IC-NRLF 57fi LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Deceived j AW ^ 1393 . 189 Accessions No. i\aa^o ..... Ctos A^o. OBJECT LESSONS: PREPARED FOR TEACHERS PRIMARY SCHOOLS AND PRIMARY CLASSES. BY A. S. WELCH, PRINCIPAL OF MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. A. S. BARNES & COMPANY, 751 BROADWAY, N. Y. CITY 2.0 Copyright, 1862, ijr /). S. BARNES (f CO. COPYRIGHT KENEWED, 1890. PREFACE. THE first instruction given to the child in school, should be based on the fact that his intellectual activity consists in seeing and hearing rather than in reasoning and reflecting. His restless curi- osity about material things is natural and proper to childhood, and equally natural, also, is his aversion to abstract thinking. Any mode of teaching, therefore, which thwarts the former while it seeks to overcome the latter, is false in its philosophy and bad in its results. Since the senses of sight and hearing are first in exercise and development, the first step in school training should be to give them a systematic culture, and the period be- tween the ages of five and ten years ought to be devoted mainly to this object. The order of instruction which I have thus briefly indicated, was announced sixty years ago by Pcstalozzi, an eminent Swiss teacher, as the only natural order. Since that time it has prevailed in the schools of Germany and England, and is now being adopted in the better class of schools in this country. But the want of a suitable book, from which teachers could learn the best methods of training the senses of children by means of their appropriate objects, has proved a serious obstacle to the introduction of the Pestalozzian sj'stem into our primary schools. While lecturing on this subject before teachers' institutes and educational conventions held in different States of the West, I have been invariably met with the question, "Where shall we find the right book ?" It was this general inquiry that suggested the idea of publishing the series of Object Lessons which I had prepared in MS. for the IV PREFACE. experimental department of the Michigan State Normal School. These lessons have been given to large classes by the teachers of that department, and are found to answer fully the object de- signed. Similar lessons have also been given by normal pupils in various schools of the State, with similar success. It is hoped that the same matter, in the form of a book, will be equally acceptable to primary teachers generally. I may add that I have limited the number of pages, so that neither its price nor the time required for its perusal, shall operate as a hindrance to its circulation. The youngest teacher will be able to prepare additional object lessons at pleasure from the models furnished. It is not intended that this book should supersede any of the text-books now in use. In following the plan of the first ninety pages, the teacher need not depart from the ordinary course of instruction first given to the child. I have only sought so to modify that course as to make it subserve the object of all primary instruction, namely, the cultivation of tho senses of the pupil. In the course of my labors I have consulted freely the English and German books on primary teaching, and in preparing my last sixty pages I have received valuable suggestions from the works of Miss Mayo. I gladly acknowledge my obligations to Mr. John Goodison for his aid in the Drawing Lessons and in the first series of Lessons on Colors. I also proffer my hearty thanks to friends who have kindly commended the work .in advance, especially to Mr. Wells, Super- intendent of the Public Schools of Chicago, and to Mr. Gregory, Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of Michigan. A. S. WELCH. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, YPSILANTI, January, 1862. CONTENTS. FIRST SERIES OF LESSONS. FEATURES OF THE FACE : Pag* Hair 11 Eyes 13 Nose 17 MOUTH 21 Lips 21 Teeth 23 Tongue 24 Palate 25 Words Pronounced by Lips, Tongue, and Palate 26 Long Vowel Sounds 28 Lip Sounds 80 Tongue Sounds 35 Palatal Sounds 40 Short Vowel Sounds . . . . 41 Vowel and Lip Sounds 41 Vowel and Tongue Sounds 42 Vowel and Palatal Sounds 43 SECOND SERIES, DRAWING LESSONS PREPARATORY TO LEARNING THE ALPHABET : Lines 44 Straight Lines 44 vi CONTENTS. Page Perpendicular Lines 45 Horizontal Lines 40 Oblique Lines 47 Broken Lines 49 Curves 55 Triangle 59 Angles 59 Square CO Octagon 61 Circle 61 Tnr. ALPHABET IN DRAWING LESSONS 63 Model Method for Teaching the Capital Letters 64 Models for Drawing Capital Letters 66 Model Lesson for the Small Letters 78 Models for Drawing the Small Letters 79 SIGHT AND SOUND SPELLING 89 LESSONS ON COLORS 92 Blue 93 Red 95 Yellow 96 Secondary Colors: Green 97 Orange 99 Purple 99 A CABINET OF NATURAL COLORS 101 List and Description of Colors ] 03 Specimen Lessons with Red Flowers 1 06 Specimen Lesson with Yellow Flowers 108 LESSONS ON LENGTH 110 The Foot .. .111 CONTENTS. Yli Page The Inch 112 The Yard 114 The Kod and the Furlong 115 LESSONS ON MATHEMATICAL PLANE FIGURES 1 17 The Eight Angle 117 Obtuse Angles 119 Acute Angles 120 Triangles -the Eight Angle 1 21 Obtuse and Acute Angled Triangles 122 The Isosceles, the Equilateral, and the Scalene 123 The Square 125 The Ehomb v ... 125 Parallelogram 126 Trapezoid 128 Trapezium 128 The Pentagon 129 The Hexagon 130 The Heptagon 130 The Octagon 131 The Circle 131 The Eadius 138 The Diameter 134 The Semicircle 135 The Quadrant 130 LESSONS ON MATHEMATICAL SOLIDS 137 A Solid 137 Every Solid Bounded by Lines 138 The Solid Angle 140 The Triangular Prism 141 The Quadrangular Prism 143 Viii CONTENTS. Page Five-sided Prism' 144 Six-sided Prism 145 The Triangular Pyramid 146 The Quadrangular Pyramid 148 The Pentangular Pyramid 149 The Cube 150 The Cylinder 151 The Cone 152 The Sphere 153 The Hemisphere 155 SPIOLLING BY OBJECT LESSONS 157 Specimen Object Lesson for Spelling 158 An Apple 161 An Egg .163 A Book 164 Granite 165 A Knife 166 The Hand 167 A. Leaf (of the Flag, Lily, or Corn) J69 A. Lilac Leaf 170 A Tambler 171 Objects Recommended for Further Lessons 173 DIRECTIONS TO YOUNG TEACHERS. THE Object Lessons of the first ninety pages, from the Features of the Face to the Alphabet in Drawing Lessons, inclusive, are in- tended to be given to children, as their first instruction in the school-room. As these lessons, however, involve exercises which are mostly new, they may, with great profit, be given to classes that have already learned the alphabet and made some progress in reading. The lessons after page 90 may be given profitably to children less than twelve years of age, and those lessons throughout the book, which include exercises in Drawing, should be given to all the pupils of a district school. Specific directions will be found at the beginning of each series of lessons, but a few general directions may be added. 1. Give the lessons in the order in which they stand. 2. Study each lesson carefully, so that you may be able to give, not the language, but the order and properties it presents, with- out the book. 3. If the lesson be on a visible object, always have that object at hand, where every child can inspect it. X DIRECTIONS TO YOUNG TEACHERS. 4. Encourage the pupil to answer every question himself, and try to beget in him the habit of accuracy in expression. 5. Prepare yourself, if necessary, for giving the Lessons in Drawing by previous practice on the board. Your perseverance will be rewarded by your own improvement. 6. Let the Object Lessons harmonize with, rather than super- sede, other exercises. They should aid, not hinder, the round of daily recitations. 7. Add lessons of your own to each series. The limits of this book leave much for you to do in this respect. 8. Be thoroughly in earnest. Vivacity is diffusive ; so is dull- ness. Indifference on the part of the class, will be due to the teacher OP ZTIVBRSIT7 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON I. THE class standing before the blackboard, the teacher prints the word II A I E . Teacher. Do you see, children, the word I have printed on the board ? Children. Yes, sir. T. Will you remember it, if I tell you what it is? C. Yes, sir. T. Well, it is the name of what grows upon each of your heads ; what is that ? C. Hair. T. [Pointing to the wordJ] Look at the word and pronounce it. [The children repeat the word several times after the teacher. ~] Now, children, can you tell me what the hair on your head is good for ? A Little Boy. To keep our heads warm. T. That is a brave answer. God makes hair grow to cover our heads and keep them warm. Now, can you tell me anything else that hair is good for? Think a minute. [Children think, hut 12 OBJECT LESSONS. can not answer.} Well, if John hadn't any liair on his head, would he look as well as he does now? C. No. sir. T. "Well, then, besides keeping our Heads warm, hair is pleasant to look at. Hair is beautiful. [The children all repeat.'} Hair is beautiful. T. Now, then, let us talk about the color of hair, "What is the color of Henry's hair? [Pointing to a boy.} C. It is black. T. What is the color of William's hair? C. It is light. T. What is the color of Anna's hair? G. Brown, sir. T. Yes, and Thomas' hair is auburn and Jamee' is sandy and Helen's is light brown. Now tell me what the color of your grandfather's hair is. A Boy. Gray. T. Now repeat all these names of colors after me. Black, Light, Brown, Auburn, Sandy, Light- brown. [Teacher now prints the words of one syl- lable on the hoard in a column and makes the chil- dren repeat them after him until they are familiar with the form of each.} LESSON II, Teacher. Well, children, do you remember what we talked about yesterday ? Children. "Yes, sir; we talked about hair. EYE CULTURE. 13 T. Very well. To-day we will talk about tlie eyes. [Prints the word EYES upon the board, ^ints to it, and makes them repeat it several times.'} Now, can you tell me what your eyes are good for? C. Good to see with. T. Yery well. Can you think of anything else they are good for? When a boy is angry, do his eyes look just as they do when he is pleased and good-natured ? C. No, sir. T. When a little girl cries, do her eyes look just as they do when she smiles? C. No, sir. T. Well, then, our eyes are good to show our feelings. When a little boy feels happy, I can see it in his eyes. When he has trouble, I can see it in in his eyes too. Whether he is kind and pleasant, or sour and surly, it all shines out from his eyes. Now, what do you call these little shutters that close over your eyes when you sleep and open when you wake ? C. Eyelids. T. Well, think now what your eyelids are good for. George, suppose you had no eyelids at all and you were obliged to sleep with your eyes wide open, would any harm come of it? George. Yes, sir ; things would get into my eyes and hurt them. T. Yes, indeed ; and when you were awake, the dust, and snow, and everything that is floating in 14 OBJECT LESSONS. the air would be driven into your eyes and they would soon be spoiled. So you see the eyelids are good to keep the eyes safe from all harm. What are the eyelids good for? C. To keep the eyes safe from all harm. T. Yes ; and those fringes of hair that you have on the edges of your eyelids, what are they called ? C. Eyelashes. T. Well, eyelashes help to keep the dust out of your eyes too. Now tell me what is the shape of your eyes. C. Eound like a ball. 2\ Let us next see whether your eyes are set in the best place for seeing things. Look at Thomas' eyes and tell me what part of his face they are in. You see that they are placed just under his forehead and one on eacli side of his nose. You see each eye is set in a large hole and can turn every way to look at things. Now, if anybody should strike Thomas on this part of his face with a club [placet, a ruler across his eyes], would he hit his eyes or his nose and forehead ? C. Hit his nose and forehead. T. So you see the bones of the nose and forehead stand out beyond the eyes and keep them from being hurt by a blow. How many things, have I said, keep the eyes safe from harm? C. Four. T. What are they ? C. Eyelids, eyelashes, nose, and forehead. EYE CULTURE. 