PITMAN'S TEXTILE INDUSTRIES SERIES 
 
 Edited by Roberts Beaumont, M.tic., M.I.Mcch.E. 
 
 
 UNION TEXTILE 
 FABRICATION 
 
UNION TEXTILE 
 FABRICATION 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS ORIGINAL DIAGRAMS, SECTIONAL 
 DRAWINGS, AND PHOTOGRAPHIC RE-PRODUCTIONS 
 OF SPUN AND WOVEN SPECIMENS IN THE TEXT 
 
 BY 
 
 ROBERTS BEAUMONT 
 
 M.Sc., M.I.MECH.E. 
 
 Professor of Textile Industries, Leeds University, 1889-1913 ; Clothworkers' 
 Inspector in Textile Technology, 1892-1916; Royal Society of Arts Medallist; 
 Exaii'iners' Medallist City and Guilds of London Institute ; Vice -President of the 
 
 International Jury on Textile Machinery Paris Exhibition, 1900. 
 
 Author of "Woollen and Worsted," "Colour in Woven Design," "Standard Cloths," 
 
 " Finishing of Textile Fabrics," "Woven Fabrics at the World's Fair, Chicago," 
 
 Appret des Tissus ; "Fabrication des Lainayes," etc. 
 
 (ALL JUGHTS RESERVED) 
 
 LONDON 
 
 SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, E.G. 4 
 (INCORPORATING WHITTAKER & Co.) 
 BATH, MELBOURNE AND NEW YORK 
 
PRINTED BY SIR ISAAC PITMAN 
 
 & SONS, LTD., LONDON, BATH, 
 
 MELBOURNE AND NEW YORK 
 
PREFACE 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION touches, in its technological 
 aspects and interests, the many grades and branches of Spun 
 and Woven manufacture. It is suggestive, under analysis, 
 of the means and processes by which augmented industrial 
 efficiency and growth are realizable ; and also of the spheres 
 of textile activity pregnant for technical and scientific 
 research. The subject, when thus viewed, assumes propor- 
 tions and bearings of paramount significance to the practi- 
 tioner, the manufacturer, and the investigator, whether 
 distinctly associated with the Cotton, the Wool, the Flax, or 
 the Silk Trade. 
 
 Modern manufacturing practice demands, in the develop- 
 ment of Union Fabrication, trained faculty and inventive 
 resourcefulness in the unification of the strata and phenomena 
 embodied in the factory routine, and methods, allied with 
 the respective phases of the Spinning, Weaving, Dyeing and 
 Finishing Industries. 
 
 This fact has led to the plan and compass of the present 
 treatise, in which the subject matter is divided into three 
 principal Sections 
 
 I. BI-FIBRED MANUFACTURES 
 
 " Yam and Fabric " 
 " Colourization " 
 " Textural Toning," and 
 " Pattern Origination " 
 
 II. COMPOUND- YARN FABRICS 
 
 " Productive Schemes " 
 " Textural Studies," and 
 " Multi-fold Types " 
 
 III. WOVEN UNIONS 
 
 " Looming Principles " 
 
 " Textures Light in Construction," and 
 
 " Structural Schemes Cloths substantial in Build " 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 Each Section is a composite study, representative of a 
 specialized form of practice, but it is in the effective 
 co-ordination of one branch of work with another on which the 
 nature and success of the manufactured achievement depends. 
 Thus the practice in the admixture, in yarn preparation, of 
 filaments of different tinting values and qualities, treated of 
 in Section I, provides the ingredients of the fabric product; 
 and these determine the colour tone, pattern characteristics, 
 and tensile and wearing standards of the finished texture. 
 The systems of blending animal, plant, and artificial fibres 
 to yield yams economic in construction, and of a definite 
 textural and tinted property, are, therefore, dealt with in their 
 theoretical and applied relations. Stress is laid upon the 
 active co-operation of the chemical and dyeing expert with 
 the textile specialist, in establishing a commercial colourization 
 scheme, such as that detailed in Chapter II, and which has 
 been framed on original investigation and experiment. 
 
 It is shown how the mechanical equipment, and operative 
 and process routine, in manufacturing, are subservient to the 
 production of a wide range and assortment of union yarns, which 
 are considered in their application to mixed fabrics structurally 
 illustrated of cotton and wool, cotton and flax, cotton and 
 worsted, and silk, wool, and ramie, etc. Classified working 
 data are given of such fabrics in light, medium and heavy 
 structures, with the dyeing and finishing treatment to be 
 observed in their manufacture. 
 
 Design relative to Cloth Construction, and Pattern Origina- 
 tion, is exhibited in Chapter IV as a resultant of filament 
 blending, yarn spinning, and of tinting in piece-dyeing. A 
 comparatively new phase of patternwork is here suggested 
 and elaborated. Examples in style formation in two, three, 
 and four shades are dissected ; and the degree of tone 
 differentiation feasible, in the fabric, as a derivative of the 
 several classes of fibre combined in the arrangement, or 
 grouping, of the warp and weft yarns, is explained in reference 
 to typical woven specimens. 
 
 A fundamental source of textural variation obtains in the 
 mechanical methods of acquiring folded union yarns, in which 
 the thread units employed differ in material composition. 
 

 PREFACE vii 
 
 The PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES, which this basis of manufacture 
 offers, are adjustable to each description of union texture, 
 that is, to admixed woollen, cotton, worsted, linen, silk and 
 ramie fabrics. Hence the structural varieties of Union Twists 
 are analytically examined, and their apportionment described, 
 in the making of multi-ply yarn cloths dissimilar in (1) fibre 
 composition, (2) thickness, (3) quality and softness, and (4) in 
 weave and colour attributes. In illustration of the techni- 
 calities involved, tabulated settings are supplied of fabrics 
 woven in twist yarns, consisting of woollen and cotton, worsted 
 and cotton, linen and cotton, and worsted, cotton and silk. 
 
 The function of Weave, in the acquirement of standard and 
 special makes of this class of unions, is also shown, with 
 explanations on the principles of modifying the folded-yarn 
 structure in developing distinctive pattern features in the 
 finished goods. The two latter subjects are treated of at some 
 length, and exemplified by selected woven types, under 
 TEXTURAL STUDIES. 
 
 As folded yarns may be diversified in counts and in surface 
 features in addition to being varied in filament quality, they 
 provide a field for textile experiment, the traversing of which 
 results in the manufacture of important descriptions of com- 
 mercial fabrics, economic and sound in build. Such serial inves- 
 tigations formulated and carried out in the amplification of this 
 branch of woven technology as are embodied in the book, 
 bear more especially, in Chapters VI and VII, on the origina- 
 tion of " plain " and " fancy " union cloths of a woollen, 
 worsted, cotton, linen, and of a silk character. 
 
 Throughout the treatise research, in the fabrication of 
 bi -fibred yarns and textures, is demonstrated and revealed 
 as subdivisible into 
 
 I. Technological research in the manufacture of bi-fibred 
 warp and weft yarns, and of bi-fibred woven and knitted 
 structures, inclusive of schemes of experimental work in the 
 qualitative, structural, and economic products to be acquired, 
 in the respective classes and groups of textile fibres, by 
 varying (a) the quantitative percentages of the materials 
 blended ; and (6) the systems, methods and practices of 
 thread and fabric construction. 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 II. Research, relative to chemical, physical, and microscopic 
 investigations, to determine (a) the properties of fibres with 
 a view to their successful utilization; and (b) the quality, 
 durability, tensile strength, and intrinsic clothing value of 
 the manufactured cloth. 
 
 III. Research in tinctorial chemistry, or in the dyeing of 
 materials of dissimilar colouring affinities in the yarn or in 
 the felted, knitted, or woven result for determining the range 
 and diversity of tinting, and design effects, procurable as a 
 consequence of the form, and proportionate quantities, in 
 which the several varieties of fibre are amalgamated in the 
 processes of textile production. 
 
 IV. Chemical and technological research in the finishing, 
 lustring, or dressing of the spun, woven, or other kind of 
 manufacture. 
 
 Any scheme of UNION FABRICATION to be of general service- 
 ability must be adaptable to the making of fabrics differing 
 in weight per yard, wearing strength, and surface style. All 
 the basic principles of manufacture are, therefore, treated of in 
 reference to TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION, and to 
 CLOTHS SUBSTANTIAL IN BUILD. In the former, dress fabrics- 
 lustres, alpacas, crepons, union silks, cottons and linens and 
 also certain grades of decorative textures are comprised; and 
 in the latter are included all the heavier types of union cloths, 
 such as overcoatings, rugs, blankets, milled goods, and 
 multi-ply fabric structures. 
 
 The study and dissection of the Union Textile Industry 
 here presented, have, as a dominant objective, the substitution 
 of arbitrary rules and practices by organized technical and 
 scientific methods, processes, and routine, in all departments 
 of Union Yarn, and Union Cloth Manufacture, Design, Tinting, 
 and Finishing. 
 
 In the effective framing and issue of the book, I desire to 
 express my appreciation of the help courteously rendered by 
 the Publishers. 
 
 R. B. 
 
 HEADINGLEY, LEEDS. 
 
 17th December, 1919. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE . . . . ;;Y . . . .V 
 
 SECTION I 
 
 BI-FIBRED MANUFACTURES 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 YARN AND FABRIC . . , . . . . I 
 
 1. Group Types of Union Manufactures 2. Relative Filament 
 Values 3. Bi-fibred Yarn Production 4. Mixtures of Cotton and 
 Wool 5. Technicalities Woollen Practice 6. Staple Equality 
 7. Union Worsted Yarn Preparation 8. Fineness of Fibre and 
 Spinning Property 9. Function and Use of Cotton in Carded and 
 Combed Yarns 10. Blends Wool and Cotton 11. Blends 
 Cotton and Wool 12. Qualitative Factors Bi-fibred Yarns 
 13. Union Yarns Systems of Modifying 14. Folded- Yarn 
 Unions 15. Bi-fibred and Union Twist Yarns Compared 16. 
 Two Varieties of Multi-fold Union Threads 17. Ordinary Cate- 
 gory of Union Twists 18. Factors Controlling Filament Percen- 
 tages and Yarn Counts 19. Union Yarns and Quality of Manufac- 
 tured Product 20. Loom-made Unions 21. Textural Methods 
 of Combining Yarns Spun of Different Materials 22. Comparison 
 of Folded-Yarn and Woven Unions 23. Utility of Cotton as Warp 
 Yarn in Union Manufactures 24. Varieties of Woollen and 
 Worsted Weft Yarns 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 COLOURIZATION . ..... . .28 
 
 25. Manufacturing Elements and Colour Quality 26. Tinting 
 Value of Textile Fibres 27. Yarn Structure a Colour Modifier 
 28. Thread Consistency and Shade Contrasts 29. Tone Differen- 
 tiations and Fabric Build 30. Yarn Assortment and Textural 
 Features 31. Finishing Methods and Colour Tone 32. Colour 
 Technology Bi-fibred Manufactures 33. Conditions in which 
 Textile Materials are Dyed 34. Union Specimens Piece-dyed 
 35. Colourization of Spun and Woven Products 36. Tinted 
 Folded Yarn Hank-dyed 37. Union Figured Specimen in Two 
 Shades Piece-dyed 38. Yarn Composition for Mixture-shade 
 Dyeing 39. Filament Blend A basic Factor 40. Effects of 
 Carded and Combed Yarns in moderating Mixture-shade Quality 
 41. Schemes of Manufacture and Mixture-shade Variation 42. 
 Pattern Elements due to Spun Yarns differing in Structure 43. 
 Principles in Mixture-shade Production 44. Union Fabrication 
 and Piece -dyeing 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 TEXTURAL TONING . . . . 40 
 
 45. Colour Practice and Mixture-shade Dyeing 46. Six-shade 
 Toning 47. Maintaining a Plus Wool Ingredient 48. Tertiary 
 and Secondary Mixture Shades 49. A Scale of Eight Tones 50. 
 Mixture-shade Scale Extension 51. Construction of a 12-Tone 
 
x CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Scale 52. Colour Unit and Manufacturing Conditions 53. 
 Primary Value of Colour Tone and how Determined 54. A Con- 
 stant Factor in Three-tone Mixtures 55. Deductions with 
 Examples 56. Yam Distribution and Textural Evenness 57. 
 Filament Proportions in the Yarn and Union-Fabric Quality 
 58. Emphasizing Textural Details 59. Pattern in Bi-fibred 
 Yarn Fabrics 60. Correlative Yarn Qualities and Textural 
 Style 61. Inversion of Filament Percentages 62. Effectiveness 
 of the Scheme in Experimental Range Making and Dyeing Pro- 
 cedure 63. Research Issues and Sectional Investigation 64. 
 Economy in Bulk Production 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 PATTERN ORIGINATION . . . . . . 78 
 
 65. Loom-Coloured and Piece -Coloured Design Practice 66. 
 Analysis of the Two Systems of Designing 67. Dyeing and 
 Intensity of Colour Unit 68. Variation of Textural Features 
 69. Facilities in Experimental Pattern Production 70. Methods 
 of Style Origination 71. Diversification of Shade Tones and 
 Experiment in Design 72. Examples in Yarn Assortment and 
 Pattern Construction 73. Yarn Distribution and Shade Toning of 
 the Cloth -74. Effect of Elaborating the Weave Basis, with Speci- 
 mens 75. End-and-End Warping and Compound of Three Weave 
 Types 76. Mingled-shade Tones and Pattern Definition 77. 
 Application of Nine-tone Scheme 78. Indefinite and Decided 
 Contrasts 79. Toned and Mezzotint Contrasts 80. Accentuated 
 Warp and Weft Contrasts 81. Tone Contrasts and Weave 
 Types 82. Design Elements and Manufacturing Practice Illus- 
 trated 83. Shade Tonatiori in Striped, Checked, and Figured 
 Styles 84. Suitable delineation of Textural Details 85. Figured 
 Examples with Shaded Stripes in the Warp 
 
 SECTION II 
 
 COMPOUND- YARN FABRICS 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES . . . . . .110 
 
 86. The Ordinary Type of Union -Twist Threads 87. Union Yarn 
 a Basis of Textural Production 88. Twist Thread Structure and 
 Manufacturing Latitude 89. Paramount Material Factor in 
 Union Twists 90. Structural Variations in Union Yarns 91. 
 Manufacturing Provision in Union-Twist Counts 92. Cotton and 
 Linen Union Threads 93. Silk Twist Yarns 94. The Produc- 
 tive Problem Tabulated Examples 95. Weft Thread Fila- 
 ment Composition 96. Qualities of the Weft Yarn 97. Methods 
 of Applying Two- and Three-fold Threads 98. Weave Elements 
 and Twist-Yarn Goods 99. Union-Twist Yarn Fabrics Tables 
 100. Worsted Union-Twist Textures 101. Compound Yarns and 
 Degree of Twine in the Thread Units 102. Weave Design in 
 Worsted-Twist Manufactures 103. Warp-face Principle of Inter- 
 texture 104. Cotton and Linen Union Yarns and Natural 
 Tinted Contrasts 
 
CONTENTS xi 
 
 CHAPTER VI PAGB 
 
 TEXTURAL STUDIES . . . . . . .146 
 
 105. The Object and Scope of the Studies 106. Covert Coating 
 and Twilled Textures 107. Typical Specimens Analysed 108. 
 Single and Backed Structures 109. Contrasts betwixt Single and 
 Twist Yarn Textural Features 110. Interchanging of the Counts 
 of the Thread Units 111. Limitations in " Count " Differentia- 
 tions 112. Equalization of Fabric Quality in Broad Striped 
 Patterns 113. Twists, Single -quality, and Bi-fibred Yarns Com- 
 bined 114. Specimens in Multi-quality Yarns 115. A Checked 
 Example 116. Patterns with Light-coloured Grounds 117. 
 Variations in the Diameters of the Single-thread Units 118. Bi- 
 fibred Yarns and Twist Threads 119. Union -Worsted Twist and 
 Union-Worsted Yarn Fabrics 120. Patterns with Dark-toned 
 Grounds 121. Utility of Double-make Cloths in Yarn Distribu- 
 tion 122. Compound Checking in Yarns of Different Structures 
 
 123. Linen and Cotton Twist Unions 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 MULTI-FOLD TYPES . . . T . . .172 
 
 124. Yarns Diversified and Yarns Symmetrical in Formation 
 
 125. Surface Modification of Folded Yarns -126. Production of 
 Thread Types 127. Tensility and Firmness of Folded-Thread 
 Structures 128. Twist Yarns and Textural Characteristics 129. 
 Reversible Fabric in Compound Cotton and Linen Yarns 130. 
 Clearness and Definition of Interlacing Details 131. Contrasts 
 in Folded- Yarn Counts 132. Prominence and in relief Character 
 of Fabric Elements woven in Multi-fold Yarns 133. Yarn 
 Doubling and Pattern Origination 134. Diamond and Chain 
 Twists Specimens 135. Specked and Spotted Yarns^136. 
 Duplicating Spottings and Colourings 137. Specimen in Folded 
 Cotton and Linen and Doubled Silk Threads 138. Mohair and 
 Lustre Materials in Knopped Yarns -139. Rougher Grades of 
 Fabrics and Multi-ply Union Threads 140. Mingled and Mottled 
 Colour Toning 141. Folded Union Yarn Structures and Piece 
 Dyeing 142. Curl Yarns 143. Finishing Practice and Fancy 
 Folded Yarn Effects 
 
 SECTION III 
 
 WOVEN UNIONS 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 LOOMING PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . 201 
 
 144. Tinting Practice and Bi-fibred and Woven Unions 145. 
 Classification of Yarn -Woven Unions 146. Yarn Admixtures in 
 the Warping and Wefting 147. Yarn Diameters in Admixed - 
 Yarn Fabrics 148. Structural Examples 149. Rendering One 
 Series of Yarns invisible in the Cloth 150. The Weft Unit 151. 
 " Weave " Method of concealing either the WARP or WEFT 
 Threads 152. Specimens in WARP and in WEFT Effects 153. 
 Design Composition for WEFT Scheme 154. Converting Weaves 
 into WARP or WEFT Plans 155. Pattern work in WARP- or WEFT- 
 face Unions 156. Manufacturing Data Piece-dyed and Loom- 
 coloured Unions -157. Three Systems of Construction 158. 
 Methods of Emphasizing Weave Details 159. Yarn "Twine" 
 
xii CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 and Union-Twill Movement 160. Effect of " Twine " Direction 
 in the Yarn in Union Textures 161. Tone Differentiation in 
 Dyeing due to Yarn Twine and Structure 162. Experimental 
 Schemes 163. Curtailment of Weave Diversification 164. 
 Utility of Yarn Quality and Structure in Design Delineation 
 165. Raising Action and Design Quality 166. Warp Scheme of 
 Fabrication 167. Ornamentative Style Origination 168. Weave 
 Elements and Pattern Values 169. Bi-fibred and Single-Quality 
 Yarn Schemes 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION . . . 23 fi 
 
 170. Woven Types of Thin Union Fabrics 171. Lustre Dress 
 Fabrics 172. Material Characteristics 173. " Lustre " and Yarn 
 Contrasts 174. Textural Sheen 175. Standardized Lustre Manu- 
 factures 176. Glaces, Sicilians, Plain Orleans and Italians 177. 
 Russell Cords, Poplins, Repps, and Crepes 178. Designing Prin- 
 ciples in Lustres 179. Pattern as a Resultant of Weave Ele- 
 ments 180. Alpaca Coatings 181. Figured Lustres 182. Wor- 
 sted Warp and Silk Weft Structures 183. Worsted and Cotton 
 Warp with Silk Weft for Pattern Production 184. Essentiality 
 of Warping and Wefting Orders 185. Gimped-Yarn Ground 
 Textures 186. Two-ply Warp and Weft Thin Cloths 187. 
 Worsted and Silk- Warp Schemes of Intertexture 188. Variations 
 in Ground Characteristics 189. Cotton and Artificial Silk 
 Example 190. Bordered Patterns in Worsted and Silk- Warp 
 Principle 191. Acquirement of Decorative Styles 192. Silk 
 Warp and Worsted Weft 193. Warp Matelasse Type 194. Silk 
 or Cotton and Worsted Yarns in Warp and Weft 195. Weave 
 Units arid Colour Arrangement 196. Compound Light or Thin 
 Fabrics formed in Open- and Fine-Set Structures 197. Analysis 
 of Looming Practice 198. Surface Features 199. Net or Lace 
 Grounds 200. Crepons 201. Characteristic Qualities of Surface 
 Waviness in Fabrics 202. Compound Weft-Weave Crepons 
 203. Modification of Weaving Plan 204. Double-Weave Undu- 
 lated Textures 205. Technique in Crepon Manufacture 206. 
 Leno and Gauze Structures 207. Combinations of Lappet and 
 Gauze 208. Microscopic Study of Gauze and Lappet Specimens 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 STRUCTURAL SCHEMES CLOTHS SUBSTANTIAL IN BUILD 306 
 
 209. Features in Union Cloth Manufacture 210. Discovery of 
 Methods of Utilizing Waste Fibrous Materials 211. Waste Fibre 
 in Manufacturing Processes 212. Recovery of Filament from 
 Spun Yarns and from Union Fabrics 213. Establishing a Dis- 
 tinctive System of Carding 214. Union-Cloth Construction 215. 
 Incompleteness of Dyeing Procedure 216. Class and Grade of 
 Union Trading 217. Single- Weave Unions and Concealment of 
 the Cotton- Warp Yarn 218. Four Structural Types of Thick 
 Manufactures 219. Weight -per- Yard Compass 220. Examples 
 in Two- and Three-ply Weft Cloths 221. Sectional Drawings 
 222. Possible Distinctions in Face and Backing Weaves 223 
 Three-ply Weft Structures 224. Weaving Schemes Multi-ply 
 
CONTENTS xiii 
 
 Weft Unions 225. Analysis of Wefting Data 226. The Use of 
 Centre Weft Yarns 227. Colouring Practices 228. Application 
 of Mixture-Yarn Shades 229. Worsted Warp, Cotton and 
 Woollen Weft Types of Fabrication 230. Diagramatic Exam- 
 ples 231. Setting Practices 232. Cloth Quality in Bi-Wefted 
 and in Cotton and Worsted Warp Unions 233. Two-ply Warp 
 Union Specimens 234. Productive Economics and Weave Plans 
 235. Structural Arrangements and Fabric Substance and Thick- 
 ness 236. Double-make Unions Wadded 237. Union Com- 
 pound Cloths with Outer and Inner layers of Yarn 238. Three-ply 
 Manufactures Sectionally illustrated 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 FIG. 
 
 1. Fancy Yarn Specimen Union Worsted . 31 
 
 2. A & B. Worsted and Artificial Silk Textures . 
 
 3. Woven Astrakhan Union Yarn ... .36 
 
 4. Hank-dyed Folded Yarns . . 40 
 5 & OA. Figured Union in Two Shades Piece-dyed . . 41 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 0. Neutral Grey Shades Bi-fibred Mixtures . . 50 
 
 7. Eight-tone Shade (Single-process Dyeing) / ^ 
 
 8. Eight-tone Shade (Two-process Dyeing) . . ) 
 
 9. Twelve-tone Shade (Single-process Dyeing) . [ r g 
 10. Twelve-tone Shade (Two-process Dyeing) . ) 
 
 1. Bi-fibred Weft Yarn Fabric . . .01 
 
 2. Blouse Check (Piece-dyed) . . (53 
 
 3. Bi-fibred Yarn Tweed .... . . 0(3 
 
 4. Bi-fibred Yarn Saxony (Raided) 00 
 
 5. Bi-fibred Yarn Worsted . . . . .08 
 10. Bi-fibred Yarn Fine Woollen 08 
 
 17. Bi-fibred Yarn Motor Cloth 71 
 
 18. Bi-fibred Yarn Vesting . .73 
 
 19. Bi-fibred Cotton and Worsted Yarn Twilled Texture 
 
 75 
 
 20. Bi-fibred Cotton and Worsted Yarn Check 
 
 21. Bi-fibred Cotton and Worsted Yarn, Spotted Pattern / 
 
 22. Bi-fibred Cotton and Worsted Yarn, Venetian -twill Stripe ) 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 23. Bi-fibred Yarn Colour Sketch 14 -Shaft Plan 
 23A. Union Yarn Weave Design for Fig. 23 . 
 
 24. Union Yarn Honeycomb Style . . ; / 
 
 25. Union Yarn Weave Design for Fig. 24 . . . ) 
 20. Two-Shade Bi-fibred Yarn Pattern . . / 
 
 27. Two-Shade Bi-fibred Yam Pattern I. Modification f 
 
 28. Two-Shade Bi-fibred Yam Pattern II. Modification / 
 20. Two-Shade Bi-fibred Yarn Pattern III. Modification f 
 
 30. Two-Shade Bi-fibred Yarn Pattern IV. Modification . 85 
 
 31. Three-Shade Bi-fibred Yarn Pattern Dark Ground . 80 
 
 32. Three-Shade Bi-fibred Yarn Pattern Intermediate 
 
 Ground . . .... . . 88 
 
 33. Three-Shade Bi-fibred Yarn Pattern Light Ground 
 
 xv 
 
x vi ILL USTRA TION8 
 
 FIG. PAQE 
 
 34. Bi-fibred Yarn Pattern Dark and Intermediate Shades / , 
 
 35. Design for Fig. 34 . . . . . .- } 
 
 30. Line Key Pattern, showing possible Tone Gradation in 
 
 Bi-fibred Yarns . 90 
 
 37. Design for Fig. 30 . . . . . . .91 
 
 38. Checked Compound Subdued Contrasts . 1 
 
 39. Checked Compound Accentuated Contrasts . . 
 
 40. Minute Check Effect (10-Shaft Weave) Medium Contrast [ 
 
 41. Broken Small Checking .... 
 
 42. End-and-End Stripe ...... \ 
 
 43. Design for Fig. 42, .93 
 
 44. End-and-End Stripe (Mat and Twill base) 
 
 45. Design for Fig. 44 . ... . . . *>. 94 
 
 40. Fancy Striping (End-and-End Warping) ... . 93 
 
 47. Design for Fig. 46 ,94 
 
 48. Bi-flbred Worsted and Cotton Stripe . . > . . .. 90 
 
 49. Design for Fig. 48 97 
 
 50. Stripe with Two Qualities of Weft Yarn ... 90 
 
 51. Design for Fig. 50 97 
 
 52. Stripe, Wefted 3 and 3 90 
 
 53. Design for Fig. 52 97 
 
 54. Stripe, Wefted 2 and 2 , 90 
 
 55. Design for Fig. 54 .... . 99 
 50 & 57. Crepe W T eaves, Checked 100 
 
 58. Twilled Matted Weave . [ 104 
 
 59. Open-Weave Mat Checking ..... i 
 
 00. Hopsack ground, with Line Checking .... 105 
 
 01. Twilled Weave, with Warp and Weft Elements Inter- 1 
 
 changed ....... 
 
 02. Transposed Twilled Base . . | 100 
 
 03. Diamond Pattern in Weave Contrasts . 
 
 04. Angled-3 and-3 Twill and Elongated Mat Stripe . 
 
 05.* Fancy Mat and Twill Combination . \ 
 
 (50. Whip Cord and Twilled Mat Combination . ( 108 
 
 07. Check in Inverted Twilled Mats . 
 
 08. Cut Checking ... / 1()Q 
 
 09. Checking in Weave Contrasts > 
 
 70. Waved Figured Effect ... .113 
 
 71. Leaf Figured Effect . . 114 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 72 A, B, c. Warp Twills. 2 picks in a Shed . . . i if?A 
 
 73A to F. Twilled \Vhip Cords . \ 
 
 74A to F. Pronounced Warp Twills . . . .132 
 
ILL USTRA TIONS xvii 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 75A to E. Striped Ribs . . 134 
 
 76A to E. Twilled Ribs 
 
 77A to F. Weft-characterised Twilled Bibs . 
 
 78A to E. Crepe Weaves 
 
 79. Warp and Weft Diamond-make Pattern . .142 
 
 80. Reversed Weave Check Plan (. ^44 
 
 81. Intersected Diagonal Twill . ' 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 147 
 
 82. Twist-warp Rib Design 
 82 A. Ribbed Specimen 
 
 83. Ribbed Style with Bi -fibred Warp Yarns 
 83A. Design for Fig. 83 
 
 84. Twist Warp and Weft Specimen . 
 
 85. Union Twist and Bi-fibred Yarn Twilled Cloth 
 
 85A. Design for Fig. 85 f 151 
 
 86. Union Twist and Bi-flbred Yarn Twilled Cloth (Raised) * 
 
 87. Union Twist Venetian . (. 152 
 
 88. Corded Pattern, Union Twist 
 
 89. Union Twist Pattern Thread Units Interchanged . ) 
 
 90. Compound Weave Stripe . ( ir ^ 
 90A. Design for Fig. 90 
 
 91. Union Twist Compound Weave Check . 
 
 91A. Design for Fig. 91 ... .156 
 
 92. Union Twist Yarn, Mingled Pattern (Light-coloured \ 
 
 Ground) . . ( 157 
 
 92A. Plan for Fig. 92 . 
 
 93. Union Twist Yarn Stripe . 
 93 A. Plan for Fig. 93 . 
 
 94. Union Yarn Worsted Open Structure . lfu> 
 94A. Plan for Fig. 94 . 
 
 95. Checked Compound Dark-coloured Ground . lfu 
 95A. Plan for Fig. 95 . 
 
 96 and 96B. Checked Compound Dark-coloured Ground ( ](U 
 96A. Plan for Fig. 96 . 
 
 97. Checked Compound Dark-coloured Ground . 
 97A. Plan for 97 ^ 
 
 98. Twist Yarn (Linen and Cotton) Twill . [ 170 
 
 99. Twist Yarn (Linen and Cotton) Check . 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 100. Neutral Grey Checked Texture with Twist-Yarn Features 173 
 
 ^01. Cotton Twist and Folded Cotton Yam Vesting . 174 
 
 lOlA. Sectional design for Figs. 101 and 102 . 17r> 
 
 102. Linen and Multi-folded Cotton Yarn Check . 
 
 B (1745) 
 
x viii ILL USTRA TIONS 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 103. Folded Yam and Twist Yarn Contrasts Mingled type of 
 
 Effect . . . 
 
 103A. Plan for Pig. 103 
 
 104 and 104A. Linen Union with Folded Twist Ends and Picks 
 
 105 and 106. Worsted and Multi-fold Chain Twist-Yarn \ 
 
 Vestings / 170 
 
 105A. Plan for Figs. 105 and 100 
 
 107. Specked or Spotted Effect Piece-dyed Texture . / 
 
 108. Raised Spotted Yarn Woven Specimen ) 
 
 109. Duplicated Spot Yarn Cotton Fabric . . . .184 
 109A. Design for Fig. 109 . . . . . . 185 
 
 110. Mohair Spotted Yam Fabric ..... 180 
 
 111. Coarse-fibred Specimen, composed of Single and Folded 
 
 Yarn 187 
 
 112. Knopped Yarn Cheviot . . . . . [ 
 
 113. Small Curl and Irregularly Knopped Yam . . ( 
 
 114. Neutral Grey Striped Cheviot in Single and Knopped Yarns 190 
 114A. Spotted and Knopped Yarn Costume Cloth (Raised) . 191 
 
 115. Tapestry Fabric . 195 
 
 110. Curl Yarn Fabric (weft inserted) . . . . { 
 
 llflA. Plan for Fig. 116 . . ., . . ) 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 117. Plan of Plain Fabric Thick Counts of Warp, Small 
 Counts of Weft Yarn ..... 
 
 117A. Plan of Plain Fabric Two Qualities of Warp, one Yarn 
 Counts, and one Quality of Weft, and Thick Yarn 
 
 Counts ........ 
 
 1 17B. Plan of Plain Fabric Warp and Weft of the same Counts 
 
 but in Three Qualities of Yarn .... 
 1 1 7c. Plan of Plain Fabric Warp and Weft of the same Counts, 
 
 Thick and Small Weft Yarn .... 
 118. Plan of Plain Fabric Thick and Small Yarn Counts in 
 
 Warp, Crossed with Small Counts of Weft . 
 118A. Plan of Plain Fabric Thick and Small Yarn Counts in 
 
 Warp, Crossed with Thick and Small Counts of Weft 
 118B. Plan of Plain Fabric Thick and Small Yarn Counts in 
 
 Warp, Crossed with Thick Count of Weft . 
 1.19. Plan of Plain Fabric Warp, 1 thick and 2 small threads, 
 
 Weft, as Warp 
 
 120. Plan of Plain Fabric Warp, 1 thick. 1 medium, and 1 
 
 small thread, Weft same as Warp 
 
 121. Woven Specimen, Section A, Light Warp; Section B, 
 
 Neutral Grey Warp, each Crossed with Dark Weft 
 121 A. Design for above . . . y . * 
 12 IB. Section of 121 A, prepared for 1 and 1 Wefting. 
 
 202 
 
 206 
 
 207 
 
 210 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS xix 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 122. Specimen 1 -and- 1 Warping, Cotton Weft . > , \ 
 
 123. Specimen 1 -and- 1 Wef ting, Cotton Warp . -. \ 
 124A. Common Twill, arranged for Warp Face, Weft Concealed, 
 
 Union - 212 
 
 124B. Common Twill, arranged for Weft Face, Warp Concealed, 
 
 Union . . t 
 125. 12 -Shaft Twill 
 
 125A. 12-Shaft Twill arranged for Warp Union 
 
 213 
 
 126. 12-Shaft Twill . . . . ... . 
 
 126A. 12-Shaft Twill arranged for Weft Union 
 
 127. Warp Development, Fancy Twilled Check . . .215 
 
 128. 3-and-3 Twill Weft Face Union . . . . / 
 
 129. Twill Weft Face Union . . . . ( 
 
 130. Irregular Mat, Weft Face Union ( 
 
 131. Striped Twill Weft Face Union . . . . \ 
 
 132. Warp-face Twill (Weft Invisible) Union 
 
 133. Warp-face Twill (Weft Invisible) Union 
 
 134. Warp-face Lozenge Pattern (Weft Invisible) Union 
 
 135. Woven Pattern, Warp-face Union (Weft Invisible) . 
 
 136. Micro-photographs of Cheviot and Crossbred Worsted \ 
 
 Yarns . .... . . . ( 225 
 
 137. Reversible Weft Union ) 
 
 138. Reversible Weft Union, Rug Design . . . .226 
 
 139. Warp-face Union, Figured Rep 227 
 
 140. Sketch for Warp-face Union Pattern, Detached Spotting 228 
 
 141. Sketch for Warp-face Union Pattern " All-over " 
 
 Figuring . . . . . . . 229 
 
 142. Warp Twill, Ground Make Pattern . . 
 
 143. Waved Twill, Ground Make Pattern . 
 
 144. Checked Warp Cord . . . ; . . ' , 
 
 145. Warp-face Diamond Make . 
 
 146. Striped Warp Cord 
 
 147. Warp Prunelle, Reversible Structure . . 
 
 148. Sketch Warp-face Union Pattern, Three Types of Detail 232 
 
 149. Warp Structure of Plan for Bi-nbred Yarn . . ) 
 149A. Woven Specimen for Fig. 149 . . . . f 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 150. Boret's Specimen . ., . ' . * . 237 
 
 151. 15lA. Weave Types, Lustres . . . . . 237-238 
 
 152. 152A, 152B. Striped Lustre Plans . . .. . 238-240 
 
 153. Alpaca Coating Specimen . ; , , . . / 
 
 154. Alpaca Coating Weave . . . . . . j 
 
 155. Lustre Specimen, Plain Ground . ;.'., . \ ._ 
 155A. Sectional Plan . . . . . . . ) 
 
 156. Lustre Specimen, Twill Ground . V . . 243 
 
xx ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG PAGE 
 
 15(5A. Sectional Plan . . . . , . .244 
 
 157. Striped Ground, Silk Weft . . *-'. . 246 
 157A. Sectional Plan . . . . . . ... 245 
 
 158. Printed Warp, Silk Weft . . . .. '._ . 247 
 
 159. Gimped Worsted Yarn Ground and Silk Pattern Features 250 
 159A. Sectional Plan . . . .... . 254 
 
 160. Worsted Warp, Silk Weft Spotting 251 
 
 160A. Sectional Plan 255 
 
 161. Silk and Worsted Warp with Worsted Weft . . .251 
 161A. Sectional Plan .-255 
 
 162. Worsted Ground and Silk Warp Spotting . . .256 
 
 162A. Sectional Plan .257 
 
 168. Design for Checked Worsted Ground and Silk Spotting . 250 
 
 164. Design for Extra-Silk Warp Figuring, Worsted Ground 261 
 
 165. Worsted and Silk Warp, Serpentine Effect . . / 
 
 166. Cotton Ground and Artificial Silk Warp Pattern . \ 
 
 166 A. Sectional Plan 263 
 
 167. Bordered Worsted Costume Cloth in Extra Silk- Warp 
 
 Figuring ......... 265 
 
 167A & 167B. Sectional Plans 267 
 
 168. Matelasse Dress Style, Silk and Cotton Warp, Worsted 
 
 Weft . .268 
 
 168 A. Sectional Plan 269 
 
 169. Silk Warp, Worsted and Gimped Yarn Weft . . .270 
 169A. Sectional Plan 271 
 
 170. Admixed Yarn Specimen . . . . . .272 
 
 170A. Sectional Plan 273 
 
 171. Modified Pattern Form, Silk and Worsted . . {974 
 171A. Sectional Plan ....... f 
 
 172. Specimen in Worsted and Silk, Plain and Open-Twilled 
 
 Weaves 275 
 
 172 A. Sectional Plan 276 
 
 173. Fine and Loose Set Textural Plans 2 & 1 basis . { 277 
 
 174. Fine and Loose Set Textural Plans 3 & 1 basis . ) ( 
 
 175. Fine and Loose Set Textural Plans 4 & 2 basis * . 278 
 
 176. Fine and Loose Set Textural Plans 5 & 1 basis . . 279 
 
 177. Open Net Cotton over Silk Texture . ; . . . 281 
 
 178. Open Net Worsted over Silk Texture ; . . . 282 
 
 179. Lace Ground in Mercerized Cotton . . . 285 
 179A. Sectional Design. . . ... * .287 
 
 180. Plain Weave Crepon, Worsted and Silk . . . ) 9gg 
 
 181. Crepon, Woven, 2 pks. Plain and 2 pks. Twill . ) 
 
 182. Ridged Surface Texture Cotton, Worsted, and Silk . 289 
 182B. Sectional Plan ........ 291 
 
 182A. Undulated or Waved and Ridged Surface, Cotton and Silk 289 
 
 183. Crepon Spotting . | 1 ... . . | . .- , 292 
 
ILL USTRA TIONS xxi 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 183A. Sectional Plan . . . /' . . . . 293 
 
 184. Striped Crepon, Worsted and Silk. . . . / 
 184A. Sectional Plan . . . . . . . f 
 
 185. Figured Crepon . . < . - * 295 
 
 186. Gauze Striping . . : :j ... . . . 298 
 
 186A. Looming Draft . . <. . . . . / 
 
 186B. Looming Plan i . v --"; . . . ) 
 
 187. Gauze and Lappet . .. . ... . 300 
 
 188. Micro-photograph of Fig. 187 . . . . . .302 
 
 188A. Do. do. Obverse view . .. , . . 303 
 
 189. Lappet (Silk and Cotton) . . .' . . . 304 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 190. Weft Reversible Six-end Sateen . ./ . . . 313 
 190A. Sectional Sketch. . . . . . . .310 
 
 191 . Eight-end Weft Sateen Face and 4-end Weft Sateen Back, 
 
 woven 2 picks face and 1 pick back . . . .313 
 191A. Sectional Sketch 317 
 
 192. Reversible Eight-end Weft Sateen, 2 Picks Face and 
 
 2 Picks Back . . <. . , . . . .313 
 192A. Sectional Sketch 317 
 
 193. Three-ply Weft Structure Six-end Sateen Face and Back, 
 
 Prunelle Twill Centre . . . . . . 313 
 
 193A. Sectional Sketch. . . . . . . .317 
 
 194. Three-ply Weft Structure Eight-end Weft Sateen Face 
 
 and Back, 2-and-2 Twill Centre . . . . . 318 
 
 194A. Sectional Sketch. ". . .. . . - . . . . 321 
 
 195. Three-Ply Weft Structure Eight-end Weft Twill Face and 
 
 Back, 4-and-4 Twill Centre . . . . 318 
 
 195A. Sectional Sketch. . . . . . ^. . 321 
 
 196. Three-ply Weft Structure Eight-end Sateen Face and 
 
 Back, Plain Centre . . . . . . ,318 
 
 196A. Sectional Sketch. .... ., . . ,. .321 
 
 197. Warp Twill Face, Sateen Back, Sectional Sketch . 
 
 198. Five-end Sateen Face, Ten-end Weft Sateen back, 
 
 Sectional Sketch y 325 
 
 199. Twilled Face, Sixteen-end Weft Sateen Back, 2 Picks 
 
 Face, 1 Pick Back, Sectional Sketch . 
 
 200. Two-ply Warp Structure with Centre Cotton Weft, 
 
 Sectional Sketch . , . . . . . , 001 
 
 201. Two-ply Interchanging Warp Structure, Worsted and 
 
 Cotton Weft, Sectional Sketch . . 
 
 202. Two-ply Cloth, Cotton Warp Centre, Section . \ 
 
 203. Two-ply Cloth, Cotton Weft Centre, Section . I 336 
 
 204. Three-ply Cloth, Cotton Fabric Centre, Section . / 
 
TABLES 
 
 TABLE PAGE 
 
 I. Admixtures of Wool and Cotton Bi-fibred Yarn 
 
 Manufacture 11 & 12 
 
 II. Bi-Fibred Yarns Cotton and Wool . . . .13 
 
 III. Union-Twist Yarns 19-21 
 
 IV. Shade Gradation in Union Yarns . . . .51 
 V. Tertiary Mixture Shades 52 
 
 VI. Secondary-Colour Mixture Tints .... 53 
 VII. Eight-tone Bi-fibred Mixture Shade Wool Dyed ^ 
 VIII. Eight-tone Bi-fibred Mixture Shade Wool and Cotton ( 5(5 
 
 Dyed 
 
 IX. Twelve-tone Bi-fibred Brown Mixture Shade . | 
 X. Twelve-tone Bi-fibred Blue Mixture Shade . . \ 
 XI. Method of Style Origination and Extension . . 85 
 XII. Style Origination and Extension Compound of Three- 
 Yarn Structures . . . . . . .87 
 
 XIII. Indefinite and Mezzotint Contrasts (Warp and Weft) . 101 
 
 XIV. Accentuated Warp and Weft Contrasts . . . 103 
 XV. Union-Twist Yarn (Wool and Cotton) Fabrics . .128 
 
 XVI. Union-Twist Yarn (Cotton and Wool) Fabrics . .129 
 
 XVII. Union-Twist Yarn (Worsted and Cotton) Fabrics . 139 
 XVIII. Union-Twist Yarn (Worsted and Silk, and Cotton and 
 
 Silk) Fabrics 140 
 
 XIX. Classification of Yarn-Woven Unions. . . . 203 
 
 XX. Yarn Admixtures in Looming Simple-Weave Cloths . 205 
 XXI. Manufacturing Data Piece-dyed arid Loom-coloured 
 
 Unions . . . . ... . .217 
 
 XXII. Woven Types of Thin or Light Union Textures . . 239 
 
 XXIII. Systems of Lustre-Fabric Construction ." . . 248 
 XXIV. Russell Cords, Poplins and Crepes Examples in Setting 
 
 Practice . . , . . . . 253 
 
 XXV. Weaving Schemes Two- and Three-ply Weft Unions . 320 
 
 xxii 
 
SECTION I 
 
 BI-FIBRED MANUFACTURES 
 
UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 YARN AND FABRIC 
 
 1. Group Types of Union Manufactures. 2. Relative Filament 
 Values. 3. Bi-fibred Yarn Production. 4. Mixtures of Cotton and 
 Wool. 5. Technicalities Woollen Practice. 6. Staple Equality. 
 7. Union Worsted Yarn Preparation. 8. Fineness of Fibre and 
 Spinning Property. 9. Function and Use of Cotton in Carded and 
 Combed Yarns. 10. Blends Wool and Cotton. 11. Blends- 
 Cotton and Wool. 12. Qualitative Factors Bi-fibred Yarns. 
 13. Union Yarns Systems of Modifying. 14. Folded- Yam Unions. 
 15. Bi-fibred and Union-Twist Yarns Compared. 16. Two Varieties 
 of Multi-fold Union Threads. 17. Ordinary Category of Union Twists. 
 18. Factors Controlling Filament Percentages and Yarn Counts. 19. 
 Union Yarns and Quality of Manufactured Product. 20. Loom-made 
 Unions. 21. Textural Methods of Combining Yarns Spun of Different 
 Materials. 22. Comparison of Folded- Yarn and Woven Unions. 
 23. Utility of Cotton as Warp Yarn in Union Manufactures. 
 24. Varieties of Woollen and Worsted Weft Yarns. 
 
 1. Group Types of Union Manufactures. There are three 
 typical groups of union manufactures, namely 
 
 I. Bi- and Multi-fibred Yarns, employed in hosiery, frame- 
 and loom-made textures, and resulting from the admixture, 
 in the processes of thread preparation, of several varieties of 
 fibrous material, such as, animal, plant, and mineral filaments, 
 comprising wool and wool substitutes and cotton ; wool and 
 silk waste ; cotton and flax or cotton and rhea or ramie ; 
 wool, cotton and silk noils ; and hair or coarse wool and 
 asbestos. 
 
 II. Compound, Doubled or Folded Yarns, also applied in 
 the production of knitted, lace and woven structures, and formed 
 by twisting, into one yarn unit, separate threads of (a) cotton 
 and woollen or worsted ; (b) cotton and mohair or alpaca ; 
 
 i 
 
 1 (1745) 
 
TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 and silk.; 1 (d) cotton and silk ; (e) woollen or worsted, 
 cotton, and silk or artificial silk ; and of (/) linen or ramie, 
 worsted, and " organzine," " trame " or " spun " silk. 
 
 III. Woven, Lace or Knitted Fabrics, consisting of two or 
 more kinds of yarn, as cotton and woollen ; cotton and silk ; 
 linen and silk ; cotton and worsted, or cotton and cashmere, 
 alpaca or mohair ; worsted, cotton and silk, etc. 
 
 In the first instance, the union product is acquired by 
 combining at least two distinct classes of fibre in spinning 
 practice ; in the second, by combining, in the operation of 
 folding or twisting, a selected number of threads made of 
 different materials and by different systems of yarn con- 
 struction ; and in the third, by combining, in weaving, knitting 
 or lace making, several yarn structures distinguished from each 
 other in filament composition. Three methods of fabrication 
 are involved applicable, respectively, to (1) union-spun yarns, 
 (2) union-folded yarns, and (3) to union-yarn fabrics. As 
 however, bi-fibre and multi-ply union yarns are both used 
 in textual production, each method of work is common to 
 union-cloth manufacture. 
 
 2. Relative Filament Values. The quantitative values of 
 the classified filament ingredients are determined, in Group I, 
 by the percentages of the materials blended in the routine 
 of spinning these conforming with the quality and grade 
 of yarn required. But, in Group II, the fibrous ratios are 
 fixed by the relative diameters and lengths (i.e., weight equiv- 
 alents) of the special threads folded together in producing 
 the compound yarn ; and, in Group III, by the counts and 
 the ends per inch in the fabric of the various sorts of yarns 
 utilized. With the practice of filament admixture thus 
 diversified, the effects in the manufactured texture differ in 
 each class of union fabrication. To obtain, for example, a 
 cloth in which the fibrous products are promiscuously but 
 consistently intermingled, the union-yarn practice is the best 
 adapted. It results in a thread formation equally and sym- 
 metrically composed of every class of fibre ii\the raw materials 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 3 
 
 applied. This profusely-mixed filament property is imparted 
 to the woven and finished manufacture. On the other hand, 
 in the assortment of union-folded yarns, the individual threads 
 retain their distinctive characteristics and structural features 
 in the loom-made product. The intermixture of the fibrous 
 varieties is effectively carried out, giving the proportionate 
 quantities of each sort of fibre desired, but, in the texture, 
 their specific qualities and effects are clearly emphasized by 
 the thread-like condition in which they occur. Each separate 
 yarn in the multi-ply threads is traceable, and with it the 
 material cotton, wool, silk, etc. of which it is formed ; 
 whereas, in the union-spun yarn texture, the different materials 
 are only observed as commingled elements in the yarn sub- 
 stance of which the cloth is made. Other and pronounced 
 demarcations obtain in the grouping and combination of the 
 material factors in union woven fabrics. Here each variety 
 of thread, such as linen and silk, cotton and alpaca, woollen 
 and cotton, has a special function in the weaving process, so 
 that dissimilar kinds of yarn may be used in the warp, and in 
 the weft, for the face, the centre, and back of the fabric. This 
 union principle of manufacture also provides for the appli- 
 cation of one class of yarn to the ground and of other classes 
 of yarns to the design or pattern in the piece ; and for the 
 origination of economic cloth structures, by the employment 
 of yarns of distinctive materials and thicknesses for the for- 
 mation of the face, underside, or other specific positions in 
 the texture. 
 
 3. Bi-fibred Yarn Production. Bi- or multi-fibred yarns are 
 strictly composed of fibres differing in physical structure, 
 chemical analysis, and in technical properties for textile 
 manufacturing purposes ; or of such filament classifications 
 as specified in Group I. Admixtures or blends of wool, mungo, 
 shoddy, noils, flocks and other wool substitutes, or the com- 
 bination of several sorts of wool, cotton or flax, do not yield 
 union yarns in the sense defined. The fundamental factor 
 is the distinction in the qualities and structural nature of the 
 
4 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 fibres selected. This is the source of the compound yarn 
 acquired and of the union cloth manufactured. 
 
 Thus understood a mixture-fibred yarn, made of cotton and 
 wool, gives a union texture corresponding in filament quanti- 
 tative composition to a fabric woven with cotton and woollen 
 yarns. But, as explained, in one cloth the two materials are 
 so assimilated as to result in one fibrous substance ; while, 
 in the other, the cotton and wool ingredients remain separate 
 units, or in the yarn condition in which they are interlaced 
 in the operation of weaving. Ordinarily, a union-yarn pro- 
 duction, consisting of animal and vegetable fibre, is intended 
 to form a fabric having the surface features, and, as far as 
 feasible, the .serviceable characteristics of a cloth made of 
 yarns composed of the former variety of fibre. If, for instance, 
 the fibrous materials should be wool and cotton, the idea is a 
 union manufacture resembling a " pure " woollen or a " solid " 
 worsted, according to the scheme of yarn preparation prac- 
 tised. Obviously, this is only so in degree, for with the 
 increase of the percentage of cotton and the decrease of the 
 percentage of wool in the mixture, the wool value and quality 
 of the finished product are necessarily diminished. But, 
 having this objective in view, the complete amalgamation of 
 the filament units is the productive standard and industrial 
 result to be attained. 
 
 4. Mixtures of Cotton and Wool. In the admixture of cotton 
 and wool, which may be taken as illustrative of the yarn 
 structures comprised, two systems of blending are applied. 
 If the intention is the manufacture of a "carded-yarn " fabric, 
 the combination of the materials is effected in the operations 
 of teazing, scribbling and carding; and if a " combed-yarn " 
 fabric, in the processes of drawing, with a preliminary mixing 
 of the two varieties of fibre in the melangeur or blending 
 machine. Success, in both systems, is dependent on the 
 average staple lengths of the wool and cotton, the average 
 fineness of the fibres in each, and on the general adaptability 
 of the different materials for perfect affiliation, one with the 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 5 
 
 other, in the mechanical work of thread construction. Irre- 
 gular lengths of fibre in the wool, or an excessive aggregate 
 staple measurement as compared with that of the cotton, 
 renders the thorough and effective admixture of the materials 
 difficult in both the carding and drawing methods of procedure. 
 
 The amount of carding surface in the machinery employed 
 may lessen the influence of the disparity between the staple 
 lengths, but it does not rectify or eliminate the defects which 
 arise from this cause. In the treatment of the longer and freer 
 wool staple, the shorter and closer cotton staple is not suffi- 
 ciently opened, nor are the individual fibres satisfactorily 
 intermingled. The cotton units in such a mixture of materials 
 develop a disposition to cluster, and also to pass in this state 
 into the carded sliver. Hence all the irregularities in yarn 
 structure usually traceable to imperfect carding Happiness 
 and unevenness in the condensed thread, and a spun thread 
 variable in filament density, admixture and composition are 
 liable to ensue from the selection of extremes in staple lengths 
 when animal and vegetable fibres are blended, carded, and made 
 into one quality of yarn. 
 
 5. Technicalities Woollen Practice. Assuming that mate- 
 rials of a suitable character are combined, the principal techni- 
 calities requiring attention, in the manufacture of union yarns 
 equalized in fibre consistency, relate to the construction of 
 the carding machines used ; the setting of the parts of the 
 scribbler, the intermediate, carder and condenser ; and the 
 covering of the feed and delivery rollers, the cylinders, workers, 
 strippers, doffers and other rollers with card clothing of the 
 correct " counts " and " crown " for the efficient treatment 
 of the wool and cotton staples. 
 
 First, three machines per set are preferable to two, though 
 the latter may coincide in carding surface with the former, 
 inasmuch as the third machine provides for an extra trans- 
 ference of the material, in the process of sliver-making, by its 
 removal from the intermediate and conveyance on to the 
 carder. This arrangement, in presenting the fibres in a 
 
6 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 changed relation to the feed rollers from that in which they are 
 cleared from the cylinder of the preceding machine, increases 
 the amount of filament straightening, crossing and distribu- 
 tion, and this is favourable to the complete mixing of different 
 varieties of raw material in yarn production. 
 
 Second, the setting practice must enable the wool and the 
 cotton to be each fully separated and re-combined fibre by 
 fibre, and also cleanly conveyed from one series of active 
 rollers to another. A mean setting of the parts of the machines, 
 betwixt the closeness or gauge applicable in the working of 
 either material independently, is advantageous. It must be 
 progressive, or augment in fineness of gauge, from worker to 
 worker and from cylinder to cylinder, reaching a higher carding 
 efficiency in advancing from scribbler to intermediate and from 
 the latter to the carder. 
 
 Third, tl e counts of the card clothing should be systemat- 
 ically graduated or raised in fineness at each succeeding working 
 and stripping point and in each machine in the set, effecting 
 with the setting practice, a consistently more searching card- 
 ing action, from the entrance of the material into the first 
 machine to its clearance from the cylinder of the carder as a 
 web of composite and cohesive fibres, and of equal flexibility in 
 all portions of its structural formation. For dividing this web 
 into continuous strips of like widths and filament density, the 
 tape system of condensing is convenient on account of the 
 number of slivers it affords the means of producing, and also 
 on account of the adaptability of the system to the preparation of 
 the counts of sliver appropriate for medium and fine spinning.* 
 
 6. Staple Equality. Equality, or rather approximate even- 
 ness, in staple length, is valuable in the construction of combed or 
 worsted union yarns, more especially in the drawing operations 
 in which the mixing of the different kinds of slivers is carried 
 out. Up to and including the process of combing each variety 
 of fibre, such as wool and cotton, or wool and silk waste, 
 is treated separately. This practice has certain advantages 
 
 * See Chapter III of Woollen and Worsted, by the same Author. 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 7 
 
 over the carded yarn principle. It provides a prepared 
 material in which the fibrous units are suitably classified and 
 grouped in parallel relation, the shorter and irregular lengths 
 of fibre being removed in the combing action. The materials 
 wool, cotton or other fibre when in the form of combed tops 
 or slubbings, are in a useful condition for blending with each 
 other and in definite proportionate quantities. 
 
 Should, however, there be a marked discrepancy in the staple 
 lengths of the respective slubbings, the operation of drawing 
 would present a number of technical problems. This will be 
 understood from the nature and objects of the drawing routine 
 the straightening of each class of fibre and levelling of the com- 
 pound sliver by repeated attenuation and successive doublings. 
 It is not only sought to prepare a roving of wool and cotton 
 with the materials correctly assorted, but a roving in which 
 the several sorts of fibre are systematically evened and arranged 
 in lineal order. Such filament conditions, in the resultant or 
 roved thread, are attainable providing the measure of drafting, 
 applied in each drawing frame, is simultaneously and con- 
 sistently sustained by every kind of fibre combined, but not 
 otherwise. With the mixing of staples differing in length to 
 such a degree that the adjustment of the drafting rollers 
 distance from centre to centre cannot be made to equalize 
 the tension and action on each material, faulty sliver, roving, 
 and yarn production would ensue. The difference between 
 the longer and the shorter staples should not prevent the 
 determination of a mean draft, or stretch, intermediate betwixt 
 the two, that would be operative in drawing out and lining 
 every variety of fibre of which the staples are composed. 
 
 7. Union Worsted Yarn Preparation. Blending, for union 
 worsted yarn, is done on the French system of drawing and 
 spinning. By combing the several materials on the same 
 principle as in the Heilman type of machine, a quality and 
 structure of top sliver is obtained, whether made of wool, 
 ramie, cotton or silk, suitable for admixture purposes. The 
 two or more kinds of prepared-combed slubbings, selected for 
 
8 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 combination, are, in the first instance, run together in the 
 melangeur. The multiple of union slubbings thus made for 
 treatment at the first drawing frame, and also at subsequent 
 frames, is modified by its combined weight per a fixed 
 number of yards, the amount of draft in the frame, and the 
 counts of doubled sliver required. The function of drawing 
 is to reduce the sliver resultant by degrees, or until it becomes 
 a roving of a suitable size for spinning. The process is 
 identical in character in the series of five or six machines 
 employed. It consists (1) in passing the sliver doublings 
 between two pairs of rollers differentiated in surface velocity ; 
 (2) in carrying the material through the pins of the porcupine 
 roller placed in an intermediate relation to the two sets of 
 drafting rollers ; and (3) in frictionally forming the mixed 
 but levelled groups of fibres into a soft thread, by carrying 
 them between a pair of leathers having a rotary and side-to- 
 side movement. This system of roving preparation is, at 
 every stage, adapted for the commingling, and length equali- 
 zation, of fibrous materials differing in quality and structural 
 properties. Not inserting a percentage of " false " twist into 
 the slivers down the drawing, as is done on the English type 
 of machine, is an essential gain ; while the plan of conveying 
 the slivers over a revolving pinned roller, and of converting 
 them into a thread-like form by the oscillatory traverse of the 
 rubbing leathers, induces a complete admixture of the different 
 fibres with a minimum displacement of their straight-line or 
 parallel relationship. These processes being duplicated at each 
 drawing box, a roving is acquired composite and balanced in 
 fibrous quality, that is of a suitable structure for spinning into 
 a perfectly-mixed union worsted yarn. 
 
 8. Fineness of Fibre and /Spinning Property. Aggregate 
 filament fineness, in the materials assorted, is of basic import- 
 ance. It affects the spinning property or the counts to which 
 the mixed yarn may be spun. Moreover, it is essential that 
 the wool, cotton, etc., should, more or less, correspond in 
 staple, or in diffusive and flexible features, seeing they have 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 9 
 
 to be conformable to the same mechanical work and system 
 of yarn construction. The several sorts of filament combined 
 should neither be modified nor deteriorated in the processes 
 of thread making. Their original and intrinsic textile values 
 should be accurately preserved, and it will be evident that in 
 proportion with which they vary in the features defined, the 
 difficulty of attaining this result will be increased. However 
 skilfully the machinery employed in thread preparation should 
 be manipulated, set, and speeded, the individual groups of fibre, 
 when radically differing in carding, combing, drawing and 
 spinning properties, would be either unsatisfactorily treated or 
 impaired in these operations. Therefore it is imperative, if the 
 several sorts of fibre blended are to impart their specific nature 
 and qualities to the union manufacture, that they should have 
 such structural characteristics in common as to render them 
 applicable to one and the same scheme of yarn production. 
 
 9. Function and Use of Cotton in Carded and Combed Yarns. 
 Bearing these technicalities in mind, cotton may be made 
 to contribute to the spinning property or length of wool. For 
 union carded yarns applied to flannel, blouse and light fabrics, 
 and also to hosiery textures, cotton is employed partially 
 with this object, and partially on economic grounds. Wool 
 for like reasons, or for diffusing its distinctive qualities of 
 softness, flexibility and brightness of tone, through the union 
 product, is mixed with cotton. In all such manufactures the 
 negative properties of a material may be utilized for counter- 
 acting, in a degree, the positive properties of the materials with 
 which it is blended. Cotton, for example, is effective in 
 diminishing the shrinkage power of wool, as the latter, 
 in combination with cotton, is effective in reducing the 
 comparative firmness of the cotton yarn and texture. 
 
 These elements are of technical value both in manufac- 
 turing processes and in manufactured results. They add to 
 the diversity of yarn and cloth fabrication, by making it 
 feasible to moderate the influence of the vegetable or animal 
 fibre, and to produce a description of unions with a woollen 
 
10 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 or cotton bias, or an average grade of fabric betwixt the pure 
 wool and the pure cotton manufacture. 
 
 10. Blends Wool and Cotton. On the principle that the 
 fineness of the fibre, and the staple measurement of the materials, 
 should be in coincidence, the following exemplify the classes 
 of filament suitable for blending in the production of bi-fibred 
 yarns made of wool and cotton : 
 
 A. CARDED YARNS. (1) Fine counts, 32 to 48 yds. per 
 dram, Australian merino clothing wool and Egyptian cotton- 
 staple, 1 to If in. ; (2) Yarns ranging from 22 to 30 yds. per 
 dram, English South Down and sorted Welsh wools and 
 long-staple South American cotton, averaging 1 to l^in. in 
 length ; and (3) Yarns composed of wool substitutes mungo 
 chiefly and short-stapled or Indian cotton. 
 
 B. COMBED YARNS. (1) Fine Botany counts, merino Aus- 
 tralian or New Zealand combing wool and Sea Island 
 cotton-staple, 1 J to 2J in. ; or merino Australian lamb and 
 Egyptian cotton ; (2) Medium counts of Botany yarns, River 
 Plate, Buenos Ayres and Monte Video wools and strong-fibred 
 South American cotton, averaging 1 to 1 J in. in length ; and 
 (3) Yarns in which a high percentage of vegetable fibre is 
 used, made from Australian and New Zealand short-stapled 
 combing wools and Egyptian or Brazilian cotton. 
 
 As a rule in such blends, the wool filament is designed to 
 give the predominant character to the mixed yarn, so that it 
 is desirable it should be of an even growth, yield satisfactorily 
 in carding and combing, and possess elasticity and suppleness 
 of staple. The cotton is estimable, as it is subservient in 
 contributing to the spinning of a level, firm thread, of equalized 
 tensility, diameter, and smoothness. 
 
 Assuming the relative proportions of the materials for the 
 blends specified to be from 75 to 85 per cent, of wool and from 
 55 to 70 per cent, of wool, with relative proportionate parts of 
 cotton, the yarns and textures obtainable from different 
 mixtures would have the qualities and exhibit the features 
 tabulated on pages 11 and 12. 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 
 
 11 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 ADMIXTURES OF WOOL AND COTTON Bi -FIBRED YARN MANUFACTURE 
 
 Percentage 
 of Wool 
 Fibr . 
 
 Percentage 
 of Cotton 
 Fibre. 
 
 Yarn and Textural Features. 
 
 
 75-85 
 
 25-15 
 
 Yarns of a distinct wool-like nature and con- 
 
 
 
 
 sistency in both (1) and (2), and applicable, in the 
 
 
 
 
 higher counts, to flannel, blouse, dress, and 
 
 
 
 
 costume textures, also to knitted goods. The 
 
 
 
 
 costume cloths, when correctly made in the loom, 
 
 
 
 
 are suitable for milled and raised finishing treat- 
 
 
 
 
 ment. The medium counts of yarn (2) are 
 
 
 
 
 serviceable in the weaving of fabrics of a moderate 
 
 
 
 
 weight per yard adapted for wear, and for 
 
 
 
 
 general and domestic purposes. The cotton 
 
 
 
 
 staple does not detract from but slightly enhances 
 
 
 
 
 the durable quality of these productions. As in 
 
 
 
 
 
 (3) the materials are chiefly efficient in the spin- 
 
 
 
 
 ning of thick counts, and as the wool fibre is 
 
 
 
 
 depreciated in the processes of re -manufacture in 
 
 
 
 
 length, elasticity, and in breaking strain, the 
 
 
 
 
 yarns are largely employed in the manufacture 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 of the lower varieties of medium and heavy 
 
 
 
 
 cloths. Still, with the practice of skilful dyeing 
 
 
 
 
 
 and finishing, the fabrics in these materials are 
 
 9* 
 
 
 
 of a satisfactory tensile standard, and possess a 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 fair degree of softness and fullness of handle. 
 
 I 
 
 55-70 
 
 45-30 Here the influence of the cotton fibre (1) and 
 
 ce 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 (2) is evident in the firm and compact structure 
 
 
 
 
 of the yarns, also in the reduced flexibility of the 
 
 <(j 
 
 
 
 woven goods, and in their lessened disposition to 
 
 
 
 
 felt or mill. Textural value as to clearness in 
 
 
 
 
 surface features, and in weave and pattern 
 
 
 
 
 delineation, slightly improved as contrasted with 
 
 
 
 
 that of the preceding groups of bi-fibred yarn 
 
 
 
 
 cloths. Admixtures of the two species of fibre 
 
 
 
 
 in these proportionate quantities 70 : 30 as 
 
 
 
 
 likewise in the ratios of 2 : 1 and of 3:2, are 
 
 
 
 
 made in the fabrication of similar but lower 
 
 
 
 
 grades of fabrics to those described above. 
 
 
 
 
 The yarns in (3) yield cloths perceptibly 
 deteriorated in finishing felting and raising 
 
 
 
 
 and warmth-yielding properties as compared 
 
 
 
 
 with similar cloths consisting of yarns spun 
 
 
 
 
 from 70 per cent, of wool and 30 per cent, of 
 
 
 
 
 cotton. Fabrics durable but deficient in fila- 
 
 
 
 
 ment cover, and deteriorated in shade tone as the 
 
 
 
 
 percentage of cotton in the blend is increased. 
 
 
12 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 ADMIXTURES OF WOOL AND COTTON BI-FIBRED YARN MANUFACTURE 
 
 (continued) 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Percentage 
 
 
 of Wool 
 Fibre. 
 
 of t Cotton 
 Fibre. 
 
 Yarn and Textural Features. 
 
 
 75-85 
 
 25-15 
 
 The combed union yarn is of a brighter and 
 
 
 
 
 smoother character than the union carded yarn 
 
 
 
 
 made of similar varieties of fibre. From both 
 
 
 
 
 blends (1) and (2) a particularly fine quality of 
 
 
 
 
 thread is producible. The South Sea Island 
 
 
 
 
 cotton in (1) is a silky-stapled material, and, in 
 
 
 
 
 these percentages, only slightly affects the full 
 
 
 
 
 colour property of the yarn; and the South 
 
 
 
 
 American cotton in (2) is of a sufficient length to 
 
 
 
 
 mix profusely with the wools named, in the 
 
 
 
 
 drawing operations. Moreover, its strong growth 
 
 
 
 
 adds to the weaving applications of the class of 
 
 
 
 
 mixture thread acquired. Thus, these two types 
 
 
 
 
 of union worsted are differentiated both in the 
 
 
 
 
 quality of the wool and cotton staple of which 
 
 
 
 
 they are composed. In preparing the yarns on 
 
 
 
 
 the French system of combing, drawing and 
 
 tn 
 
 
 
 spinning, the thread formation resultant closely 
 
 d 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 resembles that of a pure worsted, and one which 
 
 cS 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 may, therefore, be employed for like grades of 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 woven and knitted goods as the latter. It also 
 
 1 
 
 fj 
 
 
 
 yields textures of equivalent wearing utility to 
 
 )g 
 
 
 
 worsted yarn of the same counts, but a fraction 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 cooler in the use for clothing. 
 
 6 
 
 55-70 
 
 45-30 
 
 With the aggregation of the vegetable fibre to 
 
 
 
 
 30 or 45 per cent, of the materials combined in 
 
 PQ 
 
 
 
 blends (3), the cotton staple imparts specific pro- 
 
 
 
 
 perties to the yarn manufactured. It is per- 
 
 
 
 
 ceptibly harder and closer in structure. While 
 
 
 
 
 the yarns are well-adapted, on account of their 
 
 
 
 
 evenness and firmness, for clearly expressing 
 
 
 
 
 weave and pattern elements, they result in fabrics 
 
 
 
 
 which lack shrinkage value. This is attributable 
 
 
 
 
 to the increased quantity of the cotton ingredient, 
 
 
 
 
 and has led to the practice of setting the pieces in 
 
 
 
 
 the loom with approximately the same number of 
 
 
 
 
 threads and picks per inch as they are intended 
 
 
 
 
 to present in the finished condition. The like 
 
 
 
 
 treatment of cotton and wool of equal staple - 
 
 
 
 
 lengths and corresponding fineness of fibre in the 
 
 
 
 
 combing process ensures the production of a 
 
 
 
 
 correctly-mixed roving, from which a quality of 
 
 
 
 
 yarn is spun specially suitable for the manufac- 
 
 
 
 
 ture of a large variety of blouse, dress and other 
 
 
 
 thin and light textures. 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 
 
 13 
 
 11. Blends Cotton and Wool. As stated, the above varieties 
 of bi-fibred yarns, showing an excess quantity of wool, are 
 intended to give to the manufactured texture a woolly quality 
 and feel. Mixture yarns are also extensively spun in which 
 cotton is the principal and wool the secondary staple. These, 
 however, are strictly of a cotton character, imparting to the 
 fabric the surface features and also the handle of a cotton 
 product, modified in softness and fibrous nature by the ratio 
 in which the wool is blended with the cotton fibre in the 
 materials selected. 
 
 The counts and composition of this class of cotton-and-wool 
 mixture yarns are typified in the following table : 
 
 TABLE II 
 BI-FIBRED YARNS COTTON AND WOOL 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Cotton 
 Counts. 
 
 Shade. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of Wool. 
 
 Cop. 
 
 (1) 
 
 7's 
 
 Colours 
 
 25 
 
 Warp 
 
 
 7's 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 M 
 
 Thicker counts 
 
 7's 
 
 Mixed 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 8's 
 
 White 
 
 10 
 
 Weft 
 
 
 8's 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 Pin cop 
 
 
 8's 
 
 Colours 
 
 30 
 
 n 
 
 (2) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Any counts from 10's 
 
 16's 
 
 White or natural 
 
 5 
 
 Pin cop 
 
 to 20's cotton; any 
 
 20's 
 
 
 5 
 
 M 
 
 per cent, of wool 
 
 16'S 
 
 
 10 
 
 M 
 
 from 5 to 30 
 
 20's 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 16's 
 
 
 20 
 
 p 
 
 
 20's 
 
 
 20 
 
 i 
 
 
 16's 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 20's 
 
 
 25 
 
 > 
 
 
 16's 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 20's 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 ( 
 
 10's 
 
 Mixture Colours 
 
 20 
 
 
 Any shade j 
 
 20's 
 20's 
 
 Solid colours 
 
 30* 
 30 
 
 I 
 
 (3) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Finer counts 
 
 23's 
 
 White 
 
 20-25 
 
 Cop 
 
 
 33's 
 
 }> 
 
 20-25 
 
 
 
 
 23's 
 
 Natural 
 
 20-25 
 
 
 
 
 33's 
 
 
 
 20-25 
 
 
 
 28's 
 
 White 
 
 20 
 
 Pin cop 
 
 
 28's 
 
 Natural 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 (4) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Twist 
 
 6's to 21's 
 
 White 
 
 5 
 
 Twist 
 
14 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 12. Qualitative Factors Bi- fibred Yarns. The percentage 
 of wool in the lower counts (1) averages from 10 to 50, the 
 yarns specified being equivalent to 23 and 26 yds. per dram, 
 woollen counts. They are, therefore, useful in the production 
 of medium grades of imitation all-wool goods, employing the 
 bi-fibred yarns for both warp and weft, or a pure woollen 
 yarn for warp, crossed with a union yarn of a similar thickness, 
 containing, as found convenient, from 50 to 90 parts of cotton 
 fibre. In the second sort, the 10's, 16's and 20's cotton counts 
 correspond to 15's, 24's, and 30's worsted, making them 
 suitable, as weft, in 2-fold 30's, 2-fold 48's and 2-fold 60's 
 worsted- warp fabrics. If employed in this way, the propor- 
 tionate value of the cotton in the weft would be variable 95, 
 90, 80, 75 and 70 per cent. allowing of the goods being made 
 with a higher or lower ratio of cotton to wool as adapted to the 
 cost and quality of manufacture intended. For " fancy " 
 or coloured styles of fabrics, mixture and solid shades, in 10's 
 and 20's, or other cotton counts, consisting of 20 or 30 per 
 cent of wool, are provided to harmonize with the fancy shades 
 of worsted forming the warp yarn of the pieces. 
 
