LAWNS and GREENS T.W SANDERS Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES CDLONG: LAWNS AND . . GREENS LAWNS AND GREENS THEIR FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT Garden, Tennis and Croquet Lawns, Bowling and Golf Greens, Cricket Grounds, Grass Paths, etc. BY T. W. SANDERS, F.L.S., F.R.H.S. Editor of "Amateur Gardening," also Author of " The Flower Garde " Encyclopxdia of Gardening" "Alphabet of Gardening," " Amateur's Greenhouse," "Bulbs and their Cultivation," " Vegetables and their Cultivation," etc. ILLUSTRATED THIRD EDITION LONDON : W. H. 6f L. COLLINGRIDGE. 148 & 149. Alder?ate Street, E.G. 1. (L. T. COLLINORIDCB HUCH COLUX6RIDGE.) PRTNTKH BY W. H. AND L. COLLINGRIDGK. 148 AND 149. AI.DERSGATE STREET, LOMXJN, B.C. 1. 1QZO FOREWORDS. ONE of the chief charms of a well-ordered garden is its beautiful velvety green turf. As a famous garden artist has so aptly expressed : " The lawn is the heart of the true British garden." In no other country is this delightful feature of the garden seen in such perfection in normal times as in this sea-girt isle. Every owner of a garden prides himself upon the possession of a good lawn, and well he may do so, for there is nothing forms so exquisite a setting to a floral picture as an expanse of emerald-green grass, and no costly carpet can ever vie with the springi- ness or elasticity of well-kept turf. Granted that the lawn forms so essential a feature of the flower garden, it naturally follows that every owner of a garden wants to know the correct methods of forming a lawn, and also of its subsequent management. To meet these requirements the present Handbook was published some years ago, and it met with such appreciation from the public that two editions of it have been exhausted, and a third one is now presented to meet a further continued demand for copies. This work, by the way, is not solely confined to the theme of the lawn alone ; it covers a much wider field than that, and caters for the requirements of lovers of such manly and healthy sports as bowls, golf, cricket, tennis, etc. It contains full details on the formation and man- agement of bowling greens, golf links, cricket pitches, and tennis and croquet lawns, and, therefore, may be said to be a complete vade mecum on all that pertains to the sub- ject of greensward for beauty, pleasure, or sport. 1013766 6 FOREWORDS. No pains have been spared to render the present edition as accurate and widely useful in its contents as a long experience, wide observation, and human foresight would allow. In its pages every phase of formation and manage- ment is clearly dealt with, and a full description of weeds and their eradication, feeding and top-dressing, mowing machines, rollers, tools, and appliances, with advice as to their uses given, so that the reader can readily solve any problem concerning lawns, bowling greens, golf courses, or cricket pitches that may arise from time to time. We have also endeavoured to illustrate the work by diagrams, sketches, and photographic reproductions, and thus, we hope, added to its usefulness, as well as its attractiveness. Lastly, we desire to point out that the prices quoted in the following pages for seeds, turf, labour, eitc., are approximate. Owing to the unsettled conditions of labour and prices of materials, it is impossible to give an accurate estimate of cost. Hence the reader will, we trust, bear these facts in mind when considering the eost of laying lawns and greens. 1920. T. W. S. CONTENTS. PAGB FOREWORDS 5 Chap. I. SOILS AND THEIR TREATMENT 9 II. DRAINAGE 12 III. PREPARING AND LEVELLING SITES 20 IV. TURF VERSUS SEEDS 26 V. SEEDS FOR LAWNS 28 VI. SEED SOWING 33 VII. TURF LAYING 38 VIII. MOWING LAWNS 42 IX. ROLLING LAWNS 45 X. WATERING LAWNS 46 XI. RENOVATING LAWNS 47 XII. MANURES FOB LAWNS 51 XIII. LAWN PBSTS 66 XIV. LAWN WEEDS 62 XV. TENNIS AND CROQUET LAWNS 72 XVI. BOWLING GREENS 78 XVII. CRICKET GROUNDS 83 XVIII. GOLF GREENS 88 XIX. GRASS PATHS AND STEPS 97 XX. LAWN MOWERS 100 XXI. GARDEN ROLLERS 105 XXII. TOOLS AND APPLIANCES ... .... 107 INDEX , . .., 110 LIST OF PLATES. FACING PAGE BRITISH HOME WITH ITS BEAUTIFUL LAWN Frontispiece BOWLING GREEN, GENERAL VIEW OF A 80 CRICKET GROUND, A TYPICAL COUNTY 81 CROQUET LAWN ... 65 ENGLISH GARDEN 16 GRASS PATH 48 GRASS STEPS 97 GRASS TERRACE AND LAWN 49 GOLF GREEN 96 LAWN, A WATERSIDE 24 AN UNDULATING 32 A SLOPING 33 A WELL-KEPT 17 PREPARING SITE FOB 25 MOWING MACHINE, A PONY 25 TENNIS LAWN AT WIMBLEDON 64 ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT. PAGE CROQUET LAWNS, DIAGRAMS OF 75-76 DADDY LONG-LEGS OR CRANE-FLY 58 DRAINAGE, OBLIQUE METHOD OF 14 SYSTEM FOR LAWNS 17 DRAINING, HERRING-BONE METHOD OF 15 TOOLS 18 TRANSVERSE METHODS OF 13 LAWN, PREPARING SITE FOR A NEW LAWN TENNIS COURT, PLAN OF 72 LAWNS, LEVELLING GROUND FOR 23 METHOD OF TURFING 39 MODE OF REPAIRING PATCHY 49 LEVELLING SITES FOR LAWNS 23 APPLIANCES FOR 20 MOLE CRICKET, THE 61 MOLES, MODK OF TRAPPING 60 SLOPES, MODE OF TURFING 41 TEMPLATE FOR GAUGING SLOPES 22 TERRACES, MODE OF TURFING 41 TURF BEATER, A 40 LAYING ON SLOPES AND TERRACES 41 RENOVATING PATCHY OR UNEVLN 49 Lawns and Greens. CHAPTER I. SOILS AND THEIR TREATMENT. IT Is just as important to study the question of soil in regard to the site of a lawn or bowling g.reen as in relation to a fruiit or vegetable garden. Grass will not grow pro- perly on a poor or ill-prepared soil, any more than a cabbage or a potato will succeed under similar conditions. Some people aind builders of suburban houses who under- take to lay out the gardens ready for the first tenant are the worst offenders imagine that grass requires no special soil ; they regard it as only necessary to level the mixture of foundation soid, brickbats, and so on, rake over the surface, and then lay turf or sow grass seeds. Never was a greater mistake made. They are an eyesore, and a source of perpetual worry to tenants and owners who possess them. If a good lawn be desired, care must be taken to prepare the soil properly before sowing seeds or laying down turf. Heavy Soils. Those in which clay preponderates require the most careful treatment. Besides draining to get rid of superfluous water, they also need trenching deeply two to three feet and to have plenty of road grit, decayed refuse, and manure added to help render them porous, assist drainage, and provide a healthy pabulum for the roots of the grasses. Lime, too, should be added to break up the clay, and set free the precious potash it contains for feeding the roots. In very bad cases from three to six inches of good mould should be spread on the surface to give the grass an opportunity of establishing itself. Where grass seeds are to be sown the soil should be turned up roughly in winter, so that frost and air may pulverise and 10 LAWNS AND GREENS. sweeten it by spring. Fine cinders, too, might be forked into the surface. The aim should be, in fact, to provide an open, porous, and gritty soil, so that sun and air may readily gain access to its pores, and surface water rapidly disappear below. Medium Soils. Here we refer to those soils which are of a loamy texture, neither too heavy nor too light, and which come in about midway between a day and a light sandy soil. Within this definition come soil's that have been cultivated in the garden or field. They are usually rich in vegetable matter, or humus, fairly porous, and easy to work. Such soils will require to be deeply dug, liberally manured and limed, to put them in good order for the suc- ceeding growth of grasses. Too much importance cannot be attached to deep culture. It affords the rooits a good opportunity of descending deeply in search of moisture in hot, dry seasons, and of food at all times. Light Soils. These are by no means ideal ones for the growth of lawn grass. Their porous nature, deficiency of moisture in dry weather, and sterility cause the grass to become stunted in growth and to be scorched in summer. Those who have the misfortune to garden on poor, sandy soils, or on thin soils overlying chalk, are entitled to sym- pathy. Well, they must make the best of the situation by working in plenty of sow or pig manure, that will help bind the particles together, conserve the moisture, and keep the soil as cool as possible in hot weather. An addition of clay or loam would be an advantage in the case of sandy soils, and a dressing of lime would also be beneficial. On thin soils overlying chalk the only thing possible to provide a greater depth of soil is to either excavate the chalk to the depth of a foot or so, and use it for the foundations of paths, and put good loam in its place, or to add soil to the existing surface. In any case QW or pig dung, not horse manure, should be plentifully used, because of its binding, cooling, and great nourishing properties. Stony Soils. In some districts lawns have to be made on soils that are of a stony or coarse gravelly nature. Now the question will naturally arise in many minds as to SOILS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 11 whether it is desirable or not to remove the stones or gravel. So far as the stones are concerned our advice is, remove only those on the surface. Those below will help to keep the soil open and to maintain it in a cool, moist condition. Where gravel abound's it would be advisable to screen the upper six inches, at least, and use the gravel for path-making, and then add fresh soil and manure equivalent to the amount of gravel removed. There is no necessity to sift the soil fine, as so many do. A too-fine soil becomes compact and sour in time, and causes the roots of grasses to die. Peaty Soils. These require special preparation to en- sure the successful growth of turf. If the site be damp drains must be inserted to carry off the surface water. Where there is only a thin layer of peat overlying a sub- soil of sand remove the peat and a few inches of the sand, and place this in a heap; then dig out a foot of the sand, throw in the peat first removed, and fill up the remaining space with a mixture of road scrapings, leaf-mould, and as good loamy soil as can be procured. Tread this down moderately firm and evenly. Where the peat is more than a few inches thick it will be necessary to dig this out entirely to a depth of a foot, put in six inches of road grit or scraping's and fork it into the subsoil, then fill up with good loamy soil and manure. Before doing this the site must, of course, be properly drained. This may seem a troublesome and expensive business, but it must be under- taken if a good lawn be desired, as grasses will not thrive satisfactorily on a peaty soil. A reference has been made in several cases in the pre- ceding paragraphs to manures. For a fuller account about these see p. 51. 12 LAWNS AND GREENS. CHAPTER II. DRAINAGE. A POINT of primary importance in the formation of a. suc- cessful lawn, bowling-green, or tennis court is good drain- age. Turf overlying a waterlogged subsoil is not only uncomfortable to wallk upon, but also very liable to be badly infested with moss and crowfoot, and to have a generally unsatisfactory growth of grass. Too much care, therefore, cannot be taken, when about to form a new lawn, to see that the subsoil is free from the presence of stagnant water. Testing for Water. The initial step in forming a new, or renovating an old, lawn inclined to dampness should be to dig test holes at intervals of several yards, to ascertain if water be present. These holes should be dug about a foot square and three feet in depth. Leave them open for a week or so, and then measure the depth of water pre- sent in each. If .no water be present, this will be a safe indication that no artificial drainage is required. If only an inch or so of water be found, then moderate drainage will be needed ; and if several inches accumulate a thorough system of drainage must be regarded as indispensable. This system of ascertaining if drainage is required is an excellent one, and will save much future trouble, expense, and worry. Of course, on gravelly soils, or those of a sandy nature, unless on a level with a neighbouring pond, river, or brook, where water can easily percolate through the porous soil, artificial drainage is not needed. It often happens, however, that even gravelly soils may rest on a basin of clay, in which case water may accumulate and form a stagnant subterranean pool injurious to the turf above. Testing in the manner indicated is, after all, the surest way of determining if drainage be needed or not. A Simple Mode of Drainage. In the case of very small lawns, where it is difficult to insert drains and ensure an outlet for the escape of water, the best method is to trench DRAINAGE. 13 the site three feet deep, and work in plenty of broken clinkers, bricks, or cinders among the lower two feet of soil. The deep trenching will drain the upper foot of soil, and keep the turf comparatively dry. Generally speaking, we have found that if the neighbouring paths are properly made the water from the lawn will gradually drain into the sub-stratum and leave the lawn free from excessive damp- ness. In this case the foundation of the paths should be dug out i Sin. deep, and at least a foot of brickbats be '-**/* Cnf.tH /B3 Fig. l.-TRAXSVERSE METHOD OF DRAINING LARGE LAWNS. Thi ethod is suitable for le ?1 tracts of land, or where there is only slight fall. placed in the bottom, these forming a splendid permanent drain. Pipe Drains. This form of drainage is applicable to large lawns, tennis courts, or bowling greens, and consists of circular pipes of burnt clay, ift. in length, and ain., 3in., 4in., or 6in. in diameter, buried in trenches two to three feet .below the surface. There are several ways of laying such drains. For instance, there is the " transverse system," which consists of a main drain in the centre, with branch drains at right angles running into it (Fig. i). This system is suitable for large areas of an acre upwards, 14 LAWNS AND GREENS. and .where the site is level, or nearly so. Another method is the oblique, which consists of a main three or four-inch drain running down one side and across one end of the plot, and ib ranch drains running obliquely into these (Fig. 2). Such a method is a very suitable one to adopt in the case of a tennis lawn or bowling igreen, or where the soil is very damp. A third method is the "herring-bone" drain. In this case the main drain runs down the centre, and empties itself into a well, ditch, or large main drain, Fig 2. OBLIQUE METHOD OF DRAINAGE. This plan is suitable for level or sloping sites. A main Sin. drain runs down one side ,and end. and 2in. drains are run obliquely into these. and the branch drains are arranged obliquely on each side at an angle of about 45 deg. (Fig. 3). This method is also suitable for lawns, tennis courts, or bowling greens. A fourth method is to insert the main drain in an adjoining path, and the branch drains at right angles (Fig. 4.) The various plans on this and adjoining pages show clearly the types of drains just described. Distance Apart of Drains. The distances apart for the branch drains vary according to the character of the soil DRAINAGE. 15 and the amount of water likely to be present and required to be removed. As a general rule, they should not be more than 21 ft. on heavy, damp soils, I5ft. being the better distance to ensure efficient drainage. On those of a medium character, as light sandy or gravelly loams, the usual distances are 27ft. to 4oft. In the first-named case Fig. 3. HERRING-BONE METHOD OF DRAINAGE. A is a well (or receiving the water from B, the mp.in, and C D. the branch drains. Adapted for small lawns. the drains must be fairly close together to enable them to act effectively. When, however, the soil is more or less porous, the water will readily travel to the branch drains. Depth of Drains. Then, as regards depths of the drains,, these should range from aft. 6in. to 3ft. on heavy 16 LAWNS AND GREENS. soils; 3ft. 6in. to 3ft. gin. on loamy soils; and 4ft. to 4ft. 6in. on gravelly or sandy soils. The more adhesive or heavy the olay the nearer should the drains be laid to the surface, ,and the more porous the soil the deeper they should be placed. The following table shows the depths, distances, etc., of drains on various soils: SOIL. Depth of Drain. Distance apart of Drains. Number of Drain Pipei per acre. Clay, stiff , 2 tt. 6 in. 15ft. 2,905 friable 2 ft. 6 in. 18ft. 2,420 soft 2ft 9 in 21 ft. 2076 loamy 3ft. 21ft 1,980 Loam and Gravel 3 ft. 3 in. 27ft. 1,613 light 3 ft. 6 in. 33ft. 1,320 sandy 3 ft. 9 in. 40ft. 1,117 Sand and Gravel 4ft. 50ft. 880 ,, coarse gravelly 4 ft. 6 in. 40 ft. 726 Position of Drains, The first point to consider is the position of the drains. As far as possible the main drain should be 'laid to follow the natural slope of the land, and to terminate in a ditch, pond, or brook, so that the water can easily :get away. Where no such natural facility exists, then the main drain should lead to the lowest part of the garden ,and be connected with a tank to receive the water. In the event of the site being a level one, Jet the main drain run to the most convenient spot for forming a tank, or well, for the reception of the water. It would, of course, be useless to lay down a drain where no provi- sion is made for the discharge of the water. The water collected in tanks or wells would come in useful for water- ing purposes in summer if an iron pump were fitted to the tank. The "fall," or slope, of a main drain should be at the rate ol ift. in every iooft., and ift. in every 75ft. for branch drains. Where the land has a slope of not less than the figures quoted, then let the drains follow the natural inclination of the surface. Size oi Pipes. On a very wet soil, where the area is large, and a large quantity of water has tp be got rid of, DRAINAGE. 