15 LESSON III. Teacher. Let us see, to-day, if we could find as good a place for them anywhere else. Suppose, for instance, your eyes were put in the back of your head instead of the front, what would you gain by it? Charles. I could see behind me without turning my head around. T. True, but you could not see before you ; and which way does a boy want to see most? Of course the way he walks, or he would stumble over everything in his way ; and then, again, if your eyes were in the back of your head, you could never see to eat. Would your eyes be as safe from hurt in the back of your head as where they are? Children. No, sir. T. Think hard and tell me what danger a boy's eyes would be in if they were set in the back of his head. Charles. Every time he bumped his head behind, he would knock his eyes out. T. Well, what else ? Mary. His hair would get in his eyes and make him blind. George. Every time his mother combed his hair, she would scratch his eyes out. T. Very well ; now, would it be better to have his eyes in his hands? Then, by turning his hands 16 OBJECT LESSONS. he could see every way. But if he tried to feel of anything, what would happen to his eyes 1 Mary. He would put them out. T. If he went to catch a ball, what then ? C. It would come pat, right into his eyes. T. What if he went to shake hands with anybody ? C. It would put his eyes out. T. So we find there could be no better place foi the eyes than where they are. Now, let me pee if you can tell the color of each pair of eyes in the class. Arthur, come here and stand where the light will shine into your face. Now, little people, all look at his eyes ; what color are they ? C. Black, sir. T. [Prints the word BLACK plainly on tin board and makes the children look at and repeal it.'] John, come here, and let the rest look at your eyes. What color are John's eyes, children? C. Blue, sir. T. [Prints the word, makes them repeat it, and keeps their attention upon it until they are per- fectly familiar with its form.] Look carefully. Are John's eyes light blue or dark blue, Thomas? Thomas. Light blue. T. Very well. [Prints LIGHT BLUE and makes them repeat it many times, as 'before.'] Now, Anna, we will look at your eyes. What color are Anna's eyes? All. Blue. T. Yes ; but you see they are a different kind of EYE CULTURE. 17 blue from John's. Are Anna's eyes light blue or dark blue ? C. Bark blue. T. Right. "We will print the words and practice them awhile. Now, we will see what is the color of Hose's eyes. ^What is it? C. Brown. T. Right. We will print and practice again. LESSON IV. Teacher. To-day, children, we will have a lesson on noses. First, let us print the word on the board and pronounce it until we know it thoroughly. Very well. Now we will name some of the parts of the nose. This long part, just below where your nose meets your forehead, is called the bridge of the nose. "What is this part called, children ? Children. The bridge of the nose. T. And the end here is called the tip of the nose. What is it called ? C. The tip of the nose. T. And these two holes nere are called the nos- trils. What are they called ? C. The nostrils. T. Repeat all the names of the parts I have given yon. [Prints them.~] C. The bridge of the nose, the tip of the nose, and the nostrils. T. [After making the children repeat the words 18 OBJECT LESSONS. until they are perfectly familiar with the printed forms.'] Shall I tell you next something about the different kinds of noses which different people have I First, a very small, short nose, with a blunt tip liko this [draws a profile"], is called a pug nose. What is it called? C. A pug nose. T. And a nose that is straight from the forehead to the tip, like the one in this [draws a profile], is called a Grecian nose. "What is a straight nose called ? C. A Grecian nose. T. And a nose that is curved from the place where it meets the forehead to the tip, like the nose in this face, is called a Roman nose. What is a curved nose called ? C. A Roman nose. T. Now repeat ; a small, blunt nose is called what? C. A pug nose. T. A nose that is straight from the forehead to the tip is called what? C. A Grecian nose. T. A nose that is curved from the ivrehead to the tip is C. A Roman nose. T. Now for a reading lesson. [Prints on tlw 1x)ard^\ THIS BOY HAS A PUG NOSE. THIS MAN HAS A STRAIGHT NOSE THAT GIRL HAS A ROMAN NOSE. EYE CULTURE. 19 LESSON V. Teacher. You may next tell me what the nose is good for. Children. Good to smell with. T. Is it good for nothing else ? Shut your mouths tight. Now, how do you breathe ? C. Through our noses. T. What else, then, besides smelling, is the nose good for ? C. Good to breathe through. T. Well, then, we will print and read THE NOSE IS GOOD TO SMELL WITH. THE NOSE IS GOOD TO BREATHE THROUGH. We will now inquire whether the nose is put on right. Where are your noses placed \ C. In the middle of our faces. T. Well; and you see the nostrils are placed right over the mouth. Can you tell the reason of that ? I will tell you. They are so placed, that when we go to put any bad food into our mouths, we may find out that it is bad by the smell. For instance, if we were going to eat a bit of meat that was hurt from being kept too long, how should we find out that it was hurt \ C. By the bad smell. T. Yes ; and as the meat is raised to the mouth, then the nostrils have just the place to catch the 20 OBJECT LESSONS. bad odor. The nose, then, holds a sort of guard or watch over the mouth to keep things that are hurt- ful out of it. "Who can give another reason for the nose being placed as it is ? In the summer, you know, thousands of flowers spring up out of the ground and open their leaves to the sun, and nearly every flower has an odor. Is the smell of a flower pleasant or unpleasant ? C. Pleasant. T. Well, all the flowers in the fields and woods and gardens send out pleasant odors ; can you guess whether these odors go down toward the earth or rise into the air ? C. They rise into the air. T. Very well, then, the nose is so placed that it can catch the odors as they rise. Why are the nostrils placed where they are ? C. To catch the pleasant odors of flowers, as they rise. T. If the nose were turned the other side up, could it catch the smell of flowers as well ? C. No, sir. T. Can you think of anything we should gain if our noses were put on the other side up ? Susan. We could take snuff better. T. Yes ; but snuff-taking is a very untidy habit and, besides, it is bad for our health. Can you think of anything else we should gain by having our noses the other side up ? C. No, sir. EAIl CULTt T iE. 21 T. Can you think of any harm that would come of it ? George. When it snowed or rained it would fall into our noses and make us sneeze. T. Eight; you would be obliged to have a lid put on to keep the snow and rain out. So you see, nothing about the nose could be changed for the better. LESSON VI. Teacher. Our next lesson is the mouth and first we will name all the parts. What are these called ? Children. Lips. T. [Prints the words LIP and LIP s, and makes the class pronounce until they are quite familiar with the form*.] Now, what is the name of these ? C. Teeth. T. [Prints the words TOOTH and TEETH, tf<2 makes them pronounce in the same manner.] Now, what is the name of this ? O. Tongue. [The teacher prints the word TONGUE, and makes them pronounce in t/Lt same manner.] LESSON VII. Teacher. Now, let us talk about the lips. What are the lips used for 5 There is a little girl smiling. How can you tell when she smiles? Is it not by 22 OBJECT LESSONS. the shape of her lips ? You see they are open a little and turned up at the corners. She smiles with her lips ; what, then, are the lips used for ? Children. Used to smile with. T. Well ; are they good for anything else ? If a man had no lips, his teeth would always be bare and his face wouldn't be a pleasant thing to look at, would it ? C. No, sir. T. But, as we all have lips, they hide our teeth, except when we talk or smile or laugh. What else, then, are the lips good for ? Charles. Good to cover our teeth. T. Yes ; are they good for something else still ? When we talk we make a good many sounds with our lips. Say paper , all of you. C. Paper. T. What did you pronounce the word with ? C. With our lips. T. What else, then, are the lips good for ? C. Good to talk with. BEADING LESSON. OUK LIPS ARE RED. WHAT ARE THE LIPS USED FOR? THE LIPS ARE USED TO SMILE WITH. WHAT ELSE ARE THE LIPS USED FOR? THE LIPS ARE USED TO HIDE THE TEETH. WHAT ELSE ARE THE LIPS USED FOR 'i THE LIPS ARE GOOD TO TALK WITH. EAR CULTURE. 23 LESSON VIII. Teacher. Now let us have a talk about the teeth. Can any little boy tell us how many teeth he has ? Well, I will tell you. About twenty-eight. How many teeth have we ? Children. Twenty-eight. T. Well, these teeth in front are called single teeth, and these larger teeth back are called double teeth. What are these front teeth called & C. Single teeth. T. And the back ones ? C. Double teeth.- T. Which would you use to bite off a piece of an apple with, the single teeth or the double teeth ? (7. The single teeth. T. Which would you chew the piece of apple with, the single teeth or the double teeth ? C. The double teeth. T. Yes ; you see the double teeth are large and blunt, so that they can grind up the food, while the single teeth are sharp for biting off things that are good to eat. Now tell me what the double teeth and the single teeth are good for. C. The single teeth are good for biting off food, and the double teeth are good for chewing it. T. Let us now see if there is anything else the single teeth are good for. Pronounce the word favor. C. Favor. OBJECT LESSONS. T. How do you make this word ? C. With our upper teeth and under lip. T. So, you see, we use the front teeth to help na talk, as well as the lips. LESSON IX. Teacher. Our next lesson shall be about the tongue. What is the color of your tongue? Children. Red. T. When you are sick, what, is its color? C. White. T. What is the tongue good for? C. Good to taste with. T. Yes. What is the end of your tongue called ? C. The tip. T. Yes. See what an active thing the tongue is. The tip of it is always wandering about to every part of the mouth, sometimes touching the front teeth, sometimes the roof of the mouth, and it occa- sionally runs out to wet the lips when they get too dry. But, besides all this, the tongue has other important business to attend to. The fact is, we do most of our talking with this little instrument. Say teeth, all of you. C. Teeth. T. What did you say it with ? C. Our tongues. EAR CULTURE. 