 The finer counts 23's, 33's, and 28's cotton = 2-fold 70's, 
 2-fold 100's, and 2-fold 84's worsted are quoted as spun in 
 the white or natural colour, and as composed of 20, 25 and 
 10 parts of wool to 80, 75 and 90 parts of cotton. Yarns of 
 this fineness are used in the weaving of thin dress and like 
 textures, in which the warp may be single or 2-fold worsted 
 or cotton. The " twist " union threads (4) are specially service- 
 able for striping and pattern effects in piece-dyes mainly 
 woven in combed- wool yarns. 
 
 13. Union Yarns Systems of Modifying. There are three 
 forms in which the yarns, in Tables I and II, are subjective to 
 modification 1st in the quality of the wool and cotton staple ; 
 2nd, in the percentage values of the two varieties of material ; 
 and 3rd, in structural features carded or combed, self-actor 
 or frame spun. The first factor controls the yarn grade and 
 fineness, the second the wool and cotton ingredients of the 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 15 
 
 thread, and the third the application of the yarns to textile 
 manufacture. 
 
 In all classes of union yarn spinning, the staple lengths of 
 the different materials require, as illustrated, to lend them- 
 selves for coherent admixture in the processes of carding and 
 of drawing ; and the two species of fibre combined must be 
 coefficients in spinning property. These elements are of 
 primary consideration. Yarn diameter or counts does not, 
 however, necessarily define yarn quality for textural produc- 
 tion. As a fine-stapled wool may, in worsted or woollen yarn 
 making, be applied to medium or high counts, so in bi-fibred 
 yarn spinning the materials selected are usable for yarns of 
 dissimilar thicknesses. Trueness of quality, in the thread pro- 
 duct, is a derivative of the nature of the raw materials. This 
 basic factor is well exemplified in the varieties of wool and 
 cotton in blends (1), (2) and (3) for the combed and carded 
 threads in Table I. Yarn character and quality are here 
 indicated as arising out of the sorts of fibre combined. Given 
 material staples of the description in blend (1) Section A 
 or B the yarn spun would be of a fine fibrous consistency, 
 whether produced in thick or small counts, but the smallness 
 of thread spinnable would be higher in the materials forming 
 blend (1) than (2), and in (2) than in the materials in blend (3). 
 
 The proportionate value of the cotton and wool, in the 
 manufacture of the yarns, is an element apart from the fineness 
 of the fibres and the classes of staple intermingled. It deter- 
 mines the actual or commercial cost per Ib. of a given grist of 
 yarn, which is lessened with the decreasing ratio of wool to 
 cotton, and by the relative price of the two materials. The 
 quantitative use of cotton as an ingredient of the yarn has also 
 another value, which will be subsequently examined, that of the 
 dyeing or tinting attributes of the union thread constructed. 
 
 In reference to the third factor, it should be noted that the 
 count of yarn practicable, from a certain combination of 
 staples, is affected by the system of yarn production the 
 combed system yielding, on an average, higher results than 
 
16 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 the carded system. With wool as the excess component of 
 the mixture, this difference in the method of thread-spinning 
 on the " count " limit is particularly accentuated. Thus, the 
 maximum counts of the yarns obtainable by the carding 
 practice may be taken as 44 to 48 yds. per dram, whereas 
 similar varieties of fibre by combing, drawing, and frame 
 spinning, may be made into 100's or 120's worsted, or equal 
 to 218 and 262 yds. per dram. On the woollen principle, the 
 admixture of cotton with wool amplifies the spinning limits, 
 but not essentially on the worsted principle. The distinction 
 is largely caused by the carding treatment in woollen yarn pre- 
 paration being designed to use every class of filament short, 
 fine, curly, coarse, etc. while the combing process, in worsted 
 thread preparation, removes a portion of the short fibre and 
 levels and lines the selected and longer fibres with each other. 
 In addition, in the carded and condensed sliver, the fibrous 
 units cross each other at a multiplicity of angles and in diverse 
 directions, whereas in the combed and roved sliver, the fibres 
 are not only parallel but, to a large degree, extended to their 
 full lineal measurement, and in a sense conforming with the 
 length of the thread. One system, the combing, attains the 
 spinning limit of the average diameter Of the fibres, whether 
 cotton or wool ; and the other system, carding, attains a 
 yarn structure in which the fibres are promiscuously mixed 
 and grouped but without aiming at fibre selection, attenuation, 
 and alignment. 
 
 14. Folded- Yarn Unions. Folded-yarn unions are very 
 varied in both fibre and thread composition. The folding 
 practice may be done in the slivers or unspun thread form, 
 and in the roving frame or in the self-actor, but it is chiefly 
 effected in the spun thread and in the doubling or twisting 
 machine. The first method produces a class of mixture yarn 
 which is a cross betwixt the bi-fibred and the folded or com- 
 pound thread. If the yarn is of the worsted type, the rovings, 
 such as cotton or flax and wool, are combined in the roving 
 operation, being drafted, levelled, and formed into a mixed 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 17 
 
 sliver. The fibrous elements are more separate, and distinctive, 
 one from the other, in the yarn which results than in a union 
 worsted. When dyed slivers are used, the thread acquired is 
 of the " marl "' description. Carded slivers woollen and 
 cotton are not so suitable for combination as combed slivers. 
 The woollen principle of thread production does not provide 
 for the admixture and the doubling of the slivers prior to 
 spinning. The roving, on the other hand, is an intermediate 
 product, in thread formation, between the thick, soft sliver, 
 prepared in the drawing operations, and the spun yarn. The 
 process of roving may in this instance be utilized in giving a 
 compound sliver of the proper intermingled filament character 
 for drafting and twisting; but, in combining carded slivers 
 the doubling of the wool and cotton slivers has to be effected 
 in the actual work of drafting and twisting on the self-actor. 
 Still, this method of union-thread manufacture is capable of 
 being increasingly practised and developed. It involves 
 mechanical adjustments and alterations in the spinning 
 machine, using special drafting rollers for each variety of 
 sliver, and for treating the slivers as one-thread unit at the 
 front or delivery rollers. 
 
 15. Bi-fibred and Union-Twist Yarns Compared. Both the 
 worsted and woollen practice, of doubling slivers of a special 
 filament consistency, results in the production of a useful class 
 of yarn, one adapted to the manufacture of different groups 
 of textures from those producible by employing bi-fibred or 
 folded yarns. It is a single-spun thread, with the properties 
 of each sort of sliver used in its construction. Though the 
 fibres of each material are evenly mingled and distributed 
 throughout the thickness and length of the yarn, the structural 
 features of the individual slivers, remaining more or less 
 intact, impart quality and effect to the dyed and finished 
 manufacture. 
 
 16. Two Varieties of Multi-fold Union Threads. Bi- and 
 multi-fold union yarns are of two principal classes, namely, 
 " plain" and " fancy " twists of which there are several 
 
 2 (1745) 
 
18 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 varieties. Both types of production are made of yarns 
 differing in counts, in material composition, turns per inch, 
 and in methods of preparation and spinning. The ordinary 
 or plain twist threads, of whatever thread grouping, are even 
 in thickness and in surface characteristics, so that they may 
 be used as a principal kind of yarn in textile fabrication. Fancy 
 twists, as the term denotes, may be diversified in circum- 
 ferential features gimped, knopped, curled, looped, etc. 
 or they may be irregular in diameter, with sectional parts 
 varied in degree of twine. For the manufacture of the gener- 
 ality of piece goods consisting of twist warp or weft yarns, or 
 cloths equalized in elasticity standard and in textural details, 
 the first type of compound thread may be employed. The 
 second type is also used in limited forms in the weaving of 
 dress fabrics, but it finds its main application in the develop- 
 ment of pattern and design. Folded yarns possess and exhibit 
 in the texture the combined attributes of the unit threads used 
 in their formation, and it is in this sense that fancy twists 
 prove specially serviceable in style origination. It will be 
 shown that the effects of this class of yarn in the fabric, 
 emphasized or subdued, vary with the counts of the consti- 
 tuent threads relative to the thickness of the folded yarn ; 
 and also with the colour contrasts and the shape each thread 
 is made to assume in the compound structure. 
 
 17. Ordinary Category of Union Twists. Table III (pages 
 19-21) contains examples in union- twist yarns of the ordinary 
 category, varying in counts, and made of woollen and cotton, 
 worsted and cotton, worsted and silk, cotton and silk, cotton 
 and linen, linen and silk, and worsted, cotton and silk threads. 
 It will be observed that the single threads differ in thickness 
 in each description of folded yarn 5 and that the counts of the 
 latter cover the principal varieties of thread used in the warp 
 and weft of the union fabrics to which such yarns are 
 applicable. These technicalities enable either the structure 
 or the filament quality of the cloth to be extensively 
 modfied. 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 
 
 19 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 A WOOLLEN AND COTTON. 
 
 
 Counts of 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Twist Yarn 
 in Skeins. 
 
 Thread Units. Filament Percentages. 
 
 1 
 
 32-2 48 sks. 
 
 woollen and 30's cotton ! 67-2 of wool and 
 
 32-8 of cotton fibre 
 
 2 
 
 30-2 i 48 
 
 25's 
 
 63-0 
 
 37-0 
 
 3 
 
 24-8 
 
 40 
 
 20's 
 
 62-1 
 
 37-9 
 
 4 
 
 22-0 
 
 40 
 
 15's 
 
 55-1 
 
 44-9 
 
 5 
 
 18-6 
 
 30 
 
 15's 
 
 62-1 
 
 37-9 
 
 6 
 
 17-0 
 
 30 
 
 12's 
 
 56-7 
 
 43-3 
 
 7 
 
 15-3 
 
 25 
 
 12's 
 
 61-1 
 
 38-9 
 
 8 
 
 11-9 
 
 20 
 
 9's 
 
 59-6 
 
 40-4 
 
 9 
 
 10-7 
 
 20 
 
 7's 
 
 53-4 
 
 46-6 
 
 10 
 
 8-5 
 
 15 
 
 6's 
 
 56-7 
 
 43-3 
 
 11 
 
 7-8 
 
 15 
 
 5's 
 
 52-2 
 
 47-8 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 A' COTTON AND WOOLLEN. 
 
 
 Counts ot 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Twist Yarn 
 in Cotton 
 
 Thread Units. Filament Percentages. 
 
 
 Hanks. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6-6 
 
 12's cotton and 48 sks. woollen 54-9 of cotton and 45-1 of wool fibre 
 
 2 
 
 5-9 
 
 10's 
 
 48 
 
 54-4 
 
 40-6 
 
 3 
 
 5-5 
 
 10's 
 
 40 ! 54-9 
 
 45-1 
 
 4 
 
 4-6 
 
 8's , 
 
 36 57-8 
 
 42-2 
 
 5 
 
 4-3 
 
 8's , 
 
 32 ,, 54-9 
 
 45-1 
 
 6 
 
 3-5 
 
 6's , 
 
 28 58-7 
 
 41-3 
 
 7 
 
 3-3 
 
 6's , 
 
 24 54-9 
 
 45-1 
 
 8 
 
 2-7 
 
 5's , 
 
 20 54-9 
 
 45-1 
 
 9 
 
 2-2 
 
 4's 
 
 16 
 
 54-9 
 
 45-1 
 
 10 
 
 1-6 ! 3's , 
 
 12 54-9 
 
 45-1 
 
 B WORSTED AND COTTON. 
 
 No. 
 
 Counts of 
 Twist Yarn 
 in Worsted 
 Hanks. 
 
 Thread Units. 
 
 Filament Percentages. 
 
 1 
 
 57-4 
 
 100's worsted and 90's cotton 
 
 57-4 of wool and 42-6 of cotton fibre 
 
 2 
 
 54-5 
 
 100's 
 
 
 80's 
 
 
 54-5 
 
 45-5 
 
 3 
 
 48-0 
 
 80's 
 
 
 80's 
 
 
 60-0 
 
 40'0 
 
 , 
 
 4 
 
 44-0 
 
 80's 
 
 
 65's 
 
 
 54-9 
 
 45-1 
 
 , 
 
 5 
 
 40-7 
 
 70's 
 
 
 65's 
 
 
 58-2 
 
 41-8 
 
 , 
 
 6 
 
 37-5 
 
 70's 
 
 
 54's 
 
 
 53-6 , 
 
 46-4 
 
 , 
 
 
 34-4 
 
 60's 
 
 
 54's 
 
 
 57-4 , 
 
 42-6 
 
 . 
 
 8 
 
 32-7 
 
 60's 
 
 
 48's 
 
 
 54-5 , 
 
 45-5 
 
 , 
 
 9 
 
 29-5 
 
 50's 
 
 
 48's. 
 
 
 59-0 , 
 
 41-0 
 
 , 
 
 10 
 
 28-4 
 
 50's 
 
 
 44's 
 
 
 56-9 , 
 
 43-1 
 
 i 
 
 11 
 
 24-0 
 
 40's 
 
 
 40's 
 
 
 60-0 
 
 40-0 
 
 t. 
 
 12 
 
 23-0 
 
 40's 
 
 
 36's 
 
 
 57-4 , 
 
 42-6 
 
 , 
 
 13 
 
 19-3 
 
 30's 
 
 
 36's 
 
 
 64-3 , 
 
 35-7 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 18-4 
 
 30's 
 
 
 32's 
 
 
 61-5 , 
 
 38-5 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 13-5 
 
 20's 
 
 
 28's 
 
 , 
 
 67-7 , 
 
 32-3 
 
 , 
 
 16 
 
 12-8 
 
 20's 
 
 
 24's 
 
 
 64-3 , 
 
 35-7 
 
 - 
 
20 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 B' COTTON AND WORSTED. 
 
 
 Counts of 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Twist Yarn 
 in Cotton 
 
 Thread Units. 
 
 Filament Percentages. 
 
 
 Hanks. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 34-3 
 
 60's cotton and 120's worsted 
 
 57-1 of wool and 42-9 of cotton fibre 
 
 2 
 
 31-4 
 
 55's 
 
 no's 
 
 
 57-1 
 
 42-9 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 29-7 
 
 50's 
 
 100' 8 
 
 
 59-4 
 
 40-6 
 
 p| 
 
 4 
 
 28-5 
 
 50's 
 
 100' 3 
 
 
 57-1 
 
 42-9 
 
 tt 
 
 5 
 
 22-8 
 
 40' s 
 
 80' s 
 
 
 57-1 
 
 42-9 
 
 M 
 
 6 
 
 21-5 
 
 40' s 
 
 70' s 
 
 
 53-8 
 
 46-2 
 
 M 
 
 7 
 
 18-2 
 
 30' s 
 
 70's 
 
 
 60-8 
 
 39-2 
 
 n 
 
 8 
 
 17-1 
 
 30' s 
 
 60's 
 
 
 57-1 
 
 42-9 
 
 n 
 
 9 
 
 13-3 
 
 20' s 
 
 60' s 
 
 
 66-6 
 
 33-4 
 
 ?j 
 
 10 
 
 12-5 
 
 20' s 
 
 50's 
 
 
 62-5 , 
 
 37-5 
 
 M 
 
 11 
 
 10-3 
 
 15's 
 
 50's 
 
 69-0 
 
 31-0 
 
 M 
 
 12 
 
 9-6 
 
 15's 
 
 40's 
 
 64-0 
 
 36-0 
 
 " 
 
 C COTTON AND LINEN. 
 
 
 Counts of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Twist Yarn 
 in Cotton 
 
 
 Thread 
 
 Units. 
 
 
 Filament 
 
 Percentages. 
 
 
 
 Hanks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 58-3 
 
 100's cotton and 
 
 392's linen 
 
 58-3 of cotton and 41-7 of flax fibre 
 
 2 
 
 54-5 
 
 100' 8 
 
 
 336's 
 
 54-5 
 
 
 45-5 
 
 M 
 
 3 
 
 48-0 
 
 80's 
 
 
 336's 
 
 60's 
 
 
 40-0 
 
 
 4 
 
 44-4 
 
 80's 
 
 ( 
 
 280's 
 
 55-5 
 
 
 
 44-5 
 
 M 
 
 5 
 
 34-0 
 
 60's 
 
 
 220's 
 
 56-7 
 
 
 43-3 
 
 tt 
 
 6 
 
 24-7 
 
 40's 
 
 
 
 ISO's 
 
 61-6 
 
 ,, 
 
 38-4 
 
 " 
 
 C' LINEN AND COTTON. 
 
 No. 
 
 Counts of 
 
 Twist Yarn 
 
 in Linen 
 
 Leas. 
 
 Thread Units. 
 
 Filament Percentages. 
 
 li 1244 224's linen and 100's cotton 
 
 2 j 110-2 196's 90's 
 
 3 i 96-0 | 168's 80's 
 
 4 81-6 j 140' s 70's 
 
 5 ! 67-2 I 1'12's 60's 
 
 6 ! 52-5 I 84's 50's 
 
 55-5 of flax and 44-5 of cotton fibre 
 I 56-2 43-8 
 j 57-1 42-9 
 ! 58-3 41-7 
 
 60-0 40-0 
 i 62-5 , , 37-5 
 
 D WORSTED AND SILK. 
 
 
 Counts of 
 
 
 Filament Percentages. 
 
 No. 
 
 Twist Yarn 
 in Worsted 
 
 Thread Units. 
 
 
 Hanks. 
 
 
 1 
 
 36-0 
 
 2-fold 120's worsted & 60's 2-fd. silk 
 
 60-0 of wool and 40-0 of silk fibre 
 
 2 
 
 32-1 
 
 2-fold 100's 
 
 64-2 
 
 
 35-8 , 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 27-7 
 
 2-fold 80' s 
 
 69-1 
 
 
 30-8 
 
 
 4 
 
 64-3 
 
 100 worsted and 44 denier silk 
 
 64-3 
 
 
 35-7 
 
 >? 
 
 5 
 
 55-4 
 
 80's 
 
 69-2 
 
 
 30-8 
 
 |f 
 
 6 
 
 43-5 
 
 60's 50 
 
 72-5 
 
 
 27-5 
 
 s> 
 
 7 
 
 38-0 
 
 50's 
 
 76-0 
 
 
 24-0 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 '-C 
 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 OS >O O >* 
 ^1 CO O CO 
 * CO Tj CO 
 
 tJ 
 
 O <M 
 
 ^ 
 
 "S 
 
 a 
 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 t 
 
 "SI 
 
 
 s s s 
 
 s s 
 
 
 "o 
 
 
 
 -^ o o o 
 
 1 -H O 
 
 
 U5 CO <O < 
 
 o <<*< 
 i> r- 
 
 
 JS! 
 ^ - 2 S 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 S : : : 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 00 ^ 03 00 
 
 "3 " 
 
 r ft 
 
 SSob 
 
 - 
 
 'c 
 p 
 
 X X -^ o 
 
 d 
 
 * r : 
 1 " 
 
 1 
 
 01 
 
 o c o 
 
 
 
 1 . . 
 
 <* ^ -^ 
 
 H 
 
 o * * * 
 O 
 
 1 s t 
 
 
 OB 00 
 
 C3 
 
 
 fe fe ." . 
 
 MO SS 
 
 1 
 
 
 p-4 ^H GC CO 
 
 O & 2 
 
 
 2 3! 2 <2 
 
 *- 00 T- 
 
 
 <N<N(N 
 
 ss" 
 
 11 
 
 <M r- o o 
 
 *? . Q P 
 
 o 
 K 
 
 PH CM CO T(< 
 
 o cor- 
 
 
 
 i """ 
 
 
 
 .U 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 , 
 
 i" ^ 
 
 
 S3 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 ->" 
 'o 
 
 
 
 M CO CO CO CO * 
 
 
 1 
 
 M CO CO O5 l> l> 
 CO CO CO <N <M .N 
 
 *-*" ^ 
 
 
 
 o a. a s s a 
 
 - 
 
 00 
 
 
 ^ o o ^ co co 
 cib b o ' cb d> 
 
 T^ 10 ^O ^ ^ ^ 
 
 - 
 fc 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 IS s ^ . 
 
 8 
 
 
 "ao"~w""w" 4 
 
 D" 
 
 
 22*|' s - 
 
 1 
 
 
 i - gg j2 
 
 f 
 
 
 I . .1 , . 
 
 el 
 
 _* 
 
 a" 
 
 
 'S 
 p 
 
 O O *N -*i * 
 
 <N 00 
 
 X ^ 
 
 
 I 
 
 bob 
 
 
 
 05 05 
 
 bb, 00 ^ 
 
 IM O O 00 05 03 
 
 
 
 ^.^3_b b b 
 
 M -1 1 00 '-O O 
 
 
 c||. 
 
 O O O 5 Oi < 
 
 
 fip 
 
 O5 W O >O 00 "* 
 (M iM CO <N <M 
 
 
 
 
 ^H <N CO -^ O O 
 
22 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 18. Factors Controlling Filament Percentages and Yarn 
 Counts. Reference will be made to the yarns in this Table in 
 treating of the many descriptions of union cloth fabrication, 
 but it should be observed that the thickness yards per Ib. 
 of the twist is, in all instances, governed by the thread units 
 folded together in its construction ; and that such counts are 
 only restricted by the spinning limit in each system of yarn 
 preparation comprised. In woollen, the counts of the unit 
 threads may range from approximately a fraction of a skein 
 to 48 or 50 yards per dram ; in worsted from 1's to 120's ; 
 in cotton from 1's to 160's ; in linen from 30's to 672's ; in 
 silk from 530 to 15 denier ; and from 10's to 180's in spun 
 silk. 
 
 Normally, the filament percentages, in the twist, are fixed 
 by the counts of the unit threads, but their respective lengths 
 per yard of the compound yarn are also a modifying element. 
 Tensioning the threads differently in the twisting operation, 
 as well as their relative thicknesses, affects their respective 
 measurements in a given length of twist yarn, and these 
 features need to be taken into account in calculating the 
 filament ratios as factors in the counts of the unit thread 
 formed. 
 
 19. Union Yarns and Quality of Manufactured Product. 
 Ordinarily the size of the compound or twisted thread defines 
 or limits its textural utility. The higher the counts and the 
 thinner the grades of woven manufacture for which the yarn 
 is suitable, and vice versa; the medium counts being employed 
 in the production of medium-weight cloths, and the lower 
 counts in the production of heavy goods. Another feature 
 is that the twist yarn is invariably distinguished, in structural 
 character, by the fibrous material used in a plus quantity, 
 causing this filament to give tone and quality to the textiles 
 in which the yarn is used. Hence with union twists forming 
 the warp, weft, or both warp and weft of the texture, they 
 }deld the following varieties of woven fabrics 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 
 
 23 
 
 Series 
 
 A Woollen and Cotton Union: with Wool quality and character predominant. 
 
 A 7 Cotton and Woollen Union: Cotton 
 
 B Worsted and Cotton Union: Worsted 
 
 B' Cotton and Worsted Union: Cotton 
 
 C Cotton and Linen Union : Cotton 
 
 C' Linen and Cotton Union: Linen 
 
 D Worsted and Silk Union: Worsted 
 
 E Cotton and Silk Union: Cotton 
 
 F Worsted, Cotton and Silk 
 
 Union: Worsted 
 
 The extent to which certain threads in the twist yarns, 
 and the fibres of which they consist, particularize the fabric 
 manufacture, is largely dependent on the proportionate part 
 they constitute of the material in the woven structure. But, 
 as will be shown, the specific value of the fibrous properties 
 of the yarn is changeable by the methods of weaving and 
 of warp and weft setting, and by the dyeing and finishing 
 practice. 
 
 20. Loom-made Unions. These are union manufactures 
 made in the loom by combining, in the warping and shuttling, 
 two or more qualities of yarn spun from dissimilar classes of 
 fibre. They typify the third (Paragraph 1) general scheme of 
 union-cloth fabrication, in which the admixture of the filament 
 units takes place in the weaving process. The yarns are 
 individually composed of cotton, flax, wool, silk, etc., so that it 
 is only by interlacing one sort of thread with another that an 
 assortment of fibrous materials in the manufactured product is 
 obtainable. As now understood, the three principles of filament 
 combination bi-fibred yarn spinning, union-yarn twisting, 
 and union-fabric weaving may be devised to produce identical 
 percentages of material composition, but they clearly differ 
 from each other in the textural effects and qualities they yield. 
 In comparing the first and second principles, it was explained 
 how the fibrous ingredients were more fully intermingled, and 
 worked, into a composite class of material in the spinning of a 
 bi-fibred yarn than in the production of a union-twist yarn. 
 This contrast in the admixture of the dissimilar qualities of fibre 
 is further enforced when the woven union-fabric is considered. 
 With each kind of spun yarn forming a part of the warp and 
 
24 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 weft of the texture, separately intersected, the ratio of the 
 fibrous elements may be likewise varied, when each species of 
 fibre obtains in the fabric as a distinctive variety of thread 
 
 21. Textural Methods of Combining Yarns Spun of Different 
 Materials.- The practices of combination include on this 
 principle, (a) the use of one description of yarn for warp and 
 a second description of yarn for weft ; (6) the use of two or 
 several sorts of yarn in the warp, crossed with similar or 
 different sorts of weft yarn ; (c) the application of yarns of 
 distinct fibrous composition to sectional parts of the warp or 
 weft, as in striped and checked patterns, with the ground 
 portions of the fabric woven in yarns of another quality ; 
 and (d) the development of spotted, figured and design 
 details in yarns of special counts, and varieties of fibre, from 
 the yarns used in the ground warp and weft. 
 
 22. Comparison of Folded-Yarn and Woven Unions. The 
 most effective admixture of the materials practicable by 
 these methods of looming is comprised in (6), and consists in 
 arranging the yarn types in alternate order. Assuming, for 
 example, cotton and woollen threads to be selected, they would 
 be grouped in the warping and in the shuttling 1 and 1 ; and, 
 if the fabric should be plain woven, in the piece the cotton warp 
 ends would be intersected with woollen picks, and the woollen 
 warp ends with cotton picks. Thus intercrossed the yarns 
 produce in the texture a certain filament coherency, the cotton 
 and wool fibre being symmetrically distributed through the 
 structure of the cloth. But the filament assortment and 
 consistency so acquired are neither as definite nor diversified 
 in quality as result in twisting woollen and cotton yarns into 
 one and the same folded thread. In the twisting process the 
 fibres in the cotton traverse, and, in a measure, wrap with the 
 fibres in the woollen ; and the respective threads intertwine 
 in regular, compact sequence with each other for the forma- 
 tion of the compound, union yarn. While, therefore, the 
 admixture of the materials is less efficient as regards the 
 blending of filament with filament in the union fabric than in 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 25 
 
 the union twist thread, and in the latter than in the bi-fibred 
 spun thread; yet it is qualitatively, and in evenness of dis- 
 tribution, satisfactory and complete. Moreover, it will be 
 seen, when the subject is more fully analysed arid illus- 
 trated, that a degree of fibre intermingling, and also of 
 fibre cohesiveness, may be induced in some grades of 
 union fabrics, in piece scouring, dyeing, milling, and raising. 
 
 23. Utility of Cotton as Warp Yarn in Union Manufactures. 
 Cotton is extensively selected as the warp yarn in the looming 
 of the union piece goods covered in the first method of fabrica- 
 tion. Being spun into thick or fine counts, and into soft 
 or firm threads, it is equally adapted for combination with 
 woollen, worsted, alpaca, mohair, linen and silk yarns. Homo- 
 geneity and smoothness of structure and weavable propensities 
 render cotton yarns specially appropriate for the warp or 
 chain of union manufactures. Though not of the elastic 
 standard of worsted, the cotton thread permits of high-speed 
 weaving, and also of the qualities of the weft wool, flax or 
 silk being clearly distinguished in the fabric. Or, should 
 the textural build involve the warp yarn being a distinctive 
 element, cotton may be thus used. 
 
 The spun character of the thread is modified to agree with 
 its functions in the manufactured goods. For combining with 
 the thicker classes of woollen weft, low counts of cotton, 
 preferably loosely twisted, are applied, providing for the 
 equalization in the cloth of the wool and cotton characteristics. 
 In other types of woollen unions, cotton yarns are employed 
 for intersecting purposes purely, or for binding the layers of 
 woollen weft, making the face and back of the fabric, one to 
 the other. Here the cotton warp is effective in building the 
 cloth, but non-evident in the surface features. With worsted 
 Botany or Cross-bred it is utilized as a single or as a two-fold 
 warp yarn, the former being selected when the wool and cotton 
 fibres are designed to result in one mixed quality of product, 
 and the latter when the cotton and woollen or worsted threads 
 are intended to develop specific qualities and effects in the 
 
26 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 texture. These distinctive yarn properties make cotton 
 threads applicable to the ground, centre, or stitching warp, in 
 the construction of compound cloths plain or decorative 
 in which silk, worsted and other wefts are combined. In 
 addition, cotton- warp yarns are particularly suitable for, and 
 used largely in, the manufacture of linen and ramie unions, 
 or of woven unions consisting of two varieties of vegetable 
 fibre. When the commingling of the different filaments, as 
 a resultant of the combination of different kinds of yarn, is 
 sought in the production of these goods, the counts and turns 
 per inch of the linen and cotton should be approximately the 
 same these conditions being favourable to fibrous unity and 
 cohesion in the processes of piece bleaching and dressing. 
 Cotton, in such unions, imparts flexibility to the fabric, but 
 the manufactures lack the textural clearness and purity 
 of colour observed in textures composed of linen warp and 
 weft. 
 
 24. Varieties of Woollen and Worsted Weft Yarns. The 
 weft yarns spun from wool, wool substitutes, alpaca, mohair, 
 Vicuna, and camel's hair, and applied in the weaving of 
 cotton-warp unions, are more diversified in quality, and in 
 structure, than the weft yarns spun from flax, ramie, silk, etc. 
 The carded yarns are made of wool, mungo, shoddy, wool 
 and mungo, wool and shoddy, wool and extract fibre, and 
 wool and noils ; and the combed yarns of short (but evenly 
 grown) medium and long-stapled wool, mohair, alpaca, cash- 
 mere, etc. Carded yarn is used as weft in the manufacture of 
 unions ranging from the thin flannel to the thick, heavy blanket 
 or rug ; and in quality of handle from the soft " lambskin " 
 to the firm-woven, well-milled, and pile or nap-finished 
 " beaver," " president " or " pilot." Combed yarn is similarly 
 varied in textural application. Worsted-and-cotton unions 
 include textures of the fine, delicate structure of the mousseline 
 de laine and cashmere, of the lustrous nature of the alpaca 
 or mohair dress stuff, of the wearing strength of the crossbred 
 serge, and of the smartness of surface of the fine Botany 
 
YARN AND FABRIC 27 
 
 suiting or coating. Such types are suggestive of the technical 
 field for investigation and experiment, which widens with the 
 pattern schemes and principles of cloth construction available, 
 and with the combination of such weft yarns with those made 
 of other classes of fibre. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 COLOURIZATION 
 
 25. Manufacturing Elements and Colour Quality. 26. Tinting 
 Value of Textile Fibres. 27. Yarn Structure a Colour Modifier. 28. 
 Thread Consistency and Shade Contrasts. 29. Tone Differentiations 
 and Fabric Build. 30. Yarn Assortment and Textural Features. 
 31. Finishing Methods and Colour Tone. 32. Colour Technology 
 Bi-fibred Manufactures. 33. Conditions in which Textile Materials 
 are Dyed. 34. Union Specimens Piece-dyed. 35. Colourization of 
 Spun and Woven Products. 36. Tinted Folded Yarn Hank-dyed. 
 37. Union Figured Specimen in Two Shades Piece-dyed. 38. Yarn 
 Composition for Mixture-shade Dyeing. 39. Filament Blend A 
 basic Factor. 40. Effects of Carded and Combed Yarns in moderating 
 Mixture-shade Quality. 41. Schemes of Manufacture and Mixture- 
 shade Variation. 42. Pattern Elements due to Spun Yarns differing in 
 Structure. 43. Principles in Mixture-shade Production. 44. Union 
 Fabrication and Piece-dyeing. 
 
 25. Manufacturing Elements and Colour Quality. Colour 
 tone and quality, in a textile manufacture, are affected by (a) 
 the physical structure and chemical composition of the 
 fibrous material or materials selected ; (b) the yarn construction; 
 (c) the build or make of the fabric ; and (d) the method or 
 practice of finishing. These technicalities have each a specific 
 and modifying influence on the behaviour of the woven product 
 in the dyeing process. 
 
 26. Tinting Value of Textile Fibres. To consider, first, the 
 filament properties : each class of fibre when dyed in the natural 
 but " clean," and in the prepared or artificial state, exhibits a 
 distinctive colourization value. Cotton assumes, in the tinting 
 process, a comparatively dull, flat tone ; wool, a full, soft, 
 saturated hue ; flax and rhea an intermediate quality between 
 the cotton and the wool ; alpaca, mohair or cashmere vary- 
 ing degrees of brightness ; and silk a superlative colour rich- 
 ness. Purity in the shade and evenness in the formation 
 of the original fibre, of whatever species, are determinate 
 
 28 
 
COLOUE1ZATION 29 
 
 factors as to the nature of the dyed colour. Egyptian cotton, 
 showing the same chemical analysis as East Indian cotton, 
 yields in the dyeing treatment a fresher tinted property 
 than the latter. Wools of the Lincoln class possess, in the dyed 
 condition, a higher lustre than fine merino wools, but merino 
 deeper and softer tinted features than the Lincoln ; or, com- 
 pared with Southdown, of a corresponding fineness of fibre but 
 of a less equalized serrated surface, the merino presents the 
 brighter and fuller colour toning. 
 
 In view of these relative tinted values, producible in the 
 use of the several groups of vegetable and animal fibres for 
 manufacturing purposes, the problem of filament admixture 
 is linked with that of the colour quality obtainable in the dyed 
 and finished fabric. Two pieces, one a solid and the second 
 a union worsted, made of identical yarn counts and by identical 
 methods in weaving, would develop different dyeing propen- 
 sities. Though in the treatment of the union piece the cotton 
 and wool fibres should, as far as practicable, be matched in 
 shade, the colour tone of the cloth would suffer in depth and 
 fullness as compared with that of the pure worsted or all-wool 
 texture, with the higher percentage of cotton utilized in its 
 construction. This element the colourable standard and 
 attributes of the various textile materials enters into the 
 fabrication of all grades and classes of dyed union goods. 
 
 27. Yarn Structure a Colour Modifier. Considering the 
 yarn structure, this exercises a modifying effect on the 
 colourization of the woven product. The system of inter- 
 mingling, grouping, arranging and alignment of the fibres 
 in the spinning processes, determines the type of thread 
 acquired, whether smooth or rough in structure, that is, recep- 
 tive or otherwise, of the true-tinted value of the fibrous 
 materials combined. The more level the thread, the greater 
 the degree of filament parallelization attained in its produc- 
 tion, the smoother the surface, and the brighter the colour 
 resultant. And, similarly, the rougher the yarn, the more 
 crossed and varied in length the fibres of which it is composed, 
 
30 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 and the softer and denser the dyed colour. In a particular 
 sense yarn structure, apart from the kind of material used, may 
 be converted into a colourant feature of the woven fabric. 
 To combine, in a striped or checked form, carded and combed 
 yarns, and to dye the cloth a simple shade, is an experiment 
 which clearly illustrates the difference in tinting property of 
 the same class of fibre, when prepared and spun into threads 
 distinct from each other in structural formation. The striped 
 and checked sections, woven in the combed yarn, are fresher 
 in colour than the sections woven in carded yarns, but the 
 latter possess the fuller depth of tone. The tinted qualities, 
 thus developed, are specially applicable to this style of pattern, 
 in which they are competent of being graded, in definition, with 
 the selection of the fibrous materials employed. The wool 
 industry supplies a further example of the colour phenomena 
 described, that observed in woollen and worsted manufactures. 
 Here, with wools of a like category and fineness, the worsted 
 thread structure in Botany and Crossbred qualities 
 develops a more lustrous species of colouring than the woollen 
 thread structure, whether Saxony or Cheviot. How far they 
 may be rendered coincident in the two grades of worsted and 
 in the two grades of woollen respectively, is definable by the 
 closeness with which the wools and yarn counts agree. In the 
 coarser classes of Cheviots, a certain percentage of the fibres 
 the longer and straighter sorts take a comparatively bright 
 colour, whereas, in the finer classes of Saxonies the tinting 
 is full and mellow but somewhat deficient in bloom. In a 
 like manner, brightness of colour toning characterises the 
 thicker group of crossbred yarns and fabrics, on account of 
 the semi-lustrous property of the wool staples combined; and 
 clearness of toning characterizes the finer group of Botany 
 textures, due to the level alignment of the fibres in the thread 
 formation. 
 
 28. Thread Consistency and Shade Contrasts. The turns per 
 inch in the yarn, and the twine direction generated in spinning, 
 being related to the thread structure, are also factors bearing 
 
COLOURIZATWN 31 
 
 on the coloured aspect of the cloth. Increasing the amount 
 of twist adds to the firmness and compactness of the yarn, 
 as decreasing it in a given counts tends to produce a loose and 
 pliable form of spun thread. In the dyed piece the quality 
 of each yarn is evident in the colour tone acquired. Arranging 
 hard and soft spun threads in lines in the warp or weft and 
 dyeing the cloth blue, brown, or any ordinary shade, discloses 
 the tinted qualities derivable from the degree of twine as 
 
 A 2 A B B A 2 A 
 
 FANCY WORSTED 
 UNION YARNS 
 
 distinct from the colour tone originated by the class of filament 
 used, and the system of yarn preparation practised. As a 
 general condition the firmer the twist, the clearer the colouring, 
 and the looser the twist, the mellower the tinted property of 
 the fabric. 
 
 Twine direction, or the angle of fibre movement in the 
 thread, qualifies the tinted result when yarns of " right " and 
 " left " hand twist are grouped together in the weaving opera- 
 tion. The fibres in the respective threads are, in this way, 
 presented to the light in different relations. Their disposition 
 
32 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 in the yarn is tantamount in effect to that of combing strands 
 of coloured hair reverse ways, causing each strand to take a 
 darker or lighter shade with its power of reflection. 
 
 29. Tone Differentiations and Fabric Build. That fabric 
 structure is capable of varying the colour hue is evident on 
 comparing, for example, textures of the rep or cord type 
 with textures of a twilled construction composed of similar 
 counts and grades of yarn, and dyed by the same procedure. 
 The cloths correspond in shade but differ in tint, the twilled 
 being distinctly more even and fresher in tone than the repped 
 fabric. These colour differentiations are purely a sequence 
 of the orders of the warp and weft interfacings in the two 
 textures, In one specimen the rep or rib the warp yarns 
 appear on the surface, the weft being concealed, and the 
 fabric is lined or ridged transversely. Under the microscope 
 the reps resemble series of well-defined furrows. A woven 
 surface of this description is exactly fitted for the expres- 
 sion of a broken and subdued tone of colour. Regarding 
 the twill, the two sets of yarns warp and weft intersect 
 equally, and construct an even, level cloth, adapted to the 
 production of the normal colour quality of the fibre and of the 
 thread structure, and, therefore, obtainable by any standard 
 routine of dyeing. 
 
 As will be indicated in many varieties of unions, one yarn, 
 e.g., the weft, is floated largely on the upper side of the texture, 
 and this condition reduces the changes feasible in weave 
 elements. Still, there are textural contrasts formable by the 
 scheme of intersection which give a soft, plain, smooth, or a 
 hard, sinuous, rough surface effect, and these become important 
 modifiers of the coloured nature of the cloth. Further, in other 
 union manufactures, certain yarn structures are applied for 
 specific and definite fabric features and properties, and a plan 
 of interlacing is found to accord with these technicalities. As 
 a rule the evener, smoother and more symmetrical the build 
 of the fabric the richer the colour quality ; and, conversely, the 
 more serrated the textural surface, the more subdued and, in 
 
COLOVMZ.ATION 
 
 33 
 
 a measure, the more impoverished the coloured tone in a 
 specified class of yarn. From which it is to be understood that, 
 with warp and weft of a standard tinted value, this value may 
 be deteriorated or enhanced by the principles of intertexture 
 applied in the construction of the cloth. 
 
 30. Yarn Assortment and Textural Features. This theory 
 operates in another sense. Weave design provides for the 
 full advantage being taken of the superior yarn product in 
 union manufactures. It 
 
 enables the yarns to be 
 assorted in the formation 
 of the fabric, applying the 
 better variety of yarn to 
 the surface and the lower 
 variety to the central part 
 or under side of the cloth. 
 Thus, in a linen and cotton 
 union, while the linen may 
 be made a distinctive con- 
 stituent of the texture, the 
 cotton yarn may be par- 
 tially hidden though an 
 essential element in the 
 woven structure. Or, in 
 the instance of a woollen 
 
 and cotton union, the weft, consisting of wool fibre, as a 
 consequence of the weave unit, may cover the cotton threads, 
 and form a smooth-surfaced sateen manufacture ; or should 
 it be interlaced in some twilled or other simple order with 
 the warp ends, the cotton may be only partially concealed 
 and yet the woollen supply the textural quality, and define 
 the colour tone procurable in piece dyeing. 
 
 31. Finishing Methods and Colour Tone. Concerning 
 finishing practice, it is complex in nature and in the manner 
 in which it may be rendered efficient in emphasizing variations 
 in colour tinting. Inferences may be drawn from dyeing 
 
 3- (1745) 
 
 FIG. 2 
 WORSTED AND ARTIFICIAL SILK 
 
 PATTERN 
 
34 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 treatment and results in the " melton," " face," and ordinary 
 types of finish applied to union fabrics. The first is a milled 
 finish, developing a quantity of surface filament, moderated 
 in density with the make of the cloth, the materials of which 
 it consists, and the character of the weft yarn. This filament 
 or " ba*ulk " fibre causes the textural details, formed by the 
 intercrossing of the warp and weft threads, to be almost invisible. 
 Process dyeing on such a cloth has corresponding effects as 
 to colour tone as the dyeing of a piece of carded and felted 
 wool. Depth and quality of colouring ensue as the result of 
 first, felting one shot of weft with another and fibre with 
 fibre ; and, second, of raising the mass of fibre formed on 
 to the face of the fabric, so that it projects, in the form 
 of a short, close nap or pile, from the yarns in the cloth. 
 Perfect evenness of shade is producible, but the original 
 brightness of the wool, as observed when the filaments are 
 lineally arranged, is absent. Finishing practice imparts to 
 the colour, developed in this grade of manufacture, depth and 
 fullness of tone with a minimum degree of lustre and freshness. 
 On the other hand, the combing and dressing of the fibrous 
 nap in the "face" or "doeskin" finish, enhances the bright 
 colouring property of the cloth, which may, if a union produc- 
 tion, be of a like structure and felted condition as the melton. 
 But raising action in this finish draws the fibres into a common 
 line, straightening and levelling them in the process, and also 
 inducing that filament compactness and relation typical of the 
 worsted yarn, with the fibres, however, raised from, and 
 uniformly spread on, the textural surface. With the fibres 
 thus laterally exposed to the light, in contrast to the ends of 
 the fibres as in the melton fabric, the lustre value in the wool 
 is enforced, and this imparts bloom and quality of hue to the 
 dyed shades in face-finished cloths. 
 
 Finishing methods and procedure are designed to develop 
 and accentuate the colour toning of the general varieties of 
 woven goods. Removing inequalities from the texture as 
 well as cleaning it, the processes improve the feel of the fabric 
 
COLOUmZATION 35 
 
 and add to its brightness and smoothness of surface. In 
 accomplishing this, as in the average worsted or woollen 
 manufacture, they ensure the natural qualities of the fibre 
 being visible in the colour composition of the piece. 
 
 32. Colour Technology Bi-fibred Manufactures. The phe- 
 nomena and principles examined concern the colourization 
 of the several descriptions of fabrics made in the loom. Colour 
 technology, relative to union manufactures, comprises a 
 number of specialized studies, each susceptive of amplification 
 by experimental research in textile production, and in the 
 use of colouring ingredients. Four leading schemes of 
 investigation are presented, namely, in 
 
 1. The respective stages in manufacturing routine at which 
 dyeing takes place, with the object of obtaining a prescribed 
 quality and grade of tinted product. 
 
 2. The diversity and range of dyeing treatment applicable 
 to material blends or mixtures of dissimilar properties, or 
 colouring affinities, when made into yarn or the yarn into a 
 fabric, and including assortments of cotton and wool ; cotton 
 and silk ; cotton, wool and silk ; cotton and ramie ; flax and 
 ramie ; flax, wool and silk, etc. ; and also to the types of 
 yarn structures and the thicknesses and builds of cloth 
 construction. 
 
 3. The colouring of special yarn compounds, variously spun 
 and folded or twisted, and for giving in dyeing, whether in 
 the hank form or in the woven condition, a determinable 
 distribution of the tints and shades on the surface of the 
 multi-ply thread. 
 
 4. The acquirement, in manufacture, of grades of cloth 
 which, in dyeing and finishing, result in typical styles of 
 pattern due to yarn composition and grouping, and to colour 
 association. 
 
 33. Conditions in which Textile Materials are Dyed. Textile 
 materials may be tinted in the " raw " but " cleansed " state, in 
 the slubbing, the combed sliver, the roving, the spun yarn, or in 
 the manufactured texture. In the dyeing of the fibre in these 
 
36 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 different conditions all of which are common in union fabrica- 
 tion it ought to be feasible to discover colouring agents, 
 and methods of application, which would be less deteriorative 
 of the natural properties of the material than those now 
 applied and practised. For carding efficiency dyeing is not 
 helpful but acts as a deterrent, increasing the work of filament 
 drafting and straightening, and also the staple disintegration. 
 Wool, after dyeing, on account of its matted state, is less fit 
 for carding than wool which has been simply scoured prior to 
 this operation. Advancing to " top " dyeing, it necessitates, 
 
 FIG. 3 
 WOVEN CURL OR ASTRAKHAN UNION YARN 
 
 ordinarily, a re-combing of the slivers to attain a normal 
 degree of evenness and brightness in the thread structure. 
 If piece dyeing should be considered, the process is less detri- 
 mental occurring in the final stage of manufacture, but still 
 the qualities of clearness and softness of texture may percepti- 
 bly suffer. The problem is one of ensuring accurate and level 
 dyeing with the least disturbance of the filament relations, 
 and yarn and textural features, which the processes and practice 
 of fabrication are formulated to produce. 
 
 34. Union Specimens Piece-dyed. The subject for analysis 
 here is that of the actual colour elements obtainable in the 
 union product yarn or fabric as a result of certain 
 schemes of manufacture and systems of dyeing, and will be 
 
COLOUEIZATION 37 
 
 explained and elucidated by reference to the following 
 specimens 
 
 Fig. 1. A fancy checked style composed of worsted, cotton, 
 and silk yarns. 
 
 Fig. 2, A and B. Cotton and artificial silk textures. 
 
 Fig. 3. Curl or Astrakhan fabric. 
 
 Fig. 4. Folded or compound yarns. 
 
 Fig. 5. Union Figured sample, woven with bi-fibred weft 
 yarns. 
 
 The effects in each of these specimens are, as regards tinting, 
 the consequence of combining filaments in the preparation 
 of the yarns of distinctive colouring properties, and of dyeing 
 in the manufactured state. Specimens 1, 2, 3, and 5 are 
 woven in the grey, and dyed in the piece ; and Specimens 4 
 twisted or folded in the grey, and dyed in the hank. 
 
 First in respect to Fig. 1, it is a woven pattern comprising 
 (1) the features due to weave, which are not modifiable by 
 dyeing treatment ; (2) the mingled details in sections A, pro- 
 duced in the folded yarn illustrated at C, Fig. 4, but, in this 
 instance, coloured in the piece ; (3) the intermittent checked 
 effects, B, in white ; and (4) the checkings faintly indicated on 
 lines 1 and 2. Ordinarily, these design elements are acquired 
 thus : The worsted yarns, forming the ground of the texture 
 dark slate in the original pattern are " top " dyed. In the 
 second place, the silk threads, giving the check lines, are 
 tinted to the required shade. Third, the twist or folded 
 yarns, composed of cotton and worsted, are produced by 
 dyeing the worsted yarn before folding is accomplished. 
 Here are four separate methods of colourization, each in- 
 volving a special dye bath, and the attainment, therefore, of 
 the several tints prior to the weaving of the pattern. Utilizing 
 the scheme of " cross-dyeing " the fabric is w r eavable in the 
 white, and yet all the effects are developable by "process- 
 colouring " in the piece. Thus the texture is in the first place 
 " wool-dyed," yielding the details seen in Part A and in the 
 ground of the cloth, and also the broken check lines which 
 
38 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 remain uutinted in the operation in white mercerized cotton. 
 In the second place, after rinsing thoroughly, the piece is 
 dyed for the artificial silk ingredients ; but providing these 
 were undyed, or that cotton were used in the construction of 
 the compound thread in the place of silk, then the pattern 
 would only require to be wool-dyed. But if the folded yarns 
 should be, as indicated, worsted, cotton and silk, then a second 
 tinting process would be involved. Referring to Fig. 2, it 
 is a representative texture worsted warp and artificial silk 
 weft in which the tints are a resultant of, first, wool dyeing 
 in a solution of 0-6 per cent, cyananthrol, 0-04 per cent, sorbine 
 red, and 0-04 per cent, azoflavine ; and second in a solution 
 of 0-4 oxamine light blue, and 0-07 per cent, cotton orange; or 
 some such similar combination of colouring agents. The two 
 shades of curl in the woven Astrakhan specimen, Fig. 3, have 
 also been produced by piece dyeing. The common practice 
 consists in weaving with the desired shades of top-dyed or 
 hank-dyed mohair yarns, so that each special batch of pieces 
 necessitates the use of differently tinted wefts for the curl. 
 Process dyeing offers two alternatives, in both of which the 
 goods are woven in the uncoloured state : (1) Part of the 
 weft yarns alternate face picks in the loom are composed 
 of mohair and a percentage of ramie fibre, and the remaining 
 part entirely of mohair or lustre wool as the case may be. 
 Dyeing, for tinting the animal fibres, leaves the rhea filaments 
 unaffected, hence the yarns, of which it is an ingredient, develop 
 a lighter (mixed) tone than the pure mohair yarns, which take 
 a solid shade. (2) A " resist " is applied to one portion of the 
 curl weft threads, enabling piece-dyeing to be done with a 
 two-coloured effect the unprepared weft taking, in this 
 instance, a different tint from the " resist," " mordanted," or 
 prepared weft yarn. 
 
 35. Colourization of Spun and Woven Products. These 
 specimens form suggestive examples of textile colourization as 
 a result of dyeing the woven production made in the grey, 
 but consisting of various classes of fibre, and forms of yarn 
 
COLO UEIZA T10N 39 
 
 structure. They are also illustrative of the styles of manu- 
 facture and builds of cloth, which lend themselves to this 
 principle of tinting. More diversified effects than those 
 particularized could readily be originated. If, for instance, 
 the white cotton threads B, in the pattern sketched in Fig. 1, 
 were substituted by twist yarns of the type shown at A, 
 Fig. 4, an additional technical feature would be produced. 
 To the designer, acquainted with the principles of cloth con- 
 struction, it will be clear that, by following the dyeing methods 
 defined, this type of texture, Fig. 1, could be modified and 
 re-arranged to give other groups of styles besides that ex- 
 emplified. It serves, however, to suggest the elements under- 
 lying the origination, in piece dyeing, of certain features in the 
 fabric which are provided for in the processes of yarn 
 manufacture. 
 
 36. Tinted Folded Yarn Hank-dyed. From the use of 
 twist yarns A, B, C, Fig. 4 of a definite form and filament 
 admixture, a useful diversity of pattern is also developable in 
 the loom-made product, when this system of colouring is 
 practised. This arises from the latitude afforded in the con- 
 struction of folded yarns as to the quality, counts, and character 
 of the single threads usable in the twisting frame. The 
 value of yarn variation in acquiring novelty of style in the 
 woven result is well understood, but this knowledge has been 
 derived from experimental studies with coloured materials in 
 several descriptions of yarn, such as " mixtures " of dyed wool 
 and of " multi-fold twists," consisting of threads of which the 
 fibrous units have been tinted either before or in the processes 
 of spinning. Many of the effects, peculiar to these varigated 
 coloured yarns, are producible in the dyed fabric by using 
 union-folded yarns, or compound yarns in which the single 
 threads differentiate in fibre quality and tinting affinities. 
 For instance, the three specimens in Fig. 4 have been dyed in 
 the hank, forming two-shade yarns, but this class of twist is 
 also equally adapted for use in the grey and for dyeing in the 
 woven or knitted texture. Samples A and C are composed of 
 
40 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 cotton and woollen, and sample B of ramie and worsted. All 
 union yarns, made of single threads, and spun from animal and 
 
 vegetable fibre respectively, 
 
 fabrics intended for dyeing 
 in the piece. 
 
 37. Union Figured Speci- 
 men in Two Shades Piece- 
 dyed. The consideration of 
 the specimen in Fig. 5 
 touches mainly on the 
 second field (Paragraph 32) 
 of investigation. This fabric 
 is two-ply or double in the 
 weft, a species of woven 
 structure which has the 
 advantage of concealing the 
 cotton warp employed, and 
 of presenting a woollen cover 
 on both sides of the cloth. 
 One weft (A ; medium 
 shade) contains 80 per cent. 
 of wool and 20 per cent. 
 of cotton fibre, and the 
 other " vigogne " weft (B - 
 lighter shade) 60 per cent. 
 of wool and 30 per cent, of 
 cotton. By dyeing the wool 
 constituents a dark tone, 
 weft A is made to develop 
 a deeper intermingled shade 
 
 than weft B. As the former, in weaving, makes the ground 
 and the latter the figure, the pattern emphasized by 
 the dyeing process is that illustrated. The reverse surface, 
 in which the wefts A and B interchange positions A 
 inter-weaving in the formation of the figure and B in the 
 
 FIG. 4 
 HANK-DYED FOLDED YARNS 
 
Hi 
 
; [VNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 composition of the ground is observed in the section 
 reproduced at Fig. 5A. 
 
 The technicalities of the subject are part of the art of blending 
 analysed in Paragraphs 3 and 7. But the problem is now that 
 of the production of bi-fibred yarns which, when dyed, either 
 in the yarn or in the cloth, will result in mixture shades, or in 
 shades consisting of at least two tinted units. The usual 
 method is to combine the relative proportions of the variously- 
 coloured wools in the processes of yarn preparation. To 
 obtain, for example, a grey mixture yarn, the calculated per- 
 centages of black and white wool would be carded together 
 forming one " lot," or, to spin a grey worsted yarn, the requisite 
 quantities of dyed (black) and undyed (white) " tops " would 
 be amalgamated in the drawing operations. 
 
 38. Yarn Composition for Mixture-shade Dying. These 
 define other principles of mixture-shade origination from the 
 principles of work now comprised, and which supply a product 
 consistent with " mixture-shade dyeing." The former results 
 are the incidence of the admixture in yarn making of tinted 
 fibres in fixed ratios. The latter are the incidence of blending 
 also in yarn construction in prescribed ratios of unlinted 
 materials but disagreeing in chemical and physical properties, 
 and of dyeing in the spun yarn or in the manufactured fabric. 
 Colourization takes place in one instance with the filaments 
 in the raw but clean state, and in the other in the prepared, 
 woven or knitted product. The commingling of the tinted 
 fibrous units results in a mixture shade or colour both in the 
 yarn and in the texture ; the commingling of animal and 
 vegetable fibres results in a union yarn or fabric, but in the 
 natural colour of the varieties of material combined. Dyeing 
 procedure develops the mixture effect or tinted melange, 
 imparting to each sort of fibre in the thread or cloth its 
 respective colour value. 
 
 39. Filament Blend A basic Factor. Fibrous composition, 
 that is, " material-blend," is, therefore, of primary impor- 
 tance. It constitutes the basis the theoretical and practical 
 
COLOURIZATION 43 
 
 preparation of the mixture shade producible in the manu- 
 factured article by dyeing in one or more processes. As 
 such, it commands the following groups of study and technical 
 research 
 
 A. The colour attributes or tinted value, under varied 
 conditions of manufacture, of the different classes and qualities 
 of textile fibre. 
 
 B. The influence and effect of dyeing practice on each 
 variety of filament when in the composite form of a spun 
 thread or of a woven, knitted or felted texture, comprising 
 (1) the tone of mixture shade resultant in single-bath dyeing, 
 colouring one of the two or several of the materials in the 
 " union " product ; (2) the nature of the tints obtainable on 
 each material in the yarn or piece in the substantive or single - 
 process dyeing of " union " manufactures ; and (3) the anal- 
 ogous or contrasting colour tones acquired by dyeing each 
 sort of fibre, in the prepared material, independently, and in 
 successive dyeing operations. 
 
 C. The quality or tone of mixture-shade gradation feasible 
 by dyeing methods, as a consequence of modifying the relative 
 percentages of animal, vegetable and other fibres in the con- 
 struction of the yarn and fabric, including the determination 
 of the depth, or tone, of the shade by adjusting the pro- 
 portionate ingredients of the different materials forming the 
 blend in the carding or drawing practice. 
 
 D. The production of definite grades and varieties of textile 
 fabrics by the employment of accurate ratios of the kinds of 
 fibre combined. This technicality is largely one of manu- 
 facturing science, concerning the making of a serviceable 
 yarn and sound texture, but it limits, in some degree, the 
 mixture -colour range, in piece-dyeing, as governed by the mathe- 
 matical proportions of assorted materials in the blend. The 
 whole is circumscribed by practical or productive considera- 
 tions, such as the style, structure, and commercial nature of 
 the goods intended. 
 
 The tinting problem, which permeates each of the sources 
 
44 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 of shade origination defined, intimately concerns the chemistry 
 of dyeing. The manufacture of a product in absolute con- 
 formity with a recognized standard of colourization, as a 
 sequence of dyeing, is the sphere of the textile technologist. 
 
 40. Effects of Carded and Combed Yarns in moderating 
 Mixture-shade Quality. Primarily, the features in the develop- 
 ment of dyed-mixture shades and in the methods of their 
 application will be examined. It is now understood that all 
 such mixtures are a result of combining, in definite proportions, 
 filament varieties ; but the influence of yarn structure on the 
 quality of the mixed shade produced remains to be particu- 
 larized. Assuming the ingredients to be wool and cotton, a 
 vigogne yarn is obtained by blending the materials in the 
 carding operation, and a bi-fibred worsted yarn by blending 
 the combed slivers in the processes of drawing. These differ- 
 ences, in detail of thread construction, have to be recognized 
 as having an effect on the colour tone of the dyed melange 
 shade. All other technicalities being the same, the mixture 
 tints in fabrics consisting of union combed yarns, for the 
 reasons stated in Paragraph 27, are clearer in quality than in 
 fabrics made of union carded yarns. This tinted distinctive- 
 ness, in the dyeing of these typical union thread structures, 
 plainly arises from the greater uniformity of line observed, 
 in the grouping of the fibres, in the worsted as compared with 
 their arrangement and disposition in the woollen yarn. Thread 
 formation is not, however, in such instances, an elemental but 
 a subsidiary factor. It does not qualify the filament composition 
 of the mixture shade, but needs to be taken into account as a 
 modifier of the degree of colour freshness attainable in yarn 
 or piece dyeing. In this sense, it corresponds with other 
 technicalities in manufacture, as, for example, the build of 
 the fabric, felting, raising and finishing work, which have been 
 shown to exert a modifying influence on the attributes of 
 textural toning. 
 
 41. Schemes of Manufacture and Mixture-shade Variation. 
 Let the points be illustrated, ta'king a flannel costume fabric 
 
COLOURIZAT10N 45 
 
 in very dark grey, dark grey, and medium grey shades. Three 
 schemes of manufacture may be dissected, each of which, 
 owing to the yarn structures combined, develops distinctive 
 properties in the dyeing processes. They comprise 
 
 (1) To give a very dark grey shade. Warp : Union worsted 
 yarn, composed of 90 per cent, of wool and 10 per cent, of 
 cotton. Weft : Vigogne or carded union yarn, also composed 
 of 90 per cent, of wool and 10 per cent, of cotton fibre. 
 
 (2) To give a dark grey shade. Warp : Union worsted, 
 composed of 75 per cent, of wool and 25 per cent, of cotton. 
 Weft : Same as warp. 
 
 (3) To give a medium grey shade. Warp and Weft : Carded 
 or vigogne yarns, composed of 60 per cent, of wool and 40 per 
 cent, of cotton. 
 
 By piece dyeing and colouring the wool ingredients only, 
 the quantitative ratios of cotton and wool fibre in the yarns 
 determine the depth of the mixture shade very dark, dark or 
 medium grey. The element now for consideration is the tone 
 of colour realized in each scheme of warping and wefting by 
 the yarn structure. From the explanations given, it will be 
 apparent that this will vary with the percentages of worsted 
 and woollen union yarn selected. In the first arrangement, 
 combed yarns are used in the warp and carded yarns in the 
 weft ; but, in the second and in the third arrangements, 
 combed and carded yarns respectively form both the warping 
 and wefting of the fabric. If the three schemes were applied 
 to the production of either one melange or the other, they 
 would differ in colour toning. The discrepancy, in the aggre- 
 gate blend of cotton and wool in the several shades, does not 
 enter into the difference in colour product as arising from the 
 yarn formation. It affects, as is evident from the colouriza- 
 tion value of each fibre, the freshness of the tinted manufacture, 
 but not the colour quality as defined and restricted by the 
 mathematical order of the filaments in the thread structure. 
 Hence, in the examples, the mixture shade in scheme (1) 
 would be the clearer, and in scheme (3) the fuller in tone; 
 
46 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 while the tinted character of the shade in scheme (2) would 
 be betwixt the two. 
 
 42. Pattern Elements due to Spun Yarns differing in Struc- 
 ture. Appreciating the toning value of the constructive 
 nature of the yarn, apart from its fibrous composition, suggests 
 its utility in manufacturing practice. Being a source of 
 colour differentiation in piece dyeing, it enables certain descrip- 
 tions of pattern to be woven. Thus, combining, say, sixteen 
 threads of combed bi-fibred yarns with eight threads of bi-fibred 
 carded yarns of a like counts, in the warping and wefting, 
 would produce a species of shot or shaded checking in the 
 dyed piece. These effects are distinctive of yarn structure, 
 and are obtainable in any tinted type or make of cloth. 
 
 43. Principles in Mixture-shade Production. It should be 
 made clear that, in all varieties of " mixture-shade " dyeing, 
 the coloured composition developed is due to the wool (or 
 animal) and cotton (or plant) fibres being perfectly inter- 
 mingled Paragraphs 4 to 7 in the carding and drawing 
 routine. Each class of filament is thereby equally distributed 
 throughout the whole formation of the thread. It follows 
 that, in colouring the wool, e.g., black, and leaving the cotton 
 uncoloured, a mixture shade results coinciding with the shade 
 derivable from using corresponding percentages of black and 
 white materials, in yarn making, to the percentages of wool 
 and cotton in the woven piece. To vary the quantities of the 
 two sorts of fibre has, therefore, in this method of manufacture 
 and dyeing, a like effect, in the mixture produced, as that of 
 altering the ratios of the two shades of material in blending 
 for ordinary practice. 
 
 On economic grounds, and also for productive purposes, the 
 proportionate quantities of the respective fibres are varied, but 
 it will be apparent from this analysis that, so far as the mixture 
 shade is concerned, changes of this nature have, when the wool 
 fibre is dyed, as in the three schemes specified, two standard 
 results : first, with an increase in the wool (black or colour) 
 constituent in the blend, the mixture shade is darkened in 
 
COLO URIZA TION 47 
 
 tone ; and, second, with an increase in the cotton (white) 
 constituent, the mixture shade is lightened in tint. 
 
 Neutral greys have been purposely chosen for the illustra- 
 tion of this system of mingled colour production. " Fancy " 
 mixtures, composed of simple and derivative hues, are also 
 obtainable. Thus, the wool fibre in the cloth may be dyed 
 green, olive, brown, or any suitable colour, and in dark, 
 medium and light shades. By tinting the cotton, in such 
 instances, the hue of the wool-dyed fibres, a soft or mellow 
 quality of mixture shade is formed. This implies two dyeing 
 processes, one for each class of filament, and that, if the piece 
 should be coloured brown, green, etc., the cotton would be 
 tinted light fawn, pale green, etc. For mixtures, consisting 
 of two contrasting hues, cross-dyeing is practised, giving the 
 wool and the cotton materials, in the texture, in such tones as 
 blue and orange, claret-brown and heliotrope, olive and 
 lavender the darker or deeper colour being effective on the 
 wool, and the brighter or intenser tone on the cotton. 
 
 44. Union Fabrication and Piece-dyeing. Thus far, the 
 manufacturing result attained is an important species of piece- 
 dyed mixture colouring, variable in fibre grouping and in 
 tinted features ; and one adapted to the standard makes of 
 plain, twilled and elemental-weave fabrics, such as costumes, 
 suitings, overcoatings and cloths for domestic application. 
 When this principle of dyeing, and of yarn and fabric manu- 
 facture, is applied to figured and decorative textures of which 
 the specimen in Fig. 5 is an example, other groups of technical 
 problems in colour expression, and in textural construction, 
 require to be investigated. The production of the tinted 
 quality is still based on the intermixture of animal and 
 vegetable fibres in yarn spinning ; but it is now essential that 
 the ground and figured portions of the cloth should be woven 
 in different shade tones. This additional element is provided 
 for by combining, in the loom, yarns of dissimilar dyeing pro- 
 perties. Each kind of thread, whether warp or weft, is located, 
 by the structural plan employed, in the fabric ; or the position 
 
48 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 and function assigned to it is made to fit with the definition 
 of the ground, and also of the integral parts of the pattern 
 when the piece is dyed. Now it is not suggested that such 
 dyeing may be practised in the way of a substitute for ordinary 
 routine dyeing, or that it affords the gamut of colour treat- 
 ment concurrent with individual lot dyeing. It has, however, 
 a specific sphere. As a useful and also as an. economical 
 system, it is capable of extended development in union textile 
 fabrication. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 TEXTURAL TONING 
 
 45. Colour Practice and Mixture-shade Dyeing. 46. Six-shade 
 Toning. 47. Maintaining a Plus Wool Ingredient. 48. Tertiary and 
 Secondary Mixture Shades. 49. A Scale of Eight Tones. 50. Mix- 
 ture-shade Scale Extension. 51. Construction of a 12-Tone Scale. 
 52. Colour Unit and Manufacturing Conditions. 53. Primary Value 
 of Colour Tone and how Determined. 54. A Constant Factor in 
 Three-tone Mixtures. 55. Deductions with Examples. 56. Yarn 
 Distribution and Textural Evenness. 57 Filament Proportions in 
 the Yarn and Union-fabric Quality. 58. Emphasizing Textural 
 Details. 59. Pattern in Bi-fibred Yarn Fabrics. 60. Correlative 
 Yarn Qualities and Textural Style. 61. Inversion of Filament 
 Percentages. 62. Effectiveness of the Scheme in Experimental 
 Range Making and Dyeing Procedure. 63. Research Issues and 
 Sectional Investigation. 64. Economy in Bulk Production. 
 
 45. Colour Practice and Mixture-shade Dyeing. The technical 
 utility and application of mixture-shade dyeing in the piece, 
 may now be exemplified, as it bears upon the four fundamental 
 aspects of textile colour practice, namely, (a) Shade or tone 
 gradation ; (6) Two-colour mixture effects, composed of a 
 colour and of white or black, or of two distinct tints ; (c) Style 
 development relating to the accurate delineation of the textural 
 and design features ; and (d) The production of sample or 
 experimental ranges of patterns, including the dyeing of the 
 fabric (woven in the white or grey) in suitable colours, tones, 
 or tints. 
 
 With multi-fibre blending in yarn construction, and the 
 individual affinities for colouring matter of each class of fibre 
 combined, a basis is apparently provided for acquiring, in the 
 natural-coloured spun, woven, or knitted manufacture, diversi- 
 fied tinted shades, as a consequence of the methods of dyeing 
 followed. The textural qualities imposed, by the proportionate 
 quantities in which the several materials are utilized for the 
 production of specified shades in the process of cloth dyeing, 
 
 49 
 
SO UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 do not, at present, form a subject for analysis. But it will 
 be understood that the fabrics, made for this system of colour 
 treatment, are varied in fibrous composition, and therefore 
 in quality, by each modification in the tinting of the mixture 
 shade obtained. Piece-dyeing we7aw/e-shade production, is 
 thus linked with manufacturing and designing problems. 
 Changes in the materials used in yarn spinning, in the selection 
 
 
 FIG. 6 
 
 BI-F1BRED NEUTRAL GREY MIXTURES 
 
 and arrangement of the yarns in weaving, and in the construc- 
 tion of the fabric, become, in employing bi-fibred warp and 
 weft threads, instrumental in radically altering the coloured tone 
 of the cloth. Under these conditions, union fabrication, to be 
 efficient in attaining the correct tinted value in the texture, 
 requires to be cognizant of the nature and influence of the 
 filament varieties, and of the groups of processes and techni- 
 calities represented in the manufacture of a specific grade of 
 woven product, which, when submitted to a definite dyeing 
 scheme, will yield a certain coloured quality.* 
 
 46. Six-sJiade Toning. As explained, piece-dyeing, for develop- 
 ing mixed colour effects, is an alternative system to dyeing 
 * See Colour in Woven Design, by the same Author ai)d Publishers. 
 
TEXTURAL TONING 
 
 51 
 
 and blending raw materials prior to spinning, but it is not to 
 be regarded as a substitute for the original practice, nor as 
 applicable to mixture-shade origination in the use of materials 
 of corresponding tinting properties. It allows of colour tone 
 gradation in the shades formed, but not to the same extent, 
 or with the same facility, as in the admixture of coloured wools. 
 The quality of the cloth product, and the percentages in which 
 the vegetable, animal and other fibres are combinable, act 
 as restrictive factors. Still, in adapting a basis of standardiza- 
 tion in shade gradation, a useful scale of shades in two or 
 three colours may be formulated. In illustration of the 
 principle involved, an example in neutral greys is given in 
 Fig. 6. It contains six mixture-shades graduated from 
 dark to light. The ratios in which the cotton and wool 
 materials have been blended for developing these tones, in 
 "single-bath" (black) dyeing in the piece, are stated in 
 Table IV. 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 SHADE GRADATION IN UNION YARNS 
 
 Spt'riiiK'ns. 
 i'i?. 6. 
 
 Yam C 
 
 omposition. 
 
 Black-dved in the 
 Cloth. 
 
 White (undyed) 
 in the Yarn and 
 the Cloth. 
 
 
 
 
 Material. 
 
 Material. 
 
 A 
 
 90 % Wool, 
 
 10 % Cotton 
 
 Wool Fibre 
 
 Cotton Fibre 
 
 B 
 
 80 % 
 
 20 % 
 
 ,, , 
 
 > 
 
 C 
 
 60 % 
 
 40 % 
 
 > 
 
 J> 5 
 
 D 
 
 40 % Cotton 
 
 60 % Wool 
 
 Cotton , 
 
 Wool 
 
 E 
 
 20 % 
 
 80 % 
 
 , 
 
 j 
 
 F 
 
 10 % 
 
 90 % 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 47. Maintaining a Plus Wool Ingredient. In order that the 
 wool fibre may preponderate in each shade, it will be observed 
 that, in the table of percentages, the cotton and not the wool 
 constituent is dyed in mixtures D, E and F. This serves to 
 equalize the fibrous quality of the cloth in the six shades, but, 
 as the cotton and wool fibre are distinctive from each other in 
 colourization value, the mixtures D, E and F would not, in 
 the black ingredient, be of the same depth of tone as in 
 mixtures A, B and C. For producing the six shades by wool 
 
52 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 dyeing, the quantitative factors would need to be changed 
 in D, E and F to 
 
 40 % of wool and 60 % of cotton. 
 