17 the main drain pipes should be 4in. to 6in., and the branches 3in. to 4in. in diameter. For all ordinary pur- poses, however, a 3in. main and a 2^in. branch drainpipe will suffice. Smaller sizes are useless. These pipes are Fig. 4. DRAINAGE SYSTEM FOR LAWNS. 1 shows method of draining a small lawn, A being a main pipe laid down centre of adjoining path, and B branch drains running at right angles into main drain (A). 2 shows section of the trenches with drains at bottqtn and stones on top. made of burnt clay, are cylindrical in shape, and a foot in length. Another type of drain is the tile. This is of oval or horseshoe shape, i4in. to 3ft. long, and has to be laid on flat tiles. This style of pipe is suitable for sandy or light soils, as it is not so liable to be choked with silt. Both kinds are made in most rural brickyards. Laying the Drains. Having marked out the position of the drains, the next thing is to dig out the trenches. These c 18 LAWNS AND GREENS. should be dug out by means of a proper draining tool with a semi-circular blade, 1401. to i8in. wide at top, narrowing to jin. or 6in. at base, according to the size of the pipe. (See Fig. 5.) The cost of excavating, laying the pipes, and refilling averaged in pre-war days from $d. to is. per lineal rod, according to the nature of the soil and depth of the trench. Care must, of course, be taken to dig out the trenches so as to ensure an even fall, other- Fig. 5.-DRAINING TOOLS. ETC. 1, drain-pipe with hole cut in to receive branch drain-pipe (2) ; 3, tool for laying pipes; 4 and 5, curved spades for digging out drain and trenches. wise, if the pipes should be lower in one place than another, mud would accumulate and choke the drain. The trenches being ready, the next thing is to lay the pLpes or tiles. First put in the main drain and then the branches. At the junction of the two chip out the sides of the two main pipes to allow the branch pipes to fit in fairly close ; then pack some stones firmly around the junction, and cover this with clay firmly pressed down. The joints of all pipes should be neatly and closely pressed together; and, where DRAINAGE. 19 possible, it is advisable to cover these with pieces of com- mon roofing tiles. Indeed, where stones or flints are plen- tiful it is a good plan to cover the pipes with a layer of these before filling in the soil. Six-inch pipes are often made with flanges, so that one may fit into the other ; and this is a good plan where the soil is of a sandy nature. On very wet soils we have found it an advantage to lay brushwood over the pipes before filling in the soil. Throw the soil in carefully, and tread or ram the lower foot or so very firmly. The uipper layer may be put in less firmly, so as to coincide with the firmness of the surface. Points to Remember. Drains should, as far as pos- sible, noit be laid too close to the roots of trees or Vir- ginian creepers. We have seen specimens of roots of the latter that have grown 2oft. and more in a drain, and entirely choked it. Efficient drainage means a sweeter, richer, and warmer soil, and ideal conditions for the successful growth of grasses. Furthermore, it enables the turf to be used with less personal discomfort, and in other ways produce a more beautiful sward than if undrained. Lastly, although it may appear a costly matter to drain a site as described, yet in the end its advantages will strongly outweigh the expense. o 2 20 LAWNS AND GREENS. CHAPTER III. PREPARING AND LEVELLING SITES. SITES vary considerably in their surface conformations. Some are more or less level, and others are of a sloping nature. Those of a level character only require to have their surface made 'uniform, unless there is some special reason for determining otherwise. As a rule, in gardens up to half an acre in extent the surface is made level ; but in those of an acre or -upwards there may be good reasons for grading or undulating some part of the area to form ponds, ferny delfe, or sunk rockeries, or gently-rising mounds on which to plant shrubs and trees. Then, in the case of sites of a sloping nature, it may be necessary to so arrange the fevels of these as to form terraces, tennis courts, etc., in order to make the most effective use of the ground. Each type of surface, therefore, must be accorded special treatment. Small Dead-level Lawns. Sites that are more or less naturally level are easily dealt wiiith. The chief point in fH, Fig. 6. APPLANCES FOR LEVELLING. These consist of a garden line, pegs, a straight-edge resting on the pegs, and a spirit-level on top. their case is to make the surface uniformly level before sowing the seed or laying the turf. For this purpose some 2in. square deal wood, cut into i8in. or 2ft. lengths and with one end pointed, is required to form pegs for driving into the ground. The essential requirements are a straight- edge board, 6ft. long and ijdn. thick, planed perfectly true, a spirit level, and a garden line (Fig. 6). Stretch >the line down the centre of the site, then drive in a peg at the highest, if any, end of the plot, to within an inch or so of the soil, and another 6ft. from this, close to the line. PREPARING AND LEVELLING SITES. 21 Put the straight-edge on the pegs, the spirit level on this, and adjust the second peg by driving it further in until a true level is obtained. Proceed in the same way down the plot, and you wiiil then have the exact level of the centre of the ground. Next stretch the line across the plot, and insert pegs at intervals of 6fit. , and level as before from the centre pegs. If the levels are accurately taken thus, these will show you the natural inequalities of the surface, and the soil must be levelled accordingly to coin- cide with the tops of the pegs. By running the sltraiglht- edige board, or .stretching a garden line tightly, over the pegs any inequalities of surface may be easily detected. Large Dead-level Lawns. The business of levelling a large area of ground by the means just described would be a slow and tedious one. In such a case it would be wiser and cheaper in the end to employ a surveyor to take accurate levels by means of a theodolite and staff. By the use of a straight-edge or taut garden line the site could then easily be levelled coincident with the pegs in- serted by the surveyor. Practical landscape gardeners also ,use a simple appliance known as a " borning rod " for ascertaining levels. This consists of a straight piece of wood about four feet long, ajid with a short piece of wood fixed at right angles at the top, like the letter T Three of them are necessary, and each should be painted of a distinctive colour. Three persons are required to use the rods. One holds his rod at the end of the plot, and another his at the opposite end ; then the third one holds his about midway between the two. No. i then puts his eye to the top of the cross-piece and looks to the third one, and if the middle one is too high the soil is lowered accord- ingly ; or if too low more soil is added, until the eye can see all three rods exactly in a line. Pegs have to be driven in to the requisite levels. A good deal of practice is required to level land in this way. (See Fig. 8.) Sloping Lawns. To get sites of a uniform slope the ground must be levelled across by driving in pegs 6ft. apart, and using the straight-edge and spirit level. This done, stretch a garden line straight down the rows of pegs, 22 LAWNS AND GREENS. and make the soil up level with the lines. The intervening spaces can then be levelled accordingly. Where a slope is very steep, and a terrace or tennis lawn is required, the width of the terrace should be first determined. This, of course, must be decided by the size and character of the house. A too narrow terrace never looks well ; it has a puny appearance. It should certainly not be less than iaft. in width. The next question is the angle of the slope. The general idea is a slope of one foot in every foot of depth, or an angle of 45 deg. Some, however, Fig. 7. -TEMPLATE OR GAUGE. An appliance for gauging the correct slope of a terrace during its formation. make the slope two feet in one foot, but we prefer the former. Supposing the terrace is required to be i2ft. wide, drive in a stout post at i2ft. from the house wall, and another midway. Get someone to hold the straight- edge in position against the side of the middle post, while another places the spirit level on the top. The person holding the straight-edge then raises or lowers it accord- ingly till the level is obtained. Mark the post on the under side of the straight-edge, and then nail on a piece of wood crosswise, level with the mark. Next place the straight- PREPARING AND LEVELLING SITES. 23 Fig. 8. LEVELLING GROUND FOR LAWNS. 1: C, uneven surface; B, level required; A, soil dug 1ft. deep. 2: A level required; B, base of levelled and dug soil; C, soil to be spread into hollows to secure desired level. 3: Levelling sloping ground; A, soil fo be removed to B; C. subsoil; E. good soil to be removed before placing A on B, and Afterwards replaced on top. 4: Result of levelling surface. 24 LAWNS AND GREENS. edge on this crosspiece, and hold the other end against the outer post; adjust by means of the spirit level, mark as before, and fix a crosspiece to the post as in the pre- vious case. Now level along the side of the house walJ, and fix in pegs till you get to the end of the proposed terrace, and then level across as in the first instance. Further cross levels may be taken at intervals of i2ft., and the correct height and width of the terrace will be obtained. The base of a terrace 3ft. deep would thus be 1 5ft. from the house wall. Pegs may be driven in to indicate the base, and a strip of wood nailed on these in a sloping direction to the crosspieces on the outside long posts, these indicating the slope or grade of the terrace (Fig. 7). In forming a terrace great care must be taken to well ram down the soil as the building proceeds ; other- wise, later on, the soil may sink in places and cause trouble. If a tennis lawn be required below the terrace, the same course of procedure as regards levelling must be followed. First measure off the required width, and then take the levels along and across by means of stakes and spirit levd. Undulating Surfaces. In gardens of large extent it is sometimes advisable, in the case of those with sites of a more or less level nature, to break up or grade the surface into a series of undulations, to create a more artistic and picturesque effect. This, however, can only be rightly done in the more distant part of the lawn. The primary object of introducing this feature is to provide ponds for water-lilies, dells for ferns, or sunk rockeries. In such a case, the soil excavated is thrown into irregular mounds, to be planted with trees and shrubs intended to screen unsightly objects from view, and to impart a more diversi- fied appearance to the landscape. The spaces between such mounds then take the form of gentle undulations, the depressions forming basins or bays a foot or so deeper in the centre than the surrounding mounds. The turf thus gradually slopes upwards to the edge of the beds on the mounds, and has a natural and pleasing appearance. The levelling or contour of these undulations must, of course, be done by the eye alone. PREPARING SITE FOR A NEW LAWN. Showing- progress of work of levelling- the site ready to sow seeds or lay turf. I I (Photo : H. A. Smith.) A PONY MOWING MACHINE. Note the animal has its feet shod with leather boots to prevent injury to the turf. PREPARING AND LEVELLING SITES. 25 General Remarks. As regards the preparation of the soil, this must be done in the manner advised in the chapters on " Soils " and " Manures," so far as digging and manuring are concerned. Where the surface is very uneven it is advisable to level the site first, and dig and manure afterwards, so as to save time and labour in read- justing the soil. When the digging is in progress it is not a difficult matter to make the surface fairly level. The final levelling must be done last of all by forking and raking over the surface. The digging and partial levelling ought to be done fully three months before the turf is laid or seeds sown. The reason for this is, dug soils vary so in texture that they are liable to settle down unequally, and to form an uneven surface if turfed or sown at once. Given tnree months to settle down say, if dug in autumn and left until spring then finally levelled, a permanent, even surface may be regarded as certain. See also remarks in chapters on " Turf Laying " and " Sowing Seeds." Cost of Digging Soils- Digging soil one spit deep, per square rod, 6d. Digging two spits deep, per square rod, is. A man can dig 8 to 10 rods one spit deep per day. A man can diig 4 to 5 rods, two spits deep per day. Cost of Excavation and Levelling Soil- Excavating soil i ft. deep per yard super., 6d. to 8d. Levelling surface per yard super., 6d. Filling soil into barrow and wheeling same 20 yards, 6d. ; every additional twenty yards, 4d. A man will excavate 10 to 12 cubic yards in a day of ten hours. A barrowload of soil equals one-seventh to one-tenth of a cubic yard of soil. 26 LAWNS AND GREENS. CHAPTER IV. TURF VERSUS SEEDS. THERE are three ways of ensuring a lawn, namely, by laying down turf, " innoculation," or sowing seeds, and the problem which often exercises the minds of those who have had but little experience in the matter is, which of the three methods is the better Well, all 'have their good points, as the following facts will show. i. As to Turf. Turf has a distinct advantage over ^eeds in forming a igood sward at once. There is no waiting for months before it can be used for games ; it is practi- cally ready for use directly it is laid. We are referring, of course, to good turf, free from weeds. If turf contains a lot of daisy, plantain, and other weeds, its value is greatly minimised, and it is decidedly inferior to seeds. It is a more costly means of forming a lawn than by seeds. For example, note the comparative cost of forming a tennis court of full dimensions (50 yards by 25 yards) by seeds or turf. The prices quoted of turf and labour are, of course, pre-war ones; the items would probably cost 50 to 100 per cent. more. By Seeds. s. d. Seeds 550 Labour 15 Extras 200 Total .. 22 5 Bv Turf. s. d. Turf 24 Labour 19 7 Extras ... 200 Total 45 7 6 Turfs are usually cut in lengths of 3ft., widths of ift., and with a thickness of i|in. to 2in. Three turfs, there- fore, tgo to a square yard, and eighteen square yards constitute a load. The average price of good turfs is about id. each, and the cost of a load (54 turfs) about 6s. Qd. To this sum has to be added the cost of cartage, this averaging is. 3d. to 2s. per mile. Roughly speaking, the cost per square rod for turf, labour, etc., works out at about i8s. to 2os. These are pre-war figures. Turf TURF VERSUS SEEDS. 27 from the Cumberland hills, so much used for bowling greens, is more costly still. In choosing turf for a lawn, tennis count, or bowling green, it is advisable to obtain it from a common or down, where the herbage has been kept short by sheep or cattle grazing thereon, and where the grasses are fine and free from weeds. Failing this source, procure it from an old pasture, taking particular care to obtain it free from daisies, crowfoot, plantain, dandelion, and self-heal. On no account obtain turf from a coarse pasture, even if it can be procured as a gift. Good turf, apart from the previous essentials, should be tough and wiry, and not easily broken when handled. Rotten, easily-broken turfs are to be avoided. 2. As to Seeds. Uun questionably the cheapest and best of all methods of obtaining a good lawn, tennis court, or bowling geen is by seeds. Given a thoroughly-prepared and good soil, and a mixture of seeds to suit a light, heavy, or medium soil, and a sunny or shady position ; and these, sown in accordance with the advice given in another chapter, a far better turf will eventually be obtained than by laying ordinary turf. As shown in the previous para- graph, seeds cost much less than turf. A pound of seed will suffice for a square rod (30^ square yards), at a cost of 2s. 6d. ; two bushels for a full-sized tennis lawn, costing ;5 ; four to six bushds for an acre, at a cost of 10 to 15; and two bushels for a bowling green (40 yards square), costing ^5. If we compare the costt of fonm- ing a bowling green with seed as against that of turf, we shall find that while the seed will only cost ^5, the cost of 4,920 turfs, at id. each, to cover the same area would be no less than ^30 155. 