25 T. Where did you put your tongues in order lo Ray teeth f C. Against the roof of our mouths, just back of our front teeth. T. Right. And you do the same thing in saying many other words. [Let the children pronounce the following ivorcls, to show them the use of the tongue J] TATTLE DATE THAT INDITE TRADE TATTER THOSE DAUGHTER DO TATTOO DOLLAR DEAL. LESSON X. Teacher. Now, how many things have we talked about, that belong to the month? Children. Three lips, teeth, and tongue. T. There is one more that we use to taste and talk with. It is called the palate. It is like the tongue in color but not in shape. It is placed so far back in the mouth that we can not see it with- out a little trouble. It lies just behind the roots of the tongue, just where the throat begins. We taste everything we swallow with the palate, and, as I told you before, we use the palate when we talk. Say cake, all of you. C. Cake. T. Now where did you make the word \ G. Buck in our mouths. 2 2C OBJECT LESSONS. T. Now all say hack. [Children repeat.] Where did you make that word? C. In the back part of our mouths. T. Well, then, you made it with your palate. LESSON XI. Teacher. To-day we will pronounce words with our lips, tongue, and palate. Say puppy. [Chil- dren repeat."] What did you say that word with? Children. With our lips. T. Well, we will write a column or two of words to pronounce with our lips. PUFF BOO FAVOK VAPOR PAVE MOP BABY PAPA PA PEPPEK PAPEK PUPPY. [These words should he printed in columns, so that the pupils may learn their forms while they are thoroughly drilled in pronouncing them. No exer- cise will more effectively cure those habits of defective articulation which most children have acquired at this age. At the same time they will learn the use of these organs in reading. The above is our first lesson in elocution.'] LESSON XII. Teacher. This morning, children, let us see what words we can make with the tongue. [Prints tht EAR CULTURE. 27 word TALL on the hoard.] Put your tongue against the roof of your mouth, near the front teeth. Now say tall, all of you together, when I make the signal. Children. Tall, Tall, Tall. T. How did you speak the word ? C. With our tongues. T. Very well. Let us next see what tongue- words we can find for practice. Pronounce and repeat very distinctly. [Teacher prints J] TEA SAT JADE TROTH DAY CENT JAR DOLLAR TROT TALL JOLLY TELLER DATE LANE DOLL TALLOW SAID TENT TOOTH DULLNESS SOUL DINT TEETH STROLLER. LESSON XIII. Teacher. You remember, children, we found the palate in the back part of the mouth, just beyond the root of the tongue. You remember I told you that we use the palate to taste the food that we swallow. Did I tell you what else we do with it? Children. Yes, sir; we talk with it. T. Yery.well. We will practice, to-day, on words that we make with the palate [Print and make the class repeat and re-repeat in concert the following!} 28 OBJECT LESSONS. GUY GO COW GAG KEG CAKE GAGGING KICK GIG KICKING COOK GAWK COOKING COG GAWKY CRACKING. LESSON XIV. REMARKS. The teacher will notice here that a dot (*) placed over a consonant, denotes a pure con- sonant sound, which is to be enunciated by contact of the organs of speech, and without the aid of a vowel sound. If the teacher is not accustomed to this mode of uttering the pure consonants, he can make himself familiar with it, by a little careful practice. The author has found by repeated trial that chil- dren learn to make, with great facility, all the pure elementary sounds, and that they can easily be taught to combine these into spoken words before they have learned the alphabet of characters. In fact, it is only by this means that we can give the written alphabet any meaning for the pupil, when he first attempts to learn it. Great care should be taken, in giving these les- sons, that the class repeat each exercise until all the pupils can make every sound and combination which it contains, readily and perfectly. We shall place the usual marks over the vowels EAR CULTURE. 29 Teacher. We will now make some other sounds that are neither lip sounds, nor tongue sounds, nor palate sounds, but are made with the mouth open. Listen, a a a a a. Repeat. Children, aaaaaaaa. T. How was that sound made ? C. With the mouth open. T. What shall we call the sounds that are made with the mouth more or less open ? Will you remember if I tell you ? C. We will try, sir. T. Well, then, sounds made with the mouth open, are vowel sounds or vowels. What are they ? ^ C. Vowel sounds or vowels. T. What is a a a a ? C. a a a is a vowel sound. T. Now try another vowel sound, e e e 6 6. C. e e e e e. T. Eepeat e e e. C. e e e. T. What is e, then ? C. e is a vowel sound. T. Now say I I I i L 0. I I I 1 ! I i. T. What is I ? C. A vowel. T. Why? C. We made it with our mouths open. T. Next say 6 6 6 6 6. C. 6 6 6 6 6 6 o. 30 OBJECT LESSONS. T. What is 6? C. A vowel sound. T. Now make Q u u u u. C. u u Q u u u 0. LESSON XV. LIP SOUNDS. P. Teacher. Now, children, we will try to learn separately, the sounds we make witli our lips, and we will practice them so carefully that each one can make them without help. Will you try hard ? Children. Yes, sir. T. Well, then, every time I touch the table with my finger, all say Pie. "C. Pie, Pie, Pie. T. What do you make the beginning of the word with? C. With our lips. T. Now listen. We will call every sound which we make with our lips, a lip souud. What shall we call sounds made with the lips ? C. Lip sounds. T. We will now try to make the lip sound that pie begins with alone. [Teacher makes the sound represented by [^without the vowel.] Make the same found. c. p i> p p. T. What kind of a sound is p? C. A lip sound. EAR CULTURE. 33 T. Make it again. C. p p p p. T. Very well. Say a a a a. C. a . a a. T. Now say p-a. C. p-a. T. Again p-a pa, p-a pa. C. p-a pa, p-a pa. T. Now pronounce e e e" 6. C. e e e e. T. Now p-e pe, p-e pe. C. p-e pe, p-e pe. T. Repeat p-e pe, p-e pd. C. p-e pe, p-e pe. T. Now pronounce I I T L a i i i i. T. Now p-I pi, p-I pi. C. p-I pi, p-I pi. T. Now 6 6 660. 6 6 6 6 p. T. Now p-6 po, p-6 pd. C. p-6 po, p-6 po. T. Now u u u u u U. C. o u u o a. T. p-u pu, p-u pu. C. p-u pu, p-u pu. 82 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON XVI. LIP SOUNDS. - B AND V. Teacher. We will try another lip sound. Make this sound as I do b b b b. Notice that b is made with the lips tightly closed. Try it now b b. Children, b b b b. T. Eight. What kind of a sound is b? C. A lip sound. T. Why? C. We made it with our lips. T. Well. Next, all sound after me a e. C. a e. T. a e T. a a e I. T. a e I 6. a a e I 6. T. a e I a a e I 6 u. u. T. You see that we make all these sounds witk the mouth open. What are they ? C. Vowels. T 7 . Now spell with me b-a ba b-e be b-I bl b-6 bd b-u bft. EAR CULTURE. 33 T. Try another sound which is a good deal like the last one v v v v. This sound is made by pressing the upper teeth hard on the under lip. What is it, then ? C. A lip sound. T. Make it in this way v v v v v. C. v v v v. T. Once more v v v v. C. v v v v. T. Now v-a va V-g Vg v-r v' v-6 vd v-u vu. \The teacher sftould have the class review tkt above exercises until the children are quite familiar with them*] LESSON XVII, LIP SOUNDS. F, M. Teacher. Let us make a new lip sound. You see [ put my teeth against my under lip f f f f f. Try it. C. f f f f f f f. T. Again. c.itttit 2* 34 OBJECT LESSONS. T. Now pronounce after me f-a fa t-e fe f-I f! t-o fo i-u fa. T. Take another lip sound made l>y holding the lips closed in m in in. Now. C. m m m m. T. After me say iii-a ma m-e me m-i m! m-6 mo m-u mu. LESSON XVIII, LIP SOUNDS. W, WH. Teacher. In this lesson I will give yon two more lip sounds. The first is w w w w w. Look at my lips as I sound it. w w w. Now. Children, w w w w w w w. T. Again. C. w w w w w. EAR CULTURE. 35 T. Spell with me w a wa w-e w6 w-T wi w-o wo w-u wu. T. The next sound is like the last, only a little rougher wh wh wh wh. Look wh wh. C. wh wh wh wh. T. Now with me wh-a wha wh-e whe wh-I win wh-6 who wh-u whu. LESSON XIX. TONGUE SOUNDS. T, D. Teacher. Our next exercise will be on some of the sounds which we make with the tongue. They are easy to make. Make t t t t. Children, t t t t t t. T. Now with me t-a ta t-6 te t-I ti t-6 t(5 t u tu. I 36 OBJECT LESSONS. T. The next tongue &ound is d d d d d. C. d d d d d d. T. Now- d-a da d-e d6 d-I dl d-6 do d-u du. LESSON XX. TONGUE SOUNDS. S, Z. Teacher. Say ssssssssss. Children, ssssssss. [This sound should be made quick and short.^ s-a sit s-e se s-I si s-6 so 8 U SU. T. Say z z z z z z. 6 T . z z z z z z z z z. J 7 . Now z-a za z-6 ze z-i zi z-6* z6 z-u zu. EAR CULTURE 37 LESSON XXI. TONGUE SOUND8. N, L. Teacher, n n n n n. Children, n 11 n n n. T. Now n-a na n-6 116 u-I ni n-6 no n-u nu. T. \ \ \ \ \ \. C.\ \ \ \ \ \. T. Now- - 1-a la 1-e le l-I l! 1-0 16 U lu. LESSON XXII. TONGUE SOUNDS. TH BOUGH, TH SMOOTH. Teacher. I will give you two more tongue sounds to-day, children. Pronounce the word Thin. Children. Thin, Thin, Thin. T. Listen while I make the sound that the word thin begins with th th th th th. Now all try. c. th th tii th tii tii. 38 OBJECT LESSONS. T. Spell th -a tha th-e the th-I thi th-6 tho th-Q thu. T. Next pronounce Then, Then, Then. C. Then, Then, Then, Then. T. Very well. Let us try the sound that then begins with th th th th th. c. tii th th th tii tii tii. T. Spell th-a tha th-e the th-I tin th-o tho t'h-u thu. LESSON XXIII. TONGUE SOUNDS. SH, CH AS IN CHURCH. Teacher. Imitate sh sh sh sh sh sh. Children, sh sh sh sh sli sh sh. [This sound should be made sJtort and quick. T. Spell sh-a sha sh-e she sii-I shl sh-6 sho sh-u shu EAR CULTURE. 39 T. Next make ch ch ch ch. C. ch ch ch ch ch. T. Spell ch-a cha ch-e che ch-f chi cb -o cho ch-u chu. LESSON XXIV. TONGUE SOUNDS. - J, H. Teacher. We have only two more tongue sounds to make. They are j and h. Say j j j j j- Children, j j j j j j j j. T. Spell j-a ja -o jo T. Now the other h h h h h. C. \\ h h h h h h h h h. T Now h a ha h--e he li-l lil h-o h6 h-u lift. 40 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON XXV THE PALATAL SOUNDS. - K, G HARD, AS IN GET. Teacher. We have come at last, children, to tin palatal sounds. There are only two of them and so we can easily learn them very thoroughly. You remember where the palate is ? Children. Yes, sir; just beyond root of the tongue. T. Well, then, say k k k k k k. akkkkkkkkkkk. T. What do you make k with ? C. With our palates. T. What is it. then ? C. A palatal sound. T. Then spell k-a ka k-S k6 k-I kl k-6 ko k-u ku. 9 T. Now make another palatal sound and you will have the last one of all the sounds we make when we talk. Say g g g g g. & g g & g g * T. Now spell g-a ga g-u gu. BAK CULTURE. 