 20 80 
 
 10 90 
 
 Such a scheme decreases the wool and increases the cotton 
 quantity in the blends with the gradation of the mixtures 
 from the dark to the light shade ; and would, in this instance, 
 cause F to contain 90 per cent, of cotton and 10 per cent, of 
 wool as compared with A containing 90 per cent, of wool and 
 10 per cent, of cotton fibre. One yarn would be of a woollen 
 and the other of a cotton structure and quality ; whereas, 
 by the method detailed, mixtures A and F, B and E, and C 
 and D, correspond in filament composition, and the yarns 
 resultant are of a woollen or worsted according to the system 
 of spinning adopted consistency and nature. 
 
 48. Tertiary and Secondary Mixture Shades. Intermediate 
 shades, differentiating in tone and tint from B and C, and D 
 and E, are producible by blending, say, 70 per cent, of wool 
 and 30 per cent, of cotton (wool dyed), and 25 per cent, of 
 cotton with 75 per cent, of wool (cotton dyed). Obviously, 
 in forming such mixture tones, any appropriate dark or bright 
 colour may be selected, and take the place of the black ingre- 
 dient in the example. Using, for illustration, the tertiary and 
 secondary colours, the blends for giving a series of mixture 
 shades and tints would be constituted as stated in Tables V 
 and VI. 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 TERTIARY MIXTURE SHADES 
 
 
 Corre- 
 
 
 Corre- 
 
 j 
 
 Tertiary 
 Colour. 
 
 sponding 
 Mixture, 
 in 
 
 Yarn Composition. 
 (Wool to be Dyed in the 
 Piece.) 
 
 sponding 
 Mixture 
 in 
 
 Yarn Composition. 
 (Cotton to be Dyed in the 
 Piece.) 
 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 
 Russet 
 
 A 90% Wool, 10% Cotton 
 
 D 
 
 40% Cotton, 60% Wool 
 
 Olive 
 
 B 
 
 80% 20% 
 
 E 
 
 20% 80% 
 
 Citron 
 
 C 
 
 60% 40% 
 
 F 
 
 10% 90% 
 
TEXT URAL TONING 
 
 53 
 
 TABLE VI 
 
 SECONDARY COLOUR MIXTURE TINTS 
 
 
 Con-c- 
 
 
 Corre- 
 
 ^oioir 
 
 lone 
 
 Yarn Composition. 
 (Wool Dyed in the Piece.) 
 
 sponding 
 Tone 
 in 
 
 Yarn Composition. 
 (Cotton Dyed in the Piece.) 
 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 
 l-i._'. r,. 
 
 
 Orange 
 
 A 
 
 90% Wool, 10% Cotton 
 
 D 40% Cotton, 60% Wool 
 
 Green 
 
 B 
 
 80% 20% 
 
 E 20% 80% 
 
 Purple 
 
 C 
 
 60% 40% 
 
 F 10% 90% 
 
 The percentages of russet, olive, and citron would form 
 shades agreeing in tone gradation with the specimens A, B, 
 and C in Fig. 6, and the percentages of orange, green and 
 purple, tints harmonizing in colour toning with the standards 
 D, E and F. The cotton, in the tertiary compounds, might 
 be suitably tinted a similar hue as the tertiary applied, such 
 as rose tint in the russet mixture, pale yellowish green in the 
 olive, and pale greenish yellow in the citron. This practice, 
 as previously defined, is helpful in imparting quality of colour 
 tone when dark shades are selected, but it is not necessarily 
 followed in the formation of the tinted mixtures. 
 
 49. A Scale of Eight Tones. Union yarn quality, as shown, 
 controls and limits the scale of shade gradation. For effective 
 pattern development, combined with satisfactory yarn and 
 fabric manufacture, three or four colour tones, in one variety 
 of mixed product, should not as a rule be exceeded. Addi- 
 tional shades and tints are admissible, but imply the use, 
 in the construction of the cloth, of a pure woollen for the 
 former, and of a cotton yarn for the latter. Shade gradation 
 being determined by the fixed proportions of the two classes 
 of filament assorted in the preparation of the yarns, and 
 confining the cotton unit to 40 or 45 per cent, of the blend for 
 a, " woollen " or " worsted " union, the shade tones due to 
 this factor, and obtainable in one and the same dyeing process, 
 should, normally, be restricted to the number named. By 
 submitting, however, the materials to special dyeings the scale 
 of shades in any particular mixture may be extended. The 
 
FIG. 7 
 
 FIG. 8 
 
 EIGHT-TONE SHADE IN Bl-FTBUED YARNS. TABLES VIT AND VITI 
 
 54 
 
TKXTURAL TONING 55 
 
 method of doing this is illustrated in Figs. 7 and 8 and in 
 Tables VII and VIII, which contain the data for slate and 
 green mixture shades in eight tones, and acquired in two 
 separate " wool " dyeing processes. Four sets of filament 
 percentages are applied, the cotton being undyed in the slate, 
 and tinted in the green, shades. The colour of the wool for 
 shades 1 to 4, Figs. 7 and 8, is dark slate in Table VII, and 
 dark green in Table VIII, changed to medium slate and 
 medium green for shades 5 to 8. The tone of the medium 
 colour should correspond with that of the mixture-shade 4, 
 in order, when blended in the ratios of 90 : 10, 80 : 20, 70 : 30 
 and 55 : 45 of wool and cotton respectively, to continue the 
 natural sequence in the gradation of the mixtures 4 and 5, 
 5 and 6, 6 and 7, and 7 and 8. In the mixtures defined in 
 Table VIII, the cotton as well as the wool is dyed. It is 
 shown uniformly tinted pale green, but, in practice, other 
 tints might be substituted, including pale red, light orange, 
 lavender, etc. 
 
 50. Mixture-shade Scale Extension. Scale extension of 
 mixture shades of this class may be carried out on this principle 
 to twelve or more tones, as indicated in Figs. 9 and 10. It 
 takes into consideration the range of yarn assortment, and the 
 selection of colours, for piece dyeing, which will maintain an 
 equalized toning of the shade units from the dark to the light 
 mixture. The yarn assortment, or yarn grading, for producing 
 a definite fibrous quality in the fabric is dealt with later, but, 
 as each bi-fibred thread, according to its filament analysis, has 
 a " tinted " value in the dyeing, it also possesses a " quality " 
 value in cloth. The combination of yarns, in the ordinary 
 systems of warping and wefting, differing largely from each 
 other in material composition, might yield the intended colour 
 tones but prove highly detrimental to balanced textural pro- 
 perty. A fundamental idea, therefore, in amplifying the 
 tone scale is the construction of yarns of such filament 
 admixture as to be workable together. 
 
 Adopting this basis, the range of wool and cotton 
 
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L TONING 57 
 
 percentages, for making a thread of a wool-like description, 
 should be formulated as specified in Tables VII and VIII . These 
 provide, with dark and medium colours matched in the dyeing, 
 for mixture shades in six and eight tones. Shades inter- 
 mediate between 1 and 2, 2 and 3, 3 and 4, etc., may be 
 formed by blending the two fibrous units in the proportions 
 of 85 : 15, 75 : 25, and 65 : 35, but the distinctions between 
 the shades in the scale, if thus duplicated, become less accentu- 
 ated than in those resulting from the percentages tabulated, 
 the toned features of which are exhibited in the photographic 
 reproductions of the yarns in Figs. 9 and 10. The degree of 
 contrast, when such intermediate tones are introduced, is of 
 a similar quality to that observed in the woven specimen 
 given in Fig. 11, the fabric here is strictly a compound union 
 structure, namely a union of cotton and woollen yarns, and 
 a union due to the wefts in Bands B, C, D and F, being com- 
 posed of cotton and wool fibre. Thus the yarns, for the 
 ground of stripings E, are spun from a fine, short-stapled wool, 
 and for B, C, D, and F from the same sort of wool mixed with 
 cotton in the relative ratios of 90 : 10, 80 : 20, 70 : 30, and 
 55 : 45. Sections B' and C' are chintzed with two wefts 
 B and D and C and F. The four tones suffer in clearness 
 of definition in the reproduction, but are sufficiently distinct 
 to suggest the series of mixture tones caused, by the differentia- 
 tions in yarn composition, as a consequence of dyeing the 
 cloth a dark colour. The twist yarns T are made of 
 cotton and do not affect the elements described ; and the 
 high percentage of cotton, undyed, in the union yarns F, as 
 compared with the percentages of this fibre in the other union 
 wefts combined, accounts for the light shade developed in 
 this part of the texture. 
 
 51. Construction of a 12-Tone Scale. Adhering to the 
 scheme of toning laid down, the method of constructing a 
 mixture shade in bi-fibred yarns, and in twelve tones, may be 
 readily explained. From the data specified in Tables IX 
 and X, it will be seen that four dyed colours dark brown, 
 
FIG. 10 
 
 BI-FIBHED YARN SPECIMENS TABLES IX AND X 
 
 58 
 
TEXT URAL TONING 59 
 
 brown, medium brown and light brown ; and blue, medium 
 blue, light and very light blue are selected for the wool 
 ingredient for the shades in Figs. 9 and 10. For acquiring 
 mixtures 10, 11, and 12 in each series, white takes the place 
 of the tinting colour for the cotton unit. The shade toning 
 is serially graduated by changing the dyed colour for the 
 wool at the fourth, seventh, and tenth shades in the scale. 
 The tone of colour to select is determined by the law of com- 
 parison, as in the instance of the medium colour for the eight- 
 tone shades in Figs. 7 and 8 ; that is, the brown tone for 
 mixture 4 in Table IX is required to match in depth shade 3 ; 
 the medium brown, for mixture 7. shade 6 ; and the light 
 brown, for mixture 10, shade 9. 
 
 Four groups of shades 1, 2 and 3, 4, 5 and 6, 7, 8 and 9, 
 and 10, 11 and 12 are in this manner formulated. The yarns 
 in each coincide in filament ratios, which makes it feasible to 
 use them in weaving fabrics co-equal in structure and in 
 technical details. The quality of cloth and character of 
 style originated in the first group, or in dark tones, may, 
 by separate dyeing processes as denoted in Tables IX and X, 
 be identically reconstructed in the medium or light tones, and 
 with corresponding shade gradations in the yarns. 
 
 A feature to be noted, as illustrating the principle of modi- 
 fying the scale gradation, is that, in Fig. 10, shade 1 is equiva- 
 lent in tone to shade 2 in Fig. 9. This is the result of the 
 initial blue or dark colour in Table X being a degree lighter 
 than the initial brown or dark colour in Table IX, and also 
 of the percentage of cotton tinted unit being higher in the 
 yarn composition in the blue than in the brown mixtures. 
 
 Whichever system of shade toning is practised, that exempli- 
 fied in Fig. 6 and in Tables IV, V, and VI, or that in Figs. 7 
 and 8, and 9 and 10, and in Tables VII and VIII, and IX and X, 
 it follows that, with the addition, or reduction, of the ratio of 
 animal or vegetable fibre used in spinning, the quality of the 
 yarn changes in respect to the shade it yields under certain 
 conditions existing in the dyeing of the fabric. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
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TEXTURAL TONING 
 
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 52. Colour Unit and Manufacturing Conditions. From this 
 absolute principle, three factors arise for consideration in 
 this class of fabrication : 
 First, the diversity of E ~ 
 colouring in the pattern B '~ 
 to be produced ; second, F 
 the system of distributing, 
 in the texture, the several 
 sorts of yarn to give a 
 definite tinted compound 
 of detail effects, and, at c ~ 
 the same time, make a 
 cloth of uniform consis- 
 tency and evenness of 
 structural character ; and, 
 third, fabric quality E 
 fineness and softness as 
 a product of the yarns B 
 combined. These techni- 
 calities have been touched co- 
 upon in the explanations 
 made of the schemes of 
 fibrous blending for obtain- 
 ing graded mixture shades ; 
 but it is now a question 
 of the quantitative propor- 
 tions of the two species D _ 
 of fibre e.g., wool and B 
 cotton adopted, in yarn E 
 construction, to a parti- 
 cular routine of manufac- 
 ture. When dyed, at one 
 or two processes, the 
 yarns employed in the weaving of the piece are required to 
 develop a specific tone of colour. It is strictly essential that 
 each filament -mixed thread should produce, in the dyeing 
 
 FIG. 11 
 
 COTTON-WARP AND BI-FIBRED 
 WOOLLEN WEPT STRIPING 
 
62 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 practice, a standard depth and brightness of shade. Unless 
 these elements are to be relied upon, the pattern features ana 
 formation, previously fixed in the warping and wefting arrange- 
 ment by the selection, in a prescribed order, of yarns of a 
 known admixture of wool and cotton will be destroyed in 
 piece dyeing. But, on the other hand, providing yarns of a 
 correct material composition are available, the pattern features 
 will be precisely delineated in the dyeing operation. 
 
 53. Primary Value of Colour Tone and hoiv Determined.- 
 Colour tone and expression in the dyed cloth are, therefore, 
 primary and fundamental. In further examining this subject, 
 it will be assumed that two-tone mixture colourings are 
 requisitioned in light, medium and dark shades, and that 
 either the cotton or the wool in the yarns is a colourable unit 
 in the dyeing treatment ; then, the proportionate yarn blends, 
 applicable to the development of these tinted results, are, in 
 the first place, decided upon. The following may be taken 
 in illustration of the basis of the practice to be pursued 
 
 I. Tinted or Light Mixture Shades 
 
 A Very light mixture (cotton dyed) 85 per cent, of wool arid 
 
 15 per cent, of cotton. 
 
 A Light mixture (cotton dyed) 70 per cent, of wool and 30 per 
 cent, of cotton. 
 
 U. Medium Mixture Shades 
 
 B Medium-tone mixture (wool dyed) 65 per cent, of wool and 
 
 35 per cent, of cotton. 
 B' Lighter medium tone mixture (wool dyed) 50 per cent, of 
 
 wool and 50 per cent, of cotton. 
 
 III. Dark Mixture Shades 
 
 C Very dark shade (wool dyed) 90 per cent, of wool and 10 per 
 
 cent, of cotton. 
 C' Dark shade (wool dyed) 75 per cent, of wool and 25 per cent. 
 
 of cotton. 
 
 54. A Constant Factor in Three-tone Mixtures. This series 
 of percentages would form, in dyeing the spun and woven 
 materials, a deep colour, two tints in light mixtures A and 
 
TEXT URAL TONING 63 
 
 A' , two intermediate shades, B leaning to the dark and B' 
 to the light tone, and two dark shades, C' approaching the 
 
 FIG. 1-2 
 BLOUSE CHECK. PIECE-DYED 
 
 medium shade and C the pure colour matched in the tinting 
 process. The constant factor, in each blend couplet, obtains 
 in the degree of tone contrast betwixt the very light and the 
 light tint ; the medium and the lighter medium mixture, 
 and the very dark and the dark shade. Yarn grading as to 
 
64 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 filament ingredients, determines this. Hence, whether the 
 woven fabric should be dyed a pale or deep-toned colour, a 
 warm or subdued intermediate shade, or a fresh, intense but 
 dark hue, the scale gradation would be coincident between 
 A and A', B and B' and C and C'. Still, it will be understood 
 that the quality and purity of the dyed colour exerts a modi- 
 fying influence on the apparent contrasts produced. Thus, 
 the dyeing of the mixtures A and A' pale yellow and purple, 
 or any like contrasting hues, necessarily gives an equivalent 
 tone scale as in the dyeing of pure woollen and cotton textures 
 these respective colours. The distinctions observed, on com- 
 paring the tinting of the union and the pure product, are 
 traceable to the percentage of white added to the dyed hue 
 by the non-colouring of the wool fibres in the former or the 
 blended shades. Corresponding differences in colour value 
 are also noticeable in the dyeing of the filament -mixture yarns 
 B, B', and C, C' in comparison with all-wool yarns when dyed 
 together, but these differences are now originated by the cotton 
 fibre (undyed) in the threads, which admixes a percentage 
 of white with the colour applied. Taking green to be the 
 dyed shade, the all-wool yarns would be a pure colour, whereas 
 threads B would reduce the colour purity by 35 per cent., 
 and threads C by 10 per cent., resulting in the formation of 
 medium and deep-toned greenish shades. 
 
 55. Deductions with Examples. These deductions enable it 
 to be shown how black (wool) dyeing in the piece of the 
 fabric (woven in the grey) in Fig. 12 may, by a suitable arrange- 
 ment of bi-fibred yarns, be effective in developing the pattern 
 illustrated. It is a union-yarn worsted texture, warped and 
 wefted as follows 
 
 Threads 
 
 A 90% wool, 10% cotton =32 - 6 6 6 6 6 6 32 12 
 
 B 50% 50% =6 666666-- 120 - - 120 
 
 C 20% 80% = 8 - - 8 -- 8 -- 8 8 -12 8 
 
 After dyeing, sections A of the fabric are, therefore, composed 
 of 90 per cent, of black and 10 per cent, of white fibre, sections 
 
TEXT URAL TONING 65 
 
 B of equal quantities of black and white, and sections C of 
 80 per cent, of white and 20 per cent, of black filament, giving 
 dark, intermediate, and light tones respectively. Cotton 
 dyeing the piece would invert the dark and light features in 
 the pattern but would not modify the grey parts, B. Changing 
 the filament ingredients of the yarns to 
 
 A 75% of wool and 25% of cotton 
 
 B 60% 40% 
 C 45% 55% 
 
 and dyeing black, blue, or other desirable colour, would 
 lessen the contrast between the mixture tones. If woven in 
 successive order, and in equal quantities of each yarn, either 
 a shaded stripe or check might be obtained. In the degree 
 with which the colour selected for dyeing is subdued or intensi- 
 fied in hue, the tinted effects in the cloth are softened or 
 sharpened, but the graded toning, due to the filament 
 consistency of the mixtures remains unaltered. 
 
 56. Yarn Distribution and Textural Evenness. The method 
 of distributing the different sorts of yarn employed, affects 
 the even, uniform character of the woven product. Differing 
 in fibrous composition, the yarns have clearly dissimilar 
 manufacturing properties. It follows that if they are irre- 
 gularly grouped, the resultant texture will be varied in quality 
 in its constituent parts. To attempt, by such an arrangement, 
 to produce a consistent grade of fabric would result in con- 
 siderable sections of threads A, B, and C, proving unsatis- 
 factory. Each of these yarns possesses distinctive shrinkage 
 values, and each forms a special class of manufacture. They 
 might, if combined in limited quantities, weave evenly 
 together providing they were of the same counts and turns 
 per inch, but in scouring and finishing they would be liable 
 to behave differently ; and to give, as a result, an incorrectly 
 balanced texture. Associating with these thread groups, 
 solid worsted or all-wool yarns, would further accentuate the 
 irregularity of textural surface developed. Yet such yarns, 
 when suitably arranged in the warping and wefting, may be 
 
 5 (1745) 
 
66 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 applied, and an even make and type of cloth, as to structure 
 and finishing nature, be acquired. By adhering to the rule 
 of frequently intermingling the several kinds of yarn in 
 
 B A B A 
 
 FIG. 13 
 BI-FIBRED TWEED 
 
 systematic order a practice common in the origination of 
 numerous schemes of textile colouring the differentiations in 
 the filament properties of the yarns, necessary to develop the 
 shades and tints characteristic of the pattern by piece dyeing, 
 may be accurately adjusted to the technicalities and conditions 
 of the finished cloth. 
 
 FIG. 14 
 BI-FIBRED RAISED SAXONY 
 
 57. Filament Proportions in the Yarn and Union-fabric 
 Quality. Union-fabric quality is primarily determined by the 
 nature and relative quantities of the materials used in yarn 
 preparation. In changing the percentages of the fibres in 
 the warp and weft, for varying the colour tones of the pattern 
 
TEXTURAL TONING 67 
 
 in Fig. 12, the fabric quality was also modified, the original 
 yarns giving, approximately, a texture of eight parts of wool 
 and seven parts of cotton, and the substituted yarns a texture 
 of three parts of wool and two parts of cotton fibre. For a 
 like reason, fabrics made of mixture yarns A (Paragraph 53) 
 would be superior to those made of yarns A', and the latter 
 than those composed of yarns B. The respective wool and 
 cotton values of the yarns are imparted to the woven texture 
 in each plan of combination in the looming and weaving of 
 the piece. With the tendency, in selecting and grouping the 
 threads, to increase the percentage of cotton, the softness of 
 the cloth producible is reduced, but this does not deteriorate 
 the quality of fineness, as derived from the application of fine 
 counts of yarns. On the other hand, with the tendency to 
 diminish the cotton and add to the wool unit in the threads, 
 the fabrics improve in flexibility and suppleness, and in the 
 diversity of finishing work to which they may be successfully 
 submitted. 
 
 Quality, in all such union productions, is mainly governed by 
 the shade tone desired in a specific dyeing process, as this fixes 
 the ratios of the two classes of fibre. Thus, to use a higher 
 percentage of wool fibre in the mixture yarns C (Paragraph 53) 
 would raise the textural quality but also give a deeper colour 
 tone ; and, in a like manner, to lower the wool and augment 
 the cotton ingredient seeing that cotton in this mixture 
 remains untinted in dyeing would give a lighter tone of colour 
 but lessen the textural quality. These are the two controlling 
 and elemental principles. They render it essential, in this 
 branch of fabrication, to have regard, first, to the dyed colour 
 ascertainable in the yarns, whether wool or cotton dyed ; 
 and, second, the ratio of the two fibres in the whole texture, 
 and their evenness of distribution throughout the whole 
 scheme the relative proportions of the filaments intermixed 
 being the basis of the actual manufactured product. 
 
 58. Emphasizing Textural Details. The definition of pattern 
 by this scheme of colouring, restricted to the use of bi -fibred 
 
68 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 yarns, is one that embodies the technique of yarn construction, 
 weaving and manufacture, and of dyeing practice. It is 
 invariably, unless the union yarns are mixed in the looming 
 
 FIG. 15 
 BI-FIBRED WORSTED 
 
 with cotton or woollen yarns, a problem of developing the 
 textural details in mixture tones rather than in pure colour con- 
 trasts, such as are acquired in yarns in which the raw material, 
 the " combed top," the " slubbing," or the spun thread is dyed. 
 Yarn grading, with a view of attaining the correct colour 
 value i.e., tone and depth of shade or freshness of tint is 
 
 FIG. 1C 
 
 BI-FIBRED FINE WOOLLEN 
 
 all important. It modifies and prescribes the fabric style and 
 design features producible. 
 
 59. Pattern in Bi-fibred Yarn Fabrics. The principles of 
 work comprised, in developing the pattern features, will be 
 explained in reference to the bi-fibred yarn textures illus- 
 trated in Figs. 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17. The first specimen is 
 
TEXTVEAL TONING 69 
 
 of a tweed character, having two shades of warp crossed 
 with a dark weft. For weaving in the natural colour and for 
 dyeing to any suitable shade, the yarns in stripes A should be 
 spun of 70 per cent, of wool and 30 per cent, of cotton, and the 
 yarns in stripes B of equal portions of the two fibres. The 
 weft may be either a vigogne or a pure woollen yarn. If the 
 former, it should contain from 10 to 15 per cent, of the vege- 
 table filament, but not more if intended for " wool " dyeing, 
 otherwise the tone contrasts in the style would be modified. 
 Introducing cotton into the spinning of the weft yarn, diminishes 
 the clearness of the textural intersections, inasmuch as it 
 makes this a mixture yarn in place of a solid-colour yarn as in 
 the original sample. Fig. 14 is a semi-pile finished cloth in 
 which three qualities of yarn are combined, the black warp 
 and weft threads being all-wool, and the dark and lighter 
 threads admixtures of cotton and wool. Here, to acquire 
 softness of tone, the cotton as well as the wool should be 
 tinted, either before the operations of spinning, or in the piece. 
 Should this not be done, the undyed cotton, in raising, depre- 
 ciates the quality of the mingled shading, its comparative 
 rawness becoming a detrimental feature of the short nap of 
 filament characteristic of the finished fabric. Both these 
 examples suggest the importance of adjusting the ratio of the 
 materials to the colour tones to be produced by the dyeing 
 process, and also of the relation of the yarn type to the par- 
 ticular effects in the style it is designed to develop and 
 accentuate. 
 
 The method of yarn distribution, dealt with in Paragraph 56, 
 in attaining textural evenness and fibrous equality of cloth, 
 enters into the construction of the patterns in Figs. 15 and 16. 
 Yams of a maximum differentiation in filament composition 
 have been selected, the threads for the dark shade containing 
 90 parts of wool and 10 parts of cotton, with the percentages 
 inverted for the threads in the light shade. Regarding the 
 bi-fibred worsted texture, Fig. 15, it is arranged end-and-end 
 in the warp, and weavable with a solid worsted or a fine spun 
 
70 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 woollen weft. The fabric is built OH the warp-twill base, 
 only the warp threads showing as in a cord weave, which 
 allows the picks of weft to pass between the warp ends as 
 they form the face and underside of the texture. In arranging 
 the two sorts of yarn thread-and-thread, and in binding them 
 together with an all-wool weft, their respective fibrous proper- 
 ties are distributed evenly through the fabric structure. 
 Corresponding conditions obtain in the production of the 
 specimen in Fig. 16, but the warp and weft shades are now 
 grouped as below 
 
 2 threads of all-wool yarn = black. 
 
 1 thread of bi-fibred yarn (70% of wool and 30% of cotton ) = dark grey. 
 
 1 (55% 45% = lightgrey. 
 
 The weave, in this instance, is broken warp-face four-end 
 twill, and the piece contracts from 70 in. in the loom to 56 in. 
 in width in the felting process. Seeing that one-half the 
 threads are made of wool, one quarter of 3 parts of cotton 
 and 7 parts of wool, and the remainder of 9 of cotton and 11 
 of wool fibre, they would, if arranged in groups of 8, 16, etc., 
 and in successive order, produce a cloth varying in shrinkage, 
 and also in wearing value, with the yarn structure of which 
 the several sections were woven. By, however, assorting 
 them as indicated, the inequalities in their material composi- 
 tion are formed into a textural unit of uniform felting pro- 
 perty and surface consistency. From this and the preceding 
 example, it is to be observed that, with the yarns disagreeing 
 largely in fibre formation, but in accordance with the tone of 
 shade to be acquired in the dyed piece, the scheme of warping 
 and wefting changes the quality of the fabric, first, as regards 
 its serviceability ; and, second, relative to its behaviour in 
 the finishing practice. It is imperative that the threads 
 should be so grouped and intermingled as to render the tex- 
 ture, throughout its construction, of the same filament nature 
 and substance. Moreover, when the warp yarns are so dis- 
 tinctive in character as in Fig. 15, with the object of facilitating 
 accurate and economic piece weaving, it is desirable that they 
 
FIG. 17 
 MOTOR CLOTH WOOL AND RAMIE FIBRE YARNS 
 
 71 
 
72 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 should be dressed on two chain beams for the proportionate 
 tensioning of the light (excess cotton) and the dark (excess 
 wool) threads, in keeping with their respective tensile stand- 
 ards, and the effects for which they are severally responsible 
 in the fabric. 
 
 60. Correlative Yarn Qualities and Textural Style. Yarns 
 more closely approximating each other in fibrous character are 
 applicable to the heavy, two-fold make of cloth in Fig. 17. For 
 the face and backing warps and the face weft, union worsted 
 yarns are useful with union woollen yarn for the backing weft, 
 to produce a texture suitable for raising on the under side. 
 The toned contrasts observed result from the threads 
 being composed of 90 per cent, of wool and 10 per cent, of 
 ramie fibre for the light sections of the pattern, of 60 and 40 
 per cent, of each filament for the intermediate light shade, 
 and of 75 per cent, and 35 per cent, of each material for the 
 deeper intermediate shade, dyeing the vegetable fibre in the 
 piece a medium colour. The structure of the fabric is further 
 equalized by the light-shade yarn being employed in the 
 formation of the reverse surface. The strength of the tinted 
 toning is susceptible to the quality of the colour matched in 
 the dyeing ; if this should be a dark shade, the contrasts are 
 intensified, but if a soft, secondary shade, as in the specimen, 
 the contrasts are correspondingly subdued, and the checked 
 features become less pronounced. 
 
 Sections B and the ground A of Fig. 18 are also woven in 
 bi-fibred worsted but wool dyed the fibres (wool and ramie) 
 being equally admixed in yarns A and in the ratio of 65 : 45 
 in yarns B. In addition, threads of worsted and of ramie 
 have been inserted into the warp and weft for the clear delinea- 
 tion of the cord check lines, C. A deeper dye has been chosen 
 for the treatment of the cloth than in the preceding type, 
 hence the more marked distinction in the style of the checkings 
 as compared with Fig. 17. All bi-fibred yarns, however dyed, 
 produce a species of mixture-shade toning, which, as in this 
 example, may be utilized in obtaining strong tinted contrasts 
 
TEXTURAL TONING 
 
 73 
 
 by combining them with yarns spun from vegetable or animal 
 fibre. Either one or the other, varying with the dyeing 
 practice, remains untinted in the piece, while its associate 
 takes a solid colour. In this pattern the worsted yarns in C are 
 tinted, and the ramie yarns are not. Selecting a green dye, the 
 worsted would be tinted this colour, the ramie would continue 
 
 FIG. 18 
 VESTING BI-FIBRED YARN STRUCTURE 
 
 the natural colour; and threads A take an intermediate, and 
 threads B a darker, mixed greenish -grey tone. 
 
 61. Inversion of Filament Percentages. Inverting the pro- 
 portionate factors of the two kinds of fibre blended in making 
 the yarns, may alter both the scheme of toning and the scheme 
 of the pattern arrangement. Thus, if the wool and ramie 
 filament in the yarns B of the last specimen, were intermingled 
 (B sections) in the ratio of 45 : 65, these elements of the pattern 
 
74 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 would be developed in a lighter, instead of in a darker, tone 
 than the ground portions A. Again, by modifying the dyeing 
 practice, tinting the ramie in place of the wool in the process, 
 the textural effects would also be transposed, the ground 
 becoming the deeper, and the checkings the lighter, mixed 
 shade. But this results in a class of manufacture in which the 
 cotton or ramie is the staple material, and this may be effected 
 satisfactorily, and in a pale variety of colouring, by dyeing 
 the animal fibre and increasing the percentages of the 
 vegetable fibre in the yarn spinning operations. Examples 
 of this description are furnished in Figs. 19, 20, and 21. They 
 show the system of constructing cloths of a thin cotton char- 
 acter improved in appearance and handle, and diversified in 
 tinting, by the use of small quantities of wool in combination 
 with the cotton staple. The yarns are, in such specimens, 
 admixtures of 5 : 95 (C' = light-shade yarn), and of 35 : 65 
 (C intermediate-shade yarn), of the two materials. The 
 plan of fabrication differs in the several textures, that for 
 Fig. 19 being a warp twill, providing for sections A being 
 warped one-and-one in yarns C' and C, and sections B in 
 C', using yarn C for weft. Specimen 20 is a two-and-two 
 twill structure, with the yarns grouped 6 of C' and 4 of C. 
 Fig. 21 is warped and woven 2 threads of C', 2 of C and 2 
 threads of C', so that two-thirds of the fabric consist of the 
 yarns formed of 5 per cent, of wool and 95 per cent, of cotton, 
 and one-third of the yarns formed of 35 per cent, of wool and 
 65 per cent, of cotton ; and Fig. 22 a five-end Venetian cloth, 
 warped 10 threads of C, 4 of C', 2 of C and 4 of C', and shuttled 
 in the yarn C. Colouring the wool fibre, in the dyeing of the 
 piece, develops the light mixture tones seen in the features 
 of the patterns, which are, in all instances, prescribed by the 
 system of yarn construction, the looming practice, and the 
 plan of warp and weft interlacing adopted. 
 
 62. Effectiveness of the Scheme in Experimental Range 
 Making and Dyeing Procedure. The effectiveness, in experi- 
 mental range making of this system of fabrication will be 
 
TEXT URAL TONING 
 
 A B 
 
 TWILLED COTTON -AND -WOOL YARN 
 UNION 
 
 apparent. A style of design having been originated, including 
 a cloth type, the fabric may be dyed in selected colours 
 light, intermediate or 
 dark tones and yet 
 only one scheme of 
 production be in- 
 volved. But the dye- 
 ing procedure, on this 
 basis, requires to be 
 duly appreciative of 
 the methods of manu- 
 facture, and of the 
 fibrous composition 
 and structure of the 
 yarns employed. The 
 ingenuity of the designer is exercised in the assortment, in 
 the warping and wefting, of the grades of yarn adapted, 
 when tinted, to the correct delineation of the pattern 
 elements ; and the technique of the dyer is exercised in 
 the application of colouring matters and processes which 
 will give economic 
 results, and clearly 
 express, in a suitable 
 diversity of tints and 
 tones, the different 
 features in the design. 
 Each technologist acts 
 independently, but 
 
 both have in view the 
 
 SMALL 
 
 FIG. 20 
 
 colour composition of 
 the fabric as the essen- 
 tial to be attained. In the case of the designer, his skill, 
 experimental knowledge, and invention, are evident in the 
 fabric build, and in the distribution in the texture of the 
 yarns of varying colourable qualities, and in strict accord 
 with the form and style of the pattern intended. As to the 
 
76 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 \ 
 
 #f*l$#J 'J&TsSiSfi 
 
 i*Mr ; 1*S8*< 
 
 FIG. 21 
 
 COTTON -AND -WOOL YARN UNION 
 
 dyer, his chemical science and technical faculty are observed 
 in the acquirement of a tint, tone or hue of colour, which, 
 under the gradations to which it is subjective in the different 
 
 sorts of yarn to which 
 it is applied, will pre- 
 cisely define, and yet 
 suitably modify, the 
 design characteristics 
 in the dyed piece. 
 
 63. Research Issues 
 and Sectional Investi- 
 gation. The whole 
 problem is suggestive 
 of the overlapping of 
 research issues in 
 textile manufacturing. Sectional investigations may be chiefly 
 concerned in amplifying one phase of productive effort, or they 
 may be immediately related to ulterior processes and results. 
 But in this species of technical inquiry, each series of operations, 
 including the determination of the material blend to be utilized, 
 
 the scheme of yarn 
 preparation, weaving 
 as fixing the thread 
 composition and make 
 of the cloth, dyeing 
 as responsible for the 
 tinted contrasts ob- 
 tainable in the fabric, 
 
 st IG. 22 
 
 and finishing treat- 
 
 VENETIAN -TWILL STRIPE 
 
 COTTON-AND-WOOL YARN UNION ment as imparting 
 
 specific textural quali- 
 ties and features, form correlative subjects of investigation. 
 Certain factors may appear as minutiae, but in given com- 
 binations, and under definite conditions of manufacture, they 
 exert an originative or primary value, inasmuch as they fix 
 the nature of the effects in the finished production. Filament 
 
TEXTUEAL TONING 77 
 
 properties chemical and physical yarn consistency, resulting 
 from the system of work followed, and fabric build, necessitating 
 a prescribed arrangement and grouping of the warp and weft 
 threads, all compose technicalities and principia which need 
 to be planned, and adjusted, with a view to the ultimate 
 characteristics and qualities they are competent of yielding, 
 individually and collectively, in the dyeing of the woven 
 goods. 
 
 64. Economy in Bulk Production. The technological features 
 dealt with in reference to the origination of coloured styles by 
 yarn structure and dyeing processes, suggest the strata on 
 which new lines of manufacture are capable of being developed. 
 In the first place instead of having, as in ordinary practice, 
 recourse to an extensive assortment of coloured yarns, 
 several varieties of standardized union mixture threads are 
 selected. This, in itself, simplifies the scheme of fabrication. 
 Spinning routine is less complicated, and attention is con- 
 centrated on the acquirement of yarn quality in a given 
 counts of thread of a known filament composition. With the 
 elimination of a diversified and heavy stock of " fancy " shades, 
 great economy in bulk production is effected. All goods are 
 made in the grey or natural colour, and a comparatively 
 limited range of warp and weft yarns is requisitioned, and yet 
 the grades of coloured fabrics are not only maintainable, but 
 in some senses extensible. The latter element is rendered 
 practicable by the system of dyeing introduced, enabling each 
 style of pattern, as exemplified, to be acquired in any suitable 
 series of colour tones and tints. Newness of shade in plain, 
 twilled and standard makes of texture, as also in " fancy " 
 cloths, is a fundamental factor in manufacturing activity. 
 Design and textural effects are enhanced in commercial value 
 by colour excellence and freshness ; and dyeing technique, in 
 attaining this object in bi-fibred production, becomes an 
 effective source and unit of success in pattern work and style 
 origination. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 PATTERN ORIGINATION 
 
 65. Loom-Coloured and Piece- Coloured Design Practice, 66. An- 
 alysis of the Two Systems of Designing. 67. Dyeing and Intensity of 
 Colour Unit. 68. \ 7 ariation of Textural Features 69. Facilities 
 in Experimental Pattern Production. 70. Methods of Style Origina- 
 tion. 71. Diversification of Shade Tones and Experiment in Design. 
 72. Examples in Yarn Assortment and Pattern Construction. 
 73. Yarn Distribution and Shade Toning of the Cloth. 74. Effect of 
 Elaborating the Weave Basis, with Specimens. 75. End-and-End 
 Warping and Compound of Three Weave Types. 76. Mingled-shade 
 Tones and Pattern Definition. 77. Application of Nine-tone Scheme. 
 78. Indefinite and Decided Contrasts. 79. Toned and Mezzotint 
 Contrasts. 80. Accentuated Warp and Weft Contrasts. 81. Tone 
 Contrasts and WeaVe Types. 82. Design Elements and Manufacturing 
 Practice Illustrated. 83. Shade Tonation in Striped, Checked, and 
 Figured Styles. 84. Suitable delineation of Textural Details. 
 85. Figured Examples with Shaded Stripes in the Warp. 
 
 65. Loom-Coloured and Piece-Coloured Design Practice. As 
 regards weave elements and principles of intertexture, loom- 
 setting and cloth structure the system of pattern origination, 
 in bi-fibred yarns, is synonymous with that practised in pattern 
 origination in coloured yarns. Design and style, as a resultant 
 of colour assortment and combination, are obtained in the 
 latter by arranging, classifying, and grouping the tinted yarns 
 in the warp and weft in the weaving of the piece. On the 
 other hand, in the bi-fibred scheme, design and style of a 
 coloured nature, are due to arranging and grouping yarns of 
 different filament consistency either in the warp, weft, or both 
 warp and weft, weaving in the grey, and depending on the 
 dyeing process for the development of the colour toning. In 
 the first instance, the colour effects, contrast and quality, are 
 evident in the loom, being essential features and component 
 parts of the woven product, so that the pattern is in every 
 detail complete, and the prototype of the design as it appears 
 in the finished fabric. 
 
 78 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 
 
 79 
 
 FIG. 23 
 
 COLOUR SKETCH BI-FIBRED 
 
 YARN TEXTURE 
 
 111 the piece-dyed manufacture, colour, as a distinctive 
 pattern characteristic, is an invisible effect in the processes 
 of cloth fabrication. Yet it is as much a sequence and product 
 of yarn distinctions, and of yarn 
 applications, as of colour toning 
 in the loom-tinted texture. But 
 it remains a dormant, a concealed 
 factor until dyeing takes place. 
 There is strictly no problematical 
 element, as to the tinted textiiral 
 results, in either system ; but one 
 result is ordered, fixed and defined 
 in the loom, and the other is 
 ordered in the looming, and 
 developed, fixed and defined in 
 the dyeing of the piece. 
 
 66. Analysis of the Two Systems 
 of Designing. To consider the two practices relative to the 
 simple scheme of yarn grouping in Fig. 23, and weavable 
 in the 14-heddle plan shown at Fig. 23A, the order of the 
 yarns in the warping and shuttling is three threads of dark 
 grey, two threads of intermediate, and two threads of light 
 grey. By the ordinary designing method, 
 the yarns would be thus combined in 
 the loom, and would give each line and 
 detail, as seen in the sketch, clearly 
 accentuated in the texture. By the 
 second method, the yarns would be 
 used in the natural colour but consist of 
 FIG. 23A ^ fii am ent ratios specified for the pro- 
 
 duction of the grey mixture shades 1, 2, and 3 in Fig. 6. 
 In weaving with such yarns, there would be no distinctive 
 features observed in the fabric arising from the three types 
 of thread assorted, beyond the fugitive tints applied in the 
 processes of spinning for the accurate differentiation of 
 the yarn qualities, On dyeing the cloth, the pattern 
 
80 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 D B 
 
 FIG. 24 
 
 HONEYCOMB 
 UNION YARN 
 MANUFACTURE 
 
 elements would be formed and become distinguishable as 
 illustrated. 
 
 If the object should be the origination of a style range, 
 
 comprising six similarly 
 toned patterns, in each 
 of which the design 
 -A characteristics and 
 ~ B shade contrasts were 
 identical, then, by the 
 former practice, this 
 number of ground 
 tones, say, dark grey, 
 brown, blue, green, slate 
 and olive, and all of 
 an equal tone depth, 
 would be selected. 
 Toning shades, corre- 
 sponding to the medium and lighter grey in Fig. 23 would nex+ 
 be decided upon for the several ground colours, maintaining 
 uniformity of colour contrast, or tone balance, throughout 
 the range. The 
 warpings for the 
 respective pat- 
 terns would be 
 grouped in succes- 
 sive order in the 
 loom, hence, in the 
 serial matching of 
 each in the shutt- 
 ling, five out of the 
 six warp colourings 
 would be " cross " 
 wefted, producing, FlG - 25 
 
 in addition to the six regular pattern types, thirty irregular 
 or " bastard " specimens. 
 
 67. Dyeing and Intensity of Colour Unit. On the second 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 81 
 
 principle of work, the dyeing of the textural sample, specially 
 prepared, would determine the colour unit intensity of hue 
 and depth of tone effective in providing the degree of pattern 
 definition desired. Having ascertained this by experimental 
 dyeings, the colours for the style range would be fixed upon, 
 and lengths of cloth tinted accordingly. Cross-weftings, 
 which are a source of intermingled tinting in the loom system 
 of design, are eliminated from this practice. Variations in 
 pattern style are possible in a given order of warp yarns by 
 changing the order of wefting, but the tone gradations in one 
 group of mixed shades are absolutely restricted to the thread 
 qualities employed in the weaving of the fabric. The nature 
 of the limitations imposed, in comparison with the facility for 
 diversified tinting in using coloured yarns, is explainable by 
 reference to the " fancy " honeycomb texture in Fig. 24. 
 This pattern, constructed in the plan given in Fig. 25, is a 
 compound of warp and weft yarns arranged as below 
 
 YABNS ORDER OF WARPING AND WEFTING 
 
 Qft 
 
 A 2-fold 18'sbi-fibred yarn 50%/50% Cotton & Wool 2 21 21 21 19 
 B 2-fold 16's 90%/10% 
 
 3 
 
 Wool & Cotton - 3 - 3 - 
 
 q 
 > o 
 
 in 
 
 Pat- 
 tern. 
 
 C 2-fold 16's 90%/10% 
 
 D 2-fold 18's 80%/20% 
 
 For wool dye in the piece. 17's reed 3 ends in a dent. 48 picks per inch. 
 
 68. Variation of Textural Features. The textural features 
 are variable by re-adjusting the shuttling plan, but not in 
 tone gradation or in tinted composition, only as may be 
 effected by changing the colour matched in dyeing, as from a 
 warm tone of brown to a pale tone of green, mellowing the 
 whole tinted scheme. In illustration of the pattern types 
 obtainable in the weaving of this cloth without any re-arrange- 
 ment of the yarns in the warp, the weftings are alterable 
 thus : (1) Shuttle with yarn A, and (2) with yarn B ; 
 (3) transpose, in the order of colouring, the positions of yarns 
 A and B, and (4) of yarns B and D ; and (5) interchange the 
 places of yarns A and C, and of yarns B and D. Five different 
 styles would on this principle be woven, each adapted for the 
 
 6 (1745) 
 
82 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 26 
 
 TWO-SHADE PATTERN BI-FIBRED YARN 
 
 FORMATION 
 
 same dyeing practice as the original texture. By the first 
 
 . and second wefts, striped 
 
 patterns, instead of a 
 checked combination, 
 would be acquired, one 
 having a tinted- white, 
 and the other a dark- 
 coloured, ground ; by 
 the third, the ground 
 shades, grey and tinted 
 white in Fig. 24, would 
 alternate in position ; 
 by the fourth, the toning 
 of the ground would 
 remain constant but 
 the heavier dark lines 
 in the warp would 
 be crossed with the 
 
 intermediate-shade units and vice versa ; and, by the fifth order 
 
 of shuttling, the relation 
 
 of both the ground 
 
 and checking yarns 
 
 would be transposed. 
 If it should be assumed 
 
 that the texture is 
 
 coloured in the loom, 
 
 substituting a light 
 
 fawn for yarn A, a 
 
 brown tone for B, deep 
 
 brown for C , and medium 
 
 brown for yarn D, a 
 
 toned pattern would be 
 
 formed to which the 
 
 complete series of weft- 
 ing re-arrangements 
 
 indicated would be applicable. But, in using dyed yarns, 
 
 FIG. 27 
 I. MODIFICATION PATTERN, FIG. 26 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 
 
 83 
 
 different colours, as distinct from shade tones, might be 
 employed, such as dark .. 
 
 J|r ^^*g^ ^^^^ o||^^ . 
 
 and tinted blue for 
 
 threads A and C, pale 
 
 green for B, and an 
 
 intermediate olive tone 
 
 for threads D. Moreover, 
 
 each of these warp yarns 
 
 could be crossed, in the 
 
 shuttling, with other 
 
 colours, e.g., blue and 
 
 tinted blue with grey 
 
 and light grey, pale green 
 
 with lavender, and olive 
 
 with medium green. 
 
 Provided, as should be 
 
 the case, the weft colours 
 
 should correspond in shade tone with those in the warp, 
 
 the delineation of the style would harmonize in all 
 
 points with that of the 
 original standard. Both 
 schemes of colour treat- 
 ment and practice have 
 a relative value. The 
 loom scheme offers ad- 
 vantages in tinting qual- 
 ity, and the piece-dyed 
 advantages in mixed ton- 
 ing as derived from the 
 fibrous materials used in 
 the manufacture of the 
 
 FIG, 28 
 
 II. MODIFICATION PATTERN, FIG." 26 
 
 yarn. 
 
 69. Facilities in Ex- 
 perimental Pattern Pro- 
 duction. It will be 
 obvious that the former method presents special facilities 
 
 FIG. 29 
 III. MODIFICATION PATTERN, FIG. 26 
 
84 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 to the colourist in experimental pattern production. A varied 
 assortment of yarns in solid and mixture colours tones and 
 tints is the elastic basis on which range making is formulated. 
 The designer works with selected colour units, which may be 
 compared, classified, and harmoniously arranged before the 
 fabric is woven. The technologist, working with bi-fibred 
 yarns, depends on another species of technical data, for the 
 tinted quality obtained in the finished manufacture. These 
 are deduced from experimental investigations in yarn manu- 
 facture, and in the behaviour, in the dyeing process, of threads 
 of a specific filament composition. 
 
 70. Methods of Style Origination. The scheme of bi-fibred 
 textile colouring originated, and illustrated in Tables IV to X 
 and in Figs. 6 to 10, lends itself to standardization, inasmuch 
 as new graded types of yarns may, with the productive 
 exigencies, be added, and their colour contrasts registered in 
 the chromatic scale of tones for reference in pattern designing, 
 and in the construction of new cloths. Employing this 
 scheme as a basis of dyed tinted results, the practice in making 
 typical styles of effect in the grey, and of obtaining their 
 development in definite mixture shades in the finished piece, 
 has now been analysed and elucidated. It should be noted 
 that, where the form of the pattern is not a standard type, 
 a correct sketch should be prepared on point paper in the 
 toned gradation in which it is intended to be expressed in the 
 dyed fabric. This sketch should be modified on the principle 
 followed in style elaboration in loom colouring, comprising 
 the possible variations in the admixture of the yarns in the 
 orders of warping and wefting. Referring, for example, to 
 the pattern sketch in Fig. 26 (woven in the common twill) it 
 would, in range making for a piece-dyed colour product, be 
 diversified in yarn grouping as shown in the formula drafted 
 on the next page. 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 
 
 85 
 
 TABLE XI 
 
 METHOD or STYLE ORIGINATION AND EXTENSION 
 ORDER OF WARPING AND WEFTING 
 
 ADark Shade = No. 1, Table VII. B Medium Shade =No. 3, Table VII. 
 C Light Shade No. 5, Table VII. 
 
 BASIC ORDER 
 
 -L ,,!L JL .1 
 
 A IB 1A IB = 2 
 IB 1A 2B 1A IB 1A IB = ^, 2 
 4TH MODIFICATION = 1C 2A 1C IB 1A IB 1A 2B 1A IB 1A IB = 30 
 
 4 threads of A, 3 threads of B, 4 threads of A, 3 threads of B = Fig. 26 
 
 IST MODIFICATION = 
 2ND MODIFICATION = 4 
 3RD MODIFICATION = 4 
 
 IB 1A IB = 27 
 A IB 1A IB 4 
 
 A IB 1A IB 1A 2B~7k IB 1A 
 
 Five species of effect are implied, Figs. 26 to 30. Each 
 pattern is distinctive in character, though a pure derivative, 
 as seen from the grouping of the yarns in the modified orders, 
 of the basic plan of 
 warping and wefting. 
 A third sort of yarn, C, 
 (a light shade in dye- 
 ing) is introduced into 
 the fourth modification 
 for giving the overcheck- 
 ing lines observed in 
 Fig. 30. In colouring 
 in the loom this yarn 
 could be of a different 
 hue from shades A and 
 B, but by this practice 
 it can only be developed 
 in a third tone, either 
 lighter or darker as 
 considered advantageous, 
 style origination, whether the cloth is dyed a dark, inter- 
 mediate or other colour, follow the yarn gradations, and 
 are not variable without their alteration. 
 
 The production of the range in yarn sorts instead of in yarn 
 
 FIG. 30 
 IV. MODIFICATION PATTERN, FIG. 26 
 
 The relative contrasts in sucli 
 
86 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 colours, is accomplished by warping 4 threads of A and 3 
 threads of B, Fig. 26, and matching in the shuttling. This 
 would be succeeded by changing the order of the yarns to that 
 specified in the first modification, Fig. 27, and the weaving 
 of the necessary length of cloth for the experiments-repeating 
 this procedure for each modification included in the range. 
 
 FIG. 31 
 THREE-SHADE PATTERN BI-PIBRED FORMATION 
 
 In addition to the matched weftings, forming checked com- 
 binations, other methods of weaving would be practised. For 
 instance, striped effects are obtainable in each arrangement 
 of yarns by wefting with yarn A or B, or an all-wool yarn ; 
 and irregular types by shuttling in various ways, as 2 picks 
 of A and 1 pick of B ; 4 of A, 1 of B and 1 of A, etc. The 
 latter schemes should be devised in accordance with the rule 
 applied to cross-wefted patterns in combining coloured yarns, 
 that is, adapted to the warping plan and the weave structure.* 
 
 * See Chapters VIII and IX, Colour in Woven Design, 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 87 
 
 71. Diversification of Shade Tones and Experiment in 
 Design. Experiments carried out on these lines result in a 
 series or range of patterns equally diversified in textural 
 elements to those producible by using coloured warp and weft 
 threads, and offer the advantage of being developable in a 
 number of shade tones. The loom system of construction 
 provides for more varied tinting in each style, but not for its 
 manufacture in different colours, light or dark in shade. Com- 
 bining bi-fibred yarns enables this to be done by changing the 
 dyed colour as illustrated in Figs. 31, 32 and 33. Here the 
 orders of the yarns in the warp and the weft coincide with the 
 basic scheme and with the second and fourth modifications 
 in Table XII, the weave plans being ^ mat, and ^~ an d 3- 
 t wills. Fig. 31 is suggestive of dyeing the cloth a dark shade, 
 Fig. 32 an intermediate, and Fig. 33 a light tone of colour. 
 Following the method of experiment detailed in reference to 
 the preceding example, the basic arrangement of the yarns 
 would be elaborated as shown below. 
 
 TABLE XII 
 
 STYLE ORIGINATION AND EXTENSION COMPOUND OF THREE -YARN 
 
 STRUCTURES 
 A Dark Shade = No. 2, Table VIII. B Intermediate Shade = No. 5, Table VIII. 
 
 C Light Shade = No. 8, Table VIII. 
 BASIC ORDER = 5 threads of A 4 threads of B 5 threads of A 4 threads of C 
 
 I * I 
 
 IST MODIFICATION = 5 A IB 2A IB 5 
 
 2ND MODIFICATION = 5 A IB 2A IB 5 A 1C 2A 1C 
 3RD MODIFICATION = 5 A IB 2A IB 2A 1C 2A 1C 2A 1C 
 4TH MODIFICATION = 1A 3B 1A IB 2A IB 2A 1C 2A 1C, 2A 1C 
 
 Both in this style and that represented in Figs. 26 to 30, 
 the yarns specified contain a maximum percentage of wool 
 fibre. For production in yarns of a more cotton quality and 
 in light textures, the following percentages are applicable : 
 for yarns A, 50 of cotton and 50 of wool ; for B, 65 of cotton 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 
 
 89 
 
 FIG. 34 
 SHADE CONTRASTS BI-FIBRED CARDED 
 
 YARNS 
 
 and 35 of wool ; and for C, 85 of cotton and 15 of wool. 
 Dyeing the wool ingredient in the fabric an intermediate 
 colour, w r ould give the effects due to yarn A in a pale 
 medium tone, to yarns B in a light tone, and to yarns C 
 in tinted white. 
 
 Whatever the nature 
 of the predominant 
 staple in the cloth, the 
 shade contrasts are 
 accentuated by the 
 degree of yarn differen- 
 tiation, and reduced in 
 value by the closeness 
 with which the yarn 
 qualities approximate 
 each other. In Figs. 26 
 and 31, a mean tone distinction is developed by the ratio of 
 the dyed (wool) fibre in yams A and B being as 90 : 70 ; and, 
 in Fig. 31, in yarns B and C as 70 : 55. See Tables VII and VIII. 
 To further emphasize the difference betwixt the dark and 
 intermediate tones, an all-wool yarn would be substituted for 
 threads A, inducing the quality of contrast observed in Fig. 34 
 (plan, Fig. 35), arranged 2 ends of woollen and 1 end of the 
 
 bi -fibred mixture yarn B. 
 
 The possible gradation of 
 tones which may be acquired 
 in the yarn structures 
 specified in Tables VIII is 
 suggested by the style 
 sketched in Fig. 36, and woven in swansdown weaves 
 arranged as in Fig. 37, with the warp and weft yarns 
 grouped 1 thread of shade No. 1, Fig. 9; 1 of No. 2, 1 of 
 No. 3, and 1 thread of shade No. 4, piece-dyed, black or a dark 
 colour. A clearer delineation of the effects is rendered prac- 
 ticable by combining yarns made of wool for shade 1, of 60 
 parts of wool and 40 parts of cotton for shade 2, of 40 of wool 
 
 FIG. 35 
 SECTIONAL PLAN, FIG. 34 
 
90 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 and 60 of cotton for shade 3, and of 20 parts of wool and 80 
 parts of cotton for shade 4, matching a deep, an intermediate, 
 or a pale colour in the dyeing of the texture, to agree with the 
 brightness of tinted tone desired. 
 
 72. Examples in Yarn Assortment and Pattern Construction. 
 Examples in other assortments of yarn structures will be 
 considered for the purpose of demonstrating the methods of 
 acquiring the correct tone balance for defining the details 
 features in the style. First, as exemplifying the species of 
 contrast between the ground and pattern shade units, the 
 textural types in Figs. 38 and 39 will be analysed. They are 
 both compound checkings, one woven in the 2-and-2 twill 
 cutting in 4's on eight threads and picks, and the other in 
 four-shaft mat, and for which the yarns require to be classified 
 as follows 
 
 FIG. 38. ORDER OF WARPING AND WEFTING 06 
 
 Dark Shade = (Solid worsted or 90 wool and 10 cotton) 3 1 443 1 44 
 
 Intermediate Shade =(70 wool and 30 cotton) 11221122 
 
 FIG. 39. ORDER OF WARPING AND WEFTING 
 
 48 48 
 
 Dark Shade =(85 wool and 15 cotton) ~ i 2 I - 2 ^"~2 2 - 
 
 Light =(30 70 ) 1 122-2-2 
 
 In these examples two standard varieties of shade contrast, 
 in the origination of ordinary checked styles, are illustrated, 
 
 that in which the tone gradation is 
 distinctive but subdued in character, 
 and that in which it is strongly 
 marked and well denned. 
 
 The specimens in Figs. 40 and 
 41 show other features in the 
 FlG - 36 finished fabric than those visible 
 
 KEY PATTERN-CARDED ^ the p ho t ogr aphic reproductions. 
 
 UNION YARNS mi j i j v t , 
 
 The darker and lighter tones in 
 
 Fig. 40 are more closely related than is evident in the 
 illustration, and the distinction between the light shades in 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 91 
 
 the two specimens is also more clearly observed in the original 
 than in Figs. 40 and 41. The systems of construction 
 
 FIG. 37 
 PLAN FOR FIG. 36 
 
 appended are for the acquirement of the textural contrasts 
 as these appear in the piece 
 
 FIG. 40. ORDER OF WARPING AND WEFTING 
 
 Dark Shade = (80 wool 20 cotton) 2 
 
 Intermediate Shade = (60 40 ) 2 
 
 Weave Plan : Pick 1, L.L-L-*. . Pick 2 , ^^^V* ; Plck 3 ' I^2~Vl ; 
 Pick 4, 2 --~-^ J Pick 5, p-^-y J etc. 
 
 FIG. 41. ORDER OF WARPING AND WEFTING 
 
 Dark Shade = (85 wool 15 cotton) 4 2 
 Light = (50 50 ) 4 2 
 
 444 
 Weave Plan : Picks 1 and 2, ; Picks 3 and 4, - - ; Picks 5 and 6, ; 
 
 2 2 
 
 Picks 7 and 8, - ; etc. 
 4 
 
92 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 38 
 
 FIG. 39 
 
 BI-F1BRED COMBED YARNS EXAMPLES 
 
 IN SHADE CONTRASTS 
 
 73. Yarn Distribution and Shade Toning of the Cloth. From 
 these examples, and also those illustrated in Figs. 26 to 
 
 33, it will be understood 
 that the system of yarn 
 distribution, and of yarn 
 assortment, in bi-fibred 
 textures, follows the 
 shade tones requisite in 
 the expression of the 
 pattern types. This 
 fundamental principle 
 applies to all varieties of 
 this class of design in 
 single, compound, and 
 irregular builds of fabric. 
 The styles dissected are 
 applicable to elementary weave structures, and illustrate 
 the use of the weft as well as the warp yarn for textural 
 toning. As such they are equally adapted to thin, medium, 
 and heavy makes of manufacture. Moreover, each style is 
 weavable in a cotton, 
 woollen, worsted or 
 other grade of union 
 production, and is, as a 
 standard yarn grouping, 
 colourable in tinted, 
 toned or dark shades. 
 
 Restricting the effects 
 to the tones obtainable 
 
 in the warp yarns FIG. 41 
 
 detracts from the 
 general utility of the 
 
 pattern product, but enables special varieties of design and 
 qualities of texture to be constructed. An examination of 
 the styles illustrated in Figs. 42, 44 and 46 will make these 
 points evident. The looming designs Figs. 43, 45 and 47 
 
 FIG. 40 
 
 BI-FIBRED COMBED -YARN SPECIMENS 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 
 
 93 
 
 are arranged on the warp-face scheme of intertexture, 
 
 concealing the weft 
 
 in the fabric, and 
 
 bringing the different 
 
 sorts of warp threads 
 
 on to the surface for 
 
 the formation of the 
 
 details in the style. 
 
 The designs have, in 
 
 the texture, the 
 
 character of ordinary weave types when woven in a lighter 
 
 shade of warp than weft yarn. But, as seen from the plans, 
 
 FIG. 42 
 
 WARP-TWILL STRIPE 
 
 FIG. 44 
 
 FIG. 43 
 
 SECTIONAL PLAN FOB FIG. 42 
 
 the complete series of textural elements in each specimen is 
 a product of the warp schemes of interlacing, these being 
 
 contrived on a warp cord 
 basis but twilled, matted, 
 waved or otherwise varied in 
 the intersection groupings. 
 If Fig. 42 were coloured in 
 the loom it would be warped 
 end-and-end, dark and 
 medium shades in the ground 
 sections, and one dark and 
 one light in the fine striping ; 
 and woven with an inter- 
 
 THREE-SHADE PATTERNS BI-PIB11ED mediate ghade Q f we ft yarn . 
 
 On the bi-fibred yarn 
 principle, the yarn for the dark shade would consist of 85 
 
"::?*??! 
 
 9s 
 
 !$$* 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 95 
 
 parts of wool and 15 parts of cotton, for the medium shade 
 of 55 of wool and 45 of cotton, and for the light shade 
 either cotton or a yarn containing 90 parts of cotton fibre 
 would be used. The weft should be of the same counts 
 as the warp but be composed of 70 per cent, of wool, 
 taking a shade tone between the medium and the dark tones 
 in the colouring of the piece. 
 
 Corresponding assortments of yarn are adapted to the 
 weaving of the specimens in Figs. 44 and 46, with slight varia- 
 tions in the positions of the threads for the light-toned features, 
 as those defined for Fig. 42. The three patterns exemplify 
 the practice of producing in the same looming or warping 
 draft, several distinct pattern styles, each suitable for range 
 making by the method of tinting followed. The design 
 structures Figs. 43, 44 and 45 differ in arrangement 
 and composition, but result from a common principle of 
 intertexture. 
 
 74. Effect of Elaborating the Weave Basis, with Specimens. 
 Elaborating the weave basis, and utilizing the weft yarn in 
 the production of the features in the style, enable a more 
 diversified class of pattern to be originated. An effective 
 scheme of range-making, in a comparatively small number of 
 yarn standards, is thus formulated. The resultant textures 
 are variable in thickness and weight per yard, though not 
 necessarily in filament manufacture. It is a matter of em- 
 ploying designs, arranged as to plan of warp and weft inter- 
 sections and as to structural units, in accordance with a 
 specific order of warping and wefting. Selecting, for this 
 purpose, the one-and-one (with modifications) arrangement 
 alluded to, and, for shuttling, one sort of weft yarn, and two 
 sorts grouped pick-and-pick and 3-and-3, the specimens in 
 Figs. 48, 50, 52 and 54 are typical of the principles of pattern 
 work comprised. The weave plans Figs. 49, 51, 53 and 55 
 show how the design elements are combined and made to fit 
 with the classification of the yarn sorts in the loom for deci- 
 phering the toned contrasts in the dyed fabric. For the dark 
 
96 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABftlCATlON 
 
 FIG. 48 
 
 FIG. 50 
 
 PATTERNS IN BI-FIBRED WARP 
 AND WEFT YARNS 
 
 tones, warp and weft, the yarns consist of 80 per cent, of 
 
 wool (A), or the medium tones of 60 per cent. (B), and for the 
 
 light tones of 40 per cent, of 
 wool (C), cotton being the 
 other fibrous ingredient. The 
 light striping in Figs. 48 and 
 50 is the consequence of using 
 cotton or silk threads in the 
 whip cord weave, and in the 
 place of (C) in the warping, 
 Fig. 50. Analysing the 
 examples in relation to the 
 point paper designs, Fig. 49 is 
 warped thread and thread in 
 the two mixture yarns equiva- 
 lent to the medium and light 
 
 tones in the fabric, and wefted with the yarn containing 
 
 80 per cent, of wool fibre. The plan of the intersections 
 
 both here and in Fig. 51 healded 
 
 1 end of (A) and 1 end of (B), and 
 
 wefted 1 shot (C) and 1 shot (B) 
 
 resembles that in Figs. 43, 45, and 
 
 47 ; but in the latter the weft inter- 
 lacings are separate one from the 
 
 other, whereas in these combinations 
 
 they are linked together and form 
 
 compact weft twilled lines. Such 
 
 lines in Fig. 49 are chintzed and in 
 
 Fig. 53 intermingled by being picked 
 
 3 shots of (A) and 3 shots of (C). 
 75. End-and-End Warping and 
 
 Compound of Three Weave Types. 
 
 Fig. 55 is composed of three weave 
 
 elements, sections I and II being 
 
 colourable one-and-one in the warp, and the ribbed section 
 
 III suitable for production in one shade of yarn. It 
 
 FIG. 52 
 
 FIG. 54 
 
 WEAVE COMPOUNDS IN 
 BI-FIBRED COMBED YARNS 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 
 
 97 
 
 illustrates a further principle of work, that of developing 
 special details (marked in B's in the design) in the weft yarn 
 
 FIG. 51 
 
 SECTIONAL PLAN FOB FIG. 50 
 
 FIG. 49 
 
 PLAN FOB FIG. 48 
 
 (A), emphasized in the texture by being contiguous with the 
 
 light shade details due to the warp threads (C). Section I 
 
 is loomed 1 of thread (B) and 1 of thread (C), but section 
 
 II 1 of (A) and 1 of (C) for 
 
 four ends, then 1 of (B) and 
 
 1 of (C) for a like number 
 
 of threads. Each example 
 
 is suggestive of a distinct 
 
 variety of design applicable 
 
 to a common scheme of 
 
 warping and yarn assortment. The thread structures 
 
 defined are effective in the production of dark toned patterns ; 
 
 but, by reducing the percentages of the wool fibre to 50, 30 
 
 and 10 for the deeper, inter- 
 mediate and light shades, 
 yarns are obtainable which 
 give unions of a cotton 
 character and which are 
 adapted for dyeing in brighter 
 colour tones and for develop- 
 ing the pattern in graded 
 mixture tints. 
 76. Mingled-shade Tones and Pattern Definition. The whole 
 
 scheme of bi-fibred manufacture involves the production of 
 
 intermingled colour toning in the fabric. It follows that the 
 
 7 (1745) 
 
 ***! I * 
 
 j x x & m m ** 
 * x * i 
 
 lilt !.V: i. 5 !~ I 
 
 FIG. 53 
 PLAN FOR FIG. 52 
 
98 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 pattern types are not so clearly defined as in the use of solid 
 shades, that is, in the combination of coloured yarns in the 
 looming. The delineation of the component features of a 
 design may, however, be accentuated by strengthening the 
 mixture shade contrasts. If, for example, the technical 
 details in such patterns as those illustrated in Figs. 26 and 31 
 should not be sufficiently distinguishable and pronounced 
 in the dyed texture, the defect may be remedied by augmenting 
 the yarn differentiations. Instead of the yarn units specified 
 for the respective shades, yarns equivalent to giving tones 
 1, 3 and 5 or 1, 5 and 7, Fig. 10 would, in these instances, be 
 found more satisfactory. But this shade scale Table X 
 is constructed for four-toned mixture colours, graduating from 
 dark to light, in threads of an even fibrous analysis, and 
 applicable (1) to dark-toned patterns in the first series 1 to 
 4 to (2) medium-toned patterns in the second series 4 to 6 
 and to (3) light-toned patterns in the third series 7 to 9 
 each series being intended for separate dyeing operations. 
 Now it is a question of producing shades of an effective tone 
 gradation when dyed in one process, implying yarns of a 
 greater filament dissimilarity than those described in Tables 
 IX and X. Two methods of work may be adopted, first, a 
 four-tone scheme, with the proportions of the two fibres 
 wool, cotton, etc. in the ratios of 90 : 10, 70 : 30, 50 : 50, and 
 30 : 70 ; and, second, a nine-tone scheme, with the wool and 
 cotton in the ratios of 90 : 10, 80 : 20, 70 : 30, 60 : 40, 50 : 50, 
 40 : 60, 30 : 70, 20 : 80, and 10 : 90. Both practices are sound, 
 but the latter offers the fuller scope in fabric tinting. It includes 
 the shades in the first system, and provides a complete scale 
 of tones, running, in mathematical ratio, from a deep dark 
 shade to a clear light tint. Another element to consider is 
 the nature of the colour of the cotton on vegetable fibre. 
 This, as previously stated, may be in the natural shade or 
 dyed a similar or contrasting hue to the colour matched in 
 tinting the piece. In any case, it is essential the cotton 
 should be a pure tint, resembling a stained white, and not a 
 
DESIGN FOR FIG. 54 
 
100 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 distinctive colour, otherwise it deteriorates the quality of the 
 scale gradation. 
 
 77. Application of Nine-tone Scheme. Assuming, for ex- 
 emplification purposes, that the nine-tone scheme is employed, 
 , A ' and that the fibrous percentages 
 
 indicated give yarn structures repre- 
 sentative of the tone values of the 
 shade units Nos. 1 to 9 inclusive in 
 Fig. 10, the uses of the yarns in the 
 ordinary classes of manufacture offer 
 salient points for analysis. Their 
 intermingled nature yields a species 
 of tinting between that of a piece-dye 
 all-wool texture and a coloured-yarn 
 production. The consequence is 
 bi-fibred threads yield a distinctive class of weave definition 
 as arising from the toning contrast betwixt the warp and weft 
 elements in the cloth. Twilled, mat and other fundamental 
 crossings are known to have special characteristics when 
 applied to cotton, linen, silk, woollen and worsted fabrics 
 whether woven in the grey, and dyed 
 in the piece, or in coloured yarns. 
 Each weave principle produces a 
 different build of fabric, and a special 
 variety of textural effects. When it 
 is desired to render the latter par- 
 ticularly distinct, the warp yarn is 
 lighter in shade than the weft yarn 
 or contrariwise. The lines of a 
 simple twill, alternately developed 
 ir threads of warp and picks of weft, are thus accentuated 
 by the contrast in the colour of the two yarns. This is 
 really the technical method, in all-wool, cotton or silk goods, 
 of enforcing the weave features, without resorting to the 
 use of yarns differing in thickness, construction, or material 
 quality. Now the filament grading, in the spinning of 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 
 
 bi-fibred threads, enables the interlacings of the warp to be 
 clearly distinguished from those of the weft, with the cloth 
 dyed in a single process and one colour. If the yarns only 
 differ in degree in fibre composition, a shade contrast is induced, 
 and this lends precision and character to each group of inter- 
 sections. The extent to which these qualities are derivable 
 from the yarn, in the dyeing of the fabric, is determined by 
 the filament units in the warp and weft threads, or by the 
 relative positions of the two yarns in the tone scale. Thus, 
 for decided contrasts, the wool and cotton ratios for the warp 
 should be such as 30 : 70 or 10 : 90, and for the weft as 90 : 10 
 or 80 : 20 ; for slightly defined contrasts, warp, 65 : 35 ; 
 weft, 75 : 25, etc., and for contrasts moderately pronounced, 
 warp, 60 : 40 or 50 : 50 ; weft, 80 : 20 or 70 : 30 ; which would 
 result, in each arrangement, in the warp yarn (i.e., warp effects 
 in the cloth) being in the lighter, and in the weft being in the 
 darker tone. 
 
 78. Indefinite and Decided Contrasts. An index is supplied, 
 in Tables XIII and XIV, of the serial grades of indefinite and 
 decided contrasts obtainable, by these methods, in the com- 
 bination of bi-fibred warp and weft yarns in the weaving of 
 the fabric and by piece dyeing. 
 
 TABLE XIII 
 
 INDEFINITE AND MEZZOTINT CONTRASTS 
 (Shade Nos. and Tone Values as in Fig. 9; Yarn Structures as in Table IX. ) 
 
 Scheme. 
 
 Warp 
 
 
 
 Weft. 
 
 
 
 A Toned Dark Shade, 
 
 No. 
 
 2 1 Very dark Shade, 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 
 A 1 
 
 > 
 
 No. 
 
 3 Toned , 
 
 , 
 
 No. 
 
 2 
 
 A 2 
 
 Dark Shade 
 
 No. 
 
 4 , 
 
 
 No. 
 
 3 
 
 A 8 
 
 Toned Dark Shade 
 
 No. 
 
 3 j Very , 
 
 H 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 
 A 4 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 4 Toned , 
 
 ' 
 
 No. 
 
 2 
 
 A 5 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 4 Very , 
 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 Toned Medium Shade, 
 
 No. 
 
 6 Deep Medium Shade, 
 
 No. 
 
 5 
 
 B 1 
 
 Medium Shade 
 
 No. 
 
 7 
 
 Toned 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 6 
 
 B 2 
 
 Tinted Medium Shade 
 
 No. 
 
 8 
 
 Medium 
 
 Shade 
 
 No. 
 
 7 
 
 B 3 
 
 Medium Shade 
 
 No. 
 
 7 
 
 Deep Medium Shade 
 
 No. 
 
 5 
 
 B 4 Tinted Medium Shade 
 
 No. 
 
 8 
 
 Toned 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 6 
 
 1 ' r " " 
 
 No. 
 
 8 
 
 Deep 
 
 ' 
 
 No. 
 
 5 
 
102 UNION' TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 Contrasts A, A 1 and A 2 , and B, B 1 and B 2 are very slightly 
 defined. Those in A 3 and A 4 , and in B 3 and B 4 are a degree 
 more pronounced, while those in schemes A 5 and B 5 are 
 sufficiently marked to exhibit the two series warp and weft 
 of interlacings in the texture, especially in bi-fibred worsteds 
 and cottons, though the distinctive tones of the two yarns are 
 less evident in bi-fibred woollens. 
 
 79. Toned and Mezzotint Contrasts. These colour tones are 
 adapted for the manufacture of shaded or shot effects in the 
 cloths of the variety referred to in Paragraphs 70, 71, and 74 
 by arranging the yarns in simple orders for striping and 
 checking as on the lines suggested below 
 
 TONED AND MEZZOTINT CONTRASTS EXAMPLES IN THIN 
 WOOLLEN TEXTURES 
 
 I. Warp and Weft : 4 threads of shade 1 (Fig. 9, Table IX) 
 
 4= j> S> " J> 5> 
 
 II. 8 threads of shade 5 ,, ,, 
 
 5> J> ) 
 
 III. 16 threads of shade 8 
 
 > j> j> 
 
 8 , ,,5 ,, ,, 
 
 8 ,, o ,, ,, 
 
 TONED AND MEZZOTINT CONTRASTS EXAMPLES IN BI-FIBRED 
 
 WORSTEDS 
 
 . . (2 threads of shade 2 (Fig. 9, Table X) 
 I. Warp and Weft : For 24 j Q v 
 
 '^ J5 " 
 
 For 24 j* 
 
 '4: ,, ,, O ,, ,, 
 
 II. 6 threads of shade 4 
 
 III. 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 threads of shade 
 
 j j > 
 > > 
 
 J5 ?> 
 J 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 2 
 
PATTERN OEIO1NATION 
 
 103 
 
 In costume, flannel, and thin textures, the proportionate 
 quantities of the shade units may be considerably increased; 
 but, as in suiting cloths, patterns of the lesser type are usually 
 selected, the thread factors quoted are suggestive of those 
 which should be combined. 
 
 80. Accentuated Warp and Weft Contrasts. 
 
 TABLE XIV 
 
 ACCENTUATED WARP AND WEFT CONTRASTS 
 
 (Shade Nos. and Tone Values as in Fig. 10; Yarn Structures as in the 
 Nine-tone Scheme, Paragraph 76.) 
 
 Scheme. 
 
 Warp. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 A 
 A 1 
 A a 
 A* 
 A* 
 
 Mixture Shade, No. 5 
 No. 6 
 No. 7 
 No. 8 
 No. 9 
 
 Mixture Shade, No. 1 
 H No. 2 
 No. 3 
 No. 4 
 No. 5 
 
 B 
 B 1 
 B 2 . 
 B 
 
 Mixture Shade, No. 6 
 No. 7 
 No. 8 
 No. 9 
 
 Mixture Shade, No. 1 
 No. 2 
 No. 3 
 No. 4 
 
 C 
 C 1 
 C 2 
 
 Mixture Shade, No. 7 
 No. 8 
 No. 9 
 
 Mixture Shade, No. 1 
 No. 2 
 No. 3 
 
 D 
 Di 
 
 Mixture Shade, No. 8 
 No. 9 
 
 Mixture Shade, No. 1 
 No. 2 
 
 E 
 
 Mixture Shade, No. 9 
 
 Mixture Shade, No. 1 
 
 As these yarns differ in filament structure they offer, in 
 weaving practice, considerable latitude in the origination of 
 textural and tinted contrasts. Their use in the form of warp 
 or weft, and not in irregular quantities as integral but. as 
 sectional parts of the fabric, results, in each yarn grouping 
 specified, in the manufacture of a level piece and of a sym- 
 metrical tensile standard. The decisiveness and strength of 
 the tone contrasts augment from A to A 4 , B to B 3 , C to C 2 , 
 and from D to E. 
 
 81. Tone Contrasts and Weave Types. The subject is 
 capable of dissection in reference to special design types, in 
 
104 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 the development of which study and experiment, in the spin- 
 ning, weaving and dyeing of bi-fibred structures, should lead 
 
 to the fabrication of new and 
 economic grades of woven 
 goods. It has been shown 
 how colour pattern, which 
 represents one branch of 
 textile design, is devised, 
 constructed and elaborated 
 in these manufactures. A 
 second phase of the designing 
 art consists in the definition 
 in the fabric of weave ele- 
 ments, inclusive of the many 
 Fl - 58 variations of weave com- 
 
 pounds available in the origination of textural style as a pure 
 product of warp and weft systems of intersection. If a clear 
 
 FIG 
 
 distinction may be made in the appearance in the cloth, and in 
 the warp and weft crossings in the plain weave ; and if these 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 
 
 105 
 
 crossings, as explained, may be toned in degree of accentuation, 
 the ground principles, of this scheme of work, are of a similar 
 extensible character as those applied in the assortment of 
 coloured-thread units in the production of the fabric. Pro- 
 vided the range of shade contrasts in Tables XIII and XIV, 
 there is, with the exercise of technical knowledge of the toning 
 
 FIG. 60 
 
 values of given bi-fibred yarns, ample facility for expressing 
 textural as distinguished from colour patterns, in fine detail 
 or broad and well-emphasized warp and weft types in whatever 
 form they may be planned and grouped. 
 
 8 2 . Design Elements and Manufacturing Practice Illustra ted. 
 The principles involved may be dealt with by taking a number 
 of weave structures, and weave combinations, and explaining 
 the practice of manufacture to be pursued in their effective 
 delineation in the dyed cloth. Of these examples the crepe 
 
FIG. 61 
 
 FIG. 62 
 
 FIG. 63 
 
 FIG. 64 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 107 
 
 class of weave is the least pronounced in intersection elements, 
 and, as such, it is not readily definable in respect to the warp 
 and weft effects of which it is composed. Figs. 56 and 57, page 
 100, are two modified specimens, the checking lines having 
 been added to exemplify the method of developing both the 
 ground, and the special interlacings, in separate shade tones 
 by arranging the yarns thus 
 
 Warp 
 2 threads of mixture shade 5. (See Table XIV for Yarn Structure) 
 
 o n 
 
 *l JJ JJ 5> JJ J> J 
 
 " > J> 5 ,, ,, ,, 
 
 Weft 
 2 picks of mixture shade 1 or 2, (See Table XIV for Yarn Structure) 
 
 2Q 
 > 5J & >5 
 
 6 1 or 2 
 
 This yarn scheme produces sections A, Figs. 56 and 57, in a 
 medium shade of warp and a darker shade of weft, and the 
 checkings in a lighter tone, the three yarn structures combined 
 exhibiting these toning distinctions in the tinted piece. 
 
 When the weave plans are formed of interlacing units, which, 
 in themselves, yield warp or weft effects contrasting with each 
 other, tone differentiation is applied for moderating or accentu- 
 ating their distinctive character, as indicated in the schemes 
 of yarn assortment for Figs. 58 to 63. 
 
 FIGS. 58 AND 59 
 Schemes A 3 , B 2 , and B 4 , Table XIII 
 
 FIG. 60 
 Warp 
 
 1 thread of shade No. 2, Table XIII 
 4 threads 7 
 
 1 thread 2 
 
 Weft 
 
 1 pick of shade No. 2, Table XIII 
 4 picks 5 
 
 Ipick 2 
 
108 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 61 
 Schemes A, B, C, and D, Table XIV 
 
 FIG. 62 
 Schemes A 4 and B 4 , Table XIII 
 
 FIG. 63 
 Schemes A 5 , B 1 , and B 5 , Table XIII 
 
 Figs 58 and 59 are both formed of compact warp and weft 
 elements, which only require a moderate shade contrast to 
 
 FIG. 
 
 FIG. 65 
 
 develop them individually in the texture. In scheme A 3 they 
 
 would be just distin- 
 guishable in dark 
 tones, and similarly 
 marked in B 2 but in 
 medium tone, whereas 
 
 in B 4 the two series of units would be quite distinct. Fig. 60 
 
 is a type of weave plan 
 
 adapted to a special yarn 
 
 grouping. In that indicated 
 
 the threads and picks, 
 
 arranged in pairs, are woven 
 
 in a dark tone ; and the 
 
 warp intersections of the 
 
 plan in a light, and the weft 
 
 intersections in a medium 
 
 shade, expressing each type 
 
 of detail in a different mix- 
 ture tone. In weaves in 
 
 which the two sets of .inter- 
 
 , . FIG. 67 
 
 lacings are inverted as in 
 
 Fig. 61, warp and weft shades analagous to each other in 
 
IIG. 68 
 
 &&XS 
 
 FIG. 69 
 
110 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 tone are applicable, and these have been selected as illus- 
 trative of this basis of manufacture, with an identical 
 measure of tone contrast in each scheme, but grading from 
 a darker to a lighter mixture-shade fabric. The transposed 
 plan of weave, Fig. 62, consisting of thread and pick 
 interlacings of the same dimensions, is also suitable for 
 production in warp and weft shades of a corresponding 
 tone as shown in schemes A 4 and B 4 ; while weaves in 
 which the textural units are in contrast (Fig. 63) may be 
 defined in either slightly or strongly emphasized shades as 
 indicated in schemes B 1 and A 5 and B 5 . 
 
 83. Shade Tonation in Striped, Checked and Figured Styles. 
 A like latitude obtains in tone variation, definition and develop- 
 ment of the weave factors in striped, checked, spotted, and 
 figured patterns as will be evident in the effects of the yarn 
 schemes tabulated below, when examined in relation to the 
 character and style of the design product in the dyed fabric. 
 
 EXAMPLES IN STRIPES 
 FIG. 64. 3-AND-3 TWILL AND ELONGATED MATS 
 
 Warp Weft 
 
 3 threads of shade 6, Table XIII Shade 5, Table XIII 
 
 PIG. 65. MATTED AND TWILLED COMPOUND 
 
 Warp 
 1 thread of shade 9, Table XIV 
 
 Weft 
 Shade 3, Table XIV 
 
 8 ThreadsP I!! 16 "? 
 V 1 thread 
 
 7 
 9 
 
 /I thread 
 
 ) 2 threads 
 8 Threads / , 
 V 1 thread 
 
 6 
 4* 
 6 
 
 p (1 thread 
 
 8 Threads ?" 
 
 V 1 thread 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 9 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 111 
 
 Warp Weft 
 
 6 threads 7 As in Figs. 64 and 65. 
 
 4 threads 9 
 
 i , 
 
 16 Threads 6 threads 7 
 
 FIG. 66. WHIP CORD AND TWILLED MAT 
 
 Warp Weft 
 
 7 threads of shade 3, Table XIII Shade 1, Table XIV 
 
 7K 
 f J> * 
 
 For (I thread' 1 
 
 5 Threads ( 1 7 
 
 7 threads 5 
 
 
 EXAMPLES IN CHECKED STYLES 
 FIG. 67. INVERTED TWILLED MAT 
 
 Warp Weft 
 
 For ( 1 thread of shade 7, Table XIV For j 1 pick of shade 8 
 20 Threads/1 3 24 Picks U 5 
 
 -10 17 
 
 -* > j - 1 > j> 
 
 1 > > 5 ,, 1 ,, ,, 3 
 
 >5 > J> 1 > 7 
 
 1 > o 1 > 3 
 
 FIG. 68. CUT CHECK 
 Warp Weft 
 
 32 threads of shade 3, Table XIII 30 picks of shade 2, Table XIII 
 
 4 > > 2 ,, 4 ,, ,, 1 ,, 
 
 O )J }> O j) O )) 55 Z 9> 
 
 4 ,> ,,2 ,, 4 ,, ,, ,, 
 
 2 j, 2 ,, 
 
 FIG. 69. CHECK IN WEAVE CONTRASTS 
 Warp Weft 
 
 4 threads of shade 9, Table XIV 4 picks of shade 8, Table XIV 
 
 4 ,, 7 4 ,, 6 
 
 4 9 4 8 
 
 4 M 8 ,, 4 ,, ,, 9 
 
 4 } ,,6 ,, 4 ,, ,, 7 ,, 
 
 4 8 ,, 4 ,, .. 9 
 
112 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 EXAMPLES IN FIGURED STYLES 
 FIG. 70. WAVED PATTERN 
 
 Warp 
 (5 threads of shade 6, Table XIV 
 
 6 7 
 
 Weft 
 Shade 4, Table XIV 
 
 FIG. 71. SMALL LEAF PATTERN WITH CORD AND SATEEN- 
 GROUND 
 
 Warp Weft 
 
 8 threads of shade 9, Table XIV Shade 5, Table XIV 
 
 84. Suitable delineation of Textural Details. The weave 
 types in each of these examples are clearly but suitably defined 
 in the several textures by the yarn units combined. Referring 
 to the stripes, in Fig. 64, the sections twilling to the right, and 
 in a reverse direction, are produced in separate shades but only 
 differing to a small degree in tone. The part in elongated 
 mat is woven in a third and lighter shade, while the weft is 
 of a deeper tone than the darker mixture yarn in the warp, 
 and this has the effect of developing each variety of textural 
 detail. The fancy mat portion of Fig. 65 is divided into three 
 stripings with the centre one in the darker tones, in contrast 
 with the line features formed in the twilled stripe and developed 
 in the lighter tones. Again, crossing with a deeper shade of 
 weft emphasizes the elements due to the intersection schemes. 
 The whip-cord stripe, Fig. 66, is hardly modified by the dark 
 shuttling yarn, but the adjoining lines, in twilled mat, are 
 distinctly brought out, while the end-and-end warping in 
 the cord twill develops this section of the stripe in two shades 
 of warp. 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 
 
 113 
 
 The principle in colouring the checked style in Fig. 67 is 
 that of warping both the weave units in two light shades, and 
 wefting pick-and-pick in two deeper shades, producing a 
 " colour " and a " weave " pattern. For the cut check, 
 Fig. 68, a further basis of toning is utilized. Here the form 
 
 Fio. 70 
 
 of the design, due to the weave elements, is accentuated by 
 using yarns in the warp of a lighter tone for the 3-and-3 
 twilling than for the mat cutting threads, and by crossing 
 each of these yarns with a fuller-toned weft. Checked plans 
 composed of weaves differing in intersection units Fig. 69 
 formed of 2-and-2 and 4-and-4 mats may be conveniently 
 coloured by grouping the yarns to fit with either the lesser or 
 
 8 (1745) 
 
114 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 broader weave type. In the example the order of warping 
 and wefting agrees with the 4-and-4 crossing, which is woven 
 in two shades, but the lighter tone in the warp interlaces with 
 the darker tone in the weft and vice versa, an arrangement 
 
 FIG. 71 
 
 which, in this class of combination, exhibits the structural 
 character of both the smaller and larger weave. 
 
 85. Figured Examples with Shaded Stripes in the Warp. 
 In figured styles the leading features in the design, when 
 acquired in the weft yarn, as in Figs. 70 and 71, allow of the 
 warp being striped variously. The striping should not infringe 
 on the clear development of the component parts of the 
 
PATTERN ORIGINATION 115 
 
 pattern, but form a natural setting on which the latter are 
 rendered effective. For this branch of textile colouring 
 bi-fibred yarns are specially applicable, inasmuch as they 
 facilitate toning gradation, or the combination of shade units 
 in mathematically determined degrees of contrast. In Fig. 70 
 the arrangement of the yarn types gives a shaded form of 
 stripe, woven in warp sateen, and underneath the wave lines 
 in weft twill and plain make ; and in Fig. 71 the two sorts 
 of warp thread are grouped to produce well-spaced lines in 
 light and very light tones, with the leaf figuring in a medium 
 shade of mixture weft yarn. 
 
 The tone differentiation possible, in these and like specimens, 
 is to be distinguished from colour variation, which is only 
 restricted, in range, by the practice in shade matching in the 
 dyeing of the goods. 
 
SECTION II 
 
 COMPOUND-YARN FABRICS 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 
 
 86. The Ordinary Type of Union-Twist Threads. 87. Union Yarn 
 a Basis of Textural Production. 88. Twist Thread Structure and Manu- 
 facturing Latitude. 89.- Paramount Material Factor in Union Twists. 
 90. Structural Variations in Union Yarns. 91. Manufacturing Pro- 
 vision in Union-Twist Counts. 92. Cotton and Linen Union Threads. 
 93. Silk Twist Yarns. 94. The Productive Problem Tabulated 
 Examples. 95. Weft Thread Filament Composition. 96. Quali- 
 ties of the Weft Yarn. 97. Methods of Applying Two- and Three-fold 
 Threads. 98. Weave Elements and Twist- Yarn Goods. 99. Union- 
 Twist Yarn Fabrics Tables. 100. Worsted Union-Twist Textures. 
 101. Compound Yarns and Degree of Twine in the Thread Units. 
 102. Weave Design in Worsted-Twist Manufactures. 103. Warp- 
 face Principle of Intertexture. 104. Cotton and Linen Union Yarns 
 and Natural Tinted Contrasts. 
 
 86. The Ordinary Type of Union-Twist Threads. Twist 
 yarns may be employed as a unit in the manufacture of a 
 special grade of cloth, or as a structural feature in fabric 
 design. Two and three-ply threads, when composed of wool 
 and cotton, worsted and silk, etc., are largely used for the 
 first function, though, as will be evident in the fuller analysis 
 of their application, they also offer definite facilities in the 
 origination of pattern style. Multi-ply, irregular, and " fancy " 
 folded yarns, which do not at present come under considera- 
 tion, have a primary utility in the development of textural 
 newness, being decorative in effect and in colour composition 
 and attributes. 
 
 The ordinary variety of union- twist is a folded yarn, plain 
 in structure, and even in formation. Having a smooth 
 surface, and being free from circumferential elements other 
 than those due to twisting one thread with another, such 
 twist yarns are adapted for cloth construction by similar 
 practices as single-spun yarns, and folded yarns of a like 
 material and counts. As a type of thread it is, however, to 
 
 119 
 
120 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 be distinguished from the simple folded yarn, which is purely 
 a compound of several single threads of a corresponding size 
 and filament classification, as, for example, 2-fold 60's cotton, 
 2-fold 40's worsted, or 2-fold 30 skeins woollen. Here the 
 thread ingredients combined are identical in quality, and 
 character, whereas, in union-twists, it is fundamental that the 
 yarns folded together should differ in the fibrous substance 
 of which they are formed, if not in diameter, turns per inch, 
 and in system of production. 
 
 87. Union Yarns a Basis of Textural Production. All such 
 twist threads result in the weaving of a union manufacture in 
 which the percentages of wool and cotton, worsted and silk, 
 cotton and flax, and other varieties of spinnable fibre, are 
 governed by the kind of compound yarn employed. The idea 
 in the formation of the twist is to combine, in a fixed ratio, the 
 fibrous factors of which the single threads are made, and this 
 is done by the relative thicknesses of the two or more yarns 
 twisted into one thread, or by their respective lengths and 
 weights to the counts of the folded yarn on the lines developed 
 in the examples of union twists on pages 19, 20, and 21. In this 
 connection it should be observed that the true productive basis, 
 in each branch of textile manufacture, is in the descriptions of 
 yarn usable, and in their technical features and properties. 
 The yarn unit defines the possibilities in looming, dyeing and 
 finishing ; and it is in this relation that the subject of union 
 twist threads has first to be considered. As regards union 
 cloth fabrication, four phases of work are affected by the 
 structural value and diversity of the sorts of yarn this method 
 of compound thread construction provides, namely : (1) the 
 latitude for the modification of the quantitative proportions 
 of the different materials in the woven texture ; (2) the range 
 in yarn counts, structure and qualities for warp and weft ; 
 (3) the textural types, effects and combinations practicable ; 
 and (4) cloth diversification as attained in manufacturing 
 and finishing practice. 
 
 For showing how far these technical essentials are met, 
 
PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 121 
 
 and their bearing on progressive textile effort, by the yarns 
 under analysis, reference will be made to the examples in 
 union-twist threads specified in Table III. These are divided 
 into nine typical groups, each denoted by the sort of yarn 
 which constitutes the predominate class of fibre in the com- 
 pound thread. Following this classification, each description 
 of twist is quoted in the system of counting applicable to the 
 distinctive quality of the folded yarn produced, as the woollen 
 (with cotton) twists designated in skeins, the cotton (with 
 woollen) in hanks, the linen (with cotton) in leas, and the 
 worsted, cotton and silk twists in worsted hanks ; giving a 
 method of folded union yarn nomenclature which acts as a 
 guide to the material ingredients employed, and also to the 
 plus filament unit in the twisted yarn. 
 
 88. Twist Thread Structure and Manufacturing Latitude. 
 The latitude for manufacturing differentiations in the fibres 
 combined in the cloth in the use of union-twist yarns, may be 
 judged from the specimens tabulated, which are not to be taken 
 as complete but as representative of the assortment of fibre and 
 of thread structures feasible, and also as illustrative of the varie- 
 ties of such compound threads, and of their general applica- 
 bility in textural construction and fabrication. Examining 
 these yams (Table III), it will be seen that in Group A, woollen 
 and cotton twists, the percentage of wool varies from 52 to 67 ; 
 and that in Group A', cotton and woollen twists, the percentage 
 of cotton fibre varies from 54 to 59. In the worsted and 
 cotton units, Group B, the wool factor ranges from 54 to 67 
 per cent., and in the cotton and worsted units, Group B', the 
 cotton factor from 53 to 69 per cent. These percentages of 
 wool and cotton by no means cover the ratios in which the 
 two filaments may be combined in thread fprm, but they 
 none the less present a series of twisted thread units which 
 offer a diversified admixture of the materials in manufacturing 
 work, and in which the amalgamation of the fibrous sorts is 
 effected in the folding or twisting, as differing from their 
 admixture in the processes of yarn spinning. 
 
122 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 Relative to the other classes of twists comprised in the 
 Table, it will be noted that in the cotton and linen, C, from 
 54 to 61 parts of the material in the yarns is cotton; and that 
 in the linen and cotton threads, C', flax forms from 55 to 62 
 parts of the constituent fibres. Here again the percentage 
 of either cotton or flax may be raised by a modification in 
 the counts of the individual yarns, and in agreement with a 
 prescribed basis of fabric production. In combining silk 
 with worsted, whether in two- or three-fold twisting, wool 
 should be the dominant quantity of the material used in the 
 formation of the composite yarn. Thus, in the examples given 
 in Group D, wool forms from 60 to 76 parts of the filaments 
 used. The same general rule is observed in twisting silk 
 with cotton yarns, hence in series E about 57 to 74 per cent, 
 of the material consists of cotton fibre. In respect to the 
 three-fold twists, worsted, cotton and silk, Group F one 
 principle of union-thread formation consists in the wool yarn 
 being equal to approximately one-half of the material in the 
 compound product, with the cotton representing one-third, 
 and the silk the remaining one-sixth of the material factor, 
 as in the twists Nos. 2 and 3. But when, as in certain styles 
 of dress and light textures, the silk thread is required to 
 impart a special tone to the fabric, the count of the worsted 
 thread is proportionately changed, and also that of the cotton, 
 which allows the silk ingredient to be accordingly increased, 
 as shown in the examples 4 and 5, Group F. 
 
 89. Paramount Material Factor in Union Twists. A 
 fundamental feature in these union threads is that the woollen, 
 worsted, cotton or flax is preferably made the paramount 
 material quantity, and this gives to the manufactured cloth 
 a corresponding filament character, moderated in degree by 
 the percentage in which a particular class of fibre predominates 
 in the two or three kinds of yarn twisted together. This 
 provision, allied with the scale of proportions in which the 
 fibres are blended in the several groups of twist thread units, 
 renders variations in manufacturing practice possible in two 
 
PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 123 
 
 important directions. First, in the woollen or worsted and 
 cotton twist yarns, the cloth produced may be of a woollen 
 or worsted character ; and, second, in the cotton and woollen 
 or worsted twist, the cloth may be made to possess more or 
 less the quality of a cotton structure. Similarly in the cotton 
 and linen, and in the linen and cotton threads Groups C 
 and C', Table III the fabric woven may partake of either a 
 cotton or linen property and appearance, with the extent to 
 which the cotton or the linen unit is the thicker and forms the 
 bulk of the material in the twisted yarn. It is thus apparent 
 that union-twist threads offer a wide field for manufacturing 
 work, particularly as regards textural quality. Moreover, in 
 the weft yarn employed in the cloths for which these threads 
 are selected, there is, as will be exemplified, a further means of 
 regulating and enlarging the range of percentages in which 
 the fibrous ingredients are combinable in the manufactured 
 goods. 
 
 90. Structural Variations in Union Yarns. Diversity in 
 yarn counts or diameter, and in yarn structure, are basic 
 elements in union manufacture, inasmuch as they influence 
 and control the relative material values in the woven fabric, 
 and yield the grades and types of cloth producible. Union- 
 twist threads satisfactorily answer to each of these conditions. 
 As to structural character and textile features, they are 
 susceptive to four schemes of modification : (a) by the degree 
 of twine in the two or more yarns folded into one thread ; 
 (6) by the direction of the twine in the initial yarns relative 
 to the direction of the twine in the twisted yarn ; (c) by the 
 respective counts of the single threads combined ; and (d) by 
 the materials of which the several yarns folded together are 
 composed. The productive advantages, acquired by these 
 methods of changing the structure of union twists, are only 
 to be adequately understood and appreciated by experimental 
 study, but they will be dealt with and illustrated in treating 
 of multi-ply union yarns and their applications.* 
 * See Chapter V, Woollen and Worsted. 
 
124 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 91. Manufacturing Provision in Union-Twist Counts. In 
 forming a union-twist yarn basis, the textural applications of 
 the yarns and the classes of woven manufactures intended 
 have to be taken into account, and these factors have been 
 provided for in the framing of the compound thread units 
 specified in Table III. Thus, the first variety of yarn, or the 
 woollen and cotton twist, is adapted for the production of 
 fabrics of a similar thread compactness, or warp and weft 
 setting, and weight per yard, as the standard makes of pure 
 woollen cloths, both of a Saxony and Cheviot character, the 
 nature of the material selected for the woollen thread in the 
 twist coinciding with the quality of fabric required. All- 
 wool manufactures comprise light costume and suiting textures, 
 fabrics of a medium thickness, heavy builds of cloth, and 
 coarse and open grades of production as in the lower classes 
 of blankets and rugs. That is to say, in the first type of these 
 manufactures, yarns are applied averaging from 20 to 32 yds. 
 per dram, or such counts of union twists as defined in examples 
 1 to 5 in Group A. For the intermediate weights of fabric, 
 twists Nos. 5, 6 and 7 are suitable, while for the heavier and 
 also coarser structures, according to the system of looming 
 adopted, the yarns enumerated at 9, 10 and 11 would be 
 applied. Should finer or lower kinds of manufacture be 
 requisitioned, union twists would be prepared of a smaller 
 or increased diameter, adjusting the counts and filament 
 composition of the yarn to the special sort of mixture to be 
 fabricated. The second group of twists, A', range from 1-6 
 to 6*6 cotton counts, or from practically 5 to 21 skeins woollen, 
 and are, therefore, of appropriate diameters for similar but 
 inferior goods as those for which yarns 4 to 11 in series A are 
 employed. Though containing a higher percentage of cotton 
 than wool fibre, they are still adapted for cloths made and 
 finished on the woollen principle. They are preferred to the 
 more woollen structure in manufactures needed rather for 
 covering than for clothing purposes, and have, moreover, a 
 value in the construction of domestic and decorative fabrics. 
 
PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 125 
 
 In the worsted industry, which also includes dress, costume, 
 light and winter suitings, overcoating and certain species 
 of tapestry cloths, the assortment of two-ply warp yarns 
 does not ordinarily exceed the count limits represented in the 
 twist threads in Group B. These range from 12's to 57's 
 with the principal yarn sorts used in the bulk trade in worsted 
 production, or such standard counts as 32's, 28's, 23's, 22's, 
 18's, 12's, 10's and 9's, and equal, for warp, to 2-fold 64's, 
 2-fold 56's, 2-fold 46's, 2-fold 36's, 2-fold 24's, 2-fold 20's, 
 and 2-fold 18's. From which it will be understood that each 
 style of worsted texture obtained in the latter yarns, could 
 be imitated, as to yarn thickness, in the union twists tabulated. 
 In addition, thin varieties of fabric, specially applicable to 
 dress textures, are producible in the finer yarns quoted in 
 Nos. 1 to 7 inclusive, and corresponding to 2-fold 115's, 2-fold 
 108's, 2-fold 96's, 2-fold 88's, 2-fold 80's, 2-fold 75's, and 
 2-fold 68's worsted. Moreover, for more substantial and 
 heavier kinds of cloth, but of a like filament proportion as to 
 wool and cotton, to the threads in Table III, the worsted counts 
 may be graduated to 10's or 8's and the cotton counts to 12's 
 or 10's. 
 
 As in the instance of twists A and A', which were shown 
 to be usable for corresponding classes of fabrication, so here, 
 both twists B and B' are suitable for the manufacture of 
 fabrics of an equivalent weight per yard, and in the same 
 schemes of looming threads B' yielding, however, cloths of 
 the fuller cotton quality and of the more economic construc- 
 tion. This does not necessarily imply textures deteriorated 
 in wearing strength and durability, but a perceptible change 
 in their clothing properties, as evident in softness and warmth 
 in the made-up garment. It should be noted that the lack 
 of warmth in the use of this make of fabric, when the wearing 
 value is satisfactory, is not prejudicial but favourable to its 
 selection for South American markets, and also for clothing 
 in warm and hot climates generally. Union twists B' thus 
 result in a type of manufacture for which yarns of a higher 
 
126 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 woollen formation are neither so useful in gaining the textural 
 effects, or so well-fitted for giving the textural qualities, 
 desired in these branches of textile trading. 
 
 92. Cotton and Linen Union Threads. When the thread 
 units composed of cotton and linen are examined Series C 
 they are found to comprise yarns ranging from 24's to 58's 
 (= 2-fold 48's to 2-fold 116's cotton) rendering them applicable 
 to different thicknesses and grades of fabric from the sheeting 
 to the cambric. With flax as the excess fibre in the twist 
 threads C' the counts are, on the average, raised, which has 
 the effect of adding to the applicability of the yarns to the 
 weaving of the thinner and better makes of linen unions. 
 Threads 1, 2 and 3 are of a smallness of circumference (the 
 same in hanks per Ib. as 2-fold 88's, 2-fold 80's and 2-fold 68's 
 cotton) to enable them to be employed for warp in the con- 
 struction of fine gauze, leno and muslin textures. The fibrous 
 proportions may, however, remain unaltered and lower counts 
 of twist yarn obtained, but the textural results, in doing this, 
 approach too closely those acquired in the medium thicknesses 
 of twist in which cotton is the paramount factor. 
 
 93. Silk Twist Yarns. Twist yarns, Groups D, E and F 
 in which silk constitutes one of the thread units, have a number 
 of special applications, being utilized in the manufacture of 
 fancy as well as standardized classes of fabric. They need to 
 be satisfactorily varied in counts and yet economically con- 
 structed as to the percentage of silk fibre used in the folded 
 yarn. The examples Series D, E and F suggest the 
 structural combinations favourable, being diversified in twist 
 counts and well differentiated in regard to the size and type 
 of worsted, cotton and silk threads combined. The twists in 
 which 2-fold worsted or 2-fold cotton yarns are doubled with 
 2-fold silk make a firm, compact four-ply thread structure of 
 high tensile property, and hence its employment chiefly for 
 warp in the firmer makes of silk and wool or silk and cotton 
 unions, such as dress, vesting and also decorative fabrics. 
 On the other hand, the twists composed of single worsted or 
 
PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 127 
 
 cotton and silk, with the quantitative ratios of the two fibres 
 modified Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7 D and Nos. 5, 6 and 7 E are 
 of a flexible, supple nature, which is conducive to their applica- 
 tion to dress and blouse stuffs, or to textures where softness 
 of feel is an essential. As to the counts' latitude, this is 
 inclusive, in Group D, of yarns equal to 2-fold 54's, 2 /64's, 2 /72's, 
 2 /76's, 2 /86's, and 2-fold 128's worsted, and in Group E of 
 yarns corresponding to 2-fold 40's, 2 /48's, 2 /60's, 2 /68's, and 
 2-fold 70's cotton. In the 3-fold examples, F, the silk unit 
 is considerably reduced, with the formation of a twist yarn 
 combining the qualities of wool, cotton and silk, and subjective 
 if applied in the grey, to three systems of tinting in the dyeing 
 of the goods. Here compound threads of approximate 
 diameters to 2-fold 40's, 2 /48's, 2 /50's, 2 /56's, 2 /68's and 2-fold 
 70's worsted are represented, denoting that they are adapted 
 to the manufacture of either the ordinary classes of fancy 
 worsteds, or to special varieties of dress and vesting fabrics. 
 
 94. The Productive Problem Tabulated Examples. Having, 
 as indicated, formulated and established a union-twist yarn 
 scheme on an adequate filament basis for manufacturing 
 purposes, and one in which the twists are correctly graded 
 from threads of a convenient workable diameter to threads 
 of an extreme fineness, the problems connected with the 
 fabrication of standard types and qualities of cloth require 
 to be examined, illustrated and dissected. It is proposed, 
 in this connection, to treat of each variety of union-folded yarn 
 in the order specified in Table III, for which schemes of manu- 
 facture will be stated in tabulated form. Commencing with 
 the woollen and cotton twists Series A and A' examples 
 in productive practice will be found in the two tables 
 appended. 
 
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 cococccocccoccso 
 
 
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 CO O CO O CO O 
 
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 00 l> CO CO 
 
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 fe-M S2SSS: 
 
 00 O CO >* (M <N 00 CO CO Tf FH 00 
 
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 t^ CO O l> CO t-4 
 
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130 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 95. Weft Thread Filament Composition. In the foregoing 
 tables it will be noted that, in addition to the setting, the 
 weight per yard, and the counts of the warp and weft yarns, the 
 percentages of wool and cotton, as calculated from the yarn 
 
 FIG. 72A 
 
 FIG. 72s 
 
 FIG. 72c 
 
 FIG. 73A 
 
 FIG. 73B 
 
 FIG. 73c 
 
 FIG. 7 SD 
 
 FIG. 73K 
 
 FIG. 73F 
 
 units, are also given. The influence of the weft factor is, there- 
 fore, seen in modifying the filament composition of the cloth 
 in each example. It may, obviously, be made to either raise 
 or lower the wool ingredient of the piece, but, as a rule, it is 
 designed to attain the former result, both in union woollen 
 and worsted manufacturing. Further, it is intended to 
 
PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 131 
 
 impart to the textures a fuller and softer handle than is obtain- 
 able in goods produced from twist yarns of this description. 
 As they are two-ply threads, they have a tendency to yield 
 cloths somewhat harsh to the feel. This feature may be 
 moderated by the kind of weft yarn selected. Thus, examples 
 I and II, Table XV, would differ perceptibly in this charac- 
 teristic, for I would be the finer and harder, and II the more 
 supple and flexible cloth. The twists employed would be 
 equally effective in both textures, especially if consisting of 
 woollen and cotton threads differing in shade or colour, but 
 the bi-fibred woollen weft, in the latter, would cause this fabric 
 to possess a fuller quality of softness and flexibility than the 
 twist weft in the former. Increasing the counts of warp and 
 weft, and changing the constituent threads in the twist, as 
 in examples IX and X, only further differentiates the two 
 grades of manufacture. 
 
 With a single yarn for weft, it is practicable to have this 
 loosely spun, whereas in the twist weft, though the compound 
 yarn is modifiable in a degree by the turns per inch in the 
 single threads combined, yet it is structurally firm, compact, 
 and unyielding. These respective properties of the two yarns 
 are considered in the reed setting of the pieces, the single- 
 weft cloths allowing of the freer width construction in milling 
 than the two-ply weft cloths. To refer further to the latter 
 examples, Piece IX is set 64" as compared with Piece X 68" 
 in the loom, which is principally accounted for by the higher 
 felting property the 18 skeins weft provides as contrasted 
 with the woollen and cotton twist weft in the first make of 
 fabric. When milling is an essential in manufacturing work 
 Fabrics C the weft yarn should be invariably soft spun, 
 and also regulated in the proportionate quantities of wool and 
 cotton relative to the measure of felting to be induced and the 
 quality of the animal fibre used. 
 
 96. Qualities of the Weft Yarn. Whatever the class of 
 manufacture woollen and cotton, worsted and cotton, 
 worsted and silk, cotton and linen, worsted, cotton and silk 
 
132 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 the weft yarn should, as a general rule, be ( 1 ) slightly thicker 
 in counts than the twist yarn in the warp ; (2) relatively 
 loosely spun ; and (3) of a fibrous consistency which will 
 supplement the textural qualities of softness and adaptability 
 in the wear derivable from the structure of twist thread utilized. 
 The two -fold yarn is to be regarded as paramount in delineating 
 the surface features of the fabric, and the weft yarn as pri- 
 mary in supplying elasticity and suppleness of handle to 
 
 FIG. 74A 
 
 FIG. 74s 
 
 FIG. 74c 
 
 FIG. 74D 
 
 FIG. 74E 
 
 FIG. 74F 
 
 the finish cloth. A study of the tabulated examples will 
 show that these technicalities have been strictly observed 
 in framing the productive plans illustrated. 
 
 97. Methods of Applying Two- and Three-fold Threads. 
 Union twist yarns, being two- or three-fold and made of 
 two or three kinds of fibre, are usable in the grey or in two or 
 three colours. If applied in the natural state, the pieces 
 would require, in the instance of each thread being differently 
 tinted, to be dyed either in a compound bath, or in three 
 processes. Should the twists in groups A or A', Table III, 
 
PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 133 
 
 be employed, the cloth would be both cotton and wool dyed, 
 when each thread could be matched approximately in the same 
 shade; or the cotton thread, in the twist, be a distinct colour 
 from that of the woollen thread. Taking the first arrange- 
 ment, for the purpose of producing the fine twilled cloth, 
 Ex. II, Table XV, in one colour, such as light brown, the piece 
 would be woven in the warp and weft particulars stated, 
 scoured, felted, washed-off, tentered and dried, and blown 
 with steam prior to dyeing. Here the two yarns in the twist 
 would be similarly tinted, following by washing-ofE and 
 rinsing, re-tentering, cutting and pressing. The cotton yarn 
 in the twist, and the cotton fibre in the union woollen weft, 
 would, by reason of the lower colourization value of the cotton 
 than the wool fibre, take a slightly duller hue than the latter, 
 but the fabric would be of a uniform shade tone. In the 
 second place, for developing the thread units in the two-fold 
 yarn in different colours, two methods are practicable : first, 
 that of dyeing the wool fibre in the cloth, say, black, leaving 
 the cotton in the white, and resulting in the twist warp, 
 composed of black and white ends, Ex. II and in the bi-fibred 
 weft 70 per cent, wool and 30 per cent, cotton taking 
 a dark grey shade ; second, that consisting in dyeing e.g., 
 brown and lavender the wool and the cotton in the piece 
 in separate processes, producing the twist yarn in these 
 colours, and the weft yarn in a mixed shade formed of 70 
 parts of brown and 30 parts of cotton. 
 
 Another principle of manufacture is that of preparing the 
 twist yarns in the colours they are intended to exhibit in the 
 finished fabric. In illustration of this practice, it may be 
 supposed that the %& twill cloth, Ex. IV, is to be obtained, 
 and that the twist, No. 2 A, is made of green woollen and light 
 olive cotton threads. Any suitable dark shade of yarn might 
 be employed as weft, but if the idea should be to use a corre- 
 sponding coloured weft as warp, this would be acquired by 
 blending 60 parts (green) of wool with 40 parts (light olive) 
 cotton in the spinning of the 26 skeins yarn specified for 
 

 FIG. 75A 
 
 FIG. 75u 
 
 FIG. 75c 
 
 FIG. 75o 
 
 FIG. 75E 
 
 FIG. 76A 
 
 FIG. 76s 
 
 FIG. 76c 
 
 FIG. 76p 
 
 FIG. 76s 
 
PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 135 
 
 shuttling this cloth. By this practice, however, a number of 
 mixture shades are preparable for weft, increasing the diversity 
 of tinting in the fabric. Retaining the twist in the two colours 
 stated, and crossing the warp with a weft formed of dark blue 
 (wool ingredient) and of light fawn (cotton) the texture 
 would contain four tints or be a mixture, in the warp, of 
 63 per cent, of green and 37 per cent of light olive (see No. 2A, 
 Table III) ; and, in the weft of 60 per cent, of dark blue, and 
 40 per cent, of fawn (see Weft IV, Table XV). The weave 
 being common twill and the weft a little thicker in counts- 
 Ex. IV than the warp thread, the tinting of the former 
 would be equally present in the fabric with that of the latter, 
 though the twist yarn structure would distribute the colour 
 elements more evenly and visibly than the intermingled 
 quality of the bi-fibred woollen yarn. 
 
 The construction of the union twist in the shades in which 
 it is to be used in the cloth has, clearly, an advantage over the 
 construction of this yarn in the grey in respect to the colour 
 treatment of these manufactures. For costume and covert 
 coating and other textures, in which a modicum of tinting 
 is practised, the application of the twist yarn in the grey is 
 satisfactory, especially as it is less restrictive as to the fila- 
 ment ratios adapted in the production of the weft thread. 
 But for cloths in which colour tone and variation are important, 
 the twists should be preferably made in the colours they 
 are desired to be arranged in the warp of the piece. 
 
 98. Weave Elements and Twist- Yarn Goods. The formation 
 and character of union twist threads result in certain textural 
 features not actually obtainable in single yarns, such as the 
 regular distribution and demarcation of the particles of colour, 
 of which they are composed, on the surface of the fabric, and 
 which the weave plan should leave clear and distinct. The 
 ordinary varieties of twill, mat and similar makes, are all 
 useful as seen from the examples in the tables for the produc- 
 tion of these fabrics ; but in addition to such principles of 
 interlacing, warp twills, whipcords, ribs, ribbed twills, and 
 
136 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 crepe effects, are also selected as being suitable for developing 
 the details due to the qualities of the twist yarns. Illustra- 
 tions of several typical groups of these special weaves are 
 supplied in Figs. 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 and 78. The three 
 plans in Figs. 72A, B and c, prunelle, T ^ and ^ twills, with the 
 
 XX 
 
 FIG. 77A 
 
 FIG. 77s 
 
 FIG. 77c 
 
 XXX 
 
 xax 
 
 FIG. 77o 
 
 FIG. 77E 
 
 FIG. 77F 
 
 picks grouped in pairs, are mainly combined in striped patterns, 
 and with weaves in which the picks move normally. The 
 series represented in Fig. 73, A to E, include the 5- and 7-end 
 Venetian, A and B; the 7-shaft upright twill, c; the 8-shaft 
 fine line twill, D; the buckskin, E (also constructed on ten 
 threads and picks), and the well-defined 9-end twill, F. Whip- 
 cord twills, on 4, 5, 6, 7 and 9 hedcUes are shown in Figs. 74, 
 
PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 137 
 
 A to E, and plain and striped ribs at Figs. 75, A to E. These 
 different forms of warp and weft interlacing are applied in the 
 fabrication of woollen and cotton, and worsted and cotton 
 yarn unions, but the more open and varied in structure the 
 weave unit, the less its applicability to the former cloths, and 
 the greater its restriction in the manufacture of cloths con- 
 sisting of the thicker counts of yarn. The twilled ribs in 
 Fig. 76, A to E, are better suited for union-worsted than union- 
 woollen twist productions, but the smaller of these crossings, 
 such as Figs. 76, A to B, and also the weft-characterized ribbed 
 twills, Figs. 77 A, B and c, may also be employed in the weaving 
 of special grades of woollen and cotton twist fabrics. 
 
 Ribbed weaves, striped or twilled, of the classes illus- 
 trated in Fig. 75, B, c, D and E, and in Fig. 76, c, D, and E, are 
 utilized to some extent in the higher counts of woollen and 
 cotton yarns, with the cloths well set in the reed, and woven 
 with a soft spun weft thread. Each weave type has a dis- 
 tinctive textural effect, Fig. 75 B forming a ribbed prunelle 
 twill stripe, Fig. 75 c a cord and plain rib pattern, Fig. 75 D 
 successive lines in cassimere and rib, and Fig. 75 E an angled 
 small twill and ribbed design. An additional detail obtains 
 in the plans, Figs. 77, A to F, as compared with the ribbed 
 twills in Figs. 76, A, B and c, the weft yarn showing distinctly 
 in the cloth, and producing, with the ribbed sections in the 
 weaves, alternate twilled lines developed in the twist warp 
 and in the yarn used in the shuttling. Arranging the plan 
 as in Fig. 77F, makes it practicable to weave the twills, 
 marked in '$ and in El's in two shades of weft. Applying 
 for example, this plan to the setting in Ex. VII, Table XV, 
 and using the twist No. 3 obtained by folding a 40-skein 
 medium brown with a 20's light tan cotton, and wefting one 
 pick medium green and one pick pale blue, would give the 
 dotted sections in the design in the colouring of the warp, 
 and the two weft-twill sections in green and blue. 
 
 The crepe weaves Fig. 78, A to E are chiefly applied in 
 the manufacture of the thinner varieties of dress and blouse 
 
138 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 materials, whether made of worsted and cotton or of worsted 
 and silk union yarns. They are specially suited for producing 
 a soft quality of texture intermingled in tinted composition ; 
 and, being frequent in the warp and weft intersections almost 
 
 FIG. 78A 
 
 FIG. 78s 
 
 FIG. 78c 
 
 FIG. 78D 
 
 FIG. 78E 
 
 plain they enable fine counts of yarn to be used with the 
 production of an even woven structure. 
 
 99. Union-Twist Yarn Fabrics Tables. Suggestions in 
 systems of textural construction, in which union worsted and 
 cotton twists are employed, and to which the weaves described, 
 are applicable, are particularized in Tables XVII and XVIII, 
 pages 139 and 140. 
 

 
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PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 141 
 
 100. Worsted Union-Twist Textures. These data may be 
 taken as illustrative of the diversified classes of fabric pro- 
 ducible in worsted union twist yarns, more particularly when 
 such yarns are employed in the warp, and woven with a bi- 
 fibred worsted weft. The use of twist threads, for shuttling as 
 well as for warp, has the effect of making a crisp -handling 
 texture, but one in which the colour details are fully inter- 
 mingled, and also distinguished by clearness of tone. A standard 
 type of thin, light fabric is obtainable by selecting two or more 
 sorts of coloured twist yarns and arranging them in some 
 simple looming order. Constructing Ex. Ill, Table XVII, on 
 this system, the yarns might, for instance, be grouped in the 
 warp one-and-one, two-and-one, and three, one, two and one, 
 combining two varieties of the twist thread 3 B, Table III, 
 namely, thread 1 formed of black worsted and an intermediate 
 shade of cotton, and thread 2 formed of a dark shade of worsted 
 and of a light tint of cotton. The weft yarns would be either 
 composed of the same or dissimilar colours to the warp yarns, 
 and follow the same order in weaving as the warping plan. 
 This style of combination and texture is preferably produced 
 in crepe, fine rib, and plain weaves in the thinner groups of 
 cloth, but it is also a useful scheme of manufacture in medium 
 weights of fabric, when weaves of the ^ twill character are 
 applicable. 
 
 101. Compound Yarns and Degree of Twine in the Thread 
 Units. The degree of twine in each of the threads in the 
 twist yarn, in the production of the thinner makes of fabric 
 in which the weft is a single-spun bi-fibred worsted, is a factor 
 to be determined by experimental work in the formation of 
 the two-ply yarn relative to textural build and quality. Twine 
 differentiation is valuable in modifying the softness and 
 flexibility of the woven structure. A basic principle obtaining 
 in the preparation of this yarn is, the firmer the twine in the 
 thread units of which it is made, the harsher and more resisting 
 the feel of the cloth. By reducing, in the twisting process, 
 the turns per inch in the threads folded into one, the supple 
 
14i> UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 nature of the compound or twist yarn is enhanced, and a 
 more cohesive relation of the filaments, in the respective threads, 
 is induced. To supplement the initial twine of one of the 
 threads, in the folding operation, and not that of the other, 
 
 FIG. 79 
 
 causes the thread thus affected to appear unduly attenuated 
 and to be apparently diminished in thickness ; while the thread 
 or threads unaffected present, in the twisted yarn, a looser 
 and fuller fibre consistency than that actually represented 
 by the normal diameter or counts. These technicalities in 
 making union twists are to be understood as exercising a 
 controlling effect on the tensility, suppleness, and smoothness 
 
PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 143 
 
 of the finer qualities of fabric in which they are used either 
 as warp or as warp and weft. 
 
 102. Weave Design in Worsted-Twist Manufactures. In 
 the first series of examples, A, Table XVII, the full range of 
 worsted and cotton twists specified in Table III is not illus- 
 trated ; but the types of manufacture in the second series, 
 Fabrics B, include, in the settings Nos. 8 to 12, the intermediate 
 kinds of cloth, which settings are also applicable to yarns B. It 
 will be observed that the weave element is more varied than 
 in the examples in Tables XV and XVI, and that the textures 
 are graded from a small number to over 14 oz. per yard, 
 54 in. wide. The single-make scheme of intertexture is 
 followed in the construction of each quality of fabric comprised. 
 For making heavier descriptions of cloth than those instanced, 
 one method obtains in the employment of thicker counts of 
 twist yarn, and a second method in substituting a union 
 woollen weft for the bi-fibred worsted weft, which involves 
 setting the pieces wider in the loom, and supplementing the 
 net weight per yard of the fabric by width shrinkage, as in 
 the range of cloths specified in Examples C, Table XV. 
 
 103. Warp-face Principle of Intertexture. Strictly in 
 these fabrics Tables XVII and XVIII similar classes of 
 textural design may be practised as in the construction of 
 solid worsteds made in corresponding counts of yarn. A 
 technicality to be understood is, however, the value of weave 
 in emphasizing the two-ply structure of the twist thread, 
 especially when this is used in the warp of the fabric. From 
 the plans and weave combinations in Figs. 72 to 78, it will be 
 seen that the warp-face principle of intersection is chiefly 
 utilized. An even, regular build of cloth is essential, and for 
 this purpose, and also for the correct demarcation of the twist 
 features, the ribbed plan of weave is well adapted. It is 
 combinable in twill, striped and diagonal form, and affords 
 considerable scope for pattern variation. Moreover, for the 
 ordinary twist yarn counts, such as those approximating 
 14 to 26 hanks per lb., and systems of setting averaging from 
 
144 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 44 to 80 ends per inch, the elementary types of weaves, and 
 their derivative structures, being usable, they add to the 
 designing facilities available in these manufactures. 
 
 104. Cotton and Linen Union Yarns and Natural Tinted 
 Contrasts. The cotton and linen twist yarn fabrics, while not 
 variable in the same manner, or to a like extent, by tinting 
 practice as the groups of fabrics exemplified in Tables XV to 
 XVIII, offer another textural property, that of tone contrast 
 in the natural colour of the two fibres. Under certain looming 
 conditions this property may be utilized in the origination 
 
 FIG. 80 
 
 FIG. 81 
 
 of distinctive grades of fabrication. The weave design is 
 important and should be devised to emphasize the respective 
 tinted qualities of the flax and cotton, and also the formation 
 of the twist yarn in the warp as differing from the softer nature 
 of cotton yarn applied in the weft. Assuming, for example, 
 the twists Nos. 2, 3 and 4, C, Table III, to be used in the 
 warping, and 50's, 44's, and 40's cotton in the wefting, in the 
 weaving of textures in the designs in Figs. 79, 80 and 81, the 
 effects and structure of the two kinds of yarn would be suit- 
 ably accentuated. The diamond elements, printed in blank 
 D's in Fig. 79 would, by this arrangement, be expressed, 
 in the fabric, in the pale straw-coloured linen and white cotton 
 
PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES 145 
 
 twist, and the parts shown in black B's would be woven in 
 the 50's pure white cotton. Fig. 80 would develop the serial 
 details in D's in the twist thread, and the transposed serial 
 details in B's in the single 44's cotton, attaining a clear defini- 
 tion of the checked style, typical of the precise form of pattern 
 delineation obtainable in inverted weave elements; and, in 
 the natural tinted contrasts of the flax and cotton fibre, 
 rendered increasingly effective by one of the yarns in the 
 texture being of the union- twist variety. The intersected 
 diagonal, Fig. 81, admits of the sateen ground being woven 
 in the twisted warp thread, and of the twilled lines in the 
 cotton weft, or of the former being produced in straw and white 
 tints, and of the latter being formed in floats of pure white 
 yarn. In this, and similar design principles, the changing 
 of the direction of the sateen twill so that it is the reverse of 
 that of the twine movement in the two-fold warp thread, 
 assists in defining the structure of the cotton-and-linen twist 
 yarn, and of the features it develops in the cloth. 
 
 Other schemes of production, in which the cotton end in 
 the twist is dyed a particular colour, provide technicalities 
 which result in artificially tinted fabrics, and these will need 
 to be specially illustrated. 
 
 10 (1745) 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 TEXTURAL STUDIES 
 
 105. The Object and Scope of the Studies. 106. Covert Coating 
 and Twilled Textures. 107. Typical Specimens Analysed. 108. 
 Single and Backed Structures. 109. Contrasts betwixt Single and 
 Twist Yarn Textural Features. 110. Interchanging of the Counts of 
 the Thread Units. 111. Limitations in " Count " Differentiations. 
 112. Equalization of Fabric Quality in Broad Striped Patterns. 
 113. Twists, Single-quality, and Bi-fibred Yarns Combined. 114. 
 Specimens in Multi- quality Yarns. 115. A Checked Example. 
 116. Patterns with Light-coloured Grounds. 117. Variations in the 
 Diameters of the Single-thread Units. 118. Bi-fibred Yarns and 
 Twist Threads. 119. Union- Worsted Twist arid Union -Worsted Yarn 
 Fabrics. 120. Patterns with Dark-toned Grounds. 121. Utility 
 of Double-make Cloths in Yarn Distribution. 122. Compound 
 Checking in Yarns of Different Structures. 123. Linen and 
 Cotton-Twist Unions. 
 
 105. The Object and Scope of the Studies. One object of the 
 studies proposed is to make it clear how certain pattern styles, 
 ordinarily obtainable In woollen and worsted yarns, and pro- 
 duced in coloured warp and weft threads, may be closely 
 imitated in union-twist and bi-fibred yarn structures. A 
 second object is to define in greater detail the yarn construc- 
 tion, composition, and thread grouping in these manufactures, 
 when the intention is to dye the piece, weaving the fabrics in 
 the grey. 
 
 Studies, in single and various schemes of intertexture, 
 will be dealt with, and also in cloths with a preponderating 
 cotton or wool ingredient. Flax and cotton specimens, in 
 which union yarns are used, will, in addition, be treated of; 
 but it is understood that, in respect to dyeing treatment in 
 the woven state, these productions do not belong to the same 
 category as cloths composed of fibres showing a different 
 chemical analysis, and having distinctive affinities for colouring 
 matters. 
 
 Fabrics, in which two-ply yarns form either the warp or 
 weft, or both warp and weft, are chiefly implied, with the 
 
 146 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 
 
 147 
 
 employment of bi-fibred yarn; and yarn of one material quality, 
 for acquiring definite textural features and effects. Still, in 
 all instances to which reference will be made, the cloths 
 consist largely of the union description of twist yarn, such as 
 
 40 ends 
 
 40 ends 
 FlG. 82 
 
 lie peat 
 
 FIG. 82A 
 
 FIG. 84 
 
 Repeat 
 
 FIG. 83A 
 
 64 ends 
 
 woollen and cotton, worsted and cotton, worsted and silk, 
 and linen and cotton. 
 
 106. Covert Coating and Twilled Textures. Considering the 
 principles of work as they apply, in the first place, to compound 
 yarns resulting from twisting worsted or woollen with cotton, 
 an important class of manufacture is found in covert coatings 
 and thin costume fabrics. The pure wool product is woven 
 in the Venetian and the seven-end fine twill,* the warp yarn 
 being worsted or woollen twist, with single worsted or woollen 
 *For " Weave Types " see Standard Cloths: Structure and Manufacture. 
 
148 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 for weft. The shades in which such goods are commonly 
 obtained are drab, brown, olive and green. In each colouring 
 a dark shade is twisted with a light shade in making the twist 
 warp thread, the colour of the weft selected matching the 
 dark tone. Such types of fabrication, and the varieties of 
 twist-yarn textures of which they are illustrative, are, in all 
 technical features, suitable for production in union-twist 
 warp and bi-fibred weft yarns. Under this classification, the 
 specimens reproduced in Figs. 82 to 86 will be examined. 
 They comprise the covert coating scheme of construction, and 
 likewise the systems of looming included in the origination of 
 ribbed and twilled cloths having twist yarns in the warp. 
 Figs. 82, 82A and 83 are ribbed stripes with fine-twilled 
 sections, A ; Fig. 84 represents the ordinary style of twist- 
 warp twilled texture, and Figs. 85 and 86 the twilled cloth 
 in twist and bi-fibred warp threads. The following are 
 typical of the methods of manufacture practicable 
 
 SPECIMEN, FIG. 82 
 
 Warp. 
 
 40 threads of (a) 40's worsted and 40's cotton twist. 
 2 ' (6) 26's cotton and 60's worsted twist. 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 ( 4 
 Repeat J2 
 
 18 
 
 (c) 2-fold 48's bi-fibred worsted 80W / 20C . 
 
 (a) 
 
 (0 
 (b) 
 (a) 
 
 4 
 
 2 (6) 
 
 20's reed 4's. 
 Weft. 
 
 22's bi-fibred worsted 8ow / 20 c-* 80 picks per inch. 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 83; Plan Fig. 83 A 
 
 Warp. 
 
 (12 threads of (a) 2-fold 60's bi-fibred worsted 60W / 40 c. 
 iepe / 14 (6) 60's worsted and 48's cotton twist. 
 12 (a) 
 
 64 (b) 
 
 *W=Percentage of wool fibre. 
 C= cottou ., 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 149 
 
 Weft. 
 28's bi-fibred worsted 8ow / 2 oc. 
 
 108 threads and 96 picks per inch. 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 84; Plan, 2-and-2 twill 
 
 Warp. 
 
 14 threads of 30 skeins woollen and 12 's cotton twist. 
 2 16 skeins bi-fibred woollen 75W / 25C . 
 
 9's reed 4's. 
 
 Weft. 
 30 skeins woollen and 12 's cotton twist. 
 
 34 picks per inch. 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 85; Plan, Fig. 85 A 
 
 Warp. 
 
 / 1 thread of (a) 40 skeins woollen and 15's cottontwist, face 
 30 Threads] yarn. 
 
 (l ,, (b) 22 skeins bi-fibred woollen 50W / 50C = backing 
 
 yarn. 
 
 /I (c) 22 skeins bi-fibred woollen 75W / 25C = dark 
 
 4 Threads] shade, face yarn. 
 
 U (b) 
 
 30 Threads \] 
 (1 
 
 8 Threads " ( 
 
 (b) 
 
 ( \ 
 (b) 
 
 13|'s reed 4's. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 2 picks of (c) = face yarn. 
 1 ,, (d) 15 skeins bi-fibred woollen 50W / 50C = backing yarn. 
 
 68 picks per inch. 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 86; Plan, 2-and-2 twill face, plain weave back, arranged 
 1 face, 1 back and 1 face in warp and weft. 
 
 Warp. 
 
 14 threads of (a) 16 skeins bi-fibred woollen 85W / 15c = dark shade. 
 13 ,, (b) 30 skeins woollen and 10's cotton twist 
 
 8 (a) 
 7 (b) 
 
 6 p ( fl ) 
 
 ,, (&) 
 
 9's reed 6's. 
 
 Weft. 
 16 skeins of bi-fibred woollen 65W / 15C . 
 
 52 picks per inch. 
 
150 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 107. Typical Specimens Analysed. The effects seen in the 
 specimens would ensue in wool-dyeing the pieces a dark shade. 
 Parts A of Fig. 82, 82A, and 83 exemplify the covert 
 coating style of manufacture, and part C, Fig. 82, illustrates 
 the plain rib make of cloth ; or these sections illustrate the 
 two textural structures in Figs. 87 and 88, the Venetian and 
 ribbed types of fabric. Twist yarns form the warp of the 
 two latter examples, which, in the union principle of con- 
 struction, may consist of such counts as 60's worsted and 
 40's cotton for fine textures, and 40's worsted and 30's cotton, 
 or 32's worsted and 20's cotton, for textures of a coarser 
 grade. Fig. 87 is weavable in the first of these twists and 
 Fig. 88 (Plan, Fig. 75A) in the medium counts. The weft 
 should be a single-spun carded or combed yarn, or a bi-fibred 
 woollen or worsted, according to the quality of cloth desired. 
 Warp twill, plain rib, and cord weaves are combined in the 
 patterns in Figs. 82 and 83. Example 82 contains three 
 kinds of yarn, a 40's worsted and 40's cotton twist for the 
 twilled features, a 26's cotton and 60's worsted twist for 
 the threads marked in 0's, and 2-fold 60's bi-fibred worsted 
 for the cord B and the details in Q's ; or threads (a), (b) 
 and (c) in the warping plan. Yarns (b) have a fuller cotton 
 ingredient than yarns (a), and develop, as a consequence, the 
 thin lines edging the ribbed effects. The combination of 
 these twists in this relation, suggests the method of obtaining 
 technical distinctiveness in tinting, in the same counts of 
 two-ply yarn, by interchanging the counts of the single threads, 
 the worsted being the thicker and the cotton the smaller in 
 twist (a), and the two thread units worsted and cotton- 
 being of a like diameter in twist (b). Threads (c), when 
 crossed with the 22 's bi-fibred worsted weft, render the strip - 
 ings B and C in dark tones. A further feature is evident in 
 Fig. 83 Plan 83A due to the twilled lines C, woven in the 
 bi-fibred warp yarns (a) consisting of 60 parts of wool and 
 40 parts of cotton, and taking, in the dyeing process, an inter- 
 mediate shade of colour. Stripes A are formed in 60's worsted 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 151 
 
 and 48's cotton twist, and the cords in the 28's bi-fibred weft 
 yarn. The latter, being spun of 80 per cent, of wool and 20 
 per cent, of cotton fibre, develops the 4-and-4 weft rib lines, B, 
 in a dark shade, covering the 2-fold 60's worsted warp. 
 
 108. Single and Backed Structures. Specimens 84 and 85 
 are two varieties of twist-warp pattern, the first being made 
 in the common twill, and the second in the 3-and-3 twill, 
 arranged 1 face and 1 backing in the warp, and 2 face and 
 1 backing in the weft. The diameters of the 30 skeins woollen 
 and the 12's cotton in the twist yarn in the Fig. 84, are in the 
 ratio of -fa : F V \ r the percentage of wool to cotton in the 
 twofold thread is as 56-7 : 43-3. These discrepancies, in the 
 
 FIG. 85 
 
 
 FIG. 86 FIG. 85A 
 
 single ends, slightly accentuate the black or dyed elements 
 in the cloth, as contrasted with the white or undyed elements 
 resulting from the cotton threads in the twisted yarns. The 
 faint lines almost rendered invisible in the cloth by being 
 crossed with the twist weft are traceable to the union 
 woollen yarns in the warping. The functions of the several 
 threads are more varied in Fig. 85, the back of the fabric 
 being in this instance woven in single 22 skeins warp (c) and 
 15 skeins weft (d). In addition threads (c) stripe the face 
 in conjunction with the twist threads (a). Wool and cotton 
 dyeing is preferable to single process piece dyeing in this and 
 similar descriptions of compound-yarn fabrics. The backing 
 yarn, containing equal quantities of cotton and wool fibre, 
 yields a dull, grey shade if only wool tinting should be prac- 
 tised. This, if the piece should be coloured black, may not 
 
152 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 87 
 
 be considered unsatisfactory ; but should it be coloured 
 brown, blue, etc., the whole toning may be improved by 
 treating both the vegetable and the animal fibre with colouring 
 matter the wool fibre and woollen yarn being dyed a dark 
 
 shade, and the cotton 
 [ fibre and the cotton 
 yarn a light tint. 
 
 109. Contrasts Be- 
 twixt Single and Twist 
 Yarn Textural Fea- 
 tures. Stronger con- 
 trasts between the single and twist yarn features are seen 
 in Fig. 86 than in Fig. 85, which are caused by the cotton 
 unit in the twist being softer spun in the latter than in 
 the former, and by the finishing practice differing in the two 
 textures. Increasing the diameter of the cotton with a 
 smaller number of turns per inch relative to the diameter of 
 the woollen, adds to the em- 
 phasis of the untinted fibrous 
 quantities in the fabric. Such 
 technicalities tend, however, to 
 produce harshness of textural 
 tone, providing the cloth is not 
 finished with a raised surface. 
 Fig. 86 indicates that the twist 
 stripings, as two-fold thread 
 effects, may be partially obli- 
 terated in this manner. Treat- 
 
 ,, , FIG 88. 
 
 ing the piece in a damp 
 
 condition by the teazle or card-wire points in the raising 
 process, intermingles the filaments of the woollen and cotton 
 threads in the twist yarn, and imparts a fibrous, wool 
 character to the twilled details in the cloth. Whereas, in 
 Fig. 85, the object, in finishing, has been to leave the twist 
 threads clear and distinct and the weave intersections well 
 defined, raising the pieces dry and removing the face fibre 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 
 
 153 
 
 D D D 
 C| C 
 
 in cutting, in Fig. 86, the object has been to conceal the 
 twist structure and to subdue the textural elements charac- 
 teristic of the twilled make of the fabric. For the production 
 of the former quali- 
 ties the single ends, 
 in the twist, are 
 medium spun with a 
 possible increase in FlG - 89 
 
 the turns per inch in the doubling, but for the latter qualities, 
 the cotton is specially loosely spun, with a possible reduction 
 in the turns per inch in each thread in the twisting operation. 
 110. Interchanging the Counts of the Thread Units. The 
 
 style of effect pro- 
 ducible in the texture 
 by interchanging the 
 counts of the thread 
 units in the twist 
 yarn has been 
 pointed out in refer- 
 ence to the light 
 
 lines of the cord stripes in specimen 82. Seeing 
 that each thread in the folded yarn is either a colourable 
 or an undyed feature in the fabric, it has a specific value 
 on the tone of the pattern. A simple striped example Fig. 
 89 will show the tex- 
 tural characteristics 
 obtainable by thus 
 altering the counts of 
 the respective threads 
 in a given size of twist 
 thread. This striping 
 is warped 12 threads of (a), 15 skeins woollen and 9's cotton 
 twist, and 12 threads of (b) 4|'s cotton and 30 skeins woollen 
 twist, and wefted with 10 skeins woollen yarn. The "setting" 
 diameter of each twist thread is V ; that of the woollen thread 
 in (a) 5 ~V and of the cotton T V \ an ^ that of the woollen in (b) ^ 
 
 A' A' 
 
 edging 
 
 32 ends 
 
 8 ends 
 
 8 ends 
 
 D C 
 
154 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 and of the cotton ^. It follows that in wool-dyeing the piece 
 a dark shade, threads (a) form the bands in a deep tone and 
 threads (6) in a light tint, as seen in the fabric. The tone 
 depth of stripe A is increased as compared with that of B 
 by the quality of the woollen weft. If this were modified to 
 contain from 30 to 40 per cent, of cotton fibre, it would 
 equalize the tinted effects originated by the twist yarns. 
 
 111. Limitations in " Count " Differentiations. Too great 
 a differentiation, in the counts of the single threads, results in 
 an unbalanced textural structure, particularly if the two 
 sorts of twist thread are combined in considerable group 
 sections. The inequalities may, in such arrangements, be to 
 some degree neutralized by the systematic insertion, into the 
 warping and wefting, of ends and picks of bi-fibred yarn. 
 Taking the scheme in Fig. 89, larger stripings might be 
 acquired, and also an even quality of cloth manufactured, 
 by combining the twist with single-spun threads on the lines 
 indicated below 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 89; modified 
 
 Warping. 24 threads. 24 threads. 
 
 Twist (a) 15 skeins woollen and 9's cotton 121 
 
 ,, (6) 4's cotton and 30 skeins woollen - - - 121 
 10 skeins bi-fibred woollen (') 65W / 36C 1 1 
 
 (&') 35W /65c 1 1 
 
 Weft I. 
 10 skeins bi-fibred woollen (a'). 
 
 Weft II. 
 10 skeins bi-fibred woollen (6'). 
 
 Weft III. 
 
 1 pick of 10 skeins woollen. 
 1 (a') or (&'). 
 
 1 10 skeins woollen. 
 
 Weft IV. 
 
 2 picks of 10 skeins woollen. 
 
 1 pick of (a 7 ). 
 
 2 picks of 10 skeins woollen. 
 1 pick of (&') 
 
 Weft V. 
 Same order as warping plan. 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 155 
 
 I ['2. Equalization of Fabric Quality in Broad-striped Pat- 
 terns, According to this warping plan the twists of an excess 
 percentage of wool filament are intergrouped with the bi- 
 fibred yarns of an excess percentage of cotton fibre, and 
 
 13 A' U A B li 
 
 FTG. 91 
 
 the twists 
 with a mini- 
 mum quantity 
 of cotton with the 
 bi -fibred yarns of 
 a minimum quantity 
 of wool ingredient. The 
 two-and-one order of 
 thread distribution has been 
 selected as illustrative of it 
 principle implied, but the three- 
 and-one and the four-and-one and 
 other schemes of arrangement are 
 also applicable. In fixing the basis, 
 it has to be taken into account that 
 the less pronounced the disparity in the 
 counts of the single threads in the folded 
 yarn structure, the less frequent should be the ~ A v~~\ r IT 
 insertion of the bi-fibred threads in the warping plan, and, 
 conversely, the greater the difference in the thickness of 
 the thread units in the twist, the more frequent should the 
 bi-fibred yarns be introduced into the scheme for the purpose 
 of equalizing the textural quality, subjective to disturbance by 
 the alternate grouping of twists the reverse of each other in 
 filament consistency, as in the yarns (a) and (b) of the example. 
 
156 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 Five systems of wefting are shown. No. 1 and 2 equally 
 preserve the fibrous composition of the fabric as controlled by 
 the warping scheme, but the first weft (a') also supplements 
 the wool ingredient in the cloth, and, in the dyeing of the piece, 
 it would take a deep shade ; whereas the second weft (&') 
 would give a more economic union production, and develop 
 a mixture tone consisting of 65 per cent, of colour and of 35 per 
 cent, of untinted fibre. Weft III attains an intermediate 
 
 A 12 
 
 A64 
 
 8 12 8 
 
 FIG. 91 A 
 
 grade of texture between Wefts I and II, and results in two 
 picks of the weave being woven in woollen yarn to one pick 
 being woven in yarn (a') or (&') ; while Weft IV retains the 
 complement of woollen picks alternating with odd picks of 
 each of the bi-fibred threads. Each of these wefts is effective 
 in defining the striped features in the pattern as illustrated 
 in Fig. 89, and each gives a distinctive style of textural 
 tinting, so that they would be severally applied in pattern 
 range origination, dyeing each type of manufacture, as deter- 
 mined by the yarn assortment, five, six, or more mixture 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 
 
 157 
 
 colours. The last weft in the series No. V corresponding 
 to the warping arrangement, changes the form of the design, 
 making a checked combination, but one in which the twist - 
 yarn features would be less marked than in Fig. 89, owing to 
 the toning qualities of the threads (a') and (6'). 
 
 FIG. 92 
 
 The scheme of practice described may be suitably elaborated 
 in the construction of striped compounds, resulting from the 
 admixture, in group order, of twist yarns the reverse of each 
 other in thread units, and therefore in filament ratio. As 
 indicated, it neutralizes the textural inequalities which the 
 assortment of such yarns imposes, and, at the same time, 
 
 FIG. 92A 
 
 develops a special class of fabric tinting and fibrous quality 
 of union manufacture. 
 
 113. Twists, Single-quality, and Bi-fibred Yarns Combined. 
 The combination of union twists with single yarns spun from 
 one kind of fibre, and with yarns of the bi-fibred formation, 
 is practicable in the weaving of striped and checked patterns 
 of the character illustrated in Figs. 90 and 91. The cloths 
 
158 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 are of the backed principle of intertexture, and may be obtained 
 in the following looming data 
 
 32 ( 1 
 reads / I 
 
 Repeat 
 
 thread 
 
 8 
 threads 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 90; Plan, Fig. 90A 
 
 Warp. 
 
 thread of () 36 skeins woollen and 12's cotton twist, 
 
 (b) 18 skeins bi-fibred woollen 50W / 5 o C - 
 ,, (c) 16's cotton. 
 (d) 18 skeins woollen. 
 ,, (d) 18 skeins woollen. 
 ,, (c) 16's cotton. 
 
 (a) 
 
 (b) 
 
 (c) 
 
 (d) 
 
 (d) 
 ' (c) 
 
 43's reed 4's. 
 
 1 pick of 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Weft. 
 (a) 
 (b) 
 (a) 
 (d) 
 48 picks per inch. 
 
 A64 Threads 
 B8 Threads 
 A'12 Threads 
 B8 Threads 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 91; Plan, Fig. 91 A 
 
 Warp. 
 1 thread of (a) 24 skeins woollen and 9's cotton twist. 
 
 ii 
 
 1 pick of 
 
 1 
 
 (b) 13 skeins bi-fibred woollen. 
 
 (b) 
 (a) 
 (a) 
 (b) 
 
 (b) 
 (a) 
 
 Weft. 
 
 (a) 
 (b) 
 48 ends and 40 picks per inch. 
 
 114. Specimens in Multi-quality Yarns. It is clearly under- 
 stood that wool-dyeing the pieces would colour the woollen 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 
 
 159 
 
 yarns and wool ingredients in the bi-fibred threads, and leave 
 the cotton yarns single spun (c) or twisted (a) white or 
 untinted, but the method of looming relative to the fabric 
 structure and the design plans Figs 90 A and 91 A needs 
 some explanation. A A 
 
 The solid black and 
 white lines and also the 
 mingled effects in bands 
 D, C and A in Fig. 90 
 are woven respectively 
 
 in threads (d), (c) and ~ FIG. 93 
 
 (a). Plan Fig. 90A causes the twist yarns in the warp 
 and in the weft to interweave on the face of the cloth in 
 sections A and A' and on the back of the piece in sections C 
 and D. The second and fourth picks in the wefting cover the 
 white (cotton) and black (woollen) face ends in the plan, and 
 these only. Hence they have no effect in other parts of the 
 i 2 pattern, in which they interlace with 
 
 the threads in the warping forming 
 the underside of the fabric. The 
 order of the warping, and the con- 
 struction of the design, provide for 
 woollen under cotton threads and 
 cotton under woollen threads, which 
 approximately balances the filament 
 ratio, in the fine lines, with the 
 twist-yarn sections of the fabric. 
 Any description of striping, in these 
 effects, is obtainable with the thick- 
 ness of the yarns, and with their 
 structural composition varied, to agree with the quality of 
 union manufacture requisitioned. 
 
 115. A Checked Example. Checked forms of pattern neces- 
 sitate a different scheme of weave plan. Fig. 91 has been 
 produced in the design sketched in Fig. 91 A, a warp-backed 
 broken swansdown compound, in which sections A and B 
 
 FIG. 93A 
 
 Section 2 forms the plan for Fig. 93. 
 
 The style is also weavable in angled 
 
 twill as illustrated. 
 
160 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 94 
 
 are the reverse of each other. The former give the twist 
 yarns (a), in the warp scheme, on the face and the bi-fibred 
 yarns on the back of the texture, and the latter, B, interchange 
 the positions of the two groups of threads. This explains the 
 (c) (c) (c) (c) construction in the pat- 
 
 tern of the rectangular 
 features in twist and in 
 the dark-toned yarn. 
 Changing the order of 
 grouping the threads 
 in the warping, has a 
 like result to changing 
 the position of the face and backing threads in the plan, which 
 accounts for the lines B, B, coinciding with the alterations in 
 the warping arrangement. The broken effects on lines B', B' 
 in the specimen are due to the transposition of the two kinds 
 of warp yarn in the weave design. In parts A of the pattern 
 the twist threads interlace with 
 the twist picks ; in the small 
 checked details, the bi-fibred 
 warp with the bi-fibred weft 
 yarns, and in Parts B, B and 
 B', B', the twisted and bi-fibred 
 threads intercross with each 
 other. Warping Sections A in 
 twist and Sections B in single 
 yarn, is another system of 
 developing this type of check- 
 ing, but the design scheme, in FlG - 94A 
 either practice, requires to be devised to fit with the character 
 of the pattern intended. 
 
 The two examples Figs. 90 and 91 may be taken as 
 demonstrating the connection of the weave plan with style 
 and textural variations, resulting from combining twists and 
 bi-fibred threads in the warp and weft of the cloth. Fig. 
 90A particularly illustrates the principle of arranging and 
 
TEXT URAL STUDIES 
 
 161 
 
 classifying the intersections in the design to emphasize certain 
 pattern elements in a striped relation, and Fig. 91 A the 
 principle of grouping and 
 interchanging the weave 
 units for checking pur- 
 poses, in a given scheme 
 of warping and wefting. 
 Both plans also suggest 
 design construction for 
 giving different yarns, in 
 a prescribed order, on the 
 face or back of the tex- 
 ture, and for acquiring FIG. o.i 
 by the scheme of yarn interlacing a specific grade of woven 
 manufacture. 
 
 32 
 
 24 32 
 
 FIG. 95A 
 
 116. Light-Coloured Ground Patterns. Patterns with a light- 
 coloured ground are procurable by tinting either the cotton 
 or the woollen thread units in the twist yarn. Whichever 
 
 11 (174S) 
 
162 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 material is selected for dyeing, it gives the distinguishing 
 filament quality to the fabric. Three specimens Figs. 92, 
 93 and 94 will be examined. The first is typical of the 
 yarn assortment for obtaining light and dark tinted features; 
 the second for acquiring a faint-tinted groundwork with details 
 developed in darker tones; and third for producing cloths 
 in which the warp yarn is tinted while the weft yarn, in the 
 dyeing process, remains in the natural colour of the material 
 employed in spinning. The methods of manufacture, par- 
 ticularized below, will enable this scheme of union fabric 
 construction and design to be succinctly described. 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 92; Plan, Fig. 92A (Angled) 
 Warp and Weft. 
 
 (1 thread of (a) 2-fold 32 skeins woollen. 
 4 Threads i, ' rt , . , - A , 
 
 1 (b) 30 skeins woollen and 10 s cotton 
 
 }1 (b) 
 
 U 
 
 \ l 
 
 6 jj 
 
 twist. 
 
 (a) 
 l) 
 (b) 
 
 8 
 
 (a) 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 (b) 
 (a) 
 
 r Jl (&) 
 
 6 " }1 (a) 
 
 8 5 1 " (a) 
 
 fl (b) 
 
 10 " I! " fa] 
 
 6 
 
 H 
 
 U 
 
 U 
 
 6 " (b} 
 
 (a) 
 
 (a) 
 (b) 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 163 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 93; Plan, Fig. 93 A 
 Warp. 
 
 74 threads of (a) 2-fold 28's bi-fibred worsted, 85W / 15C . 
 / 2 ,, (b) 24's worsted and 24's cotton twist. 
 
 70 Threads] 1 thread of (a) 
 ( 2 threads of (b ) 
 
 Weft. 
 
 1 pick of (a) 
 1 (b) 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 94; Plan, Fig. 94 A 
 Warp. 
 
 (a) 2-fold 9's worsted, with odd threads at intervals of (c) 12's worsted 
 
 and 4's cotton twist. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 (b) O's worsted and 12's cotton twist, with overchecking picks, (c), 
 
 consisting of 12's worsted and 4's cotton twist. 
 
 117. Variations in the Diameters of the Single Thread Units. 
 The three specimens suggest the relative thicknesses of the 
 single threads, in the counts of the twist yarns quoted, for 
 obtaining the textural contrasts illustrated. Each type of 
 fabric is adapted for cotton dyeing, but in Fig. 93 the wool 
 fibre, in the 2-fold 28's worsted, has also been colour-stained. 
 
 When the effects, in the pattern woven, due to the twist 
 threads and picks, are intended to be as clearly delineated as 
 in Fig. 92, the cotton yarns should be approximately of the 
 same counts, or a degree finer, than the counts of the woollen 
 yarns with which they are twisted, or, as shown in this specimen 
 in which twist (b) is composed of 30 skeins woollen and 10's 
 cotton. It will be apparent that this description of union 
 fabric might be produced by using coloured and white twist 
 yarns in the weaving of the piece ; but the method described 
 is the more economical in practice, admitting of the cloth 
 being woven in the grey, and of the goods being dyed to any 
 suitable assortment of shades, and by two systems of treat- 
 ment first, by tinting the cotton as in the example, and, 
 second, by dyeing the cotton a dark and the woollen threads 
 
104 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 96B 
 
 24 
 
TEXT URAL STUDIES 165 
 
 a pale colour. It should, however, be noted that, unless in 
 the latter instance, the shades selected for the woollen and 
 cotton thread units are sufficiently removed from each other 
 in the chromatic scale, the design details, resulting from the 
 twist yarns, are likely to suffer in definition if not to appear 
 somewhat blurred in tone. 
 
 118. Bi-fibred Yarns and Twist Threads. Fig. 93, as 
 
 FIG. 97 
 
 indicated, is coloured 
 in the worsted as well 
 as in the cotton twist 
 threads (6), but the employ- 
 ment of a bi-fibred yarn similar 
 to (a) would render the tinted 
 features producible by cotton dyeing. 
 The single process of tinting is necessarily 
 restricted to the production of one line of 
 colour in both threads (a) and (6), and it 
 follows that, if the pale tint of the worsted in 
 the fabric is required to be different in colour hue 
 from the cotton, the two-process system of dyeing 
 is involved, for which the yarns (a) would be spun from 
 wool fibres solely. The warp furrows in the weave, Fig. 93A, 
 continue the twilled lines, seen in the specimen, over the 
 twist weft in both stripings A and B ; but, in the 
 latter, threads (6) in the warping, develop the diagonal 
 features moving to the right. The 24's cotton, in the 
 two-ply yarns, is dyed a dark shade in the piece, which 
 process would merely tint the 2-fold 28's bi-fibred worsted 
 should it consist of 85 parts of wool and 15 parts of cotton. 
 Increasing the percentage of the vegetable fibre would darken 
 
166 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 the tone of the ground of the texture, and subdue the detail 
 effects woven in the worsted and cotton twists. 
 
 119. Union-Worsted Twist and Union- Worsted Yarns. 
 Specimen 94 is formed in a worsted warp crossed with a 
 worsted and cotton twist yarn equal in size to a 2-fold 9's 
 worsted. The cotton, however, being doubled with a 6's 
 worsted yarn is so much smaller than the latter, that, in 
 colouring this thread in the fabric, a softened tinted contrast 
 
 72 
 
 16 64 
 
 FIG. 97A 
 
 is the result between the shade tones of the warp and weft 
 yarns. The interchange in the counts of the threads in the 
 twists for the odd overchecking ends and picks, causes threads 
 (c) to yield a distinct tinted element in the pattern. For the 
 weft in this class of production, a bi-fibred yarn may also be 
 used, which would emphasize the effects due to the special 
 twist yarns, but detract from the character of the weave 
 design as acquired by the interlacing, as explained, of the 
 2-fold worsted warp threads with the worsted and cotton 
 twist picks, 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 
 
 167 
 
 120. Patterns with Dark-toned Grounds. Fabrics with dark- 
 coloured grounds comprise the same variety of technicalities 
 of construction as those referred to under Figs. 92, 93 and 94. 
 The twist yarn structure, and filament analysis of the bi- 
 fibred threads, determine the quality of the shade tones 
 produced in the fabric, but by dyeing the wool instead of the 
 cotton fibre in the piece goods. Three examples, of which 
 the details of manufacture are specified, will be examined. 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 95; Plan, Fig. 9oA 
 
 Face Warp. 
 
 16 threads of (a) 30 skeins woollen. 
 
 12 (6 ) 40 skeins bi-fibed woollen 60W /4oc and 20 's cotton twist. 
 
 Backing Warp. 
 
 24 threads of (a) 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 4 
 
 (c) 30 skeins bi-fibred woollen 75W / 25C . 
 (a) 
 
 32 picks of (a) 
 
 16's reed 4's. 
 Weft. 
 
 8 Picks} J pick f , (C > 32 
 1 1 (a) 
 
 skeins woollen and 25's cotton twist. 
 
 8 Picks j ] 
 
 (b) 
 
 
 1 ] 
 
 (a) 
 
 
 8 Picks \ ] 
 
 (e) 
 
 
 ( 1 
 
 (a) 
 
 56 picks per inch. 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 96; Plan, Fig. 96A 
 
 
 
 Face Warp. 
 
 12 Threads 
 
 2 threads of 
 2 
 
 (a) 9's cotton. 
 (b) 28 skeins woollen. 
 
 
 2 
 
 H 
 
 (c) 30's worsted and 24's mercerized cotton 
 
 
 
 
 twist. 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 (b) 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 (a) 
 
 C 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 (b) 
 
 
 4 
 
 > 
 
 (c) 
 
 
 4 
 
 > 
 
 (b) 
 
 
 4 
 
 J> 
 
 (a) 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 (b) 
 
 
 2 
 
 )9 
 
 (c) 
 
 *12 
 
 JJ 
 
 (c) 
 
 Repeat C. 
 
 
 
168 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 32 Th d 
 
 S 
 
 32 Threads 
 
 Backing Warp. 
 
 4 threads of (d) 2-fold 24's cotton. 
 
 4 (e) 28 skeins bi-fibred woollen "^^c. 
 
 4 (d) 
 
 32 (6) 
 
 *12 (6) 
 
 32 (b) 
 
 Weft same as Warp. 
 
 72 threads and 68 picks per inch in the loom. 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 97; Plan, Fig. 97A 
 Face Warp. 
 
 ^ th rea( ls f ( a ) 32 skeins woollen. 
 
 2 (6 ) 36's worsted and 24's cotton twist. 
 
 8 (a) 
 
 * JJ 
 
 8 (6) 
 
 Backing Warp. 
 
 32 threads of (a) 
 
 8 
 40 
 
 80 picks of 
 
 8 
 
 36 picks of 
 
 8 
 44 
 
 (c) 32 skeins bi-fibred woollen 50W / 60 c 
 (a) 
 
 Face Weft. 
 
 (a) 
 (6) 
 
 Backing Weft. 
 
 (a) 
 (6) 
 (a) 
 
 72 ends and 60 picks per inch in the loom. 
 
 121. Utility of Double-make Cloths in Yarn Distribution. 
 The double-make principle of cloth is utilized, in the con- 
 struction of these examples, for the purpose of reversing the 
 positions of the face and backing yarns, as required in the 
 development of the effects in the pattern. Taking Fig. 95, 
 the design, Fig. 95A, is a compound of double cassimere twill. 
 In the ground sections, marked in gfs and El's, the odd 
 
 * The design is arranged to transpose these threads in the fabric, forming 
 the dark rectangular spot seen in the specimen, Fig. 96. 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 169 
 
 threads and picks form the face, and the even threads and 
 picks the backing texture, but in the sections marked in '&, 
 the two series of threads and picks are transposed. Fig. 96A 
 is more complex in arrangement, consisting of four systems 
 of grouping the face and backing yarns and of two types of 
 double weave. Dissecting the plan gives the following 
 analysis 
 
 (1) Sections marked in [Xj's, mat face and twill back, arranged 1 face 
 
 and 1 back in both warp and weft. 
 
 (2) ,, ,, Q's mat face and twill back, arranged 1 back 
 
 and 1 face in the warp, and 1 face and 
 1 back in the weft. 
 
 (3) ,, ,, []'s mat face and twill back, arranged 1 face 
 
 and 1 back in the warp, and 1 back and 
 1 face in the weft. 
 
 (4) ,, ,, B's mat face and mat back, arranged 1 back 
 
 and 1 face in both in warp and the weft. 
 
 Fig. 97 A comprises double weaves consisting of mat com- 
 bined with 2-, T-, and z~ twills. The three examples considered 
 are instructive as showing the relation of weave elements to 
 the schemes of warping and wefting in this class of union pro- 
 duction. This relation is identical, as a design principle, with 
 that applied in the textural development of compound colour 
 patterns. The different yarn structures and qualities in the 
 orders of warping and wefting, are treated as the equivalents of 
 the shade tones obtainable in the dyed fabric. The weave 
 plans are constructed on a basis which absolutely agrees with 
 the classification of the yarns in the warp and in the shuttling. 
 Thus, in Fig. 95 the face warp consists of 30 skeins woollen 
 and of 40 skeins bi-fibred woollen and 20's cotton twist, the 
 former, interweaving with weft (a), coincides with the dark 
 features in the pattern, and the latter, interweaving with the 
 wefts (b) and (e), coincides with the twist-yarn checkings, or 
 with the sections in the design, Fig. 95A, printed in B'S and 
 [j's, and in ^'s respectively. The black spaces on lines A' 
 
170 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 98 
 
 of the specimen, Fig. 95, are caused by the interchange in 
 position of the face and backing yarns, the sections of the 
 plan in B's effecting this. For a like reason the grey details 
 on lines A are developed in threads (c) and (d) of the backing 
 warp, which are shown on lines A of the design as brought on 
 
 to the face of the fabric. An 
 added whiteness of tone may be 
 imparted to the twist threads 
 (6) by forming them of bi-fibred 
 woollen, instead of woollen and 
 cotton yarns. A similar tone 
 might be also acquired by 
 doubling a 10's, instead of a 
 20's, cotton with a small worsted 
 thread, but the twist effects in the fabric would in this 
 instance not present the mingled tinted quality they possess 
 in the specimen as produced. 
 
 122. Compound Checking in Yarns of Different Structures. 
 The face warp of Fig. 96 is composed of 9's cotton, 28 skeins 
 woollen, and of 30's worsted and 24's mercerized cotton twist. 
 The white elements are woven in the threads and picks (a), 
 the black grpund in (6) and the 
 twist details in threads and 
 picks (c). The features on lines 
 A, A' and B, B' are produced 
 in the weaves in the design 
 Fig. 96A marked in H's, []'s 
 and in K''s ; and on the lines 
 C, C' in the weaves marked 
 in [El's and in El's. The backing warp and weft contains 
 additional varieties of yarn, including 2-fold 24's cotton and 
 28 skeins bi-fibred woollen ends, or yarns (d) and (e), giving 
 the white star check in grey on lines A and A'. Fig. 96s 
 is a modified yarn grouping of Fig. 96, the first twelve threads 
 in the backing warp which are transferred to the face of 
 the cloth by the section in the plan printed in B's being 
 
 FIG. 99 
 
TEXTURAL STUDIES 171 
 
 composed of 2-fold 24's cotton. Three sorts of yarn are 
 combined in Fig. 97, namely, threads (a) making the dark 
 ground, threads (6) the mat details, and threads (c) developing 
 a grey tone, which, in the texture, modifies the tinted 
 character of the spaces on the twist lines A, represented in 
 black in the weave compound, Fig. 97 A. 
 
 123. Linen and Cotton Twist Unions. Linen and cotton 
 twist unions are ordinarily woven in the colour tones in which 
 the fabrics are dressed or finished. The two specimens in 
 Figs. 98 and 99 are illustrative of the general character of the 
 style of textural effects obtainable in plain and twilled textures 
 by retaining the linen thread in the unbleached or natural 
 colour, and by tinting the cotton thread unit in the twisted 
 yarns. The warp in Fig. 98 is made of 50's cotton and 170's 
 linen twist, the texture being wefted with 25's single cotton 
 and woven in the four-end twill. In Fig. 99 the light sections 
 are formed of 56's linen and 60's cotton twist, and the toned 
 sections in twist yarns obtained by doubling a 30's dyed with 
 a 30' s undyed cotton thread. Each specimen contains three 
 tinted features, those in the first example being due to the 
 combination, in twisting, of undyed linen and dyed cotton 
 threads, and to crossing these with white cotton weft ; and, 
 in the second example, to the combination, in twisting, of 
 undyed cotton and linen threads, and to the admixture of 
 these, in the weaving, with 2-ply 30's cotton yarns composed 
 of coloured and uncoloured thread units. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 MULTI-FOLD TYPES 
 
 124. Yarns Diversified and Yarns Symmetrical in Formation. 125. 
 Surface Modification of Folded Yarns. 126. Production of Thread 
 Types. 127. Tensility and Firmness of Folded-Thread Structures. 
 128. Twist Yarns and Textural Characteristics. 129. Reversible 
 Fabric in Compound Cotton and Linen Yarns. 130. Clearness and 
 Definition of Interlacing Details. 131. Contrasts in Folded- Yarn 
 Counts. 132. Prominence and in relief character of Fabric Elements 
 woven in Multi-fold Yarns. 133. Yarn Doubling and Pattern Origina- 
 tion. 134. Diamond and Chain Twists Specimens. 135. Specked 
 and Spotted Yarns. 136. Duplicating Spottings and Colourings. 
 137. Specimen in Folded Cotton and Linen and Doubled Silk Threads. 
 138. Mohair and Lustre Materials in Knopped Yarns. 139. Rougher 
 Grades of Fabrics and Multi-ply Union Threads. 140. Mingled and 
 Mottled Colour Toning. 141. Folded Union Yarn Structures and 
 Piece Dyeing. 142. Curl Yarns. 143. Finishing Practice and 
 Fancy Folded Yarn Effects. 
 
 124. Yarns Diversified and Yarns Symmetrical in Forma- 
 tion. Yarn structure has now been treated of as a source of 
 union cloth manufacture in its two fundamental aspects (a) 
 as the result of combining, in the processes of spinning, two or 
 more varieties of fibre, and (b) as the result of combining, in 
 the process of folding or twisting, several thread units spun 
 from different sorts of material. In neither system is the 
 object, as analysed, to produce a yarn of diversified formation 
 and quality, but a yarn symmetrical in diameter, elasticity, 
 filament composition and structural character. Multi-fold 
 twist production also comprises the origination of yarns 
 varied in lineal and in circumferential features, that is, yarns 
 not only composed of thread strands dissimilar in fibrous 
 consistency, thickness, and in methods of manufacture, but 
 in which the respective threads have special and distinctive 
 functions, imparting looped, specked, knopped, curled, flaked 
 and other technical elements to the compound yarn product, 
 
 172 
 
MULT I -FOLD TYPES 173 
 
 125. Surface Modification of Folded Yarns. All bi-fibred 
 and folded yarns may be modified as required in (1) counts 
 or diameter, (2) in the separate thread units from which they 
 are prepared, (3) in colour attributes, and (4) in tensility and 
 firmness ; but twisted or compound yarns may also be modified 
 in actual surface demarcations and properties. They are 
 variable in size, differing in circumference measurement in 
 portions of their length ; in certain prescribed dimensions 
 they may be hard twisted and in others normally or loosely 
 twisted ; or they may be made of threads of the same diameter, 
 or of yarns varying from a fine -counts of thread to a soft, 
 thick slubbing or roving. Effects, amounting to pattern 
 details, are, with the method 
 of construction and the kinds 
 of thread selected for folding 
 purposes, thus obtainable in 
 the " fancy " " multi-ply " as 
 distinguished from the " plain " 
 or ordinary twisted yarn. 
 
 126. Production of Thread 
 Types. Each system of yarn FIG. 
 
 modification defined is an 
 
 elemental cause of textural differentiations, producing a 
 thread type on which the make and style of the fabric 
 manufactured are based. Single-spun and the simpler 
 classes of twisted threads are alterable in filament com- 
 pactness, elasticity strain, and in quality-giving value, by 
 the degree of twine generated in the spinning of a definite 
 counts of yarn, and also by the average fineness and 
 length of the fibres in the materials of which they are formed. 
 Should, for example, a change be made in the filament ingredi- 
 ents of a thread, as would be originated in making a 2-fold 
 30's worsted yarn of wool, and of equal parts of wool and cotton, 
 respectively, the fabrics acquired from the two yarns would 
 differ in filament consistency as derived from the aggregate 
 diametrical proportions of the fibres as well as from their 
 
174 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 structural distinctions. These points have a basic significance 
 in the admixture of animal and vegetable fibres in spinning. 
 The use of cotton with wool adds, as a rule, to the multiplicity 
 of filament units in a given counts of yarn, and therefore to 
 the filament density of the yarn, and of the cloth of a certain 
 weight per yard. To diminish the numerical quantity of fibre 
 in an all-wool yarn, though the size remains unchanged, neces- 
 sarily involves the assortment of thicker and probably stronger 
 
 FIG. 101 
 
 fibres, with the production of a texture of reduced quality ; 
 but, on the other hand, to increase the ratio of fibre in the yarn 
 with the size constant is attended with converse textural 
 results. In the case, however, of a union yarn acquiring 
 additional filament compactness from the vegetable material 
 employed in its construction, the cloth resultant is finer but 
 not of an improved " working " nature, as cotton does not, 
 in this relation, contribute, in the same way as wool, to the 
 values which provide " finishing " condition as discovered 
 and utilized in the processes of felting, raising and lustring. 
 
MULTI-FOLD TYPES 
 
 175 
 
 But it does imply that the yarn, being fuller of fibre, is adapted 
 
 to the fabrication of cloths of a sound wearing strength. 
 
 Further, it denotes that the turns per inch in the spinning of 
 
 the thread may be raised as compared with a woollen 
 
 or worsted thread of a 
 
 similar counts, and this 
 
 augmented twine, being T 
 
 in conformity with the 
 
 filament distribution and T 
 
 composition of the yarn, , 
 
 induces the formation of T | 
 
 a thread smooth and even 
 
 on the surface, and of 
 
 satisfactory tensile 
 
 T T T T 
 
 
 
 FIG. 101 A 
 
 property. 
 
 127. Tensility and Firm- 
 ness of Folded-Thread Structures. Regarding yarn tensility 
 and firmness of structure, both factors are determined by 
 
 BA BAB ABABA 
 
 FTO. 102 
 
 ( 1 ) the average length of staple in the materials used and the 
 degree of filament overlapping in the lineal direction of the 
 thread ; and (2) by the measure of twine inserted into the yarn 
 ii? the operation of spinning. The usefulness and applicability 
 
176 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 of folded threads are, in a secondary sense, modified by the 
 former, inasmuch as the properties of the individual threads 
 twisted together affect the character of the folded structure ; 
 and, in a primary sense, by the latter, as twine changes 
 the hardness, compactness and manufacturing value of the 
 ordinary classes of twist threads. Textural wear and durability, 
 and textural softness and quality, suffer from a deficiency 
 in elasticity in the spun and doubled yarns, whether 
 consisting of threads of a corresponding or dissimilar thick- 
 ness, and of the same or different classes of fibre. In a 
 pre-eminent degree the smoothness or roughness, and the 
 brightness or dullness of tone of the fabric, result from the 
 nature of the raw material, but the system of yarn prepara- 
 tion, and especially of twist insertion, is a potent modifying 
 factor. Without practising mechanical and other methods 
 of constructing multi-fold in contrast with single-spun threads, 
 the processes and routine of yarn-making may be regulated 
 to fashion the grade and character of the woven manufacture. 
 To punctuate this element of twine in relation to textural 
 effect, in producing twist- warp goods unless the turns per 
 inch are successively coincident with the picks per inch and 
 the repeats of the weave, uniformity and evenness in the 
 definition of the twist-yarn features in the fabric is rendered 
 impracticable. That is, with the warp yarn made, for 
 example, of 40's worsted (dark shade) and 40's cotton (light 
 shade), the weave a four-shaft twill, and the weft a 22's bi- 
 fibred worsted, the turns per inch in the folded yarn should be 
 a multiple of the repetitions of the weave in a fractional 
 length of the cloth. Thus in this piece setting, 34 twills in 
 2j%in., and the yarn with 20 turns per inch, averaged a 
 number of turns per twill that formed a satisfactory degree of 
 correspondence between the two factors. 
 
 128. Twist Yarns and Textural Characteristics. Twist yarns, 
 simple or varied in fold and in method of construction, impart 
 certain special characteristics to the woven result. The 
 effects, for instance, of using black and white twist threads 
 
MULT I -FOLD TYPES 
 
 177 
 
 are quite distinct in quality in the texture, frdrn the effects 
 obtained in yarns in which the two shades are admixed in 
 
 FIG. 103 
 
 A A A 
 
 FIG. 103A 
 
 like proportions as in the twist but in the processes of thread 
 preparation. A reference to the specimens in Figs. 100 and 
 
 *,;, i i I ' i ft 
 
 ^j^^^y^^^^^m 
 
 FIG. 104 
 
 FIG. 104A 
 
 101 will make this clear. Fig. 100 is a plain texture warped 
 and wefted as follows 
 
 12 threads, 
 
 12 
 
 (a) Black worsted . . ..11 11 
 
 (6) Bi-fibred worsted 50W /5oc . . 11 11 
 
 (c) 60 's worsted (black) twisted with 
 
 40 's cotton (white) . .-.1 1 1- 1 - 
 
 Fig. 101 is a compound reversible fabric sectional plan, 
 Fig. 101 A in which the warp and weft are arranged, 
 
 12 (1745) 
 
178 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 thread of 4-fold 85's linen and three threads of 40's black 
 twisted with 40's mercerized white cotton. 
 
 129. Reversible Fabric in Compound Cotton and Linen 
 Yarns. The cotton twist threads, in the first example, 
 accentuate the black and white elements of which they are 
 formed on the grey, and the white details on the black check- 
 ings; whereas threads (6), in the warping and wefting, though 
 composed of the same shade ingredients as (c), merely develop 
 a neutral grey tone. From which it is evident that twist 
 yarns preserve their composite and individual qualities in the 
 textural product ; and, in so far as they accomplish this, they 
 have both a colour and an effect value in the pattern. In 
 the reversible texture, which is strictly a two-ply cloth, the 
 fabric woven in the 4-fold linen yarns is spread over the 
 texture woven in the twist yarn in the ground portions of the 
 design, while the latter is brought on to the surface and the 
 former taken on to the back of the structure, in sections A 
 and in such parts of the style as the twist yarns are visible. 
 The sectional plan Fig. 101 A is illustrative of the weaving 
 process. Threads and picks T represent the twist, and threads 
 and picks 4, the linen yarns. In sections A the ends and 
 shots 4 cover those lettered T, and in section B the ends and 
 shots T cover those lettered 4. 
 
 130. Clearness and Definition of Interlacing Details. The 
 clear, pronounced details in the example are due to the forma- 
 tion of the twisted cotton yarns. There are, strictly, three 
 varieties of structural effect, produced by (a) the twist-yarn 
 colour composition ; (6) the multi-folded threads ; and (c) the 
 build of the fabric. The first species of textural result is 
 purely characteristic of twist yarns consisting of thread units 
 in contrasting tones. The second contrasts in yarn thick- 
 nesses is restrictive to the combination of folded yarns 
 differing in counts, as in the use, in Fig. 101, of the com- 
 paratively thick linen with the comparatively small cotton 
 threads ; and the third contrasts in fabric fineness arising 
 from the interchanging from face to back, and conversely, of 
 
MULT I -FOLD TYPES 
 
 179 
 
 the plain structures woven respectively in the twisted and the 
 four-fold yarn. 
 
 FIG. 103A 
 
 -Contrasts due to 
 
 FIG. 105 
 
 131. Contrasts in Folded- Yarn Counts. - 
 differences in yarn counts have 
 been referred to, but not as 
 a principle of pattern origination 
 in which sense it will now be 
 more particularly illustrated and 
 explained. Apart from the effects 
 acquired in the cloth by tinting 
 the single threads of the com- 
 pound yarn differently as in 
 specimen 100, the assortment, 
 in the warping, wefting, or both, 
 of multi-fold yarns in one colour 
 is a weaving practice applicable 
 to the design and construction of cotton and linen, worsted and 
 cotton, and other classes of union fabrication. A useful 
 scheme, capable of elaboration in the sorts of yarn combined 
 and also in design style, consists in grouping fine counts of 
 
 FIG. 106 
 
180 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 2-fold with heavier counts of several-fold yarn, in the con- 
 struction of a double- weave cloth. Using the looming 
 arrangement sketched in Fig. 101 A, either section A or B 
 might be selected for the ground or figured portions of the 
 pattern, but in any case the two weaves would be worked 
 into the weaving plan as shown. Obviously they may be 
 arranged on a striped, checked or decorative base. The 
 checked form is exemplified in Fig. 102, the design being 
 composed of 24 ends and picks of the weave in section A 
 Fig. 101 A, and of 8 ends and picks of section B ; while the 
 yarn classification for the warping and the shuttling is as 
 follows 
 
 1 thread of (a) 5-fold 12's cotton. 
 
 24 Threads ,.. 
 
 / 3 threads of (b) 2-fold (34's linen. 
 
 1 thread of (a) 
 
 1 (b) 
 
 2 threads of (c) 2 -fold 40 's coloured cotton. 
 4 thread of (a) 
 
 2 threads of (c) 
 1 thread of (b) 
 
 132. Prominence and in relief character of Fabric Elements 
 Woven in Multi-Fold Yarns. Multi-fold threads protrude 
 on the face of the fabric and impart character and tone to 
 the textural effects. At the same time they also impart a 
 degree of hardness of handle to the cloth, which, in linen and 
 cotton unions, is not ordinarily considered an undesirable 
 property ; but when the finer or foundation yarn is worsted, 
 or woollen, the somewhat inflexible quality of the compound 
 folded yarn is moderated by reducing the measure of twine 
 in the single threads of which it is made, and also in the multi- 
 ply structure in the twisting operation. This method of 
 improving the feel of the fabric is practised in the production 
 of small and intermingled textural types of the description 
 illustrated in Fig. 103. Here the plan is that printed in Fig, 
 103 A ; and, in the weaving of the fabric, woollen threads 
 are combined with folded cotton threads in the following 
 order 
 
MULT I -FOLD TYPES 
 
 181 
 
 Warp. 
 
 1 thread of 3-fold 5's cotton (loosely twisted). 
 
 2 threads of 10 skeins woollen (dark shade). 
 
 Weft. 
 1 pick of 3-fold yarn, namely 1 end of 15 skeins woollen twisted with 
 
 1 end of 5's cotton, retwisted in a reverse direction with 1 end 
 
 of 15 skeins woollen. 
 4 picks of 10 skeins woollen. 
 
 It is not in this, and like groups of fabric, a question of a 
 change in weave the principle 
 of combining the common and 
 open plain makes of texture 
 being observed as in Fig. 
 100A but a question of modi- 
 fying the formation of the thick 
 thread, which is evident in its 
 loosely-twisted condition in the 
 warp, and in its unification 
 with the woollen yarns in the 
 warping and weft ing. 
 
 133. Yarn Doubling and Pat- 
 tern Origination. The three- 
 fold weft, in this example in 
 two shades the woollen a dark FlG - 107 
 
 and the cotton a light tone dots or specks the ground of 
 
 tt Y 3K^HM^X I Jf-fX the P attern ' and su g ests the 
 
 H^HHKMr'^HiL' * v ' '' ( l' v(M ' s 't' v f style possible as a 
 HfciSiSB consequence of comprising, in 
 
 the folded yarn, single threads 
 differing in tint or colour. 
 Several-ply threads, when thus 
 constructed, are of primary 
 value in textural work, yielding 
 a species of design which is 
 based upon facility and ingen- 
 FIG. 108 uity in yarn production. The 
 
 mere doubling of a thick counts of thread with a single 
 
182 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 thread of another colour means a source of woven pattern. 
 Figs. 104 and 104A demonstrate the nature of the effects 
 thus obtainable. A 2-fold 6's cotton is, in these union 
 specimens, slackly twisted with a single 30's coloured 
 thread, the ground of the textures being woven in 2-fold 
 80's linen for warp and 40's linen for weft, with tinted 
 cotton yarns for the checking lines. The folded yarn is now 
 seen to have a double value in the cloth, that of the contrasts 
 originated by a difference in yarn counts, and that due to the 
 particles of colour distributed on the circumference of the 
 thread. By mechanically varying the system of twisting, the 
 single but coloured threads may be grouped, in the making of 
 the compound yarn, to form on its surface chain, diamond, 
 and other simple geometrical features. These give, in the 
 texture, a rich variety of pattern elements. The use of light 
 and dark-toned threads, folded together on this principle, 
 may first be examined. The specimens submitted for analysis, 
 Figs. 105 and 106 Plan, Fig. 105A have been acquired in 
 the following weaving data 
 
 SPECIMEN. Fig. 105; Plan, Fig. 105A 
 Warp. 
 
 1 thread of (1)) black and white twist; composed of 1 lapping 2-fold 
 
 OO's white cotton thread, twisted with a black and 
 white thread, formed of 1 end of 2 -fold GO's cotton 
 and 8 ends of 2 -fold 36 's worsted. 
 
 threads of (a) 2-fold 36's black worsted. 
 
 2 (b) 
 G (a) 
 
 1 thread of (b) 
 
 1 ,, (c) black worsted, composed of 8 ends of 2-fold 36's. 
 G threads of (a) 
 
 2 (c) 
 1 thread of (a) 
 
 4 threads of (d) GO's, 2-fold white silk. 
 
 1 thread of (a) 
 
 2 threads of (c) 
 1 thread of () 
 4 threads of (d) 
 
 1 thread of (a) 
 
 2 threads of (c) 
 
 G ,, (a) Weft same as Warp. 
 
 I thread of (c) 36 ends and 34 picks per inch. 
 
MULT I -FOLD TYPES 
 
 183 
 
 4S threads 
 
 SPECIMEN. Fig. 106; Plan, Fig. 105A 
 Warp. 
 
 1 thread of (b) folded twist yarn, composed of 8 threads 
 of 40 's worsted, twisted left-hand twine 
 with 2 threads of 60 's 2 -fold silk, and 
 the latter re-twistedright-hand twine 
 with 2 threads of 60 's 2 -fold silk to form 
 the chain effect. 
 
 6 threads of (a) 2-fold 40's worsted. 
 
 1 thread of (b) 
 
 1 ,, (c) 8-fold 2/40's worsted, equivalent to a 
 
 16 -fold yarn. 
 
 6 threads of (a) 
 
 1 thread of (c) 
 
 1 (b) 
 
 6 threads of (a) 
 
 (b) 
 (a) 
 
 (b) 
 
 1 thread of 
 1 (c) 
 
 6 threads of (a) 
 I thread of (c) 
 1 (b) 
 
 6 threads of (a) 
 1 thread of (b) 
 
 1 (c) 
 
 2 threads of () 
 
 2 (d) doubled 60's 2-fold silk. 
 
 2 (a) 
 
 1 thread of (c) 
 
 Weft same as Warp. 
 
 18's reed 2 's; 34 picks per inch. 
 
 134. Diamond and Chain Twist Specimens. The extent to 
 which twist yarns may be doubled and re-doubled and rendered 
 texturally effective in this process, is typified in these examples. 
 The ground warp and weft threads (a) are 2-fold 36's and 
 2-fold 40's worsted in Figs. 105 and 106 respectively. Yarn 
 (b), in both specimens, has a foundation structure of 8 threads 
 of worsted, which is twisted, in the first operation, with a 
 white cotton or silk thread, and, in the next operation, it is 
 reverse twisted with a second cotton or silk thread, for pro- 
 ducing the interlacing or chain lines, in white, on the 
 
184 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 multi-stranded worsted yarn. Union thread structure, as 
 formed and developed in folding, is the technical basis of this 
 class of manufacture. Cotton, as well as worsted, maybe used 
 for the foundation yarn, but it should be a soft and not a nor- 
 mally twisted thread, otherwise the fabric becomes hard and 
 unyielding in the handle and unsatisfactory in the wear. The 
 chain-like demarcations on the surface of such multi -folded 
 
 ** 
 
 !! 
 
 FIG. 109 
 
 yarns, are invariably obtained by employing two small ends 
 wrapped in reverse directions, round a thicker or central thread. 
 The small ends may lap with the latter at different angles, 
 forming either a collapsed or elongated chain or diamond 
 device. With the colours of the binding and staple threads 
 in contrasting tones, the effects, as seen in Figs. 105 and 106, 
 are clearly delineated in the texture. The intersection of the 
 warp and weft at right angles with each other, causes the 
 compound-yarn elements to be variously but evenly distributed 
 
MULT I -FOLD TYPES 
 
 185 
 
 abcbbcb a 
 
 .dbcbbcb a 
 
 mm t 
 
 [oo'oo PJH 
 o 000061 
 
 m 
 
 ofooo'o oil 
 
 O'.O OOOO] 
 
 XXXX 
 
 on the face of the cloth; while the plan, Fig. 105A, regulates 
 
 and determines the pattern scheme in combination with the 
 
 arrangement of the yarns in the warping and shuttling. The 
 
 ground of the weave design is plain woven, but threads and 
 
 picks (B) float alternately on the face and back of the fabric, 
 
 in the warp over seven picks, and in the weft over seven threads, 
 
 making in reality a check design. The method of yarn 
 
 classification, in the use of twists thus varied in thread counts 
 
 and quality, is an essential part of the designing practice. 
 
 Each type of thread is located in the warp and weft for giving 
 
 a special textural property 
 
 and effect, as in these 
 
 specimens, in which the 
 
 2 -fold worsted yarn is 
 
 applied to the ground of 
 
 the cloth ; the threads (6) 
 
 to the formation of the 
 
 distinctive elements in the 
 
 style ; and threads (c) to 
 
 the weaving of the star 
 
 details and overchecking 
 
 lines. The percentage of 
 
 each class of fibre, of which 
 
 the yarns are composed, is 
 
 also taken into consideration, but it is secondary to pattern 
 
 origination as producible by the single and multi-folded yarns, 
 
 combined in relation to the development of a particiilar variety 
 
 of pattern in a given make of manufacture. 
 
 135. Specked and Spotted Yarns. Spotted yarns should be 
 distinguished from flake, cloud, and knop twisted threads. 
 The spotted or specked feature is producible in two ways 
 in the treatment or preparation of the materials of which the 
 yarns are made, and in the twisting of two or three threads 
 into a folded yarn structure. The first practice gives a spotted 
 but single-spun yarn, and consists in depositing neps of cotton 
 fibre on to the carded material as it passes over the last cylinder 
 
 XXXXXf 
 oooo "OEM oi&olo" "o 
 
 fco ooo'ojl 
 
 OO 
 
 
 FIG. 109A 
 
186 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 of the carding machine. Unopened clusters of filament thus 
 pass into the condensed sliver and become part of the spun 
 yarn, which they speck with white or colour but at irregular 
 intervals. The folded spotted thread is developed in the 
 twisting frame. The specked features may, on this principle, 
 be regulated in size and in a degree in shape, and be also evenly 
 distributed throughout the length of the yarn. Cotton and 
 worsted, mohair and cotton, silk and cotton, and cotton and 
 
 linen threads are combinable in this form. Such twists are 
 usable as the warp and weft yarn of the fabric, but, in the 
 ordinary grades of manufacture, their application is restricted 
 to forming sectional parts of the warping and wefting scheme. 
 Fig. 107 is suggestive of the piece-dyed costume make of 
 texture with the spotting threads inserted in the warp, which 
 is arranged 23 threads of 2-fold 32's worsted and 1 thread of 
 
MULT I -FOLD TYPES 
 
 187 
 
 specked twisted, and yarn made by folding one end of 40's 
 worsted with a cotton sliver and then lapping with a single end 
 of 60's worsted. The weft is 22 skeins woollen and the cloth 
 is slightly felted and raised. To attain, however, the full 
 advantage of felting and raising in the finishing of the fabric, 
 
 FIG. Ill 
 
 the fibre selected for spotting purposes should be wool or 
 mohair and not of the vegetable character. This provides 
 an adaptable quality of filament in the spotting for effective 
 raising action as is observed in the specimen, Fig. 108, woven 
 in the 2-and-2 twill, and with the yarns formed and grouped 
 in accordance with the particulars specified below 
 
 Warp. 
 
 I thread of spotted twist yarn, composed of 1 end of 30 's worsted (soft 
 spun) twisted with 1 end of 40's cotton, and retwisted with 1 end 
 of 40's worsted. 
 4 threads of 2 -fold 28 's worsted. 
 
 17|'s reed 2's. 
 
 Weft. 
 14's worsted or 30 skeins woollen. 
 
 27 picks per inch. 
 
188 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 136. Duplicating Spotting s and Colourings. The spots may 
 be duplicated in colour as well as varied in the distance apart 
 and in form. The double spot and also the double knop yarn 
 are both produced, in their simpler types of construction, by 
 using two ground or core threads and two lapping ends : 
 e.g., two worsted central ends spotted successively with cotton 
 and silk, or a doubled yarn spotted with two colours of cotton 
 yarn. The ground threads, in more diversified structures, are 
 variously constituted, and, in the instance of the knop, the 
 spaces between the spottings may be chain twisted, as in the 
 example in Fig. 109, in which the knopped cotton twists are 
 6-fold in the foundation and specked, in the actual texture, 
 alternately with orange and black as indicated in the order 
 of warping and wefting appended : 
 
 SPECIMEN. Fig. 109; Plan, Fig. 109A 
 
 Warp and Weft. 
 1 thread of (a) 6-fold 26's cotton spotted with 40 's orange 
 
 and 40 's black cotton ends. 
 2 -fold 160's linen. 
 40's 2-fold silk. 
 
 24 Threads 
 
 24 Threads 
 
 1 (b) 
 
 1 (c) 
 
 2 threads of (6) 
 1 thread of (c) 
 1 (b) 
 * () 
 4 threads of (b) 
 
 1 thread of (d) 6-fold 26's cotton. 
 1 (b) 
 
 1 (c) 
 
 2 threads of (6) 
 1 thread of (c) 
 1 (6) 
 I ' (a) 
 4 threads of (b) 
 
 18's reed 3's. 54 picks per inch. 
 
 137. Specimen in Folded Cotton and Linen and Doubled Silk 
 Threads. Though the fabric is composed of linen, cotton and 
 silk, the textural quality and effect are principally derived 
 from the knopped and 6-fold yarns, arranged with a view of 
 developing a checked style. The chain twist elements and the 
 
MULT I -FOLD TYPES 
 
 189 
 
 FIG. 112 
 
 spottings in the two tints of cotton on threads (a) add to 
 
 the quality of the textural plan, especially in contrast with the 
 
 finer features woven in plain and 
 
 in more open interlacings, and 
 
 formed in the linen and silk ends 
 
 and picks. The weave design, 
 
 Fig. 109A, in this class of fabrica- 
 tion requires to be contrived on 
 
 such a principle as to suitably 
 
 emphasize each type of yarn in 
 
 the warp and weft, and as to 
 
 result in a satisfactory or uniform 
 
 build of cloth. First, in this 
 
 illustration, threads (a) are brought 
 
 on to the face of the texture in 
 
 symmetrical order and equally 
 
 with threads (d), as both are of 
 
 like utility in producing the checking lines ; second, the silk 
 
 threads and picks are made to float over the twist and folded 
 
 yarns, imparting brightness of 
 tone ; and , third, the linen threads 
 (6) are interlaced plain to form 
 a firm foundation structure. 
 
 138. Mohair and Lustre Mate- 
 rials in Knopped Yarns. With 
 the knopping yarn consisting of 
 a diffusive kind of material such 
 as mohair, the spotting may be 
 made a pronounced feature of the 
 pattern, as in threads A of the 
 specimen in Fig. 110, which have 
 been obtained by twisting a 20's 
 black and 20' s white cotton with 
 
 a mohair sliver intermittently delivered. The ground threads 
 
 pass, in the making of the yarn, between one pair of 
 
 rollers in constant operation, and the knopping thread 
 
 FIG. 113 
 
190 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 between a pair of rollers, having an intermittent and 
 differential motion, for giving the smaller and larger 
 spotted excrescences in the length of the folded yarn. 
 When this system of knop thread construction is adopted, 
 it is practicable to have the knopped characteristics 
 short, compact and bulky or more or less pear-shaped, with 
 thin strands of knopping fibre running through the whole 
 length of the twisted thread. The form of the knop, beyond 
 keeping it within certain length limits, is not precisely definable, 
 
 but this only adds to the diversity 
 of the effects acquired in the woven 
 specimen. Even when there is 
 little change in colouring, as, for 
 example, in a black core yarn with 
 white knopping, and this in mohair 
 on a woollen or worsted thread, 
 the knops appear in the texture in 
 a number of forms, enhanced in 
 quality and distinctiveness by the 
 contrast in the natural properties 
 of the two varieties of fibrous 
 material combined. 
 
 139. Rougher Grades of Fabrics 
 and Multi-ply Union Threads. 
 
 The examples so far examined have been chiefly confined 
 to textures made of the smaller counts of yarn, and 
 in which the materials are characteristic of the smoother and 
 finer classes of textile manufacture. In the rougher grades of 
 fabric more varied combinations as to yarn structure are 
 feasible, or, at least, combinations of threads of a more mixed 
 filament composition and nature. Folded union yarns of the 
 knopped, buckled, looped, flaked and even curled description, 
 are applied in a diversity of forms to fabrics of the Cheviot 
 and Crossbred yarn quality. These give a textural surface 
 which admits of specific and complex treatment as to yarn 
 factors as instanced in the styles in Figs. Ill to 114, which 
 
MULT I -FOLD TYPES 
 
 191 
 
 are representative of the makes of fabric and types of pattern 
 obtained in manufactures of a medium weight per yard, and 
 produced in open settings and in the plain weave. 
 
 A A 
 
 A A B B B 
 Fie;. 114A 
 
 B A 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. Ill 
 Warp. 
 
 3 threads of (a) black and brown twist yarn, composed of 1 end of 
 
 2-fold 32 's cotton twisted with 1 end of 9's mohair, and 
 re-twisted with 16's black cotton. 
 
 1 thread of (b) black and white mohair knop twist yarn, composed, in 
 the first operation, of 1 end of 2-fold 20's black 
 mohair twisted with 1 end of 2-fold 20's white mohair; 
 and re-twisted, in the second operation, with 1 end 
 of 2-fold 20's black cotton and 1 end of 18's white 
 cotton. 
 
 4 threads of (a); 1 thread of (6); 6 threads of (a); 1 thread of (b); 8 threads 
 
 of (a); 1 thread of (6); 10 threads of (a); and 1 thread of (b). 
 7's reed 2's, 
 
192 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 Weft. 
 
 Same as Warp, but using 8 skeins grey mixture yarn instead of the 
 4-fold black and brown twist (a). 
 
 12 picks per inch. 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 112 
 
 Warp. 
 
 8 threads of (a) 17 skeins light grey woollen. 
 
 1 thread of (6) black and white knop twist yarn, composed of 1 end 
 of 2-fold 30's black cotton, 1 end of 2-fold 26 skeins 
 white woollen and 1 thread of 2 -fold black cotton for 
 lapping or binding. 
 
 8's reed 2's. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 18 skeins dark green mixture. 
 1C picks per inch. 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 113 
 
 Warp. 
 
 1 thread of (a) black and white knop twist yarn, composed of 1 end of 
 2 -fold 28 's black crossbred worsted, twisted with 1 
 end of 2-fold 60's black cotton and 1 end of 2-fold 
 28's white crossbred, and lapped with 1 end of 30 's 
 black cotton. 
 
 3 threads of (fe) 10 skeins grey woollen; 1 thread of (a); 5 threads of (6); 
 1 thread of (a); 4 threads of (6); 1 thread of (a); 3 threads of (&); 
 1 thread of (a); 8 threads of (&). 
 
 8's reed 20 's. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 1 pick of (a) black and orange knop twist yarn, composed of 1 end of 
 2 -fold 28's orange crossbred worsted, twisted with 1 
 end of 2 -fold 60 's black cotton and 1 end of 2 -fold 
 28's black crossbred, and lapped with 1 end of 30 's 
 black cotton. 
 
 5 picks of (&) 12 skeins fawn woollen; 1 pick of (a); 3 picks of (6); 
 1 pick of (a); 10 picks of (6); 1 pick of (a); 3 picks of (6); 1 pick 
 of (a); and 6 picks of (6). 
 
 17 picks per inch. 
 
 SPECIMEN, Fig. 114 
 
 Warp. 
 
 1 thread of (a) black and white knop twist yarn, composed of 1 end of 
 2 -fold 60 's black cotton, twisted with 1 end of 2 -fold 
 36's white crossbred worsted, and re-twisted or lapped 
 with 1 end of 26's black cotton. 
 
MULTI-FOLD TYPES 193 
 
 7 threads of (b) 1 skeins light grey woollen. 
 4 (c) 7 dark 
 
 4 (6) 
 
 4 (c) 
 
 6's reed 2's. 
 
 Weft. 
 1 1 skeins black woollen. 
 
 14 picks per inch. 
 
 140. Mingled and Mottled Colour Toning. Mingled and 
 mottled colour toning is a primary characteristic of these multi- 
 fold yarn patterns, with a mosaic fibrous species of effect as a 
 distinctive ingredient. This varied textural surface is not 
 producible in any other scheme of loomwork than that here 
 illustrated. It is, moreover, a pure production of the com- 
 bination of textile factors, being solely dependent upon the 
 method of forming the compound yarn and of associating 
 this with other yarns in the weaving of a definite grade of 
 fabric. All such effects are peculiar to the sorts of fibre used 
 in the preparation of the individual threads in the twisted 
 yarn compound, and to the form or forms in which they 
 are doubled and re-doubled to comprise one description 
 of weavable thread. Design in the loom is not restricted to 
 the interlacing of warp and weft in the origination of a pre- 
 scribed build of cloth and style of pattern. It extends to 
 the study of the pattern types obtainable in the admixture 
 of fibres of different physical structures and chemical pro- 
 perties, in the construction of the yarn, and in the modifica- 
 tion of the surface of the thread, in the practice of folding and 
 twisting. Thread formation, when thus devised, has a tinted, 
 structural, and utilitarian value in the woven manufacture. 
 
 141. Folded Union Yarn Structures and Piece Dyeing. 
 The spotted and knopped yarns analysed have been treated 
 as prepared in the tints and tones in which they were applicable 
 to the fabric, and to the development of specific varieties of 
 textural effect ; but such yarns, when made of thread units 
 differing in filament composition, are producible in the grey 
 and usable in this condition for piece-dyed goods. This 
 
 13 (1475) 
 
194 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 introduces a technical quantity which provides for colour 
 modification in the manufactured fabric. It is based on the 
 employment, in the warping and wefting, of compound twist 
 threads with single-spun, plain folded, and bi-fibred yarns, 
 of identical tinting properties. To illustrate, the raised 
 knopped-yarn specimen in Fig. 114A is a combination of 
 worsted warp and fine woollen weft in the ground, of worsted 
 and cotton twist threads A, A', and of the knopped threads B, 
 consisting of two ends of worsted twisted with a ramie roving 
 intermittently delivered in the folding process. Weaving in 
 the grey, and wool dyeing the texture black, develops the 
 woollen and worsted ingredients in the dark shade, the twist 
 threads and picks in black and white, and leaves the ramie knops 
 of fibre untinted or in a light tone. The extent to which this 
 scheme of work is practicable, in the use of fancy union yarns, 
 is further exemplified in the decorative tapestry photographi- 
 cally illustrated in Fig. 115. It has been made in a 2-fold 20's 
 cotton warp concealed in the texture by combining two 
 weft-face reversible weaves and in single woollen and thick 
 cotton twist wefts, shuttled one-and-one. The knop, gimp, 
 and minute curl features in the twist threads, are formed of 
 mohair and worsted yarns, so that in wool dyeing, as seen in 
 the specimen, they take the same colour as the woollen weft, 
 while the cotton-thread units remain uncoloured. If the 
 piece should be cotton-dyed, the colour tones in the fabric 
 would be reversed, that is to say, the woollen, worsted, and 
 mohair effects would continue white as woven, and the cotton 
 effects would become coloured. By tinting each kind of fibre 
 in the multi-fold and in the ordinary spun yarns, or by prac- 
 tising both wool and cotton dyeing, the diversity of coloured 
 result in the finished manufacture, would be considerably 
 enhanced. But, as the designs applied to this class of tapestry 
 should be of an ornamentative character, and as the fabric 
 structure is framed on the reversible principle, it is only 
 necessary, as a rule, to practise single-process dyeing. The 
 important technicality in such branches of textile manufacture 
 
196 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 obtains in the origination and construction of the multi-ply 
 twist yarn. This yarn is the chief source of the acquirement 
 
 oo'ooo 
 
 FIG. 116 
 
 of fulness of textural detail, and of variations of effect in the 
 design scheme. 
 
 142. Curl Yarns. The " curl " is a different form of union 
 twist to that of the " spot," " knop," or 
 " flake." Ordinarily it is a three-strand 
 yarn, such as two cotton and one worsted, 
 or two worsted ends twisted with a thicker 
 and softer spun thread for the curl or 
 loop. These curly excrescences, in the 
 circumference of the folded structure, vary 
 in dimensions and in the frequency with 
 which they occur in the length of the twisted 
 yarn. They are preferably made of mohair or lustre worsted. 
 On whatever principle such yarns are applied in the 
 weaving process, they give the characteristic feature to 
 the fabric. In the heavier grades of cloth mantles, 
 cloakings the curl yarn, as in woven astrakhans, forms the 
 
 ooopfo oo 
 
 m 
 
 FIG. 116A 
 
MULT I -FOLD TYPES 197 
 
 face of the texture, but in the thinner classes of goods, it is 
 principally used for its pattern-producing qualities. It is in 
 the latter sense that it is inserted into the weft of the specimen 
 in Fig. 117. This fabric is woven in a 2-fold 20' s worsted warp, 
 with 44 ends per inch, and in the plan, Fig. 117A. The weft 
 consist of 6 picks of 2-fold 40's worsted, 1 pick of curled yarn, c 
 composed of two ends of 24's black mohair twisted with 2-fold 
 40's black cotton 6 picks of 2-fold 40's worsted, and 1 pick 
 of curl yarn, c', resulting from twisting two ends of 20's white 
 mohair with 26's white cotton. 
 
 143. Finishing Practice and Fancy Folded Yarn Effects. 
 Finishing methods and practice as they relate to curl-yarn 
 fabrics, and to the effects obtained in union fancy yarns made 
 of cotton, linen and silk, are intended and designed to cleanse 
 the piece, level the textural surface, and to brighten the colour 
 tone. But, in the combination in the fabric of knop and 
 similar sorts of yarn, formed of woollen, worsted and mohair 
 threads, the finishing sequence may be adapted to modify 
 the twist-yarn characteristics, subduing or intermingling their 
 tinted qualities. Examples, in which milling and raising have 
 attained these results, are given in the specimens in Fig. 108 
 and 114. What, prior to the finishing operations, were 
 merely spotted or specked details of material, have, in the 
 raising, been changed into intermixed, elongated and streaky 
 patches of white and grey fibre. Forming the knops in a more 
 lustrous material, and in two sizes and at greater distances 
 apart, as in Fig. 114A, and subjecting the piece to the action 
 of the raising points of the raising machine, again disinte- 
 grates their original form and consistency, and mingles the 
 filament, of whicli they are made, with that in the ground of 
 the fabric. 
 
SECTION III 
 WOVEN UNIONS 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 144. Tinting Practice and Bi-fibred and Woven Unions. 145. 
 Classification of Yarn-Woven Unions. 146. Yarn Admixtures in the 
 Warping and Wefting. 147. Yarn Diameters in Admixed- Yarn 
 Fabrics. 148. Structural Examples. 149. Rendering One Series 
 of Yarns invisible in the Cloth. 150. The Weft Unit, 151. " Weave" 
 Method of Concealing either the WARP or WEFT Threads. 152. Speci- 
 mens in WARP and in WEFT Effects. 153. Design Composition for 
 WEFT Scheme. 154. Converting Weaves into WARP or WEFT Plans. 
 155. Pattern work in WARP- or WEFT-face Unions. 156. Manu- 
 facturing Data Piece-dyed and Loom-coloured Unions. 157. Three 
 Systems of Construction. 158. Methods of Emphasizing Weave 
 Details. 159. Yarn " Twine " and Union-Twill Movement. 
 160. Effect of " Twine " Direction in the Yarn in Union Textures. 
 161. Tone Differentiation in Dyeing due to Yarn Twine and Struc- 
 ture. 162. Experimental Schemes. 163. Curtailment of Weave 
 Diversification. 164. Utility of Yarn Quality and Structure in 
 Design delineation. 165. Raising Action and Design Quality. 166. 
 Warp Scheme of Fabrication. 167. Ornamentative Style Origination. 
 168. Weave Elements and Pattern Values. 169. Bi-fibred and 
 Single-quality Yarn Schemes. 
 
 144. Tinting Practice and Bi-fibred and Woven Unions. 
 Dyeing efficiency, in- developing diversity and newness of 
 effect in bi-fibred fabrics, has been shown to be based on two 
 compound factors first, the technology of thread preparation 
 as determined by the filament ingredients combined, whether 
 in the work of spinning, or in the system of yarn doubling 
 and twisting ; and, second, the technology of fabric construc- 
 tion as understood, and comprised, in the assortment and 
 grouping of yarns of a suitable structure, for producing 
 special grades and qualities of textile manufacture. 
 
 The union cloth industry is not infrequently interpreted 
 as signifying fabrics consisting of two or more varieties of 
 yarn, as, for example, the warp thread made of vegetable 
 
 201 
 
202 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 fibre, and the weft thread of animal fibre ; or the warp yarn 
 differing in filament composition from the weft yarn. The 
 woven goods obtained by these practices are notably dissimilar 
 in principles of fabrication and in dyeing properties from 
 those described as resulting from yarns in which the fibrous 
 units are blended prior to spinning, or unified in the spun 
 
 FIG. 117 
 
 FIG. 117A 
 
 FIG. 117B 
 
 FIG. 117c 
 
 state, as in the origination of multi-fold threads. In the yarn- 
 made union each class or type of yarn amalgamated is, as a 
 rule, susceptible to one routine of dyeing treatment, yielding 
 one tone or tint of colour ; whereas, in the admixture of 
 several sorts of fibre in yarn production, each thread in the 
 piece may be as variously coloured as the kinds of material 
 employed in its manufacture. The distinctions between the 
 fabric made of yarns composed of a number of separate classes 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 203 
 
 of fibre, and the fabric made of cotton or linen, and mohair, 
 worsted, woollen and silk yarns are, therefore, as regards 
 dyeing results, fundamental in character. One manufacture 
 derives, in piece-dyeing, its tinted value from the diversified 
 filament structure of each yarn used, and the other from 
 differences in the fibrous materials of the yarns in the warp 
 and the weft of the cloth, as in the combination of cotton and 
 woollen, linen and silk threads, etc. 
 
 145. Classification of Yarn-Woven Unions. Union fabrics 
 of the yarn-woven variety include three principal groups of 
 textile manufacture, namely, (1) Textures in which the yarns, 
 warp or weft, spun of the vegetable fibre are interlaced in the 
 foundation or body of the cloth, being hidden or concealed 
 in both the face and underside of the fabric ; (2) textures in 
 which each class of yarn employed appears on the surface with 
 one species of yarn giving the fabric quality ; and (3) textures 
 compound in build and in which one series of yarns produces 
 the right side, and a second series of yarns the reverse side 
 of the cloth ; or in which three sets of yarns are woven 
 together and respectively form the face, centre, and back of 
 the manufacture. These three types of union production 
 are sub-divisible into the following categories 
 
 TABLE XIX. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF YARN-WOVEN UNIONS 
 GROUP I. 
 
 (a) Union woollens, chiefly produced in medium and heavy grades of 
 
 cloth, but also in costume and flannel fabrics. 
 
 (b) Union worsteds, chiefly produced in medium and light textures. 
 
 (c) Overcoatings and milled cloths, single in structure. 
 
 (d) Curled and frise fabrics, single or compound in structure, with 
 
 mohair, worsted, and woollen weft. 
 
 (e) Blankets, rugs, and shawls. 
 
 (/) Linen and cotton unions simple weave construction. 
 (g) Cotton and silk unions simple weave construction. 
 
 (Cotton warp and woollen or worsted weft yarns, are used in 
 
 Classes (a), (c), (d), and (e), and worsted or cotton warp with 
 
 cotton or worsted weft in Class (b). 
 
204 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 GROUP II. 
 
 (a) Dress and blouse fabrics, cotton warp, and mohair, lustre worsted, 
 
 or alpaca weft. 
 
 (b) Dress and figured fabrics, cotton warp and silk or artificial silk 
 
 weft. 
 
 (c) Figured linen- warp and cotton- weft manufactures. 
 
 (d) Figured linen- or cotton-warp and silk- weft manufactures. 
 
 (e) Cotton warp and weft textures, with silk figuring warp or weft. 
 (/) Linen warp and weft textures, with silk figuring warp or weft. 
 (g) Cotton warp, worsted or woollen weft, and silk as the extra yarn 
 
 for spotting or figuring. 
 
 GROUP III. 
 
 (a) Fabrics two-ply in the weftr-Worsted warp, and cotton and woollen 
 
 yarns for shuttling. 
 
 (b) Fabrics two-ply in the weft:-Cotton warp, and worsted and woollen 
 
 yarns for shuttling. 
 
 (c) Fabrics two-ply in the warp:-Worsted or woollen warp, and cotton 
 
 weft. 
 
 (d) Fabrics two-ply in the warp-:Worsted face and cotton backing yarns 
 
 with woollen weft. 
 
 (e) Fabrics two-ply in both warp and weft:-Face warp, worsted or 
 
 woollen; backing warp, woollen or cotton; face weft, worsted or 
 
 woollen; backing weft, cotton or woollen. 
 (/) Three-ply weft fabrics: Cotton warp; face weft, worsted or woollen; 
 
 centre weft, cotton; backing weft, woollen. 
 (g) Three-ply warp and weft fabrics: Face warp and weft, worsted or 
 
 woollen; centre warp and weft, cotton; backing warp, worsted 
 
 or woollen; backing weft, woollen or cotton. 
 
 146. Yarn Admixtures in the Warping and Wefting. Each 
 of the classes of manufactures specified in Groups I, II and III, 
 is subjective to variations in looming. There are, in addition, 
 intermediate qualities and makes of texture acquired by 
 warping and wefting two or three sorts of yarn in successive 
 order, as one thread of cotton and one thread of woollen, 
 worsted or mohair ; one thread of linen and one of cotton ; 
 two of worsted and one of silk or mercerized cotton ; and 
 one of cotton and one of silk. Yarn admixtures of this des- 
 cription are practised in both single and compound weaves, 
 and result in fabric types of ordinary application but not 
 strictly covered in the Group classes defined. 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 205 
 
 The following are examples in looming arrangements 
 
 TABLE XX 
 
 YARN ADMIXTURES IN LOOMING SIMPLE- WEAVE CLOTHS 
 I. COTTON AND LINEN 
 
 System A. 
 
 Warp. Wefts. 
 
 1 or 2 ends of cotton (1) Cotton, (2) Linen, (3) Same as warp 
 
 1 or 2 ,, linen. (4) Fine woollen or worsted. 
 
 System B. 
 Warp. Wefts. 
 
 1 end of linen (1) Linen, (2) Cotton, (3) Same as warp. 
 
 2 ends of cotton (4) 2 picks of linen and 1 pick of cotton. 
 1 end of linen (5) 2 picks of cotton and 1 pick of linen. 
 
 1 ,, cotton (0) Fine woollen or worsted. 
 
 2 ends of linen 
 
 1 end of cotton. 
 
 II. WOOLLEN OR WORSTED AND COTTON 
 
 System A. 
 
 Warp. Wefts. 
 
 1 end of woollen or worsted (1) Woollen or worsted, (2) Same as 
 
 1 ,, cotton. warp. 
 
 System B. 
 Warp. Wefts. 
 
 2 ends of woollen and worsted (1) Woollen or worsted, (2) 1 of woollen 
 2 ,, cotton. and 1 of cotton, (3) Same as warp. 
 
 ' System C. 
 
 Warp. Wefts. 
 
 I end of worsted (1) Worsted, (2) 1 of worsted and 1 of 
 
 1 cotton cotton, (3) Same as warp. 
 
 2 ends of worsted 
 1 end of cotton 
 
 1 ,, worsted 
 1 ,, cotton 
 
 1 ,, worsted 
 
 2 ends of cotton 
 
 1 end of worsted 
 1 ,, cotton. 
 
 III. LINEN, COTTON AND SILK 
 
 System A. 
 
 Warp. Wefts. 
 
 1 end of linen (1) Linen, (2) Cotton, (3) Silk, and 
 
 1 ,, silk (4) Same as warp, (5) Worsted. 
 
 1 ,, cotton 
 1 silk. 
 
206 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 Warp. 
 
 1 end of cotton or linen 
 1 silk. 
 
 System B. 
 
 Wefts. 
 
 (1) Cotton, (2) Linen, (3) Silk, (4) Same 
 as warp, (5) Worsted. 
 
 147. Yarn Diameters in Admixed- Yarn Fabrics. The counts 
 of the warp and weft threads in these systems of yarn admixture 
 
 should, in the plainer styles of 
 texture, be approximately uni- 
 form, but they may be also 
 diversified for the purpose of 
 obtaining a particular variety of 
 cloth. Employing, for example, 
 in System A, Class I, small and 
 thick weft yarns result in fabrics 
 of the formation sketched in Figs. 
 117 and 117A, that is of textures 
 ribbed in the warp and in the weft 
 
 respectively. Wefting the yarns as warped gives a minute 
 checked effect, Fig. 117B, and wefting one pick of thick yarn 
 
 FIG. 
 
 FIG. 118A 
 
 FIG. 11 SB 
 
 and two picks of small yarn produces a cloth lined or striped 
 across, Fig. 117c. Altering the counts of the warp 
 threads, or arranging the threads one of thick and one of 
 small yarn, and wefting first, in fine, yarn counts ; second, 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 207 
 
 in the same yarns as in the warp ; and third, in thick yarn, 
 
 yields the three descriptions of cloth in Figs. 118, 118A, 
 
 and 1 18s ; namely, a warp- 
 
 stripe, a small-check, 
 
 and a suppressed warp-line 
 
 textural effect. 
 
 Two further modifica- 
 tions in fabric structure, as 
 
 originated by varying the 
 
 warping and wefting plan, 
 
 and by mixing yarns of 
 
 different thicknesses are 
 
 shown in Figs. 119 and 120. 
 
 Combining small with thick 
 
 threads, grouped two of the Fm H9 
 
 former to one of the latter, 
 
 is seen, in Fig. 119, to make a species of checking, while 
 
 the combination of three diameters of yarn, Fig. 120, produces 
 
 an intermingled woven 
 surface with each of the 
 three threads differing in 
 thickness and in quality- 
 crossing each other in a 
 rectangular relation. Both 
 these schemes w r ould be 
 shuttled, in the weaving 
 of line pattern details, in 
 each sort of yarn used in 
 the warp. 
 
 148. Structural Ex- 
 arnples. The utility of 
 F IG< 120 changes of this nature in 
 
 the yarn counts in the 
 
 several systems of yarn grouping is exemplified in these 
 
 sketches Figs. 117 to 120 as resulting in woven structural 
 
 types. They have also a value in modifying the proportionate 
 
208 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 filament ingredients of the cloth. This is variable with 
 the weft yarn selected, the relative counts of the yarns 
 combined, and by the system of yarn arrangement. For 
 instance in System B, Class I, with the weft same as 
 the warp, and using linen and cotton threads of a like 
 diameter, the fabric would consist of. equal parts of 
 flax and cotton fibre ; but with weft (1) the cloth would con- 
 tain an excess weight of linen, and with weft (2) an excess 
 weight of cotton yarn. Moreover, should weft (6) be 
 selected a texture would be produced consisting of corre- 
 sponding parts of linen and cotton in the warp, interlaced 
 with a woollen or worsted weft yarn. Clearly, the fila- 
 ment values of the cloth are affected in a corresponding 
 ratio with the counts of yarns used. Providing these are 
 symmetrically classified in the warping and wefting scheme, 
 and that the yarn counts coincide with each other, 
 the filament quality of the cloth is determinable by the 
 numerical classification of the different thread units 
 combined. 
 
 149. Rendering One Series of Yarn invisible in the Cloth. 
 In the yarn admixtures analysed, each variety of thread, 
 in the warp or weft, is intended to have a textural effect, but 
 in the union fabrics included in Group I, Table XIX, the 
 cotton, or vegetable-fibre yarn should, as far as possible, be 
 rendered invisible in the finished manufacture. This is 
 facilitated by using a thicker weft than warp yarn, by piece 
 contraction in milling, and by employing a weave plan adapted 
 for concealing the threads in the warp and for emphasizing 
 the yarns in the weft of the cloth. But, in the production 
 of certain classes of union woollens and worsteds, as the weave 
 is either plain or an ordinary twill, it is a question of regulating 
 the yarn counts, the setting, and the finishing practice, to 
 accord with the development, from the yarn ingredients 
 employed, of the character and nature of the cloth required. 
 The construction of two examples of this category may be 
 examined, that of A, a union costume fabric, and that of B, 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 209 
 
 a cotton- warp melton, and producible in the following weaving 
 data 
 
 A. Warp. 2-fold 40's cotton; 18's reed 2's; 70 in. wide in the reed. 
 Weft. 22 skeins woollen. 64 picks per inch. 
 
 Weave. Prunelle twill, weft face. 
 
 B. Warp. 2-fold 24's cotton; 14's reed 2's; 76-78 in. wide in the reed. 
 Weft. 8 skeins mungo or low woollen; 40-44 picks per inch. 
 Weave. 5* twill, cutting 2's in the threads. 
 
 150. The Weft Unit. The weft is the principal yarn factor 
 in both these settings. Its increased thickness as compared 
 with the warp yarn, plus the excess ratio of picks to threads 
 as 64 : 36 in A, and as 44 : 28 in B has the effect of partially 
 covering the cotton threads in the weaving, and of forcing 
 them into the centre of the fabric structure. These conditions 
 are augmented and made more or less permanent in the 
 felting of pieces. In the process the costume cloth shrinks 
 16 in. and the melton 20 to 22 in. in width or from 70 and 
 78 in. in the loom to 56 in. milled. A nap of filament, formed 
 entirely in the weft yarn, is developed, and in this nap the 
 cotton ends are embedded. They are so perfectly covered 
 as to be invisible and to be also almost imperceptible in the 
 feel or handle of the cloth. 
 
 151. " Weave " Method of Concealing either the Warp or Weft 
 Threads. The " weave " method of concealing the cotton yarn 
 in a woollen or worsted union, is not based on felting and raising 
 technicalities, but on the system of intertexture practised. 
 The problem is one of constructing a cloth presenting pattern 
 features formed solely in the warp or in the weft yarn. Weaves 
 of this description impose certain restrictions both in regard 
 to fabric build and design development. Textural variations 
 possible in the use of both warp and weft effects, are somewhat 
 freely eliminated. These points will be evident on comparing 
 the specimen in Fig. 121, woven in the plan given at Fig. 121 A, 
 with the modified weave structure section in Fig. 12lB 
 for obtaining a similar form of pattern in weft intersections 
 so arranged as to cover and conceal the warp intersections in 
 
 14 (1475) 
 
210 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 the fabric. The white and light grey details in A and B of 
 the texture in Fig. 121 consist of floats of warp, and the dark 
 details of floats in weft. When both series of details are 
 acquired in the warp only, the picks of weft lie intermediate 
 
 FIG. 121 
 
 between the floats of the warp ends, which are arranged one 
 and-one in two colour tones ; and, inversely, when the two 
 qualities of effect are obtained in the weft only with the warp 
 
 FIG. 12U 
 
 FIG. 121s 
 
 threads hidden, the latter lie intermediate between the shots 
 of weft, shuttled one-and-one in two shades, or in two-yarn 
 structures which, in the dyeing of the cloth, develop colour 
 tones in contrast with each other. 
 
 152. Specimens in Warp and in Weft Effects. The two 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 211 
 
 principles of intertexture are exhibited in the specimens in 
 
 Figs. 122 and 123, woven in the ribbed or cord twills A and B, 
 
 Fig. 124. Considering Fig. 122, the warp scheme, Plan A, Fig. 
 
 124, is warped end-and-end, dark and light shades, with the 
 
 positions of the two colours 
 
 interchanged as seen in 
 
 the specimen. The weft is 
 
 all one shade, and is all 
 
 but concealed by the two 
 
 sets of threads in the 
 
 weave marked in Qj's and 
 
 in ^'s. If the order of 
 
 the shades in the warping 
 
 were one dark and one light throughout, a twilled texture, 
 
 as in stripings A, Fig. 122, would be acquired, but by 
 
 transposing the grouping of the shades, e.g., one light and 
 
 one dark, and one dark and one light, in successive sections 
 of 6 and 18 threads, a varied striped style is 
 produced. The weave basis is that referred 
 to in Paragraph 73, and is common in 
 textur.il effects weavable in 1-and-l warping, 
 in wiiich the weft is not a visible quantity 
 in the fabric. This being so, the type of 
 pattern sketched in Fig. 42 is likewise 
 feasible in Plan A, Fig. 124, by arranging 
 the warp one thread of a deep -toned and 
 one thread of a lighter- toned yarn, and also 
 in reverse order and in multiples of each 
 order in accord with the divisional parts of 
 the design in Fig. 43, the interchange of 
 
 position of the two yarns, by their being thus combined, 
 
 effecting equivalent alterations in the pattern scheme as the 
 
 changing of the threads in the weave unit. 
 
 A corresponding principle of intertexture is practised in the 
 
 construction of the specimen in Fig. 123, with the weave base 
 
 inverted, as indicated in Plan B, Fig. 124, and the fabric 
 
 FIG. 123 
 
212 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 picked 1-and-l instead of being warped in two colours of yarn 
 thus arranged. Now the warp threads are inert as concerns 
 the formation of the pattern details, being covered by the 
 picks of weft. Again the colour scheme is 1-and-l with the 
 dark and light shades interchanging in groups of 8, 6 and 4 
 ^ picks, producing the varied inter- 
 
 rupted twillings observed in the 
 pattern. 
 
 153. Design Composition for Weft 
 Scheme. To imitate a design 
 woven in one shade of warp 
 and a second shade of weft, as for 
 example Fig. 121, in the weft 
 structure of cloth, the weave plan, 
 Fig. 121 A, is transferred on to the 
 alternate picks of the new plan as 
 shown in the sectional design, Fig. 
 12 IB. Then the intervening or 
 even picks are, as closely as 
 possible, made to agree with the 
 warp intersections of the picks of 
 the basic plan, but marked as weft 
 interfacings. Examining and com- 
 paring Figs. 121 A and 12 IB will 
 render these technicalities plain. 
 The odd picks in B's of the latter 
 are identical in interfacings with picks 1 to 12 of the 
 former ; but the even picks of Fig. 12 IB are the reverse in 
 interfacings of the picks in Fig. 121 A ; that is, the 2nd, 4th, 
 6th, etc., picks of the sectional plan correspond in weft inter- 
 sections with the warp intersections of picks 1, 2, 3, etc., of the 
 original design. Completing Fig. 12lB on this basis and applying 
 it to a cotton warp and woollen weft union (2-fold 30' s cotton, 
 16's reed 2's, 9 skeins weft, and 44 picks per inch) would result, 
 should the odd picks be woven in black and the even picks in 
 grey, in an effect similar to that sketched at B in Fig. 121. If 
 
 $< 
 
 XiXEKT' 
 
 FIG. 124 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 213 
 
 intended for a piece-dyed cloth, one series of picks would 
 consist of yarn spun from wool fibre (i.e., mungo or shoddy), 
 and the second series of picks of vigogne yarn or an admixture 
 of animal and vegetable material. 
 
 154. Converting Weaves into Warp or Weft Plans. On 
 
 FIG. 125 
 
 FIG. 125A 
 
 the system illustrated and described, many varieties of 
 ordinary weaves may be converted into warp or weft plans. 
 Two examples are supplied in Figs. 125 and 126, 12-shaft 
 
 FIG. 126 
 
 FIG. 126A 
 
 twilled makes. Rearranging the former for a worsted warp 
 and cotton weft piece- dye or coloured pattern, the weft 
 floats, of the original weave, are run on to threads 1, 3, 5, 
 etc., of the required design as shown in Fig. 125A, following 
 by marking the warp intersections on the even threads of 
 the modified or extended plan. The same rule is observed 
 
214 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 in reconstructing Fig. 126 for a union cloth with the twills 
 formed in weft and concealing the warp yarn ; but, as seen 
 in Fig. 1 26A, the process of opening out is applied to the picks 
 of the plan, Fig. 126, and not to the threads, as in Fig. 125. 
 Within certain limits, checked designs are producible on 
 this principle of loom work. Thus, Fig. 127 is derived 
 from a 4-and-4 twill cutting at each fifth thread, dividing 
 the basic plan in the warp ends in alternate order, and 
 twilling sections A to the left, and sections B to the 
 right. The design, as arranged, is suitable for a warp-face 
 texture with the picks of weft invisible as in Fig. 124, 
 A and B ; but if it should be turned round, and threads 
 changed to picks, it would be equally adapted for a weft-face 
 union in which the warp ends would be concealed. A number 
 of the plans, formed by this method, are usable for either one 
 class of union fabric or the other, more especially if the inter- 
 sections of warp and weft are equally balanced in the funda- 
 mental weaves selected. In transposing the structure of the 
 plans, the loom setting requires to be revised, the warp type 
 necessitating more threads than picks per inch, and the weft 
 type more picks than threads, for the accurate definition of 
 the design elements in the fabric. 
 
 155. Patternwork in Warp or Weft-face Unions Piece-dyed. 
 The range of pattern work is not restricted, in these principles 
 of weave structure, to the use of coloured yarns in either the 
 warp or the weft, but extends to bi-fibred yarn manufactures, 
 and includes the acquirement of textural design as a product 
 of one of the two groups of yarns in the fabric in one or 
 two shades and piece-dyed. It has already been explained 
 how several varieties of ordinary textures are thus dyed and 
 yet distinguished in style and in weave details, but as the latter 
 are the result as in Fig. 121 of two systems of intersection 
 warp and weft their expression in the fabric is strictly a 
 work of plan origination. The two orders of interlacing, 
 whether uniformly or differently devised, are equivalent, 
 when suitably combined and arranged, to delineating, in a 
 
216 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 distinct textural form, either elementary or involved pattern 
 features. Thus, the different effects of twill, mat and fancy 
 crossings, woven in one-shade cloths, are purely the conse- 
 quence of the contrasts developed by the floats of the warp 
 and weft being placed, in weaving, at right angles to each other. 
 In unions of the class under analysis no such structural 
 differentiations are attainable. Still weave emphasis of a 
 sort is feasible, and a number of the standard makes of cloth 
 may, by applying certain rules of intertexture, be closely 
 imitated, though the weave effect is due chiefly to warp or 
 weft floats, but not to both. Examine, for example, the plan 
 given in Fig. 128, the union crossing for producing a 3-and-3 
 twill solely in the picks of weft, and also for preventing, in 
 the formation of the twill, the binding threads in the warp 
 from appearing either on the face or the reverse side of the 
 fabric. 
 
 Combining intersections of dissimilar measurement, as in 
 Fig. 129, will obviously enable the twilling to be clearly 
 accentuated, and this is one of the factors which admits of 
 structural diversification. But, it should be noted, that, 
 even in the use of varied interlacing elements, the types of 
 pattern and fabric acquired in this way lack, as compared 
 with cloths in which both the warp and weft intersections are 
 assertive features in the origination of the design, a degree 
 of completeness and of detail distinctiveness. 
 
 Textural construction and pattern are each obtained by 
 the interchange or " cutting " of the intersections on the 
 odd and even picks (Figs. 128 and 129), or on the odd and 
 even threads (Figs. 132 and 133). Each series of yarns 
 marked in '$ and in 3's appear successively on the face 
 and back of the cloth, developing in such weaves as Figs. 128 
 to 133, a similar effect on both sides of the piece. 
 
 156. Manufacturing Data Piece-dyed and Loom-coloured 
 Unions. A study and dissection of the subject will be aided 
 by a reference to the weaving particulars applicable to the 
 several plans illustrated. These are as follows 
 
* CO 
 
 3 3 
 
 00 (M 
 
 o co 
 
 o 
 
 (M 
 
 <M 
 
 I I 
 
 28 
 
 i J o 
 
 H 03, o 
 
 ujq u 
 -co^ c--o-- 
 
 S 2"^ -^ S?i S S fi -Q 
 
 
 oo o 
 
 I 
 
 ,1 
 
 c d 
 
 8"^ "o 
 o 
 
 CO CO 
 
 oo b 
 
 ^H (M 
 
 CD b 
 1 co 
 
 CO ^* 
 CO CO 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 bb 
 
 S 
 
218 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 157. Three Systems of Construction. Three systems of 
 manufacture in the construction of these cloths are here 
 exemplified. In the first system, the weft-face textures are 
 woven in cotton warp and woollen weft, and the warp-face 
 textures in worsted warp and cotton weft, the yarn units 
 in each class of texture being identically tinted in the dyeing 
 of the goods. In the second system, the warp yarn in Figs. 
 128 to 131 is also cotton with the weft yarn in two qualities 
 as indicated in picks (a) and (b), and in picks (c) and (d) ; 
 while in Figs. 132 to 135 the warp yarns consist of bi-fibred 
 worsted as indicated at (e) and (/), and at (g) and (h), with the 
 weft yarn made of cotton fibre. Both these schemes give 
 fabrics suitable for piece-dyeing, but in Scheme A the cotton 
 and the woollen or the cotton and the worsted threads, should 
 be similarly tinted in dyeing for producing a solid shade of 
 colour, whereas in Scheme B the weft yarns (a) and (b) and 
 (c) and (d), and the warp yarns (e) and (/) and (g) and (h) 
 would, in the dyeing process, be developed in two shades, 
 one of a darker and the other of a lighter tone. It follows 
 that, in Scheme A, the effects in the cloth are entirely a deriva- 
 tive of the weaves employed, producing in Plans 128 and 129 
 twills of equal and unequal width, in Plan 130 an irregular 
 mat, and in Plan 131 a striped pattern in eight-end twill, 
 -$-2~> the striping being due to the interfacings on the odd 
 picks in the design in Section A, being transferred to the 
 even picks in Section B. These pattern types would all be 
 formed in weft, for the intersections are arranged to cover the 
 warp on both sides of the fabric. The warp-face plans would, 
 in Scheme A, yield other types of effect, composed of the 
 warp threads with the shots of weft concealed, namely, in 
 Fig. 132 a double twill, in Fig. 133 a small diagonal, in Fig. 
 134 a lozenge spot, and in Fig. 135 a waved or serpentine 
 pattern. 
 
 While these textural variations are the consequence of weave 
 principles in Scheme A, in Schemes B and C the design ele- 
 ments are a product of weave in association with colour units, 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 219 
 
 obtained in the former A by the qualities of yarns com- 
 bined in the warping end-and-end, and in the wefting pick- 
 and-pick, taking different shade tones in piece-dyeing ; and in 
 the latter B and C by the employment in the shuttling of 
 Figs. 128 to 131, and in the warping of Figs. 132 to 135, of two 
 colours of yarns. 
 
 158. Methods of Emphasizing Weave Details. There are 
 three important methods of emphasizing the weave inter- 
 sections in union fabrics. They consist, first, in selecting 
 two counts of yarn weft in Figs. 128, 129, 130 and 131, and 
 warp in Figs. 132, 133, 134 and 135 ; second in using two 
 qualities of warp or weft ; and, third, in combining yarns 
 of right- and left-hand twine for the effects in the plans woven 
 in the odd and even picks or threads, as the case may be, 
 These technicalities need to be made clear. Figs. 128 to 131, 
 if manufactured according to the data supplied, make a class 
 of heavy union suiting or overcoating should they be wide 
 set in the loom and well felted. Apparently, as in these 
 examples the 1st, 3rd, 5th, etc., picks form one variety of 
 effect, and the even picks a second variety of detail, two 
 counts, qualities, or twists of yarn may be applied, that 
 is, one for each set or group of weave types in the plans. 
 Assuming that a woollen weft similar to A, Fig. 136 were 
 used in the former, and a crossbred weft similar to B', Fig. 
 136 were used in the latter, the two species of detail, of which 
 each weave consists, would be rendered distinctive in character 
 in the cloth. Corresponding results, as regards the definition 
 of the two classes of effects in the plans, are producible by 
 applying a thicker yarn, say, 6 yds. per dram, to the odd 
 picks in Figs. 128 to 131, and a smaller yarn 10 or 12 yds. 
 per dram to the even picks. But in this alteration the 
 uniform dimensions of the effects, as represented in the weaves, 
 would suffer, those in the lower counts of weft becoming 
 fuller and more pronounced than those woven in the finer 
 yarn counts. 
 
 159, Yarn " Twine " and Union Twill Movement. By the 
 
220 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 third method, C, Table XXI, of attaining such textural 
 
 differentiations, yarns of a like quality but in two shades- 
 
 Wefts 1 and 2 in Figs. 128, 129 and 130, and dark and light 
 
 Warp threads in Figs. 132 to 135 are combined. Pattern 
 
 characteristics are, in these instances, a result of employing 
 
 contrasting yarn colours, one coloured series of yarns being 
 
 applied to the odd and the other to the even picks in the 
 
 former examples, and to the odd and the even threads in the 
 
 latter. An important modification of this principle consists 
 
 in selecting yarns of the same quality and also of a similar 
 
 shade but of reverse twine, and warping or wefting them 
 
 one-and-one, that is, in agreement with the design structures. 
 
 This practice of production may be explained by considering 
 
 Specimens A and B, Fig. 136, the fibres of which are twisted 
 
 in spinning to the left and the right respectively. When 
 
 two weft or two warp yarns, classified one-and-one, are thus 
 
 admixed in weaves constructed on the plan of Figs. 128 
 
 and 132, they develop different surface features in the cloth. 
 
 Twill and twine direction being in conformity in one instance 
 
 and in disagreement in the other, they are responsible for 
 
 each series of interlacings, though identical in kind and order, 
 
 having a distinct tone or quality in the dyed and finished 
 
 fabric. To apply to the picks Figs. 128 and 129 marked in 
 
 B's, a weft yarn A, Fig. 136, and to the picks, marked in [g|'s, 
 
 a weft yarn of equal counts but of the twine seen in B, would 
 
 cause the twills in black in the plan to be subdued or flattened 
 
 in tone as compared with those in crosses which would appear 
 
 more clearly defined. In a like manner, applying to the odd 
 
 threads Figs. 132 and 133 a warp yarn corresponding in 
 
 twine to A, and to the even threads a warp yarn of equivalent 
 
 twist to B, would impart distinctiveness to the former and 
 
 indefiniteness to the latter. Prior to the dyeing and finishing 
 
 treatment these differences are not specially marked. Effects, 
 
 however, of this nature, and originated by the relation of the 
 
 yarn twist to the line and order of the interlacings in the 
 
 weave, become emphasised with colour application, and also 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 221 
 
 FIG. 128 
 
 with the clearness of the woven surface acquired in the 
 processes of piece cleansing, dressing or cutting, and pressing. 
 160. Effect of " Twine " Direction in the Yarn in Union 
 Textures. Yarn construction is, in these classes of cloth-dyed 
 or loom-coloured unions, a salient feature. It is 
 efficient in modifying both the quality of the 
 tinting and the delineation of the design plan. 
 The simple process of twine direction in making 
 the thread presents the fibres in different serial 
 order on the face of the fabric, so that with the 
 yarns distributed by the weave intersections, 
 regular sequence groupings of the threads of 
 right- and left-hand twist occur alternately, 
 varying the technical characteristics obtained in the woven 
 structure. Thus, employing a weave of the scheme 
 illustrated in Fig. 131, and wefting one pick of 10 skeins 
 " open -band " and one pick of 10 skeins 
 " cross-band," forms section A with the 
 twine in the yarn the reverse of the twill, 
 and section B with the twine in a line with 
 the weave or twilled movement. In dyeing, 
 and especially in the work of finishing, the 
 twilled elements in A assume, as a con- 
 sequence, a decisive, and in B an indefinite, 
 line structure. From which it will be 
 understood that, by arranging weave types 
 of this category, i.e., twills which, in the 
 design scheme, traverse the piece in the 
 same direction, and bring alternate picks 
 on to the face and back of the cloth, 
 several forms of pattern are producible in piece-dye cotton 
 and wool fabrics, in which one moiety of the yarns woollen 
 or worsted is employed in developing textural effects ; 
 and the second moiety of yarns spun from cotton or 
 vegetable fibre in binding the two series of threads into 
 a compact, woven production. What might be judged, on 
 
 FIG. 129 
 
222 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 130 , 
 
 a casual examination, as a technical detail in the construction 
 of these fabrics, links dyeing efficiency with manufac- 
 turing success. Weave definition, and intersection contrasts, 
 are rendered possible in warp or weft, and shade tones 
 obtainable, which would otherwise be absent from the dyed 
 
 texture if the filaments in 
 the yarns were not, as ex- 
 plained, presented in two 
 directions on the surface of 
 the fabric, and in the forma- 
 tion of the respective sections 
 of the pattern. 
 
 Modifying the design plan 
 Fig. 137 enables diversity of pattern style to be acquired 
 in two simple twills, which in combination, interchange the 
 picks of weft from the upper to the lower side of the cloth 
 and vice versa, for producing the clear and subdued weave 
 f eatures. In this example the twilled sections in grey, if 
 shuttled one pick of right-hand, and 
 one pick of left-hand twine yarn, 
 would be well accentuated, but the 
 twilled sections in white would be less 
 pronounced in character. As weaves 
 of this description are combinable on 
 different bases, the standard forms of 
 pattern made in piece-dye cloths, with 
 the warp and weft threads interlacing 
 successively on both sides of the 
 fabric, are weavable, in this system 
 
 of union intertexture, with only one of the two yarn ingredients 
 in the manufactured fabric visible. 
 
 161. Tone Differentiation in Dyeing due to Yarn Twine and 
 Structure. The three technicalities considered yarn com- 
 position and quality, twist formation in spinning, and the 
 assortment of yarn structures as fundamental factors in 
 the development of pattern in union cloths, manufactured 
 
 A B 
 
 FIG. 131 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 223 
 
 for piece dyeing, increase in interest and suggestiveness when 
 more fully studied and experimentally investigated. " Twine " 
 direction in the surface yarn of the texture, as shown, is a 
 primary element, being capable of differentiating the shade 
 
 M I 
 
 *** 
 
 FIG. 132 
 
 FIG. 133 
 
 tone of one twill from the shade tone of an adjacent twill 
 (sections A and B, Fig. 131), or the shade of the ground and that 
 of the design (white and grey sections, Fig. 137), though both 
 are woven in the same counts and quality of yarn. Strictly, 
 
 FIG. 134 
 
 FIG. 135 
 
 in such manufactures, colour contrast does not exist, and 
 weave contrast may also be absent, yet, as a result of the 
 yarn twisted to the right possessing a distinct fibrous appear- 
 ance and effect from the yarn twisted to the left in the relations 
 indicated, pattern characteristics are clearly definable in the 
 fabric. Hence, in the compound striped plan (Fig. 131), 
 
224 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 with the twills in A corresponding to the twills in B, each is 
 differently emphasized ; and, similarly, in the small figured 
 combination (Fig. 137), the style details are made evident 
 in the texture by the yarn " twist " giving, in the dyed piece, 
 a fuller and deeper tone to the ground than the reverse yarn 
 " twist " is competent of imparting to the design characteristics. 
 
 162. Experimental Schemes. Basing experiments on these 
 structural properties of woollen or worsted yarns, several 
 varieties of wrap, cloaking, and rug fabrics are weavable in 
 the weft scheme, and of dress and costume textures in the 
 warp scheme of intertexture, with both groups of manu- 
 factures equally adapted for piece-dyeing. Considering the 
 first of these textural types, the fabrics should be dyed in 
 warm, intense colours, avoiding dark and sombre shades as 
 detracting from the effects yielded by the two varieties of 
 twine in the yarns used. The plans should be constructed 
 on the principle of Fig. 137, and range, in the weaves com- 
 bined, from twills of 45 to 60 or 70 degrees in the cloth. The 
 weave units are combinable in (1) herring-bone stripes and in 
 regular and irregular checkings ; and (2) in the origination of 
 geometrical patterns draftable on to a limited number of 
 threads, facilitating their production in shaft mountings. 
 
 Fig. 138 is an example of this class, with the weave marked 
 in x]'s in Fig. 137 for ground, that in |'s for the star fea- 
 tures in medium grey, and a weave arranged 2 picks face 
 and 2 picks backing for the diamond spots in light grey. 
 When thus developed, it may be produced in a 32-shaft loom, 
 but, with a suitable elimination of detail, a similar form of 
 design could be made in 24 heddles. It is typical of a scheme 
 of manufacture cotton warp and mungo, shoddy, woollen 
 or vigogne weft by which pattern qualities, neatly delineated 
 in the piece, are obtainable in single-process dyeing. Dis- 
 carding colour variation, and depending upon differences in 
 yarn twine by shuttling one pick of " crossband " and one 
 pick of " open band " weft, the twilled features in the figuring, 
 and in the ground, would be distinguishable from each other. 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 225 
 
 In the ground Kg. 138 they would take, comparatively, 
 a bright tone, in the dark sections a dull tone, and in 
 the light sections the 
 two sorts of weft yarn 
 intermixed an inter- 
 mediate tone of colour. 
 Piece scouring, mill- 
 ing, and raising to 
 comb out and brush 
 up the surface filament 
 for clear cutting, 
 further define the 
 formation and features 
 of the pattern. Tak- 
 ing, for instance, the 
 
 fabric to be dyed a bright, warm brown, the parts of the 
 design woven in the left-hand twist yarn A, Fig. 136 
 would be more distinctly outlined and developed than the 
 parts of the design woven in the right-hand twist yarn B', 
 
 B A 
 
 FIG. 136 
 
 FIG. 137 
 
 Fig. 136 because, as explained, in one case the twine in the 
 weft would be the reverse of the line of the twill in the weave, 
 and, in the second case, the yarn twine and the twill movement 
 would be in coincidence. 
 
 163. Curtailment of Weave Diversification. On the weft 
 principle of manufacture, weave diversification is not, as a 
 rule, to be practised. The interchange of the picks in the 
 
 15 (1745) 
 
226 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 two plans employed, as seen in Fig. 137, is the technicality 
 which ensures the location in the cloth, as required, of the 
 two kinds of yarn utilized. Still, experiments are feasible 
 
 FIG. 138 
 
 in the application of weaves of different systems of inter- 
 section, as, for example, twills A and B, Fig. 131, with twills 
 C and D, Fig. 137. Additional textural contrasts are thus 
 acquired, and the facilities for pattern contrivance and origina- 
 tion are thereby amplified ; but it is essential that the weaves 
 selected and combined should perfectly conceal the cotton 
 warp, and give a satisfactory fabric as to firmness, and as to 
 wearing strength and durability. 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 227 
 
 164. Utility of -Yarn Quality and Structure in Design Delinea- 
 tion. Pattern delineation is also attainable, in heavy makes 
 of cloth, well-milled and raised, providing two qualities or 
 two varieties of yarn, in addition to yarns of contrary twine, 
 are employed as weft. Combining a shoddy yarn, resembling 
 a Cheviot thread, with a Crossbred worsted yarn of equivalent 
 
 Fro. 139 
 
 counts, results in the respective surfaces of the fabric in which 
 they occur being developed with dissimilar fibrous charac- 
 teristics. This will be understood on comparing the Cheviot 
 and Crossbred specimens A and B', Fig. 136, as they appear 
 under the microscope, one type of thread marked with inter- 
 mingled and extraneous straggling fibre, and the other with 
 the filament more symmetrically disposed, and the thread 
 more uniform and compact in structure. Now, it will be 
 obvious that, if Fig. 138 were woven in yarns constructed of 
 
228 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 materials such as shoddy on the woollen system, and of Eng- 
 lish crossbred wool on the worsted system, giving yarns of a 
 like formation to A and B', Fig. 136, by applying the first 
 quality of thread to the ground sections, the second quality 
 to the portions in grey, and the two yarns intermingled by 
 the weave to the tinted grey portions of the design, each 
 textural surface would be sufficiently distinct as to render the 
 pattern style traceable, though the colouring of each material 
 and yarn, as ensues from piece-dyeing, would be identical. 
 165. Raising Action and Design Quality. Raising does not 
 
 obliterate the integral 
 parts of the design in 
 such a combination for 
 two technical reasons : 
 first, the materials and 
 yarn structures in the 
 process retain their in- 
 herent properties ; and, 
 second, the points of the 
 teazles or card wire exert 
 FIG. uo a different relative action 
 
 sn the groups of fibres 
 
 twisted to the left in the Cheviot, and on the fibres evenly 
 aligned with each other and if twisted to the right in 
 Crossbred thread. Selecting mungo or a short-stapled 
 material for the carded yarn, has the effect of emphasizing 
 the surface features due to each yarn in the woven and 
 in the finished manufacture. A yarn of this filament con- 
 sistency fine wool or mungo produces a soft, full tone 
 of texture in strong contrast with the bright, clear tone 
 of texture, formed in the worsted thread. By this system 
 of looming, in either mungo or shoddy yarns inter- weaving 
 with worsted yarns of the same diameter, the patterns 
 possess, after dyeing and finishing, an embossed appearance 
 and character. 
 
 The raised-face finish is adapted to cloths of the rug 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 229 
 
 description, but the clear finish to medium and light fabrics, 
 in which the smaller yarns applied are usually comparatively 
 firm spun as weft, with a view of adding to the tensile quality 
 of the woven product. This degree 
 of twine in the yarn is, in the 
 finishing routine, made effective 
 in delineating the twilled lines 
 when traversing the piece contra- 
 wise to the direction of the twine 
 in the threads in which they are 
 produced ; and, conversely, in 
 subduing such lines when moving 
 in agreement with the direction of 
 the filaments in the twisting of the 
 yarns employed. 
 
 166. Warp Scheme of Fabrication . 
 The warp scheme of intertexture 
 two qualities of warp and one 
 quality of weft yarn offers some 
 latitude in design origination . Fine 
 spun yarns, 2-fold in structure (see 
 the Weaving Data for Figs. 132 
 to 135, Table XXI) render con- 
 trasts, resulting from weave types, 
 sufficiently pronounced to provide 
 for several groups of pattern ele- 
 ments, each of a distinctive textural 
 formation, being blended together 
 in the same style of design. Limit- 
 ing the materials used to yarns 
 consisting of wool or animal fibre 
 
 in the warp, and of cotton or plant fibre in the weft, so that 
 dyeing Scheme A, Table XXI may be performed in one 
 process, there are salient advantages, in weave arrangement and 
 combination by this method of fabrication, as contrasted with 
 the pattern schemes feasible in the weft-surfaced cloths analysed. 
 
 FIG. 141 
 
230 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 Primarily the subject is illustrated in Figs. 134, 135 and 139, 
 formed of warp-cord plans, diversified in the dimensions of 
 the interfacings, and in the design types they produce. The 
 lozenge form of effect Fig. 134, marks = warp face -is 
 illustrative of the plan of stitching the warp ends frequently 
 with the weft when not used in the face of fabric, which causes 
 the underside of the texture to have a plain woven appearance. 
 In the instance of the sinuous waved pattern, Fig. 135, and 
 of the figured cord pattern, Fig. 139, such stitching is not 
 practised, so that, in design features, these fabrics are rever- 
 sible in construction. The alternate thread lines, marked in 
 H's and in [x]'s in the examples, are woven in ordinary and 
 in reverse twine, hence, in the tinting of the piece, each series 
 of effects assumes a different shade tone, and this results in 
 their being clearly observed and distinguishable one from 
 the other. 
 
 Such weave and thread formations, enhanced in their 
 textural character and design value by finishing practice, 
 indicate the nature of the technicalities for experimental 
 study in the origination of styles, suitable for piece-dyeing, 
 and plain or elaborated in figuring, and elementary or in- 
 volved in plan of construction. Specimens of the first variety 
 are sketched in Figs. 140 and 141. The problem is one of 
 producing both ground and pattern in contrasting weave 
 units, acquiring detail textural types in the warp yarns by 
 covering the weft intersections, and by combining worsted and 
 cotton (or equivalent fibrous substitutes), and enabling each 
 feature in the design scheme to be successfully developed in 
 a piece process of tinting. 
 
 167. Ornamentative Style Origination. Two fundamental 
 methods of manufacture may be examined. First, styles in 
 which the pattern types are distributed over the surface of the 
 cloth, with intervals between the spottings or detached 
 figures, Sketch 140 are adapted for construction in weave 
 units differing in intersection fineness, such as have a more open 
 plan for the groundwork than for the figuring. Applying this 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 231 
 
 principle to the production of Fig. 140, the warp twill in Fig. 
 142 is suitable for the ground sections and the 2-and-2 warp 
 
 FIG. 142 
 
 FIG. 143 
 
 cord for the development of the figured details. Both 
 crossings would conceal the cotton weft, and both would be 
 
 FIG. 144 
 
 FIG. 145 
 
 smartly defined in the texture by the two "twists " of thread 
 used in the warp end-and-end ; and, in addition, two tones 
 
 FIG. 146 
 
 FIG. 147 
 
 of colour would result in the dyeing of the goods. Other 
 weare assortments applicable would be the checked cord. 
 
232 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 Fig. 144, for ground and the 3-and-3 cord for figuring, or 
 the diamond make, Fig. 145, for the former and the waved 
 twill, Fig. 143, for the latter. 
 
 Second, when the pattern devices and the groundwork are 
 each being continuously formed, in the weaving of the fabric as 
 in Fig. 141, the weave schemes should, as regards intersections, 
 
 be closely related, otherwise, in 
 dyeing, the pieces have a disposi- 
 tion to crease or crimple. One 
 practice, in securing a faint out- 
 lining of the design, is to employ 
 the same twilled weave in all 
 parts of the fabric, but moving 
 to the right and to the left, as in 
 A and B, Fig. 147. Thus, using) 
 plan A for the dark parts of Fig^ 
 141 and plan B for the light 
 parts would, with the warp made 
 of one kind of yarn, cause the 
 ground portions to be producec 
 in smartly-defined twilled lines 
 but the figured portions in lessei 
 distinct textural effects, as in 
 these the direction of the twill, 
 and of the twine in the warp 
 yarn, would correspond. 
 
 The application of this class 
 of weave implies close warp 
 setting, to accentuate the contrasts yielded by the different 
 movements of the twills in the ground and figured surface of 
 the texture. ' The weaves Fig. 147 being two-ply in the 
 warp, and the reverse in warp interlacings of each other, 
 result in the distinctiveness of pattern construction, and also 
 in shade tone, following the process of dyeing. If, however, 
 more pronounced textural contrasts are desirable, 3-and-l 
 twill and 5-end sateen weaves, similarly arranged to A and B, 
 
 FIG. 148 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 
 
 233 
 
 may be applied ; or, if the production of such styles is needed 
 in single weave elements, then plans of the structure illustrated 
 in Figs. 142, 144 and 146 are appropriate for ground purposes, 
 
 FIG. 149 
 
 and weaves of the fine twilled cord variety e.g., the Venetian, 
 on 5 or 7 shafts for the formation of the decorative details. 
 
 168. Weave Elements and Pattern Values. In patterns 
 consisting of several species of woven effect, the delineation 
 of each feature is obviously acquired 
 by changing the weave elements. 
 The combination of two or three quali- 
 ties of yarn (see Figs. 140, 141 and 148) 
 with a special and distinctive ground 
 texture, cannot be satisfactorily 
 emphasized in piece-dyed union 
 fabrics of this order, without resorting to the employment of 
 particular weave units for the ground and each figured section 
 in the designs. Yet it is necessary that the effects combined 
 shall be formed in the warp yarns, the weft picks be invisible 
 in the cloth, and that the direction of the twine in the alternate 
 threads unless the weaves are reversed in twill, as in A and 
 B, Fig. 147 shall impart two tones of tinting and two quali- 
 ties of textural surface. Generally, designs fairly profuse in 
 
234 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 form detail, as in Fig. 148, involve the use of a simple plan of 
 intertexture for the ground, such as the crossings in Figs. 142, 
 143 and 146. Having determined this, the weaves for the 
 dark and light portions of the figuring in the example would 
 be selected. Here, if the compactness of form outline observed 
 in the sketch is to be retained, it is desirable that the " makes " 
 for these sections should be derived from the same inter- 
 section principle, say 3-and-3 and 2-and-2 warp cords respec- 
 tively. Three weave elements would thus be combined,! 
 which would give character to the ground of the fabric, and 
 also to the two varieties of detail in the figuring, and at the 
 same time suitably accentuate the colour tints, developed by 
 dyeing yarns of reverse twist and appearing in successive 
 order in the twills in the ground, and also in the broader and 
 smaller reps of the cord weaves of the pattern details. 
 
 169. Bi-fibred and Single-Quality Yarn Schemes. Schemes 
 B and C for looming practice relative to these manufactures, 
 and specified in Table XXI for both the weft and warp systems 
 of fabric construction, do not require, in consideration of the 
 full analysis made of the technicalities comprised in the 
 application of Scheme A in Paragraph 169, any lengthy or 
 detailed examination. It will be understood that, with the 
 contrasts in colouring which these systems of intertexture 
 afford, all the textural styles described are obtainable in 
 different degrees of clearness. For illustration, in selecting 
 the bi-fibred warping, Fig. 132, Table XXI, for the weaving 
 of Fig. 149, and wool-dyeing the piece a dark shade, develops 
 the pattern features in stripings A, Fig. 149A. Turning the 
 plan round, and wefting pick-and-pick, as in Fig. 131, Table 
 XXI, and also dyeing the cloth a dark colour, would give a 
 similar type of textural pattern but formed in the weft and 
 not in the warp yarn. In these, and all corresponding varieties 
 of union fabrics, the cotton yarn should be stained or dyed a 
 neutral shade to link it in colour tone with the shade acquired 
 in the dyeing of the piece lengths. This is also the practice 
 in the production of the manufactures in accordance with 
 
LOOMING PRINCIPLES 235 
 
 Scheme C, in which coloured yarns are employed in the warp 
 or weft having regard to the description of pattern to be 
 acquired in the loom and in the finished cloth. The weaving 
 technology and design principles, defined and dissected, are 
 common to the three systems of looming indicated in Table 
 XXI, but the formulae of manufacture are necessarily varied 
 with the system of fabrication applied. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 
 
 170. Woven Types of Thin Union Fabrics. 171. Lustre Dress 
 Fabrics. 172. Material Characteristics. 173. " Lustre " and Yarn 
 Contrasts. 174. Textural Sheen. 175. Standardized Lustre Manu- 
 factures. 176. Glacis, Sicilians, Plain Orleans and Italians. 177. 
 Russell Cords, Poplins, Repps, and Crepes. 178. Designing Principles 
 in Lustres. 179. Pattern as a Resultant of Weave Elements. 180. 
 Alpaca Coatings. 181. Figured Lustres. 182. Worsted Warp and 
 Silk Weft Structures. 183. Worsted and Cotton Warp with Silk Weft 
 for Pattern Production. 184. Essentiality of Warping and Wefting 
 Orders. 185. Gimped-Yarn Ground Textures. 186. Two-ply Warp 
 and Weft Thin Cloths. 187. Worsted and Silk-Warp Schemes of 
 Intertexture. 188. Variations in Ground Characteristics. 189. 
 Cotton and Artificial Silk Example. 190. Bordered Pattern in 
 Worsted and Silk- Warp Principle. 191. Acquirement of Decorative 
 Styles. 192. Silk Warp and Worsted Weft, 193. Warp Matelasse 
 Type. 194. Silk or Cotton and Worsted Yarns in Warp and Weft. 
 195. Weave Units and Colour Arrangement. 196. Compound Light 
 or Thin Fabrics formed in Open- and Fine-set Structures. 197. 
 Analysis of Looming Practice. 198. Surface Features. 199. Net or 
 Lace Grounds. 200. Crepons. 201. Characteristic Qualities of Sur- 
 face Waviness in Fabrics. 202. Compound Weft- Weave Crepons. 
 203. Modification of Weaving Plan. 204. Double-Weave Undulated 
 Textures. 205. Technique in Crepon Manufacture. 206. Leno and 
 Gauze Structures. 207. Combinations of Lappet and Gauze. 
 208. Microscopic Study of Gauze and Lappet Specimens. 
 
 170. Woven Types of Thin Union Fabrics. In the manu- 
 facture of dress, costume, blouse, and also of thin decorative 
 textures, the employment of two varieties of yarn, one for 
 warp and the other for weft, is a common practice. It forms 
 a system of loomwork which admits of a wide range of design 
 and colour treatment, as well as of some latitude in textural 
 construction, and in methods of fabric finishing. 
 
 The pronounced distinction between the yarn structures 
 combined, is an effective source of diversified fabrication, 
 such as results from the interlacing of threads spun of a 
 
 236 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 237 
 
 lustrous and of a non-lustrous material, and of threads differing 
 in counts, twist and fold. 
 
 FIG. 150 
 
 Cotton is largely used in the warp but worsted and linen are 
 also freely applied in this manner, with mohair, alpaca, silk- 
 
 FIG. 151 
 
 and artificial silk for weft. The assortment of yarn units, 
 and the methods of their utilization are, in a sense, only 
 
238 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 restricted by the schemes of manufacture, which, in practice, 
 have proved economical and efficient ; and which have, 
 
 FIG. 15U 
 
 therefore, become standardized, though subjective to 
 modification by original study and research. 
 
 FIG. 152 
 
 The following light-made union productions include a 
 number of the typical woven structures, and the yarn 
 combinations applicable thereto : 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 239 
 
 TABLE XXII 
 WOVEN TYPES OP THIN OB LIGHT UNION TEXTURES 
 
 ,1) Lustres, Plain and Figured. Cotton warp and lustre worsted, 
 mohair or alpaca weft. 
 
 (2) Alpaca Linings, Twills, Diagonals and Coatings. Cotton warp 
 
 and alpaca weft. 
 
 (3) Dress Fabrics, Plain, Twilled, and Figured. Cotton warp and 
 
 Silk weft. 
 
 (4) Small-figured Effects. Worsted warp and silk weft, 
 
 (5) Linen and Silk Unions. Linen warp and silk weft. 
 
 (6) Lenos and Gauzes, Plain and Figured. Cotton warp, worsted, 
 
 mohair or silk weft. 
 
 (7) Lappet Fabrics. (a) Cotton-yarn ground, with silk or worsted 
 
 lappet thread; (b) Linen-yarn ground, with cotton, worsted or 
 silk lappet thread. 
 
 (8) Compound Gauze and Lappet Structures. Yarn units as in (6) 
 
 and (7). 
 
 (9) Textures with a Crimped, Waved or Crepon Surface. Cotton 
 
 and silk, worsted and silk, etc. 
 
 (10) Fabrics Composed of Fine and Open Woven Structures. Cotton 
 
 and worsted, linen and cotton, silk and cotton, etc. 
 
 (11) Admixed Warp and Weft Manufactures. Colour, weave, and 
 
 figured patterns in various yarn types and qualities. 
 
 (12) Standard makes of Simple Fabrics, including cords, poplins, repps, 
 
 glace"s, plain Orleans, Baratheas, crepes, Sicilians, etc. 
 
 171. Lustre Dress Fabrics. Lustre manufactures form a 
 prominent section of the dress trade, and originally resulted 
 from the utilization of the alpaca staple. They comprise 
 an extensive and important variety of thin or light union 
 textures, in which the warp yarn is cotton, and the weft yarn 
 alpaca, mohair, or lustre worsted. In the ordinary grade of 
 figured " lustres," the ground of the fabric is plain woven, 
 with the decorative elements developed in weft twills, sateens, 
 and similar makes, which float the shuttling yarn freely on the 
 surface of the piece. Intermediate and shaded or irregular 
 effects, combining warp and weft intersections equally, are 
 not found satisfactory, for they either emphasize the cotton 
 yarns too greatly, or they too frequently interrupt and impair 
 the delineation of the design characteristics produced in the 
 weft and lustre yarn. 
 
240 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 The term " lustre " is significant of the kind of loom manu- 
 facture intended, a fabric or woven " stuff " having the 
 shuttling yarn flushed on the face in the development of the 
 ornamentative features of the style, and one in which this thread 
 
 FIG. 152A 
 
 imparts brightness of tone. The textural construction, and 
 the design scheme, render this practicable, while the natural 
 properties of the animal fibre selected, associated with the 
 
 FIG. 152B 
 
 system of yarn preparation and spinning, yield the second 
 quality, that of surface sheen and tinted clearness. 
 
 172. Material Characteristics. Dealing firstly with the 
 latter condition alpaca, mohair, and lustre wool, closely 
 resemble each other in physical and in chemical analysis, and 
 also in spinning technicalities. Structurally, the fibres differ 
 in degree and also in fineness and flexibility, alpaca being the 
 superior, in these features, to mohair, and mohair to lustre 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 241 
 
 FIG. 153 
 
 wool. Each class of fibre possesses a silky brightness, arising 
 
 partially from its smooth exterior and straight disposition 
 
 in the staple ; and partially 
 
 from the nature of its 
 
 finely-serrated circumfer- 
 ence, which is notably even 
 
 and equalized in the size 
 
 and order of the scale-like 
 
 elements of which the outer 
 
 part of the fibre consists. 
 
 The marginal scales are 
 
 perceptibly flatter and 
 
 closer one to the other, 
 
 accompanied by diminished 
 
 individual definition, in 
 
 alpaca than in mohair or 
 
 wool, but in each they 
 
 are well developed and 
 
 symmetrically grouped from the root to the tip of the filament. 
 
 Considering, secondly, the practice of yarn construction, it 
 
 is precisely designed and 
 adapted for exhibiting, in 
 the spun thread, the full 
 natural quality of lustre 
 in the raw material used. 
 By gill-box preparation, 
 the staples are uniformly 
 aligned, levelled, and at- 
 tenuated to their normal 
 length ; in combing, the 
 fibres are separately 
 straightened and collec- 
 
 FlG 154 tively arranged in parallel 
 
 relation ; and in the drawing 
 
 operations, by repeated doublings and drafting, the slivers 
 
 are formed into a perfectly smooth, even, and yet open 
 
 16 (1745) 
 
FIG. 155 
 
 FIG. 155A 
 Sectional Plan for Fig. 155 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 
 
 243 
 
 roving structure. If follows that the filaments do not so 
 much intersect or cross each other irregularly as lay in a 
 common line in the length of the yarn. The helical and spiral 
 
 FIG. 15G 
 
 fibre movement, accruing in the twisting process, binds 
 fibre with fibre and results in a compact, tensile thread. 
 Filament cohesion in the yarn is helped by the external forma- 
 tion of the fibres, for, in the spinning work, their serrated 
 
244 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 surfaces link or dovetail one with the other, and thereby 
 add to the unity and firmness of the resultant yarn. 
 
 173. " Lustre " and Yam Contrasts. Other favourable 
 factors to the acquirement of lustre in these manufactures 
 
 FIG. 156A 
 
 Sectional Design for Fig. 156 
 
 are- the contrasts obtained between the fibrous materials, and 
 between the consistency and character of the cotton yarn in the 
 warp and of the animal-fibre yarn in the weft. The staple of 
 one is fine, short, and non-lustrous, and the staple of the other, 
 long, diffusive, flexible, and bright. The cotton yarn is firm 
 spun, frequently two-fold, and comparatively unyielding, 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 245 
 
 whereas the weft is loosely spun, single, and of a lesser filament 
 density. The spun qualities of the latter induce the fibres 
 of which it is composed, to fill in the interstices betwixt the 
 cotton threads, and to effectively cover from sight all such 
 warp-yarn units in the parts of the texture in which the 
 weft is floated in compact order on to the face, as in the 
 production of the pattern elements. 
 
 Textural firmness is derived mainly from the warp, and 
 textural quality mainly from the weft, yarn. The softness 
 and lustre of the finished 
 piece depends, in a primary 
 sense, on the fineness of the 
 staple of the mohair or 
 alpaca. In reducing this, 
 that is, in using a coarser 
 grade of material, though 
 the counts of the yarn may 
 not be varied, the intrinsic 
 as well as the commercial 
 value of the manufactured 
 product is deteriorated.* 
 
 174. Textural Sheen. The 
 sheen or bright surface, which 
 
 mohair, alpaca and lustre worsted impart to the fabric, may be 
 further explained by referring to the fancy Borets specimen 
 reproduced in Fig. 150. The tinted warp yam is 2-fold 60's 
 cotton, and the white weft 24's lustre. Three varieties of 
 textural contrast result first, between the coloured warp 
 and the uncoloured weft ; second, between the soft-spun 
 worsted and closely-twisted cotton yarns ; and, third, between 
 the dull tone of the cotton fibre as compared with the bright 
 tone of the Leicester or Lincoln wool employed in the pre- 
 paration of the worsted. The flake or blotched effects, caused 
 by floating the lustre picks over 3, 5 or 7 successive threads 
 of warp, accentuate these contrasts. Such picks appear to 
 * See Paragraph 323 in Woollen and Worsted. 
 
 FIG. 157A 
 
246 
 
 UNION TEXT ILK FABRICATION 
 
 flush loosely on the face of the texture, due to the diffusive 
 properties of the material, the filaments of these yarns spreading 
 out laterally in those parts of the fabric where they are not 
 bound by interlacing alternately, as in the ground sections, 
 with the cotton warp ends. In a special degree the bright 
 tone of figured lustres, and of certain types of weft-figured 
 matelasses, arises from the " lofty " quality of the weft or 
 
 FIG. 157 
 
 pattern-forming yarn, but it is enhanced by the method of 
 weaving as shown, and likewise by the finishing practice. The 
 mechanical extension of the pieces in lengths and equalizing 
 of the surface of the fabric which ensues in finishing, brings 
 the lustre-material yarn into greater prominence, and, at the 
 same time, detracts from the distinctness, in the texture, of 
 the cotton threads. All free and loose fibre, or hairy filament, 
 is removed from the goods in the singeing and cutting routine, 
 which has the effect of exhibiting the even and bright formation 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 247 
 
 of the shots of Aveft. ,In the hot-pressing process, through 
 which the pieces pass, the surface sheen or gloss is still further 
 developed, arid acquires a permanent quality, or one which is 
 only slightly affected by atmopsheric conditions and friction 
 in the wear of the fabric. 
 
 175. Standardized Lustre Manufactures. A branch of in- 
 dustry so fully organized as the dress trade, admits of stand- 
 ardized practice. Alpacas, mohairs, lustres, glaces, Sicilians, 
 
 FIG. 158 
 
 serges, cords and other types of texture are now manufactured 
 in agreement with fixed looming principles, and the use of 
 prescribed warp and weft yarns, as they are dyed and finished 
 according to a definite and approved system of work. Some 
 of the looming data, which have gradually assumed a concrete 
 shape, being based upon experimental investigations leading 
 to established rules in factory operations, are tabulated on 
 pages 248 and 249, as they concern the production of the 
 principal classes and varieties of these fabrics. 
 
248 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 TABLE XXIII 
 
 SYSTEMS OF LUSTRE-FABRIC CONSTRUCTION 
 A. : V 4 -wiDTH ALPACA LININGS 
 
 Warp. * Sett. 
 
 Reed Width 
 in Inches. 
 
 Picks 
 per In. 
 
 Weft, 
 
 2/120's cotton 60's 33 
 
 53 
 
 32's alpaca 
 
 2/120*8 
 
 60's 33 
 
 58 
 
 36's 
 
 
 2/140's 
 
 64's 34 
 
 62 
 
 36's 
 
 
 2/140's 
 
 64's 34 
 
 66 
 
 36's 
 
 
 2/ ISO's 
 
 68's 34| 
 
 70 
 
 40's 
 
 
 2/150's 
 
 ! 68's 
 
 34 
 
 74 
 
 40's 
 
 
 2/1 60's 
 
 ! 72's 
 
 35 
 
 78 
 
 40's 
 
 
 2/160's 
 
 1 72's 
 
 35 
 
 82 
 
 44's 
 
 
 2/170*8 
 
 ! 76's 
 
 36 
 
 86 
 
 44's 
 
 
 2/170's 
 
 76's 
 
 36 
 
 90 46's 
 
 
 2/200's 
 
 ' 84's 
 
 38 
 
 102 50's 
 
 
 2/200's 
 
 .... i 84's 
 
 38 
 
 106 50's 
 
 
 B. : V^-WIDTH PLAIN LUSTRES 
 
 Warp. 
 
 * Sett, 
 
 Reed Width 
 in Inches. 
 
 Picks 
 per In. 
 
 Weft 
 Counts. 
 
 1/60's cotton 
 
 54's 
 
 32 ~ 
 
 56 
 
 32's 
 
 1/60's , 
 
 54's 
 
 32 
 
 58 
 
 36's 
 
 2/130's , 
 
 56's 
 
 32 
 
 58 
 
 36's 
 
 2/140's , 
 
 58's 
 
 32 
 
 64 
 
 36's 
 
 2/150's , 
 
 60's 
 
 33; 
 
 66 
 
 36's 
 
 2/150's , 
 
 60's 
 
 34i 
 
 68 
 
 40's 
 
 2/160's 
 
 62's 
 
 34. 
 
 72 
 
 44's 
 
 2/170's , 
 
 64's 
 
 3o! 
 
 74 
 
 44's . 
 
 2/180's , 
 
 66's 
 
 35i 
 
 78 
 
 46's 
 
 C. MOHAIR FIGURES 3 / 4 WIDTH 
 
 Warp. 
 
 * Sett, 
 
 Reed Width, 
 in Inches. 
 
 Picks 
 per In. 
 
 Weft, 
 Counts. 
 
 2/80's cotton 
 
 58's 
 
 30| 
 
 64 
 
 32's 
 
 2/80's .... 
 
 58's 
 
 
 62 
 
 30's 
 
 2/100's 
 
 62's 
 
 
 62 
 
 30's 
 
 2/100's 
 
 62's 
 
 p 
 
 68 
 
 30's 
 
 2/100's 
 
 62's 
 
 t 
 
 68 
 
 32's 
 
 2/100's 
 
 62's 
 
 t 
 
 72 
 
 36's 
 
 2/100's 
 
 62's 
 
 , 
 
 80 
 
 40's 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Bradford or Dress-Trade System. 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 249 
 
 TABLE XXIII (contd.) 
 
 SYSTEMS OF LUSTRE-FABRIC CONSTRUCTION 
 
 D. SERGES = 4/4 WIDTH 
 
 
 Warp. 
 
 * Sett. 
 
 Reed Width 
 in Inches. 
 
 Picks 
 per In. 
 
 Weft 
 
 Counts. 
 
 1/32's 
 
 cotton .... 
 
 50's 
 
 40| 
 
 40 
 
 32's 
 
 1/34's 
 
 , .... 
 
 50's 
 
 40f 
 
 44 
 
 32's 
 
 1/36's 
 
 , .... 
 
 50's 
 
 40f 
 
 48 
 
 32's 
 
 1/40's 
 
 , .... 
 
 60's 
 
 41 
 
 52 
 
 36's 
 
 1/40's 
 
 
 60's 
 
 41 
 
 56 
 
 36's 
 
 1/45's 
 
 .... 
 
 62's 
 
 41i 
 
 60 
 
 36's 
 
 1/50's 
 
 .... 
 
 62's 
 
 41i 
 
 64 
 
 36's 
 
 1/55's 
 
 .... 
 
 64's 
 
 4H 
 
 68 
 
 40's 
 
 I/ 60's 
 
 , 
 
 66's 
 
 4H 
 
 76 
 
 44's 
 
 E. LUSTRES 58-INCH WIDTH 
 
 Warp. 
 
 * Sett. 
 
 Reed Width 
 in Inches. 
 
 Picks 
 per In. 
 
 Weft 
 Counts. 
 
 2/120's cotton 
 
 54's 
 
 50i 
 
 56 
 
 32's 
 
 2/120's 
 
 54's 
 
 
 60 
 
 32's 
 
 2/130's 
 
 58's 
 
 
 60 
 
 36's 
 
 2/130's 
 
 58's 
 
 
 64 
 
 36's 
 
 2/140's 
 
 60's 
 
 
 64 
 
 36's 
 
 2/140's 
 
 60's 
 
 
 68 
 
 40's 
 
 2/ ISO's 
 
 62's 
 
 
 68 
 
 40's 
 
 2/ ISO's 
 
 62's 
 
 
 72 
 
 40's 
 
 2/160's 
 
 64's 
 
 
 74 
 
 44's 
 
 2/1 60's .... 
 
 64's 
 
 
 78 
 
 44's 
 
 2/170's 
 
 66's 
 
 
 80 
 
 46's 
 
 2/170's 
 
 66's 
 
 
 84 
 
 46's 
 
 2/180's 
 
 68's 
 
 
 86 
 
 48's 
 
 2/180's 
 
 68's 
 
 
 92 
 
 48's 
 
 F. FIGURED LUSTRES 3 / WIDTH 
 
 Wrirp. 
 
 *-Sett. 
 
 i Reed Width 
 in Inches. 
 
 Picks 
 per In. 
 
 Weft 
 Counts. 
 
 1/40's cotton .... 
 
 58's 
 
 32 57 
 
 32's lustre 
 
 1/50's 
 
 62's 
 
 32 
 
 62 
 
 38's 
 
 1/50's 
 
 62's 
 
 32 
 
 68 
 
 40's 
 
 1/50's .^.. 
 
 64's 
 
 32 
 
 72 ! 40's 
 
 2/110's 
 
 64's 
 
 32 
 
 66 
 
 40's 
 
 2/80's 
 
 58's 
 
 30J 
 
 58 
 
 32's demi 
 
 2/80's 
 
 64's 
 
 30! 
 
 61 
 
 36's 
 
 1/36's .... 
 
 54's 
 
 28 i 
 
 62 
 
 32's 
 
 2/40's 
 
 50's 
 
 30| 
 
 60 
 
 32's 
 
 1/32's 
 
 46's 
 
 29| 
 
 44 
 
 32's 
 
 2/100's .... 
 
 58's 
 
 30| 
 
 68 
 
 36's 
 
 2/100's 
 
 60's 
 
 30 A 
 
 76 
 
 36's 
 
 2/100's 
 
 58's 
 
 324 
 
 68 
 
 36's 
 
 1/50's 
 
 36's 
 
 28 
 
 40 
 
 36's 
 
 1/56's 
 
 36's 
 
 29^ 
 
 46 
 
 36's 
 
 1/36's 
 
 36's 
 
 29 
 
 48 
 
 32's 
 
 * Bradford or Dress-Trade System. 
 
FIG. 159 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 
 
 251 
 
 170. Glaces, Sicilians, Plain Orleans and Italians. The 
 serges are also made in different widths, such as 58 in. in place 
 
 FIG. 160 
 
 of 36, setting 59 to 59|- in. in the reed, and substituting 2/80's 
 2/90's, 2/100's and 2/120's, for the 40's, 45's, 50's and 60's 
 
 FIG. 161 
 
 single warp yarn, specified in Section D of the Table. Other 
 special makes of these fabrics include glaces, Sicilians, plain 
 Orleans and Italians. The following are given as examples 
 
252 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 in methods of construction : Glaces Warp, 2/80's cotton in 
 60's, 50's arid 66's sett, 26J, 30|, and 31Jin. in the reed, and 
 wefted with 32's yarn with 60, 62, and 64 picks per inch ; 
 also in 60's 2-fold spun silk warp, 56's sett, 28 in. in the reed, 
 and with 56 picks per inch of 30's worsted. Sicilians 2/80's 
 cotton warp, 40's-60's sett, 28J in. in the reed, and 44 picks per 
 inch of 14's lustre; or 2/80's warp, 66's sett, 27| in. in the 
 reed and 64 picks per inch of 32's yarn. Plain Orleans 50's 
 cotton warp in 48's and 50's sett, 24 \ and 31|in. in the reed 
 with 52 and 62 picks per inch of 32's and 34's super demi 
 worsted ; or 50's warp in 50's and 54's setts, 33 and 34 1 in. 
 in the reed, crossed with 32's lustre, and with 62 and 70 picks 
 per inch. Systems of looming for f width Italians are given 
 below 
 
 (U ) Sj f>U M COli 
 
 (b) 2/80's 
 (c) 2/90's 
 (d) 2/90's 
 (e) 2/100's 
 (/) 2/100's 
 
 on w 
 
 u [), ;; : 
 99' , 
 99' 
 99' 
 99' 
 99' 
 
 SI' 
 
 I 
 
 IT, OU III. 
 
 30 
 301 
 
 so} 
 
 30i 
 
 31 " 
 
 n inn r 
 
 ueu, lou jMi'i 
 150 
 170 
 
 ISO 
 200 
 1 
 
 *s per 
 
 in., ;>o s woi 
 60's 
 Go's 
 
 70's 
 70's 
 
 75' s 
 
 Sll'll \\ 
 
 (V) 2/1 20' a 
 (*) I'/ 75' a 
 
 (/) 1/75's 
 
 
 99' 
 90' 
 90' 
 
 
 31 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 
 220 
 110 
 1 10 
 
 
 76'a 
 56's 
 
 SB's 
 
 
 Other special varieties of fabric which may be made in one 
 or more sorts of material, are the voile, zephyr, cashmere, 
 flannelette and the grandelle. The two first are very light 
 textures plain woven produced in such particulars as 
 
 Voile, Warp and \V eft, 2-fold 100's or 2-fold 80's with 90 or 70 ends and 60 or 46 picks per inch . 
 , ,, single 4()'s with 70 ends and f>2 picks per inch. 
 
 A form of setting for the cashmere is 2-fold 60's cotton warp, 
 40 ends, and 60's Botany weft, with 72 picks on the inch. The 
 fine-twilled flannelette is obtainable in 36's yarn woven with 
 78 threads and 62 picks per inch ; and a type of grandelle in 
 2-fold 32's twist warp and 18's marl weft, having, in the loom, 
 96 threads and 64 shots to the inch. 
 
 177. Russell Cords, Poplins, Repps, and Crepes. As 
 demonstrating the technical and weaving principles involved 
 in these descriptions of union dress textures of a semi-lustrous 
 quality, standardized data of production are specified on the 
 two following pages. 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 253 
 
 TABLE XXIV 
 
 RUSSELL CORDS, POPLINS, REPPS, AND CREPES EXAMPLES IN- 
 SETTING PRACTICE 
 
 RUSSELL CORDS 3 /4 WIDTH 
 
 
 Weft. 
 
 Sett, 
 
 Reed Width 
 in Inches. 
 
 Picks per 
 Inch. 
 
 Weft 
 Counts. 
 
 2/60's 
 
 cotton . . 
 
 58's 
 
 31* 
 
 60 
 
 34's demi 
 
 M 
 
 99 *--'->* 
 
 
 31f 
 
 72 
 
 32's 
 
 M 
 
 
 99 
 
 32f 
 
 88 
 
 36's 
 
 
 99 ... 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 
 40's lustre 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 J? 
 
 33| 
 
 120 
 
 99 
 
 2/50's 
 
 cotton - -. 
 
 52's 
 
 30 
 
 80 
 
 32's demi 
 
 j? 
 
 ... 
 
 56's 
 
 3H 
 
 100 
 
 M 
 
 }> 
 
 ,, ... 
 
 54's 
 
 32! 
 
 112 
 
 ff 
 
 1/30's 
 
 cotton 
 
 50's 
 
 29! 
 
 62 
 
 f 
 
 99 
 
 ,, ... 
 
 99 
 
 > 
 
 68 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 74 
 
 >9 
 
 POPLINS 
 
 Warp. 
 
 Sett. 
 
 Reed Width Picks per 
 in Inches. 1 Inch. 
 
 Weft 
 Counts. 
 
 2/80's cotton . * . . ! 72's 
 
 26! 66 
 
 28's worsted 
 
 2/40's . . 1 72's 
 
 27 ' 68 
 
 28's 
 
 2/50's ... 
 
 72's 
 
 28 62 
 
 28's 
 
 2/40's ... 
 
 66's 
 
 26A i 60 
 
 28's 
 
 2/80's 
 
 60's-80's 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 14's 
 
 2/60's ... 
 
 66's 
 
 27| 
 
 64 
 
 32's 
 
 2/60's 
 
 66's 
 
 27^- 
 
 56 
 
 24's 
 
 2/50's 
 
 60's 
 
 27 
 
 54 
 
 32's 
 
 3/40's 
 
 60's 
 
 27! 
 
 54 
 
 32's 
 
 REPPS 
 
 Warp. 
 
 Sett. 
 
 I Reed Width 
 in Inches. 
 
 Picks pei 
 Inch. 
 
 Weft 
 Counts. 
 
 2 ends (as one) of 2/40's cotton > 56's 
 1 end of 2/80's 
 
 27^ 
 
 39 
 
 24's worsted 
 
 2 ends (as one) of 1/24's cotton 56's 
 1 end of 2/80's 
 
 21! 
 
 40 
 
 34's 
 
 3 ends (as one) of 2/40's cotton 
 1 end of 2/80's 
 
 54's 
 
 28! 39 
 
 24's 
 
 4 ends (as one) of 2/80's cotton 
 1 end of 2/80's 
 
 66's 
 
 28! 
 
 44 24's 
 
 3 ends (as one) of 2/60's cotton 
 1 end of 2/80's 
 
 66's 
 
 28| 
 
 44 24's 
 
 2 ends (as one) of 2/40's cotton 
 1 end of 2/80's 
 
 72's 
 
 28 
 
 48 32's 
 
254 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 TABLE XXIV (contd.) 
 CREPES 4/4 WIDTH 
 
 Reed Width 
 Warp. Sett. in inches. 
 
 Picks per. Weft 
 Inch. Counts. 
 
 1/40's cotton . 62's 42 
 
 64 
 
 40's worsted 
 
 1/50's 
 
 
 
 62's 42| 
 
 70 
 
 40's 
 
 
 1/50's 
 
 
 
 62's 43 
 
 76 
 
 44's 
 
 
 1/55's 
 
 
 
 64's 43| 
 
 82 
 
 50's 
 
 
 1/55's 
 
 
 
 64's 
 
 43* 
 
 90 
 
 54's 
 
 
 1/60's 
 
 
 
 OS's 
 
 44 
 
 100 
 
 56's 
 
 
 1/60's 
 
 
 
 G8's 
 
 45 
 
 108 
 
 56's 
 
 
 1/65's 
 
 
 
 72's 
 
 40 
 
 112 
 
 60's 
 
 
 1/65's 
 
 
 
 72's 
 
 46 
 
 _ 120 
 
 60's 
 
 
 l/G5's 
 
 72's 
 
 40 
 
 128 
 
 64's 
 
 
 178. Designing Principles in Lustres. hi lustre goods, con- 
 structed on the systems indicated in Table XXIII, the yarn 
 
 FIG. 159A 
 
 .Sectional Structure for Fig. J59 
 
 characteristics determine the fabric structure and the design 
 scheme or basis. A simple build of texture is, in this instance, 
 made imperative, inasmuch as the warp yarns are restricted, in 
 function, to knitting the weft shots together. On the other 
 hand, the designs require to be planned to provide for the 
 advantageous use of the weft yarn in forming a satisfactory 
 ground fabric, and in clearly delineating the decorative 
 features. Systems of work will be illustrated relative to : 
 (1) manufactures in which the cotton warp threads are con- 
 cealed by the weft yarns ; (2) textures in which two or more 
 types of w r eave are combined ; and (3) figured styles having 
 an elementary ground plan. 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 255 
 
 HIM 
 
 The idea, in the first principle of construction is to produce a 
 surface pattern in the lustre yarn, which shall be so arranged as 
 to give an evenly-constituted fabric. Two examples are shown 
 
 in Figs. 151 and 151 A, pages 237 
 and 238. Here it will be observed 
 the warp intersections are limited, 
 on the face, to single floats an 
 arrangement which yields a texture 
 with a weft surface and a cotton- 
 yarn effect on the under side. It is 
 a practice which 
 brings a maxi- 
 mum amount of 
 the lustre yarn 
 into view in the 
 development of 
 the design; but 
 the fabric, un- 
 less the weaves 
 are carefully 
 planned, is liable 
 to suffer in wear 
 ing durability. 
 There is some 
 scope for style 
 origination, par- 
 ticularly in fancy 
 twills, diagonals, 
 diamond, rhom- 
 boid and transposition effects. The basic plans may also 
 be varied in the looming. For example, the twilled lines, 
 immediately adjoining the sections printed in grey, Fig. 151 A, 
 might be changed to plain, or these sections might be woven 
 in heavier weft inter lacings, and both alterations would 
 definitely modify the textural pattern. 
 
 179. Pattern as a Resultant of Weave Elements. In the second 
 
 FIG. 160A 
 
 Sectional Plan for Fig. 160 
 
 FIG. 16lA 
 
 Sectional Plan for Fig. 161 
 
256 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 scheme of production, contrasts in weave elements are admis- 
 sible, resulting in a bold, pronounced description of design. 
 Three suggestive illustrations are supplied in Figs. 152, 152A, 
 and 152B, pages 238 and 240. Fig. 152 is composed of two 
 stripings, A and B, the first consisting of a diaper pattern, and 
 the second of plain intertexture. The latter should form the 
 larger quantity, allowing of the space it fills in the fabric, being 
 variously coloured in the warp. When this method of weaving 
 is practised, the goods are not piece-dyed, but finished in the 
 
 FIG. 162 
 
 same tints and shades as woven. Fig. 152A is of a different 
 character, and typical of striped weave compounds in which 
 a small twilled effect is continued into the special feature in 
 the style : the difference in weave formation is less marked, as 
 regards the disparity in the intersections of the two crossings 
 combined, than in the succeeding example, but the textural 
 distinctions are none the less evident in the pattern. This 
 is observed on examining the two effects, C and D in Fig. 152 A, 
 that in C being a clearly-defined twill, and that in D a weft 
 diamond, or two weaves as dissimilar in structural elements 
 as the two used in the composition of Fig. 152. The third 
 specimen, Fig. 152s, consists of crepe and plain makes, an 
 assortment of weave applicable to checks and stripes (dobbie 
 and drafted patterns) and also to simple figured styles 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 257 
 
 constructed on a geometrical base. Usually the crepe effects, 
 as bringing a fuller percentage of the lustre yarn on to the face 
 of the fabric than the plain weave or fine twill with which 
 they are associated, form 
 the principal parts of this 
 variety of design. 
 
 180. Alpaca Coatings. 
 The alpaca coating (of which 
 Fig. 153, page 241, is a woven 
 example) if made of demi-lus- 
 tre yarns spun from the 
 shorter-stapled material is 
 produced in weave types 
 which float both the warp and 
 the weft threads on the sur- 
 face, including the derivative 
 plans of the common twills, 
 and plans of the twilled mat 
 and common mat category. 
 An illustration of the latter 
 type is supplied in Fig. 154. 
 It contains fourteen weft to 
 ten warp intersections on 
 each pick. With an increased 
 ratio of warp units, the 
 appearance of the texture 
 is deteriorated. Though the 
 weft yarn is, on an average, 
 nearly as thick again as the counts of the warp when both are 
 reduced to the same denominator, it is not sufficient to counter- 
 balance the dulness of tone due to the cotton features in the 
 manufacture. There is, therefore, a limit to which the warp 
 threads should be employed in developing the details in this 
 class of weave design. The plan shown may be taken as 
 typical of the full number of the relative interfacings in which 
 the two yarns are combinable. Adding to the weft factor 
 
 17 (1745) 
 
 FIG. 162A 
 Sectional Plan for Fig. 
 
258 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 improves the surface quality, while adding to the warp factor 
 detracts from the lustrous value of the piece. 
 
 For weaves of this order and also for those of the class 
 exemplified in Figs. 151 and 151 A, suitable looming particulars 
 are as follows 
 
 (1 ) Warp, 2/80's cotton, 58's sett, 32i in. in the reed: Weft, 32's demi, 50 picks per inch 
 
 (2) 2/90's 60's 33" ; ,,' 36's 54 
 
 (3) 2/100's 60's 34 : ,, 36's 60 
 
 (4) 2/110's 60's 35 ; 36's 64 
 
 (5) 2/120's 60's 35 J ; 40's G8 
 
 181. Figured Lustres. These textures are more varied and 
 interesting in design composition than the specimens considered. 
 The ordinary grades of figured lustre fabrics have a plain 
 ground, as in the example in Fig. 155, page 242, and for which 
 a section of the looming design is sketched at Fig. 155A. The 
 decorative elements are developed in solid floats of weft and 
 in compact weft twills, The specimen in Fig. 156 is woven 
 with a twill ground with the ornamentation in heavy weft 
 twill and sateen, as indicated in the sectional plan, Fig. 156A. 
 This principle of work is better adapted for acquiring newness 
 of texture, and also freshness of pattern definition, than that 
 illustrated in Fig. 155A. As a result of diversifying the weave 
 structures, the floral forms and other elements in the design 
 scheme may be clearly and suggestively executed. 
 
 Diversity of tinting in such " lustres " is to be obtained 
 by cross-dyeing. The general practice is to dye the cotton 
 and the lustre yarn the same shade, imparting a rich tone to 
 the weft effects, but, in tinting the two yarns differently, the 
 colour quality of the manufacture may be increasingly 
 varied. 
 
 182. Worsted Warp and Silk Weft Structures. Substituting 
 silk for lustre worsted, mohair or alpaca weft, produces, in the 
 same principle of looming as practised in the weaving of the 
 classes of manufacture illustrated in Figs. 155 and 156 pages 
 243 and 244 a finer, softer, and richer quality of texture, which 
 is further enhanced by the use of worsted in the place of cotton 
 
260 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 warp yarns. Utilizing the plain weave for ground, and acquiring 
 pattern definition by floating the weft yarn as in " lustres," a 
 more flexible variety of fabric is obtained, specimens of which are 
 illustrated in Figs. 157 and 158. It will be observed that some 
 surface tinting of the texture is now developed by using coloured 
 warp threads. The clearness of textural effect, which the silk 
 and worsted yarns present in this simple scheme of weave com- 
 bination plain ground and flushed weft figuring allows of 
 such tinting in the warp without detracting from the tone and 
 emphasis of the component parts of the design, woven in the 
 solid floats of silk weft. The two examples are made in 
 2-fold 60's worsted warp, 60 ends and picks per inch, the 
 weft being 40's silk. For Fig. 157 the warp is arranged six 
 threads of black and six threads of black and white print yarn, 
 and for Fig. 158 it is composed entirely of printed threads 
 in- white and a pale tint of green. The design for the former 
 is shown at Fig. 157A, and that for the latter merely consist 
 of spottings set at equal distances apart, with maximum and 
 minimum weft intersections covering nine and three threads 
 respectively in the warp. 
 
 A distinctive feature in Fig. 157 is the formation of the weft 
 effects on the dark lines in the warp, leaving the detail in the 
 intermediate stripings, woven in the printed threads, an 
 interesting characteristic of the style. In Fig. 158 the ground 
 of the texture intermingled in tinting and marking is a 
 predominate quality of the structure. By one system of 
 work, that- practised in the production of the specimen in 
 Fig. 157, each technicality in manufacture is valuable, yarn 
 and shade contrasts, weave and pattern delineation ; by the 
 second system, that illustrated in Fig. 158, textural design, 
 as a product of weft intersections, is secondary, being chiefly 
 useful in adding diversity of composition to the line effects 
 developed in the printed warp threads. Both textures are 
 practically plain woven in the ground, and, as such, possess 
 similar wearing qualities, but each is suggestive of a specific 
 principle of design and scheme of surface tinting. 
 
- . n: u g ^ - - : r : : . - : . m. r : . - - 
 
 aaiiiaaiiaaiB lat 
 
262 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 183. Worsted and Cotton Warp with Silk Weft for Pattern 
 Production. Varying the construction of the fabric intro- 
 duces a number of additional weaving elements into the 
 
 FIG. 166 
 
 designing practice. Two principal methods of manufacture 
 may be examined which provide for the combination of 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 263 
 
 worsted, cotton and silk threads in the looming, namely, that 
 in which the figuring is a resultant of the silk weft yarn, and 
 that in which it is formed by the cotton warp and silk weft. 
 Considering the first method, reference will be made to the 
 
 FIG. 166A 
 Sectional Plan for Fig. 166 
 
 specimens reproduced in Figs. 159 and 160, and for which the 
 weaving data are as follows 
 
 FIG. 159, PAGE 250. SECTIONAL PLAN, FIG. 159A, PAGE 254 
 
 Warp. 
 
 2 threads of 2 -fold 80 's cotton, white or tinted. 
 1 thread of 2-fold 40's worsted, dark shade. 
 1 2 -fold 80 's cotton, white or tinted. 
 
 Weft. 
 30's spun silk. Printed in several bright colours. 
 
 80 threads and 60 picks per inch. 
 
 FIG. 160, PAGE 251. SECTIONAL PLAN, FIG. 160A, PAGE 255 
 
 Warp. 
 
 thread of 2 -fold 60 's worsted, dark shade. 
 ,, 2-fold 60's cotton, black. 
 ,, 2 -fold 60 's worsted, dark shade. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 pick of 24's worsted. 
 ,, 30's spun silk. 
 
 84 threads and 84 picks per inch. 
 
 184. Essentiality of Warping and Wefting Orders. The 
 warping and wefting orders are an essential part of the com- 
 position and design of this class of woven union. They require 
 
264 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 to be planned with the object of attaining economy of fabric 
 production both as to actual weaving, and as to the advan- 
 tageous use and application of the silk weft. In a given 
 scheme of warping and shuttling, different fabric structures 
 are formable, but this should be framed in relation to the 
 qualities of yarn selected and the type of textural effect it is 
 sought to acquire in each. Taking Fig. 159, the figuring is 
 woven in the plain make, the ground sections being decorated 
 with crimpled lines in worsted yarn. This denotes that the 
 cotton ends and silk picks dotted portions of the sectional 
 plan, Fig. 159A, page 254 should be utilized in forming a 
 plain texture which will be visible in the figuring by covering 
 the worsted warp, and partially invisible in the ground sections 
 by the worsted yarns being stitched loosely to the face of the 
 plain- wo ven structure. If, in this specimen, white or a pale 
 colour of silk weft had been applied instead of the variegated 
 printed weft yarn, the ornamentative outlines and features 
 would have been more clearly delineated, but the ensemble of 
 effects would have been less diversified and also less interesting 
 in tinted composition. 
 
 185. Gimped-Yarn Ground Textures. Examining this design 
 arrangement, it is two-ply in the warp and single in the weft, 
 with, however, the figuring and ground of the fabric both 
 produced in the same groups of threads and picks. The 
 worsted yarns have a supplementary function. They are not 
 used in making the texture proper, being spread on the face 
 or on the back of the fabric produced in the cotton warp and 
 the silk weft. This is effected by stitching the worsted 
 threads tinted grey in Plan 159A in sateen order to the 
 plain structure when appearing in the groundwork, and by 
 similarly binding them with the cotton and silk interlacings 
 when transferred to the reverse side of the pattern and flushed 
 underneath the figuring. The difference in the diameters of 
 the worsted as compared with the silk and cotton threads 
 combined with the easy tensioning of the worsted warp in 
 weaving, and the system of loosely stitching this yarn to the 
 
266 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 surface of a fine, plain fabric, give rise to the design and 
 textural contrasts observed in the specimen. 
 
 186. Two-Ply Warp and Weft Thin Cloths. Fig. 160, page 
 251, is compound in the warp and in the weft but forms a light- 
 build of union cloth in the yarns and loom setting specified. It 
 illustrates the principle of construction in which worsted yarn 
 is used in the warp and makes the face of the fabric, inter- 
 weaving with silk weft for spotting or figuring and with 
 worsted weft for the ground plan of effect. To this grouping 
 of yarns a series of cotton warp threads are added, which inter- 
 sect in plain order with both weft yarns, and thus yield a 
 firm foundation texture regularly compacted with the worsted 
 and silk structure. In the sectional design Fig. 1 60A, page 255 
 the cotton warp threads are coloured grey and dotted, while 
 the worsted threads are un coloured and marked in gj's at the 
 points of intersection with the silk and worsted picks. The 
 silk weft, in the spottings, covers both the cotton and the 
 worsted warp ends, but in the line details it only covers the 
 latter. The cotton threads, though interlaced in plain order, 
 are well concealed by the thicker and more numerous worsted 
 threads with which they are combined. The specimen is 
 illustrative of the principle of looming for producing a thin, 
 spotted or figured worsted warp and silk weft texture, having 
 a warp weave effect in the ground, in combination with a 
 plain cotton warp and worsted and silk weft structure, which 
 imparts firmness and durability to the otherwise single build 
 of fabric. 
 
 187. Worsted and Silk- Warp Schemes of Intertexture. The 
 application of silk in the warp to dress and other light textures, 
 is effected on various principles, employing different orders 
 of warping and plans of construction. A number of these will 
 be analysed and illustrated. First, one economic practice 
 consists in arranging the warp in alternate groups of worsted 
 and silk yarn, as in the pattern sketched in Fig. 161 and for 
 which a section of the working design is shown at Fig. 161 A, 
 page 255, The warp, in this instance, is made of 2-fold 60's 
 
FIG. 1G7A 
 Plan of Section showing Warp Figuring for Specimen 167 
 
 
 
 # 
 
 '//* 
 
 z 
 
 ill 
 
 ZLvrzn 
 
 KMSS* 
 
 >x-P^ 
 ///././. 
 
 FIG. 167a 
 
 Section of Structural 
 Plan for Fig. 16? 
 
268 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 worsted (dark shade) and 60's 2-fold white silk arranged 3- 
 and-3 and wefted with 30's black worsted, the fabric having 
 72 threads and 48 picks per inch. Some breaking up of the 
 pattern features is necessarily caused by this form of com- 
 bination, but with the textures plain woven in the ground, and 
 the figuring of a simple character, this is not regarded as detri- 
 mental, more especially if the design style should be adapted, 
 
 FIG. 168 
 
 as in the specimen, and as indicated in the sectional plan, 
 Fig. 161 A, to the warping scheme. 
 
 Using the silk threads for line effects and spotting, rather 
 than for the formation of a considerable part of the fabric, the 
 yarns are grouped on some similar system to that illustrated 
 in Fig. 162, page 256, which results from warping 2 threads 
 of 2 -fold 60 's worsted, 1 double thread of 40 's 2 -fold silk, and 
 3 threads of 2-fold 60's worsted ; and from employing a plan 
 constructed as shown in the section design, Fig. 162A, page 257. 
 The weft is 30's worsted and the fabric has 78 ends and 56 picks 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 269 
 
 per inch. It acids to the value of the tinted quality of the 
 pattern to use several colours of silk yarn in contrasting hues, 
 and toning with the shades of worsted yarn making the ground 
 of the pattern. Thus, in 
 this example, figured in both 
 the worsted warp and weft, 
 the shades combined are a 
 dark and light tone of green, 
 with heliotrope, orange, 
 lavender and pale green as 
 silk spotting threads. The 
 latter are irregularly dis- 
 tributed through the ground- 
 work of Fig. 162 but they 
 may be made to form an 
 elementary or geometrical FIG. 168A 
 
 type Of design. Wheil the Sectional Plan for Fig. 168 
 
 silk yarns occur more frequently in the warping, they 
 are utilized in the development of distinctive pattern 
 schemes on the worsted texture woven in twill, mat, or some 
 simple weave plan. Two examples of this principle of manu- 
 facture are given in Figs. 163 and 164 for which the loom 
 settings are as follows 
 
 FIG. 103, PAGE 259. Warp. 
 2 threads of 2-fold 48's worsted, dark shade. 
 
 1 thread of 30 's 2 -fold silk or mercerized cotton, Tint a. 
 
 2 threads of 2-fold 48's worsted, dark shade. 
 *2 2 -fold 48's worsted, light shade. 
 
 1 thread of 30's 2-fold silk or mercerized cotton, Tint b. 
 
 2 threads of 2-fold 48's worsted, light shade. 
 
 12's reed 5's. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 4 picks of 24's worsted, dark shade. 
 4 24's light shade. 
 
 50 picks per inch. 
 
270 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 104, PA UK 201. Warp. 
 threads of 2 -fold 50's worsted, light shade. 
 
 12 Th (\ 
 
 thread of 40's 2-fold silk, bright colour. 
 
 2-fold 56's worsted, light shade. 
 
 Weft, 
 
 28's worsted medium shade. 
 
 72 worsted threads and 68 worsted picks per inch. 
 
 188. Variations in Ground Characteristics. By the first of 
 these arrangements, the worsted ground is checked in two 
 
 FIG. 169 
 
 shades and spotted with silk in the centre of each checked 
 unit ; and by the second arrangement, a twilled worsted 
 texture, in a light shade of warp and a medium shade of weft, 
 is spotted with the silk warp threads, which are evenly stitched 
 on the under side of the fabric when not used in forming the 
 effects on the face. Such pattern types Figs. 163 and 164 
 are based on employing the silk as an extra or as a special 
 warp yarn, and in this they differ from the method of yarn 
 admixture in Fig. 161 and also in Fig. 165, pages 251 and 262. 
 In the simpler orders of warping (3-and-3 in Fig. 161, and 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 271 
 
 S? ! 91. P Pi, iP| A + ~Pj ;P; 
 
 1-and-l in Fig. 1(55, woven in a similar plan to Fig. 139, page 
 227) ordinary weave principles are applicable, but in the treat- 
 ment of the silk as an " extra ' ' for the development of particu- 
 lar pattern elements, the weave structure becomes compound in 
 the direction of the warp and single in the direction of the weft 
 yarn. 
 
 189. Cotton and Artificial Silk Example. The scheme of 
 warp -yarn admixture in 
 which certain counts and 
 qualities of yarn are used 
 in the formation of the 
 design, and other kinds of 
 yarn in the ground of the 
 fabric is elaborated in the 
 origination of figured stripe 
 and border patterns. Two 
 extensions of the scheme 
 of this character are typi- 
 fied in Figs. 166 and 167 
 
 xxx 
 
 H3 
 
 FIG. 169A 
 
 Sectional Plan for Fig. 169 
 
 pages 262 and 265 one 
 illustrative of textural 
 effects and the second of 
 decorative features as a 
 part of piece manufacture. 
 Fig. 166 is woven in cotton and artificial silk yarns, the pattern 
 being a product of varying the plan of interlacing the two sets 
 of warp threads employed, arranged 1-and-l in sections A and 
 B, with the intervening spaces formed in plain weave. 
 Fabric structure is the basis of the pattern features, their 
 clearness of delineation being accentuated by the contrasts 
 in the qualities and thicknesses of the yarns selected. Details 
 An the artificial silk are also made distinctive in tone and 
 \ definition by tensioning these threads separately, or to a 
 1 lesser degree than the cotton threads used in the ground of the 
 texture. With the same pattern woven in cotton yarns through- 
 out, though the figuring and ground threads were differently 
 
272 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 tinted, the resultant style would be flat in tone and deficient 
 in textural quality. Design structure, as regards weaving prin- 
 ciples, is of the variety described, consisting, as illustrated in 
 the sectional plan, Fig. 166A page 263 of floating the silk 
 threads tinted grey on the surface in forming the pattern 
 elements, and of interlacing them in plain order in the intervals 
 with the cotton weft. As such threads are delivered under 
 
 a low tension, they 
 develop the design 
 features in relief and 
 also tint the ground 
 of stripings A and B ; 
 while the plain sec- 
 tions, in cotton warp 
 and weft, present a 
 soft but duller colour 
 toning. 
 
 190. Border Patterns 
 in Worsted and Silk- 
 Warp Principle. 
 Border designs, in 
 costume and dress 
 fabrics, are acquired 
 in this weaving and 
 warping scheme (Figs, 164 and 166), in which warp 
 threads of a special quality are substituted, in end-and-end 
 sequence, for the ordinary ground threads, employed in 
 producing the textural characteristics in sections A and B 
 of the last example. Controlling these in a prescribed 
 order by the shedding motion of the dobbie, and by the 
 method of entering them into the heald shafts, as also by 
 special tensioning, they are usable at will in the construction 
 of elementary design types. As there are no technical factors 
 which prevent such effects from being developed at one edge 
 of the piece, they may be applied in the origination of a bor- 
 dered texture instead of in the manufacture of a cloth 
 
 FIG. 170 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 273 
 
 striped or spotted in sectional parts, as in Figs. 162, 103, 164, 
 and 166. 
 
 191. Acquirement of Decorative Styles. Decorative styles 
 are obtained in this make of union structure by using a harness 
 and shaft mounting, the harness being utilized in the develop- 
 ment of the border design, and the shafts in the construction of 
 the piece or foundation fabric. Fig. 167 page 265 is a worsted 
 costume or skirting with the border produced in extra warp 
 
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 FIG. 170A 
 Design for Fig. 171 
 
 (silk and worsted) yarns operated by the Jacquard mechanism, 
 and the piece yarns by either a small dobbie or a set of tappets. 
 In the employment of two groups of warp yarns, delivered oft 
 separate beams, for figuring and ground purposes, the structure 
 corresponds with the principle of loomwork practised in the 
 weaving of the specimen in Fig. 160 ; but, whereas in the 
 latter, the figuring yarns displace certain of the ordinary 
 warp threads, here, as in Fig. 164, they form an additional 
 element, allowing of the production of the twilled texture 
 from side to side of the piece, that is in the figured and 
 imfigured parts alike. 
 
 18 (1 745) 
 
274 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 Figs. 167 A and 167B page 267 are sectional plans showing 
 the cloth formation in the border. The twilling threads 
 
 FIG. 171 
 
 marked in El's, Fig. 167B alternate with the figuring threads in 
 black and grey representing the dark and light tones in the 
 
 pattern, woven in worsted and silk 
 B , yarns. From these sections, it will 
 be observed that the pattern yarns 
 float successively on the face and 
 back of the fabric, with the 
 twilling threads intermediately 
 arranged. Design preparation is 
 done by transferring the sketch on 
 to the point paper for the Jacquard 
 mounting, the marked places Fig. 
 167A indicating the positions in 
 which the threads of the figuring 
 warp appear on the upper side of the cloth, and the blank 
 sections the positions in the design where such threads float 
 loosely on the underside of the piece. Stitching or binding 
 ends might be used for securing the pattern-producing threads 
 regularly to the ground structure, but, if employed, they should 
 not be allowed to interfere with the even construction of the 
 twilled weave. The importance of this point, and the technical 
 
 B 
 FIG. 17U 
 
 Plan of Fig. 171 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 275 
 
 difficulty of attaining it satisfactorily with the addition of 
 special stitching yarns, will be understood on comparing the 
 relative amount of ornamentation on lines A, A' and B, B' in 
 Fig. 167, and in view of the fact that the ground make or twill 
 is perfectly uniform in all parts of the border design. Using 
 extra stitching threads tends to complicate the drafting of 
 
 FIG. 172 
 
 the looming plan and the build of the fabric, and also to modify 
 the accurate symmetry of the twill on the surface of the cloth, 
 causing it to differ in appearance and in clearness from the 
 same weave in the unfigured parts of the piece. 
 
 Silk and worsted yarns have been combined in the weaving 
 of this border style, but mercerized cotton or artificial silk 
 threads are also suitable ; or the w^hole texture, ground as 
 well as figuring, may be produced in cotton warp and worsted 
 weft yarns. Linen threads are likewise applicable, changing 
 
276 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 the build of the fabric to a plain make for the purpose of 
 obtaining a greater degree of fineness of construction. 
 Analogous tones of colouring have been selected in the weaving 
 of the example, namely, fawn and deep fawn, as harmonizing 
 with the medium pinky-brown mixture shade used in the pro- 
 duction of the piece width. Large decorative effects, such as 
 
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 FIG. 172A 
 
 those illustrated in this specimen, may be more naturally 
 linked with the groundwork of the cloth by practising tone- 
 upon-tone colouring than by developing the pattern in 
 contrasting hues. 
 
 192. Silk Warp and Worsted Weft. The use of silk in the 
 whole of the warp with worsted yarn as weft, may be advan- 
 tageously carried out by varying the fabric build in some such 
 form as exemplified in the specimen in Figs. 168 and 169, 
 produced in designs constructed as shown in Figs. 168A and 
 109A, and in the following weaving data : 
 
TEXTVKE8 LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 277 
 
 FIG. 1(58, PAGE 208. SECTIONAL PLAN, FIG. 108A, PAGE 209 
 
 Warp. 
 2 threads of 50 's 2 -fold silk, drawn in one mail. 
 
 1 thread of 60's 2-fold silk or 2-fold 60's mercerized cotton. 
 
 100 threads per inch. 
 
 Wefl. 
 
 2-fold 50's worsted. 54 picks per inch. 
 
 FIG. 169, PAGE 270. SECTIONAL PLAN, FIG. 169A, PAGE 271 
 
 Warp. 
 All 60's 2-fold silk. 68 ends per inch. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 2 picks of 50's worsted. 
 
 1 pick of gimp yarn, made of 2 threads of 40's worsted twisted with 
 1 thread of 30's worsted. 
 
 193. Warp Matelasse Type. Fig. 168 is a species of warp 
 matelasse, and Fig. 169 of plain and flushed warp and weft 
 weaving. The looming plan for the former is prepared by 
 
 A B 
 
 FIG. 174 
 
 outlining the pattern in colour (grey in the illustration) on 
 the point-paper, and by marking the alternate threads (printed 
 in black) for forming the silk details in the texture. The 
 ground weave is plain, but, in using a thicker weft than warp 
 yarn, a repped effect is produced. As the doubled silk 
 ends marked in H's in the design, Fig. 168A appear on 
 the surface in the development of the pattern, the single ends 
 interweave with the weft 3-and-l on the back of the fabric, 
 
278 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 preventing the origination of loose floats, and resulting in a 
 fast- woven structure. In Fig. 169, the gimp yarn (shown in 
 0's in the plan, Fig. 169A) yields a kind of repp or cord ground- 
 work and also certain line features (printed in gfs), but the 
 principal parts of the figuring are due to the fine worsted weft 
 which forms a plain texture with the silk warp. The gim 
 B 
 
 FIG. 175 
 
 yarn flushing in such plain sections on the under side of the 
 fabric causes them to possess a raised and crepon appearance. 
 
 194. Silk or Cotton and Worsted Yarns in Warp and Weft. 
 The class of yarn admixture that will be analysed under this 
 category, and in the following paragraph, is that obtainable 
 in special weave structures formed in coincidence with 
 particular systems of warping and wefting. 
 
 195. Weave Units and Colour Arrangement. Primarily, the 
 specimen in Fig. 170 page 272 is an example in open-mat 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 279 
 
 and plain weaves (Fig. 170A, page 273) in which the yarns are 
 arranged : 14 threads of 60's 2-fold white silk (or mercerized 
 cotton), and 2 threads of 2-fold 60's black and 2 threads of 2-fold 
 60's white worsted, for 14 threads. Sections A of the design are 
 
 >^r' J 
 
 FIG. 176 
 
 woven in white silk and sections A' in black and white worsted 
 checkings. The effects, marked in fo]'s in B, are woven in 
 silk, and also those marked in lE's in B'. The second illustra- 
 tion Fig. 171, page 274 is interesting as showing how the 
 weave plan (Fig. 171 A) in combination with the order of colour- 
 ing, arranged to fit with the intersection scheme, may be utilized 
 in modifying the shape of the integral parts of the pattern. 
 
280 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 There are clearly two sizes of rectangular spaces in the plain or 
 dotted portions of the plan, and line and oblong features in the 
 portions printed in n's and in [x]'s. The alteration of these 
 to semi-circular forms in the style, is strictly due to the manner 
 in which the fast-woven sections act upon the loosely inter- 
 woven ones, the parts formed in the black worsted threads and 
 picks encroaching upon those formed in the white worsted (or 
 cotton) yarns. The checking or divisional lines in silk help 
 to define the shape of the spottings, and give character to the 
 style. The order of warping and wefting consists of 4 threads 
 of white (cotton or worsted), 2 threads of silk, 4 threads of 
 .white and 8 threads of black worsted. A radical basis of 
 construction obtains in these types of woven design in the 
 fast and comparatively open weaves combined, arid in their 
 arrangement with a view of developing the qualities of each 
 yarn unit. This is seen, in the first instance, in the employ- 
 ment of the worsted yarns in forming the detail effects in 
 black and white, and in the use of the silk threads in empha- 
 sizing the series of compact weft floats in B and the compact 
 warp floats in B' ; and, in the second instance, in the worsted 
 warp and weft making the sections, in plain, adjacent with the 
 sections in loosely-floated threads and picks, and in the 
 influence which the former exert over the latter in the shaping 
 of the pattern outlines, with the silk ends and shots producing 
 overchecking lines in an intermediate scheme of intersection. 
 The same principles of intertexture are applied in the third 
 example (Fig. 172, page 275), but here the plain weave por- 
 tions of the style are combined with sections composed of open 
 warp and weft twills (Fig. 172A, page 276) one the reverse, in 
 interlacing, of the other. This latter ingredient enables the 
 colouring in A and A' to be equally accentuated in the texture, 
 and in marked contrast with the colouring in the plain portions 
 of the design, B'. Parts B are formed in the ground shade or 
 in the worsted yarns, the method of yarn assortment being : 
 16 threads of dark shade worsted ; 4 threads of silk or cotton, 
 shade 1 ; 2 threads of silk, shade 2 ; 4 threads of silk, shade 3 ; 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 281 
 
 2 threads of silk, shade 2 ; and 4 threads of silk, shade 1, 
 following with 16 threads of worsted, dark shade. 
 
 It should be noted that the weaving theory and practice 
 here illustrated, are applicable to other yarn admixtures than 
 
 FIG. 177 
 
 those specified, such as linen in place of worsted, and mercerized 
 cotton in place of silk, or cotton for worsted with artificial 
 silk as a substitute for pure silk. 
 
 196. Compound Light or Thin Fabrics formed in Open- and 
 Fine-Set Structures. The use of compound weaves, in which 
 two groups of warp and weft threads are employed, in the 
 construction of two separate textures made into one fabric 
 
282 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 light in structure, is facilitated by the selection of fine-spun 
 yarns, and by the system of combining textures differing from 
 
 Fro. 178 
 
 each other in 
 thread density. 
 That is to say, the 
 compound cloth may, for 
 example, be woven in one 
 texture consisting of linen yarns 
 closely or compactly set, and of a 
 second texture made of cotton yarns 
 more openly set, and each successively 
 utilized on the upper and lower surface of the 
 fabric. This implies that the iinen-yarn texture 
 might be arranged to yield the groundwork, and the 
 cotton-yarn texture the pattern on the right side of the 
 woven product, which would give, on the reverse side, the 
 figuring in the linen-yarn, and the ground in the cotton- 
 yarn, structures. The respective textures are producible in 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 283 
 
 worsted and silk, worsted and mercerized cotton, silk or 
 artificial silk and cotton or linen, as well as in yarns 
 differing in fold, thickness, and in methods of preparation. 
 
 Plain weaves are preferably employed in the production of 
 each structural type as in Figs. 173, 174, 175, and 176, which 
 are respectively constructed on the 2-and-l, the 3-and-l, 
 the 4-and-2, and the 5-and-l basis; or they consist of duplex 
 fabric structures of the relative thread densities in Figs. 173 
 and 175 of 2 : 1, in Fig. 174 of 3 : 1, and in Fig. 176 of 5 : 1, 
 whatever the loom set practised. If the methods of looming 
 indicated below, are examined in reference to these schemes 
 of fabric combination, the principles of manufacture comprised 
 will be more readily understood. 
 
 PIG. 173, PAGE 277 
 1 thread of 2 -fold 60 's cotton. 
 1 00 's 2 -fold silk. 
 
 1 2 -fold 60's cotton. 
 
 120 ends and shots per inch. 
 
 FIG, 174, PAGE 277 
 
 2 threads of 2-fold 200 's linen. 
 1 thread of 2-fold 70's cotton. 
 
 1 2-fold 200's linen. 
 
 132 ends and shots per inch. 
 
 FIG. 175, PAGE 278 
 
 2 threads of 2-fold 56's worsted. 
 
 2 ,, 2 -fold 40's mercerized cotton. 
 
 2 2-fold 56's worsted. 
 
 96 ends and 90 shots per inch. 
 
 FIG. 176, /OB 279 
 2 threads of 40's 2-fold silk. 
 
 1 thread of 2-fold 30's cotton. 
 
 2 threads of 40's 2-fold silk. 
 
 150 ends and shots per inch. 
 
 197. Analysis of Looming Practice. The tinted grey threads 
 and picks, in the sectional plans, correspond to the open-set 
 fabric, and the untinted threads and picks to the more com- 
 pactly-set fabric, hence it follows that, in these weaving data, 
 
284 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 the textural results obtainable would be as described in the 
 following summary 
 
 FIG. 173 
 
 Sections A. A plain-woven silk texture, (1), with 40 ends and picks per 
 inch, spread over a finer-set plain-woven cotton texture, 
 (2), containing 80 ends and picks per inch. 
 
 Sections B. Texture (2) covering and concealing texture (1). 
 
 FIG. 174 
 
 Sections A. A plain - wo ven cotton texture, (1), with 33 ends and picks 
 per inch, spread over a finer-set plain-woven linen 
 texture, (2), containing 99 ends and picks per inch. 
 
 Sections B. Texture (2) covering and concealing texture (1). 
 
 FIG. 175 
 
 Sections A. A plain-woven mercerized cotton texture, (1), with 32 ends 
 and 30 picks per inch, spread over a finer-set plain-woven 
 worsted texture, (2), containing 64 ends and 60 picks per 
 inch. 
 
 Sections B. Texture (2) covering and concealing texture (1). 
 
 FIG. 176 
 
 Sections A. A plain- wo ven cotton texture, (1), with 30 ends and picks 
 per inch, spread over a closely-set plain-woven silk 
 texture, (2), containing 120 ends and picks per inch. 
 
 Sections B. Texture (2) covering and concealing texture (I). 
 
 198. Surface Features. It will be understood that these are 
 surface features only, and that, on the reverse side of the woven 
 compound, the textural characteristics are transposed. The 
 readiness with which the positions of the textures open and 
 close in formation are interchangeable, in the construction 
 of the design plan, enables pattern types to be, in this system 
 of loomwork, developed by these methods. First, the decora- 
 tive elements may be woven in the fine structure and the 
 ground formed in the more loosely-set structure ; second, 
 the ground is producible in the open effect and the figuring 
 in the finer-made fabric ; and, third, the yarns of the open 
 texture may be worked into a lace or net pattern in the ground 
 portions of the fabric, and the ornamentative features formed 
 in weft-face weaves, as in an ordinary single structure, and 
 also in the yarns of the fine-set texture. 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 285 
 
 The first and third methods are applicable in the weaving 
 of geometrical or floral styles, but the second method is prin- 
 cipally practised in the origination of patterns simple in form 
 
 Fia. 179 
 
 and outline. In illustration of the yarns of the open texture 
 being employed in the groundwork, Figs. 177 and 178 will be 
 considered. The former is producible in cotton and silk 
 and in the weaves arranged as in Fig. 176, and the latter in 
 worsted and silk, combining plans A and B in Fig. 174. The 
 
286 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 weave units, when analysed, show that, in the use of Plan A, 
 the threads and picks tinted grey appear on the face, and, in the 
 use of Plan B, they are transferred to the back of the fabric. 
 Weave A spreads the loose- woven texture over the finer- 
 woven one, and Weave B brings the yarns of the coarser 
 structure on to the surface, in which relation they completely 
 hide from view the interfacings of the yarns of the more open 
 setting. Hence, having sketched, say, the pattern in Fig. 178 
 on the point-paper to the required scale, if the figuring is to 
 be obtained in the silk-made, and the ground in the worsted- 
 made structure, Weave A would be applied to the decorative, 
 and Weave B to the ground parts of the design. Reversing 
 the positions of the weave plans has the effect of changing the 
 whole textural scheme, producing the figuring in worsted and 
 the ground of the fabric in silk. In this instance it would 
 prove a misappropriation of the silk texture, which, on account 
 of its fineness and quality, is the better adapted for the 
 development of the ornamentative details of the style. The 
 worsted, if applied for this purpose, would result, in such a 
 scheme of surface embellishment, in a less valuable textile 
 product, one in which the figuring would be dulled in tone, 
 and the fabric, as a compound of worsted and silk with the 
 silk thread numerically the larger, qualitatively reduced. 
 From which it will be evident that, in determining the structure 
 in which the ground and the ornamentation are to be acquired, 
 the yarns of which the two structures are composed, as well as 
 the textural contrasts they originate, have to be taken into 
 account. Should the pattern elements and composition be 
 of a simple character with a fair amount of ground surface, 
 the loosely-set texture may be selected for its production, but, 
 as a rule, it is preferable to utilize the respective textures in 
 the manner illustrated in Figs. 177 and 178. 
 
 199. Net or Lace Grounds. The lace or fancy net ground 
 type of combination is shown in Fig. 179. The grouping of the 
 threads and picks of the two structures follows the principles 
 of looming defined, selecting such arrangements as 5 ends 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 287 
 
 of the fine to 1 end of the open structure, and 7 or 9 threads 
 of the close- woven to 1 thread of the loose- woven fabric. 
 In the example, the 5-and-l system of construction is practised, 
 
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 FIG. 179A 
 Sectional Design for Specimen 179 
 
 combining silk and mercerized cotton yarns. As an extra 
 weft is used in the production of the design, the specimen is 
 typical of the third scheme of textural practice, or of that 
 in which the finer texture is used for the ground of the manu- 
 facture, with the threads of the loose texture developing a 
 lace effect on its surface. Instead of these threads (Nos. 1, 2, 
 
288 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 3, and 4, Fig. 179A) intersecting plain as in Figs. 173, 174, 
 and 177A, they are linked thus 
 
 Picks A and 0, Fig. 179A, threads 1 arid 2, and threads 3 and 4. 
 B D 1 4 2 3. 
 
 On this basis, the threads are drawn together and apart on 
 alternate picks, and thereby made to produce the lace or line 
 details seen in the illustration, Fig. 179. Under the figuring 
 
 (in H's in Fig. 179A) such 
 threads work plain and 
 give, on the back of the 
 fabric, a plain net effect 
 similar to that obtaining 
 in the ground sections of 
 Figs. 177 and 178. 
 
 200. Crepons. Waved, 
 
 wrinkled, crimped or crep on- woven surfaces are made in 
 worsted, silk, and in a combination of cotton, worsted 
 and silk yarns. They might be defined as a species 
 of crepe. Frequently they are compound in structure, 
 but in the simpler and 
 less costly types, the 
 effects are due to some 
 peculiarity in the qualities 
 and construction of the 
 warp and weft threads 
 selected. If, for example, 
 yarns of dissimilar shrink- 
 ing properties are inter- 
 
 . FIG. 181 
 
 laced on certain weaving 
 
 principles,the surface of the texture in the washing or steaming 
 will crimp or buckle. By uniting such threads with yarns 
 varying in structure and in twine, and also in tension 
 in the looming, the most elementary scheme of fabric 
 build may be made to yield a crepon quality. Assuming, in 
 illustration, the bulk of a texture to be composed of worsted 
 yarns of a moderate softness and of small stripes of silk, 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 289 
 
 edged with hard spun three-ply yarn under a less degree of 
 tension than the worsted, it would, on leaving the loom, 
 possess an uneven surface. Damping the piece would cause 
 the worsted sections to shrink and the effects in the three-fold 
 yarn to loop or curl, developing crimpness in the lines woven 
 in silk. Again, if special worsted threads are arranged in a 
 
 
 FIG. 182 
 
 striped or checked formation with silk threads (Fig. 180) 
 and the fabric is plain woven, the worsted produces a canvas 
 texture which, in the steaming process, contracts and imparts 
 a wrinkled appearance and quality to the silk checkings. 
 
 201. Characteristic Qualities of Surf ace Waviness in Fabrics. 
 The crepon characteristic may vary from a mere waviness 
 of surface to one ,^^ 
 consisting of well-pro- *" ^ 
 
 nounced undulations ?V^ 
 
 or ridges. To get the 
 former, elementary 
 weaves are applied, 
 and yarns of different 
 properties, especially 
 as regards shrinkage disposition, are relied upon for the 
 development of the required crimpness. If the iveft threads 
 are to form the crepon feature, the warp threads should 
 be fine in counts, so that they will yield readily to 
 the distinctive contracting action of the two or more kinds 
 of yarn used in the shuttling. On the other hand, when 
 the warp is the factor responsible for the production of 
 the wrinkled surface, the weft may be the smaller thread. 
 To take a typical fabric (Fig. 181) woven in 2-fold 80's cotton 
 
 19 (1745) 
 
 
 FIG. 182A 
 
290 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 warp, and wefted 2 picks plain in silk, and 2 picks g 1 twill in 
 30' s worsted, a slightly undulated surface is produced. The 
 worsted, in piece cleansing and finishing, shrinks the texture 
 in width, bending, in the process, the warp ends and dimpling 
 the silk picks which, exercising little power of contraction, 
 retain their normal or shuttled length. With the fabric 
 decreasing from 30 to 24 in. in width as a consequence of 
 the felting induced by the quality of the wool fibre in the 
 worsted yarn the seven inches of each shot of silk are dis- 
 tributed on the surface of the texture in the form of a crepon 
 or waved effect. 
 
 202. Compound Weft-Weave Crepons. Compound weave 
 crepons are richer and more diversified in textural features 
 than single- weave structures. One general type (Fig. 182) 
 consists of two wefts and one warp. If the foundation of this 
 fabric is fast woven, the creasiness is caused by one of the 
 wefts floating over interweaving plain in the ground of the 
 texture and passing under successive groups of warp ends. 
 The results are, first, when the picks float under the warp 
 they draw the threads together, ridging the face of the fabric ; 
 and, second, when they float over the warp they likewise bring 
 the threads into compact relation but wave and undulate the 
 reverse side of the texture. If the warp and weft yarns in 
 such a production should be of similar diameters, and spun 
 from materials of the same nature and properties, the wavy 
 development would be barely traceable. The floating weft is 
 thicker, stronger, more elastic and shrinks better than the 
 warp yarn, hence it draws the texture, formed by the latter 
 and the ordinary picks, into ridges. 
 
 Moreover, but for the second series of picks which are 
 made of a comparatively inferior-shrinking class of fibre- 
 interweaving plain, or T ^ twill, with the warp threads floated 
 over or under the first series of picks as described, such threads 
 would hang loose and not form a part of the woven structure ; 
 and, in addition, the smooth, rounded formation of the ridges 
 would be less satisfactorily emphasized. From which it will 
 
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 be clear that the fabric proper is made by the supplementary 
 shuttling yarn, and the crepon quality by the floating weft. On 
 the character and arrangement, therefore, of the floats, or 
 flushed intersections, depends the nature and disposition of the 
 wavy surface acquired. These may be arranged, as in Fig. 182A, 
 to produce a broken and irregular figured effect. The sectional 
 
 plan (Fig. 182s) shows 
 that in such positions 
 in the design as the 
 weft yarn (marked in 
 's and [x]'s) flushes on 
 the face, it produces a 
 series of undulations 
 in the texture, and 
 where it flushes on 
 the back (marked n's) 
 it forms protrusions 
 of warp on the face 
 but plain interwoven by the picks marked in Q's. With 
 these two effects, combined with the plain ground- work, 
 geometrical forms of patterns are developed in the fabric. 
 
 FIG. 183 
 
 XX 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 
 x 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 X* 
 
 x 
 
 
 x 
 
 x 
 
 x 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 *J 
 
 <-> 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 ,><, 
 
 x 
 
 
 x 
 
 x, 
 
 x 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x 
 
 x 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 
 x 
 
 x 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 :> 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 FIG. 184A 
 Sectional Plan for Fig. 184 
 
 The two specimens analysed in compound structures illus- 
 trate the principle of restricting one weft to the production 
 of the ground, and the second weft to the acquirement of the 
 crimpled or crepon effects in the manufacture. The next 
 example, Fig. 183 looming plan section in Fig. 183A is 
 one in which the two wefts are also used, but both float, in 
 
Boom -v^^MMH^ 
 Hwbtl^^^Tym ^"t^l^M'F 
 
 
 X / X /] X XX XX XX 
 
 x'xVV ix x'x x k x. x XMX Kttptfetff^^ 
 
 . -. . !. .11' -j.!L.-iJ!UL ; ' :;!; i*i.. '*. .1*.... :*; !*: :*: i*i ,1* L? L*,:....*!.,i*. 
 
 FIG. 183A 
 Sectional Design for Specimen 183 
 
TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 alternate order, over certain warp threads, and both, in suc- 
 cession, interweave plain. They have, in consequence, identical 
 functions as regards pattern and textural origination. Unless, 
 however, they were made of different fibres one of wool 
 and the other of silk there would be little waviness visible 
 in the texture, which demonstrates the importance of the 
 relative shrinkage values of the yarns combined in obtaining 
 these results. In the specimen the warp yarn is cotton, 
 and the wefts worsted and silk shuttled pick and pick. When 
 the former floats to make the spottings (2's in Fig. 183A) 
 the silk weft intersects plain underneath, and similarly when 
 the silk is floated in the composition of the interior figuring 
 (B's Fig. 183A) the worsted weft forms a plain underside, 
 interlacing 1-and-l with the warp threads. 
 
 203. Modification of Weaving Plan. This combination of 
 worsted and silk in two-weft crepons may be utilized, by 
 varying the scheme of weaving, in the manufacture of different 
 styles of striped patterns. An example is reproduced in 
 Fig. 184, for which the structural plan is given in Fig. 184A. 
 It consists of a band A in firm-spun worsted weft and fine 
 cotton warp yarn, alternating with a narrower band in silk 
 warp and weft, and which contains four times as many threads 
 per inch as the worsted section. The silk picks (S, Fig. 184A) 
 interweave regularly with the threads in both stripings, but 
 the worsted picks pass beneath, or on the back, of the silk 
 warp ends. The closely-set warp threads are longer than the 
 cotton warp threads in bands A, and hence are wrinkled or 
 waved the most. One other condition has to be taken into 
 account : Two-thirds of the picks, namely the silk weft, 
 intersect 3-and-3 with the worsted as well as with the silk, 
 whereas the remaining third (W, Fig. 184A) only interlace, 
 in twilled order, with the worsted warp. Now the more 
 frequently a pick interlaces with the warp ends the longer it 
 is. It therefore follows that the fine silk shots are actually 
 slightly longer than the worsted. As the latter have a higher 
 tensility, being thicker in counts, when the stretch is taken off 
 
"UtflON TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 the piece applied in the weaving, they at once crimp on the 
 surface. By employing, as in this instance, a worsted weft 
 spun from medium-stapled wool, and one of a gimped character, 
 the crepon effect is increasingly pronounced. Weave struc- 
 ture, materials, yarn counts and quality, setting, and warp 
 tensioning, are all factors which have an influence in the 
 development of this type of waved-surface texture. 
 
 204. Double-Weave Undulated Textures. Double-weave cre- 
 pons may, as a rule, be distinguished by their greater density 
 of structure and firmer feel as compared with single-weave 
 fabrics. There is some scope, in this principle of construction, 
 for the origination of figured styles. The fabrics possess two 
 warps and two wefts. The yarns forming the underside of 
 the texture may be utilized, at will, in figuring the face. It 
 is a common system of design, but its application to crepons 
 is accompanied by certain special conditions as to relative 
 yam thicknesses, loom setting, and stitching. The face and 
 backing threads are generally silk and worsted respectively, 
 and are arranged 2-and-l, 3-and-l, or 5-and-l, according to 
 the character of the manufacture required, using plans of the 
 types A and B in Figs. 173, 174, and 176, pages 277 and 279. 
 
 By this means a flimsy, gossamer, web-like texture is spread 
 over a firmer fabric, to which it is loosely stitched at con- 
 siderable intervals, and by which it is readily drawn or waved 
 in a particular manner and direction. Where the bindings or 
 stitchings occur the backing yarns come on to the surface, 
 or the positions of the two groups of threads are reversed : 
 where they do not occur, when the piece is allowed to shrink, 
 which it does in some degree on leaving the loom, the thin, 
 gauze-like texture, woven in the silk warp and weft, wrinkles, 
 cockles or crepons. The finer and more flimsy the face fabric, 
 and the more openly set and the tighter the backing yarns 
 in weaving, the higher the shrinkage, and the better developed 
 the crepon effect. 
 
 Various weave units are employed, but the most useful are 
 based on the double plain. This weave, when arranged on 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 297 
 
 one of the methods indicated, is capable of producing the most 
 interesting type of figured compound crepon structure. The 
 specimen (Fig. 185) indicates the elements of textural design 
 now observed. Primarily, there are in this pattern (Warp 
 and W eft, 4 ends of 60's 2-fold silk and 1 end of 2-fold 60's 
 worsted, 40's reed, sleyed 4-and-l ; 120 picks per inch) two 
 plain textures, one made of silk and the other of worsted, 
 with the former containing 80 threads and picks, and the latter 
 20 threads and picks per inch. The figured features are 
 obtained by transferring the worsted yarns, singly or in small 
 multiples, on to the face of the fabric. In the spaces inter- 
 vening the outlining of the pattern, the silk texture puckers 
 freely. In such portions, the silk and worsted textures are 
 quite separate one spread over the other but the two 
 linked together and any fine-pointed instrument may be 
 easily inserted between them. On the under side, there is 
 not a corresponding puckering of the worsted texture in the 
 unstitched sections, which points to the fact that the infre- 
 quency, or absence, of the stitches is not, in itself, sufficient 
 to account for the crepon characteristic. The shrinking of the 
 backing fabric, or of the worsted-yarn structure, is potential 
 in inducing an otherwise level-woven tissue to assume a 
 crinkled, deflected, and waved formation, but one soft, lustrous, 
 and fluffy in appearance and handle. 
 
 Crepon designs for this description of double-make fabric, 
 are prepared for the loom by sketching the pattern in colour 
 on point-paper, and by applying a weave of the type A, Figs. 
 173 and 174, to the figuring, and a weave of the type B to the 
 sections of the plan for the transference of the backing ends 
 and shots from the under to the right side of the cloth, and 
 which have the two-fold function of binding the two structures 
 into one, and of delineating the pattern forms and details. 
 
 205. Technique in Crepon Manufacture. It has been shown 
 what an important part the nature of the fibre .plays in 
 the production of the salient qualities and features of these 
 manufactures. In the weaving of all varieties and grades of 
 
298 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 crepons, yarn of different shrinkage values are combined. 
 The term shrinkage is not, as employed in this connection, 
 synonymous with shrinkage as applied and understood in 
 milling and felting, but it rather relates to, and defines, the 
 contraction which transpires when a woven-product is released 
 of all strain or tension necessary in the loom. On this being 
 removed, worsted and woollen fabrics are slightly diminished 
 in width and length. Silk, cotton, and linen pieces retain 
 their loom dimensions to a fuller degree than those made of 
 
 FIG. 186 
 
 woollen or worsted yarns. This differentiation in the con- 
 traction values of textile fibres and yarns, and of the fabrics 
 in which they are used, is of fundamental significance in the 
 production of crepons and like classes of fabrication. Given 
 one kind of yarn which freely stretches in weaving, but has 
 the power to regain its spun or normal length on tension being 
 released, and another which stretches and contracts to a 
 lesser degree, it is evidently feasible to amalgamate them on 
 such principles as to cause the yarns of the increased shrinking 
 efficiency to operate upon the non- or less-shrinking ones ; and 
 also to an extent which will crease, bend, or wave the texture 
 the latter produce. Supposing, for example, that a fine or 
 
TEXTUEE3 LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 290 
 
 thin cotton texture, consisting of small threads, is stitched 
 loosely to a worsted texture made of stronger and thicker 
 yarns, both of which have been moderately tensioned in 
 weaving, but the worsted under a greater strain than the 
 
 FIG. 186A 
 
 cotton, it is a problem of what must of necessity happen when 
 the stretch on the compound structure is withdrawn. The 
 worsted at once contracts, and, in doing so, folds and puckers 
 the cotton texture with which it is covered in such places as 
 the two fabrics are separate or distinct units ; 
 and hence the creased or crepon character 
 imparted in the finishing routine, or in the 
 processes of cleansing and steaming. Thus 
 the discrepancy, in the qualities of the 
 materials forming the yarns, is of paramount 
 importance in the development and permanent 
 formation of the wrinkled surface distinguishing these textures. 
 Next there is the question of the comparative counts or 
 size and structural features of the yarns selected. If these 
 did not vary largely, the contracting or controlling threads 
 in the fabric, would not be of sufficient tensility to over- 
 power the non-shrinking threads. Too thick or too strong 
 a face yarn in compound crepons, will prove competent in 
 neutralizing the puckered effects which the weave element, 
 
 FIG. 186e 
 
300 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 and the materials, are designed to develop and emphasize. 
 Generally speaking, when the crepons are single in structure 
 and the waviness is a product of the weft, the warp yarns 
 should be as small in diameter as to be weavable without break- 
 age ; and, at the same time, one of the weft threads should be 
 firm spun, so that it may readily corrugate the loose and light 
 
 B A A B 
 
 *:* 
 
 FIG. 187 
 
 texture formed in the second weft and the second warp. In 
 double-weave crepons, where at least two or three thicknesses 
 of thread are necessary, namely, a fine and non-elastic face 
 warp, a somewhat stronger weft for interweaving with it, 
 and a firmer and thicker thread for the backing texture 
 it is the elasticity and tensile property in the yarns, giving 
 the underneath surface of the fabric, which is responsible 
 for the production of crepon characteristic. Should these 
 yarns not be of the requisite stretching and shrinking efficiency, 
 or be wanting in strength and thickness, the woven result 
 would be imperfect. 
 
 The tensioning of the warp and weft yarns, in weaving, 
 also influences the development of the wavy quality of the 
 textural surface. A scheme of weaving, which, under certain 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 301 
 
 conditions as to comparative tightness of the yams assorted, 
 would be found satisfactory, may be rendered ineffective by 
 the incorrect regulation of the tension applied to the warp 
 and weft yarns. This is explicable on the ground that, in all 
 classes of crepons, one set of warp and weft threads is required 
 to crease or wrinkle the portions of the texture due to a second 
 set of threads. As a rule, the tighter the creasing yarn units, 
 and the slacker the non-creasing threads employed, the more 
 pronounced the pattern obtained. Under this arrangement, 
 the fuller tension is applied to the threads which possess the 
 higher degree of elasticity, which augments their capacity, 
 in puckering the unshrinking sections of the fabric, in the 
 contraction induced after the piece leaves the loom. 
 
 When each technicality has been observed as to the use of 
 yarns of a suitable quality and counts, and as to the adjustment 
 of the tensions of the warp yarns, it remains to devise weaves 
 whose structure will correspond with these data. Weave 
 origination and construction are primary essentials. Single- 
 make crepons are frequently formed on the basis of producing 
 the groundwork of the textures plain or fast woven, whilst 
 the wavy features in the pattern are obtained, as illustrated, 
 by floating a particular series of threads or picks successively 
 on the face or back of the fabric. It is almost impracticable 
 to combine, in one texture, weaves composed of open and 
 fast intersections without the latter, in some measure, causing 
 surface creases ; so that, by skilfully arranging weaves of 
 this category, it becomes not only feasible to pucker the face 
 of the pattern, but to accomplish this on prescribed lines. 
 Compound weaves control the development of the crepon 
 effects on a distinct system from single crossings. They 
 admit, as shown, of the construction of two textures one 
 consisting of fine and unshrinkable yarns and making the 
 upper surface; and the other consisting of thicker and shrink- 
 able yarns, and making the lower or under surface. These 
 two fabrics which differ so markedly from each other in 
 density, fineness, strength and elasticity are loosely stitched 
 
302 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 together. Hence, on the compound structure being allowed 
 to contract naturally, or on being accelerated in the process 
 by artificial means as in blowing the goods with steam, the 
 firmer and shrinkable fabric creases and fashions into folds 
 the thinner face texture, in consistency with the principles 
 
 fixed by the method of tying or stitching adopted and 
 explained. 
 
 206. Lena and Gauze Structures. Standard practices in the 
 manufacture of leno, gauze and of " mock " or imitation 
 makes of these fabrics, obtain in the combination of cotton 
 and worsted, alpaca or mohair yarns, and in the employment 
 of linen or cotton in the warp crossed with cotton or silk weft. 
 The example in Fig. 186 is woven in a linen warp and cotton 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 303 
 
 weft yarn, with mercerized cotton ends for douping. Such 
 types of fabric are also made with cotton as warp and silk 
 as weft, using either folded silk or thick spun cotton for the 
 effects seen at B. Another method consists in applying 
 2-fold worsted threads to the ground or warp threads shuttled 
 
 with silk, developing the prominent gauze stripings in cotton 
 or linen yarns. 
 
 The looming draft and plan for this specimen are shown at 
 Figs. 186 A and 186B. The letters on the draft and specimen 
 correspond. Threads A doupe with single ends, threads B 
 with three ends, and threads C work in pairs and twist round 
 two ordinary healded warp ends. For features A and C, there 
 are several plain picks between each crossing of the doupe ends, 
 
304 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 while the thick douping threads B are knitted to the surface 
 of the texture on each fifth pick. 
 
 207. Combinations of Lappet and Gauze. Pattern origina- 
 tion in gauze, lappet, and plain or straight weaving, provides 
 for additional changes in the materials of which the yarns 
 are spun. The lappet (dark sections in Fig. 187) being a 
 surface warp yarn is quite a supplementary element, and is 
 treated as such in the specimen. Here the white striping lines 
 
 are formed in cotton, the 
 plain bands in linen, the 
 gauze details in mercerized 
 threads, and the lappet 
 features in worsted. A 
 further principle obtains 
 in employing worsted yarn 
 in the warp and weft, 
 with bright cotton threads 
 for effects A and C and 
 mohair yarn for effects B. 
 With fine-cotton yarns for 
 ground, intersecting plain 
 or in sateen order, the 
 lappet work is producible 
 in silk, or in a lustrous- 
 fibred thread, when the 
 patterns may be, as in Fig. 189, of a decorative nature. 
 
 208. Microscopic Study of Gauze and Lappet Specimens. 
 In Fig. 187 the striped gauze and lappet specimen is reproduced 
 in the natural scale. Ordinary principles of comparison and 
 dissection disclose the constructive elements. Supplementing 
 such work by an examination of the fabric under the micro- 
 scope (Figs, 188 and 188A), enables a fuller analytical study 
 to be made of the structure. By this method, the actual 
 mutation of the yarns, in forming the composite effects 
 in the tissue and in the style, are rendered visible, and 
 the technicalities observed in the adjustment of the 
 
 FIG. 189 
 
TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION 305 
 
 unit details, in relation to each other, become distinctly 
 traceable. 
 
 Leno, gauze, lappet and imitation or woven lace effects are 
 types of loomwork in which the delineation of the pattern 
 forms is dependent on the overlapping latitude traversing 
 movement of the special groups of warp yarns. On the plan 
 originated and practised in controlling these threads, the char- 
 acter and accuracy of the textural product are mainly formu- 
 lated. This is clearly evident in the specimens, Figs. 188 and 
 188A, the functions of the gauze threads C accentuated in 
 results by their greater thickness as compared with the plain 
 interlacing threads being not only apparent but individually 
 readable as to the number of their intersections with the 
 shots of weft. But, in addition to the precise woven scheme 
 the microscopic examination supplies of the fabric, revealing 
 its complete structural anatomy, from which deductions may 
 be drawn, this method of textile analysis also elucidates the 
 technicalities determined by yarn formations and fibrous 
 properties. Their influence and value on the textural com- 
 pound are evident in the tone and quality of each section of 
 this example. Thus it will be obvious that, with the employ- 
 ment of threads of a smoother and more even surface, the 
 distinctive features in the pattern would be more exactly 
 defined, and this would add to the smartness and intrinsic 
 merit of the woven structure as a whole. The obverse view 
 of the sample Fig. 188A is valuable as showing the scheme 
 of the binding points of the gauze threads C in the building 
 of a regular, level texture, as well as exhibiting the details, in 
 weaving this class of manufacture, which define the spacing 
 of the warp yarns in the reed or sley. 
 
 20 (1745) 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 STRUCTURAL SCHEMES CLOTHS SUBSTANTIAL IN BUILD 
 
 209. Features in Union Cloth Manufacture. 210. Discovery of 
 Methods of Utilizing Waste Fibrous Materials. 211. Waste Fibre in 
 Manufacturing Processes. 212. Recovery of Filament from Spun 
 Yarns and from Union Fabrics. 213. Establishing a Distinctive 
 System of Carding. 214. Union-Cloth Construction. 215. Incom- 
 pleteness of Dyeing Procedure. 216. Class and Grade of Union 
 Trading. 217. Single- Weave Unions and Concealment of the Cotton- 
 Warp Yam. 218. Four Structural Types of Thick Manufactures. 
 219. Weight-per-Yard Compass. 220. Examples in Two- and Three- 
 ply Weft Cloths. 2 21. Sectional Drawings. 222. Possible Distinc- 
 tions in Face and Backing Weaves. 223. Three-ply Weft Structures. 
 224. Weaving Schemes Multi-ply Weft Unions. 225. Analysis of 
 Wefting Data. 226. The Use of Centre Weft Yarns. 227. Colouring 
 Practices. 228. Application of Mixture-Yarn Shades. 229. Worsted 
 Warp, Cotton and Woollen Weft Types of Fabrication. 230. Dia- 
 gramatic Examples. 231. Setting Practices. 232. Cloth Quality in 
 Bi-Wefted and in Cotton and Worsted Warp Unions. 233. Two-ply 
 Warp Union Specimens. 234. Productive Economics and Weave 
 Plans. 235. Structural Arrangements and Fabric Substance and 
 Thickness. 236. Double-make Unions Wadded. 237. Union Com- 
 pound Cloths with Outer and Inner layers of Yarn. 238. Three-ply 
 Manufactures Sectionally illustrated. 
 
 209. Features in Union Cloth Manufacture. Woven union 
 cloth manufacture is a progressive section of the textile 
 industry. It is of English origin, formation, and making. 
 That the foundations of the trade were wrought, and that 
 the means of development were systematized and applied by 
 British endeavour, ingenuity and industrial competency, are 
 matters of history. From an early date, union fabrics have 
 been produced in great variety in dress stuffs, and in heavy 
 woollens, including overcoating cloths, blankets and rugs. 
 For some decades preceding the commercial manufacture, on 
 a large scale, of these representative groups of union products 
 on the Continent and in America, the former (dress textures) 
 were the staple industry of Bradford and Keighley, and the 
 
 306 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 307 
 
 latter (thick and felted goods) constituted the principal branch 
 of textile work in the Batley and Dewsbury districts. 
 
 210. Discovery of Methods of Utilizing Fibrous Waste 
 Materials. The raw materials (Paragraph 24) selected in the 
 spinning of the character-forming yarn of these manufactures, 
 were primarily employed in this country, as the mechanism was 
 also invented here for the preparation of such materials into a 
 suitable type of warp or weft thread. This is equally signi- 
 ficant of the classes of fibre employed in the production of 
 union dress and light textures (alpaca, mohair, and lustre 
 wools) as in the composition of low woollen fabrics (noils, 
 mungo, shoddy, "waste," "extract," etc.). Alpaca, as the 
 basic material in lustre fabrics, was commercialized by Sir 
 Titus Salt in 1836 ; and the combing, drawing, and spinning 
 machinery requisitioned in converting it, and also mohair 
 and lustre wools, into yarn, was originally designed and con- 
 structed by English inventors and machinists. Mungo and 
 shoddy the preparation and spinning of which rendered the 
 low-class woollen industry a practical reality were, in the 
 first instance, recovered from disused or waste fabrics by 
 Yorkshire manufacturers, and re-employed by them in new 
 loom-made productions. The invention of the rag-grinding 
 machine demonstrated that materials, hitherto conceived as 
 necessary waste products, were reclaimable and also applicable, 
 by the organization of fresh schemes of manufacture, to the 
 fabrication of an extensive diversity of woven unions, especi- 
 ally in medium and heavy cloths. It became evident that, 
 with the aid of this form of mechanical contrivance, all sorts 
 of old or new cloth clippings, patterns and samples, as of oft- 
 worn garments (mere rags and tatters), could be reduced to a 
 fibrous state, and, therefore, to a re-usable substance. 
 
 211. Waste Fibre in Manufacturing Processes. Before the 
 introduction of shoddy and mungo, " milling," " raising," and 
 " cutting " flocks, also " flyings," and " carding waste," had 
 entered into economic textile manufacture and practice, 
 but not as substitutes for wool. " Flocks," acquired in the 
 
308 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 operations of scouring, dyeing, fulling, raising, and cropping, 
 were selected for various purposes as in thickening the piece 
 in felting by " flocking," that is, the milling of loose flocks, 
 placed in the fulling stocks or mill, into the body of cloth ; 
 also for upholstery work, and, in the case of cutting flocks, in 
 the production of flock wall-papers. No attempt, however, 
 appears to have been made to use them to any important 
 extent in yarn manufacture. But, being obtainable in con- 
 siderable quantities in the white and in certain clean, standard 
 colours e.g., those derived from the milling and raising of 
 blankets, rugs, and kerseymeres they comprised a useful 
 material for adding weight to, or for modifying the shade of, 
 the woven piece in the process of felting ; and they still have 
 these applications in the finishing treatment of woollen as 
 well as of union manufactures. 
 
 212. Recovery of Filament from Spun Yarns and from Union 
 Fabrics. The two varieties of fibrous substances to be finally 
 recovered were (1) the "twits," "ends," "knots," and 
 "thrums " of woollen and worsted yarns from the processes of 
 spinning, winding, warping, and weaving ; and (2) the animal 
 fibre in union textures composed of cotton and wool, cotton 
 and alpaca or mohair, cotton and vicuna or camel's hair, etc. 
 For " pulling " the first of these into a flossy substance, the 
 Garnett machine universally applied for the opening of 
 this sort of waste was invented. For recovering the wool 
 or animal fibre from the union fabrics specified, the chemical 
 process of carbonizing was introduced, and resulted in the 
 material known as " extract " wool. 
 
 213. Establishing a Distinctive System of Carding. A service- 
 able and varied range of re-manufactured fibrous products was 
 thus provided, on which the union branches of the textile 
 industry were fashioned and developed. It should be observed 
 that all the " recovered " varieties of fibre referred to, both 
 on account of their condition and shortness of staple, involved 
 the practice of a distinctive grade of carding and spinning 
 from that applicable to the preparation and treatment of 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 309 
 
 pure or natural wools. Classification and sorting of the 
 reclaimed materials also assumed the character of technical 
 arts, but the success achieved was mainly due to carding 
 efficiency. In this work, the manufacturers of the heavy 
 woollen districts of the West Riding of Yorkshire, colla- 
 borating with the textile engineer and machinist, evolved a 
 system of carding and condensing for the manipulation and 
 mixing of these fibres which has become pre-eminent. Con- 
 tinental producers have sought to effect innovations and 
 improvements based on English ideas, methods, and routine. 
 But the design and arrangement of the mechanical equipment, 
 as understood by an effective set of Yorkshire carding engines 
 for mungo and shoddy, combined with the standardized 
 " counts " of card clothing, devised as the result of organized 
 practical investigation, and of experiments in the systems of 
 setting and running have held the field.* In America, France, 
 Russia, Belgium and Germany, as in this country, the whole 
 scheme of work has been found to attain the fundamental essen- 
 tials in carding procedure a maximum amount of opening and 
 blending compatible with the full degree of production, and a 
 minimum quantity of fibrous waste. Continental inventors 
 have exercised marked ingenuity in the origination and 
 planning of devices for the reduction of the carding surface, 
 with the object of gaining higher productive capacity ; in 
 changing the length, angle, and flexibility of the card wire ; 
 in speeding up different parts of the machines ; and in con- 
 densing to a greater length, but so far their efforts have not 
 contributed to the efficiency of, or modified, the leading prin- 
 ciples and features of the system which the Yorkshire manu- 
 facturer, and English machinist, have established, by practice, 
 as peculiarly adapted to the preparation of yarn from materials 
 of the mungo and shoddy variety. 
 
 214. Union Cloth Construction. As the British producer 
 has thus led in economic yarn production, he has also excelled 
 in cloth construction and manufacture. Acquiring, by 
 * See Woollen and Worsted, Chapter III. 
 
310 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 experimental study, the requisite technical data relative to 
 weave structure and loom setting, he attained proficiency as a 
 maker of cloths from " wool substitutes," interwoven with 
 cotton, satisfactory in firmness, durability and wearing property. 
 Milling practice, to acquire substance and tensile strength of 
 texture, was thoroughly investigated and mastered. New 
 inventions, particularly in the form of apparatus combining 
 the action of the milling machine and of the fulling stocks, 
 were utilized ; and, in addition, definite progress was made in 
 finishing methods and routine, securing a superior handle and 
 quality of piece.* 
 
 Weaving ingenuity and originality in design were not 
 wanting. Union worsteds mungo and cotton wefts and 
 worsted warp as well as union woollens cotton warp and 
 mungo or shoddy weft were successfully produced. More- 
 over, at the time when matelasses were in demand for the 
 mantle trade, both the warp and weft schemes of figuring 
 were applied, in dobbie and harness looms, in the manufacture 
 of distinctive designs and builds of fabric. 
 
 215. Incompleteness of Dyeing Procedure. These facts sug- 
 gest and illustrate manufacturing initiative and performance, 
 impregnated with technical knowledge and faculty. Yet, it 
 must be allowed that, until the discovery and practice of 
 modern methods of dyeing animal and vegetable fibres, when 
 made into the same yarn or woven product, this resourceful 
 branch of textile production was seriously handicapped. A 
 distinguishing feature, and salient idea, in the process of 
 manufacture in the union cloth trade, is to acquire fabrics 
 which, for commercial purposes, closely resemble corresponding 
 makes of texture composed of pure wool, imitating colour, 
 style and finish. This task was rendered increasingly difficult, 
 and in some varieties of cloth almost impracticable, owing 
 to the complications and uncertain results arising in the 
 treatment of the sorts of fibre, in the yarn or fabric condition, 
 by the old system of dyeing. Shade matching, in the separate 
 * See Finishing of Textile Fabrics, Chapter VII. 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 311 
 
 materials, was more or less an indefinite quantity, and the 
 production of colour quality and evenness a constantly 
 recurring problem. The absence of exact and scientific pro- 
 cedure in dyeing, was the primary and substantive cause of 
 the origin, and also of the continuance of these unsatisfactory 
 conditions. 
 
 216. Class and Grade of Union Trading. With the manufac- 
 ture of the cotton warp and mungo weft " beaver," Devon 
 " pilot," and " president," it was clearly demonstrated that 
 " quality," as defined by a face or fibrous finish, was obtainable, 
 to a remarkable degree, in union cloths. True, the fabrics 
 quoted are typical of heavily-milled structures, firm and thick 
 in build and produced chiefly in black, navy blue, dark green, 
 olive and brown. Delicate or soft-toned shades were correctly 
 judged as unsuitable for application to such cloths. But 
 the fact that highly-finished face union textures could be thus 
 made showed that, with improved dyeing methods, the class 
 and grade of trading in cotton-warp and low-woollen-weft 
 fabrics would become greatly extended. Now this trading is 
 equally diversified in textural results, and in volume of manu- 
 factured products, with that in Cheviot and Saxony yarns, 
 and, in some of its modern phases, it overlaps the Crossbred 
 and Botany worsted industries. 
 
 217. Single-Weave Unions and Concealment of the Cotton- 
 Warp Yarn. The technicalities in yarn construction, in weav- 
 ing, and in dyeing and finishing, are of a specific character. 
 Though, in the union woollen, the weft is made of all species of 
 wool substitutes yet it consists of animal fibre, and, as such, is 
 the yarn on which the features of the finished fabric are formed. 
 The cotton thread, whether used in the warp or weft, is 
 utilized as a binding yarn, and is not intended to have any 
 textural effect. Its function is to interlace with the woollen 
 and produce a fast, wearable structure, and to this function, 
 in the making of the fabric, it is invariably restricted. 
 
 The cloths are single, backed and compound in formation, 
 but designed with a view of concealing the cotton in whatever 
 
312 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 capacity it may be employed. In single weaves this is effected 
 by the difference in the diameters of the wool-fibre and the 
 cotton-fibre yarns, and also by the relative number of threads 
 per inch, in the piece, of each yarn unit. There are also other 
 elements which contribute to the complete concealment, in 
 the finished cloth, of the cotton, as may be shown by considering 
 the manufacturing features typical, say, of a cotton warp 
 and mungo weft melton. Such a fabric would be plain woven 
 and set from 84 to 90 in. in the reed for a finished width of 
 54 to 56 in. In the " loom-felled " piece, the intersections of the 
 cotton ends and of the woollen picks are alike visible, but the 
 latter to a fuller degree than the former, or as defined by the 
 ratio of their diameters. In scouring important changes occur ; 
 the cotton becomes less traceable, the individual distinc- 
 tiveness of the picks is lowered, and the upper and lower 
 surfaces of the fabric are freely covered with loose but 
 entangled wool filament. Proceeding to felt the piece, the 
 threads of warp are drawn into closer and closer relation, 
 strengthening the fabric in the proportion of the added number 
 of warp threads per inch ; and the picks of weft contract 
 lineally, thickening the cloth in the ratio of their diminished 
 length. Assuming 32 ends of 2-fold 40's cotton (diameter 
 Y^jjth of an inch), and 30 picks per inch of 10 skeins 
 (diameter jVrid. of an inch), mungo yarn in the weaving 
 of the fabric, the conditions induced in milling are 
 responsible for the origination of the following textural 
 characteristics 
 
 I. Width contraction, from 90 to 56 in., adds 19-5 ends 
 per inch to the fabric, the loom-set texture containing 32 
 and the felted cloth 51-5 threads per inch. II. The contrac- 
 tion to this degree of the piece reduces each line of weft by 
 34 in., and results, therefore, in 2,700 in. of weft yarn (30 
 picks x 90 in.) being compressed into 1,680 in. (30 picks X 
 56 in.) in one inch of the fabric. III. Each side of the cloth is, 
 in the process, covered with woollen yarn, the angular curves 
 of the picks protruding above and below the cotton ends, so 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 
 
 313 
 
 that the latter are centrally embedded in the fabric structure. 
 IV. A piece of a cotton- warp and woollen- weft character is 
 changed to one of a woolly nature, and, in appearances, to 
 one formed purely of woollen yarn ; and V. a comparatively 
 loose- woven production, with the yarn units separate and 
 distinct, is converted into a firm, thick cloth of improved 
 tensility, filament density, and fulness of handle. 
 
 From this dissection of the manufacturing principles, and 
 results, illustrative T)f this type of woven union, it will be 
 clear how, in all single-make cotton-warp and woollen-weft 
 
 ABCDBFABCDEF 
 FIG. 190 
 
 A B C D B FGH 
 FIG. 191 
 
 fabrics thin, medium or heavy in weight per yard, e.g., habit 
 cloths, beavers, blankets, rugs, etc. the woollen yarn ade- 
 quately conceals the threads of the cotton warp, and forms 
 the yarn unit in the piece which gives the textural quality 
 and value. 
 
 218. Four Structural Types of Thick Manufactures. Thick, 
 substantial union manufactures are divisible into four 
 descriptions of fabric structures, namely 
 
 I. Two- or Three-ply Weft Type. Cotton warp and wool-substitute 
 
 weft. 
 II. Two- or Three-ply Weft Type. Worsted warp, cotton face weft, 
 
 and mungo or shoddy backing weft. 
 
 III. Warp-backed Structures. Worsted-/ace warp, woollen, worsted 
 or cotton backing warp, woven with worsted or woollen and 
 cotton weft yarns. 
 
314 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 IV. Compound or Double- and Three-fold Cloths. Worsted or 
 woollen face and backing yarns in warp and weft, combined 
 with a layer or series of centrally-disposed cotton threads or 
 picks; or cotton threads and picks producing an intermediate 
 fabric between the texture forming the face and the texture 
 forming the reverse side of cloh. 
 
 219. Weight-per-Yard Compass. Each group of structures 
 is adapted for the production of fabrics ranging in thickness 
 and substance from 20 to 48 oz. per yard, 54 in. wide. 
 Groups I, III, and IV are, as a rule, set in the loom for heavy 
 milling, and for yielding cloths suitable for either a rough or 
 face finish, that is, for manufactures with a full filament 
 surface. Group II includes the worsted variety of union, or 
 a class of fabric in which the worsted warp is a pronounced 
 characteristic. This being so, a less degree of felting is 
 applicable than to the cloths in Groups I, III and IV. Still, 
 the pieces should be set sufficiently wide in the reed to provide 
 for the requisite amount of width shrinkage which will enable 
 a nap of fibre to be successfully acquired, by raising, on the 
 underside of the fabric. 
 
 220. Examples in Two- and Three-Ply Weft Cloths. 
 Examples of the first type of structures comprise the following 
 makes and builds of fabric 
 
 TWO-PLY STRUCTURES 
 
 Figs. 190 and 190A. Six-end weft sateen face and back, woven 1 pick 
 
 face and 1 pick back. 
 Figs. 191 arid 191A. Eight-end weft sateen face and 4-end weft 
 
 swansdown back, woven 2 picks face and 1 pick 
 
 back. 
 Figs. 192 arid 192 A. Eight-end weft twill face and 8-end weft sateen 
 
 back, woven 2 picks face and 2 picks back. 
 
 THREE-PLY STRUCTURES 
 Figs. 193 and 193A. Six-end weft sateen face and back and pnmelle 
 
 twill centre, woven 1 pick face, 1 pick centre, 
 
 and 1 pick back. 
 Figs, 194 and 194A. Eight-end weft sateen face and back and cassi- 
 
 mere twill centre, woven 1 pick face, 1 pick 
 
 centre, and 1 pick back. 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 315 
 
 Figs. 195 and 195A. Eight-end weft twill face and back and four-and- 
 four twill centre, woven 1 pick face, 1 pick 
 centre, and 1 pick back. 
 
 Figs. 196 and 196A. Eight-end weft twill face, 8-end weft sateen 
 back and plain weave centre, woven 1 pick 
 face, 1 pick centre, and 1 pick back. 
 
 221. Sectional Drawings. The sectional drawings, Figs. 
 190A to 196A, illustrate the different schemes of interlacing 
 embodied. In each sketch the cotton warp ends are shown 
 in circular spots, the face and backing weft yarns in black 
 and tinted grey ; and, in Figs. 193A, 194A, 195A, and 196A, 
 the central picks are represented in two tones of medium grey. 
 Apart from the " cover " acquired in the scouring and milling 
 of the goods, or by compacting together the picks of weft 
 in these processes, the plan of the weave type employed is 
 instrumental in causing the threads of cotton to be hidden 
 in the piece by the mungo or shoddy weft yarns. 
 
 Examining the two-ply structures, picks 1 and 3, Fig. 190 
 and 190A, form a weft surface and picks 2 and 4 a corresponding 
 weft surface on the underside of the cloth. This build of 
 texture results in an equal density of texture, as to shots 
 per inch, on both sides of the piece ; but it does not necessarily 
 imply that the yarns for the face should be identical in quality 
 w r ith those for the back, though the yarns should approxi- 
 mately coincide in counts. Fig. 191 is differently arranged, 
 the face effect being of a finer character than that developed 
 on the back. Consisting of two picks of face to one pick of 
 backing yarn, the former, as shown in the sectional drawing 
 Fig. 191 A, should be smaller in counts than the latter. With, 
 say, 15 skeins yarn on the face weft, that of the backing should 
 be about 10 skeins. To balance the difference in yarn counts, 
 and also in the structural fineness of the two surfaces, the 
 plan for the face is an eight- shaft sateen and that for the 
 back a four- shaft weave, the length of the intersections thus 
 agreeing with the ratio of the face and backing picks. This 
 method of manufacture has economic advantages admitting 
 
316 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 of a lower grade of yarn being usable for the under than for 
 the face side of the fabric, as, for example, a fine mungo weft 
 for the picks marked in E's (Fig. 191) and a coarser quality 
 of mungo or shoddy for the picks marked in j's. 
 
 222. Possible Distinctions in Face and Backing Weaves. 
 It is not absolutely essential, as will be observed from Fig. 
 192, that the weave effect should be identical on both sides 
 of the cloth. In this example, it is a twill on the upper, and a 
 sateen on the lower, side. While, however, some distinctions 
 may be made in the two structures, the weaves, if equally 
 distributed in the picks on each surface, require to correspond 
 in the number of intersections of which they are composed. 
 Taking Fig. 192, the eight-end twill and the eight-end sateen 
 being grouped together 2-and-2 in the wefting. the scheme 
 
 BCD E F A J3 (J J) E 
 
 FlG. 11K)A 
 
 of interlacing is, in both plans, seven warp and one weft on 
 each pick. This rule of identity in interlacings is followed 
 unless the two series of picks are dissimilarly classified in such 
 orders as 2, 3, or 5 face to 1, 2, or 3 backing, when the plan 
 of intersections in the backing weave is varied, in respect 
 to that of the face weave, to acquire, as in Fig. 191 A, a 
 like compactness of textural surface on each side of the 
 fabric. 
 
 223. Three-ply Weft Structures. The three-ply weft struc- 
 tures (Figs. 193 to 196) introduce a supplementary series of 
 picks, which, as in the instance of the face and backing picks 
 in Figs. 190, 191, and 192, interweave with the cotton warp, 
 but, instead of appearing on either one surface or the other 
 of the cloth, produce a centre texture which adds to the 
 strength and substance of the compound fabric. Such picks 
 
318 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 are quite independent, as illustrated in Figs. 193A, 194A, 19f>A, 
 and 196A, of the picks employed in the construction of the 
 two sides of the woven piece. That is to say, they allow of 
 the picks, sketched in black and in tinted grey, being arranged 
 and grouped with the same freedom as in the production of 
 two-ply manufactures. 
 
 Referring to the sectional drawings, they represent the 
 orders of the intersections of picks 1 to 6 in Figs. 193 to 196 
 inclusive. The functions of the centre picks (in medium grey 
 tones) is observed in making, in Fig. 193A, a prunelle twill 
 fabric between two six-end weft sateen textures ; in Fig. 1 94A, 
 
 A B C D E FGH 
 FIG. 194 
 
 A B C D EFGH 
 FlG. 195 
 
 A B C D E F G H 
 FIG. 196 
 
 a cassimere twilled structure between two eight-end weft 
 sateen surfaces ; in Fig. 195A, a 4-and-4 twill fabric between 
 two eight-end weft twill cloths ; and, in Fig. 196A a plain- 
 woven structure betwixt an eight-end weft twill and an 
 eight-end weft sateen surface. With the centre fabric thus 
 varied in formation, it will be understood, there is some lati- 
 tude in the selection of the counts and quality of the weft 
 yarn for this purpose. Should the object be to obtain weight, 
 tensility, and firmness of cloth by the use of the centre picks, 
 rather than textural quality and fineness, then the weft yarn 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 319 
 
 may, if desired, be spun from vegetable fibre, relying upon the 
 nature of the material used in the preparation of the face and 
 backing yarns, for structural properties and value. In addi- 
 tion, the counts of this yarn may be such as to contribute a 
 considerable quota of the total weight of the yarns in the 
 fabric. Strictly, its diameter or thickness is chiefly limited 
 by the adequacy with which it may be covered or concealed, 
 in the woven and finished goods, by the yarns of the face and 
 backing picks. * 
 
 224. Weaving Schemes Multi-ply Weft Unions. These 
 points and technical features, as well as the methods of 
 manufacture adapted to the fabric structures analysed, are 
 exemplified in the systems of looming applicable to the different 
 weave types, and which are detailed in Table XXV. 
 
 225. Analysis of We/ting Data. The wefting data for 
 Fig. 190 produces one surface of the piece in carded and the 
 other surface in combed yarn, and would result, with suitable 
 finishing practice, in the two sides of the cloth differing in 
 quality and in smoothness, that of the worsted being the 
 brighter in tone. The plan of grouping the picks of the two 
 wefts in Fig. 191 provides for a thicker and inferior class of 
 yarn being woven on the back than on the face of the fabric, 
 and also secures the production of a heavy cloth with a reduced 
 number of picks per inch as compared with the 1-and-l and 
 2-and-2 orders in Fig. 190 and 192. With a contrast in the 
 character and structure of the weft and for the respective 
 sides of the goods, such as mungo or Saxony yarn for face 
 and shoddy or Cheviot yarn for backing, the two surfaces of 
 the piece become finishable on different systems. Thus the 
 arrangement in Fig. 192 is adapted for the development of 
 a fine pile effect in the mungo, and a rough or nap pile effect 
 in the shoddy yarn, for it is to be understood that, while both 
 series of yarns interweave with the same warp threads, they, 
 in reality, give two types of textures formed into one compound 
 cloth structure. This enables the fabrics, which are con 
 structed on the reversible principle of weaving, to be tinted 
 
Ill 
 
 g 
 
 <M Tt< -^ 
 
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 s 
 
 Si's 
 
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 rt 
 
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 en_piece, 55 yard 
 
 
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 SJ. ' W e^i c^ c<j 
 
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 H 
 
 CO JM 
 
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 C^l ^ CD 
 
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 JM ^02 J 
 
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 C-} CO ^ 
 
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21 (1745) 
 
322 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 and finished on either surface, as two separate pieces after 
 the processes of cleansing and milling. 
 
 226. The Use of Centre Weft Yarns. The three-ply 
 structures suggest the use of the centre picks for strengthening 
 and thickening the composite manufacture with cotton or a 
 low quality of weft yarns, without detriment to, or alteration 
 in, the substance and quality of the two surfaces woven in 
 woollen or worsted yarn. The faster the central weave unit, 
 the finer the build of the compound structure so far as it may 
 be a resultant of the intermediate series of picks, which means 
 that the plain intertexture in Fig. 196 would, all other techni- 
 calities being equal, improve the unfinished cloth tensility 
 standard to a fuller degree than the -g 1 twill order in Fig. 193 ; 
 this weave than the ^^ twill in Fig. 194 ; and the %% than the j- 
 twill make in Fig. 195. Such being the woven characteristics 
 derivable from the central weave plan and picks, it might be 
 assumed that the more frequent the intersections in this weave, 
 the better it would be fitted for imparting soundness of con- 
 struction to the multi-ply fabric. Other factors enter, how- 
 ever, into consideration. The fabric, both in structure and 
 in appearance, is emphatically a resultant of the face and 
 backing yarns. Hence the milling property of the cloth is 
 controlled and determined by these yarns and by their system 
 of grouping and interlacing. So are the handle and filament 
 density and fineness of the surface of the finished product. 
 On these textural features the central weave scheme may 
 exercise a deleterious effect. In principle, the more open 
 or looser the intertexture, the freer the shrinkage action of the 
 woollen wefts, and, contrariwise, the faster the intertexture 
 scheme the greater its tendency to restrain the felting move- 
 ment of the face and backing yarns. It is a question of differ- 
 ence in the multiplicity of the intersections on the centre picks, 
 for these, being cotton, form a neutral factor in the shrinkage 
 value of the piece ; but, obviously, when their binding orders 
 with the warp end are as in Fig. 196, they exert a more pro- 
 nounced deterrent influence on the contractility of the woollen 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 323 
 
 wefts in the cloth than with the binding arrangements as 
 in Fig. 195. The whole resolves itself into a problem of the 
 degree of width shrinkage to be attained, and the degree of 
 fabric or structural firmness it is sought to derive from the 
 position in the cloth of the cotton weft yarn, when, as in the 
 examples, the setting of the piece in the reed is made to con- 
 form with the textural features to be obtained in the finished 
 manufacture, including thickness, tensile test, and weight 
 per yard of the cloth. 
 
 227. Colouring Practices. The manufacturing principles and 
 data illustrated in Table XXV relate primarily to piece-dyed 
 goods, but they are also applicable to loom-coloured fabrics. 
 It has been indicated and explained that these structural 
 schemes are usable in the production of cloths of different 
 properties on the face and under surface, and therefore, 
 adapted for distinctive finishing treatment. This factor 
 demonstrates that the tinted tone of the two sides of the 
 fabrics may, likewise, be different ; such as a light or medium 
 colour for the face, and a dark mixture or contrasting shade 
 for the back. Wool, worsted Botany, Crossbred or lustre 
 as well as mungo and shoddy may be selected as the materials 
 of which the weft yarns are made, so that the range of 
 colouring in solid or mixture tones is variable and extensible 
 with the class and style of goods manufactured. For example, 
 in the better grades of production, with woollen and worsted 
 yarns combined as in the wefting for Fig. 190, one surface of 
 the cloth may be woven in white or any appropriate light tint, 
 and the other in a bright, clear shade ; or the face may be 
 in a medium and the back in a second medium or dark con- 
 trasting colour. In the construction of the mungo and shoddy 
 weft-yarn fabrics, the toning is necessarily less diversified, but, 
 here, as in the all-wool weft manufactures, fancy mixture 
 yarns are also prepared and spun. Two bases of tinting 
 become practicable ; first, in toned mixture shades, and, 
 second, in the origination of individual mixture tints and tones. 
 Taking, in illustration of the first basis, a series of mixture 
 
324 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 shades graded from light to dark, the proportionate quantities 
 of the material ingredients for a six-tone scheme would be 
 as follows 
 
 ^H frj CO * id CO 
 
 * "53 "j| "Q * 'B 
 
 CO CQ OQ CO 5j GQ 
 
 Mvmgo, white or light tint . 90% 75% 55% 40% 20% 5% 
 
 black or dark shade . 5% 20% 40% 55% 75% 90% 
 ,, Tinting hue in bright 
 
 colour . . . 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 
 
 Applying this shade arrangement to Figs. 190 and 191, 
 such tone groupings would be selected as mixtures 1 and 3, 
 2 and 5, and 3 and 6, for the face and backing yarns respec- 
 tively, developing the two surfaces of the cloth in shades of 
 corresponding tinted value but differing in tone depth. 
 
 The second basis may be exemplified by taking russet, 
 citron, and olive, or the three tertiary hues, as the colour 
 units, when mixture yarns in tints and shades, applicable to 
 the different sides of the cloths, would be formable thus 
 
 SHADES 
 
 A. Material, Mungo or shoddy Colour, Russet 50 % 
 
 with Black 50% 
 
 B. Material, Mungo or shoddy Colour, Citron 50 % 
 
 with Black 50% 
 
 C. Material, Mungo or shoddy Colour, Olive 50 % 
 
 with Black 50% 
 
 TINTS 
 
 A'. Material, mungo or shoddy Colour, Russet 50 % 
 
 with White 50% 
 
 B'. Material, mungo or shoddy Colour, Citron 50% 
 
 with White 50% 
 
 C'. Material, mungo or shoddy Colour, Olive 50 % 
 
 with White 50% 
 
 228. Application of Mixture- Yarn Shades. Such weft-shade 
 assortments as the following would be feasible on this basis, 
 in the practice of fabrication : (1) Contrasts in tone A and A', 
 B and B', and C and C' ; (2) Contrasts in hue, dark shades 
 A and B, A and C, and B and C ; (3) Contrasts in hue, Ugh- 
 shades A.' and B', A' and C', and B' and C' ; and (4) Cant 
 trasts in both tone and hue A and B', B and C', and A and C'. 
 
II 
 
 2 11 
 
 
 
 eg eg 
 t-ieo-N 
 
 OJ t/3 
 
 ".H.H 
 
 I MM 
 
 eo H-*:IO 
 
326 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 Considering that, in addition to the varied colour treatment 
 which these schemes of mixture shade formation give, the two 
 surfaces of the cloth, as pointed out, are weavable in dissimilar 
 yarns, and that these provide for a different finished character 
 on each side of the manufactured fabric, the two- and three-ply 
 weft union structures are usable in the acquirement of goods 
 diversified in style, quality, thickness, material composition, 
 and also in weight per yard. 
 
 229. Worsted Warp, Cotton and Woollen Weft Types of 
 Fabrication. The second type of construction Group II, 
 Paragraph 218 is also two-ply in the weft and single in the 
 warp. Whereas, however, in the first system of fabric build, 
 the warp ends are covered by the two series of picks, now the 
 warp yarns are made to conceal, on the face, the weft yarns with 
 the backing picks (Figs. 197, 198 and 199) covering, on the 
 back, complete groups of threads in the warping. Moreover, 
 the warp is here changed to worsted, and interlaced, for the 
 formation of the face effect, with picks of cotton yarn, but 
 with woollen picks for the production of the backing texture. 
 In a sense, this species of compound union is the inverse of 
 that typified in Figs. 190 to 196, for the warp and not the weft 
 is the salient feature of the upper surface of the fabric. In a 
 second sense, namely, in respect to the under side of the cloth, 
 the two schemes correspond, inasmuch as in both structures 
 the weft, used as backing, floats in a sateen or twilled order. 
 The three examples, for which sectional drawings are supplied, 
 consist of weave units arranged thus 
 
 FIG. 197. COMPLETE PLAN ON 12 THREADS AND 24 PICKS 
 
 2 2 2 2 = Warp intersections. 
 Pick 1 = 
 
 1 1 1 1 = Weft 
 
 7 4 = Warp intersections. 
 ~T~ =Weft 
 
 1 2 2 2 1 = Warp intersections. 
 ~~I I I I = Weft 
 
 2 9 = Warp intersections. 
 " 4 = ~T~ = Weft 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 327 
 
 FIG. 197. COMPLETE PLAN (contd.) 
 2222 = Warp intersections. 
 
 "Pirlr t\ 
 
 1 11 1 = Weft 
 
 9 2 = Warp intersections. 
 ~T = Weft 
 
 7, etc. 
 
 FIG. 198. COMPLETE PLAN ON 10 THREADS AND 20 PICKS 
 4 4 = Warp intersections. 
 
 36= Warp intersections. 
 ~T~ = Weft 
 3 4 i = Warp intersections. 
 
 1 i~~ = Weft 
 6 3 = Warp intersections. 
 1 = Weft 
 
 1 4 3 == Warp intersections. 
 "l 1 = Weft 
 
 9 = Warp intersections. 
 " ' ~T = Weft 
 
 7, etc. 
 
 FIG. 199. COMPLETE PLAN ON 16 THREADS AND 48 PICKS 
 
 2 1 5 1 3 = Warp intersections. 
 
 Pick 1 = 
 
 1111= Weft 
 
 12 3 = Warp intersections. 
 
 2 = - = 
 
 2222= Warp intersections. 
 " 3 = I 2" T~~2 "l = Weft 
 
 3 l 512= Warp intersections. 
 ~T 1 1 \ Y - = Weft 
 
 5 10 = Warp intersections. 
 ~T~ = Weft 
 
 2 2 2 2 = Warp intersections. 
 v> w = 
 
 4 l 5 1 1 = Warp intersections. 
 " 7 = ~~1 f I 1 = Weft 
 
 14 l = Warp intersections. 
 
 ~~T~ ~ = Weft 
 9, etc. 
 
328 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 230. Diagratnatic Examples. On examining and comparing 
 the diagrams illustrative of the two principles of intertexture, 
 the technicalities in which they differ and coincide will be 
 apparent. In the first series, the warp threads, A, B, C, etc., 
 are quite hid by the face as by the backing picks, giving (as 
 calculated on the intersections, in Fig. 190), 5 parts of weft 
 to 1 part of warp, and, in Fig. 191, 7 parts of weft to 1 part 
 of warp yarn on the face ; but, in the second series, the 
 arrangement is transposed, the interfacings on the warp threads 
 A', B', C', etc., in Fig. 197, resulting in 2 parts of warp to 1 part 
 of weft, and, in Fig. 198, in 4 parts of warp to 1 part of weft 
 yarn forming the right side of the fabric. When the backing 
 textures are analysed, the points in which the two systems 
 have a like basis are observed ; for, in the first of these struc- 
 tural types, the backing picks in Fig. 190 float under 5 and 
 over 1 warp thread, and, in Fig. 191, under 3 and over 1 ; 
 and, in the second type of fabrication, the backing picks, in 
 Fig. 197, float under 11 and over 1 warp end in succession, 
 and, in Fig. 198, under 9 and over 1 warp thread in alternate 
 order ; that is to say, in both schemes the picks, sketched 
 in grey tones, produce a weft structure on the reverse side of 
 the woven piece. 
 
 - 231. Setting Practices. Another factor in which the two 
 classes of textural product differ is the methods of setting 
 or looming practised in each. The suggestions in manu- 
 facturing data, in Table XXV, indicate that in Figs. 190 to 196, 
 the warp is comparatively loosely set in the reed with the struc- 
 tures firmly or closely woven in the weft. The excess of picks 
 over threads per inch, is a fundamental feature in the weaving 
 of the fabrics, affecting the density or " cover " of the weft 
 surface, whether face or backing. To acquire thread density 
 or compactness and, therefore, warp " cover " in Figs. 197, 
 198, and 199, the reed setting is finer than the wefting setting, 
 as will be observed in the standard basis of looming for these, 
 and like varieties of fabrication, given on the following 
 page. 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 329 
 
 FIG. 197. Warp. 
 
 2-fold 48's worsted. 
 
 16's reed 6's. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 I pick of 2-fold 40's cotton. 
 1 ,, 12 skeins inungo. 
 
 48 to 54 picks per inch. 
 
 FIG. 198. Warp. 
 2-fold 60's worsted. 
 
 20's reed 6's. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 1 pick of 2/40's cotton. 
 1 10 skeins inungo. 
 
 60-64 picks per inch. 
 
 FIG. 199. Warp. 
 2-fold 56's worsted. 
 
 19's reed 6's. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 1 pick of 16's cotton. 
 1 ,,8 skeins mungo. 
 1 2 /56's worsted. 
 
 56 picks per inch. 
 
 232. Cloth Quality in Bi-Wefted and in Cotton and Worsted 
 Warp Unions. Cloth quality, in the cotton-warp and woollen- 
 weft backed structure, is largely a resultant of milling, raising, 
 and finishing practice. Cloth quality in the worsted warp 
 and woollen-and-cotton weft union is, on the contrary, chiefly 
 acquired in the loom. The measure of width-shrinkage in 
 the former, produces, as shown, a pile or nap of filament in 
 the piece and imparts softness and thickness to the finished 
 texture. There is no corresponding milling contraction in 
 the treatment of the two-ply weft and worsted-warp variety 
 of union, the cloths not being set more than 63 to 66 in. wide 
 in the reed, as contrasted with the reed dimensions of 80 to 
 90 in. specified in Table XXV for the cotton- warp build of 
 fabric. The system of setting, plus the selection of Botany 
 worsted yarn for warp and the bringing of the warp threads 
 
330 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 on to the face, first, by the plan of the weave, and second by 
 the ratio of threads to picks see the looming particulars, 
 page 320 are the basic technicalities on which the fine effects 
 and structural features, characteristic of these manufactures, 
 are formulated. 
 
 The soft fibrous backing, which should also distinguish the 
 goods, is due to flushing the mungo or shoddy yarn freely 
 on the back, and shrinking the pieces slightly, either in scouring 
 or for a short period in the milling machine. In the process, 
 the worsted and woollen yarn surfaces are compacted one with 
 the other, and a sort of filament nap is obtained on the under 
 side of the piece. The raising of this, in a damp condition, 
 transforms it into a smooth, level pile of fibres, thereby neu- 
 tralizing the coarse nature and structure of the inferior backing 
 yarn, and, at the same time, adding to the textural quality, 
 flexibility, and wearing property of the goods. 
 
 233. Two-Ply Warp Union Specimens. The principal 
 variety of this class of union is constructed on the warp- 
 backed principle, combining such warping orders as 1 thread 
 of face, 2 threads of face, or 3 threads of face to 1 thread of 
 backing yarn. The yarns for the under surface may be worsted, 
 woollen or cotton, but those used for the face are invariably 
 worsted or fine woollen. For weft, cotton, bi-fibred worsted or 
 vigoyne carded yarn is usable, according to the class and grade 
 of manufacture to be obtained. As a woven structural scheme, 
 it is suitable for making a fast and firm build of cloth, one 
 which, in the wear, retains its character and finish more 
 satisfactorily than a single-weave worsted-and-cotton fabric 
 of a corresponding fineness and weight per yard. The theory 
 and practice of intertexture and fabrication involved, may be 
 exemplified by assuming a textural type, that of a T a twill face 
 (worsted) and an eight-end sateen back (cotton) or a two-ply 
 warp cloth, arranged 1 worsted and 1 cotton, and crossed 
 with bi-fibred worsted or cotton weft. Such a structure might 
 be conveniently set with 104 threads and 52 picks per inch, 
 should the yarn counts be 2-fold 48's worsted, 2-fold 40's 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 
 
 331 
 
 cotton, and equivalent to 20's single cotton in the shuttling. 
 The cotton picks in this plan of weave and looming should be 
 barely traceable in the woven and uncleansed piece ; and, 
 therefore, literally invisible in the finished product, for they 
 only interweave 1 in 4 threads on the face and 1 in 8 threads 
 on the back, or they actually pass between the two sets of 
 
 / 
 ft 
 
 = Face Warp 1, 3 and 4 = Face Weft 
 
 = Backing Warp 
 
 2 and 5 = Centre ami Backing Wefts 
 
 warp yarn, effecting their knitting together, and the clear 
 formation of the weave effects. 
 
 The right side of this class of union possesses the character 
 and fineness of a solid worsted, but the reverse side is a pure 
 cotton texture of the warp -sateen arrangement. The result 
 is a compound cloth having the features and qualities of both 
 
 wool and cotton, or a design and build of texture sound in 
 construction, and of useful wearing serviceability in semi- 
 tropical climates. The yarns, in its composition made of 
 wool filament, lend softness and colour tone, while those made 
 of cotton filament, supply firmness and durability, and wearing 
 value as determined by coolness of fabric in combination with 
 stability of woven structure. 
 
 234. Productive Economics and Weave Plans. Economy in 
 fabric materials and in production is one of the essential 
 
332 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 factors to be attained in this grade of union manufacture. 
 The textures may, as in the example described, be worsted- 
 yarn face and cotton-yarn back, or worsted face, worsted or 
 woollen back, and cotton centre. It will be shown that the 
 basis of construction is applicable to the manufacture of the 
 heavier grades of worsted unions, and that it yields a class of 
 fabric which, while possessing a cotton yam or bi-fibred yarn 
 ingredient, has a worsted character and quality of handle. 
 The structural build is illustrated sectionally in Figs. 200 and 
 201, the former having an eight-shaft weave on the face an 
 a warp effect on the back, and the latter making a compound 
 five-end twilled texture. The formulae for the design units 
 and the data for the warping and weaving arrangements are 
 specified below 
 
 FIG. 200. WEAVE FORMULAE COMPLETE ON 16 THREADS 
 AND 12 PICKS 
 
 131= Warp intersections. 
 
 Plokl(face)= _____p 
 
 2 (centre and back- 131113= Warp intersections 
 ing stitching) "1 i f~[ J i = \v e ft 
 
 113= Warp intersections. 
 
 3 (face) = 
 4 (face) = 
 
 63 1 1 = Weft 
 1121= Warp intersections. 
 
 3 1 4 3 =^ Weft 
 5 (centre and back- _ 313111= Warp intersections 
 ing stitching) ~~i i \ I i jf = Weft 
 
 311= Warp intersections. 
 
 6 (face) = 
 
 3 5 = Weft 
 
 113= W r arp intersections. 
 
 ~1 I 8= Weft 
 
 ,, 8 (centre and backing 1131 3 ! T = Warp intersections 
 
 9 (face) = - 
 10 (face) = 
 
 stitching) 11111 =Weft 
 
 1 31= Warp intersections. 
 
 2 1 7 1 = Weft 
 
 t 1 1 2 = Warp intersections. 
 
 4 33 1 = Weft 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 333 
 
 FIG. 200. WEAVE FORMULAE (contd.) 
 
 Pick 11 (centre and backing _ 1 1_J_1 ^ l_2=W&rp intersections, 
 stitching) ~T~l~f TITT = Weft 
 
 131= Warp intersections. 
 
 r-6 3 1 = Weft 
 
 ,, 13, etc. 
 
 FIG. 200. WARP 
 1 thread of 2 -fold 44's worsted. 
 1 ,, bi-fibred worsted. 
 21's reed 6's. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 1 pick of 2-fold 44's worsted. 
 1 ,, 16's single (soft spun) cotton. 
 1 2-fold 44's worsted. 
 
 74-80 picks per inch. 
 
 FIG. 201. WEAVE FORMULAE, COMPLETE ON 11 THREADS 
 AND 22 PICKS 
 
 41= Warp intersections. 
 
 Pick 1 (face) = 
 
 41 1 = Weft 
 
 ,, 2 (centre and backing 1 114= Warp intersections, 
 stiching) ~i i ~ J = Weft 
 
 1 4 = Warp intersections. 
 
 3 (face) = 1 F 
 
 5 1 = Weft ,, 
 
 ,, 4 (centre and backing 11113= Warp intersections, 
 stitching) ~~i i i j~~ = Weft 
 
 1 1 3 = Warp intersections. 
 o (face) = - 
 
 15= Weft 
 
 ,, 6 (centre and backing 31111= Warp intersections, 
 stitching) 1 I 1~T~ = Weft 
 
 3 l l = Warp intersections. 
 
 7 (face) = - 
 
 15= Weft 
 
 ,, 8 (centre and backing 41 1 1 = Warp intersections, 
 
 stitching) = i I I T~ = Weft 
 
 4 1 = Warp intersections. 
 
 " 9 (face) = r ~r 4 = weft 
 
 10 (centre and backing 1 4 1 1 = Warp intersections. 
 
 sticking) ~^i T jT T = Weft 
 
 ,, 11, etc. 
 
334 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 201. Warp. 
 2-fold 36's worsted. 
 
 16's reed 6's. 
 
 Weft. 
 
 1 pick of 2-fold 36's worsted. 
 1 12's soft spun cotton. 
 
 96 picks per inch. 
 
 235. Structural Arrangements and Fabric Substance or Thick- 
 ness. Both these structures provide for the use of a cotton 
 weft which passes between the face and backing threads, 
 as is clearly indicated in the sectional sketches, Figs. 200 and 
 201. This yarn has also a second function, that of stitching 
 regularly with the backing warp threads, and of forming, on 
 the under surface of the fabric, a warp-twilled effect. 
 
 Fig. 200 is arranged 1 pick face, 1 pick centre and 1 pick 
 face, and Fig. 201 is shuttled 1 face and 1 of backing or centre 
 yarn. Lines 1, 3, and 4 in the plan of the former, represents 
 picks of face weft, interlacing with the threads /, and binding 
 periodically with the threads b. The grey lines 2 and 5 inter- 
 weave with ends 6, and, when not utilized in producing the 
 twilled underneath texture, lie intermediate betwixt the upper 
 and lower set of warp ends. Fig. 201 is constructed on the 
 interchanging double- weave basis, warp threads / and b 
 appearing successively, as seen in the sketch, on the right and 
 reverse side of the piece. For obtaining a make of cloth in 
 which the strain, in the wear, is evenly distributed on all the 
 warp yarns, it is a sound scheme of manufacture, but it entails, 
 in the production of the ordinary grades of fabrics, that only 
 one thickness and quality of warp thread should be applied ; 
 whereas the arrangement of the weave plan for Fig. 200, 
 allows of the use of dissimilar sorts of yarn for the face and 
 backing respectively, hence in the warping specified for this 
 example, two kinds of warp thread, worsted and bi- worsted 
 (or cotton in cheaper goods), are combined. 
 
 For increasing the weight per yard of the textures, two 
 methods of work are available ; in the first instance, the cotton 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 335 
 
 weft may be changed to a union woollen of some 22 or 24 
 skeins, with a small reduction in the picks per inch ; and, 
 in the second instance, the pieces may be set from 66 to 72 in. 
 wide in the reed, and a degree of felting practised. Using more 
 open weave structures than those illustrated, and adapting 
 fuller setting in the warping and the wefting, is a further 
 means of adding to the weight per yard and substance of these 
 types of union worsteds. 
 
 236. Double-make Unions Wadded. This compound weave 
 variety of union is illustrated in Figs. 202 and 203. The 
 first example consists of 2-and-2 twill face and back, with 
 cotton- warp yarn centre, arranged in the warp, 1 thread 
 face, 1 thread backing, 1 thread face, and 1 thread centre, 
 and in the weft, 1 pick face, 1 pick backing, and 1 pick face. 
 It results in a cloth of double the yarn density on the right as 
 on the under surface. The second example is illustrative of 
 fabrics in which the yarns are grouped 1 thread face and 1 
 thread backing in the warping, and 1 pick face, 1 pick backing, 
 1 pick face, and 1 pick centre, or wadding, in the wefting. 
 
 Figs. 202 and 203 are, clearly, double-make textures, streng- 
 thened and thickened, in the former, by the employment of a 
 supplementary series of cotton threads, c 1 , c 2 , c 3 , and c 4 ; 
 and, in the latter, by the insertion of a special series of picks 
 represented, in the sectional drawing, by the light grey line 
 or shot 4. Such threads, or picks, are quite a separate and 
 distinct yarn from the warp and weft threads combined in the 
 formation of the face and backing textures. Their presence 
 in the structure is not designed to have any modifying influ- 
 ence on either the upper or lower fabric in the compound cloth. 
 They are strictly wadding yarns, and as such may be made of 
 cotton or of an inferior quality of material, and be spun to a 
 heavier counts than the worsted, woollen, or better sorts of 
 yarn, used in the production of the face and backing textures. 
 Both these systems of union construction are applicable to 
 manufactures composed of (1) worsted or woollen warp and 
 weft; (2) worsted face and woollen backing yarns; (3) fabrics 
 
336 
 
 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 with a worsted warp and crossed with woollen weft, and (4) 
 fabrics made of worsted yarn on the face and of woollen yarn 
 on the back, using in each type of structure cotton threads 
 for wadding and weighting purposes. 
 
 The binding of the different textural structures together is 
 effected by the face warp ends interlacing, in regular sequence, 
 
 tf ^S ft4 JS H 
 
 FIG. 203 
 
 with the threads of the backing warp, picks 1 and 4 in Fig. 202 
 binding with 6 4 and 6 1 , and picks 1, 3, and 5 in Fig. 203 with 
 6 3 , 6 8 , and b 5 . The grey lines, or backing shots, interweave 
 with the ends 6 1 to ft 4 ; with the cotton threads c 1 , c 2 , c 3 , 
 
 and c 4 in Fig. 202, lying un- 
 interlaced betwixt the face and 
 backing textures ; while the cotton 
 picks in Fig. 203, as represented 
 by the light grey line 4, also 
 uninterlaced, form the central 
 yarn feature of the double 
 fabric. It will be understood 
 that in a complete repeat of 
 the weave plans, each set of 
 picks binds in correct twill or sateen order with a separate 
 group of backing threads, as, for example, in Fig. 203, where 
 pick 1 stitches with thread 6 3 , 3 with 6 8 , and 5 with b 5 ; and 
 in the picks not shown, 7 would stitch with 6 2 , 9 with b 7 , 11 
 with 6 4 , 13 with b 1 and pick 15 with thread b fi . 
 
 It should be observed that the centre -weft principle of 
 inserting the cotton ingredient, facilitates the employment 
 
 204 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 337 
 
 of thick and soft wadding yarns two- or multi-ply but 
 untwisted and that the centre-warp principle offers an 
 economic advantage in piece weaving, inasmuch as it does 
 not add to the shuttling factor, but it has the drawback of 
 limiting the kind of yarn structure usable ; for as the centre 
 warp yarn is of necessity under tension in the looming opera- 
 tion, it requires to be of a fairly compact character, and also 
 of a moderate tensile property. 
 
 The formulae of the weave units of the compound 
 structures shown in Figs. 202, 203 and 204, are stated below 
 
 FIG. 202. DOUBLE-MAKE PLAN, WITH CENTRE WARP, COMPLETE 
 ON 16 THREADS AND 12 PICKS 
 
 1 13= Warp intersections. 
 
 Pick 1 (face) = 
 
 2 (back) = 
 3 (face) = 
 
 4 15 1 == Weft 
 
 1 3 10 = Warp intersections. 
 
 ~~I 1 = Weft 
 
 1 11 2 = Warp intersections. 
 ~~5 I 5 I = Weft 
 
 3 11 = Warp intersections. 
 4 (face) = - 
 
 5 1 5 = Weft 
 
 5 3 6 = Warp intersections. 
 5 back) = - 
 
 1 1 == Weft 
 
 6, etc. 
 
 FIG. 203. DOUBLE-MAKE PLAN, WITH CENTRE WEFT, COMPLETE 
 ON 16 THREADS AND 16 PICKS 
 
 311= Warp intersections. 
 Pick 1 (face) = 
 
 4 551= Weft 
 
 1 1 5 1 4 = Warp intersections. 
 -_ _ _ _ ^ 
 
 2 (back) = 
 
 1 1 1 1 = Warp intersections. 
 
 ,, 3 (face) = 
 
 515= Weft 
 
 11111111 = Warp intersections. 
 ,, 4 (centre) = 
 
 11111111= Weft 
 
 113= Warp intersections. 
 
 o (face) = = r ; 
 
 o o = Weft 
 
 22 (1745) 2Q pp. 
 
338 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 FIG. 203. DOUBLE-MAKE PLAN (contd.) 
 
 3 1 5 1 2 = Warp intersections. 
 Pick 6 (back) = J 
 
 1111= Weft ,, 
 
 311= Warp intersections. 
 
 ,, 7 <face)==- _ __._ g = wrft 
 
 ,, 8 (centre) = Same as Pick 4. 
 9, etc. 
 
 FIG. 204. THREE-PLY PLAN, COMPLETE ON 10 THREADS AND 
 
 10 PICKS 
 
 1 13= Warp intersections. 
 Pick 1 (face) = - ; 
 
 4 1 o 1 = Weft ,, 
 
 1 3 10 = Warp intersections. 
 2 (back) = 
 
 3 (face) = 
 
 1 1 = Weft 
 
 111= Warp intersections. 
 
 ,, 4 (centre) = 
 
 5 (face) = 
 
 (back) = 
 
 7 (face) = 
 
 515 1 = Weft 
 
 1113112= Warp intersections. 
 
 ~~1 1 1 I I l~" = Weft 
 311= Warp intersections. 
 
 "5 1 5 = Weft 
 5 3 s== Warp intersections. 
 
 I 1 =Weft 
 
 II 1 1 = Warp intersections. 
 
 ,, 8 (centre) = 
 
 1 5 1 3 = Weft 
 131131 = Warp intersections, 
 
 111111= Weft 
 0, etc. 
 
 237. Union Compound Cloths with Outer and Inner Layers of 
 Yarn. In A. Beaumont's improved double-make of union 
 fabric, (Patent Specification, 18,056 1915), the inventor pro- 
 duces a woven two-ply manufacture made of two or more 
 sorts or counts of yarn composed of different materials, e.g., 
 cotton, woollen, worsted, angola, bi-fibred, etc. with one yarn 
 of a superior quality for giving textural character and handle, 
 and the other of a lower quality, and employed in such a 
 manner as to be rendered invisible. It is claimed that the 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 339 
 
 resultant loom product is similar in appearance and in feel 
 to a texture formed of one kind or variety of yarn throughout. 
 The construction of the double or combined cloth acquired, 
 is built-up of an inner and of an outer layer of yarns, or of a 
 surface and of an interior texture, the two being amalgamated 
 into one structure solely by the method of interlacing the 
 threads and picks of the inner with the outer woven tissue, 
 the latter consisting of the better or higher class of 
 yarn. 
 
 Instead of the two series of warp and weft threads, as in an 
 ordinary doiible-build of cloth, being placed one over the other, 
 or one series being confined to the face and the second series 
 to the under or reverse side of the manufacture, the two 
 fabric units, constituting the union production, are bound 
 into one cloth by the warp and weft threads of the surface 
 structure stitching through the composite fabric. Thus such 
 yarns interlace alternately over and under the warp ends 
 and weft shots of the inner texture, and pass through and 
 through the central fabric formation, made of cotton or other 
 suitable fibrous material. Each group of intersections of the 
 surface warp and weft yarns, knits on the face and back of 
 the double cloth. In accomplishing this, the surface yarns 
 are given a larger float, or interlacing, than the threads of 
 the warp and weft of the inner fabric, attaining the compara- 
 tive concealment of the intermediate structure, with an 
 appreciable degree of the manufactured features and quality 
 of a cloth made of one yarn character and substance. 
 
 This scheme of union intertexture is further amplified 
 (Patent Specification, 108,2351917, A. and W. Beaumont) 
 with a view of enabling, by the first method, every alternate 
 warp thread to be hidden from view by the manner of inter- 
 lapping the weft threads : and, by the second method, every 
 alternate weft thread to be hidden by the plan of interlacing 
 the warp threads. It follows that, in both arrangements, the 
 interior or lower sorts of yarn in the cloth are effectively 
 covered or concealed. 
 
340 UNION TEXTILE FABRICATION 
 
 Common twills, simple weave elements, and various cross- 
 ings, applicable to standard and special types of manufacture, 
 are illustrated in the specifications quoted as formable on this 
 textural basis, which is correctly conceived, and constitutes 
 an efficient practice in union fabrication. 
 
 238. Three-ply Manufactures Sectionally Illustrated. The 
 third variety of example (Fig. 204) in which the cotton or other 
 yarn elements are inserted into both warp and weft, and make 
 an intermediate or centre texture, is typical of the three-ply 
 build of woven manufacture. As in Figs. 202 and 203, the 
 yarn composition of the structure is now variable, and the 
 binding of the textural layers to each other is again accom- 
 plished by the picks of the face weft passing under the threads 
 in the backing warp in a prescribed order, as indicated in the 
 sectional sketch at b l and 6 4 . The cotton yarns pick 8 and 
 threads c 1 , c 2 , etc. are, in such manufactures, utilized in the 
 construction of a distinct type of fabric, namely, plain woven 
 in Fig. 204 ; but this is subject to alteration with the function 
 it is designed to have in the three-fold cloth. Obviously, the 
 faster this structure, the fuller the degree of firmness it will 
 originate in the composite textural result, so that its formation 
 should be adapted, first, to the build and setting of the face 
 and backing fabrics, and, second, to the technical features 
 it is required to develop in the finished piece. 
 
 The classification of the yarns in the face, backing, and 
 intermediate sections of the fabric, may be varied to agree 
 with the nature and class of fabrication intended. That in 
 Fig. 204 is 1 thread face, 1 backing, 1 face, and 1 centre in 
 both the warping and shuttling, but other standard yarn 
 groupings comprise : (a) 2 face, 1 backing, 2 face and 1 centre ; 
 (6) 1 face, 1 backing and 1 centre ; and (c) 1 face, 1 backing, 
 1 face, 1 backing, and 1 centre. System (a) admits of the 
 combination of small yarns and open weave types for the face, 
 with thick yarns and fast weave types for the backing and 
 centre ; system (b) of similar counts of warp and weft and 
 weave plans in each of the three textures, face, centre, and 
 
STRUCTURAL SCHEMES 341 
 
 backing ; and system (c) of the face and backing coinciding 
 in yarn quality and diameter and also in plan of weave, with 
 a plain or fine-twilled effect, produced in low counts of yarn, 
 for the central feature. 
 
 The application of the several varieties of compound makes 
 of union fabrics to the general and heavier grades of manu- 
 facture, has been chiefly considered in the structural schemes 
 dissected and elucidated. References have been made in 
 other portions of the work to figured textures in the production 
 of which they are also employed, but decorative " unions," 
 as likewise of fancy multi-ply woven textiles, composed of a 
 number of distinctive yarn units, form a branch of tech- 
 nological study which can only be adequately analysed and 
 illustrated in a separate and special treatise. 
 
INDEX 
 
 SEE ALSO CONTENTS, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND TABLES 
 (Pages ix, xv, xxii). 
 
 ACCENTUATED warp and weft contrasts, 103 
 Admixtures of wool and cotton, carded yarns, 1 1 
 combed yarns, 12 
 
 ,, yarn structures in warping and wefting, 204 
 
 Alpaca coatings, 257 
 
 weft fabrics, 239 
 
 ,, ,, settings for, 248 
 
 Application of nine-tone scheme, bi-fibred yarns, 100 
 Analysis of union specimens, 150 
 
 ,, looming practice, compound (thin) fabrics, 283 
 
 Artificial silk and cotton, 271 
 
 Assortment of yarn qualities in pattern development, 90 
 Astrakan textures, union yarns in, 38 
 
 ,, or curl yarns, 196 
 
 Australian wool and cotton, 10 
 
 BACKED union structures, 151 
 Bi-fibred fabrics, pattern in, 68 
 
 ,, manufactures, colour tone in, 35 
 
 mixture shades, wool dyed, 56 
 
 ,, cotton dyed, 56 
 
 ,, ,, ,, in twelve tones, 60 
 
 neutral grey mixtures, 51 
 
 ,, yarn production, 3 
 
 ,, vestings, 73 
 
 ,, ,, patterns in two shades, 82 
 
 ,, two, three, and four shades, 85 
 
 ,, ,, ,, end-and-entl colouring, 96 
 
 ,, yarns, 1 
 
 ,, ,, cotton and wool. 13 
 
 ,, methods of style origination in, 84 
 
 ,, ,, qualitative values of, 14 
 
 ,, and union twist yarns, structural characteristics, 17 
 
 in combination, 165 
 
 Blend, filament, 42 
 Blends, wool and cotton, 10 
 Blouse textures, admixed yarns in, 11 
 
 checkings, piece-clyed, 64 
 Bordered cloths, 272 
 Brazilian cotton and wool, 10 
 Broad stripings, 155 
 Broken swansdown woven textures, 70 
 Bulk production, economy in, 77 
 
 CARDING practice, wool and cotton, 5 
 Carded union yarns, features of, 11 
 
 and combed yarns, mixture shades in, 44 
 
 343 
 
344 INDEX 
 
 Cashmeres, 252 
 Category of union twists, 18 
 Centre warp fabrics, 336 
 weft fabrics, 335 
 Chain twists, 183 
 Checked Patterns, piece -dyeing of, 64 
 
 styles, shade tonation in, 110 
 
 due to weave interchange, 159 
 Checks in weave contrasts, 111 
 
 >. M cutting designs in, 111 
 
 Cheviots, fancy yarns in, 190 
 
 multi-ply yarn cloths, 191 
 Classification of woven unions, 203 
 Cloths (thin), two-ply in warp and weft, 266 
 Coatings, covert, 147 
 
 COLOURIZATION, 28 
 
 of spun and woven products, 38 
 Colour attributes and twine in the yarn, 31 
 practice in mixture shade dyeing, 49 
 quality and manufacturing elements, 28 
 technology, bi-fibred manufactures, 35 
 tone and methods of finishing, 33 
 
 ,, determination of, 62 
 toning, mingled and mottled effects, 193 
 unit, intensity of, in dyeing, 61 
 Colours, secondary and tertiary, in mixture-shade dyeing, 52 
 Combed union yarns, features of, 12 
 Combination of spun yarns made of different materials, 23 
 
 union twists and bi-fibred worsted yarns, 166 
 
 Combing practice, wool and cotton, 7 
 Compounds of three yarn structures, 87 
 COMPOUND-YARN FABRICS, SECTION II, 116 
 Contrasts, accentuated in warp and weft, 103 
 ,, indefinite and decided, 101 
 
 toned and mezzotint, 102 
 
 ,, in colour tone and weave types, 103 
 
 in folded-yarn counts, 179 
 
 in single and twist yarn textures, 152 
 Cord twills, 136 
 weaves, 134 
 
 5 (twilled), thread-and-thread colouring in, 70 
 
 Correlative yarn qualities and textural style, 72 
 Cotton and artificial silk, 38, 271 
 
 and linen union-yarn fabrics, 126, 171 
 Brazilian, Egyptian, and South American, and wool, 10 
 and wool dyed mixture shades, 56 
 silk union-yarn fabrics, 126 
 linen twist threads, 20 
 silk twist threads, 21 
 woollen twist threads, 19 
 worsted twist threads, 19 
 in carded and combed yarns, 9 
 utility of in union manufactures, 25 
 yarns in light fabrics, 237 
 
 DARK-COLOURED ground patterns, 167 
 Decorative styles, 273 
 Decided colour contrasts, 101 
 
INDEX 345 
 
 Deductions and examples, piece-dyed patterns, 64 
 Definition of pattern features in mingled yarns, 87 
 
 ,, of weave interfacings in folded-yarn unions, 178 
 
 Delineation of textural detail, 112 
 Design elements and manufacturing practice, 105 
 
 ,, practice, loom-coloured and piece-coloured, 78 
 Diameter of thread units in union twist yarns, 163 
 
 ,, of yarns in admixed warping and wefting, 206 
 ,, ,, structural examples, 207 
 
 Diamond twists, 183 
 Differentiations in textural tone and fabric build, 32 
 
 ,, limitations of, in yarn counts, 154 
 
 Distribution of yarns varying in fibre composition, 65 
 Diversification of shade tone in pattern design, 87 
 Double cloth (thin), composed of fine and open structures, 281 
 ,, ,, in dress fabric manufacture, 277, 283 
 
 ,, ,, interchanging principle, 334 
 
 ,, make heavy unions, 335 
 
 ,, ,, with inner and outer layers of yarns, 338 
 
 Dress fabrics (See also " Crepons," " Lustres," " Textures," " Unions," 
 
 "Weaves"), admixed yarn in, 11 
 alpaca, 248 
 
 ,, bordered patterns in, 272 
 ,, compound weaves in, 281 
 
 ,, cotton and artificial silk yarn structures, 271 
 ,, crepes, poplins, repps, Russell cords, 253 
 crepons, 288 
 
 ,, glaces, Sicilians, Orleans, etc., 251 
 ,, gauze and lappet effects in, 302 
 ,, gimped yarn in ground of, 264 
 ,, ground, characteristics in, 270 
 
 lustres, 239 
 
 ,, Matelesse, type of, 277 
 ,, net and lace features in, 286 
 ,, silk warp and worsted weft, 276 
 ,, warp and weft colouring in, 263 
 ,, weave and colour schemes in, 278 
 ,, worsted warp and silk weft, 258 
 ,, ,, and cotton warp and silk weft, 260 
 
 ,, yarn contrasts in, 244 
 Duplification of spottings and colourings in twist yarn, 188 
 Dyeing, conditions in which textile materials are treated, 15 
 ,, mixture shades, colour practice in, 49 
 ,, practice, loom-coloured and piece -coloured goods, 78 
 ,, procedure and range making, 74 
 ,, tone differentiation in woven unions, 222 
 
 ECONOMY in bulk production, 77 
 Effect of elaborating weave units, 95 
 Egyptian cotton and wool admixtures, 16 
 Eight -tone mixture shades, wool dyed, 53 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, and cotton dyed, 56 
 
 Elements in union manufacture and colour features, 28 
 Elongated mat and twill weaves, stripes in, 110 
 Emphasising textural details, 67 
 End-aiid-end (bi-fibred yarn) styles, 96 
 Evenness of texture and yarn (bi-fibred) distribution, 65 
 Experiment in design, shade tones, 87 
 22A (1745) 
 
346 INDEX 
 
 Experimental pattern origination, bi-fibred yarns, 83 
 
 ,, range making, 87 
 
 ,, schemes in woven unions, 224 
 
 Extension of mixture -shade scale, 55 
 
 FABRICATION, Union, and piece-dyeing, 47 
 
 Fabrics (See under "Cloth," "Dress," "Texture," and "Union") 
 alpaca, 248 
 
 bi-fibred, patterns in, 68 
 Cheviot, multi-ply yarns in, 190 
 cotton and linen twists in, 171 
 crepon, 288 
 covert coating, 147 
 
 diamond and chain twist yarns in, 183 
 dress, 236 
 
 elements of, in multi-fold yarns, 180 
 fine twilled, 147 
 folded cotton and linen and doubled silk threads in, 188 
 
 ,, yarn union, mingled colour toning in, 193 
 gauze, 302 
 
 lace and net effects in, 286 
 lappet, 304 
 lustre, 239 
 
 reversible in compound union and cotton yarns, 178 
 single and backed, 151 
 union twist (cotton and woollen), 128 
 ,, (cotton and worsted) 139 
 ,, (cotton and silk), 140 
 ,, (woollen and cotton), 127 
 ,, (worsted and cotton), 139 
 ,, (worsted and silk), 140 
 ,, (worsted, cotton, and silk), 140 
 with two-ply yarns in warp and weft, 146 
 Fancy worsteds, piece-dyed, 37 
 Fibre, fineness of, 8 
 Fibres, tinting value of, 28 
 Fibrous materials "used in union manufacture, 1 
 
 ,, ,, percentage of in union twist yarns, 19 
 
 Figured patterns with shaded warp tinting, 114 
 
 unions (cotton and wool), piece-dyed , 40 
 Filament blend, 42 
 
 ,, composition of weft yarns, 130 
 
 density of woollen and cotton threads, 174 
 
 ,, percentages, factors controlling, 22 
 ,, ,, inversion of, 73 
 
 ,, values, 2 
 
 Finishing practice and colour tone, 33 
 
 ,, ,, ,, folded yarn effects, 197 
 
 Flannelettes, 252 
 Flannels, admixed yarns in, 1 1 
 Folded yarns and woven unions, 24 
 
 hank-dyed, 39 
 
 Folded yarn structures, contrasts in counts of, 179 
 cotton and linen, 178 
 definition of weave interlacings in, 178 
 fineness of, 175 
 formation of, 172 
 surface modifications in, 173 
 
INDEX 347 
 
 Folded yarn structures, tensility of, 175 
 
 ,, ,, textural characteristics produced in, 170 
 
 types of, 173 
 
 GLACES, 252 
 
 G imped yarn textures, 264 
 
 Gauze and leno textures, 302 
 
 ,, microscopic examination of, 304 
 
 ,, plan and looming draft, 303 
 
 ,, yarns employed in, 312 
 Grandelles, 252 
 
 HANK -DYED Folded yarns, 39 
 
 Heavy union cloths, centre warp structures, 330 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, weft structures, 335 
 
 ,, ,, ,, colouring practices in, 323 
 
 ,, ,, j, compound in structure with inner and outer layers 
 
 of yarn, 338 
 
 ,, ,, ,, double make, 335 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, interchanging type, 334 
 
 wadded, 335 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, face and backing weaves in, 316 
 
 ,, ,, ,, multi-ply in the warp, 332 
 
 ,, ,, ,, productive economics and weave plans, 331 
 
 ,, ,, ,, setting principles in, 328 
 
 ,, ,, ,, structural types of, 313 
 
 ,, ,, ,, three-ply weft structures, 316 
 
 ,, ,, ,, * ,, ,, analysis of, 315 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, use of centre weave in, 338 
 
 wadded, 336 
 
 ,, ,, ,, weave formulae (compound structures), 332 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, (double make with centre yarn), 337 
 
 ,, ,, ,, weight per yard in, 314 
 
 Hosiery, admixed yarns in, 11 
 
 INDEFINITE colour contrasts, 101 
 Intensity of colour unit in dyeing, 00 
 Intertexture, warp principle of, 143 
 
 warp scheme in union designing, 213 
 
 ,, weft scheme in union designing, 214 
 
 Inversion of filament percentages, 70 
 Inverted twilled mat examples, 111 
 Inverted weave patterns, 108 
 Invisible yarn units in wpven fabrics, 208 
 Italian textures, 251 
 
 ,, settings for, 252 
 
 JACQUARD harness and heddle mounting, 273 
 
 KNITTED structures, yarns applied to, 2, 11 
 Knopped yarns, 189 
 
 ,, ,, duplicating surface features in, 188 
 
 LACE manufactures, 2 
 
 ,, effects, woven, 284 
 Lappet weaving, 304 
 
 Leaf pattern with cord and plain weave ground, 112 
 Light-coloured patterns, piece-dyed, 161 
 Linen, cotton, and silk yarn textures, 188 
 
348 INDEX 
 
 Linen and cotton twist fabrics, 171. 
 ., threads, 20 
 
 and cotton union threads, 126 
 Linings, alpaca, 248 
 
 Loom-coloured principles of designing, 78 
 LOOMING PRINCIPLES (See under " Woven Unions "), 201 
 Loom-made unions, 23 
 Lustre and cotton yarn contrasts, 244 
 Lustres (See under " Textures light in construction "), 247 
 settings for, 248 
 
 figured, 258 
 
 Lustre yarns in folded- thread structures, 189 
 in milled curl fabrics, 196 
 
 MANUFACTURE, Union, cotton yarns in, 25 
 Manufacturing compass and twist-thread structures, 121 
 ,, data, woven unions, 216 
 
 ,, elements and colour quality, 18 
 
 practice, design elements in, 105 
 
 Matelasse, warp type, 277 
 Materials, fibrous, in union twists, 122 
 Melangeur, 8 
 Methods of applying two and three-fold yarns, 132 
 
 ,, of fininshing and colour tone, 33 
 
 Mezzotint contrasts, 102 
 Microscopic dissection of yarn twine, 225 
 
 study of gauze and lappet effects, 304 
 
 Mingled shade tones, pattern definitions in, 97 
 Mixture shade dyeing, technicalities in, 48 
 
 ,, ,, yarn composition for, 40 
 
 ,, scale extension, 55 
 
 ,, variations and manufacturing schemes, 43 
 Mixtures, cotton and wool, 4 
 
 carding practice in, 5 
 
 ,, ,, ,, combing practice, 7 
 
 ,, ,, ,, staple equality in, 6 
 
 bi-fibred, neutral grey, 50 
 
 ,, secondary or tertiary colours in, 52 
 
 Mohair, uses of in knopped yarns, 189 
 Motor cloth, wool and ramie yarns, 71 
 Mottled toning in multi-fold yarn cloths, 193 
 MULTI-FOLD YARN TYPES, 172 
 Multi-fold yarns, fabric elements in, 180 
 ,, union yarns, 17 
 
 tables of, 19 
 
 Multi-ply union threads in Cheviots, 190 
 ,, warp fabrics, 332 
 
 NATURAL colour and tinted contrasts, cotton and linen, 144 
 
 New Zealand wool and cotton, admixtures of, 10 
 
 Net effects, woven, 286 
 
 Neutral grey mixtures, bi-fibred, 50 
 
 Nine-tone scheme, bi-fibred yarns, 100 
 
 ONE -AND -ONE colouring, bi-fibred yarn patterns, 96 
 
 Open- and fine-set fabric structures, 281 
 
 Orleans, plain, 251 
 
 .Origination of bi-fibred yarn patterns, 83 
 
INDEX 349 
 
 Ornameiitative styles, 230 
 
 ,, bi-fibred yarn schemes for, 234 
 
 ,, pattern values in, 233 
 
 PATTERN construction and yarn structures, 90 
 
 ,, elements in yarns differing in formation, 40 
 
 in bi-fibred yarn fabrics, 68 
 PATTERN ORIGINATION, 78 
 
 ,, and yarn doubling, 181 
 
 style, a weave resultant, 255 
 Patterns, broad -striped, 155 
 
 ,, piece-dyed, with dark-coloured grounds, 1(57 
 
 ,, light -coloured grounds, 161 
 
 Pattern -work in woven unions, 214 
 Piece-coloured design practice, 78 
 Piece-dyed figured unions, 40 
 
 ,, goods made of folded yarns, 193 
 
 ,, unions, 36 
 Piece -dyeing, fancy union woYsteds, 37 
 
 ,, union manufactures, 47 
 
 Percentages, filament inversion of, 73 
 Plus wool ingredient in union yarn and fabric, 51 
 Poplins, 253 
 
 Practice in mixture shade-dyeing, 49 
 
 Production of mixture shades in carded and combed yarns, 44 
 PRODUCTIVE SCHEMES, 119 
 
 Products, spun and woven, colourization of, 38 
 Proportionate value of cotton and wool, 15 
 Prunelle- twill styles, bi-fibred yarn, 89 
 
 QUANTITATIVE factors in bi-fibred yarns, 14 
 Qualities of weft yarn, 131 
 
 Quality of manufactured product and union yarn structure, 22 
 ,, in union yarn and fabric and filament properties, 66 
 
 RAISING action and design practice, 228 
 
 Ramie and wool fibre yarn cloths, 71 
 
 Range-making and dyeing procedure, 74 
 
 Relative filament values, 2 
 
 Repps, 252 
 
 Research and sectional investigation, 76 
 
 Reversible fabrics, linen and cotton unions, 178 
 
 Ribbed union -yarn stripes, 148 
 
 Rugs, union, 224 
 
 Russell cords, 253 
 
 SAXONIES, bi-fibred, 60 
 
 Scale of eight tones, mixture shades, 53 
 
 ,, nine tones, mixture shades, 100 
 
 of twelve tones, mixture shades, 57 
 Serges, alpaca, 249 
 Secondary colour mixture shades, 53 
 Shade contrasts and thread formation, 30 
 
 gradation in union yarns, 51 
 
 ,, toning, 49 
 
 ,, ,, diversification of, 87 
 
 ,, ,, in striped, checked, and figured styles, HO 
 
350 INDEX 
 
 Shaded warp striping in figured patterns, 114 
 
 Shades, mixtures, tertiary colours in, 52 
 
 Sheen in lustre fabrics, 245 
 
 Sicilians, 251 
 
 Silk and cotton twists, 126 
 
 warp and worsted weft textures, 276 
 Single and twist yarn cloths, 152 
 Six-shade tonation, 50 
 
 South American cotton and wool, admixtures of, 10 
 Spinning property and fineness of fibre, 8 
 Spotted and specked yarn fabrics, 185 
 Spun productions, colourization of, 38 
 Staple equalities in wool and cotton mixtures, 6 
 Stripes, twill and elongated mat compounds, 110 
 Structural examples in admixed yarns, 207 
 STRUCTURAL SCHEMES, CLOTHS SUBSTANTIAL IN BUILD (Sec under " Heavv 
 
 Union Cloths"), 306 
 
 Structures, union, single and backed, 151 
 Surface features in compound (thin) fabrics, 284 
 
 TAPESTRIES, union, in folded yarns, 194 
 Technique in crepon manufacture, 297 
 Tertiary colour mixtures, 52 
 Textile materials, condition in which dyed, 25 
 Textural details, delineation of, 112 
 ,, emphasising, 67 
 
 features, influence of carded yarn on, 11 
 > ,, of combed yarn on, 12 
 
 production, union yarns a basis of, 120 
 TEXTURAL STUDIES, 146 
 
 ,, style and yarn qualities, 72 
 TEXTURAL TONING, 49 
 TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION, 236 
 
 ,, alpaca coatings, 257 
 
 " ,, bordered patterns in, 272 
 
 ,, compound builds of, 281 
 
 " cotton and artificial silk in, 271 
 
 crepes and voiles, 252 
 
 crepons, 288 
 
 " >' ,, compound weaves in, 290 
 
 " > ,, double-make varieties of, 296 
 
 " ,, plan, modifications in, 294 
 
 " ,, surface, waviness in, 289 
 
 " ,, technique in manufacture of, 
 
 297 
 ,, decorative styles in, 273 
 
 gauze, 309 
 
 ,, gimped yarn effects in, 264 
 
 ^ ,, glaces, 251 
 
 ,, Italians, 252 
 
 ,, lace effects, 286 
 
 lappet, 304 
 
 ,, looming principles in, 283 
 
 > ,, net grounds in, 285 
 
 lustres, 239 
 
 > ,, designing elements in, 254 
 
 ,, material, characteristics of, 240 
 
 M . ., pattern and weave in, 255 
 
INDEX 
 
 351 
 
 TEXTURES LIGHT IN CONSTRUCTION, lustres, standardized manufacture of, 
 
 247 
 
 ,, ,, systems of production, 248 
 
 ,, ,, textural sheen in, 245 
 
 ,, ,, yarn contrasts in, 244 
 
 Orleans, 251 
 ,, poplins, 252 
 
 ,, repps and Russell cords, 253 
 
 ,, Sicilians, 251 
 
 ,, silk or cotton and worsted in warp arid 
 
 weft, 278 
 
 ,, silk warp and worsted weft, 276 
 
 ,, two-ply warp and weft, 266 
 
 ,, use of cotton in, 237 
 
 ., variations in ground features, 270 
 
 ,, warping and wefting orders in, 263 
 
 ,, warp Matelasse style of, 277 
 
 ,, weave types in, 239 
 
 wefts applied to, 237 
 
 ,, worsted warp and silk weft, 258 
 
 ,, worsted and cotton warp and silk 
 
 weft, 262 
 
 TEXTURAL STUDIES, 146 
 Textures, single and twist yarn, 152 
 
 ,, Venetian and fine-twilled, 147 
 Tinted contrasts, linen and cotton, 144 
 Tinting value of textile fibres, 28 
 Thread consistency and shade tone, 30 
 Three-ply weft fabrics, 316 
 Tonation, shade, 110 
 
 Tone differentiations and fabric build, 32 
 Toned contrasts, 102 
 Toning, six-shade, 59 
 Tweeds, bi-fibred, 66 
 Twelve-tone bi-fibred shades, 57 
 Twill weaves, warp surface, 130 
 Twilled and matted compounds, 110 
 Twine in unit threads of folded yarns, 141 
 
 in yarn and colour quality, 31 
 Two and three-fold threads, 132 
 Two-colour mixture effects, 49 
 Two -shade patterns, bi-fibred yarns, 82 
 Twist counts, woollen and worsted, 124 
 ,, thread structures, 121 
 
 threads and bi-fibred yarns combined, 165 
 
 ,, diameters of single yarns in, 163 
 Tw sts, cotton and linen, 20 
 
 ,, ,, woollen, 19 
 diamond and chain, 183 
 
 duplicating spottings and colourings in, 188 
 multi-fold, 172 
 production of, 127 
 
 single and multi-quality yarns combined in, 157 
 surface modification of, 173 
 woollen and cotton, 19 
 worsted and cotton, 19 
 ,, cotton, and silk, 21 
 and silk, 20 
 
352 INDEX 
 
 Twist-yarn fabrics, settings for, 128, 139 
 
 manufactures, woven elements in, 135 
 ,, types, 173 
 
 UNION cloth manufacture, 306 
 
 " " compound fabrics with inner and outer layers 
 
 layers of yarn, 338 
 
 " designing in, 309 
 
 " dyeing, procedure in, 310 
 
 " t systems of carding for, 306 
 
 fabrication and piece dyeing, 47 
 folded yarns, 16 
 manufactures, group types of, 1 
 ., trading, class and grade of, 311 
 ,, spun yarns, 2 
 twist counts, 124 
 threads, 119 
 
 yarn fabrics (wool and cotton), 128 
 
 (cotton and wool), 129 
 (worsted and cotton), 139 
 (cotton and worsted), 139 
 (worsted and silk), 140 
 (worsted, cotton, and silk), 140 
 yarns, tables of, 19 
 
 > > two varieties of, 17 
 
 twists, material factors in, 122 
 ,, yarn basis and textural construction, 124 
 Union yarns, quality of manufactured product in, 22 
 ,, shade gradation in, 51 
 
 structural variations of, 123 
 >f > systems of modifying, 14 
 
 Unions, colour tone in, 62 
 
 cotton and woollens, 74 
 
 figured, 129 
 
 ,, folded yarn and woven, 24 
 
 light ground patterns in, 161 
 ,, loom-made, 23 
 piece-dyed, 36 
 
 single-weave, concealment of cotton warp, 311 
 ,, yarn and fabric, 66 
 Unit threads, degree of twine in, compound yarn structures, 141 
 
 VARIATION of textural features, 81 
 Varieties of woollen and worsted yarns, 2 
 Vestings, bi-fibred yarn, 73 
 Voile, 252 
 
 WADDED cloths, 335 
 
 Warp and weft contrasts, 103 
 
 twill weaves, 160 
 
 Warping and wefting schemes, bi-fibrecl yarns 85 
 Waved patterns, 112 
 Weave, compounds of, in one-and-one bi-fibred yarn colouring, 96 
 
 in worsted manufactures, 143 
 
 ,, types and tone contrasts, 103 
 
 ,, unit, elaboration of, 95 
 
 > in twist-warp goods, 135 
 
INDEX 
 
 353 
 
 Weft yarn, filament composition of, 130 
 
 ,, qualities of, 131 
 
 Weight per yard in heavy unions, 314 
 Welsh wool and cotton, 10 
 Whip cord and twilled mat, 112 
 
 twills, 132 
 Wool and cotton mixtures, 4 
 
 ,, ,, staple equality in, 6 
 
 ,, ,, woollen- practice in, 5 
 
 M ,, ,, worsted practice in, 7 
 
 Wool -dyed bi-fibred mixture shades, 56 
 Wool ingredient in union manufactures, 51 
 
 and ramie yarn cloths, 71 
 Woollen and cotton twists, 19 
 
 worsted twists, counts in, 124 
 
 ,, ,, yarn, qualities of, 26 
 
 Woollens, bi-fibred, 68 
 Worsted and cotton twists, 19 
 
 silk twists, 20 
 ,, silk and cotton twists, 21 
 union yarns, 7 
 Worsteds, bi-fibred, 68 
 
 warp-face weaves in, 143 
 Woven and folded yarn unions, 24 
 
 ,, products, colourization of, 38 
 WOVEN UNIONS, 201 
 
 classification of, 203 
 concealment of special yarns in, 208 
 
 design construction for weft effects in, 212 
 effect of twine in yarn in, 221 
 emphasising weave details in, 219 
 experimental schemes in, 224 
 manufacturing data, 216 
 ornamentative types, 230 
 
 ,, ground weave in, 231 
 
 ,, ,, pattern definition in, 233 
 
 warp schemes of design in, 229 
 
 ,, ,, yarn schemes in, 234 
 
 pattern -work in, 214 
 raising process in, 236 
 structural examples in, 207 
 systems of construction for, 216 
 tone differentiation in, 222 
 warp and weft effects in, 210 
 weft units in, 209 
 weave conversion for, 213 
 curtailment in, 225 
 yarn admixtures in, 204 
 
 quality and structure in, 227 
 ,, twine direction in, 219 
 
 YARN AND FABRIC, 1 
 
 admixture in warping and wefting, 204 
 ,, assortment and pattern construction, 90 
 textural contrasts, 33 
 
 composition and mixture-shade dyeing, 42 
 ,, counts, differentiation in, 154 
 interchanging of, 153 
 
INDEX 
 
 YARN distribution and shade toning, 92 
 " ,, textural evenness, 65 
 
 " " m double-make structures, 168 
 
 features, 11 
 
 ,, folded, hank-dyed, 39 
 
 formation, diversified and symmetrical, 172 
 
 multi-fold, in piece-dyed goods, 193 
 
 production, bi-fibred, 3 
 
 quality and structure relative to design, 227 
 
 twine and tone distinctiveness, 222 
 
 structure a colour modifier, 29 
 and pattern elements, 46 
 
 Yarns, compounds of three bi-fibred structures 87 
 curl, 196 
 
 doubling of and pattern origination, 181 
 knopped, 189 
 multi-fold, fabric features in, 180 
 
 spotted and specked, 185 
 spun of different materials, 24 
 ,, wool and cotton, filament density of, 174 
 
 ZEPHYRS, 252 
 
 THE END 
 
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