3. " Innoculation." This is a cheap and old-fashioned method of furnishing a lawn with turf, that used to be practised fairly generally many years ago, but now seldom carried out. It consisted of procuring some good turf, cutting this up into two-inch squares, and planting these at intervals of 6in. in the surface of soil previously pre- pared. If all went well, the tufts would gradually spread and knit together into a solid mass. The drawback is you have to wait a year or two before the site is entirely 28 LAWNS AND GREENS. covered, and the appearance is anything but pleasing. The plan has its merits for repairing or renovating bare patches in existing lawns. It is not one we can commend to the reader who wishes to get a good lawn quickly. Some Conclusions. It will at once be apparent that it is more economical to sow seeds than lay turf. Besides, there is the further advantage of getting the right kind of grass to suit the soil, a matter of supreme importance. When the .great saving in cost is taken into consideration, it is surely worth while exercising a little patience by waiting a year to give the grasses a good chance to grow, tiller out, and form a dense turf. On the whole, we are strongly in favour of sowing seedls, unless, as aforesaid, really good turf can be obtained, expense is of secondary consideration, and the green, court, or lawn is required for immediate use. CHAPTER V. SEEDS FOR LAWNS. GREENS, Etc. WE now come to the all-important question of seeds of the best grasises and other plants for forming a good turf on various soils. Be it understood at once that no one general mixture of seeds will suit every kind of soil. Some kinds of grasses, etc., do best on light and dry soils, others on loamy and moist ones, and so on. Those about to sow a lawn with seeds should, therefore, make it their business to ascertain the nature of the soil, and then select the kinds that naturally suit it. All leading seedsmen make a point of preparing mixtures to suit the various types of soil ; consequently, when ordering the seeds, mention should be made of the class of soil. We will now describe the grasses and other plants that are generally used for forming the ideal turf of lawns, bowling and golf greens, and cricket grounds. SEEDS FOR LAWNS, GREENS, ETC. 29 Achilka miilefoUum (Yarrow or Milfoil). Many devoted admirers of lawns regard the presence of this plant on a lawn as most undesirable. As a matter of fact, they are justified in their antipathy to it where grasses usually do well. But there are soils of a poor, hungry nature, as in the case of public parks, where there is much foot traffic, on which it forms an admirable component of the turf. It has a close habit of growth, grows very densely, and forms a thick, velvety pile of herbage over the surface in the hottest and driest seasons, succeeding where grass often becomes burnt up. In such a case it is manifest that the Yarrow is a lawn plant worth growing where it is difficult to get grass to grow freely. Those, therefore, who have perforce to form lawns on a gravelly or a thin soil over- lying chalk, would be well advised not to despise the presence of this common weed on their lawns. Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dog's Tail). A dwarf, tufted perennial grass, which possesses the valued faculty of forming a close, fine sward on dry loamy soils or on thin soils overlying chalk or limestone. It grows natu- rally on dry, hilly pastures and downs, and hence admir- ably adapts itself to the classes of soils before-^mentioned. It is, indeed, an ideal grass for tennis lawns, bowling greens, etc., where a fine, even surface is required. Festuca duriuscula (Hard Fescue Grass). This is said by some botanists to be a variety of F. ovina. Anyway, it is of a tufted habit of growth, very hardy, and a splendid grass for light, sandy soils, or for thin soils overlying chalk or Limestone. Often does well on a clay soil. Not suited for soils of a damp nature. Makes a fine, even sward, and is very hardy. Excellent for putting, bowling, or tennis greens. Festuca ovina tenuifotia (Sheep's Fescue). A fine-leaved form of the Common Sheep's P'escue Grass (F. ovina), of tufted habit, and furnished with roots that descend deeply imto the soil. A good grass for ordinary garden or sandy soils. Requires to be sown in conjunction with other grasses to make a really good turf for putting greens or tennis lawns. 30 LAWNS AND GREENS. Festuca rubra (Red Fescue). An excellent, dense- growing, hard wearing grass, thriving on ordinary loamy or sandy soils. Succeeds well, too, on dry soils. A very suitable kind to sow in mixture of other kinds. Lolium perenne (Perennial Rye Grass). The ordinary type is not to be recommended for lawns, on accounit of its somewhat coarse habit. The dwarf variety of it, named Suttoni, introduced by Messrs. Sutton and Sons, Reading, is, however, an excellent grass, forming a dense, even sward in a short time. This grass stands hard wear, and is especially suitable for forming a durable sward on cricket pitches, football or hockey grounds. Too " benty " for tennis lawns. Poa pratensis (Meadow Grass). A fairly good grass to use in a mixture on rich, light soils. Stands drought well. Poa nemoralis sempervirens (Evergreen Meadow Grass). This igrass does well under the shade of trees, forming a beau'tiiful, dense sward, and retaining a bright green colour all the year round. Stands drought well. Good also for ordinary soils. A splendid grass for putting, bowling, or tennis greens. Poa trivialis (Rough-Stalked Meadow Grass). Another good grass for lawrus shaded by trees, and heavy, moist soils. Wherever there is a difficulty in getting grass to grow under the shade of trees, this variety should cer- tainly be given a trial. Trifolium repens perenne (Perennial White Clover). Opinions differe as to the value of clovers as a component of lawn herbage. On poor, thin soils, where grasses do not thrive well, the presence of clover is beneficial. On tennis lawns, bowling and putting greens it is not so desirable, owing to its holding the moisture, and to its failing to withstand the hard wear and tear incidental to such swards. It is wise, therefore, to avoid clover seed in grass mixtures intended for tennis lawns, bowling, and golf greens, and cricket grounds, because it makes the surface too slippery, and, in the case of bowls, interferes SEEDS FOR LAWNS, GREENS, ETC. 31 with their bias and speed. On ordinary lawns, where grasses fail to succeed, by all means include this clover. Some people object to the presence of clover in a lawn, buit often the reason of its existence is the fact that the soil conditions are better suited for its growth than for grasses, hence its free growth. Trifolium minus (Yellow Suckling). An annual clover with very fine foliage, and a compact, dense habit of growth. Suitable for poor and thin soils. Not so strong- growing as the preceding species. Readily perpetuates itself by seed every year. Selections for Various Soils. Having briefly described the grasses, clovers, etc., usually used in the formation of a successful sward, the next business is to classify them according to their special adaptability for various soils. It does not follow, however, that because certain kinds are specially advised for certain soils they will not succeed in others. The whole of the grasses and clovers described may, and are, frequently sown in mixture on any kind of soil. In this case, it is merely a question of the survival of the fittest when growth eventually takes place. However, the cautious man will be well advised to sow those recommended for the particular kinds of soils. CLAY OR HEAVY LOAM. Festuca duriuscula, Lolium perenne Suttoni, Poa pratensis, and Poa triviaEs. GRAVELLY AND POOR, THIN SOILS. Achillea millefofldum, Cynosurus cristata, Festuca rubra, and Trifolium repens perenne and minus. CHALKY OR LIMESTONE SOILS. Cynosurus cristata, Fes- tuca duriuscula, Festuca ovina tenuifolia and rubra, Tri- folium repens perenne and minus, and Achillea millefolium. SANDY SOILS. Festuca duriuscula, Festtuca rubra, Poa pratensis, Trifolium repens perenne and minus, and Lolium perenne Suttoni. SHADY POSITIONS UNDER TREKS. Poa nemoralis semper - virens and Poa trivialis. 32 LAWNS AND GREENS. GOOD ORDINARY OR OLD GARDEN SOILS. Here a general mixture may be used, such as Cynosurus cristata, Festuca ovina teniudfolSa, duriuscula and ruibra, Lolium perenne Sut- tomi, Poa pratensis and nemoralis sempervirens, Trifolium repens perenne and minus. If clovers are objected to, leave them out. A Word of Warning. Never under any circumstances sow grass seeds obtained from a hay loft. The grasses are not suitable for lawns, and, moreover, they often con- tain a large proportion of weed seeds. Always obtain your seed* from a reliable seedsman, who can absolutely guarantee their purity. Grass Seeds: A bushel of grass seeds weighs, on the average, about 25lb. Half a galQon of seeds will sow a square rod of land (30^ square yardis). Two bushels of seeds will sow a bowling green (40 by 40 yards); cost, at 485. per bushel, $ i6s. Two bushels of seeds will sow a tennis lawn y8ft. by 36ft., and three bushels a fuli-sized court, i2oft. by 6oft. Cost, at 505. per bushed, ^5 to 7 IDS. One bushel of clover seeds weighs about 6olb. Seeds cost about 2s. 6d. per It). ; 6s. 6d. per gallon. Grass seedis germinate in about 14 to 18 days. For ordinary lawns, sow 4 to 6 bushels of seed per acre. Cost ;io to 15. Best itimes to sow, middle of March to end of April, earlier the 'better; or middle of August to middle of Sep- tember. Clover iseeds best sown in spring ; if sown in autumn liable to be killed by frost. Lawns from spring-sown seeds ready for use early in August ; those sown in September ready in June. Worst possible time to sow grass seeds, May to August. Best grass for shady lawns under trees is Poa trivialis. Most suitable grass for hard wear is Festuca rubra. SEED SOWING. 33 CHAPTER VI. SEED SOWING. As explained elsewhere, the simplest and cheapest method of obtaining a first-rate turf for a lawn, tennis court, or bowling green is by mowing seeds, and it will now be our business to describe how the operation should be carried out so that ultimate success may be assured. When to Sow. The best periods of the year for sow- ing grass .seeds are March and September. Observation and experience have shown us that the latter half of the first and itfoe first half of the last-named moniths are the ideal periods, as (then the soil and cl'imaibic con- ditions are usually (in the best possible state for successful! germination of the seed and the after- growth of the seedlings. It is certainly not wise to sow between April and September, unless the .season be cool and moist, as there is a great risk of the seedlings being scorched by the isun or ishriveliled by the drought. Nor is it wise to sow between September and March, on account of cold weather crippling the growth of the tender grasses. The Seed Bed. In addition to the draining, trenching, manuring, and levelling already fully described elsewhere, it is of the utmost importance to have a fine tilth on the surface, to ensure a satisfactory seed-bed. In the case of a heavy soil, for instance, advantage should be taken of fine, dry weather in February and early in March, to repeatedly fork the surface over to get the .soil as fine as possible. Run the roller over the surface when quite dry to help crush the lumps of soil before forking, each time the latter is about to be done. Finally, when the time has arrived for sowing, give the surface a top-dressing of a thin layer of finely-sifted, good soil, run the roller over it, and then very lightly rake the surface, so that the seeds can fall into the shallow interstices of the soil. We would add a note of warning to the inexperienced that on no account should the roller be used on a heavy soil whilst the latter is wet. wSuch a practice would cause the clay to 34 LAWNS AND GREENS. combine into ia compact mass, and prevent the seedlings easily rooting inlto the isoil. We repeat again, therefore, that the final preparation of the seed-bed, as above advised, should only be done in dry weather. On medium or light soils the roller should be used more frequently, to ensure a firm seed-bed. In the case of a light soil dt is essential to give a double rolling, once across and once up the plot, and to use a garden rake instead of the fork for loosening the surface. Especial care should be taken to see that the effect of the rolling does not pro- duce depressJioniS in the surface. If so, then add a littfle soil to fill these up, so that the surface is uniformly level throughout. Where the intended lawns are small, and a roller is noit available, the surface may be made firm by uniformly treading it with the feet. First tread steadily and with an even pressure across and then up or down the plot. It will not be necessary in the case of medium or light soils to add a top-dr easing of fine soil, as advised for the heavy .soils. Nor, again, must a layer of fine coal ashes or igas-4ime, as recommended for turf, be applied, as both substances would prevent the germination of the seedis. For grass seed's the soil must be well drained, deepify dug, and/ 1 otherwise wefl prepared beforehand.; Lastly, bear in mind that you cannot make the surface too firm, too even, and too fine, for the growth of grass from seedis. Sowing the Seeds. A perfectly calm and fine day should be chosen for sowing the seedis. If the weather be windy, grass seedis, owing to their extreme lightness, cannot be evenly distributed over the surface. In sowing, walk down the plot at a steady, even pace, and sow with a swinging motion by means of the right hand. Take care that the seedis are not dropped in quantity in one spot and thinly in another. It is a good plan to mark off strips four feet wide with a garden line, to serve as a g"uide, and to walk down the centre of each strip. W r hen the first strip is sown put down a second line and walk up midway between the two. At the end of the second strip shift the first line onward, and proceed in this fashion until the whole plot is sown. It is usual, and in our opinion quite SEED SOWING. 35 D 2 36 LAWNS AND GREENS. necessary, to make a second sowing in a similar manner to the first, across the plot. This method ensures a more perfect distribution of the seeds. When sowing on very light soil's, there is a risk of the feet making depressions in the surface, and to guard against this it is wise to adopt the old-fashiioned plan of having two fairly stout boards, ift. long and 6in. or Sin. wide, fastened by leather straps to the feet. The front corners should be slightly rounded off. The boards prevent holes, such as would be caused by the heels of the boots forcing and burying the seeds too deeply (see Fig. 9). Covering the Seeds. The next step is to cover the seeds. This is done by lightly raking over the surface, wearing boards on the feet as before. Give two rakings, one across and one down the plot, and then run the roller over, down and across, to ensure the seeds being uniformly buried and the surface level and firm. It must be remem- bered that only those seeds which are covered by soil will germinate satisfactorily ; hence the necessity of carefully raking and rolling after sowing. Protecting the Seeds. Having expended a good deal of care and labour on the preparation of the site and the sowing of the seed, it frequently happens that tihe expecta- tions of a good crop of grass are thwarted by birds having eaten a large proportion of the seeds, and thus produced a patchy, instead of an even, growth of grassy verdure. Sparrows and finches are the worst culprits in this respect, and the .starling, blackbird, and thrush also do much injury when in search of worms and soil grubs. The most practical remedy is to insert small stakes a few feet apart over the site, and wind strands of black cotton around the stakes backwards and forwards about two or three inches from the ground. When the bird's attempt to alight on the soil their bodies come in contact with the, to them, invisible cotton, and this promptly puts them to flight. Where feathery pea sticks are plentiful, cover the plot with these; they will help to keep birds away, and act as a protection to the seedling grasses. Remove them as soon as the grasses are well up through the surface. Bits of tin, glass, or red rags suspended by twine to sticks fixed in SEED SOWING. 37 the soil at an angle of 45 deg. will also prove efficient bird- scarers ; and so, indeed, will the imitation cats, hawks, etc., sold for the purpose of bird-scaring. General Treatment. If worm casts should be numerous soon after sowing, run the roller over the surface on a fine, dry day, to consolidate the casts. The latter, owing to their slimy nature, may adhere to the roller and cause it to pick up patches of soil and seeds. To guard against this, well clean the roller by means of a broom after each journey. Once the grasses have begun to grow it is not advisable to use the roller, on account of the risk of injuring the tender growths. Mowing New Grass. When the growth is 3in. high it should 'be lightly tipped with a scythe, not a machine. A few days afterwards run a light roller over the plot. Sep- tember-sown grass will not require cutting more than twice or three times, and then always with a scythe, before the following March. March-sown grass will require cutting about every week or ten days with the scythe until June, when the .machine may be used in the usual way. The reason a scythe is advised for the first cuttings is because a machine, unless in proper working order, is apt to bruise or pull up the young grasses. A scythe makes a dean cut, and does not disturb the roots. A light rolling may follow every other cutting, choosing a time immediately after a shower for doing it. When the Lawn is Ready for Use. Lawns, etc., sown in September may be used the following June, while those sown in March are usually fit to use about August. There is no doubt, however, that at is by far the wisest plkm not (too use a lawn for tennis, or croquet, or bowls until a year after sowing. Some authorities advise a period of not less than 18 months in the case of putting and bowing greens. A heavy traffic bruises the tender growth of the grasses, andi seriously cripples their future growth. Edgings and Terrace Slopes. It is a very good practice where there are many walks or beds intersecting a new lawn to lay down a marginal strip of turf one foot wide around the boundaries adjacent to paths. This at once forms a firmer edging than soil sown with grass seeds. 38 LAWNS AND GREENS. The latter system is not satisfactory, as rains wash the soil and seeds on to the path, and a good firm edging' is difficult to obtain. Good turf must, of course, be obtained for this purpose, and it must be laid so that its upper sur- face coincides with that of the soil intended to be sown with seeds. Similar margins of turf should also be laid around beds or borders on intended lawns. In the case of terrace slopes, it is exceedingly difficult to get seeds Lo germinate and make a 'satisfactory turf thereon. In sucl a case turf only should 'be employed far the slopes, and grass seeds fo"- the top or level surface. CHAPTER VII. TURF LAYING. HAVING dealt elsewhere with the necessity for the thorough preparing, draining, and levelling of the site for a pro- posed new lawn, etc., and the comparative merits of turf versus seeds, and assuming that turf is preferred, we will now give the modus operandi of laying it. 'Firm Soil Essential. It is imperative fthat the soil should be moderately and evenly firm. After the leveling is done, either tread or rol the surface lightly to make sure that the soil will not shrink in places and form hollows afterwards. If there should be an unevenness of surface, fill these spaces up with additional soil, and then rake over the surface, so that the roots of the turf may find no difficulty in penetrating the soil. On soils naturally in- clined to be damp, or where worms are abundant, mix together one pant of gas-Jime to two parts of fine coal ashes, and pass thris through a fine screen ; then spread a half-inch Jayer of it on the soil before laying the turf. Laying the Turf. The turfs, as mentioned elsewhere, are usually out in 3ft. lengths and widths of ift. Some- times, however, they are cut into ift. squares, and laid in a diagonal fashion as is often done with floor tilles. This plan is adopted on putting and bowling greens, and TURF LAYING. 39 it is claimed for it that the turfs have a better chance of knitting together and also prevents sagging. Lay them down so that their joints join lightly together (Fig. 10 B), . (L L - ... -'^:;t':. ; ;--!-;-.- 10. METHOD OF TURFING LAWNS. 1, shows the turf cut into widths of 1ft. and lengths of 3ft ready for lifting; 2, a turf; 3, the same rolled up; 4, turfing spade for cutting the turfs ; 5, turfing iron for dividing the turfs ; 6, method of laying the turfs, the piece of turf A having its end midway between turf B; C, soil for receiving the turfs. beating- each one firmly with a wooden beater (Fig. u) as the work proceeds. Unless the turfs fit very accurately open joints will occur, and an uneven appearance will be given 40 LAWNS AND GREENS. to the surface. Proceed with the laying until the whole area is covered ; then give a further beating to ensure a uniformly even surface and the perfect closing of the joints. When (this is finished give the turf a good rolling, first across and then down the plot. Management of Newly-iaid Turf. After the first rolling let the turf have a rest for a month or so to give the grasses an opportunity of rooting into the new soil. Go carefully over the lawn, and, if any open joints are found, fill these in with fine soil. Give a rolling about once a month the first year, and this always after rain. No Fig. 11. -A TURF BEATER. An appliance made of a piece of heavy wood, and fitted with a handle. Required for beating down newly-laid turf. manures or top-dressings will be needed the first season, the grasses being able to get ample food from the new soiJ below. It is not advisable to cut /the grass too closely the first year. We recommend a scythe to be used for the spring mowings, this cutting off the coarse grass, if any, and ensuring a finer growth. Nor is it advisable to have the machine set too -low the first season, as plenty of leafage is essential to encourage vigorous root action, without which the turf cannot be expected to do wdl in future years. See also chapter on " General Management of Lawns." When to Lay New Turf. Any time between September and March is a suitable time. If laid between March and September the turf has not so .good an opportunity of TURF LAYING 41 footing freely and establishing itself as during the cooler period of the year. Turfing Terrace Slopes. Considerable care has to be exercised in laying turf on a terrace slope. The turfs should be cut into .squares of a foot, and each secured firmly in position by means of pegs driven through them Fig. 12. SLOPES AND TERRACES. 1, an artificial slope, A showing turfs laid, and B pegs used to fix latter in position; 2, terraces divided by walls. into the soil. (See Fig. 12, i, B.) This precaution is necessary to prevent the turfs slipping down. Where the slope is not very steep whole turfs (3ft. long) may be used. These should be laid down, not across the slope. Lay the turfs closely together, and beat them down firmly. It is a good plan to lay each turf of the bottom layer so that about a foot of its lower end projects on to the level ground ait the base, and the turf laid at the upper end of the slope should also project over the top of the slope about the same distance. When well beaten down, turfs so laid are not liable to slip or move. There must be no attempt at walking nip the slope for months, otherwise the turfs will slide down. 42 LAWNS AND GREENS. CHAPTER VIII. MOWING LAWNS. THE subject of -mowing lawns has been briefly referred to in the chapters dealing with turf-laying and seed -sowing, but it is necessary that it should be further enlarged upon here. To mow a lawn may appear a very simple, although a laborious, operation, not requiring much to be said about it. But, simple as it may appear, there are, never- theless, many important points that should have the weighty consideration of all who desire to command, a really good lawn, the pride of every English garden, and the envy of those who live in less favourable climes than our own for grass culture. The Scythe versus the Mowing Machine. Since the introduction of the mowing machine, that good and valu- able old implement, the scythe, has, unfortunately fallen very much into disuse. Few of the younger generation of professionia 1 ! gardeners have any real practical knowledge of its use. In their hands it would be a dangerous tool to use, tooth for cutting the grass and sharpening its well- tempered steel blade. Older men who have been trained to use it, however, know its worth as an indispensable tool for cutting seedling grasises during the first three months of their growth ; cutting established grass in the early spring ; removing bent grasses and daisy flowers in summer ; and mowing grass that has been neglected and allowed to make coarse growth. In all these instances the scythe is a hundredfold more useful than the mowing machine. The latter will not remove Ibent or coarse grass successfully, and in that case a scythe is ind'ispen sable in every large garden. Once, however, a lawn is in proper condition, then a mowing machine in correct working order *s preferable to a scythe, because it will cut fine grass more evenly than the latter. When to Mow. The best period of the day to use the scythe -is early in the morning, whilst the dew is on the MOWING LAWNS. 43 grass, or on a wet day. The blade's of the grass are then more firm and succulent, and the scythe will cut more easily and with less physical effort on the part of the user than later on in the day. The opposite is the case with a mowing machine. If used early in the morning or in wet weather the moist grass clings to and clogs the cutting blades and working gear, also bruises the grass, and renders the work exceedingly laborious. A machine should, therefore, always be used when the grass is free from dew or rain. The work is then performed with greater ease and speed, and the result is more satisfactory to the lawn. How to Mow. As a general rule it is advisable to cut the grass for the first 'time in each year with a scythe. The winter growth is always tough and wiry, and the scythe will remove this better than the machine. The first cutting should teike place early in March and the last late in October. After the first cutting with the scythe the machine may be used, setting the kruives moderately low. Dunintg March and April out once a fortnight ; in May once in ten days ; from then to September once a week ; and from September to November once in ten days. In regard to tennis lawns, cricket pitches, putting and bowling greens, iiit is essential to cut the 'grass twice a week, to ensure a nice, even surface. In fact, the grass should always be cut on the eve of an important .game. In hot, dry weather it is not advisable to use the collecting box, but to let !the knives distribute the cut grass over the lawn, to serve as a mulch and protect the roots of the grass from tihe hot sun. There ds, however, one disad- vantage about this ; if the turf should be very weedy ilt its possible that some of the flower heads may contain fully- developed seeds, which will germinate and give trouble in due course. At the same time, too, it is not desirable to set the knives too low. We firmly believe in the practice, at every .alternate mowing, of cutting the grass toe oppo- site way. Thus, if cut down the lawn one time, it should be cut across the next. This method ensures the grass being cut evenly all ways. This precaution is especially necessary in the case of putting, bowling, and tennis greens 44 LAWNS AND GREENS. and cricket pitches. It is also a good plan, in the case of bowling greens, to cut the grass diagonally occasionally. General Hints. It is of the utmost importance that the cylinder of knives of the machine should be in good order, and these properly and accurately adjusted to the blade bedow. Each time the machine is about to be used test the blades by inserting a piece of paper between tihe knives and the Made, revolve the knives, and ascertain if they cult the paper clean through at the ends and in the centre. If they do not do so, adjust the screws until the cutting is equally true. The jarring of the mechanism when in fre- quent use is liable to alter the adjustment of front roller and the cylinder; hence this needful precautionary inspec- tion. When a scythe alone is used k is needful to sweep off the cut grass by means of a ; good birch broom. In the case of a heavy crop a preliminary raking may also be necessary before using the broom. The sweeping is bene- ficial in another way it helps to distribute the valuable worm casts, and, if a good rolling be given directly after- wards, so much the better. Some experts do not believe in the use of front rollers on a machine because they press down the worm casts and cover the grass foliage. There is cer- tainily a good deal to be said in favour of the objection in the case of bowling greens, because the pressed casts in- terfere with the free run of the bowls. We have already pointed out that a machine invariably refuses to cut the wiry bent grasses, as well as the majority of daisy and 1 dandelion flower heads. If these are numer- ous, skim the surface over with a scythe. This precau- tion is specially needful on a tennis lawn or bowling green. ROLLING LAWNS, ETC. 45 CHAPTER IX. ROLLING LAWNS, Etc. ALTHOUGH references to this subject have been made in various parts of this book, it will, perhaps, be useful if we present the few facts there are to impart thereon in a more concrete form. Briefly, rolling- should never be practised in frosty weather. The best time to do it is during showery wealther or directly afterwards. Law.ns on light soils require more frequent roiling than those on heavy ones. In ihe latter case it compresses the plastic clay into a dense mass, and prevents the roots of grasses or air and rains descending into the soil. Once a fortnight, or even once a month, is often enough to roll a lawn overlying a heavy soil. On the lighter .soils it may be beneficially done once a week, exceot at the periods previously named. Then again, it is better to use a lighter type of roller for a heavy soil, this not unduly compressing the soil into too compact and solid a mass. Where a water-ballast roller is used, use it empty in wet weather and full in dry weather. Before rolling always sweep the surface of the lawn with a birch broom to distribute worm casts. Rolling is of immense benefit to lawns, tennis courts, or bowling greens that have been properly made and properly drained. It conduces to the formation of a firm, solid turf, prevents worms rising too freely to the surface, and promotes an even growth of fine grass. Lastly, it affords a 'Splendid and healthy form of exercise to the amateur gardener in the early mornings. 46 LAWNS AND GREENS. CHAPTER X. WATERING LAWNS. LAWNS, tennis courts, and bowling greens formed on light and very dry isoils are apt in hot seasons to suffer consider- ably from drought. Watering then becomes an absolute necessity. Grass will not maintain its typical green ver- dure or grow satisfactorily if it fails to get sufficient moisture at the roots. But waiter must not be indiscrimi- nately applied', or more harm than good will be done. How Not to Water Turf. A note of warning under this heading is moat desirable. One of the (greatest mistakes ever made is to apply mere sprinklings to the surface every evening or during the day. This slight amount of water merely remains on the .surface, to be dissipated by the early morning sun. It is akin to a man washing his face and hand's to try to refresh his weary body, without talking any liquids or .solids as food. The roots of the grasses are not on the surface, but several inches below ; and the result is they derive no benefit from the surface sprin killings. Even supposing that young roots were induced to form near ithe surface, the hot sun would heat the thiin film of moisture and kill them. Light sprinklings are, therefore, not only a waste of labour and precious water, but a source of positive injury to the grasses. It is equally a mistake to water liawns during hot, sunny days. The sun heats the surface aind scalds the grass. Sensible Way to Water Turf. In die case of newly- sown seeds it is not advisable to apply water unless abso- lutely necessary. If, however, very dry weather follows alter seed-sowing, give a good watering late in the even- ing. Usually one application suffices till the seedlings ap- pear. If dry weather continues give one more application, in each case a thorough one, when the seedlings are coming up freely, and then rely afterward's upon the mulching of cut grass produced by the first mowing to keep the soil sufficiently moist. Established turf should be RENOVATING LAWNS. 47 watered in no half-hearted way. Instead of the slight sprinklings previously condemned, divide the iawn into sections, and give each a thorough soaking in turn on subsequent evenings until the whole has been done. Where the isoil is at all hard, drive the tines of a steel fork down here and there to provide inlets for the water to reach the lower soil, the region of the roots. Always water in the evening. If a .sprinkler be used, let this operate on each section for an hour at least. When water has to be app&ied by hand, apply a gallon at least ito each square foot of surface. After the thorough watering has been given, run the machine over the lawn without the colleetinig-fbox, so that the cut grass can fall on the turf and protect the surface from the hot sun. CHAPTER XI. RENOVATING LAWNS. LAWNS that ha.ve been made a long time and become im- poverished through want of food, or those of more recent date, the gnass on which does riot girow satisfactorily, may be vastly improved by a generous top-dressing of compost or manure, details of which are given in (the next chapter. There are also other ways of achieving the successful renovation of unsatisfactory Hawws, which we shall at once proceed to describe. Thin and Patchy Turf .This condition usually indicates a poor so.il, imperfect drainage, or too much hard wear and tear in use. In the first case, the surface should be vigorously scarified by means of an iron-toothed rake, to loosen the soil. Do not be afraid to use the rake ; ilt may apparently be ruining the existing turf, but no real harm will accrue therefrom. Do this in autumn ; then apply the special compost and manures advised in Chapter V., and afterwards roll. In the March following procure a Reno- 48 LAWNS AND GREENS. vatin-g Grass Seed Mixture from a reliable source, again well rake the surface, sow the seeds down and across the lawn-, nake well once more to cover the seeds, and finally rol. The autumn top-dressing, the re-braking, sowing seeds, and re-rolling, will work wonders in due course, and yield a good turf. Choose fine, dry weather for the sowing. It will pay to renew the top-dressing annually for a few years until a good, sound turf is obtained. Mossy Lawns. See chapter on " Weeds " page 70) for treatment of these. , Hide-bound Turf. Old lawns, tennis courts, and bowl- ing greens often become very hard, or hide-bound, in consequence of the continual traffic upon them, and hence ithe roots are unable to freely penetrate the soil in search of food, with the inevitable result of a stunted im- poverished igrowth. In this case a good plan of renovating the turf and imparting to it a fresh lease of life, is to mark off the turf into strips a yard wide, and then, at intervals of a foot in each strip, to drive the tines of a good steel fork into the turf, and press the handle gently backward to islightly move the turf. The disturbance of the turf is .scarcely visible on the surface, but yet is saiffi- oient to loosen the .soil below, allow air and rains to enter through the crevices, and provide a means whereby the roots can obtain more sustenance. Such a mode of treatment is very essential in the case of old tennis lawns and bowling greens. It is practised annually ait the close of every season on the Northern bowling greens. After the forking is completed apply the top-dressings and manure advised in Chapter V. Uneven Lawns. Old lawns that are very uneven in sur- face and are required to be made more or less level can only be properly renovated by lifting the whole of the turf in autumn (October or November), leveling, digging, and manuring the soil, and then relaying the turf thereon. Where only a few hollows occur, lift the turf of these por- tions only, add the requisite amount of soil, and then re-lay the turf, beating and rolling it down firmly. It is a fairly common mistake on the part of many people to suppose RENOVATING LAWNS. 49 that hollow spots in lawns may be remedied by adding soil on the existing turf, under the supposition that the grass will grow through it. As a matter of fact, the soil will Fig. 13. METHOD OF REPAIRING LAWNS. 1 shows the mode of repairing low spaces in a lawn, the turf being lifted, soil added, and turf replaced. 2 shows method of reducing lumps or raised parts of a lawn. 3 shows the large root of a tree and method of getting rid of it. 4, turf replaced, with rammer for beating it down firmly. 5, deep- rooting weeds. 6, a specimen of poor turf. 7, good turf. kill the turf buried below, aind leave a bare patch. In newly-sown lawns containing depressions soil may be added and more seeds sown. (See Fig 1 . 13.) 50 LAWNS AND GREENS. Weedy Lawns. See remarks in connection with each kind of weed in Chapter VII., page 62. Rotten Turf. Turf .under the shade of trees or in damp spots often ibecomes rotten and sparsely covered with grass. In the first case the best course to pursue is to dig in the rotten turf, together with some rotten manure, a little bone-meal, and some lime, and then to sow the mix- ture of 'grass seeds advised elsewhere for growing under trees. In ithe second case, the old turf may be removed, the soiJ dug deeply and manured, and new turf laud ; or seeds may be sown in September or March. Lawn Edgings. After a time the constant treading on the margins of a lawn causes the edgings of the turf to be more or Jess irregular in outline, and to have a ragged, untidy appearance. To remedy this defect, .stretch a garden line down the 'margin of the path. If the walk be a (Straight one, draw the line tight, and take care that each end is at a poinit representing the required width of path. Insent a peg here aind there alternately on each side of the line to keep alt in position. If the edging be a curved one, arrange the line to folow the curve, and then, judging by the eye, insert short stakes alternately a foot or so apart on each .slide of the line, and gradually adjust /these so that the latter, when (pulled tout, produces an even curve. The next step is, by means of an edging iron (Fig. 10, v.) to carefully trim the edge of the turf so that it has an even, smooth face. The trimmings may be collected and stored to make potting mould. The edgings of beds should be carefully adjusted and trimmed in a similar fashion when- ever they become uneven. Early spring is the best time to do it ; then they will look nice and fresh during the summer. MANURES FOR LAWNS. 51 CHAPTER XII. MANURES FOR LAWNS. As previously explained in the chapter on " Sails," manure is essential for enriching the soil before laying the turf or sowing seeds. It is also indispensable later on for top- dressing the surface of lawns, etc., to -keep the roots of grasses constantly .supplied with food. We wonder how many have (realised the fact that lawn grass has no oppor- tunity of enriching itself yearly as other crops have. Every time the grass is cut by the mowing machine a large pro- portion of the food stored in the leaf blades is removed and practically lost. Very Little of the cut grass falls on the surface to decay and 'become reconverted inito food for supporting the plants whence it was removed. This goes on year after year, and it therefore naturally follows that the soil must be gradually dep'Leted of its store of food. In process of time, therefore, the turf becomes poor and stunted in growth, and the result is an indifferent sward. In the ante-machine period, when (the scythe alone was used, a igood proportion of igrass blades settled down among the grass plants, decayed, and eventually formed a constant rich mulch or top-dressing for the roots. This really is the secret of the grand old lawns we see to-day. Of course, if 'the excellent practice be adopted of not usiing the collecting box in hot weather, when growth is less vigorous, the cut (portions distributed by the machine then form the desirable mulch so much needed by the turf. Still, manures are needed to replenish the food supply in the soil, and to encourage an even, healthy growth. The question consequently arises as to what manures are suit- able, and their mode and time of application. The informa- tion we will now supply. Manures for Heavy Soils. As mentioned in connection! with this type of .soil on page 9, the best form of stable manure to use for mixing with the soil when preparing it for turf4aying or seed-sowing is horse dung. Its light and porous nature is just the thing needed to lighten a E 2 & LAWNS AND GREENS. heavy iith a dark honseshoe-shaped tint in the centre, and furnished with creeping stems, which root at every joint. Owing to the latter characteristic, and to its rather vigorous growth, it soon spreads and smothers the grass. Another species fairly common in the Lesser Clover (T. minus). This has small leaves and slender shoots, which creep along very close to the ground. It seeds very freely, and quickly spreads over a large area. Clover is very objectionable on putting, bowling, or tennis greens ; it renders the surface slippery, and spongy, and in the case of bowls interferes wiith their bias and free running. If clovers are not desired in a lawn the best plan is to give liberal dressings of finely-sifted, decayed manure in autumn, and fine ground or crushed sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda in spring, at the rate of half-an-ounce per LAWN WEEDS. 69 square yard. These manures will encourage free growth of the grasses, and diminish that of the clovers. Yarrow, or Milfoil (Achillea mi lief olium). Here, again, we have a plant which it is desirable to encourage to grow on poor soils, where grasses are liable to die in hot sum- mers. Its dense creeping habit of growth, and its ability to maintain a fresh green appearance throughout the sum- mer, entitle it to consideration in the case of the soils referred to. Where, however, grass thrives really well it is not desirable to encourage its growth. The leaves are very finely divided and fern-like, and the foliage forms a dense carpeting on the surface. It is perennial in habit. Where not desired as lawn herbage, the plants must be spudded out, or frequently sprinkled with "lawn sand." It should be noted, however, that the roots and stems are very tough and wiry, and by no means easy to eradicate. In bad cases the turf should be lifted and replaced by fresh turf free from weeds. Fairy Ring Fungus (Marasimus oreades). Occasionally fungi may be seen growing in rings on a lawn. The par- ticular fungus which forms the ring is the Fairy-ring Champignon (Marasimus oreades). It is a drab-coloured fungus, which French epicures gather, dry and store for culinary purposes. The fungus lives on the roots of grasses, and increases itself by means of mycelium or thread-Eke bodies, which creep along just beneath the sur- face of the soil. The fungus practically kills the ring of grass upon which it has subsisted, thus forming a brown ring in autumn. The mycelium then creeps further out- wards, and produces another ring of fungi the next season. The ring of dead grass and fungi in due course decomposes and enriches the soil, whereupon the adjoining grass spreads over the brown ring the following season and pro- duces a crop of luxuriant dark-hued grass, which forms a distinctive ring of rich verdure. To get rid of the fungi dissolve ilb. of sulphate of iron in two gallons of water, and well moisten the turf to a width of 2ft. to 3ft. from the dark ring of grass. This will destroy the mycelium and do no harm to the grass. 70 LAWNS AND GREENS. Thistle (Car duus). Thistles sometimes make their ap- pearance in lawns, the most common species being" the Creeping Thistle (C. arvensis), a perennial with a creeping root stock; and the Dwarf Thistle (C. acaulis), ailiso a perennial, of very dwarf stature and without a flower stem. The latter is met with chiefly in the South of Eng- land. Thistles are easily spudded out with a weed extractor, or may be eradicated by similar methods to those advised for the dandelion. Pearlwort (Spengula or Sagina filifera). A dwarf ever- green weed with fine, narrow leaves and creeping stems, belonging to the Pink family. Grows chiefly on poor, light soils. Formerly used as a substitute for grass on dryish soil's. May -be eradicated by annually top-dressing the turf, so as to encourage free growth of the grass, and thus choking the weed's. Common Pearlwort (Sagina procumbens). A very dwarf annual weed, with small leaves, growing in a dense carpet, mainly on poor sandy soils. Where the turf is properly manured and top-dressed this weed will not thrive to do any harm. Hawkweed (Hieracium Pilosefe). A perennial weed with a stout root stock, oblong, having leaves and creeping shoots. Infests lawns on poor and dry soils chiefly. Spuddling out the main root stock, and sprinkling with " lawn sand" are the best remedies. Knot-grass (Polygonum aviculare). An annual weed with wiry, prostrate shoots. It spreads very rapidly and chokes the grass, especially newly-^sown grass. Pulling or spudding out the weeds by hand is the best way of getting rid of them. Moss. This grows chiefly on very dry and poor or very moist soils. In either case it does an immense amount LAWN WEEDS. 71 of harm to the grasses, starving or choking them, and rendering the turf poor and barren-looking. The rernedy in the first case is to enrich the soil, and in the second to provide efficient drainage. In both cases, however, the moss should be eradicated by well scarifying the surface with an iron-toothed rake to detach the moss, after which it should be raked off. The lawn should then be top-dresised with a rich compost of good soil, decayed manure, and wood ashes. Use two parts of soil and one part each of the other ingredients ; then pass these through a fine screen, and apply at the rate of one cartload to every forty square rod's. If the soil be of a dry nature add 7lt>. of bone-meal to each square rod. If moist, use a similar amount of basic slag. Well rake this, then give a good rolling. In spring apply !b. of nitrate of soda to each square rod in the case of dry soils, and a similar quantity of sulphate of ammonia in that of a moist one. Repeat these dressings every three years. Where the grass is very thin sow a mixture of grass and clover seed's in March. October or November are suitable months to apply the top- dressings. An occasional dressing of ground lime at the rate of 402. per square yard in autumn will also heflip to check the growth of moss. 72 LAWNS AND GREENS. CHAPTER XV. TENNIS AND CROQUET LAWNS. THESE require to be formed with the same care and pre- paration as an ordinary good lawn ; indeed, on level lawns, where a clear space of a trifle over 78ft. by 36ft. obtains, tennis may be played just as easily as on a specially-pre- pared siite. But there are occasions when k is necessary to form a court elsewhere, in a field or on an uneven lawn, and here, therefore, it becomes needful to properly prepare , Fig. 19. PLAN OF LAWN TENNIS COURT Size of a Tennis Court.-The regulation dimensions of a full-sized kwn tennis court are 78ft. by 36ft. Experts however, recommend that additional space should be pro- vided at the ends and sides, to allow ample room for moving about. Thus it is suggested the total area should be isoft. to I 35 ft. in length, and 6oft. to 75 ft. in width. Where space is limited, iaoft. by 36 ft. will suffice. (See Fi* Ig j TENNIS AND CROQUET LAWNS. 73 Drainage. The site must, of course, be well drained either naturailily or artificially, as advised in the chapter on " Drainage." A water-logged or damp soil is not only uncomfortable to play upon, but also prevents the develop- ment of a good, sound, fibry turf. Low-lying, damp situa- tions should, therefore, be avoided. So, too, should those overhung or much shaded by trees, as grass fit to stand hard wear aind tear will not thrive healthily for long in such positions. In positions where it is difficult to drain the site with pipes, and the subsoil is very wet, the upper foot of soil should be taken off and placed on one side. Another foot of subsoil should then be taken out and this carted right away. In its place a foot of stones, brickbats, or clinkers should be placed, and on this be put the foot of surface soil, treading or .rol'liing it down firmly. By adopt- ing this method a dry, firm foundation for turf or seeds will be obtained. Of course, this is an expensive plan, but it is the only satisfactory one where a site is very damp, and it cannot be properly drained by means of pipes. Forming the Court. If the court has to be formed on sloping or uneven ground, levels should be taken as advised in the chapter on " Levelling. " This done, the next step is to remove the top spit of soil and place this on one side. The subsoil should be excavated to the necessary level, that removed from the highest part being placed in the lowest and well rammed down to make a firm foundation. The subsoil not made up should then be broken up, at least a foot in depth, to render it porous, and the top soil pre- viously removed be replaced on the foundation, adding some well^rotted manure and mixing this well wiith the former. The levels should again be carefully taken, aind the surface adjusted accordingly. If the -soil be not parti- cularly good add an inch or so of fine, good soil on top. Now rol the surface down and across to make it evenly firm ; rake over, and again test the levels. When the sur- face is made quiite firm and as level as a billiard taible it will be ready for turfing or sowing, as adviised in the chap- ters dealing with those subjects. Some people have a fancy for forming a tennis lawn in a sunk paned. In this case the mode of procedure is the same as advised for a bowling green if the site be a damp 74 LAWNS AND GREENS. one; if dry and well drained, then no drainage or outside channel is required. The top spit has first to be removed, then the second spit of subsoil carted away, and the top soil replaced. We particularly caution readers aboult to fonm tennis courts on siopes or in sunk panels against cart- ing the top and naturally good soil away, and then laying turf or sowing seeds on the bare subsoil. A good turf can never be ensured under such conditions. General Management. The advice given elsewhere as to manuring, top-dressing, mowing, rolling, renovating, and watering a lawn applies with equal force to a tennis lawn. The dressings recommended for a bowlkxg green at the dlose of the season might, indeed, be applied with beneficial effects to a tennis lawn. In a word, the proper treatment for a good lawn is applicable in every way to the present case. Croquet Lawns. Croquet may be played on any level piece of lawn that will afford a space of 35 yards in len/gth and 28 yards in width. If a special site be desired, sunk or otherwise, then prepare it as advised for a tennis count, and treat its after-management as described for lawns generally. The fallowing information has been kindly corrected to date by Mr. Charles Crawley, Secretary of The Croquet Association, to whom we are also indebted for allowing us to reproduce the plans from their Handbook. " The diagrams of the setting of lawns here given show that the size of a lawn is 35 yards long and 28 yardis wide, hoops and pegs beimg arranged in sevens. In diagram (Fig. 17) where two pegs are used, the measurements are as follows : Peg in centre line of ground 7 yards from the nearest boundary; hoops up centre line of ground 7 yards from peg, and 7 yardis apart; corner hoops 7 yards from centre line and 7 yards from the nearest boundaries. Dia- gram (Fig. 18), an alternative setting to (Fig. 17), but sel- dom used, has a centre peg instead of two. This peg is equidistant from the corners ; hoops up the centre line of ground 7 yards from peg; corner hoops 7 yards from the nearest boumdianies. " The marking out of the croquet lawn is very important. There must be a boundary Hine on aid sides ; the spots at tfhe four corners should be indicated, and baulks A and B, 14 yards long and three feet from the boundary, should TENNIS AND CROQUET LAWNS. 75 also be marked, as shown on the diagrams. A study of the rules will show that aJl these marks are essential to the game. In marking out a croquet lawn, size or buttermilk BAULK B BAULK A 14 25 21 Scale 1 : 360, or one-tenth of an inch to a yard. Fig. 17.-DIAGRAM OF CROQUET LAWN. should be added to the whiting to make it adhere to the grass. The lines will then not be washed out by rain. "If from lack of space a smaller lawn has to be pro- vided, instead of the lawn being set out in multiples of 7 yards, the setting' should be reduced proportionately, say, 76 LAWNS AND GREENS. in multiples of 6, or, at a pinah, 5 yards. But the baulk line should always be three feet from the boundary." Special Points. In making and maintaining a tennis or croquet lawn the following golden rules should be carefully observed : 7 14 ,.< 25 I BAULK B V BAULK A 14 21 * n - os 25 Scale 1 : 360, or one-tenth of an inch to a yard. Fig. is. DIAGRAM OF CROQUET LAWN. j. The surface must be uniformly level, firm, and dry. 2. Lawns laid down with turf in September should not be played upon until well into June; and those laid down TENNIS AND CROQUET LAWNS. 77 in March not till August, or, better still, the following year. It is better to give the turi a good opportunity of becoming thoroughly " knitted," or united to the soil, be- fore tread ing upon it. 3. Lawns formed by sowing seed should certainly not be used for playing- upon the first year after sowing. TTie traffic bruises the tender grasses, and causes them to die in winter, leaving the surface patchy. Far better wait a year to enable a strong turf to form; then the latter will wear satisfactorily and gradually improve as years go on. 4. Do not overlook the importance of watering in dry weather, nor of mowing and rolling the grass, as advised in the preceding chapters. 5. No weeds must be permitted to grow. 6. See that the surface is top-dressed every autumn, as advised in Chapter V., p. 51. This point is an essential one to ensure good, healthy turf. 7. On no account lay down turf of a weedy or coarse nature. Grass seeds, such as those described in Chapter V., p. 28, will produce a much better result. 8. Roll frequently in moist weather, first sweeping over the surface with a birch broom to distribute worm casts. 9. Never permit a horse or pony to draw a mowing machine on a tennis court, unless its feet are shod with special leather boots ; nor men using a machine to dig the toes of their boots into the turf. If sufficient strength be put to draw a machine there is no necessity for the latter to be done. 10. Two bushel's of seeds will sow a full-sized count, i2oft. by 6oft. ; and one bushel an ordinary-sized court of 78ft. by 36ft. The coslt for seeds in the first case would be ;4 1 6s., and in the second 2 8s. 11. A tennis court, being more generally used for after- noon or evening piay, should run due north and south, not east and west. The reason is obvious ; the setting sun would, in the latter case, be shining direct in the face of the players facing the west. 12. Always have the grass out first with a scythe to remove coarse bents or leafage. Commence to cut with the machine in March, and continue to do so not less than twice a week. Do not cut quite so close in dry weather. 78 LAWNS AND GREENS. CHAPTER XVI. BOWLING GREENS. ALTHOUGH a good deal of the information given in regard to lawns generally applies equally to bowling greens, there are, notwithstanding, many points on which more detailed and precise facts are required. Forms of Bowling Greens. There are two distinct styles of greens in use in this country. In the Northern and Midiland parts of the kingdom the " Crown Green " is the favourite type. This consists of an area of turf with an even, all-round fall or slope of gin. from the centre. In other words, the centre or crown is about gin. higher than the exteme edges of the green, the exact height being governed by the area of the green. The style of green in favour in the South and, indeed, everywhere where the ancient game is pursued as a popular pastime rather than as an object of sport is the " Flat Green," and this is the only kind we shall concern ourselves about in this work. The green in this case shouiid be a perfectly level one a dead level one, in fact. Size of Bowling Green. The regulation size for a full- sized bowling green is 40 yards square. Greens of smaller or large sizes (45 yards square), however, are often used ; in fact, any level piece of lawn, or a well-rolled and dosely- mown plot in a meadow, may be turned to account for playing a game of bowls. Still, a properly-made green is the ideal spot on which to play bowls. Site for a Bowling Green. The ideal site is one naturally well drained, and in a sheltered position free from draughts or cold winds. When it is understood that to play the game well the player must discard his coat, it will be seen that he might run the risk of contracting a chill whilst awaiting his turn to play. An ideal green should, there- fore, be surrounded by a holly, hornbeam, beech, or yew hedge, or by walfls to act as a shelter from cold winds. BOWLING GREENS. 79 Preliminary Steps. When a bowling green is to be formed on naturally well-drained soil the details of forma- tion are precisely similar to those described elsewhere for a lawn. But in positions at all inclined to be damp, a special method of formation must be adopted. In this case it is usual to form the .green as follows : Mark out the area of the proposed green, dig out the top spit of surface soil and wheel this away to a heap outside the boundary. Next mark off a further aft. of soil beyond the boundary of the green proper, and take off this portion of soil in such a manner that the sides slope to ift. at the bottom of the bed of the igreen. Then remove ift. of the subsoil, and discard this altogether. Drainage. If the subsoil be not damp, nor any springs of water present in the neighbourhood, this will only need to be broken up to the depth of a foot, by means of a fork, to render it porous. If, however, it be very damp it will be advisable to put in drain's diagonally across the bed, as shown in digram, Fig. 2, p. 14, arranging these loft. apart, and leading them into a side and end main drain having a gentle fall to an outlet drain. Place the diagonal drains a foot below the excavated bed. The diagonal drains should consist of 2^in., the main side and end drains of 3.in., ;and the outlet drain of 6in. pipes. Allow a fall of 6in. from the from the top to the outlet drain. For the side and end main drains dig out a trench ift. wide and deep ; in fact, such a (trench should be dug out all the way round. This trench should be left open, and have sufficient large stones or brickbats filled in to within a few inches of the finished surface of the green. Thlis plan ensures an efficient drainage. In any case, if drains be not laid down: there should be a trench ift. wide and deep all round the boundary of the green, and a 3 in. tile drain laid on the bottom to carry away water from the green. Cover the dirain wiith stones or brickbats, and finiish off at top wiith a neat iron gratinig if the apipearance of the stones be objected to. Another meithod of draining a bowOiing green is as follows: Remove the upper foot of good soil, and place this on one side. Next take out another foot of soil and 80 LAWNS AND GREENS. dispense with this. In place of the (Latter put a foot of clinkers, atones, or brickbats, and finish off the surface with a layer of finer material. If around thiis foundation there be also the trench previously described, the water will drain into it, and H'eave the green fairly dry on the surface. If the green is to be a sunk one, put in 6in. of stones only, and 6in. of soil on top ; if to be level with the ordinary surface then add a foot of stones as above ad vised, and a foot of soil on this. Some authorities lay pipe drains on the foundation, and put the stones, etc., on top. The Bed or Foundation. The next step is to replace the top isoil first removed on the forked up or drained bed. Of course, if this top said be olaiy or sand it would be use- less to repfiiace it ; but if good, didi loam or fairly good soil, then use it, mixing- a fair proportion of rotten manure with it as the work proceedis. It is also a good plan to mix ,some chaftk and charcoal with the soil, as it is placed in position. A ton of fine chalk and five sacks of charcoal wil suffice for an average green. This helps to keep the soil sweeit and porous. We ought to have said thait accu- rate levels should be taken before replacing the top soil, and the subsoil made levd, so that the upper foot of good soil is of even thickness. Spread the new soil on in thin, even layers, and tread firmly and evenly as the work proceedis. When the foot of soil has been replaced, again test the levels and see that the surface agrees accurately with the ascertained levels. The surface should be well raked over, and made as fine and as even as a billiard table. Too much care cannot be exercised in seeing thait the soil is .uniformly firm, so ais to avoid the possibility of depressions occurring. If a roller can be used, so much the better. Turfing and Seeding. As a rule, turf is preferred be- cause it permits of the .green being used the next season. Specialists give preference to Cumberland turf, obtained from uplands that have been closely grazed by sheep, and the grass of which is very fine. Such turf is very costly owing to the heavy freightage, but it is undoubtedly superior to the turf available in the South and Midlands. BOWLING GREENS. 81 It is cut in one foot squares and laid diagonally across the green, a space of a quarter-inch being left between, and this filled with sand. The object of not laying the turfs close is to allow for expansion. Turfs shrink a good deal after lifting, and hence, if laid close together they would, when moistened by rain, expand and pucker up, thus form- ing an uneven surface. It is for the latter reason also that the turfs are laid in foot squares rather than the usual three-foot lengths. When seeds are employed in prefer- ence to turf they should be sown as advised for lawns in Chapter VI. In this case, the green ought not to be used for playing until the second season after sowing. Top-dressing. An annual top-dressing of fine charcoal at the rate of 3cwt. ; bone-meal, icwt. ; or basic slag, icw.t., if the sod'l be moist ; with two cartloads of weathered sea sand, per 40 yards square, will maintain a bowling green in splendid condition. This dressing will impart a robust, headithy tone to the grass if applied at the close of each season. A very slight sprinkling of bone-meal once or twice during the summer on showery days will also be of immense benefit. See also the chapters on " Manures " and " Renovating Lawns," specially the reference to " Hide-bound Turf." A Remedy for Worms. Besides the remedies descri'bed elsewhere, it is also the practice to guard against the intrusion of these creatures in a bowling green by mixing one-third of gas-lime with two-thirds of sifted coal ashes, and placing a 6in. layer of this material immediately under the turf. Worms will not venture through this. Greens .so treated, however, require a good deal of artifi- cial feeding, as the roots of the grasses cannot obtain so much support from the soil below. Besides, we doubt if the plan would answer in dry districts. Cost of Forming a Green. The cost of forming a bowl- ing green varies considerably, according to the methods adopted. To turf a green of 40 yards square, about 4,920 turfs would be required. If these could be purchased at los. per 100 the cost would be, roughly, neady 25. Add 82 LAWNS AND GREENS. to this another 10 for laying and 80 for preparing the site, the total works out at 118. Where special drain- age has to be provided, much soil excavated, and new soil obtained, the cost of these features alone may be fully ^"200 or ^225 in all. Some greens, indeed, have been known to cost upwards of ^400. If seed be used in place of turf, a considerable saving may be effected, as the cost for two bushels of seeds would only be about $, and the labour for sowing another ios., or ^5 los. in aid, as compared with ^25 for turf.. Unless exceptionally good turf could be obtained we should certainly advise grass seeds to be sown early in September, to provide turf to be occasionally played on the following summer ; or in March, to be played on the following year. Management. The management of a bowling green as regards mowing, weeding, feeding, watering, and rolling is practically identical with that described in various chapters on those subjects, and it would be mere repetition to again reiterate them here. Suffice it to say that too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of the advice given therein in .the case of a bowling green. Especially must a green which has had much usage dur- ing the summer be enriched every autumn, as well as kept quite free from weeds. Once allow weeds to get the upper hand, and the evenness of the turf will be spoiled. CRICKET GROUNDS. 83 CHAPTER XVII. CRICKET GROUNDS. WHILE all athletes and lovers of games acknowledge that there is nothing to equal cricket, it must be admitted that much of the present-day lack of enthusiasm for this game is not due to a depreciation of the game itself, but is rather to be attributed to the great difficulty to be experienced in securing ground whereon the batsman or bowler may reap the full advantage of his skill. No other game offers less mar,gin for mistakes; many a good wicket is lost or se- cured, ais the case may be, through some slight undulation of the ground, which has been -the means of diverting the ball from its original course, thereby causing it to twist or break on to the wicket at a most unaccountable angle, much to the surprise of both bowler and batsman. Not only is a slight knot or undulation in the ground capable of performing these great feats, but a ball pitching on to a well-expanding plantain is equally uncertain of results. Where ithere are many enthusiasts who do not excel at either batting or bowling, they nevertheless enjoy the exercise afforded by fielding ; but here, again, their power to field a ball correctly is frustrated by the bad condition of the ground ; thus it is evident that, if good cricket is to be encouraged, it can only be done by giving better attention to the laying doAvn of pitches, and the proper manipulation of the surrounding ground. In the case of County Councils, the laying down of turf and its proper management can only be compared with the keeping of a well-appointed tennis lawn, except that the former is carried out on a much larger scale. Although the average cricket club cannot hope to aspire to the ownership of a county ground, there are, nevertheless many fairly wealthy clubs that can do much to improve their present conditions, or where new ground is acquired, to lay it down on the most approved and up-to-daite principles. Site and Drainage. In the majority of cases cricket pitches are situated on permanent pastures, and where 2 84 LAWNS AND GREENS. such pastures are of a wet and retentive character it will be essential to pay attention to the question of drainage, as in wet summers many excellent pitches or grounds are rendered useless, owing to their waterlogged condition. In selecting a field for cricket, preference is natunaMy given to one devoid of furrows, and consequently fairly level. This absence of furrows, such as usually exist before and after the field is la/id down to grass, provides a natural means of surface drainage. Failing- this, some underground system of drainage may become necessary, and if so the lowest :side of the field must be ascertained for the purpose of opening a main drain with as natural a fail as possible. Into this primary drain secondary drains should be connected at distances of roft. to isft. apart, and running parallel to each other from the highest side of the field to the lowest. The number of outlets neces- sary wM 1 depend on the area of the field ; also on the con- figuration of the land. If the field be of moderate size, as in (the case of many cricket grounds, one outlet widl probably suffice, and if sloping in one direction, as above represented, the outlet may .suffice for an area of from twelve to figteen acres ; whether there be one or more drains is a (matter to be decided by local conditions, especially as .regards rainfall. The sectional 1 strata of the district should also be taken into account, as weW as the oonitour of the surface ; also its texture and that of the subsoil. The conditions affecting the depth and distance of drains are both numerous and varied. Deep drains are longer in commencing to flow, tout if pflaced in porous soils they wilfl carry off iSiurface water even quicker than shallow drains. It can usualy ibe reckoned that the distance between drains on strong clays may equad from four to six times the depth., on heavy loams six to eight times the depth, and on light soils eight to iten times the depth. As to the cost, this is chiefly dependent upon the labour of cutting and filEng, cost of material composing the drain, and con- struction of outlets for discharging the water. It is outside the purpose of this chapter to go into de- tails as to the formation and cost of draining, as this sub- ject has already been fully dealt with elsewhere. Deep CRICKET GROUNDS. 85 drains in hard soils cost more in cutting; but in light working soils 3ft. drains will cost considerably less. The fact of drainage lessening the amount of water in the soil will, i>n consequence, increase the soil temperature to the deterioration of the grosser weeds, such as thisttile, crowfoot, docks, and many of the coarser grasses, as cock's-foot and many varieties of Carex. Grasses and Clovers, To many who are unfami'Iliar with country life, all grasses appear more or less alike, buit the skilled cultivator knows only too well that, if his pastures are properly cared for ais regards the administra- tion of manorial stimulants, the finer grasses and clovers will be encouraged at the expense of the coarser varieties, and this should be the aim of all who are in charge of fields set apart for cricket. In many heavy land pastures a barrenness of grass is often observable after the frosts of winter have cut down the luxuriant herbage of ftalte autumn, and when this is the case the ground can very substantially foe improved by sowing a mixture largely composed of Yellow Suckling and Perenniai White Clover, together with Crested Dog's-tail, Perennial Rye Grass, Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass, and Festucas ovina teniui- folia, F. diiriuscula, and F. rubra. It can generally be assumed that the presence of moss on a pasture indicates poverty, excess of moisture, and insufficient air and sun- shine ; and, if land containing an abundance of moss can be fed to well-fed stock, this will be preferable to mowing, as the close feeding by stock is considerably injurious to the welfare of weeds, while it is in no way detrimental to the vitality of the various grasses. A cricket pitch con- taining much moss is consequently slow of play, and the bowler's skilll is considerably hampered as compared with a fast wicket, where the pitch is composed of a short- clipped sward resting on a firm and moist soil. Levelling the Ground. While it is by no means essen- tiail that a cricket field should be entirely level, the pitch or bo wling area should be as nearly levd as is possible, and, whatever its area, it must graduaHy divert into the same plane as the surrounding ground. The majority of 6 LAWNS AND GREENS. clubs, although not financially strong enough to level a .large area, ishould attempt as much in this direction as their means will allow. If the area or plot selected for the formation of the pitch be possessed of turf of good quality, this should be stripped off to a uniform siize and thickness, usually i yard long by ift., and ijin. thick; if cut at random and of varying lengths and depths it can no longer be employed for relaying. Should the original turf contain a large percentage of daisies, dandelions, plantains, crowfoot, and other coarse weeds it will be useless for the formation of a good cricket pitch, but there should be little difficulty in procuring good turf at a reasonable cost from a distance. Having stripped the turf, and placed it in orderly piles around the edge of the allotted area, the work of levelling can proceed, either by the aid of a dumpy level, or, if such an instrument is not at hand, an ordinary spirit level with a long straight edge answers equally well. Turfing the Pitch. In the event of the ground being undrained and low-lying, the pitch should be raised as well as circumstances admit, and, after the final work of level- ling is completed, a liberal coating of ashes or chalk will tend to keep the pitch dry, and check the more luxuriant grasses and plants; it will also prevent the subsoil crack- ing during sudden droughts, although on a well-managed ground no such contraction of soil will take place, as it can be arneslted by systematic waterings. Turfs from chalk downs are the best to procure for all purposes of lawn formation, as, containing an abundance of fibrous roots, they readily establish a firm hold on new ground ; whereas turfs from heavy, retentive soils frequently sicken after removal, or, if the und ear-soil is of a fertile nature, the grasses are forced into top-growth, thus leaving a naked sward similar in every way to the one whereon it was advised to seed with a mixture of grasses and clover. Another poinlt in favour of down turf is that it can be handled without fear of breaking, and does not suffer decay so readily from being rolfed up. Rolling.-*- When laid, the next operation is to brush the CRICKET GROUNDS 87 turfs over with finely-sifted ,soil in order to fill up all the interstices ; after which use the turf -beater as a mea,nis of knitting the whole 'Surface together, and reducing any projections to a uniform level. The sooner all such ground work is performed before winter the better, as root action is immediately active while the ground is yet warm, and before the arrival of the winter rains the whole surface will have become well rooted. No rolling should be given until spring, when ait intervals a heavy roller can be carefully draiwn over the pitch, avoiding such practices when the ground is heavily charged with moisture, the degree and extent of consolidation largely depending on these condi- tions. Should the wonk of laying a pi'tch be prolonged until the end of March, at will not be advisable to piDay on it for that season, as the turf will not have grown suffi- ciently well together, and will, therefore, be apt to lift. The s?me treatment as to roMiimg must, however, be given, and when the grass has reached a height of from 3'in. to 4in. it should be carefully mown with a scythe; after which a machine may be used to keep it at the required length, which should not be that of a closely-cropped playing pitch. If grass of a newly4aid pitch is too severely cropped for the first season much damage results from scorching, which evil effect is increased by the roots not yet having penetrated sufficiently deep into the subsoil. Watering the Turf. A good water supply is an essen- tial adjunct to all cricket grounds, and without ifts aid no pitch can ever be expected to attain a fit and safe condi- tion for play throughout the drier months of the year. There is no need for continuous watering, as one good soaking twenty-four hours before a match is ample to secure the desired result, followed just previous to the match by judicious rolsling, the nature and extent of which experience alone can teach. Manures. The manuring of cricket grounds is a sub- ject upon which many cliub managers and groundsmen are ignorant. This cannot be attributed, however, to their having ignored the importance of manuring, but is rather because they have gone astray by adopting the several 88 LAWNS AND GREENS. systems of applying artificial manures to cricket grounds as if they were cultivating 1 the grasses and other herbs from a purely agricultural standpoint ; whereas, in reaSiity, this is furthest from their wishes. Not only are manures containing nitrogen expensive to purchase, but their use on recreation 'grounds is fraught with injury to the grasses it is desired to retain. Ptoosphatic manures, whiJe being highly 'beneficial, are rarely required to the extenit that their -use would demand were the ground grazed to cattle ; they should onl'y be used in moderation, while for correct- ing coarseness and luxuriousness of herbage in general much useful results will follow the judicious application of potash salts in the form of kainit. In conclusion, it may be remarked that during 1 winter no fast game tike hockey or football must be allowed on properly-maintained cricket grounds or pitches, as, if so, considerable expense and trouble will be encountered before the surface can be restored to its former condition. CHAPTER XVIII. GOLF GREENS. THE universal popularity of golf has brought into exis- tence numerous courses or links wherever a sufficient number of enthusiasts can be mustered who are prepared to defray the neces-sary expenses of renting- and laying oult the .ground in an approved and up-to-date manner. While many sites are naturally adapted for the formation of goCIf courses, such as downs, commons, or moorlands, and the sandhills to be encountered along our sea coastes, there are other districts in which the selection is confined to ordinary grazing land, which in many cases is entirely free from undulations. Principal Features of a Golf Course. While there are recognised theories or laws in the planning of a course, GOLF GREENS. 89 much is left to the designer, who, like 'the landscape gar- dener, must make the most of the material's at his disposal. The principal features of a well-arranged course include eighteen holes, whilst the intervening ground varies as much' as possible in general character, thereby influencing the conditions wider which the various shots are made. To still further increase these natural difficulties, artifi- cially-constructed obstacles are to be encountered, in the form of bunikens, etc. ; further, the putting greens must be .guarded, and their area modified in accordance with the distance from the teeing green to the hole. When circumstances admit of a long shot being played on to the green, 'the latter must then be of liberal dimensions, in order to compensate the player for his skill. Obstacles, or Bunkers. The placing of obstacle's or bunkers demands careful consideration, the object bdinig to make it compulsory for the player to drive his ball to a set distance from the tee; should he fail to accomplish this feat, the second shot is, in consequence, rendered more difficult than if the obstacle had been cleared by the ftnst shot. On well-designed courses the player has the choice of two methods of reaching the hole namely, an easy and a difficult one. Should he select the latter, and success- fully accompdlish his task, he is then rewarded by an extra point, Teeing Grounds. Where space admits provision is madie for alternative tees on many courses, thus affordfing a means of adaptation to varying winds and suitability of weather ; alliso as regards the wet or dry condition of the ground. If the area of ground at disposal does noit admit of these advantages it then remains to make the most of existing conditions ; and, consequently, the planning must be done to isuilt the prevailing winds of the district, this being particularly essential on laying out courses situated in dose proximity to the .sea. Holes. In determining the firslt hole, it should be as open as possible from the tee, with, perhaps, the excep- tion of a small bunker towards one -side and a pot bunker on the opposite side fairly close to the green. The be- 90 LAWNS AND GREENS. ginner, when making his shot towards the first hole, is frequently subjected to close observation from others who are either waiting for their turn to play or who are merely spectators ; thus a beginner of a nervous temperament cannot possibly put in his best work; consequently IMS stroke is faulty, the result being that a greater length of time is occupied in getting clear away. This difficulty of ensuring a fair start can be still further minimised by having several alternative tees, and on all courses it Is noticed that the first tee is considerably more worn than the rest. Three hundred and fifty yards may be allowed for the first hole, the second being increased to 380 yards, thus demanding two good shots. The third green should be well guardied, the hole being of similar length to the second, and, as in the two previous holes, alternative tees should be provided to allow for variation in wind ; these must not, however, be placed one in advance of the other. The fourth can be placed at 200 ya,rds, or of a sufficient length to test a good, full drive. If 320 yards are allowed for the fifth hole, good iron-play will be demanded, and a skilful approach on to the green, whereas 480 to 500 yards for the sixth hole will prove an equally good test for wooden dubs; a short seventh hole of 120 yardis will call for accuracy and delicacy of play, and for preference this green should be pear-shaped, with a width of 24 yards, gradually narrowing towards the entrance ; no bunker need be placed as a means of obstruction, but the fairway should be rough to within twelve yards or so from the green, in order to prevent a fluky shot running towards the hole. A .number of pot-bunkers might also be placed in close proximity to the green towards either side, leaving an entrance to the green of not more than about 12 yards in width. The eighth and ninth holes may each vary from 400 to 430 yards, thus affording first-class wooden club play of two shots each ; whereas, if the tenth hole is 530 yards, it iwliCl be within two shots, and will prove a difficult hole to negotiate with the second shot. For the eleventh hole a length of 410 yards will prove another good two- shot test; while at the twelfth hole another short ramge of 130 yards may be introduced, thereby proving a diffi- GOLF GREENS. 91 cult "mashie, " or iron, shot; the entrance to this hole could be constructed on similar lines to the seventh hole, or, by way of variation, a cross-sunk bunker might occupy a position at 15 yards in front of the green. The thir- teenth hole may be equal in length to the first, but should contain more bunkers, thus minimising the possibility of getting on to the green in two clear shots. The fourteenth may be reckoned as the long hole in, and would therefore need to equal the sixth hole in length, bunkers being placed inear to the green. A short hole of 180 yards, demanding a, good, straight " cleek " shot, could be intro- duced as the fifteenth, while the sixteenth might be given the same length as the third, but with considerably more difficulties to encounter. At the seventeenth another two- shot test couikl be introduced, and at the last, or eigh- teenth, hole an equally difficult finish of, say, 400 yards might suffice. Formation of Teeing Ground. While any recognised patch of -ground may suffice for the formation of teeing ground's, the question of (proper construction is jusit as important as in the case of putting greens. Large teeing grounds should be encouraged on heavy land, and when three in number they should assume the form of a triangle, with the base at right angles to the hole. The position and number of the respective tees will be regulated accord- ing to the length of drive necessary to clear the first bunker. In the longest of the short holes an additional tee placed in advance of another is useful, as, if restricted to one tee with a/n adverse wind to encounter, the player would doubtless find great difficulty in play/ing a stroke long enough to reach the green ; whereas, if he drives from an advanced tee, this difficulty is greatly minimised. Where (the teeiing ground does not admit of a firm foot- hold it is quite impossible to make a good drive; there- fore, anything in the nature of a 'greasy or clayey turf must be avoided, and, as a remedy, artificially-constructed tees may become necessary. Should the soil be naturally heavy and retentive to moisture, the ground must be raised above the ordinary level, thus affording drainage, and thereby favouring the growth of the finer grasses ; 92 LAWNS AND GREENS. chalk or even ashes laid under loaimy turf produce a somewhat similar effect. White -strong-growing grasses, such as cock'>s-foot, stand a considerable amount of wear, they are never so even to the tread and do not last so lomg a* the more wiry grasses, such as the fescues, of which the various mixtures recommended for putting greens and teeinig grounds are composed. A teeinig ground need not necessarily be level ; the lie or slope should, however, correspond to the surrounding ground, particularly in the direction of the hole, and if a portion of the tee has an upward slant it may still better meet wiith ithe approval of some players who desire that particular " stance." Formation of Putting Greens. It is obvious that the successful planning of a golf course is largely dependent on weft-constructed pultti rug-greens, the proper placement of the bunkers and other obstacles to be encountered by the player. Putting greens are of various forms and sizes, and contain different degrees of undulation. When a gieen is expected to be reached by a long drive it must be fairly large, but the size must be considerably smaller when an iron shot is required to pitch the ball on to the green ; similarly, when the entrance to a green is guarded by a long bunker it should 'be fairly large, and longitudinal in shape and line of play, so that the ball may remain on the green even when urged onwards toy a strong wind. While a green may be undulating, its surface is not neces- sarily rough ; needless to say, anything in the nature of worm casts, prominent weeds, and other obstructions likely to divert the ball from its course, must 'be kept under control. Where the natural! turf of a meadow has been badly grazed, and inattention has been paid *to the manuring of its grasses, much trouble will be experienced for a number of years as regard's the good qualities of a putting green ; and where the original turf contains an excessive amount of daisies, dandelions, plantains, or even moss, it may become advisable to strip the surface and returf with good down turf or turf of a superior quality, according to local facilities. In the ordinary con/struction of golf courses the sowing of grass seeds cannot very well GOLF GREENS. 93 be recommended, as birds, moles, and many other destruc- tive agencies render the work unsuccessful; and, if the ground is subjected to much wear before the seedling grasses have become well eisitab&is'hed, they are soon completely destroyed. It is by no means essential that alii putting greens should be flat, as this would entail a lack of variety, no great judgment being required in putting except in the case of an occasional long shot. It is for the latter test that several fairly large flat greens are recommended as ter- mination to very long holes, this being regarded as a consideration for the difficulties the player has previously experienced. Also, if mistakes have ibeen made, he is enabled to recover himself by a successful long- puitt; on the other hand, if the ball has been placed on the green by successive good drives, he may still further excel in holing-out with one long putt. For similar reasons, saucer-shaped greens are to be recommended in connection with long holes, the ball being thereby drawn towards the hole, thus giving the player the advantage of a long, well-directed shot into the green. It cannot be denied that on greens containing many undulations, or waves, a large element of luck attaches to putting; yet their inclusion gives variety of play. Another useful form of green is that containing a crown on one side, but not situated too near to the hole ; the player can then loft his baM so that it pitches between the crown and the hole. Should be be unfortunate enough to lie on the upper side, with the crown between the ball and the hole, he is left no easy task to contend with. A different variety of 'green is (that which takes the form of a plateau, and is difficult to approach ; it should be large, and admit of a running-up shot. Formation of Bunkers. The object of bunkers is to catch weak or otherwise defective shots, and, where pos- sii'ble, /the surrounding .ground 'should islope ignaduaiifiy towards their cavity, in order to draw a running baW that might otherwise become stationary near to the margin, thereby affording the player an average Me, instead of his being penalised by the loss of a stroke. A good position 94 LAWNS AND GREENS. for the bunker is to the left of the fairway, so as to catch a pulled ball, and when so placed it should not be at right angles to tihe 'line of play, but at right angles to what is considered the course taken by a ball badly pulled ; conse- quently, the right-hand corner of the bunker is nearest the fairway, and it is evident that the ball cannot readlily escape ibeing trapped when the bunker is so placed ; fur- ther, the bunker .should be double crescent-shaped. Bunkers of islimiilar form and comsit ruction, but assuming- Opposite directions, may be placed on the other side of the fairway, as a means of trapping sliced balls; while pot bunkers are placed nearer the centre of the fairway in order that the pLayer should use judgment in placing his shots. A -bunker must not be constructed with the object of making it nexit to impossible to play the 'ball out into the open again, the penalty of losing one stroke beimg suffi- cient punishment for the player. The form of construction must toe simple, and the raised banik must not be too high, nor yet assume a too perpendicular rise, otherwise a ball lodged close (to the base of the bank cannot be played. A similar difficulty would occur were the entrance to the bunker .merely dug out at right angles to the surface, as a slowly-running ball would drop over the edge instead of rolling, and would thereby occupy an impossible posi- tion to play from. When introducing pot bunkers, they should be placed so as to trap tooth pulled and sliced shots, and, where a good drive has been made from the tee, similar traps must be set for pulled or sliced second shots. It will be observed that a pulled foal usually covers more ground than a sliced shot ; therefore the bunkers placed to trap the former shot should be situated some distance in advance of the latter. The placing of long cross-bunkers is regulated by tihe length of (the carry ; and, while an average player with a fair stroke may only reach the bunker, a good player will endeavour to clear it. There ,a.re others who will be tempted to play round the ends of 'the bunker, but this practice entails the risk of getting into the rough, and, to make this a more or less certainty, the ground round about the ends should draw towards the bunkers. If GOLF GREENS. 95 need be, the bunkers could be extended in length across the fairway ; itihis is not, however, advisable, as they look unsightly, more especially if steps are arranged over the bank instead of a narrow passage cut through the centre of the bunker. In passing, it should be remembered that this passage should assume the form of a letter S, in order to prevent the ball passing completely through the opening. As an alternative, the opening may be guarded by a central bunker somewhat broader than the passage, and placed several yards in advance of it. For like reasons, a sunk border should be .shaped like the figure S, thereby doing away with the use of a plank or straight path. Other useful forms of bunkers are those known as the diagonal and double-diagonal, and, as ithe name indicates, they are placed diagonally across the ground, whether it be raised, sun/ken, or merely composed of a lline of pots or series of dog-leg holes. The end nearest to the tee should extend fairly close to the edge of the fairway, while the either should reach but a little way beyond the centre of the course ; thus it is evident that the player who has confi- dence in himself goes for the long carry, whale the less expert player will try to ;get over the right-hand wside or keep the left of the course. If he takes the former he will probably get into the rough, but should he just escape he will find Mm self confronted with a bunker in his second shot for the green ; or, on the other hand, if the extreme left of the diagonally-placed bunker is taken, his ball will probably find a pot, such a trap being essential in this position, as the further extension of the bunker to the left could fill no further useful purpose. A double diagonal is merely the repetition of the single, so as to form an in- verted letter V, thus giving tlhe short driver the option of taking a course ito the left or to the right. The great advantage of bunkers so placed is to encourage the player to take a central counse, when, should he carry the bunkers, his difficulties are minimised to a greater extent than if he plays to either side. For medium holes bunkers should be placed to trap pulled and sliced balls, the former at 160 yards and the 86 LAWNS AND GREENS. latter at 140 yards; thus estimating a fair drive to average 1 80 yards, the green should not be so well guarded as in the case of short holes. In bunkering a long hole of, say, 500 yards, the best plan is to allow an open drive from the tee, with nothing to carry; while with the second shot there should be a carry of 160 yards in order to clear the bunker. It is optional whether a trap should be laid for a pulled shot, but the player should be .penalised for slicing by the inser- tion of a bunker cut a little to the right of the fairway, but falling short of the central bunker ; thus we have, as it were, a central bunker cuit in halves. A bunker should then be placed at the other side of the lower end of the diagonal, in order to trap a sliced ball that may only have cleared the first bunker. Finally, if two bunkers are placed on either side of the green, these will hamper the players who have failed to make straight shots. General Remarks. There is no limit respecting the variety and planning of courses, and it only suffices to say that the designer must think out his plans carefully as to the placing of the bunkers, first making a rough plan of the (ground, wdth the position of naturally-formed hazards, then, by using a convenient scale, he can work out his ideas on paper, carefully noting the respective positions of tees, hazards, putting greens, fairways, rough grass, and all other points of importance. When it is desired to use a course that is in the process of construction, hurdles can be substituted for earthworks until the la/tter are completed. While ground work may proceed at any time of the year, there is no better time for turfing than late autumn, as newly-laid turfs readily establish themselves while the soil is still warm, although throughout winter little anxiety need be experienced in this rspect. The laying of turfs should be avoided in late spring as far as possible, as March winds are conducive to drought, thus preventing speedy root action. Bunkers formed by the building up of deeply-dug turfs are to be placed in a different category, however ; and, except on parched, dry ground, such work may proceed at any season, more especially when the subsoil is of a loamy, GRASS PATHS AND STEPS. .97 retentive character. Rolling and mowing of grass are the most expensive items in the upkeep of a .good golf course, and each operation must be performed systematically, and not neglected until the work entails considerable difficulty, particularfly as regards machine-mowing. Grass land resting on a clay subsoil is usually too luxu- rious for ideal golfing during spring and summer, and can never compare with the short, dose sward of the upland pastures. Where courses are situated in woodland or low-lying districts, this luxuriance of herbage must be kept eaten down by sheep, and its coarseness would be checked to a great extent by frequent dressings with potash salts, such as kainit, which should be applied in winter or early spring. The building of a suitable club house, and convenient roads leading thereto, practically complete the requirements of the average course. CAAPTER XIX. GRASS PATHS AND STEPS. A WORD or two must be .said in this book about the sub- ject of grass paths, because they have a very intimate association with the lawn. In the days of Queen Anne they were very popular, and some very good examples of this dignified and reposeful feature are still to be met with in gardens formed at that period. In those days the early part of the eighteenth century it was the fashion to plant avenues of limes, elims, etc., with a spacious giassy path between. In the last century, however, when the geometrical and more formal 'Style of gardening came into vogue, the grassy path and avenue were superseded by the more showy gravel one, and it was not until the reaction set in a few years ago in favour of the more natural style of gardening that they again came into favour. 98 LAWNS AND GREENS. Their Appropriate Position. It is generally admitted that grass paths are seen to the besit advantage and are also the most appropriate when formed in a straight line, and flanked on each side by a bold herbaceous border or a fringe of trees and shrubs. Curved grassy paths never look wedd. There is no finer or more beautiful feature in a garden than a strip of green turf margined by borders of hardy flowers. The green tone of the grass seems to accentuate the beauty and charm of the flowers, and to add dignity and repose to the whole. Then again, grass paths are specially appropriate in rose gardens, where the beds are formed in rectangular rather than curved shape. We have also seen them used to good effect in positions allocated to the culture of fruit and vegetables.. In the two latter cases the question of much traffic in attending to cultural details has, of course, to be considered, as much treading or wheeling thereon would naturally soon injure the turf. Such injury may, however, be avoided by laying dowji< planiks when much wheeling has to be done. A fruit or a vegetable garden separated by grassy paths has such an infinitely more pleasing look about it than when graved paths are used that we can certainly strongly recommend the feature to be adopted in the smaller type of gardens, subject, of course, to the precaution of usi'mg planks for wheeling thereon. Width of Paths. A grass path between flower borders may vary in width from 3ft. to 6ft. or 8ft. Short paths, wi-th narrow borders on each side, should not be wider than 4ft. ; indeed, the rule to observe is : the longer the walk and the wider the .borders, the fuller should the width of the path be. Long, narrow grass paths have a puny look. Avenues should not be less than 24ft. in width. Paths used for dividing fruit or vegetable plots should be 3ft. to 4ft. wide, and for rose beds i8in. to 2ft. Formation of Grass Paths. The details are practically similar to those described for the formation of lawns. One special point, however, must be mentioned here, and that is in reference to the drainage. A grass path must of necessity be fairly dry to enable it to be used with com- GRASS PATHS AND STEPS. 99 fort. If, therefore, the site be at all damp it must be drained. This may be done in two ways. One is to open a trench 3ft. deep along the centre of the proposed path, lay 3in. drainpipes in the bottom, and cover these with about 6in. or so of stone, burrs, or brickbats ; then replace the soil on top. Another plan would be, if the subsoil is very clayey, to move the upper foot of surface soil to one side, then take out a foot of .the clay subsoil and cart thus away, putting in its place a foot of broken stone, brick- bats, slag, or coarse cinders, and replacing the surface soil on this. The latter plan would make a nice dry path, and a good, firm turfy surface. Turf v. Seeds. For grass paths turf is undoubtedly the best. Its advantage over seeds would be its readiness for almost immediate use. If seeds were employed, the surface could not safely be used the first season without jeopardising the growth of the grasses. In any case a narrow strip of turf ift. wide should certainly be laid down along the edges of the path to form a firm edging, the central portion then being sown with seeds. For the laying of turf and the sowing of seeds see Chapters VI. and VII. Management of Grass Paths. The remarks given in Chapters VIII. to XIV. apply equally to grass paths As they would naturally be used more frequently than the lawn, special attention should be paid to top- dressing every autumn to keep the turf in good heart. Grass Steps. Where there is not much traffic grass steps form a pretty feature in the garden. These may occur on the slope of a terrace, leading down to a sunk- panel tennis-court, or where a grass path is continued on higher ground. The foundation for the steps musit be firmly made, and the turf be very carefully laid. In such a case sowing seeds is out of the question, therefore turfs must be used. The best way to lay them Ls from top to bottom, beating down firmly to fit the angles of the steps. Pegs, too, must be freely used to keep them in a rigid posdtion until they unite to the soil. There should be no traffic on the steps for the first six months at least. The grass will, of course, require to be cut by means of shears. H 2 100 LAWNS AND GREENS. CHAPTER XX. LAWN MOWERS. FOR upwards of eighty years, at least, the mowing machine hats played an important part in the maintenance and suc- cess of the lawin, (the lovely, velvety turf of which has long been one of the chief charms of a well-ordered British garden. Prior to its introduction, our forebears had to rely upon that useful, but nevertheless by no means easy, tool to handle the scythe. In those days to be aible to use and sharpen a scythe successfully was regarded as no mean accomplishment. Moreover, its use meant early rising, in order to cut the grass whilst its blades were succulent and covered with dew, the only period in the day when it was possible to mow evenly and quickly. Mowing by scythe was therefore a laborious and costly business, and only those of ample means could indulge in the luxury of a lawn. When the mowing machine super- seded the scythe, and rival manufacturers had succeeded in improving its mechanism and reducing its cost, then the desire for adding the charminig feature of a lawn to the garden became more general, with the result that to-day even the smallest garden is not considered perfect without its patch of turf. The mowing machine may, indeed, daim to have accomplished more for the beauty and charm of a garden than any other appliance in exis- tence. There is no lack of diversity in form, Ln size, and in cost among modern mowing machines. They can be ob- tained to suit the strength of a youth or a lady, the more powerful muscles of a man or two men, or a donkey, pony, or horse, or the superior force of a motor engine; and the range of prices is equally variable, the cheapest being available at a guinea, and the most expensive the motor type costing upwards of 150. The cheapest type is mostly of American manufacture, and not so durable or easily repairable as those of British make at a slightly enhanced cast. LAWN MOWERS. 101 Main Features. The chief features are common to all types of machines ; they differ only in slight detail. For example, the most important part of a machine is its cutting apparatus. This consists of a cylinder or barrel of iron, with numerous spirally-arranged steel cutting blades fixed to lit. The number of blades varies in various types of machines. The cylinder is thrown into action either by means of an iron roller behind or by side wheefis connected by cog-wheds, or by cog-wheels and a flat chain. The other part of the cutting apparatus is the ledger blade, a flat piece of steel with an under beveled edge, which is fixed to the base of the machine, and in such a position that its edge comes in contact with the cutting blades of the cylinder. When the latter is in action it revolves its cutting blades to meet the ledger blade, and thus cuts off the grass and carries the latter round with it, and throws it forward inito the collecting-box in front. Not all machines, however, are provided with a collecting- box, especially those of the very light-running American type. In their case the cut grass is distributed over the turf. Then most of the latter type of machines are pro- vided with one central handle, with a cruitch at the end, the object being to make the machines as light and easy to use as possible. The stronger and heavier machines are provided with a strong iron roller placed at the back of the ends. Those that require two men, a horse, or a motor to run them are also provided with a disconnecting gear to enable the cylinders to be thrown out of action when turning the corners or travelling to or from the actual scene of work. Then, again, the majority of the machines are provided with wooden rollers in front, their object being to keep the ledger blade at an even distance from the turf, and to facilitate the easy running of the machine. The iron rollers, previously referred 'to, are single cylinders in the case of smaller, and double in that of larger machines. The object of a double cylinder is to enable the machine to be more easily turned round without damaging the turf. The advantage of an iron roller over side wheels is ithiat it rolls the turf after cutting, besides supplying the power required to revolve the cutting cylinder. Such are 102 LAWNS AND GREENS. the main features of mowing- machines in general. We will now proceed to give a brief description of the leading types of machines in the market. Light Machines. These are such types of lawn mowers as may be easily worked by a youth, a lady, or a man, varying in width from 6in. to aoin. Such machines are manufactured upon the side-wheel principle, with or with- out cylinders, and are used for cutting long or short grass. Some are prepared without cylindrical rollers, but have a small wooden roller at the back of the machine. A wooden handle with