41 LESSON XXVI. SHORT VOWEL SOUNDS. Teacher. Sound & a. Children, a a a a. r. a T. c. T. C. T. C. 6 6 I I 6 6 u u 6 6 i i 6 6 u u 6. 6 1 l. I l. 6 6 u. u 6 6. 6 6. 6. u. LESSON XXVII. SHORT VOWELS AND LIP SOUNDS. [Exercise the class as in the foregoing lessons.] a-p ap a-b ab a-v av *-P 6p 6-b eb 6-v 6v i-p IP i-b ib l-V IV 6-p 6p 6-b 6b 6-v 6v 6-p up u-b ub a-v uv. LESSON XXVIII. SHORT VOWELS AND LIP SOUNDS. a-f af a-m am 6-f 6f 6-m 6m I-f If I-m im 6-f 6f 6-m 6m fl-f ftf u-m flm. 42 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON XXIX. SHORT VOWELS AND TONGUE SOUNDS. a-t at a-d ad a-s as 6-t 6t 6-d 6d 6-s 6s i-t It i-d id i-s Is 6-t 6t 6-d 6d 6-s 6s u--t ut i w i-d ud u-s us. LESSON XXX. SHORT VOWELS AND TONGUE SOUNDS. &-Z az a-n an a-1* ai 6-z 6z 6-n 6n M 61 l-Z 1Z I-n in r-i 11 6-z 6z 6-n 6n 6-i 61 fi-z uz u-n Cm a-i ul. LESSON XXXI. SHORT VOWELS AXD TONGUE SOUNDS. SMOOTH. HARD. ft-th ath a-t'h ath ft-sli ash 6-th 6th 6-th 6th 6-sh 6sh i-th Ith I-th Ith I-sh Ish 6-th 6th 6-th 6th 6-sn 6sh a-th iith u-tii uth u-sh ush EAR CULTURE. 43 LESSON XXXII. SHORT VOWELS AND TONGUE SOUNDS. OH AS IN CHURCH a-ch ach a-j e-c'h i-c'h 6-c'h Sch ich 6ch H H a-ch uch u-j LESSON XXXIII. BHORT VOWELS AND PALATAL SOUNDS. a-k ak a-g ag 6-k 6k 6-g 6g I-k Tk i-g Tg 6-k 6k 6-g 6g u-k uk u-g ug. The teacher should now give his pupils the above consonant sounds combined with the remaining vowels. Such are a in fall, 6 in move, u in pull, on in house, etc., etc. Next, words of three sounds may be given for practice. Those words which have a meaning are the best, e. g., HAT. MAT, CAT, etc. OBJECT LESSONS. PART SECOND. DRAWING LESSONS PREPARATORY TO LEARNING THE ALPHABET. THE teacher may now give specific lesions on form. The purpose of these lessons is to beget in the pupil the habit of attending carefully to the shapes of the various objects around him. Since curiosity, which is so strong in the child, seeks its gratification in finding new forms, it is the more easy and natural to use these as a means of training his eye to quickness and accuracy of observation. The child will thus be prepared for learning the alphabet by lessons in drawing. Let the teacher be mindful also that in giving these lessons he is laying the foundation for scholarship in all those sciences which present their objects to the eye. Such are Natural History, Botany, Geology, etc. Every visible object is bounded by lines which enable the observer to determine its shape. If these lines are straight or curved, the shape of the object is regular; if broken, the shape is irregular. The elements, then, of form are lines, straight, curved, or broken, and these, therefore, will furnish the material for our first lessons. Let the children stand at the blackboard, crayon EYE CULTURE 45 or chalk in hand, and draw each line from a model made by the teacher. Every child can learn to draw at a very early age, and the exercise greatly increases his interest in other objects of study. LESSON I. PERPENDICULAR LINES. Make on the board two points, one being six inches above the other. At the word one let each pupil make the lower point ; at the word two, the upper; at the word three, all draw quickly a line from the upper t/> the lower point. (1) In this manner, as the teacher says one, two, three; one, two, three, additional lines are drawn in con- cert, each line being parallel to the first. Now reverse the process and at the words 46 OBJECT LESSONS. two, three, all make the upper point; then the lower ; then draw the line from the lower upward. ID (2) LESSON II. HORIZONTAL LINES. At the word one make a point in concert; two, another point six inches at the left ; three, draw a straight line from the left point to the right. added lines should be parallel. EYE CULTURE. Revei-se the process and draw to the left as the teacher repeats one, two, three. LESSON III. OBLIQUE STRAIGHT LINES. At the word one let each pupil make the lower point; at the word two, the tipper a little to the right of the lower; at the word three, all draw a line quickly from the upper to the lower point. The teacher repeating one, two, three, let the pupils make additional parallel lin< 48 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON IV. OBLIQUE LINES. At the word one, all make the lower point ; at the word two, the upper at the left ; at the word three, they draw a line rapidly from the upper to the lower point. The teacher repeating one, two, three, all make additional parallel lines. LESSON V. OBLIQUE LINES. The pupils now draw the lines in Lessons III. and IV. from the lower point to the upper. At the word one, all make the upper point ; at the word two, the lower at the left; at the word three, draw EYK CULTUKK. 49 the line from the lower to the upper point. Make additional lines in the same manner. In the same way draw lines upward, with the lower point at the right. LESSON VI. BROKEN LINES. A broken line is composed of two or more straight iines at angles to each other. The class draw them as follows : A.t the word one, a point; twc>, a point below at 3 50 OBJECT LESSONS. the left; three, a point above at the left; at the word four, draw a line from 3 to 2 ; at the word Jive, from 2 to 1. Draw numerous lines in the same way, keeping them parallel to each other. Now change the arrangement of the points and let the class draw at the word, as follows : One, point; two, point above at the left; three. EVE CULTURE. above at the right ; four, draw from 3 to 2 ; five, from 2 to I. Continue to add parallel lines. (3) (1) Reverse the process by making the upper point first and drawing from below upward. The teacher may here show the difference between a broken line and a crooked line. OBJECT LESSONS. Now make the second point on the right and the third on the left, and dra\\ downward at the words. () il) Next make the first point above and draw up- ward. Care should be taken that all the pupils make lines of uniform length, each broken line being about ten inches long. EYE CULTURE. 53 LESSON VII. BROKKN LINES (CONTINUED). One, point ; two, point at the left below ; tJirce, point at the left above ; four, point at the left be- low ; five, draw from 4 to 3 ; six, draw from 3 to 2 ; seven, from 2 to 1. Add parallel lines by the same signals. (3) (1) Reverse the process and draw from right to lett. With a little care the children may be trained to repeat in concert one, two, three, etc., as they draw. OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON VIII. BROKEN LINES (CONTINUED). Make the points upward at the signal, and draw downward. OB Reverse, making the points downward, and draw upward. EYE CULTURE. Draw lines from right to left. If I (3) 55 LESSON IX. CURVED LINES. One, point ; two, point four inches directly above ; three, point the same distance above ; four, draw a curve to the left from 3 to 2, and to the right from 2 to 1 . .Nothing like accuracy should be expected from the pupils in their first attempts at the above figure. 56 OBJECT LESSONS. Now point from right to left and draw from left to right. LESSON X. CURVED LINES. Point downward, and draw the same curve up- ward. Compare one of these curves with a straight line and teach the class the difference. EYE CULTURE. 57 Point from left to right and draw from right to left. (1) (2) (3) LESSON XI. CURVES. One, point ; two, point to the left a little above ; three, point to the left below ; four, join these points by a regular curve from left to right. (2) Let point 2 be made below the others and draw from right to left. (l) () OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON XII. CORVES. LESSON XIV. FIGURES. One, point ; two, point six inches above at the left ; three, point six inches below at the left ; four, EYE CULTURE 59 draw a straight line from 3 to 2 ; five, from 2 to 1 ; six, from 1 to 3. A triangle is a figure having three sides. LESSON XV. ANGLES. Draw a horizontal line and another line perpen dicular to it. In making these lines teach the class what an angle is, viz., that it is the point or corner where two lines meet, and that when one straight lino meets another so that the two angles which it makes are equal, the angles are right angles. Make the children familiar, by practice and numerous xamples, with the form of a right angle. 60 OBJECT LESSONS, An angle less than a right angle is an acute angle. Draw many example-. (2) An angle greater than a right angle is an obtuse angle. LESSON XVI. THE SQUARE. Make four dots as follows, then draw from 4 to 3, 3 to 2, 2 to 1, 1 to 4. 1i -I EYE CULTURE. 61 LESSON XVII. THE OCTAGON. Make four points as in the square, then add four more as in the diagram below; connect the eight points with straight lines. LESSON XVIII. Make four points and draw a square, then connect the angles of the square with regular curves. OBJECT LESSONS. Now arrange four points as follows, and beginning at 1 draw a circle through. This last lesson is difficult, and the class will need repeated practice in drawing it. Even after many trials, they will not be able to draw anything like a true circle. Indeed, the teacher who expects that his pupils will attain any degree of skill from the foregoing lessons, will be disappointed. The real purpose proposed is to make the various lines to be drawn familiar as objects of sight, and in doing this, to give some tittle practice to the hand. EYE CULTURE. 63 THE ALPHABET IN DRAWING LESSONS. Pupils who have thoroughly practiced the fore- going lessons, are prepared to learn the alphabet by means of drawing. Those of the class, who know it already, may also profitably engage in the same exercises. The letters may be the more easily taught by this method, because they are composed of the lines which the children have learned to draw. By actually drawing and naming the parts of a letter, its form and name, as a whole* may be easily impressed on the memory of the pupils. In this manner the learning of the alphabet, in- stead of being a spiritless task as it has too often proved, is exceedingly attractive to the child and becomes a valuable aid in cultivating the sense of sight. In the following lessons the capital letters are so arranged as models, that the pupil begins with the letter which is simplest in form, and gradually pro- gresses to the more difficult. This order is the same as that of the previous drawing lessons. Thus, 0, being composed of perpendicular lines, constitutes the first lesson. L T IF IrO IE being composed of perpendicular and horizontal lines and right angles, are placed next in the series. K M--M Y Z A V 64- OBJECT LESSONS. of perpendicular, horizontal, and oblique lines and acute angles, come next in order. fSPlE)(UIJI[g (0), being composed mainly of curves, come last in order and complete the lessons on capitals. MODEL METHOD FOR TEACHING THE CAPITAL L7ITERS. LE 5S N I. MODKL FOK 0. [Teacher draws two perpendicular lines, thus: ||.] Teacher. We will begin to-day to draw the great letters. What lines hive I made? Children. Two straight lines. T. Are they perpendicular or horizontal lines ? C. Perpendicular lines. T. Well, lines that are all the way the same dis- tance from each other, are called parallel lines. These two lines are everywhere the same distance apart. What are they called, then ? C. Parallel lines. T. Now draw these two lines ; then join them at the top and bottom in this manner : []. [Let the class practice the character until they can draw it with some facility.'] T. You have been drawing one of the great let- ters. Shall I tell you its name ? It is I. Repeat. C. I, I, I. EAR CULTURE. 65 LESSON II. MODEL FOR L. Teacher [Draws two perpendicular lines, as in the foregoing lesson]. \\ "What lines have I drawn ? Children. Two perpendicular lines. T. But these lines are all the way the same dis- tance apart. What are such lines called? G. Parallel lines. T. Now notice that I draw two more lines, so that they join these perpendicular lines at the bot- tom and make right angles ; thus, L. What are these last two lines called ? C. Horizontal lines. T. And being the same distance apart, what aro they also ? C. Parallel lines. T. And what angles do they make with the two perpendicular lines? G. Right angles. T. [Joins the opening at the extremity of the lines and makes the children draw the character thus ob- tained until they are familiar with its form. ~] This is another great letter. Will you remember if I tell you its name ? It is L. Repeat. [The children pronounce L, L, L.] T. What did we draw yesterday ? G. I. [Teacher draws and reviews the two lessons.'] 66 OBJECT LESSONS. MODELS FOR CAPITAL LETTERS. LESSON I. LESSON II. EYE CULTURE. 67 LESSON III. LESSON IV, 68 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON V. LESSON VI. EYE CULTURE. LESSON VII. 69 LESSON VIII 70 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON IX. LESSON X. EYE CULTURE. 71 LESSON XI. LESSON XII. OBJECT LESSONS LESSON XIII. LESSON XIV. EYE CULTURE. LESSON XV. LESSON XVI OBJECT LESONS, LESSON XVII LESSON XVIII. EYE CULTURE. LESSON XIX. LESSON XX. 7C OBJECT LESSONS LESSON XXI. LESSON XXII EYE CULTURE. 77 LESSON XXIII. LESSON XXIV. 78 OBJECT LESSONS. MODEL LESSON FOR THE SMALL LETTERS. LETTER 5. [Teacher draws two perpendicular lines. 1 Question. "What lines have I drawn ? Answer. Two perpendicular lines. Q. You see they are everywhere the same dis- tance apart. What shall we call them from that fact? A. Parallel lines. \Teacher joins the lines at the top and bottom ind makes a small circle over.} Q. What have I drawn over this letter ? A. A little circle. [The class now draw the character after the model made ly the teacher until they can make it readily EYE CULTURE. 79 The teacher then pronounces the name and children repeat.} The small letters, S, V, w, Ik, s, , etc., may be taught in the same manner as the corresponding capitals, but should be drawn smaller. Let the letters ft), (3, jp, GJ, be taught consecu- tively and the form and name of each thoroughly learned before proceeding to the next. Make the children say, without the figure, where, in the case of each letter, they draw the curve. Thus : Q. "Where is the curve in b I A. On the right side of the straight line, at the bottom. Q. Where is the curve in (3? A. On the left side of the line, at the bottom. LESSON I. o 80 OBJECT LESSONS LESSON II. EYE CULTURE. 81 LESSON III LESSON IV / 82 OBJECT LESSONS LESSON V. LESSON VI. EYE CULTURE. LESSON VII. 84 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON VIII. LESSON IX C EYE CULTURE. 85 LESSON X LESSON XI. 86 OBJECT LESSONS LESSON XII. o EYE CULTURE. 87 LESSON XIII. 88 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON XIV. EYE CULTURE. 89 SIGHT AND SOUND SPELLING. When the children can draw and name all the letters with facility, they may begin to spell short words by printing them on the board. Just here, spelling by characters and spelling by sounds should be taught together, and the distinc- tion between them so carefully and constantly pre- sented, that the child can not fail to gain a practical knowledge of it. Sight spelling is writing and naming, in their order, the letters that compose a written word. Sound spelling is uttering separately and com- bining properly the sounds that compose a spoken word. Sight spelling, being addressed to the eye, should be taught with the pen, pencil, or crayon. The pupil should be required to write the word, instead of merely naming its letters according to the old method. Sound spelling is addressed to the ear and should be made simply a vocal exercise, the teacher pro- nouncing the word and the pupil uttering and com- bining the sounds that compose it. To beginners, sight and sound spelling must le taught ~by imitation and frequent repetition. As a further preparation for the class, the teacher is urged to have them review several of the last ex crcisos under " Object Lessons on the Mouth." 00 OBJECT LESSONS. We shall give here only a few specimen lessons, and the intelligent teacher will be able to extend these lessons much further. It is desirable to choose for such lessons, words that are familiar to the children and that have sig- nificance. LESSON I. Teacher. Spell ME. Class [spelling ly sound'], m-e me. T. Now let us print this little word on the board. [ Children print from a copy made ly the teacher. ~\ What letters have we printed ? C. m and e. T. Well, m stands for m and e (letter) stands for e (sound), and so m-e [naming the letters] spells me. Repeat m-e, me. C. m e, me. T. This is spelling by letters. Now spell me by sounds again. C. [spelling ly sounds] m-e me. T. Again by letters. C. [by names of letters] m-e me. [In this way exercise the class on HE, BE, AT, UP, NO, ON, etc.] EYE CULTUEE. 91 LESSON II. Teacher asks for one of the boys' hats and gives a brief object lesson on its kind, color, material, uses, etc. He then lias the pupils spell HAT by sound. He next prints HAT on the board for them to copy, and lastly teaches them to spell it by naming the letters. In a similar way, such words as : MAT PIG TOP KAT GIG HOP BAT JIG MOP CAT KIG SOP. Such exercises may be continued until the class can print easily any word of one syllable. The teacher may then teach words of two syllables in the same manner. 92 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS ON COLORS For these lessons the teacher will need cards of various colors. At first three or four grades of each color will be sufficient. By attending to the follow- ing directions, any teacher can prepare the cards. The materials needed are a few sheets of white pasteboard, a piece of thick window-glass, a table- knife for mixing the colors, a few ounces of white glue, and a few cents' worth of each of the follow- ing colors : Prussian Blue, Chrome Yellow, Rose Fink, American Yermilion, Dry White Lead. These can be obtained at any drug store. Dissolve some of the glue in warm water, say one tablespoonful of glue to a teacupful of water. Put some of the white lead to soak in water enough to cover it. To prepare the Blue cards, soak some of the Prussian Blue in water. Put a small portion on the window-glass and grind it fine with the knife. Mix a little of the dissolved glue with it. Then, with a brush, paint a strip the whole length of the paste- board and three inches broad. This cut into lengths of four inches will furnish the dark-blue cards. EYE CULTURE. 93 With what remains of this blue color mix a little of the white lead and add a small quantity of the dissolved glue. Paint another strip of pasteboard with this. It will form a set of cards lighter in shade. In this manner the blue may be reduced till it becomes a gray, though perhaps three or four tints will be sufficient. The same process with the Vermilion will give red cards ; with the Chrome Yellow, yellow cards. Chrome Yellow and Blue will form a Green ; Chrome Yellow and Vermilion, an Orange ; Rose Pink and Blue, a Purple ; from which various tints may be obtained by the addition of white LESSON I. BLUE. A pine board or a board covered with some cloth may be hung against the wall. Let the blue cards be fastened with pins from top to bottom on one side. The teacher places the darkest card in the center of the board. Question. What is the color of this card ? Answer. Blue. Q. Now, William, you may choose a card just like this and fasten them side by side. Has William taken the right card ? A. No, sir. 94 OBJECT LESSONS. Q. What is wrong? A. It is too light. [Another pupil corrects it.] Q. Has Jane matched it ? The teacher must decide if the class vary greatly in their answers, as will probably be the case at first. Before dismissing they are told to notice and remember all the blue things they see before the next lesson. LESSON II. BLUE (CONTINUED). The teacher calls the attention of the children to the cards on the side of the board, showing them that some are lighter than others. Placing the dark card in the center, as before, he calls on some one to place the next lighter below, the rest of the class deciding whether it is right or wrong. In this manner a regular gradation from dark-blue to gray will be formed. Names should be given to the colors as far as possible ; thus, dark-blue, sky-blue, etc. The class now name any objects which they have noticed resembling the cards in color. As a further exercise, they may bring to the next recitation any- thing they can find to match the dark-blue card. EYE CULTURE. 95 LESSON III. BLUE (CONTINUED). Question. How many have found anything to match the dark card ? "Well, Jane, what have you ? Answer. A piece of cloth. Jane holds it up and the pupils tell whether she is right or not. If they are unable to decide, place the cloth beside the card. The lightest card may now be placed in the cen- ter, the pupils adding the next darkest until the dark-blue is reached. The class name all the blue objects in the room LESSON IV. RED. The red cards being arranged in a column on the side of the board, place the darkest one in the center. Question. "What is the name of this color ? Answer. Red. Q. Is it dark red or light red ? A. Dark red. Q. Can you see anything in the room like it If A. Jane's dress. Q. Is it darker or lighter than Jane's dress ? A. Darker. 96 OBJECT LESSONS. [William selects a card from the side of the board to match that in the center and pins them side by side.~\ Q. Has "William chosen the right card? A. No, it is too light. [ Mary selects a card.~\ Q. Is Mary right ? A. Yes. John selects the card next lighter, and so on through the series. The process is then reversed from the lightest card to the darkest. The pupils then name all the red things they can think of. LESSON V. YELLOW. The yellow cards are arranged on the board in the same manner as the red and blue. Question. What flower has the same color as this card? Answer. The buttercup. Q. What is the name of this color? A. Yellow. [Jane matches the card. The class may be drilled to call Eight, Too dark, Too light.] Class. Eight. [Zydia pins on the next lightest. \ Class. Too light. EYE CULTURE. 97 [Susan corrects it.] Class. Right. Q. What has the same color as this card ? A. Cream. Q. Then what name can we give to this color 1 A. Cream-color. Q. What has the same color as this ? A. A lemon. Q. What is the name of this color? A. Lemon-color. Proceed in this manner, giving as far as possible names to all the colors. Let the class name all the yellow things they can think of. LESSON VI. SECONDARY COLORS. I. GREEN. PATTERN MAKING. Place a green card between a blue and a yellow one. Tell the class that green is formed by mix- ing yellow and blue. Colors formed by the mixing of two primary colors, are called secondary colors. Cards arranged in the manner directed, form a pattern which the pupils imitate, first with cards of the same shade, then with those a tint lighter, and so on through the series. Patterns may be made of several cards of each kind, thus: 5 OBJECT LESSONS. Again, pin a blue card and a yellow one a little distance apart, asking the pupils, after proper in- struction, to supply the connecting card. Question. What color is this? Answer. Green. Q. What colors is it made of? A. Blue and yellow. Q. What green things can you name? A. Grass is green. The leaves are green. The blinds are green. Q. Are all leaves the same green ? A. No; some are light, some are dark. Q Which is darker, the maple leaf or the willow leal'? A. The maple leaf. EYE CULTURE. 99 LESSON VII. SECONDARY COLORS. II. ORANGE. Cards arranged thus: Yellow Orange .Red. Question. What fruit is this card colored like ? Answer. An orange. [Tell the class that the color is composed of yellow and red and is called orange color.] Q. What two colors make Orange? A. Yellow and Eed. Q. What things can you name that have orange color ? A. Marigold, Tiger Lily, Squash Flower, etc. [ William raises his hand.] Q. What is it, William? A. The sun has an orange color sometimes. Exercise the class in pattern making as before. LESSON VIII. SECONDARY COLORS III. PURPLE. Purple is composed of Red and Blue. The pupils should form gradations from dark to light and from light to dark, as in the preceding lessons. They should have frequent exercises in imitating a variety of patterns. By such a course they will soon learn that some colors look better together than others i. e., they harmonize. Strong contrasts of colors should be avoided. These lessons may be extended to the Browns, Drabs, Grays, etc. 100 OBJECT LESSONS. EYE CULTURE 101 A CABINET OF NATURAL COLORS. The teacher may now easily gather a cabinet of natural colors for the further instruction of his pupils. With a little diligence lie can collect a va- riety of plants and minerals which will illustrate beautifully the colors in all their hues and shades. If it be summer, a great many attractive lessons on colors may be given with such flowers as are easily obtained. The wild flowers furnish countless varieties of red, blue, purple, and yellow. Let the children be in- duced to iind these for the teacher, some being told to bring red flowers, others blue, and others yellow. Occasionally the teacher should form parties to search for flowers in the woods. It is by such means that a good taste and a love of beautiful ob- jects are early formed. The children should be taught to name the different colors presented. Then the leaves of trees and the various grasses may serve for interesting lessons on the varieties of green. These may be arranged so as to present to the eye all the grades of green that can be found in plants. In giving lessons with these objects also, pupils may be taught to distinguish by name the different leaves and grasses which are presented to their notice. In the autumn and winter, quite a large number T 02 OBJECT LESSONS. of shades of brown and yellow may be found in the dead leaves. Numerous examples of green, yellow, red, and russet may be pleasantly shown in the fruits of autumn. At all seasons, the kinds of bark from different trees will supply specimen varieties of neutral colors, especially browns and grays. The pieces of bark may be cut into rough squares two inches across and fastened in columns with small nails. In the different kinds of wood, also, will be found attractive samples of wood colors. The oaks, red, white, and black; the yellow and white pines; the maple, hickory, black- walnut, butternut, cherry, and a host of other trees will furnish beautiful specimens for the teacher's cabinet. The pieces of wood may be cut into blocks half an inch thick and two inches square, so that they can be fastened with nails side by side. Teach the children the names of the different samples. Fragments of rock and the common stones which one finds by the roadside and in the fields, may like- wise be made available in this cabinet. Limestone, granite, slate, and many other rocks exhibit a large range of grays, browns, etc. Even if the teacher can not classify the rocks referred to, he will find them valuable aids in teaching children to distin- guish colors. In using the above objects for the purpose above named, the teacher will find it often difficult and EYE CULTURE. 103 sometimes impossible to give exact names to the colors which they present. The hues and shades of nature are innumerable, while the words used to designate them are very limited and,in many cases, not very exact. But by careful attention the teacher will, in nearly all cases, find terms as correct as the language affords. He will find, moreover, that his own discrimination in colors is greatly improved by these efforts. Not much help in this matter can be given from a book, but the following list of colors denned may be profitably referred to : BLUE one of the primary colors. Ultramarine a very deep blue. The blue ot the sea. Prussian a deep blue with a tinge of yellow. Indigo a deep blue with tinge of red. (A specimen should be exhibited.) Sky-Uue the blue of the sky. RED a primary color. Carmine a pure deep red. Rose a light carmine red. Scarlet a bright red with a yellow tinge. Flesh-color a light scarlet. Crimson deep red tinged with blue. Pink a light crimson. Orange-red a red with a tinge of yellow. Blood-red the color of blood. YELLOW a primary color. Chrome a rich bright pure yellow. 104 OBJECT LESSONS. Canary color of the canary, a light chrome. Straw color of straw, a pure light yellow. Lemon color of lemon, a yellow with tinge of blue. Primrose color of primrose, a still lighter yellow. Saffron color of saffron, a deep yellow with a tinge of red. Sulphur color of sulphur, a yellow with a blue tinge. GREEN a secondary color, composed of blue and yellow. When the blue predominates we have blue green ; when the yellow predom- inates we have yellow ^reen. Equal parts of blue and yellow make pure grass green. Olive color of the olive, a shade of yellow green. Pea color of the pea, a light green. Tea color of the plant, a lighter hue of olive green. Emerald color of the emerald stone, a rich light green. Invisible a black with a green tinge. PURPLE a secondary color, composed of blue and red. In blue purples the blue pre- dominates ; in red purples, the red. Royal pure purple, a mixture of equal parts of blue and red. LilcM color of the lilac blossom, royal purple tinted white. EYE CULTURE. 105 Violet color of the blossom, in which the blue predominates. Lavender lighter than violet. Peach-blossom color of the blossom, a light purple with a reddish tinge. OJIANGE a secondary color, composed of yellow and red. In red orange the red predom- inates ; in yellow orange the orange pre- dominates. Bujf a yellow orange. Cream the color of cream, a yellow orange tinted. Salmon a red orange slightly tinted. Auburn a dark red orange. OKAS' a secondary color, composed of white and black or of blue, yellow, and red. "When a mixture of the last three, it may be called a tertiary color. Pearl a very light gray. Slate color of the stone, darker than pearl. Iron a very dark gray. BROWN a tertiary color, composed of red, yel- low, and blue. In dark brown the blue predominates ; in deep brown, the red ; in light brown, the yellow. Chocolate the color of chocolate, a dark red brown. Gold a yellowish brown. Snuff a dull, yellow brown. 5* 100 OBJECT LESSONS. Maroon a deep brown tinged with piirp A e. Drab a brown tinted with white. Umber a yellowish brown. Tan-color a deep brown tinted with white. SPECIMEN LESSONS WITH RED FLOWERS. LESSON I. Here is a beautiful bouquet which I have brought for you. Can you name the flowers in it ? What are these fine large flowers that are so regular in shape? Dahlias. And what are these small flowers that grow in bunches or clusters ? Verbenas. And these little flowers with scalloped edges ? Pinks. What is that flower that is shaped like a bell? Morning glory. Yes; and here are. several roses; and here, too, is a geranium. Now what is the color of these beautiful flowers ? They are all red. But are they all the same kind of red ? No, sir ; different kinds. We will try to sort out and name the different kinds. What did you tell me is the name of this flower? It is a dahlia. Well, find among the red cards one most like it in color. (James) Here it is. Very well, James, what is the color of the dahlia, then ? Dark red. Is there any other flower here which has the t ame shade of red ? No, sir. Which has the near- est shade? That rose. Is the rose lighter or darker? EYE CULTURE. 107 Lighter. Well, now think of other things which the dahlia is like in shade. It is like a brick. Bricks have different shades of red. Bring me one to-morrow and we will see. Have we no stones here that have the same shade? Yes, sir ; here is a pebble with the same shade. Not quite ; is it darker or lighter ? Darker. LESSON II. THE BOUQUET (CONTINUED). Here is a cluster of red geranium blossoms ; are they bright or dull ? Very bright. Here is a blue card and a yellow one; which are they most like? The yellow one. Very well ; a bright red with a tinge of yellow is scarlet. "What will you call these flowers, then ? Scarlet. What things can you think of that have the same shade? My little sis- ter has a scarlet dress. Are there any other flowers here that have the same shade ? Yes, this cluster of verbenas. Are they lighter or darker? A little lighter. What shall we call the shade of the ver- bena% then ? Light scarlet. Here is an aster which is a still lighter scarlet. Now a very light scarlet is called flesh-color. What color is the aster, then ? Flesh-color. Look now at another aster. You see it has a beautiful color, but the tinge is quite unlike the scarlet geranium. Compare it with a blue and a 108 OBJECT LESSONS. yellow card, and which is it more like? A little more like the blue. Well, a deep red like this, with a slight tinge of blue, is called crimsoi*. Have we any other flowers with a similar tinge? Yes, the pinks, but they are lighter. Well, the -pink, then, is a light crimson, and a light crimson is called pink color. What, then, is the color of the pink? Pink color. Here is a verbena cluster which is purest Now a pure red is called carmine. What is this verbena called, then? Carmine. The color of this rose is carmine, but is lighter than the verbena. A light carmine is called a rose-color. What is the color of the rose ? Rose-color. LESSON III. Review Lesson I. and II. by requiring the class to name accurately each variety of red found in the bouquet. LESSON IV. MATERIALS. A bouquet of yellow flowers, some bright straw, a few pieces of yellow wood, a lemon, a piece of sulphur, and a little chrome yellow. Here is an article sold at the drug stores. It ifl sometimes mixed with oil tc make yellow paint EYE CULTURE. 109 You see it is a bright yellow. It is called chrome yellow. Now see if there are any flowers that have a chrome yellow color. Yes, here is one, but it is lighter, and a light chrome is called canary, the color of the canary bird. Look at this straw ; you see it is a light yellow ; it is called straw-color. Find a. card like it. Think of anything else that is straw-colored. This primrose is lighter yellow and the color is called primrose. Are there any more flowers like it \ Are they darker or lighter ? Now select a piece of wood that is nearest like straw. Is it darker or lighter? Is there a piece colored like the primrose? Select the one nearest to it. Is it darker or lighter? Here is a lemon ; look at it carefully. Don't you see a slight tinge of bine on it? Well, a yellow tinged with blue is called lemon-color. Are there any flowers or pieces of wood colored like the lemon? etc., etc. LESSON V. Review by having the class name the objects in the lesson, together with their colors. In this manner the teacher may continue these exercises until he has embraced varieties of all the colors. By frequent reviews the class will soon select and name any variety with great readiness. 110 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSONS ON LENGTH. LESSON I. THE FOOT. Look at tliis rule all of you; it is a foot long aiiJ is called a foot rule; anything just as long as this rule is a foot long ; anything twice as long is two feet long ; anything three times as long is three feet long. Now see me measure this stick. [The teacher is provided with half a dozen straight sticks, one, two^ three, four, Jive, and six feet long respectively.] How long is it? Ans. One foot long. We will measure another. One, two. How long is this ? Ans. Two feet long. Now another. Count while I measure. One, two, three. How long is it, then \ Ans. Three feet long. Thomas, come here and measure one carefully. The rest count for him. One, two, three, four. How iong? Ans. Four feet long. Let me measure the other two. How long is this? Ans. Five feet. A.nd this ? Ans. Six feet. So you see these sticks have six different lengths. I will mix them all together. Now, John, find the one that is a foot long. Right. William, pick out the one three feet long. Is that the right one, class ? Ans. No, sir ; that is four feet long. [ Will- iam tries again.] Is that right ? Ans. Yes, sir. Let the class practice in this way till they can select readily any measure called for. EYE CULTURE. Ill LESSON II. THE FOOT. [The answers of the class are in italics.] Thomas, you may lay all the sticks on the table, the shortest first, the next a foot longer, and the next a foot longer still, until you get to the longest. The rest may watch him and call the length of each as he lays it down. One foot long. Two feet long. Three feet long. Five feet long. Wrong, Thomas ; choose again. Four feet long. Five feet. Six feet. We will next measure something else. Guess the length of this table the long way. Four feet. William, take the rule and measure it carefully. One, two, three, and a half again : how long ? Three feet and a half. How long is the table the short way ? Two feet. I will measure. One, two, and a half again : how long? Two feet and a half. Listen ; the long way of the table is its length and the short way is its width. How long is the table this way ? Three feet and a half. And how wide is it? Two feet and a half wide. Here is a piece of board; which way is its length? That way. A.nd its width? This way. Guess how long it is. Five feet long. Not quite; it measures one, two, three, four, and a half again : how long? Four feet and a half. Now tell me which way is the length of this door? Up and down. Which way is its *'idth ? Across this way. 112 OBJECT LESSONS. Exercise the class in this manner, measuring the various objects in the room. The children may guess each other's length, each case being settled by the foot rule. LESSON III. THE FOOT. HIGHT. Where is the bottom of the door? Where it touches the floor. Where is the top of it ? That part farthest up. Well, which way is the length of the door ? From the bottom to the top. Yes, and this is called its hight. The length of anything upward from where we stand is its hight ? What is the hight of the door, then ? Its length from the bottom to the top. Guess how many feet high it is. James. Five feet. Susan. Six feet. Let us meas- ure. It is seven feet high. How wide is the door ? About three feet. Yes, exactly three feet wiae. In this manner teach the hight and width of a window, the hight of the ceiling, or anything else in the room that has hight. LESSON IV. THE INCII. Here is still another foot rule ; you notice it is wider than the one I first showed you. Look, I have divided it with these lines of ink into equal parts. EYE CULTURE. 113 How many of these equal parts are there? Count and see. One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve. How many of these equal parts are there in the foot rule, then? Twelve. Well, one of these parts is an inch and, as we have twelve of them in the rule, how many inches make a foot? Twelve inches. Kepeat together "Twelve inches make one foot." Look at this foot rule carefully a moment before 1 put it out of sight. Now all go to the board and try to draw a horizontal line just a foot long. [ Measur- ing the lines thus drawn.] You see they are all too long or too short except William's, which has just the right length. Here, William, is a bit of straight stick ; you see by placing it on the foot rule that it is just as long as one of the twelve parts. How long is it, then ? An inch long. How long would twelve such sticks be if placed in a line ? A foot long. I will show you how to divide a foot line on the board into inches. [Draws a horizontal line afoot long and divides it with his inch measure into twelve parts, marking the inches with short perpen- dicular lines.'] William, you may try to divide your line into inches in the same way. Pretty well. Who else will try ? [The teacher is further provided with twelve straight sticks, such as can oe easily cut from a tree or sJirnb. Each of these sticks represent in length a OBJECT LESSONS. different number of inches, from one to twelve in? elusive.] You see I have mixed these sticks together and set them up where you can all see them. When I tell anyone of you to pick out a stick of the length I shall mention, the rest may call out Right! or Wrong ! as the case may be. Susan, find the stick which is one inch long. Right. John, show me the stick that is three inches long. Right. Thomas, which is the five-inch stick? This one. Wrong. How long is if, class? Four inches. Choose again, Thohias. Right. William, which is the six-inch stick? Right. You see the foot rule is just twice the length of William's stick ; what part of a foot is six inches, then ? Half afoot. The teacher may now measure the fingers of the children with the inch measure. He may also here teach the distinctions of length, breadth, and thickness by measuring books, slates, a brick, etc., etc. LESSON V. THE YARD. Look among the long sticks for the one that ia three feet long. Here it is. Well, anything that is three feet long,is one yard long; how long, then, is this stick? One yard long. And how many feet make a yard ? Three. Repeat, then " Three feet make one yard." EYE CULTURE. 115 A stick like this,three feet long, is used sometimes to measure cloth, calico, ribbons, and such things, and is called a yard-stick. Apply it to the six-feet stick. Two yards. James, Henry, and Jane, look at the yard-stick ; then go to the board and draw a horizontal line a yard long. James' line is a little too long ; the others' are too short. I will make them right. Now divide these lines into three equal parts Pretty nearly right. I will make them exact. Now, William, take the inch measure and divide, one of these parts into inches. All repeat " Twelve inches make one foot." " Three feet make one yard." The teacher now measures with his yard-stick the length of various objects, such as the floor, the recitation bench, the outside of the school-house. LESSON VI. THE ROD AND THE FURLONG. The teacher is furnished with a pole a rod in length. This pole is divided by notches into five and a half yards. The entire yard at one end of the pole, is divided into feet and the extreme foot of this yard is cut into inches. By a process similar to that of the previous les- son, he teaches the class that " Five and a half yards make a rod." Having given a clear conception of the length of the rod, he takes the class into the field 116 OBJECT LESSONS. and asks them to guess at different distances, three, five, six, nine, or twelve rods in extent and limited by some visible object, as a tree or a rock. Finally, accompanied by the children he measures off forty rods of level road, stations a boy at one end and another at the other end of the space measured, places the children where they can see both boys, and thus gives the notion of a furlong and the number of rods that it contains. With these data he can easily give an idea of the length of a mile. These lessons should be closed by a concert recitation of the table of distances : Twelve inches make one foot ; Three feet make one yard ; Five and a half yards make one rod ; Forty rods make one furlong ; Eight furlongs make one mile. The preceding lessons on length will suggest to the teacher the proper me hod of teaching the scale of weights. He will need for this purpose a pair of scales and the different weights. With the same method he may also teach the scales of the different measures, as dry measure, wine measure, etc. The apparatus for such exer- cises can be easily obtained. Each series of lessons should be followed by a concert recitation of the entire corresponding table EYE CULTURE H7 GEOMETRICAL FIGURES IN DRAWING LESSONS. No exercise is more effective in cultivating the sense of sight, than that of drawing the various fig- ures in Geometry. These figures, moreover, serve as excellent models for manual practice. In drawing them and afterward pointing out and naming their different parts, both the eye and the hand of the pupil are equally trained to precision and quickness. So great is the value of these lessons that the teacher who is unskilled in drawing, is earnestly urged to prepare for teaching them by special practice. By spending a half hour of leisure in drawing each figure, he will find, in nearly all cases, that when the time allotted to the lesson arrives, he can draw a model sufficiently correct for the children to imitate. Aside from the progress of the class, his own improvement will amply repay him for such an effort. In the following exercises in drawing we can profitably review a few of the lessons already given. LESSON I. THE EIGHT ANULE. (FOE THE BLACKBOARD.) Please follow the method used in giving our first lessons in drawing. 118 OBJECT LESSONS. At the word one make a point ; at the word two make a point six inches to the right ; at the word three make a point three inches directly above the last ; at the word four make a point three inches be- low, thus : -(2) (1) (4) Now begin back at the first point and connect the points in the same order as I count one, two, three. What kind of lines have we drawn ? Two straight lines. In what respect are they different from each other ! One is a horizontal and the other a perpen- dicular line. What are these two openings made by one line meeting the other called ? Angles. But do you remember when one straight line meets another straight line, so that the angles which it makes are equal to each other, what these angles are called? Yes, sir ; they are called right angles. Repeat "When one straight line meets another straight line in such a way that the angles which it EYE CULTURE. 119 makes arc equal to each other, these angles are right angles." Draw the same angles in different positions, as follows, and point out the two right angles. Next make several right angles in a variety of positions and let the class draw them, until they can at once distinguish a right angle whenever they see one. LESSON II. OBTUSE ANGLES. Make one right angle and then three obtuse angles. Let the class practice drawing these a while. Then : 120 OBJECT LESSONS How many angles have we drawn ? Four. Which of these is a right angle ? The first one. Are the other three larger or smaller than the right angle? Larger. Well, any angle larger than a right angle is called an obtuse angle. What, then, are these three angles ? Obtuse angles. I will rub out your models. Clean the board and draw a right angle. [The- class draw.] Now draw four obtu>e angles. LESSON III. ACUTE ANGLES. Draw a right angle and four acute angles for models. After sufficient practice in drawing these, let the children point out the riirht an'rle. Then : EYE CULTURE. 121 Are the other angles you have drawn greater or less than the right angle ? Less. All angles less than a right angle are called acute angles. What are these angles, then? Acute angles. Now clear the board of models and all draw one right angle and four acute angles without a copy. LESSON IV. TRIANGLES. THE RIGHT ANGLE. Let the class make three angles without a model, viz., a right angle, an obtuse angle, and an acute angle, and give the proper name to each. Next all join the ends of the lines in the right angle with a straight line. Now do you remember the figure that you have made, James? Yes, sir ; it is a triangle. How many lines or sides has it ? Three. How many angles has it ? Three angles. What is a triangle, then ? A figure that has three sides and three angles. Repeat. Look again at our- triangle and tell me how many rijrht an cries you can find in it. One. What kind 122 OBJECT LESSONS. of angles are the two others ? Acute angles. Well, every triangle with a right angle in it, is a right angled triangle. Repeat Every triangle, etc. Each draw without a model several right angled triangles. LESSON V. OBTUSE AND ACUTE ANGLED TRIANGLES. Draw an obtuse angle. Right. Now connect the ends of the two lines with a straight line. What figure have you made ? A triangle. What kind of angles has it ? One obtuse angle and two acute angles. Every triangle which has an obtuse angle may be called an obtuse angled triangle. What is an obtuse angled triangle ? A triangle that has an obtuse angle. Take another model and draw from it. What kind of angles have we in this triangle ? Three acute angles. It is, therefore an acute angled EYE CULTURE. 123 triangle. What is an acute angled triangle? One that has three acute angles. Draw three obtuse and three acute angled tri- angles. LI SSON VI. TRIANGLES THE ISOSCELES, THE EQUILATERAL, AND THE SCALENE. Furnish the class a model for an isosceles triangle. Let them draw and define it. An isosceles triangle is one that has two equal sides. Then draw for the class a model of an equilateral triangle. Let them make and define it. 124 OBJECT LESSONS An equilateral triangle is one that has its three sides equal to each other. Also a scalene. A triangle is called scalene when its three sidee are unequal. LESSON VII. REVIEW. Draw from memory and define a right angled triangle, an obtuse angled triangle, and an acut? angled triangle. EYE CUI/1URE. 125 FOUR-SIDED FIGURES. LESSON VIII. THH: SQUARE. Make points for the square six indies apart oi* the board. Give the class sufficient practice in drawing it. What figure have you drawn '( The square. How does it differ from the triangle ? It has one more side and one more angle. Are its four sides equal or unequal ? Equal. What kind of angles does it contain ? Right angles. What is a square, then ? A figure that has four equal sides and four right angles. Draw several squares each, without the model. LESSON IX. THE RHOMB. This is a new figure. You see the sides are of equal length. You notice how I have arranged the points. Draw six each. 126 OBJECT LESSONS. Ill what respect is this figure like the square? It has four equal sides. In what respect is it unlike the square ? Its angles are not right angles. What sort of angles are they, then ? Two are obtuse angles and two are acute angles. A rhomb, then, is a figure which has four equal sides and two obtuse and two acute angles. All repeat. LESSON X. PARALLELOG RAM. Another new figure. Lock at it carefully. Com- pare it with the square and what difference do you Bee? The sides are not equal. Compare the oppo EYE CULTURE. 127 site sides with each other and what then ? The op- posite sides are equal. Look again and you will see that they are also parallel. Draw six parallelo- grams each. Now what is a parallelogram ? A figure of four sides j the opposite sides being parallel and equal. Notice that in a parallelogram we say nothing about the angles. In fact it makes no difference whether the angles are all right angles or two of them obtuse and two acute, if only the opposite sides are parallel. Here is another parallelogram which you may draw. The opposite sides, you see, are parallel. What are the angles? Right angles. On that account we call this figure a right angled parallelogram or a rectangle. What is a rectangle 1 A parallelo- gram having fow right angles. 128 OBJECT LESSONS, LESSON XI. TRAPEZOID. A trapezoid is a four-sided figure having two of the opposite sides parallel. LESSON XII. TRAPEZIUM. The trapezium is a four-sided figure with the op- posite sides not parallel. LESSON XIII. REVIEW. Draw from memory and define a square, a rhomb, a parallelogram. EYE CULTURE. 129 A rectangle, a trapezoid, a trapezium. Mention some things shaped like the square. The Atlas. A picture frame. One side of the dictionary. A handkerchief. Think of something shaped like a rectangle. A hook. A slate. The door. Half a sheet of letter 2>aper> The table. POLYGONS. LESSON XIV. THE PENTAGON. In drawing the pentagon let the pupil be guided by points properly placed. How many angles in this figure 8 Five. How many sides \ Five. Well, this is a pentagon or five-sided figure. What is a pentagon, then? A figure that has five angles and five sides^ 6* 130 OBJECT LESSONS LESSON XV. THE HEXAGON. This figure is a little different from the pentagon, How many sides has it? Six. How many angles 1 Six. It is called a hexagon. What is a hexagon? A figure that has six angles and six sides. LESSON XVI. THE HEPTAGON. Count the angles and sides of the figure we have EYE CULTURE. 131 brawn now. Seven angles and seven sides. How many sided ? Seven sided. It is called a heptagon. What is a heptagon ? A figure that has seven angles and seven sides. LESSON XVII. THE OCTAGON. How does this figure differ from the heptagon ? It has one more side and one more angle. It is an octagon. What is an octagon ? A figure that has eight sides and eight angles. LESSON XVIII. THE CIRCLE. Draw the circle by the same arrangement of points as in the square. The class will need the 132 OBJECT LESSONS. time for practice in drawing this figure usually assigned to two lessons. Its properties may be impressed by the following questions : What is this figure called ? A circle. Here is a quarter of a dollar ; what is the shape of it? It is a circle. Well, the distance round the edge, on the outside, is called its circumference. Look at the bottom of the water-pail ; what is its shape ? The shape of a circle. What is its circumference? The distance round the edge on the outside. Now if we could find a point in the middle that would be equally distant every way from the outside, we should call it the center of the circle. William, put your finger on the center of this circle. Jane, here is the bot- tom of a tin cup that is a circle. What is its cir- cumference? The distance round the outer edge. Try to put your pencil on the point that is the cen- ter of this circle. Yery well. [The teacher now takes a piece of twine six inches in length, ties one EYE CULTURE. 133 end to a crayon, and holding the other end firmly on the board, draws a true circle.'] What is the center of this circle? The point where the string was held still. What is the circumference ? The Line drawn by the crayon in going round the center. What is the distance from the center to every part of the circumference ? The length of the string. A circle, then, is a figure whose circumference is everywhere equally distant from a point called the center. Kepeat. LESSON XIX. THE RADIUS. The teacher and pupils draw several circles with the crayon and string. Tell me the distance from the center of this circle to all parts of the circumference. The length of the string used in drawing them. Why ? Because the string measures the distance from center to circum- 134: OBJECT LESSONS. ference. Well, the distance from the center to the circumference of any circle, is called a radius. Draw a straight line from center to circumference in the circles you have made. What is this line called? A radius. Draw an- other in a different direction. Two or more are called radii. You see that all radii have the samo length and are therefore equal. LESSON XX. THE DIAMETER. Teacher draws a circle with a radius. What have we now ? A circle and a radius. Suppose we draw a radius to the opposite side of the circumference in the same line or direction with this radius. What have I done now ? Divided the circle into two equal parts. Well, any straight h'ne that passes through the center of a circle to opposite EYE CULTURE. 135 points in the circumference, divides the circle into two equal parts. This line is called the diameter of the circle. "What is the diameter of a circle, then ? A straight line passing through the center to opposite points in the circumference. How many radii is the diameter equal to ? Two. LESSON XXI THE SEMICIRCLE. Draw several circles and their diameters. We found that the diameter divides the circle into two equal parts. What part of a whole circle is each one of these ? A half. The word semi means half. What may we call one of these parts, there- fore ? A semicircle. How many semicircles in a whole circle 1 Two. