 
 ■which is pas.sed by an attendant from the tin box in 
 ■which it has been kept through the hole into a 
 ■wooden scoop ready to receive it, from which the 
 ■workman lakes it and plunges it into the acid and 
 leaves it there. He then ]iroceeds to the second tank, 
 and go<'S through the same opcr;ition, and afterward 
 the third tank. By this time the cotton which was 
 dipped first, ha\ing been in the acids a sufflcientlj- 
 long lime, is taken out with a long iron fork and 
 laid on an open grate at the back of the tank, where 
 as much of the acid is removed as can be prcs.scd 
 from it with the fork, using it for this ])ur]iose as a 
 lever, and engaging the end imder a cross-bar placed 
 in rear of the grate. The charge of cotton is then 
 placed in an earthen jar, covered with an overhang- 
 ing cover of the same material, and deposited in the 
 
 soaking-rooni,- where it remains for twenty-four hours 
 standing in a basin of water. The cotton has ab- 
 .sorlied and taken with if about eleven times its weight 
 of acids. The workman replaces this amount with 
 fresh acid, inuuerses another charge of <otton in it, 
 leaves it, and i>roceeds to the next tank to go through 
 with the same manipulations as at the first, and soon 
 to the others, taking each in its regular order of suc- 
 cession and going through exactly the sjime motions. 
 By this process of sjiturating the cotton in the acid 
 the greater part of the foniier is converted into trini- 
 tro-celhdose, but there are generally some portions 
 which escape, to a certain e.xtcnt, this change; there- 
 fore, to insure the conversion of the entire mass, the 
 cotton still containing an ample suHicicncy of acids 
 to continue the chemical action upon the' fibers not 
 yet acted upon is set away in earthen jars to give the 
 nece.s.sary time to complete the change. A consider- 
 able amount of heat is still generated by this action, 
 and, to carry it off ami prevent its accumulation, the 
 jars containing the dipjicd cotton are placed in cold 
 
 ' wafer of a depth equal to three fourths their height. 
 
 I The sonking-room has its floor laid in concrete and 
 ccmei'.t, and is divided into several shallow basins, 
 which will contain each about fifty jars, and are 
 capable of being readily filled with water to a depth 
 of 6 or 8 inches, and emptied at pleasure. The cot- 
 ton is kept here for twenty-four hours, during which 
 time especial jiains must lie taken to prevent in every 
 way the addition of the least water to the cotton, as 
 the result of such accident would be its ignition and 
 entire consumption. In such cases strong nitrous- 
 acid fumes are evolved, and the jar is removed to 
 the open air. where the cotton is quietly consumed 
 without other'damage than its loss. 
 
 The next operation is to get rid of the free acid 
 contained in the cotton. This is effecteil, first, b}- 
 mcaus of the centrifugal drjing-machine, which is 
 30 inches in diameter and makes l.'iOO revolutions per 
 minute. The contents of five or six jars are emptied 
 into the centrifugal machine, and the charge is imi- 
 formly distributed before the machine is set in mo- 
 tion. When the acid ceases to drop from the cotton 
 the latter is taken out of the machine, and a greater 
 portion of the remaining acid is removed and the 
 chemical action arrested by washing in fresh water. 
 
 I Care is to betaken at thcfirst washing that the cotton 
 is plunged quickly, in small quantilies at a time, into 
 
 I a large Ixxly of fresh water, in order to avoid the 
 danger of ignition. The first washing is performed 
 in a large tub, in one end of which there is a wooden 
 
 I wheel which plimges the cotton, in small portions at 
 a time, into the water, and submerges it at once. 
 From this tub the cotton is taken to another centrifu- 
 
 [ gal drying-machine, by which the water is removed, 
 
 ! when it is again washed and drietl in the same mim- 
 ner. Tlic cotton is next caiTied to the pulping-ma- 
 chines to be reduced to pulp. These are essentially 
 the same as the ordinaiy machines used for producing 
 pulji for pajx'r, and do their work in the sjune way. 
 The pulp next nms into the poachingmachine, where 
 all of the remaining free acid is removed by con- 
 tinuous washings in fresh water, and finally at the 
 close ill water made slightly alkaline. The iKjaching- 
 machineis a large trough, 24 feet long, 12 feet wide, 
 and al)Out 5 feet d<'ep, with a large wooden wheel, 
 like an ordinary water-wheel, of 24 feel widtli of 
 face, iilaced in the middle of, and parallel to, the 
 longer side of the trough. Pijies are provided for 
 furnishing a continuous supply of pure warm water 
 and carryingofT the surplus, as well as for conducting 
 the pidp to and from the trough. A rotary motion 
 is communicated to the wheel, which stirs up and 
 keeps the pidp in constant commotion, tlragging it 
 down at one entl and forcing it out at the other, at 
 the same time assisted by workmen who, with long 
 wooden scrapers, jMish it forward where it will mei't 
 the acti(m of the wheel, thus bringing every particle 
 in contact with fresh water ami w.ashing it in the 
 most effectual manner. This operation is continued
 
 GTTN-DETACHMENT. 
 
 803 
 
 GUN-LIFT. 
 
 uninterruptedly, the water being constantly changed, 
 until samples of the cotton will sustain satisfactorily 
 a severe heat-test; this generally requires about 48 
 hours, though it may require 100 hours. At lesist a 
 half ton of gun cotton is washed at one time in the 
 poaching machine, and by this means the products of 
 many different dippings are most intimately mixed 
 together, so that the greatest uniformity in the mate- 
 rial is attained. Before being taken from the poach- 
 ing-niachine the gun-cotton is washed in water ren- 
 dered slightly alkaline with the cartxinatc of lime and 
 soda. It is desirable that the gun-cotton should con- 
 tain as much as 3 per cent of these mineral sub- 
 stances. The manufacture is now comjileted, so far 
 as relates to the gi\ing of the cotton its explosive 
 properties and its resistance to further change un<ler 
 the ordinary circumstances of service and use. Great 
 care is required, even to the minutest detail of manu- 
 facture, to insure a product of uniform quality, and 
 it is insisted upon that too much stress cannot be laid 
 upon the fact that de\iations from the prescribed 
 process, which may appear at first sight trivial (such 
 as a slight variation in the strength of the acids or 
 the neglect of proper cooling arrangements), are cer- 
 tain to lead to varieties in the gun-cotton produced 
 affecting its explosive character or its stability, or 
 even both. 
 
 In order to control the explosive power of gun-cot- 
 ton it is ncce.s,s;iry to compress the ])ulp into homo- 
 geneous masses of required form and density. For 
 mining purposes and for torjU'does it is formed into 
 circular disks, 3 inches in diameter and 1.7") inch 
 thick, of a density slightly greater than water at 60' 
 r., between 1 and 1.0113, and each disk has two holes 
 bored through it about .2 inch in diameter. To form 
 these disks the pulp is drawn from the poaching- 
 machine into a large, close iron tank called the stutf- 
 chest, which, for convenience of drawing off the 
 pulp, is placed on a level above the machines used 
 for pressing the disks. It is supported on iron col- 
 umns about 9 feet high, and being also on a higher 
 level than the poachiug-maehiue the pulp has to be 
 raised into the stuff-chest by first exhausting the air 
 from it. It is proWded with a wooden wheel, which, 
 in revolving, keeps the ptdp stirred up in constant 
 motion and prevents it from settling and si'parating 
 from the water in which it is held suspended. A 
 pipe in the bottom of the stuff-chest conducts the 
 pulp into the machine for forming the disks. This 
 machine is constructed on the sjime principle and 
 worked in the .sjune manner as that used and de- 
 scribed tor pressing pellet-powder. The mold-plate 
 in this case is a large bronze cylinder, about lo inches 
 long, and has 36 holes about 2i inches in diameter 
 bored through it. It is stationarj-, and made fast to 
 the frame of the machine. A corresponding number 
 of closely-fitting bronze plungers enters these holes 
 from below and closes them at the bottom. These 
 plungers are made seciu'ely fast at their lower end to 
 a plate which is moved up and down by a hydraulic 
 press, and are pierced witli small holes running 
 through them parallel to their axis. The object of 
 these holes is to afford a way of escape to the water 
 in the pulp when it is subjected to a heavy pressure. 
 These plungers are first partially withdrawn a certain 
 distance, so that the molds shall contain a certain 
 fixed volume; the latter then are filled to the top with 
 pulp from the stuff-chest, and are closed on top by 
 means of an overhead block. The plungers are now- 
 forced upward by the pumps, and the pulp is com- 
 pressed into a solid cake, the water escaping from it 
 through the plungers. The overhead blocks are now 
 removed, and, the plungers continuing their upward 
 motion, force the gim-cotton out of the molds in shapes 
 of short, comiiact cylinders. They are then carried 
 to the next machine", which is similar to the first, ex- 
 cept it has onl}- four molds, 3 incHes in diameter; in 
 each ot these three cylinders of gun cotton are placed, 
 separated from each" other by circular iron plates, the 
 ■edges of which are cut obliquely, with shallow chan 
 
 nels to permit the water in the cotton to find its way 
 out. The pre-ssure brought to bear on each plunger 
 is 1.5 tons, jmd the short cylinders of gun-cotton are 
 pre.s,sed into disks 3 inches in diameter, 1.75 inch 
 thick, and weigh 9 ounces each. The gun-cotton still 
 contains 20 per cent of moisture, and can 1k' sawed or 
 bored with jx-rfect safety, or placed in the fiame of a 
 candle, or bored with a red-hot iron without danger. 
 Each disk is bored with two holes about .2 inch in 
 diameter, parallel to the axis, and disposed symmet- 
 rically on either side of it. Gun-cotton is packed in 
 water-tight boxes, containing about 20 pounds each. 
 As many disks are put in as the box will hold, which 
 is then tilled with water, and permitted to stand for 
 some nnnutes, when it is poured off and the cover 
 securely .screwed down. It may be kept with entii-e 
 safety m this condition for an indefinite period, and 
 be transported without danger or fear of accident, in 
 any conveyance, ha\nng in this respect the advantage 
 over gunpowder or most other explosives. The dis- 
 covery made by Pi-ofessor Abel, that wet gim-cotton 
 can be fired with the same effect as if it were drj-, if 
 there be present a small portion of the dry cotton, 
 and it be exjiloded by a detonating fuse, is a most 
 valuable one, inasmuch as it obviates the necessitj- of 
 drjnng it, the only operation in the process of manu- 
 facture that is attended with any dsuiger. Besides, it 
 diminishes the liability to accidents in traiLsportation 
 and in use, as the damp cotton is perfectly iminflam- 
 mable so long as it remains damp. It is uecessiirj' to 
 dry only a disk or two for each separate ma.ss to be 
 exploded, and this may be done safely on hot plates 
 which are freely open to the air at the sides. The 
 factory at Waltham Abbey has the capacitj- to 
 turn out 4000 pounds per day, and is usually 
 making about I.jOO pounds per day. The cost of 
 manufacture is stated to be 421 cents per poimd. 
 Experiments are being made to test it-s fitness for 
 bursting-charges for shells and rocket-heads, for 
 which purposes it is thought to possess advantages 
 over gimpowder. See EfjSosive Agents and Gunpoie- 
 der. 
 
 GUN-DETACHMENT.— The men employed in the 
 service of artillery are allied artillerymen, imd those 
 for a single piececonstitutea.7»«-(W'«'/(;;«/i?. varjing 
 in number with the size and kind of jiiece. The gun- 
 detachment is composed of two non-commissioned 
 officers and from two to ten privates. The senior 
 non-eommissioncd ofliceris called the Chief of-detach- 
 ment; the Other, the gunner. The privates are called 
 cannoneei-s. 
 
 GUN-^IRE. — The weU-kno^\-n name in the army, 
 proclaiming the break and close of day by llic firing 
 of a gun; in the former ease troops turn out and pre- 
 pare for the forthcoming duties of the dav, and in 
 the latter all night-duties commence. See tnttm. 
 
 GUN-LIFT. — A contrivance for moving, mounting, 
 and dismounting hea^y guns. It is variously con- 
 structed. The gun-lift generally employed in the 
 United States service is shown in the drawing, and is 
 described as follows: A is the kHI. with mortises to 
 receive the legs of the trestles; B, is the brace-gill, 
 notched to fit on the sill, with a bolt and key to 
 secure it in its place, and a cast-iron seat for the end 
 of the adjusting-screw of the brace to rest in; C, the 
 Itgs of the trestle, bolted and keyed together at the 
 top; D, the brace, with adjusting-screws attached to 
 the foot, and cleats to form a ladder; E, the cap, 
 with a shallow mortise near each end to receive the 
 ends of the legs and braces, and a hole to receive a 
 large bolt for securing it to the legs. These bolts are 
 keyed below, and their heads project above the cap 
 alxiut three inches, and serve as dowels to secure the 
 Ijolsters; F, the boMers, resting on the cap, having a 
 cleWs at the center of gravity for hoisting it in posi- 
 tion, .and morti.se for the hoisling-bar to piiss through; 
 G, the bracket, fastened to the cap by a bolt, around 
 which it turns: II, {\ie tttiging-jiUmk. resting on brack- 
 ets; I, i\xe fulcrum, resting in the mortise in the Ixils- 
 tcr; J, a Uter, one end resting in the fulcrum and the
 
 OUKLIFT. 
 
 804 
 
 GUN-LIFT. 
 
 other end on the hydravilic jack, and haWng a mortise 
 through which the hoisting-bar passes; K, the hnM- 
 iiiy-^u-, with hooks on the lower end for sling-chaius, 
 and holes at intervals to receive the supporting pins; 
 L, «/««;•», for hoisting into their places the bolster, 
 levers, fulcrunis, and jacks; JI, hydraulk jack, for 
 raising the end of the lever, and thereby the weight. 
 Each giin-lift is pronded with two sets" of caps and 
 bolsters. One of these sets has the mortises for the 
 hoisting-bar through its middle; this is intended for 
 center-pintle carriages. The other set has mortises 
 much nearer one end than the other, and is for front- 
 pintle carriages. The Uitler arniugement is intended 
 to permit the carriage to be traversed from under the 
 gun, when it is raised, or under it, when it is lieing 
 mounted. ^Vhen weights are not excessive — that is, 
 not exceeding, say, lifteen tons — and cjin be slung 
 with a single sling, but one trestle need be used. 
 This would be the case with mortars, gun-carriages, 
 and like weights. The jacks used must be of a power 
 equal to the wei.ght to be raised, as tliere is nothing 
 gained for them by way of leverage. 
 
 Twelve men are necessary- to erect the gun-lift and 
 mount or dismount a IS-inch gun. The implements 
 specially required are two hydra nlif jaeks {30-ton, or 
 one 30-ton and one 15-ton), two mauU, two hammers, 
 one measuring-rrxl (13 feet), one spiritkrel (carpen- 
 ter's). If the carriage and chassis are to be moved, 
 
 quired, by turning the screw in the foot, until they 
 shall have a good bearing when the legs are vertical, 
 which is determined by a plumb-line or spirit-level. 
 To raise the bolster a pair of light shears is provided. 
 Place them so that when raised the bead shall be 
 over the middle of the cap of the trestle; hook the 
 pulley-hook in the link provided for the purpose; 
 fa.steii two guys to the head, one to the front and the 
 other to the rear; nnse the shears and make fast the 
 guys; hook the pulley to the clevis of the bolster, 
 and raise it to its place on the cap; raise the staging- 
 plank and lay them on the bnickets. Two men as- 
 cend the stejis on the brace to the top of the trestle 
 and receive the fulcrum, lever, anil jack, which are 
 hoisted to them in turn, and place them in position. 
 The hoisting-bar is brought by the men on the ground, 
 who insert it into the mortise in the cap and bolster, 
 and raise it, assisted by those on the trestle, until it 
 be in position. 
 
 To raise the weight, pass a sling around the weight, 
 bringing the ends over the hook on the end of the 
 hoisting-bar, taking in all of the slack. Bring the 
 lever down on the head of the jack; put in the pin 
 over it and through a hole in lifting-bar; commence 
 pumping, and raise the weight the full lift of the 
 jack; insert the pin in the hole in lifting-bar above 
 the bolster and run down the head of the jack as far 
 as it will go; bring the lever down as at first, and 
 
 MinS 
 
 Gun-lift.— TTnited States Amiy. 
 
 the following will be required in addition: one cradle 
 (or truck-wagon), six fradlf -rollers, twelve leheeMioeks, 
 four irat/plaiiks, two shifting-planks. A sufficient 
 number pf 4-1-inch blocks of various thicknesses 
 should be at hand for any purpose required of such 
 material. 
 
 To assemble and raise the gunlift, place the sills 
 parallel to each other at the required distance apart, 
 and on the spot where the trestle is to stand. It will 
 be convenient to have a wooden rod of a length equal 
 to the proper distance between the sills. Lay down the 
 brace-sills and key them ; take two legs, bring together 
 the two ends which form the niiter-joint, pass the 
 bolt through them,!md drive in the key; raise one leg 
 above the other, insert the head of the legs into the 
 mortise in the cap, put in the bolt, and drive in the 
 key. At the same time two other men have gone 
 through the same operation with the other two legs. 
 Place the ends of the legs that are on the ground 
 close to the mortises in the sills; all take hold of the 
 cap and rai.se it, bringing the trestle on its feet, and 
 placing the legs in the mortises in the sills. A pole 
 with a notch in the end, or hook like a boat-hook, 
 will be convenient in raising the trestle after the cap 
 is too high to hold it with the hands; or the trestle 
 may be raised by the shears in the .same way as the 
 bolster, if the party l)e dclicient in force, or if for 
 other rea-sons it be deemed desirable. Correct the 
 position of the trestle, if it be necessary-, so as to 
 bring the mortise for the hoisting-bar directly over 
 the center of gravity of the weight to be raised. Put 
 up the braces, varying their lengths as may be re- 
 
 continue this operation as already described. Hie 
 weight should n/it be left on the jofk for any length of 
 time, but on the pin. 
 
 To mount a 15-inch gun with this gun lift, bring 
 the gun on to the platform by means of the cradle, 
 or truck and portable railway, the muzzle to the 
 front, the vent uppermost, and" leave it in such a po- 
 sition, with the muzzle about two feet in the rear of 
 where the end of the chassis will come, that when 
 the gun shall be raised vertically the carriage can be 
 placed on its pintle and directly under the gun; place 
 the shears midw-ay between the jilace where tlie two 
 trestles are to stand; raise the trestles and place them 
 over the gun so that one hoisting-bar shall be overthe 
 center of the neck of the cascabel, and the other about 
 two feet from the muzzle; niise the gun to its full 
 height as already described for riiising a weight; re- 
 move the truck, bring the chassis (on a truck), and run 
 it between the legs o^ the trestles under the gun; re- 
 move the truck and place the chas.sis on the pintle; 
 bring the top-carriage and place it on the cliassis, 
 placing the trunnion-beds under the trunnions; lower 
 the gun into its place, and remove the gun-lift. 
 
 If the gun and carriage be already on the platform, 
 or if the peculiar position of the platform be such as 
 to render the foregoing method impracticable, the 
 following plan may- be executed: Place the gun in 
 such a position that the axis of the bore shall be in 
 the Siime vertical plane as the central Hne of the chas- 
 sis when the hitter shall be in place: move thecha.ssis 
 parallel and close to the gun, the top-oirriage nin 
 well to the front; put up the trestles overthe gun and
 
 GDNMAKING. 
 
 805 
 
 GUNNEK'S GIMLET, 
 
 chassis, both of them being between the legs of the tres- 
 tles; hoist the gtin, raise and slide the chassis by 
 means of the jacks under the gun and over its pintle; 
 run the top-carriage back under the gun, and lower 
 it into its place. See Krupp Oun-lift and Prussian 
 Gun-lift. 
 
 GUN-MAKING. — Although the terms gunnery and 
 gun relate cbielly to great-guns or cannon, the word 
 gun-making is always applied to the manufacture of 
 small-arms. comi)rlsing muskets, rifles, pistols, and 
 carbines. In England the great seat of this trade 
 was formerly London, whose workmen stood un- 
 rivaled throughout Europe for the excellence of their 
 production; but of late years the gun-makers of Bir- 
 mingham have succeeded, from local advantages, in 
 turnmg out barrels of proved power, at such a price 
 as to defy comiietition. Since then the London 
 makers have contined themselves to "tinishing," or 
 putting together, an art requiring the utmost nicety; 
 and even in this the skilled labor of Dublin aiid 
 Edinburgh has now nearly equaled them. There 
 are, therefore, several centers now in the United 
 Kingdom whence first-rate arms are to be obtained. 
 America and the leading Continental Nations are 
 great manufacturers also, and each has its particular 
 excellences. The chief Continental Gun factories are 
 at St. Etienne, Liege, Vienna, and Suhl. 
 
 Machinery has been comparatively slow in being ap- 
 plied to the manufacture of small-arms, but during the 
 last few years it has made giant strides; and now- the 
 government manufactory at Enfield, in which numer- 
 ous ingenious machines have been introduced from 
 the United States, is fitted with everj' mechanical ap- 
 pliance, and can turn out many thousand arms per 
 annum, each of which so exactly corresponds to pat- 
 tern that all the constituent pieces are interchange- 
 able. Barrels, instead of being forged by the hand- 
 hammer, are rolled at once with a uniform pressure, 
 and then welded at one heat. In the United States, 
 barrels are at present made of cjist steel, first formed 
 in the solid, and then bored by a succession of borers 
 of increasing diameter. These cast-steel barrels are 
 rapidly superseding all others — at least for sporting 
 purposes — in Great Britain, France, and America. 
 Another favorite modern material for barrels is lami- 
 nated steel. Barrels well constructed of laminated 
 steel resist a bursting pressure of 82,000 lbs. on the 
 .square inch one eighth of an inch thick, whereas 
 common "twist" barrels will only withstand about 
 34,000 lbs. 
 
 When the barrel is finished, however made, it is 
 proofed, under very heavy charges of powder. All 
 non-government barrels made in England must be 
 proofed 'at the proofing-houses of London or Bir- 
 mingham; government arms are tested at Enfield. 
 The portions of the lock are made some of iron and 
 some of steel, either forged by hand, or, as in the 
 great manufactories, stamped out by a powerful 
 machine. The stock is turned by machinery from 
 strong light wood. On all accounts taken together, 
 it is found that no wood is so well adapted as Italian 
 •walnut. The finishing or putting together of giuis is 
 an art in itself; the \itmost attention having to l)e 
 devoted to everything that will secure solidity, light- 
 ness, and the most minute accuracy of fitting. 
 Skilled artificers in the gun-trade command excellent 
 ■wages; rarely less than 40«., and often as much as £4 
 per week. 
 
 In fitting and finishing, London is generally ad- 
 mittetl to stand unequaled; Paris, however, making 
 a good and near second. For barrels, Birmingham, 
 St. Etienne, and Liege have the most re])\Ue. In all 
 respects, Toledo, once famed for its blades, holds a 
 high character in regard to its guns, both for sporting 
 and military purposes. In the United States, Wind- 
 sor and Hartford are the leading manufactories, with 
 Springfield for government arms; but the quality of 
 American workmanship is too often sjicrificed to 
 cheapness in the article turned out. The British ex- 
 port trade in small-arms is very great, the return for 
 
 the year 187.5 showing an exportation of 318,901 stand 
 of all varieties, of the value of £6.5.1,169. See Fabri- 
 cation of Smallarms auA livyal Gun -factories. 
 
 GUN-METAL. — An alloy of nine parts of copper 
 ami line part of tin, u.sed for brass cannon, etc. The 
 term is also applied to certain strong mixtm^esof cast- 
 iron. See Bronze. 
 
 GUNNELS. — A term sometimes applied to the sad- 
 dles of a ponton-bridge. Commonly written Gun- 
 wah'S. 
 
 GUNNER. — A soldier, usually a non-commi.ssioned 
 officer ranking next to the Chief-of-detachment, em- 
 ployed to njanage and di.scharge great-guns. In the 
 United Slates service there is one gunner with each 
 gun-detachment. In line, and in column of platoons, 
 he is two yards in rear of the center of his detachment, 
 except when belonging to the left detachment of the 
 battery in line, or of platoon when in column of 
 platooM, — in either of which ca.ses he places himself 
 on the left of the front rank of his detachment, and 
 is the guide of that Hank of the battery or platoon; in 
 colunui of detachments, he is on a line witli the front 
 rank of his detachment, on the flank towards which 
 the wheel was made, and one yard from it; in column 
 of tiles, he is as if he had faced with his detachment 
 from line. When he is the left guide of the battery 
 or platoon, and by facing alxjut the front becomes the 
 rear rank, he does not quit his position on the flank 
 of his iletachment, but steps forward into the rear 
 (now become the front) rank. AVhen, by wheeling 
 alx)ut, the right sutjdi^ision becomes the left, the gvm- 
 ner who was the left guide resumes his place in rear 
 of his detachment, and the gunner of the detachment 
 which has now become the left places himself on its 
 left flank as guide of the battery or platoon. 
 I In the British army, the gunner is a private .soldier of 
 the corps of artillery; he receives pay at the rate of 1«. 
 2id. per diem. His unifonn consists of blue with red 
 ! facings, and red stripes on the trou.^m'rs; and his arras 
 ! consist of a carbine and sword-bayonet. At the pres- 
 ent time, when artillery is used with the utmost skill 
 and science, the training a gunner must undergo, to 
 become thoroughly efficient, is long and arduous. 
 His eye must be sufficiently acute to estimate dis- 
 tances instantly and appro .ximately; and withal, he 
 must possess physical strength capable of sustaining 
 the exertions neces-sjiry for the ser\ice of heavy guns 
 and the removal of shot and ponderous artillery stores. 
 Master-gitniurs are pensioned Sergeants of artillery, 
 who are placed in charge of the stores in small towers 
 or forts; they are divided into three classes, of which 
 those in the first class receive 5ji. , in the .second 3*. 6rf. , 
 and in the third 3«. a day. Master-gunners are now 
 borne in the Coast Brigade of Royal Artillery, but the 
 office has much degenerated in importance since it 
 was first created, at least as far back as the time of 
 Henrv VIII. 
 
 GUNNER'S CALIPERS.— A small calipers made of 
 shect-bra.ss, with steel points. The two branches are 
 connected by a brass pivot, fastened on the upper 
 side by a washer and screw. The branches are 
 graduated so as to measure the lengths of fuses, the 
 diameters of shot, and the calibers of guns. For 
 measuring shot, the points are placed at the opposite 
 extremities of a diameter, when the size of the shot is 
 shown by the figures placed on a small arc on the cir- 
 cular part of the arm near the joint, the inner edge 
 of the other arm, or a mark on it, coming in succes- 
 sion opposite the different points which mark the 
 sizes. To measure the caliber of a gun, the position 
 of the points is reversed; they are pres.sed against the 
 sides of the bore at the extremities of a diameter, and 
 the caliber is read off from the line, on a scale marked 
 "guns," with which the back of the other branch 
 comcides. The graduations on a scale next below 
 the one marked " guns" will give the diameters in 
 inches. 
 
 GUNNER'S GIMLET.— This implement is of the 
 same form and size as the priming-wire, except that 
 at the point a small screw is formed. It is used for
 
 OUHNEB S LEVZL. 
 
 806 
 
 GUNNEET. 
 
 boring out plujrs which have been inserted in tlie vent, 
 or the >;tenis of the primers which muy have become 
 wedired in there. 
 
 GUNNER'S LEVEL. — An instrument for marking 
 the line of metal on a piece. Until within a very re- 
 cent period it was required with all pieces, but since 
 the application of sights to guns its 
 use is confined solely to mortars; 
 . /TTv. and owin^ to the fact that these 
 
 / \ pieces are left rough and unturned 
 
 on the exterior, the line of metal 
 marked, in the usual manner, with 
 a gunner's level and a chalk-line, 
 is,"at best, but a crude and imper 
 feet method of obtaining a line of 
 sight. The method of using this 
 instrument is readily understood 
 b}' an inspection of the drawing. 
 This instrument is frequently called Ibe gunner's per- 
 pendinilar. 
 
 GUNNER'S PENDULUM.— An upright frame of 
 wood, having a cross arm attached to it, from which 
 a pendulum is suspended, vibrating seconds, consist- 
 ing of a string with a leaden ball, measuring from 
 the point of suspension to the center of giavity of the 
 ball, a length equal to a second's pendulum having 
 reference to the latitude; in latitude 32^ the length is 
 39.1. It is employed to measure the time of flight of 
 a mortar-shell. 
 
 GUNNER'S PINCERS. — When an obstruction in the 
 vent projects bey(«ul the surface of the gun, or has a 
 head, it may be withdrawn with Ihe gunner's pincers, 
 which are made of iron with steel .laws, and have on 
 the end of one of the arms a claw designed for draw- 
 ing nails, etc. 
 
 GUNNER'S POUCH.— A leather pouch worn by the 
 gunner, being attached to tlie person by a strap buck- 
 ling around the waist. It contains the smaller im- 
 plements required by the gunner when in action. 
 
 GUNNER'S QUADRANT.— An instrument for gi\'ing 
 elevation or depression to a piece. It consists of a 
 graduated quarter of a circle of sheet-brass, of six 
 inches radius, attached to a straight brass bar twenty- 
 two inches long. (Fig. 1). It has an arm caiTying a 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 spirit-level at its middle, and a vernier and clamp- 
 screw at its movable end. The arc is graduated to 
 half-degrees, and the vernier reads to hve minutes. 
 To get a required elevation, the vernier is set at the 
 indicated degree; the brass bar is ne.xt inserted in the 
 bore parallel to the axis; the piece is then elevated or 
 depressed until the level is horizontal. The elevation 
 may likewi.se be obtained by applying the bar to the 
 face of the piece, care being taken to have it in a 
 plane parallel to the plane of fire. The latter is the 
 mode of using it with mortars. The difficulty of a])- 
 plying the quadrant to the nuizzle of guns, especially 
 to those in embrasure, has suggested that a metallic 
 leilge be attached to the end of a trun- 
 nion; upon this ledge the bar of the 
 ((uadranl is applied when the elevation 
 is to be given. The top of the ledge is 
 parallel witli the axis of the bore. 
 
 In another form, shown in Fig. 2, 
 the quadrant is made of wood, and 
 ►is attached to a ride two feel long. 
 It has a plumli-liiie and bob, which are 
 canied, when not in use, in a hole 
 in the end of the rule covered by a brass plate. The 
 quadrant is api)lied either by "its longer branch to 
 the face of the piece, or this branch is run into the 
 
 Fio. 2. 
 
 bore parallel with the axis, and the elevating-screw 
 turned or the quoin adjusted imtil the required degree 
 is indicate<l. See MurUir. 
 
 GUNNERY. — Ignorance of the laws of gravity and 
 of other pliysical circumstances affecting the flight of 
 projectiles prevented any current theory of gunnery 
 being arrived at in the earliest stages of artillery. 
 The flrst author professedly treating on the flight of 
 cannon-shot was Nicholas Tartaglia, a distingui.shed 
 Italian Mathematician, who in 1.537 published his 
 work. La yuora Scimtin. He had no practical ac- 
 quaintance with his subject, but his gues,ses were 
 shrewd and often marvelously near the truth. Among 
 other things he ascertained that no portion of the track 
 described by a ball is a right line, and, as a practical 
 aid to artillerists, he devised the gunner's quadrant. 
 After Tartaglia, many i)hiIosophers, especially of 
 Italy, theorized on the question, and various tables 
 of ranges, elevations, charges, etc., had been ])ub- 
 lished, all more or less fallacious, when a nearer ap- 
 proach to accuracy appeared in Galileo's Dialogues on 
 Motion, printed in 1638. The officers who had charge 
 of artillery in actual u.se were too little gifted with 
 scicntitic education to deduce theory from practice; 
 and up to the lime of Robins, who wrote in 17-12, but 
 four working-gunners — CoUado, Browne, Eldred, and 
 Alderson, of whom the last three were Englishmen — 
 have left treatises of any value on the u.se of their 
 weapons. Galileo, in his contributions to physics, 
 had shown that cannon shot, or any other projectiles, 
 being affected by the downward force of grarity, 
 would travel in the curve of a parabola, unless af- 
 fected by the resistance of the air. The philosopher 
 pointed out modes by which the disturbances caused 
 by this resisting medium might be ascertained; but 
 subsequent writers, with the exception of Newton 
 and Bernouilli, till the time of Robins, chose to as- 
 sume that the atmospherical resistance was but nomi- 
 nal, and boldly asserted that all shot described para- 
 bolas in their course. In 1742, Mr. Benjamin Robins, 
 who must be considered the real founder of the science, 
 published his New Principles of Ounnery, a work the 
 result of long and almost exhaustive experiments. He 
 treated of the atmospheric resistance, of the force of 
 gunpowder, of the effects of varying length and 
 weight in guns, and of almost everything which in 
 any way related to the motion of projectiles, carrying 
 the theory of gunnery nearly to perfection. As one 
 result of his experiments, Robins established the law 
 that common shot encoimtered a resistance from the 
 air during their passage, which increa.sed as the square 
 of the velocity, or very nearly so; and that their courses 
 differed widel}' from parabolas. By means of the 
 ballistic pendulum, he measured the speed of balls at 
 the very cannon's mouth. Euler, in the latter part 
 of the eighteenth century, added nuich to the knowl- 
 edge of the subject by his commentaries on the work 
 of Robins, as did also the mathematician Hutton. 
 
 The theory of gunnery, so far as it can be deduced 
 from the universal laws of motion, without regard to 
 the resistance of the air, falls imder the more general 
 heiiil of projectiles. But except in firing bombs, w hich 
 from their low velocity are not so much afTecled by 
 the resistance of the air, the mere matliematical theoty 
 is of little service. All the real practical rules have 
 been deduced from experiment. The following are 
 a few of the more imjioiiant results thus arrived at: 
 For a given charge and weight of projectile there is 
 a certain length of bore that gives the greatest velo- 
 city; the cause being, that with a less length some of 
 the powder is discharged imdecomi)osed, and with a 
 greater the combustion is finished before the ball 
 leaves the muzzle, so that it has to contend with the 
 friction of the gun without receiving additional im- 
 pulses. Increase of length, accompanieil by propor- 
 tionate increase of charge, gives increased velocity; 
 but the greater velocity is only in proportion to the 
 cube root of the increa.sed length. The resistance of 
 the air does not arise merely from the projectile hav- 
 ing to displace its own bulk of it as it advances; for
 
 Qvsirz. 
 
 807 
 
 GUN PITS. 
 
 in the case of a body moving with great velocity the 
 air becomes condensed in front of it, while that be- 
 hind is highly raretied. The disphiced air l)ehind does 
 not return freely to till up the vacuum, until the speed 
 of the ball is reduced to 1400 feet per second; the 
 maximum profitable velocity is calculated to be 1600 
 feet, and that, or any higher speed, is believed to be 
 reduced to 1400 feet after a course of 400 feet. The 
 resistance offered to bodies by the air is as their sur- 
 faces, i.e., in the case of round or cylindrical shot, as 
 the squares of the diameters; whilst the power of the 
 bodies themselves to overcome resistance is as their 
 weights, or as the cubes of their diameters. Of course 
 balls of like size but different density will produce 
 widely different results. Hence the greater range of 
 solid as compared to hollow shot. Solid shot tired 
 •with equal velocities and elevations range as their 
 ■weight, the heavier overcoming atmospheric resist- 
 ance better than the lighter. Shot of eiiual weight 
 and diameter will range according to their velocities; 
 but not in direct proportion, for the retarding power 
 varies as the square of the velocity. Velocities of shot 
 of equal diameter are asthe square roots of the charges. 
 The diminution in speed caused by atmospheric resist- 
 ance may be judged of from the following table of 
 the speed of a Sa-pounder at different parts of its 
 course; it being premised that a body in vacuo, once 
 started, should move ad infinitum, without decrease 
 of velocity: 
 
 Feet per Second. 
 
 Initial velocity 1600 
 
 Velocity 500 yards from gun 1126 
 
 1000 " " " 1000 
 
 1500 " " " 608 
 
 2000 " " " 465 
 
 2500 " " " 367 
 
 Action and reaction being always equal and in op- 
 posite directions, the explosion of the gunpowder acts 
 with equal force upon the ball and upon the cjinnon 
 from which it is discharged, the former demon.strat- 
 ing this in its range, and the latter by its recoil. This 
 
 Nature. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Charge. 
 
 Range in 
 Yards. 
 
 12-pounder iron gun 
 
 Point-blank, 
 
 4 lbs. 
 
 300 
 
 1 degree. 
 3 degrees, 
 6 ■' 
 
 ^^ 
 
 700 
 
 laoo 
 
 1800 
 
 12-pounder Armstrong... 
 
 Point-blank, 
 
 1 lb. 8 oz. 
 
 830 
 
 1 degree. 
 
 " 
 
 700 
 
 3 degrees, 
 6 ■* 
 
 10 
 
 (, 
 
 1423 
 2440 
 
 " 
 
 3590 
 
 
 Point-blank, 
 
 10 lbs. 
 
 390 
 
 
 1 degree. 
 
 '* 
 
 790 
 
 32-pounder iron gun ■ 
 
 3 degrees, 
 6 
 
 ti 
 
 1500 
 2220 
 
 
 12 
 
 " 
 
 3060 
 
 r 
 
 Point-blank, 
 
 5 lbs. 
 
 360 
 
 
 1 degree. 
 
 '* 
 
 730 
 
 40-pouiider Armstrong... 
 
 3 degrees. 
 
 ., 
 
 1455 
 8505 
 
 
 12 
 
 " 
 
 4470 
 
 
 Point-blank, 
 
 20 lbs. 
 
 400 
 
 
 1 degree. 
 
 
 950 
 
 68-pounder iron gun 
 
 3 degrees, 
 6 
 12 
 
 .. 
 
 1715 
 8465 
 
 
 " 
 
 3400 
 
 
 Point-blank, 
 
 13 lbs. 
 
 345 
 
 1 
 
 1 degree. 
 
 *' 
 
 680 
 
 llO-pounder Armstrong.. •( 
 
 I 
 
 3 degrees, 
 6 '* 
 
 „ 
 
 1335 
 £280 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 " 
 
 403.') 
 
 recoil has to be guarded against as much as possible, 
 either by the weieht of the gun it.self , or by its secure 
 attachment to a ponderous carriage. The momentum 
 of the recoil, being the product of the shot's weight, 
 and the velocitv, is readily calculated. The com- 
 mon charge of a 24-pounder gun being one third the 
 weight of the shot, or 8 pounds, the momentum of 
 both shot and gun will be 1600 (the initial velocity) 
 X 24 = 38,400, which divided by 5600, or the .mm s 
 weight in pounds, gives about 7 feet as the velocity 
 per second; if the gun is attached to a carnage, the 
 
 weight of the carriage must be added to that of the 
 gun for a divisor. The foregoing table exhibits the 
 effects of van,'ing charge and elevation on different 
 kinds of guns. The line of sight of a gun is an im- 
 aginary line drawn through the back-sight on the 
 breech and the fore-sight, a notch in the muzzle ring, 
 or on the first reinforce. The fore-sight is immov- 
 able, but the backsight is so constructed that the 
 notch shall be at a greater or less height above the 
 axis of the gini. When the line of sight is parallel to 
 the axis and horizontal, the discharge is " point- 
 blank;" but when the backsight is raised, the direc- 
 tion of the a.xis of the gun will be to a point more 
 elevated than that to which the line of sight is directed. 
 Consequently, by raising the back-sight, a greater ele- 
 vation, and, orilinarily, a greater range, is given to 
 the piece. In regard to point-blank discharge. Tar- 
 taglia established the fundamental proposition that 
 the time occupied by the ball in describing the whole 
 trajectory or path is the s;ime as it would require 
 to fall by gravity from the muzzle to the ground. 
 As regards "penetration, it was found by experiments 
 against a martello tower at Eastbourne, with a range 
 of 1833 yards, that solid shot from the 4(l-pounder 
 Armstrong penetrated into good masonry from 47 to 
 65 inches, and from an HO-pounder Armstrong 51 to 
 90 inches. See IjMding, Ordnance, Projectiles, and 
 Winihigi . 
 
 GUNNY. — A coarse Indian fabric manufactured 
 largely in Bengal. It is of two kinds for artillery 
 purposes in that country, single and ilmihle ; the for- 
 mer is used for charcoal-bags, for package of gun- 
 powder-barrels, and as package generally; the latter 
 for .slings for carrying shot and shell, and small-arm 
 ammunition-boxes, also for covering ammunition- 
 boxes, making sand bags, etc. The saleetahs and 
 pin-bags for tents are atso made of gimny. The ma- 
 terial from which this article is mantifactured is the 
 fiber of two plants of the genus Corchorus, i.e., Cor- 
 chornn uUtariiiH and Corrlwrns capsnldrix ; both, but 
 particularly the first-named plant, are very extensive- 
 1}' cultivated throughout Lower Bengal. This nature 
 of cloth is universiUly used for bags of all sorts, and 
 there is a very large exportation of this material to 
 America, the Coromandel and Malabar coasts, and 
 Singapore. 
 
 GtJNNY-BAGS. — Bags made of coarse gunny -cloth, 
 and used in India with siege-trains for carrj'ing char- 
 coal for the use of the artificers. 
 
 GUN OF EESEKVE.— The name given to the old 
 French 12-pounder. Its particulars were: bore, 4| 
 inches; weight, 1350 pounds; charge, 2J pounds; 
 weight of shell. 25,'„ pounds. 
 
 GUN -PENDULUM. —An instrument invented for 
 measuring the velocity of recoil and muzzle-veloci- 
 ties. It consists of a frame in which a light gun is 
 susiX'nded by means of a rod. The pendulum, of 
 which the gun forms the Ixih, is capable of moving 
 freely when the gun is fired. An arc graduated in 
 tlegrees and minutes is attached to the fmme, by 
 means of which the ande of recoil is registered. 
 Great care is neces-saiy, in adjusting the weights, to 
 get the center of percussion very nearly in the axis 
 of the bore. The use of the gun-pendulum seems to 
 have been suggested by Robins, although Count 
 Rumford first reported, in 1781, the results of various 
 experiments made with it for the determination of the 
 initial velocity of projectiles, and the most advanta- 
 geous position of the vent. The quantity of mo- 
 tion of the gun as a pendulum is ecpial to that of 
 the projectile, charge of powder, and the air. From 
 this the velocity of the projectile may Ix" deduced. 
 E.xtended experiments with both the ballistic and 
 gun pendulums were made in England from 1775 to 
 1791, by Hutton; at Metz in 1839 and 1840; and in 
 the Uni"ted States from 1843 to 1848. by Major Jlor- 
 decai of the Ordnance Department. See Ballistic 
 Prniliih/m. 
 
 GUN-PITS. — Excavations made in the earth for the 
 protection of artillery in the field, when a shelter is
 
 OUWPOKTION. 
 
 808 
 
 OrWPOWDEE. 
 
 nccessiiry. The guns may be often protected from 
 the enemy's tire bv naninil banks, crests of hills, 
 siind-mouhds, etc. ; but if thcR' be no natural cover, 
 resort must be had to the pickaxe and spade. A 
 g\ui-pit can be excavated in one hour by experienced 
 men. This gives but a liniilcd space to the jrunile- 
 tachment; so if tlierc be time the pit can l)e length- 
 ened, and the thickness of the parapi't increased. 
 Since i.solntod gun-pits, a.s explained in the tirst vol- 
 ume of Inntruftion in Military EiiginetriiiQ, would 
 form good marks for the enemy's tire, it would 
 be advisable to connect them by shelter-trenches, in 
 which, however, places should be left to enable the 
 guns to pass readily to the front. Should no natund 
 cover whatever be" available for the limber, cover 
 for it and a pair of horses might be provided in a i)it, 
 somewhat of the form of a charger-pit, and similar 
 arrangements should be made for the cover of more 
 horses. 
 
 GUN-PORTION. — In fortification, half of the mer- 
 lon on cacli side of the gun — that is to say. 9 feet on 
 one side of llic cnilmi.sure and 9 feet on the other. 
 
 GUNPOWDER.— Gunpowder is the agent employed 
 in modern warfare to propel projectiles from all guns 
 and small-arms, and generally as the bursting charge 
 of projectiles; for the explosion of mines: blasting 
 purposes, etc. It is a mechanical mixture giving 
 light, heat, and gas in the combustion or chemical 
 union of its ingredients. Explosion is a phenomenon 
 arising from the sudden enlargement of the volume 
 of a lx)dy; as in the case of gunpowder, the solid 
 body is rapidly converted into a gas many times its 
 volume. If tlie body is confined in a limited space 
 and exploded, great heat is developed and a vast ex- 
 pansion or propelling force produced, the volume of 
 gas beipg very many times greater than that of the 
 powder. In the United States ser\ice, gunpowder is 
 obtained from private manufacturers. It is distin- 
 guished by granulation, irregular, as musket, mortar, 
 cannon, and nmmmoth ; regular, as cubical, and the 
 molded powders, i.e., })ellet, liei-agonal, and prismatic 
 (perforated hexagonal prism.s). In all of these the 
 proportions of the ingredients are the same; they 
 differ onlj' in the size and shape of grain, density and 
 details of manufacture. Musket-powder is used for 
 small-arms; mortar for field-guns; cannon for light 
 siege-guns, and the larger-grained and special pow- 
 ders ifor heavy sea-coast guns. The materials re- 
 quired are jwtasxium nitrate (niter), charcoal, and 
 mtlphur. They should Ix; of the greatest possible 
 purity to insure excellence of qualit}- and guard 
 against accidents in manufacture. The proportions 
 by weight of the ingredients used in the United Slates 
 ser\-ice-powder are { 1% niter, -J \\ charcoal, 10 sul- 
 phur. It is es.sential to the successful and uniform 
 manufacture of powder that the ingredients should 
 be procured in their rough state, and be refined and 
 prepared for u.se at the factory; this is also necessary 
 as a securitj- against accidents at the mills. All 
 foreign matter must be carefully e.xcluded, and every 
 precaution taken against their introduction in hand- 
 ling and moving the refined materials. 
 
 For the general i)urposes of artillery, slight varia- 
 tions in the proportions of the ingreilients for powder 
 are not found to affect its strength: but for blasting 
 or mining purposes a slower powder is found to 
 answer nearly as well as a quick one, consequently 
 the proportion of niter is reduced much below that of 
 gunpowder. Bla-sting-powder is thus made cheap; 
 but as it leaves a large amomit of residuum, it can- 
 not be advantageously used in fire-arms. The sc'vcral 
 operations of fabriaiting gunpowder arc: 1st. Piiher- 
 izing; which consists in rc<lu<ing the ingredients to 
 finely divid<(l dust. ad. Incnrjioriitiiiii: which con- 
 sists in bringing the particles of this dust into such 
 intimate contact that each piirlicli- of powiier shall 
 be composed of one of each of the ingredients. lid. 
 Coinpnssinf/; which gives strength :in(l density to 
 the substance ot the powder, by <()nverlirig the incor- 
 porated mixture into a cake which will not crumble 
 
 in transportation. 4th. ^rami'Hp'V which breaks up 
 the cake into small fragments or grains, and incrca.scs 
 the surface of combustion, .'jth. Ohniiif/; which 
 hardens the surface, to protect it from the action of 
 moisture, and rounds the sharp angles of the grains 
 to prevent the formation of dust in trans|)ortation. 
 tith. Dryinrj; which frees the powder from the 
 moisture introduced in certain operations of the 
 fabrication. 7th. Dusting; which frees it from the 
 dust, which would othcnvise fill up the interstices 
 and retard the infiammation of the charge. The pro- 
 portions of the ingredients, as well asthe art of mak- 
 ing gunpowder, vary in different coimtries, and even 
 among the ditfcreni nianufactories of the sjune coun- 
 try. The variations in the proportions are slight, 
 however, and the differences in the modes of manu- 
 facture are principally confined to the more impor-* 
 tant operations of pulverizing, mixing, and compress- 
 ing the composition. 
 
 The buildings in which the different operations are 
 carried on are seiiarated from each other, luid ])ro- 
 tecteil by trees or traversesas far as iiraclicable. The 
 Siiltpetef is usually pulverized sufficiently when it 
 comes from the refinery. The charcoal is placed in 
 large cast-iron barrels with twice its weight of zinc 
 balls. The barrel has several ledges on the inferior, 
 and Is made to revolve from 20 to 25 times in a 
 minute. It is pulverized in two or three hours. 
 The sidphur is placed in barrels made of thick 
 leather stretched over a wooden frame, with twice 
 its weight of zinc balls from .3 to .5 inch in diame- 
 ter, and the barrel made to revolve about 20 times 
 per minute. It takes one hour to pulverize the sul- 
 phur. The ingredients having been weighed out in 
 the proportions above given, the charcoal and sulphur 
 are put together in a rolling-barrel similar to that in 
 which the sulphur is pulverized, and rolled for one 
 hour. The .saltpeter is then added, and rolled for 
 three hours longer. In some mills this operation is 
 omitted. It is now taken to the cylinder, or rolling- 
 miU. This consists of two cast-iron cylinders rolling 
 round a horizontal axis in a circular trough of about 
 four feet diameter, with a cast-iron bottom. The 
 cylinders are six feet in diameter, 18 inches thick on 
 the face, and weigh about eight tons each. They are 
 followed by a wooden scraper, which keeps the com- 
 position in the center of the trough. A charge of 75 
 pounds in some mills, and 150 [Munds in others, is 
 then .spread in the trough of the rolling-mill, and 
 moistened with two to three per cent of water, accord- 
 ing to the hygrometric state of the atmosphere. It is 
 rolled slowly at first, and afterward from eight to ten 
 revolutions of the roller per minute, for one hour for 
 50 pounds, and three hours for 1.50 pounds of com- 
 position. A little water is added, as the process ad- 
 vances, if the composition gets very dry — which is 
 made known by its color. When the materials are 
 thoroughly incorporated, the cake is of a uniform, 
 lively, grayish, dark color. In this state it is called 
 mill-cake. The quality of the powder depends much 
 on the thorough incorporation of the materials, and 
 burns more rapidly as this operation is more thor- 
 oughly performed. 
 
 The mill cake is next taken to the press-house, to 
 be pressed into a hard cake, is sprinkled with alx)Ut 
 three percent of water, and arranged in a scries of 
 layers about four inches thick, separated by brass 
 [ilates. A powerful pressure is brought to bear on 
 the layers, which are s\ibjccted to the maximum 
 pressure for about 10 to 15 minutes, when it is re- 
 moved. Each layer is thus formed into a hard cake 
 about an inch thick. The press-cake must now be 
 converted into the particular size of grain required. 
 And the means employed to break uji the iiresscake 
 must be so arranged as to crush it up as nearly as 
 possible into the size or sizes of grain wanted, with- 
 out reducing much of it to dust. The smaller the 
 size of grain, the larger will lie flic percentage of it 
 obtained from granulated press cake; hence with the 
 small size of grain formerly used with cannon, any of
 
 GUNPOWDEB. 
 
 809 
 
 GUNPOWDEB. 
 
 the older and ruder appliances for effecting granula- 
 tion gave good percentage of grain. But'as recent 
 exix-riments have conclusivelj' proved that much 
 larger-sized grains should be employed in the larg- 
 er charges for heavy ordnance, new and improved 
 granulating-machines have been introduced. 
 
 The granulated powder as it comes from the ma- 
 chine contains amongst it a large quantity of dust. 
 This is formed by the crushing action of the granu- 
 lating-machine, and must of course pa.ss through (he 
 various sieves and screens with which the machine is 
 pro\ided along with the grain. The grain itself is 
 not in a condition to be made use of as powder, being 
 rough and porous on the surface and very angular in 
 shape: and moreover, the presence of a "large quan- 
 tity of fine dast amongst it would render it not only 
 most inconvenient to handle, l)ut would also render 
 it more liable to absorb moisture, and to deterio- 
 rate. A rough, unpolished angular grain would 
 also very speedily rub down into dust, if subjected 
 to mucli shaking in transport. It becomes necessary, 
 therefore, to free the gitinulated powder from all 
 traces of dust, and to polish or give a surface to the 
 grains themselves to enable them to bear a great deal 
 of friction without deterioration. Powder is freed 
 from diist by placing it in revohnng reels covered 
 ■with cloth or wire-mesh of various degrees of fine- 
 ness, through which the dust escapes. It is glazed by 
 causing the grains to rub against each other in re- 
 voh-ing wooden barrels. The extent to which the 
 operations of (lusting and glazing are carried, and the 
 nature of the appliances used, depend entirely on the 
 density, hardness, and size of grain of the powder 
 operated on. Large-.arrained, dense, hard powder will 
 bear a great deal of knocking alwut in the reels with- 
 out becoming disintegrate*! and forming fresh dust; 
 and will, moreover, bear a great deal of friction in 
 the glazing-barrels, acquiring speedily a high ilegree 
 of polish. But when operating on a small-grained, 
 soft powder of low density, the dusting must be care- 
 fully conducted, as the process will develop as much 
 fresh dust as it removes; and the amount of friction 
 the grains will bear in glazing must ha likewise care- 
 fully regulated. It is found in i)ractice that powder 
 may be divided into two general classes, each of 
 which requires different treatment in dusting and 
 glazing, viz., the cannon-powder of all classes and the 
 small-arm powder of all clas,ses. The former is not 
 only pressed to a higher density, but is made of a 
 larger size of grain; the latter generally is of lower 
 density and much smaller, size. Modern cannon- 
 powder, being of large-sized grains and of firm con- 
 sistency, admits of a comparatively open-meshed 
 reel-covering being used in dusting, and of the pro- 
 cess being continued as long as required without risk 
 of injury to the grain. The powder can therefore t)e 
 rendered perfectly free from dust, and sufficiently 
 glazed at the same time, coming out of the reel as 
 finished powder at one operation. Glazing, although 
 of marked advantage to the finer cla.sses of powder, 
 is believed to be highl}' injurious to varieties ap 
 proaching mammoth in size, for tlie reason that 
 through the action of wearing away at one point and 
 building up at another the powder Ix'comes an as- 
 semblage made up of nuclei of about the density 
 sought^incased in envelopes of dust, deposited dur- 
 ing the period of glazing, and of vcrj- materially 
 lower specific gra\ity than the rest of the raa.ss, 
 although the average "or apparent density maj- be as 
 desired; this causes extreme rapidity of combustion 
 in the outer strata during the first instants of burning, 
 followed by a less rajjid development of gas from 
 equal surfaces of the denser center toward the end of 
 that period. 
 
 Before powder for the militarj- ser\-ice is received 
 from the manufacturer, it is in.s"pected and proved. 
 For this purpose at least fifty barrels are thoroughly 
 mi.xed together. One barrel of this is proved by 
 firing three rounds from a musket, with service- 
 charge, if it be musket-powder; if cannon- or mam- 
 
 moth-powder, from an 8 inch columbiad, with 10 lbs. 
 and a solid shot of 65 lbs. weight and 7.88 inches in 
 diameter; if it I)e mortar-powder, from a 3inch rifle- 
 gun, with a charge of 1 lb. of powder and an expand- 
 ing projectile weighing 10 lbs. The general character 
 of the grain, and its freedom from dust, are noted. 
 Gunpowder should l>e of an even-sized grain, angu- 
 lar, and irregular in form, without sharp corners, and 
 very hard. When new it should leave no trace of 
 dust when poured on the back of the hand, and when 
 flashed in quantities of ten grains on a copper plate 
 it should leave no bead or foidness. It should give 
 the rt»quired initial velocity to the ball, and not more 
 than the maximum pressure on the gun, and should 
 absorb but little moisture from the air. There are 
 five kinds of powder in the United States land-.ser\ice, 
 depending on the size of the grain, viz.: mammoth 
 for the 15-inch gun, cannon for smaller sea-coa-st guns 
 and mortars, inurtar for field- and siege-cannon, mu9- 
 ket for rifle-muskets, and rifle for pistols. 
 
 The size of the grain is tested by standard sieves, ■ 
 made of sheet-brass pierced with round holes. The 
 diameters of the large and small holes are a.s follows, 
 viz.: for mammoth, .9 inch and .6 inch; for cannon, 
 .31 inch and .27 inch; for mortar, .1 inch and .07 inch; 
 for musket, .06 inch and .035 inch. Not more than 
 5 per cent, should remain upon the large nor pass 
 through the small standard sieves. The specific grav- 
 ity of gunpowder must t)e not less than 1.75; and it 
 is important that it should be determined with accu- 
 racy. Alcohol and water satvirated with saltpeter 
 have been used for this purpose; but they do not 
 furnish accurate results. Mercury, only, is to be re- 
 lied ujx)n. 
 
 Government jwiwder is packed in barrels of 100 
 lbs. each. The barrels are made of well-seasoned 
 white oak; and hooped with liickorj- or cedar hoops, 
 which should be deprived of their bark to render 
 them le.ss liable to be attacked by worms. Barrels 
 made of corrugated tin are undergoing trial, to test 
 their fitness to replace those made of wood. Each 
 barrel is marked on both heads (in white oil-colors, 
 the head painted black), with the number of the l)ar- 
 rel, the name of the manufacturer, year of fabrica- 
 tion, and the kind of powder, — cannon (used for 
 heavy cannon), mortar (used for mortars and field- 
 cannon), or miigket, — the mean initial velocity, and 
 the pressure per square inch on the pressure-piston. 
 Each time the powder is proved, the initial velocity is 
 marked below the former proofs, and the date of the 
 trial opposite it. In the powder-magazines, the bar- 
 rels are generally placed on their sides, three tiers 
 high, or four tiers if nece.s.sary; small skids should he 
 placed on the floor, and between the several tiers of 
 barrels, in order to steady them; and chocks should 
 be placed at intervals on" the lower skids, to prevent 
 the rolling of the barrels. The powder should be 
 separated according to its kinil, the place and date of 
 fabrication, and the proof-range. Fixed ammuni- 
 tion, especially for cannon, should not be put in the 
 same magazine with powder in barrels, if it can be 
 avoided. Besides being recorded in the magazine- 
 book, each parcel of powder should be inscribed on 
 a ticket attached to the pile, showing the entries and 
 the i.ssue. 
 
 For the preservation of the {X)wder, and of the 
 floors and lining of the magazine, it is of the greatest 
 imiMjrtance to preserve unobstructe<l the circulation 
 of the air, under the flooring as well as atxive. The 
 magiizine .should be opened and aired in clear, dry 
 weather, when the air outside is colder than that in- 
 side the magazine; the ventilators must be kept free; 
 no shrublieiy- or trees should Ik- allowed to grow so 
 near as to protect the building from the sun. The 
 moisture of a magjizine may be absorbe<l by chloride 
 of calcium, sus|)ended in an open box under the arch, 
 and renewed from time to time; quick-lime, as \ye- 
 fore observed, is dangerous. The sentinel or guard 
 at a magazine, when it is open, should have no fire- 
 arras; and ever^' one who enters the magazine should
 
 OUNPOWSEB. 
 
 810 
 
 OUNFOWDEB. 
 
 tnke off bis sbocs, or put socks over thein; no sword 
 or tane, or anything which might occasion sparks, 
 shouhl Ih' carried in^ Barrels of jwwiler shoidd not 
 be rolled for tninsportation: tbcy should be carried 
 in baud-barrows, or slings made of rope or leather. 
 In inovins: powder in the magazine, a cloth or carpet 
 should 1k^ spread; all implements used there should 
 be of wood or copper; and the barrels should never 
 be repaiR'd in the magazine. When it is necessary 
 to roll the powder, for its better preservation and to 
 prevent its caking, this shovdd be done with a small 
 quantity at a time, on boards in the magazine yard. 
 In wagons, barrels of i)owder must be packed in 
 straw, secured in such a maimer as not to rub against 
 each other, and the load covered with thick canvas. 
 
 The recognition of the fact that different guns re- 
 quire for their most efficient service different powders 
 marks an important epoch iu the history of gunpow- 
 der. Previous to this time powder was the same, 
 whether it was to be tired iu a O-pouuder or 10- 
 iuch gun; and though experience showed that the 
 large gun did not resist the strain of the discharge as 
 well as small ones, the difference iu their endurance 
 was attributed to other causes than the want of adap- 
 tation of the iiowder to the gun. It was not suspected 
 that the trouble arose from the unsuitablencss of the 
 powder. It soon became a recognized fact that the 
 combustion of gunpowder was influenced to a great 
 degree by the size, the shape, and the density of the 
 grain; and as the weight of the projectile to be started 
 became greater, so much greater became the neces,sity 
 of regulating these particulars in the powder to be 
 used. The improvements which have been made by 
 attention to these particulars have rendered it practi- 
 cable to use larger guns and heavier projectiles than 
 had been deemed only a few years before to be within 
 the limits of possibility. The point to be atlendeil to 
 is to see that the evolution of gas at the tirst moment 
 of inflammation is not excessive, and this is effected 
 by reducing the surface of ignition, that is, by in 
 creasing the size of the grains. Further, the evolu- 
 tion of gas should be gradual and progressive, and 
 this is accomplished by giving the grain such a den- 
 sity that the hot gas shall not be forced by the pres- 
 .sure through the mass of the grain. The shape of 
 the grain is also a matter of much importance, as in- 
 fluencing the progressive evolution of the gas. That 
 shape of grain must be best which, other things being 
 equal, has at lirst a small burning-surface and one 
 that is continually increasing: or, this being deemed 
 impracticable, the grain which approximates nearest 
 this ideal must be best. The prismatic-shriped grain. 
 with perforations riuming through it parallel to the 
 axis of the prism, is to be preferred to all others that 
 have yet been proposed. If it has not thus far given 
 better results than others, it is because the practical 
 difficulties in the manufacture are such as have not 
 yet Ix-en overcome sjitisfactorily; but it by no means 
 follows that they are such as niay not, by future im- 
 provements, be surmounted. 
 
 It is an established fad that the (juality of powder 
 made from day to day will vary with the hvgromctric 
 state of the atmosphere, an<l it is almost imiwssible to 
 make, at different times, two lots of powder which 
 shall Ik! the same in quality. The ingredients, if in- 
 corjiorated with a certain amount of moisture, will 
 liroduce a different powder from the same materials 
 mixed with a different quantity. Notwithstanding 
 this fact, no efforts have been nnide to eliminate this 
 source of variation, as it is believed might be done by 
 keeping the air of the incorporating-mill constantly 
 charged at all times with moisture. An imijortaiit 
 step lias been maile, however, to avoid this cause of 
 <lilterence more comi)letely in a ditTerent way, and 
 that is by the entire exclusion of water in all of the 
 processes of fabrication. The improvement comes 
 from Russia, as did the machine fur making the pris- 
 matic powder. The materials, after being p\dverized 
 and thoroughly incorjxiraled in tumbling-barrels, are 
 raised iu temperature up to the melting-point of sul- 
 
 phur at the siime time that they are compres.sed into 
 a cake. They are then cooled while under this pres- 
 sure. The pfess-cake is broken into grains and glazed 
 in the usual way. The charcoal has absorbed no 
 moisture, and, as was to be expected, the powder has 
 been proved to be stronger, and, it is said, more uni- 
 form in quality than ordinary powder. Should Uiis 
 process develop unknown dilncidties and come .short 
 of the expectations that have been raised by it, never- 
 theless it will most likely exercise a Ix'ncticial influence 
 on the mode of manufacture bv stiimilating and di- 
 recting investigations in a diiection that will probably 
 lead to imjiortant results in the end. Gmipowder fails 
 iu too many respects to come up to the ideal of what 
 the jirojectile-compound of the present time should be 
 to retain its place much longer, ludess marked changes 
 shall be soon made in some of its properties. 
 
 English giuipowder has been long held in descrved- 
 l)' high estimation for its strength or explosive force, 
 a quality which has been obtained for it by the exer- 
 cise of great care in the selection of the best materials, 
 aud by the close attention paid to every detail of their 
 preparation and thorough aud complete incorpora- 
 tion. The greatest improvements have been made in 
 the qualitv of the powder since the time when, instead 
 of procuring the supplies retjuired for the military- 
 and naval scr\'ices by contracts with private parties, 
 the Government became the owner of a powder-mill, 
 and the manufacturer of its own powder, or a part 
 of it, the different processes of fabrication being car- 
 ried ou under the immediate direction and supervision 
 of its own agents. This mill is not of sufficient ca- 
 pacity to supply all, or anything like it, of the pow- 
 der that is required in times of war; but, besides 
 being of the greatest use in keeping up the high stan- 
 dard of the quality of powder (samples of standard 
 powder are furnished annually to all powder-makers 
 of the Kingdom), it is also of value iu keeping down 
 the price when supplies have to be procured from 
 private manufacturers. The Royal Gunpowder-fac- 
 tory at Waitham Abbey is situated very near the old 
 church from which it takes its name, al)out twelve 
 miles from London, on the Eastern Counties Railway. 
 The grounds are the rich meadows ou the river Lea, 
 which stream connects the canals between the differ- 
 ent mills with the Thames, aud furnishes water-trans- 
 portation to Purfleet, where the powder is stored in 
 large magazines. A ]iortion of thegrounds is planted 
 with willows, set out with great order and neatness, 
 the wooil to lie used for making charcoal for powder. 
 The buildings in which the different processes of fab- 
 rication are carried ou are scattered over upward of 
 fifty acres, and built with special reference to the 
 purposes for which they are intended. The niter and 
 sulphur used are procured in the crude state and re- 
 fined at the factory. This course is pursued in pref- 
 erence to purchasing them already refined, with a 
 view of insuring uniform results iu the powder manu- 
 factured, and of guarding mon^ effectually agiunst 
 accidents, so much to be dreaded, frtmi the presence 
 of certain foreign particles iu the materials, intro- 
 duced among them before they reach the mills. 
 
 The grough saltpeter of India is purchased to the 
 exclusion of all others. The process of refining is 
 the usual one, and has in it nothing calling for re- 
 mark. The water u.-icil is from an artesian well, and 
 is remarkably pure and free from all mineral sub- 
 stances. The sulphur is procured from Sicily, and 
 contains from 3 to 1 per cent of earthy matter, from 
 which it is purified by distillation. If is ground under 
 a small pair of wheels, when it is ready for mixing. 
 Willow aud alder are the woods used for making 
 charcoal for all powders except musket. For this 
 latter the alder buckthorn, or the berry-bearing alder 
 {Wiiitiinnx fratir/nhi), commonly known as the black 
 dog-wood among powder makers, is exclusively used. 
 All of these woods grow in different parts of England, 
 and efforts have Ix'en made to cultivate them on the 
 grounds of the powder-mill, with success as regards 
 the first two, but not the last, which requires a poor
 
 GUNPOWDEE. 
 
 811 
 
 GUNPOWDEB. 
 
 and rockj' soil instead of a rich mejidow-land for iu 
 growth. Large quantities of the dogwood are stored 
 awaj- for future use at the factor\-; the sticks, of 
 about one inch in diameter, all brought from Prussia, 
 at a cost of from |60 to $75 per ton. The difference 
 between this and all of the other woods commonly 
 regarded as best adapted for making powder is most 
 marked, all of the others being light, brittle woods of 
 rapid growth, whereas this is a dense, tough wood 
 of slow growth, requiring usually ten years to attain 
 a size of one inch in diameter, the charcoal is pre- 
 pared by distillation in cast-iron retorts of cylindrical 
 shape, set in brick-work, with flues to conduct the 
 flame all round them. The gaseous matter and t;ir 
 evolved iu the distillation is conducted by pipes into 
 the fire, and, besides economizing fuel in pre|>aring 
 the charcoal, furnishes the readiest means, by the 
 color with which they burn, of determining when the 
 charcoal has been carried to the jiroper point. 
 
 For convenience in handling, the wood is first put 
 in sheet-iron cylinders, which are placed in the re- 
 torts. The retorts being thoroughly heated, the oper- 
 ation of charring requires from 2i to 3A hours. As 
 the quality of the powder depends greatly on the tem- 
 perature at which the charcoal is prepared, great oire 
 is taken to have this temperature constant and suffi- 
 ciently high, but not too high. This is indicated by 
 the color and fracture of the coal, which should be "a 
 jet black, with a clear velvet-like look when freshly 
 broken. Analysis confirms the practical experience 
 of powder-makers, that dogwood-charcoal makes a 
 stronger powder than coal of any other wood, con- 
 taining as it does a greater amount of gstseous constit- 
 uents. The charcoal is ground in a mill resembling 
 an ordinary coffee-mill, and is sifted by piissing it 
 into a cylindrical frame covered with iron-wire cloth, 
 32 meshes to the inch, and having a rotary motion 
 aroimd its longer and horizontal a.xis. The propor- 
 tions of these ingredients are the same as those used 
 in this coimtrj'. They are weighed out in the proper 
 proportions for a 50-pbund charge, the saltpeter con- 
 taining from 3 to 6 per cent of moisture, and are 
 mixed together in the mixing-machine. This con- 
 sists of a hollow bronze drum, which makes 40 revo- 
 lutions per minute. A shaft passes through the axis 
 of the dnmi, ha\in!r a large number of arms made 
 fast to it. The shaft and arms revolve in the oppo- 
 site direction to the drum, and at twice its speed, thus 
 mixing the ingredients together. The thorough in- 
 corporation of the materials is effected under hea\y 
 cast-iron or stone wheels, as in this coimfry. The 
 wheels are of various sizes, some as large as 7 feet in 
 diameter, and others only one half of this, the prefer- 
 ence being given to the smaller, as they are not so apt 
 to cause explosions. The weight varies from 3A to 4 
 tons. The bed is about 7 feet in tliameter. there 
 are in all 32 pairs of wheels for incorporating. A 
 portion of them are driven by water-power, others by 
 steam. The time required for the incorporation of a 
 charge depends upon the kind of powder, the weight 
 of the wheel used, and its velocity. Cannon-powder 
 requires from 2* to 3i hours; musket-powder from 
 4 to 5i hours. For the convenience of apjilying the 
 motive power, the wheel-mills are placed in groups 
 of four or six; and to prevent the explosion of one 
 from extending to others of the same groui), each is 
 provided with a large vessel of water overhead, so 
 arranged that an cxpfosion of either mill of the group 
 •will overturn all of these vessels and pour the con- 
 tents into the mill-bed beneath. This apparatus hits 
 been found to answer a good purpose, and has saved 
 at different times a largeamoimt of property. 
 
 Before being taken to the press-room to be pressed 
 into cake, the mill-cake is passed through the break- 
 ing-downi machine, which breaks up the lumps into a 
 fine state of division to facilitate the operation of 
 pressing. The breaking-down machine consists of a 
 pair of gun-metal, cylindrical rollers, grooved longi- 
 tudinally. Thev are placed side by side, their axes 
 parallel and horizontal. The bearings of one roller 
 
 are not fixed, but can be moved to or from the other, 
 and are held in their proper iX)sition by means of a 
 weight. The two rollers revolve in opposite direc- 
 tions, and the powder passing between them, the 
 cakes and lumps are broken up into fine meal. A 
 second set of rollers like those just described are 
 placed directly under them, and break up any lumps 
 that may have escaped the action of the first pair. 
 The powder to be broken up is placed iu a large 
 hopper, from which it is carried to the rollers by 
 an endless iK'lt of strong canvas, which pa.«.ses through 
 an oijening at the bottom of the hopper to the top 
 of the machine, where it falls between the first pair 
 of rollers. 
 
 The press used for pressing powder into thin cakes 
 is operated by water pumpea into a vertical cylinder. 
 The press-box, in which the powder Ls placed, is 30 
 mches by 14 inches inside, made of great strength, 
 of bronze, lined on the in.side and out.side with oak 
 boards. Three sides of the box are hinged to the bot- 
 tom, and when closed are secured by .short, .strong 
 bronze screws. In order to charge the box the open 
 top is temiKirarily covered with a piece of board, and 
 the tx)Xes turned over on one side. Bronze racks, 
 with vertical grooves in them li inches ajjart to hold 
 the press-plates, are placed against two opposite sides, 
 and the plates, 48 in number, slipped in. The spaces 
 between the plates are filled with powder thrown in 
 with a shovel, and the racks are then withdrawn, 
 lea\-ing the powder in layers li inches thick, with a 
 plate between the consecutive layers. The side which 
 is now on top Ls screwed fast, and the box is turned 
 over onto the table of the hydraulic press, bringing 
 the press-plates horizontal. The board cover is re- 
 moved, and the solid wooden block overhead, which 
 resists the pressure of the ram, is adjusted so as to 
 enter the box and be forced deeper and deeper into it 
 as the powder is compacted. The pressure is applied 
 by pumps driven by water-power in another building, 
 between which and the press-house there are large 
 earthen traverses. The inspection of powder is con- 
 ducted with a strictness that would surprise our 
 powder-makers. An inspection is requued of the 
 pres.sed cake after each pre.ssing, and its density is 
 determined with the mercury densimeter before it is 
 permitted to pa-ss on to the succeeding processes. 
 The density of musket-powder is fixed about 1.725, 
 and that of pebble-powder from 1.77 to 1.81, and 
 R. L. G. 1.67. The finished product of each day's 
 labor is inspected and proved. The size and shape of 
 the grain are accurately determined. The proof of 
 the different kinds of powder consists in determining 
 the velocity imparted to a projectile fired from a gun 
 under circumstances as nearly similar as possible to 
 those of actual ser\-ice. Musket-ix)wdcr mu.st give 
 the ser\ice-ball a certain velocity when fired from the 
 regulation musket; cannon-powder is in like maimer 
 proved by testing its strength when fired in the 12- 
 pounder rifled gun; and pebble-powder when fired in 
 a 9-inch or large gun. 
 
 In Russia all powder used in the military and naval 
 serWces. as well as most of that for sporting and min- 
 ing, is made under the direction of the Government 
 at its own factories. Of private mills there are only 
 a few small ones in Finland, where powder for sport- 
 ins and mining purposes is made. The Government 
 mtUs are three in number, and are situated in differ- 
 ent parts of the Empire: 1. The Ohktenskoi mills, 
 near St. Petersburg. 2. The Michael-Schosta, in 
 Little Russia, in the saltpeter district. 3. That in the 
 Kazjin. Of these the second is the most extensive; 
 the first is provided with the newest machinery and 
 most improved appliances, and has a great capa- 
 city. The Ohktenskoi mills are situated on the 
 Olikta River, about six miles from St. Petersburg. 
 They occupy about 1^ square miles of land, 230 acres 
 of which, where the dangerous operations are per- 
 formed, being inclosed by a high picket-fence on three 
 sides, and the river on the fourth. The river fur- 
 nishes the greater part of the power required for nm-
 
 GTJNPOWDEE. 
 
 812 
 
 OtrNPOWDER. 
 
 nine the mills, but their number has been from time 
 to time increased until the eaiiaeity of the stream has 
 been exeeeiled, and now horses and steam have to be 
 employed in addition to the water-power. The build- 
 ings are substantially eonstrueted of brick on three 
 sides, the fourth b*'iuj; of wood, so as to yield readily 
 to any explosive force from wi'hin. The side selected 
 for tins purpose is that whicli is in the ojiposite direc- 
 tion from those buildings nearest to it. The build- 
 injrs most recently erected, besides being built more 
 solidly, are surrounded on three sides by an embank- 
 ment "of earth 15 feet hijrh, 4t) feet broad at the base, 
 and 13 feet at the top. It ha.s been found by experi- 
 ence that the vibrations resultiiiic from an explosion 
 are broken mostcfTectually, and contiguous buildings 
 are injured less when a body of water is interposed 
 between them and the place of the explosion. For 
 this reason a canal or pond of water is dug between 
 the mills most liable to be exploded and the bouses 
 nearest to them. The grounds vary considerably in 
 level, and the communication between the different 
 mills is principally by means of wheelbarrows, very 
 little by l)oat, and none by railway- trucks. The mo- 
 tive power furnished by the river is well applied. 
 Just below the dam two larire iron tubes 200 yards 
 long and -t feet in diameter, resting upon iron rollers 
 raised on brick piers 6 feet above the surface of the 
 ground, conduct each a stream of water to a series of 
 eight water-wheels placed between a double row of 
 ■wheel-mills, so that each water-wheel communicates 
 motion to two mills. Some of these water-wheels are 
 overshot, of 12 horse-power, and made of wood; but 
 those most recently put in are of iron and of a pecti- 
 liar construction. The water enters through a ver- 
 tical pipe into the interior of the wheel to within 
 about 2 feet of the bottom, and is then discharged 
 fnjin the curved siu'faces which form the exterior. 
 It is said to have a coefficient of .8. The rollers 
 under the iron pipe are for the purpo.se of enablins it 
 to acconnnodate itself readily to the changes in its 
 length caused bj' the expansion and contraction due 
 to the variations of temperature to which it is ex- 
 posed; and this is considerable, between three and 
 four inches. 
 
 The proportions of the materials used in the manu- 
 facture of gimpowder in Russia are the same as those 
 used in this country and England. The salti)etcr is 
 obtained partly from I^ittle Russia, where it occurs as 
 a natural efflorescence on the ground, and may In, 
 much hastened by scraping the surface; and pailly 
 from the banks of the Volga, ^'here there are found 
 vast mounds, numure-heaps, which are now so many 
 mines of saltpeter. So far from Russia being depend- 
 ent upon any other country for this all-important 
 material in times of war, she has within her own ter- 
 ritory a larger supply than is necessary for her own 
 wants, and is able to export some to Austria. Sup- 
 plies requireil for the manufacture of gunjiowder are 
 furnished at the mills by contractors, already refined 
 and ready for innnediate use. The sulphur is ob- 
 tained from Sicily in the state of roll-sulphur, which 
 is further purified by distillation in the usual way. 
 The chaicoal was fonncrly made from the alder, hill 
 it is now made from a variety of the l)irch. Young 
 trees as large as ."j or inches in diameter are used. 
 It is prepared in the usual way by distillation in iron 
 cylinders iu charges of 144 lbs. Fuel being abund- 
 ant, no effort has been made to economiz(^ it by con- 
 suming the gaseous products of the distillation "of the 
 wood, as is done in Englan<l and Pnissia. The char- 
 coal and sulphur are ]iulveri/.(d together in a metal 
 barrel 'ii feet long and the .same iu diameter. Three 
 parts of charcoal and two parts of sulphur are put 
 into the barrel with bronze bidls J inch in diameter. 
 The barrels are set in motion by horsepower, and 
 made to revolve until the materials are reduced to a 
 tine powder and thoroughly mixed together. The 
 l)alls are separated from the mixture by means of a 
 coarse sieve through which it is made to pass. One 
 part of this composition is added to three i)art3 of 
 
 saltpeter, and the whole is thoroughly mixed together 
 by hand on a table with raised sides and covered with 
 acotton cloth having holes in it to admit the arms of 
 the workman. A. little water is first added. This 
 comiiosition is next put, in charges of 120 lbs,, under 
 the w heels to be ground for four hours. The wheel- 
 mills are of different construction, depending on the 
 date at which they were put in. Thosc> first used are 
 of bronze, with bronze beds, about 4i feet iu diame- 
 ter, and weigh about 3i tons each. Those more re- 
 cently i)ut in arc of iron, with iron beds atx)ut 7 feet 
 in diameter, and weighing 4J tons each. Some Jiairs 
 of wheels revolve around an axisequiilistant from the 
 two wheels; in other mills the two wheels travel over 
 tracks of unequal length. The results of a long ex- 
 ])cricnce show that there is no advantage to be had in 
 making the wheels or bed of bronze; that such mills 
 are no more exempt from explosions than the cast- 
 iron mills, and iu consequence the use of the costly 
 material in future constructions is lelinquished. The 
 particular arrangement and disposition of the build- 
 ings for the incorporating-mills adoi)tcd at this estab- 
 lishment, by which they are placed in double parallel 
 rows, with a v\ater-wheel between each pair, the 
 buildings being brought so close together, is most 
 convenient and economical in supplying power to the 
 different mills, but is highly objectionable in tending 
 to render the explosions more destmctive by increas- 
 ing the chances of the explosion of one mill com- 
 municating to others. 
 
 The jjowder, as it leaves the incorporating mills, or 
 mill-cake, as it is termed, is broken into pieces by 
 hand with wooden mallets and is passed to the press- 
 house to be formed into cake. This is done by two 
 different varieties of presses, the hydraulic and the 
 Prussian press. The density of the Russian powder, 
 like that of the Prussian, is very low, cannon-powder 
 being .940, and musket from .920 to .935. The 
 gianulation of the powder is also performed in ma- 
 chines of quite different construction. One is the 
 same as that used in Germany; the other consists «f a 
 long bed in which are arranged several series of sieves, 
 each series consisting of four sieves, which are placed 
 one over the other, the coarsest at the top. To this 
 beil contiiining the sieves a quick horizontal recipro- 
 cating motion is communicated by machinery. The 
 press-cake is placed in the upper sieve, and with it 
 liardened lead balls about one inch in diameter. The 
 balls now impinging against the cake, break it into 
 pieces, the opcratioiT being continued until the pieces 
 have been reduced in size so that they will pass 
 through the meshes into the sieve beneath. The 
 smaller pieces pass through the sieves until they have 
 been as,sorted according to sizes of the meshes, the 
 dust falling into a trough under the sieves. The con- 
 tents of the sieves are put away arranged according 
 to the size of the grain, and the dust found in the 
 trough is taken back to be worked over. The glaz- 
 ing is done in the usual way by the friction of the 
 grains against each other in revohnng bands. It is 
 next dusted, and the grains arc again assorted. The 
 operation of dusting is different from that generally 
 seen in other mills, though it is believed that its 
 novelty is its only claim entitling it to notice. The 
 machiiic consists of a horizontal wooden frame, with 
 vertical guides to direct its motion up and down. On 
 the under side of this frame there are pins driven in, 
 from each of which is suspended bj' its closed end a 
 long narrow bag of coarse linen cloth, something like 
 a shirt-sleeve. The lower and open end of the bag is 
 drawn aside from its vertical position, distended, and 
 made fast to a wooden partition clo.se by. Holes of 
 the size of the mouth of the bag are cut into this par- 
 tition where the bags are fastened to it, and are closed 
 by snugly-fitting trap-doors which arc secured from 
 the outside. The powder is introduced into the bags 
 through these holes until they are less than half full, 
 and the holes closed; a vertical reciprocating motion 
 is now communicated by machinery to the horizontal 
 frame from which the bags are suspended, extending
 
 GUKPOWBEB. 
 
 813 
 
 GUNPOWDEE. 
 
 the bag each lime its full length, bringins the closed 
 end tirst above and then below the lixed end, and 
 causing the powder to traverse back and forth from 
 one end to the other and by its gentle motion to sift 
 the dust through the cloth," when it falls to the flo<jr 
 beneath. Prismatic powder is made by compressing 
 a given charge of soft grain-powder, which contains 
 from 5 to 6 per cent of moisture, in a strong mold of 
 the required size. The holes in the prism are foniied 
 at the same time the prism is made by means of small 
 tapered spindles, which pass through the powder and 
 the compres-sing-punches. The only machine that 
 has been devised for the manufacture of this powder 
 is the one designed by Profcs.sor Vichnegradski , and 
 made in Ritssia, and s"ince copied in Prussia arul Hol- 
 land. The idea of using powder compressed into a 
 solid cake with parallel holes running through it form- 
 ing surfacesof combustion which shall be continually 
 increasing as the combustion continues was borrowed, 
 as the Russians themselves frankly admit, from some 
 experiments made tirst bj-* Captain Rodman at Fort 
 Monroe in 1861, and witnessed by a distinguished ar- 
 tillerj' officer of the Russian army. The idea was 
 carried out successfully in a pract"ical form first by 
 the invention and ojieration of this niacbine, which is 
 essentially one strong vertical punch carrying six 
 pimchcs, and forming six Jirisms or grains of powder 
 at each revolution of the shaft or the descent of the 
 punches. It is widely different in its general design 
 and working from the machine made in England for 
 pressing the grains of pellet-powder, as well as more 
 successful anil economical. 
 
 From the machine the prisms are next taken to 
 the drying-house, where they are kept for a month; 
 or, wlien the weather is good, they are dried iu the 
 open air, that is, in a building provided with nume- 
 rous doors and windows which are kept open, but 
 without the aid of artiticial heat. Here they will dry 
 in the course of live weeks. The density of prisms 
 varies from 1.65 to 1.75, according to the gun in which 
 it is to be used; the latter density is for the 11-inch 
 gim. Prismatic powder is not glazed; it is .said to 
 resist the action of moisture oetter than ordinary pow- 
 der. It is packed in boxes lined with paper, the 
 prisms laiil on their bases, close together, so they can- 
 not move, and covered with felt. This kind of pow- 
 der is not made at either of the other mills. In filling 
 cartridges with prismatic powder, pains is taken to 
 pack the prisms in the bag laid on their ba.ses, tittins 
 as closely as they can be packed, the holes in the 
 prisms corresponding with those above and below, 
 and forming air-pas.sagcs for the communication of the 
 flame through the whole length of the cartridge. 
 The cartridge-bag is tied closely over the powder, 
 fitting it snugly, and keeping the prisms in their 
 places. Prismatic powiler is u.sed exclusively for all 
 gims of a caliber of 8 inches and over. For 6-inch 
 guns it is sometimes used, but not invariably, ordi- 
 nary cannon-powder being also occasionally used, 
 though less frequently than the prismatic. Ordinarj- 
 cannon-powder is used for all field-guns and those of 
 less caliber than 6 inches. All powder is proved by 
 firing service-charges and deterimning the initial velo- 
 city of the ball. Ordinary cannon-powder is proved 
 in a 4-poimdcr gun, the prismatic in an 8-incb gun. 
 The pressure exerted on the bore of the gim bj' the 
 prismatic powder is also detennined. 
 
 Gunpowder for tlie Prussian railitaiT service is 
 made part at the Royal Powder-mills of Spandau smd 
 Neisse, ,aiid part by private manufacturers indifferent 
 parts of the Empire, the standard of quality being 
 regulated by the former. The pow<ler-works at 
 Spandau are of very ancient date, a pounding-mill 
 having been established here as early as the year 1344. 
 They are situated on low ground on the hanks of the 
 Spree, in the midst of a wood only a short distance 
 from the Arsenal on the opposite side of the river. 
 The buildings, mainly of wood, are placed at consid- 
 erable distances from each other, and the roads lead- 
 ing from one to another are covered with tan-bark to , 
 
 avoid the introduction of sand or gravel into the 
 buildings, carried on the feet of the workmen. Watcr- 
 jiower is the motor used to drive the machinery, with 
 the exception of one steam-engine which drives the 
 fan for forcing hot air into thedrying-hou.se somedi.s- 
 lance off, the boiler furnishing the means of healing 
 the air. Few changes have t)een made in the manner 
 of making powder within iLe last fifty years or more. 
 The mrtluMl of incorporating the materials known as 
 the ■' rcvohitionarj' proce.s-i," from its having been 
 a(i(jpted during tlie war of the French Revolution, 
 though given up by everj- other nation, has teen ad- 
 hered to with only slight modifications. By this 
 method the materials are pulverized and incoi-porated 
 by being rolled in barrels turning on horizonud axes, 
 and containing besides a quantity of bronze balls of 
 small size. The composition is pressed into cake by 
 means of two rollers between which it is made to pass, 
 being first evenly distributed on an endless band of 
 coarse linen. The upper roller is of bronze, and its 
 pressure on the lower roller is increa.scd and regtdated 
 by a weighted lever. The woods used for making 
 the charcoal are the berrv-lx;ariiig alder and willow, 
 which are cut into lengths of about one foot, from 
 branches about an inch in diameter. The distillation 
 is conducted in cylindrical iron retorl.s into which the 
 wood is closely packed and then .sealed. The retorts 
 arc provided with small wheels for the convenience 
 of running them in and out of the furnaces. 
 
 After glazing, the powder is dried at a t<'mperature 
 of 190 F., \mng laid out for the puqwse on thin can- 
 va.s stretched over hot-water pipes, the hot air being 
 forced up through the powder by means of a f;in- 
 blower. One hour and a half is "sufficient to dn,- it. 
 Its specific gravity is 1.64. The process of maniifac- 
 ture of prismatic powder was obtained by Prussia from 
 Rus.sia. The prisms are 1 inch thick, and the diame- 
 ter of .the circumscribing circle is 1.57 inch. There 
 are seven holes, one in the center and the others op- 
 posite the angles, the center .33 inch distant from the 
 angle. The holes are tapering from .185 inch to .165 
 inch. Specific granty 1.66. A prism weighs 587 
 grains. They are packed in boxes of 110 poimds 
 each. To prevent the prisms from breaking, a piece 
 of fell .4 inch thick is placed on top of the prisms 
 and at the end of the lx)X. Prismatic powder is used 
 in the 15-centimeter and all larger guns. The powder 
 used by Krupp in all of his large gims is of the pris- 
 matic form, made at Hamm, by a private manufac- 
 turer, after the Russian .system. The size of the 
 prisms is the sjmie as used by Russia and Prussia, the 
 density varying with the caliber of the gim in which 
 it is to be used. For the 12-inch and 14-inch guns 
 the prisms are perforated each by only a single hole 
 instead of seven, and that is in the center; it is .59 
 inch in diameter. The specific gra\nty is from 1 73 
 to 1.76. Important changes have been made in 
 France during the last decade in the manufacture of 
 gunpowder. The separate department for the man- 
 agement of the powder-mills and saltpeter refineries 
 has been abolished. The greater numlxT of these 
 establishments which were engaged in making sport- 
 ing and mining powders has passed under the direc- 
 tion of the Minister of Finance; and five — Ripault, 
 Bouchet, Saint Chamas, Angouleine. and Esquerdes 
 — have been reserved for the manufacture of gunpow- 
 der for the Army and Navy. Since 1865, the date of 
 this change, all experiments on cannon-powilcr have 
 been carried on exclusively by officers detailed for the 
 purpose. The powder-mill of Bouchet has been com- 
 pletely under the orders of the marine in making ex- 
 perimental powders for large gtms. Numerous and 
 different powders, varying in the i)roportions of the 
 ingredients, the mode and time of mixing, the density, 
 size, and shape of grain, have been made and sent to 
 Gilvre or Ruelle, to lie tired from gims of proper size, 
 and the effects on the projectile and the gun carefully- 
 noted. Similar trials have been made with foreign 
 powders, such as the English jH-llet. tlie Rus.sian and 
 Dutch prismatic, the Wettereu large-grain, and pow-
 
 GtriTPOWBEB BAGS. 
 
 814 
 
 OUNPOWDEE-HAMMEK. 
 
 tiers made like them, and their effects carefully com- 
 pareil. 
 
 Of all the ixiwdcrs experimented on, tliat which has 
 given the licst results in larcegunsisthelarfre-frrained 
 powder made at the Royal Powder-mills of "Wetteren, 
 in Beliriuni. The iwundinginills, with their mor 
 tars and iR'stles, which have been so long used for in- 
 corporating the materials of irunpowiler, have at last 
 given place to the wheel-mill, in spite of the objections 
 made to its use. It was found to he impossible to 
 make powder suitable for the new nuiterial by this 
 process, and a change has been also made in the pro- 
 portions of the ingredients, and the fornuda used bj- 
 most oilier nations has bei'U adopted. France has 
 acted to a greater extent than any other Power on the 
 principle that every gun has its jiarticular powder, 
 which will do in this gun more work than any other, 
 imd has accordingly prescribed the size of gniin for 
 the ix)wdcr to be used in each of the large calibei-s. 
 The sizes adopted are, for the 14-centinieter gun, be- 
 tween .27.5 inch and .B937 inch; 19-and 24-ceulimcter 
 gun, to ween ..51 inch and .tj3 inch: 2T-centimeter 
 gun, between .63 inch and .Tt<T inch. The Conimand- 
 mg Officer of the Bouchet powder-mill was charged 
 with the duty of getting u|) a powder which should 
 give as favorable results in large guns as that pro- 
 cured from Wetteren. Following the process sug- 
 gested by Captain Castan, the etfort was entirely 
 successful, as was shown by the satisfactory report 
 made on it by the Commission at Gavre, where it was 
 tested. The form given to the grain is that of a flat 
 pai'allelopipcdon, the thickness of which is the same 
 as that of the pressed cake. A large-grain powder 
 has also been made, suitable for the field artillery, 
 and another for siege-guns. The latter has grains 
 .4;^ inch thick and a density of 1.79. It gives as high 
 a velocity as the compressed rings i)re\'iously used, 
 with a less pressure on the bore of the gun. 
 
 Austria obtains her supply of powder partly from 
 mills belonging to the Government, and parti}- from 
 private contractors. Numerous experiments have 
 been made with prismatic powder with the u-sual 
 favorable results, but the expense of manufacture led 
 to the search by experiment for a less costly powder 
 which should meet the requirements of the sei-vice. 
 In 1873 trials were made with a pebble-powder of 
 an English make, and samjiles made at .Stein, with 
 grains of different sizes and density. The results 
 showed the practicability of vaiying the grain in size 
 and density so as to produce a powder which shall 
 give in the gun for wliich it was intended sufficient 
 ballistic effects with little fatigue to the gun. The 
 experiments have not yet been concluded. Trials 
 have been made with the Castan powder with good 
 results. All of the dense powders thus far tried have 
 given, with velocities equal to those given by the 
 prismatic powder, considerably less strain on the gun. 
 These powders have a sjiecilic gravity of 1.759 to 
 1.785. The proportions of the constituents u.sed are 
 74, 10, 16, and the incorporation is effected liy means 
 of the wheel-mill. See Almilnte Force nfGinijtf>iri/i r, 
 lircakiny-diiirii Mucliiiie, Cliuiroal, CiinipenKatlnri Pair- 
 der, Citbiral Pinrder, Deiisinitlir, Driiiiiii sUire, Dust- 
 ing-reels, Explosion, Erpltmii AgenU, (ibniiin-ninrhiue, 
 OranuUititin-miirltine, Qun-rotton, He.ra{ioiuil Powder, 
 Ineorpnrating-tiiill, Insjwction of Poirdtr, Magnzine, 
 Mammoth Powder, Mij-iiig-i/iiir/iiin , Nitintf of Soda, 
 Nitro-glgrtrine, Piieking of Powder, Pebble -powder, 
 PeUct-jmwiler, Powder-jtrrss, Priserriition, Prismatic 
 Powder, Progressive Powder, Hound Powder, Saltpeter, 
 Schaghlieoke Powder, Sehultze Powder, Sifting reel, 
 Special Powders, Sphero-hragonal Powder, Square 
 Powder, Storage and TVansportntion of Powder, Sul- 
 p/i'ir, Wrttrnn Powder, and Wiener Powder. 
 
 GUNPOWDER BAGS.— Hags made of serge or other 
 clotli, and used for lilowing open gates, stockades, 
 etc. The size of the bags ditfcrs accordinir to the 
 charge intended to be placed in them; they are tired 
 generally by means of a Bickford fuse. The bags 
 arc cither placed on the ground or fastened by a hook 
 
 to the gate. In Burmah, in 1852, experiments were 
 made to test the value of powder bairs in blowing 
 down stockades, and the result proved most satisfac- 
 tory: bags containing about tifty pounds of powder 
 causing a rent large enough to admit of a section of 
 infantry entering within the inelosure. K.\iieriments 
 were also at the same time made with S-inch howii 
 Zeis, which failed to make much impression on this 
 manner of defense. The Indian water-caiTiers' mus- 
 suck (water-l)ag), can be used as a powder-bag in any 
 emerirencv. 
 
 GUNPOWDER FACTORY.— A .series of bviildings in 
 wbicli the several proces.ses in the maiuifaeture of 
 gimix)wder are carried out. A giuijiowder-factory 
 shoiild Ix' situated far away from iidiabited localities. 
 The buildings should be made of wi«xl, so that in 
 case of explosion the smallest resistance would be 
 otTered to tlie force of the powder. Explosions un- 
 der any circumstances are disastrous, but if they oc- 
 cur in a masonry building are still more so. The 
 generality of mill-bouses, therefore, will be found to 
 be made of wood, and protected from one another by 
 huge banks of earth or thick masonry surrounding 
 each house. There is no obiection to makuig incor- 
 porating - houses of ma.sonry if the walls are built 
 thick enough to withstand "the explosive force of a 
 " mill-charge" (fifty pounds). To add to the safetj- 
 of incorporating-honses, in case of an exjilosion in one 
 room, the charges in the other rooms are by means of 
 self-acting machinery instantaneously drowned in the 
 water. 
 
 The principal, indeed the only, Goverrmient fac- 
 tory for the manufacture of gimpowder in England 
 is at Waltham Abbe)-. All powder required in ex 
 cess of what this factory is able to turn out is sup- 
 plied by private factories on contract. In India there 
 are three I'aetories. one in each Presidency. See 
 Poi/al (xu npowderfiirfori/. 
 
 GUNPOWDER-HAMMER.— The pile driver operated 
 bj' the exjilosive force of gunpowder. Strong efforts 
 have been made to bring this machine to successfid 
 operation, but in consequence of the great expense of 
 working, the constant care, and the very accurate ad- 
 justment required, it has fallen into general disuse, 
 especially for military purposes. The machine in its 
 improved form may be described as follows: The 
 leaders are built of iron and veiy carefully aligned. 
 The " gun," shaped somewhat like a short field-piece, 
 with wings on either side, and a recess at the breech, 
 is fitted by means of grooves in the wings to slide 
 easily between the leaders, the recess or cap recei\-ing 
 the liead of the iiile t5 be driven. When in position 
 for driving a jiile. the ram is suspended at the top 
 of the leaders, held there by a trip operated by a line 
 in the hands of a man on the deck of the machine. 
 From the lower face of this suspended ram is a shaft 
 turned to accurately fit the bore of the gun, whose 
 upturned nuizzle is expected to receive it. At a 
 suitable height to accommodate the oi^erator is an 
 adjustable platform, which carries the operator and 
 his supply of cartridges, containing each usually about 
 three ounces of powder. When it is desired to drive 
 a pile, the ojierator, standing on his platform, drops a 
 cartridge into the muzzle of the "gun" and trips 
 the suspended ram, w-hose projecting i)intle. entering 
 the nnizzle of the "gim," by comiiressing the air 
 generates the degree of heat necessiuy to explode the 
 cartridge, the explosion of which throws up the ham- 
 mer, and at the .same time projects the pile into the 
 ground. As the liammer or ram is tbrowii up, the 
 alert operator drops in other cartridges, which are in 
 turn exi)l()ded by the returning ram. As the pile .set- 
 tles into the ground, assistants keep the jilatform oc- 
 cupied by the operator in projier iiosilion: and w-hen 
 it is desired to stop the di-iving. enough cartiidgesare 
 droiijH'd into the gun to produce an ex]ito.sion that 
 will send the hammer clear to the top of the leadens, 
 where it is caught and held ready for the next pile, 
 which is Inought into position in the usual manner 
 and by the use of the ordinarj- machinery, which also
 
 GTJNPOWDEB-L 4WS. 
 
 815 
 
 GUNPOWDER PLOT. 
 
 twists the gun and lowers tbe same on to the head of 
 the pile. In practice, to drive a 13inch pile twenty 
 feet into firm clay about two hundred blows would 
 be struck, at an expense for powder of between three 
 and four dollars. The gun is found to soon become 
 foul, and creases are soon cut in it so that an escape of 
 air causes the failure in exploding a charsc; in which 
 case a jammingof llie piiille in the bore of the " gun" 
 results, causing a great delay and no little expense. 
 In Shaw's pile-driver, the monkey, or ram, is sus- 
 tained at its highest elevation by means of a ratchet 
 and pawl, while a cartridge and "cap are placed in a 
 recess in the head of the pile. The pawl being with- 
 drawn, the monkey falls upon and explodes the car- 
 tridge. The force of the explosion raises the monkey 
 to the height from which it fell, where it is auto- 
 matically arrested bj- the detent arrangement. The 
 effective force of tlic fall is said to be much increased 
 by the action of the powder. One man places the 
 cartridge in position and releases the ram. See Pile- 
 driver. 
 
 GUNPOWDER-LAWS.— In order to guard against 
 the frightful consequences to the public likely to aiise 
 from carelessness in the preparation, preservalion. or 
 conveyance of this most dangerous article, the Englisli 
 Legislature in 187.5 made stringent rules upon the 
 subject. By an Act which applies also to Scotland 
 and Ireland it is provided that no gunpowder shall 
 be manufactured except at a factory lawfullj- existing 
 or licensed under the Act, and it shall not be kept 
 except in the factory where it is made, or in a maga- 
 zine or store duly licensed, or in registered premises. 
 The license Is obtained from the local authority (usu- 
 ally Justices), and approved by the Home Secretary. 
 General rules are imposed for regulating factories and 
 magazines. There must be a lightning-conductor. 
 No charcoal nor oiled rags must be taken into the 
 building except for immediate use. No smoking is 
 allowed. Tools arc to lie made of wood or soft mate- 
 rial. Workingmen's clothes are to be without pock 
 ets. Carriages and boats for conveying gunpowder 
 must have in their interior no iron or steel exposed. 
 Each building is to have affixed, so as to be easily 
 read, the quantity of gunpowder allowed in each. 
 Retail dealers must be registered, and must kee]) 
 their powder in a sejiarate house or in a fire-proof 
 safe, not exceeding 200 lbs.; but if kept inside the 
 dwelling-house, .50 lbs., or if in a safe inside, 100 lbs. 
 The building or s;ife is to have no exposed iron or 
 steel in tbe interior. A breach of precautions against 
 fire or explosion is visited with heavy penalties. The 
 local authoiities must keep registers of licensed i)er- 
 sons, and all rate-payers can demand a copy thereof. 
 Retail dealers, if using less than .5 lbs. for cartridges 
 at one time, are exempted from taking out a factoiy- 
 license. No powder nuist be sold to a child under 13. 
 All powder exceeding 1 lb. weight must be sold in a 
 canister or case securely fitted, and with the word 
 "gunpowder" visible. Also, powder must be closely 
 and securely packed and labeled for conveyance, if 
 exceeding .5 lbs., and the amount carried is not to ex- 
 ceed 100 lbs. All Railway and Canal Companies arc 
 to make rules and have special times and places for 
 loading and unloading powder. Fire-work factories, 
 if making ami keeping less than .500 lbs of fire-works, 
 need only a license from the local atithority; but ex- 
 ceeding that quantity, one from the Home Secretary. 
 To let off a fire-work in a street or highway subjects 
 the offender to £.5 penalty. A Government Inspector 
 may at any hour of day or night enter and inspect 
 any factory, magazine, "or registered premises, and 
 mav require the "occupier, under a heavy penally, to 
 make alterations or take cert;vin preciutions. Search- 
 warrants are also readily granted, and in urgent cases 
 are dispensed with. 
 
 GUNPOWDER MILL.— A machine used for mixing 
 or incorporating the ingredients of which gimpowder 
 is composed. The operation was fonnerly effected 
 as follows: The ingredients being duly proportioned 
 and put into the mortars of the liiiUs, which are hol- 
 
 low pieces of wood, each capable of holding 20 pounds 
 of pa.ste, are incorporated by means of the pestle and 
 spindle. There are 24 mortars in each mill, where 
 are made each day 480 pounds of gunpowder, care 
 being taken to sprinkle the ingredients in the mortars 
 with water from time to time, lest they should take 
 fire. The pestle is a piece of wood 10 feet high and 
 4J inches broad, armed at the bottom with a round 
 piece of metal. It weighs about 60 pounds. For 
 more modern methods of incorporation, see the ar- 
 ticle GiiiijiDinlcr. 
 
 GUNPOWDER PLOT.— A fanatical project on the 
 part of a few Roman Catholics to destroy the King, 
 Lords, and Commons on the meeting of' Parliament 
 on November the .5tli, 1605. James I. had succeeded 
 Elizabeth two years before, and his Government had 
 exercised great".severities against the Roman Catholics, 
 not merely denying them religious toleration, l)ut con- 
 fiscating their "property. A few^ ruined and exas- 
 perated men l)ande<l together to overthrow the Gov- 
 ernment. The originator of the plot was Robert 
 Catesby, a man of fortune, which he had inii)air(d by 
 youthful extravagance, and who communicated his 
 idea to Thomas AVinter, who was horrified at first, 
 Init after a while began to approve and further it. 
 For this end be enlisted into llie conspiracy Guy 
 Fawkes, a soldier of fortiuie, of consiileralile military 
 experience, and a most determined and fearless char- 
 acter. Catesby enlisted other two, by name Wright 
 and Percy- the latter a relation of the" Earl of North- 
 umberland. Thej' hired a house and garden contigu- 
 ous to tbe Parliament House, and commenced their 
 mine, a part working when the others slept, and the 
 rubbish lieiug buried during night. One day thej' 
 were alarmed by a noise after they had with much 
 labor iiierced the wall three yards thick. Fawkes 
 learned that this noise proceeded from a cellar under 
 the House of Lords, which would soon be vacant. 
 He hired it, and barrels of gunpowder were placed 
 ill it, and stones and billets of wood placed over them, 
 for the double purpose of concealment and to act a.s 
 destructive missiles when the gunpowder was fired. 
 In tbe interval, a brother of Wright and a brother of 
 Winter had been added to the conspirators, so thej' 
 were now seven. But they wanted money; and to 
 supply it, two others were induced to enter this fa- 
 natical copartnery, and these were Sir Everard Digby 
 of Gateburst, in Buckinghamshire, a young gentleman 
 of large estates; and Francis Tresham, a follower of 
 Essex, like Catesby aind Percy, but, unlike them, a 
 selfish unenthusiastic man. Their plan was finally 
 arranged for the reas.sembling of Parliament, wliich 
 was to take place on the .5th of November. Guy 
 Fawkes was to fire tbe mine (if the gunpowder in tbe 
 cellar may be so called), and then flee to Flanders by 
 a ship provided with Tresliam's money, and waiting 
 ready on the Thames. All tbe Roman Catholic Peers 
 and others whom it was expedient to preserve were 
 to be prevented from going to tbe Parliament House, 
 by some pretended message or other, on the morning 
 of that day. After all was ready, Lord ]Mounteagle 
 was at supper at his country-house at Hoxton, where 
 he very seldom was. As be sat, a page handed him 
 a letter received from a stranger, advising him " to 
 devise sotne excuse to shift off your attendance at 
 this Parliament, for God and man hath concurred to 
 punish the wickedness of this time." That this letter 
 was written bj- or for Tresham, who was the Lord 
 Momiteagle's brother-in-law, there can be little doubt. 
 That he desired to save bim was certainly one reason 
 for writing it; that he desired to save the conspirators, 
 or at least to allow them to escape, is very probable; 
 and that they might have escaped, but foi" the fanati- 
 cal hopes of Catesby. is all but certain. It is also 
 probable that Lord ' Jlounteagle had been fully in- 
 formed of the whole matter by Tresham, and that tbe 
 supper in the country and the letter wen' mere de- 
 vices to conceal Tresham 's treachery. When the let- 
 ter was formally commtinicated to the King, he at 
 once declared its meaning, and the most simple way
 
 OVV SHELTEB8. 
 
 816 
 
 GUN-STOCK. 
 
 of nc'counting fur liis nowpr of divination is to sup- 
 pose that, like Lord Moiinlciigle, lie had l)ci'n told 
 iK-forehand. On Ihi' very cviiiin,!; of the 4tli, the 
 Lord C'hiinilierliiiii and Lord Mimnteagle visited the 
 Parliament House, and entering the cellar in a easual 
 wav, told Guy Fawkes, whom'they found there, and 
 who.passi'd as Percy's servant, that his master had 
 laid m a jilenty of" fuel. Only fanaticism gone the 
 length of fatuilv could have made him persevere after 
 this. But he did, though escape was still possible; 
 and on lite morning of the Sth, a little after mirlnight, 
 he was arrested coming out of the cellar, dressed as 
 for a journey. Three matches were f<nind on him, a 
 diirk-iautern burning in a corner witliin, and a hogs- 
 head and thirty six'barrcls of gunpow<ier. He was 
 examined and tortured. He confessed his own guilt, 
 liut would not discover his associates. However, he 
 and the chief of them were either killed on being 
 captured, or died on the scaffold; except Tresham, 
 who at first walked about openly, l)ul at last was 
 apprehended, and died of a natural disease in the 
 Tower. The memory of this plot, invested by much 
 fiction, has survived in England; and it was not more 
 diabolical than hopeless antl mad. It was in itself 
 mysterious, and for purposes of state policy iUid 
 Protestant zeal a further mystery was thrown over 
 it. No name in English history has been more de- 
 tested than that of Guy Pawkes. 
 
 GUN-SHELTERS. — During the third period of siege- 
 operations the musketry -fire of the besiegers becomes 
 very destructive to the artillerists of the defenses 
 whilst ser\'ing the guns. Strong iron or oak musket- 
 proof blinds should be arranged to mask the mouths 
 of the embrasures when the guns are not in battery. 
 Blinds, or covers of timber and of earth under which 
 
 iSm. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 hi^^ 
 
 C-- "- 
 
 guns can be secured from projectiles that would reach 
 them at top or in flank, will now be serviceable. A 
 few guns covered in this way, and placed in the sali- 
 ents of the collateral works, to obtain rever.se views 
 on the trenches constnicted on the glacis of the works, 
 will prove a serio\is annoyance to the sappers, and 
 will greatly retard their "progress. When railroad- 
 iron can ix- obtained, shields, with embrasures in 
 them, can be made as represented in the drawing. 
 One thickness of iron is sufficient protection against 
 projectiles from field-ginis, two from siege-giuis, and 
 four from pieces of the 8-inch rifle cla.ss. The sjmie 
 material may be used for constructing field-casemates. 
 Sec Mfinflet. 
 
 GUN-SHOT.— The distance of the point-blank range 
 of a cannon-shot. The distance to which .shot can 
 be thrown from a giui so as to he effective. The 
 term f/nn-rnir/i is used in the Stime sense. 
 
 GUN-SHOT WOUNDS.— The.se wounds may vary in 
 severity from a sinijile bruise to the tearing away of 
 a whole limb. Single b;dls produce a cut, bniised or 
 lacerated wound, according to the amount of their 
 velocity when they strike the body. The effects of 
 small shot vary with the distance and )>ower of the 
 gun; when close, the charge enters with the pellets 
 so close together as to make one woimd like a single 
 ball. Some years ago it was commonly V)elieved 
 that the " wind of a large shot" coidd produce seri- 
 ous injuries: this belief may have arisen from the 
 circumstance that when a hca\'y' ball, which has lost 
 some of its force, strikes the bodj' at a particular 
 angle, the .skin docs not always give way, but tlic 
 deeper stnutures, such as the mtiscles, or the large 
 organs, as the liver, may be completely crushed. 
 If the wind of a shot could kill a man, it is not 
 
 likely that soldiers should have had ears, noses, and 
 lips "shot off and yet have experienced only the 
 symptoms produced by those slight injuries. 
 
 When a b\dlet jiasses out of the liudy. there are 
 two openings — that of "entrance, " which is gener- 
 ally depressed, round, regular, and smaller than that 
 of" exit." The modern conical ball makes a well- 
 defined oblong wound, but it may shift its direction, 
 so as to strike longitudinally, and cause a more ex- 
 tensive injury to the skin. When a bullet strikes the 
 shaft of a bone, it cracks or .splinters il, and either 
 remains or pas-ses through the cancellated ends. In 
 its course the ball may carry before it pieces of 
 cloth, coins, or other foreign bodies, which increa.se 
 the danger of the wound. JIany persons who have 
 been shot during the excitement of battle describe 
 the sensation as resembling the sharp stroke of a cane; 
 but in most instances the wouniled man soon In-gins 
 to tremble as if in an ague-fit, complains of cold, his 
 face becomes pale, his pulse scarcely. ]ier<eptible, and 
 he appears as if about to die. This is the condition 
 termed shuck; and though death sometimes does en- 
 sue during this state of prostration, it is not so serious 
 as it appears, and the patient will probably pass out 
 of it in a few hours with the help of stimulants and 
 rest. Although excessive bleeding is not so common 
 after giin-shot as other kinds of wounds, it may occur 
 immediately to a fatal extent if assistance be not af- 
 forded. This assistance any one can give; it consists 
 simply in placmg the fingers in the wound, and if the 
 vessel can be reached, pressing them upon it, directed 
 to the proper point by the warm gush of the blood. 
 Slioidd Uie wound be too small to admit the finger, a 
 handkerchief may be tied round the limb above the 
 wound, and twisted tightly with a stick. It is well 
 to examine the wound, to ascertain the extent of the 
 injury done, and whether there are splinters of bone 
 or portions of dress lying in it, which should be re- 
 moved. But neither the examination nor the removal 
 should be attempted if they seem likely to aggravate 
 the injury. The treatment is similar to that of other 
 wounds, and consists in protecting the part during the 
 healing stages, moderating inflammation by a cold- 
 water dressing and s(X)thing poultices, and hastening 
 the last .stasres of cure by the use of stimulating lo- 
 tions. See ^Vounds. 
 
 GUN-SLING.— A sling for lifting a gim off its car- 
 riage, or off the ground when placed vmder a gin or 
 other lifting-machine. It is formed by splicing the 
 ends of a length of white rope together, the dimen- 
 sions of the rope varying with the weight to be lifted. 
 For very heavy guns, chain slings are used. Guns 
 should invariably be slung as .short as possible. This 
 becomes absolutely neces.s)iry when heavy guns are 
 to be raised, otherwise the tackle will be " chock-a- 
 chock" before the gun is sufficiently high to admit 
 of the trunnions clearing the carriage. 
 
 GUNSMITH. — A maker of small-ai-ms; one whose 
 occujiation is to make or repair any small fire-arms; 
 an Armorer. 
 
 GUN-STICK. — A stick to ram down the charge of a 
 musket, etc.; a rammer or ramrod. This term is now 
 rarelv emploved. 
 
 GUN-STOCK.— The part of a gun to which the bar- 
 rel and lock are fastened. It is usually of walnut: in 
 Europe the Jiiglans re;/itt, in Amei-ica the Juf/liuis 
 iiif/ni. Gim-stocks, until the invention of the Blan- 
 diard lathe, were made by hand in a laborious and 
 tedious manner. This machine was introduced into 
 the Springfield Armory about 1820. A rough chunk 
 of wood is placed in the first of the stocking-ma- 
 chines, from whence it emerges with its sides cut 
 to the projier shape for turning. In another machine 
 its butt-end is sawed, and a diagonal line cut at the 
 breech. The third, armed with two circular .saws, 
 fashions the iii^per part of the stock in its finished 
 form. Another machine reduces the butt to its ulti- 
 mate shape. Another simi>ly planes various places in 
 the sides of the stock as points for the working of 
 other machines, an operation which is known as spot-
 
 GUN-STONE. 
 
 817 
 
 GUTHRIE AMBULANCE-CABT. 
 
 ting A sixth machine performs six distinct items 
 called grooi-mg for the barrel, breech-pin, and tanir' 
 heading down, milling, and liniA-grwduo The stock 
 IS at this stage prepared for the littin'/ in of the bir- 
 rc . A seventh machine planes the top, bottom, and 
 sides; while the eighth and ninth do the shaping mid 
 bedding for the butt-plates. The next machine pre- 
 pares the stock for the reception of the locks An- 
 other machine is used lo cut for the guards, to bore 
 for the side-screws of the lock, and two more to make 
 places for tips and bands. After these various opera- I 
 tions comes the second turning and smoothin" of the ' 
 work; then the groo\ing for the ramrwl; then the 
 bonng for the ramrod from the point at wliich the I 
 groove ends. These machines are each provided with ! 
 a pattern or templet, which is the exact counterpart ' 
 of the cavity or other form to be produced m the 
 stock. They arc furnished also with cutters or borers 
 which, being placed above the stock, are made to I 
 rev-olve rapidly, and cut the wood in exact imitation 
 of the pattern below. The movements of the tool arc 
 controlled by a giude which is inserted within the pit- 
 tern. The tool is made to ievol\e bv means of ^nwil 
 machmery within its frame, the latter and all within 
 it movmg together with both lateral and vertical mo- 
 tions being governed by the guide, which is con- 
 nected with It, by the aid of verj- curious and intri- 
 cate machinery. The work of the artisan, when the 
 machine is in motion and the stock is adjusted in its 
 bed within it beneath the borers or cutters, is simply 
 to bnng the gmde down into the pattern and move 
 n about the circumference and through its center 
 The cutting-tool follows the movements'of the guide' 
 and the result is a perfect duplicate in the stock of 
 the form in the mold below. See Ixithf 
 
 GUN-STONE.-A .stone used for the shot of cannon 
 Before the invention of iron balls, stones were used 
 for shot, but are now altogether superseded 
 
 GUN-TACKLE.-The arrangement of blocks and 
 ropes for the means of raising and lowerin"- guns 
 There are two of this name used in the artiirer^- ser- 
 vice. One consists of two double blocks, called a 
 gun-Uu-klf, the other a heary gun-tackk, consistino- of 
 a double and treble block. In the former, the power 
 is increased fivefold when the standing end of the fall 
 is made fast to the movable block, and fourfold when 
 made fast to the other. In the latter, the power in- 
 creases five or six times, as used 
 
 6UNTER CHAIN AND SCALES.— The chain and 
 scales commonly used by militarv engineers. The 
 chain Is 66 feet, and its convenience in practice turns 
 on the fact that ten square chains make one acre 
 
 sector, and marked N, S, T, meaning the lines of 
 logarithmic nu,id>ers, of logarithmic fine),, and of the 
 oganthmic UingenU. To understand their construc- 
 tion and us<- requires a knowledge of logarithms; 
 tliey are explained in every school-book of practical 
 mathematics. The distances of the divisions marked 
 1,~, d, etc., on the line of logarithmic numbers repre- 
 i '^-' ""^ logarithms of those numbers— viz., 0, .:«1, 
 .4(7, etc.— taken from a scale of equal parts ' The 
 other lines are constructed on an analogous plan 
 Callmg to mind that multiplication of numU-rs Is ef- 
 lected by the addition of the logarithms, division by 
 their subtraction, involution by their mullii)lieation 
 and evolutK 11 by their dirisio'n, we are able to per- 
 ceive with what ea.se man v rmigh prob- 
 lems in areas, heights, cubic contents, 
 and other matters mav be performed 
 through the agency of Guntcr's scale. 
 GUEGES.— A charge in Heraldry, 
 meant to represent a whirlpool. It 
 t;ikes up the whole field, and when 
 born proper is azure and argent. Also 
 written (iorges. 
 
 GUBEIES.— The common name for mud-forts in 
 India. These forts are frequently constructed near 
 dwellings and where there is an absence of rock and 
 
 G urges. 
 
 Gunter'.s C'ltaiu. 
 
 The chain is dinded into 100 links, and thus 100,000 
 square links make an acre. 
 
 The name of Gunter's Scale or Ounter's Lines is 
 usually given to three lines to be seen on almost any 
 
 timber. They are quickly thrown up, and form a 
 safe point of retreat in case of dauL^er. The drawing 
 shows one of these forts as constructed by Generjd 
 Howard on the Prairies of Idaho and Montana dur- 
 ing the Nez Perce Indian Campaign of 1877. 
 
 GUSSET.— 1 . A piece at first of chain, and afterwards 
 of plate-armor, intended as a protection to the vul- 
 nerable point where the defenses of the arm and 
 breast left a gap. 2. In Heraldry, the gus.set is enume- 
 rated as one of the abatements or marks of disgrace 
 for unknightly conduct. It is represented by a 
 straight line extending diagonally from the dexter or 
 sinister chief point one third across the shield, and 
 then descending perijendicularly to the 
 ba.sc. Heralds tell us that the gu.«sct 
 dexter indicated adultery; the gitsset 
 sinister, drunkenness; and when both 
 were borne, it was because the bearer 
 was faulty in both respects. Cow- 
 ardice was indicated by an abatement 
 calleil the gore sinister, wliich, though 
 somewhat similar, we are told care- 
 fully to distinguish from the gusset, Ousset. 
 and which consists of two arched lines drawn, one 
 from the sinister chief, the other from the middle 
 base of the escutcheon, meeting in the fe.ss point. A 
 gore like a gu.sset represents a detached part of a gar- 
 ment; and according to Guillim, gores and gus.sets 
 "are things in use among women, especially semsters, 
 and therefore are fit notes of eowanis andwomanish 
 dispositions." .'^ee Gore. 
 
 GUTHBIE AHtBULANCE CAET.— The form of am- 
 bulance used in the English army. The severely 
 wounded are laid on it at full length, while those 
 slightly hurt sit io front and rear, and on the sides.
 
 OUTTA FEBCHA IMFBESSIOHS. 
 
 818 
 
 OUTTEBINO. 
 
 A stn-tcher is slung from the lo!> foi- the accommoda- 
 tion of the fonner. Tlie back-board is let down for 
 cases requirinj; amputation. The hospitnl-chcsts are 
 lashed uuderiiealh. After the battle of the Alma, in 
 which 1980 British ollicers and soldiers were killed 
 or wounded. Lord Hasilan, who was almost without 
 umhulauces and dniuglat-animals, was much embar- 
 nissed for the means of dealing with his poor sutler- 
 log men; the conveyance of them down to the beach 
 for shipment to the inilitary hospitals at Scutari was 
 
 GutUrie Ambulance-cart. 
 
 a work of delay and miserj- to all concerned. Since 
 then ambulances have been titled up with all medical 
 appliances, mid a certain number have been attached 
 to regiments. The latest pattern ambulance-cart in 
 the British army is constructed to carry seven sick or 
 wounded men — viz., two inside on the stretchers, two 
 seated Ix'side the driver, and three seated in the rear. 
 One ambulance is allowed to each regiment, and lif- 
 teen to each division. See Anihnhini-i . 
 
 GUTTA-PERCHA IMPRESSIONS.— Gutta-percha 
 impressions of a i)ortion of the bore of a gun are con- 
 venientl}' jirocured by means of wooden blocks or 
 wedges. For this purpose two blocks are used, one 
 about two thirds the length of the other; the longer 
 block carries the gutta pereha for the impres.sion, the 
 shorter one is used as a wedge. Each block has a 
 staff longer than the bore of the gun, enabling the 
 operator at the muzzle to place the blocks in any de- 
 .sired position in the bore, drive the wedge, and \\-ith- 
 draw the blocks. These blocks are so shaped as to 
 form an imperfect cylinder whose diameter is less 
 than that of the l)ore, enabling the longer block to 
 carrj- the gutta i)eicha to the required place in the 
 bore. By driving in the wedge, the diameter of this 
 cylinder is increased nearly to that of the bore; the 
 gutta-purcha is pres.sed against the surface of the bore, 
 and forced by the dri\ing wedge to take the impres- 
 sion. Before taking an impression the gun should be 
 thoroughli' washed out and oiled with a well-oiled 
 
 the staff near the end, and struck with the sledge un- 
 til it starts, when it is easily withdrawn. The carrj'- 
 ing-block will generally wU or relea.se itself by its 
 own weight, bringing the impression with it, if the 
 impres.sion is taken anywhere in the upper half of 
 I the bore. Where an impression is wanted from the 
 Ixittom of the bore, a small block or rider is piLshed 
 in at the same time as the carrying-block, so as to 
 keej) the gutta-percha from touching the surface of 
 the bore while being pushed into place. Afterwards 
 the rider-block is withdrawn, the wedge driven in, 
 and after the wedge is withdrawn the rider block Ls 
 pushed back close to the carrying-block, and acts as 
 a fulcrum by which the imjiression is ndsed free from 
 the bore, when both may be w ithdrawn together. In 
 taking an impres.sion on the side, it is better to push 
 in the blocks as in taking the impression above, and 
 then to turn the blocks to the side. Unless the block 
 under the gutta-percha is well oiled, some ditliculty 
 ma}' Ix; experience<l iu releasing the impression fitiiii 
 the block. The carrying-block should have a slight 
 raised edge on each side of the ujiper surface of the 
 block, to" prevent the gutta-percha from spreading 
 out too much when undergoing the pressvire from the 
 wedge, and also to protect it wlien turning the blocks 
 for a side impression. Impressions are marked by 
 their distance from the muzzle in inches; the name, 
 number, and caliber of the gim, and whether taken 
 at top, bottom, right, left, top right, top left, bottom 
 right, bottom left, of the bore, when facing the muz- 
 zle. A convenient size to obtain the pitta-ix'rcha is 
 in slabs twenty inches long, five inches wide, and 
 live eighths of an inch thick. Each slab will make, 
 ordinarily, two or three impressions, and can be used 
 several times if desired. The defects are noted in 
 the following manner: The distance is recorded in 
 inches from the muzzle, and 
 the position aroimd the gim 
 is recorded in eveiy case ac- 
 cording to the diagram, look- 
 ing from the muzzle, as 
 "up," " D," " R," "L," or 
 in intermediate positions, as 
 "Rof D,""Lof up," etc., 
 etc. If a defect extends any 
 length, it is noted as in the 
 following examples: "36 in- 
 ches, D to L," which means 
 
 defect thirtj-six inches from the nuizzle going round 
 
 the bore from "down" to "left ;" or "49 inches to 
 
 I 56 inches up," meaning a defect running along the 
 
 top of the bore from forty-nine inches to tifty-six 
 
 1 inches; or, what is the same thing, seven inches long. 
 
 sponge; the gutta-percha, softened by hot water, just 
 below the boiling-point, to the required consistency — 
 about that of putty — is then jilaced on the block, 
 well oiled, worked and kneaded with oil until it is 
 spread over the required portion of the lilock. The 
 block^J are also well oiled. ])articularly the surfaces 
 which come in contact. The two blocks are put to- 
 gether at the muzzle, and Ixith together are pushed 
 into the bore to the distance desired, marked on the 
 staff of the carrying-block. The carrj-ing-block is 
 held steadily by its st.aff, while the wedge-block is 
 driven in bj' several lilows of a sledge on the end of 
 its .staff; from two to five minutes is suflicient to allow 
 it to set. The wedge-block is withdrawn first and the 
 carrying-block with the im].rcssion afterwards. To 
 withdraw the wedge-l)lock, an iron pin is run through 
 
 See Lnpremfin taker, Imtpection of Ordnance, OrA- 
 nancf, and Vent-ii)ipremi>us. 
 
 6UTTE — GUTTY. — A term in Heraldrv', from the 
 Latin f/utUi. a drop, said of a field, or any particular 
 charge on the field, covered with drops. When the 
 drops are red. they are sujiposed to represent drops of 
 blood, and the bearing is sai<l to be ijiitU' de sang. In 
 this ca.se some great sulTcring or labor, such as fight- 
 ing for the recovery of llie Holy Land, is indicated. 
 Where they are blue, iigain, they represent tears, and 
 the bearing is said to be nitiU' de larmeH. Whi'ii 
 white, they arc called drops of water, and the bear- 
 ing is iles'cribed as (jntt:' dc Vnni ; but Nisbetis of 
 O|)inion thai tears arc iiUended in this tasc also, and 
 that rcixiitancc or penitence is .signified by both. 
 
 GUTTERING. — The scoring or erosion observed at 
 
 L
 
 GUTTEKING. 
 
 819 
 
 GUTTEEINO. 
 
 Mm 
 
 "ii^i
 
 2^. 
 F 
 
 t 
 
 For Reference 
 
 Not to be taken from this room
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIOfJAl LIBRARY FACILITY
 
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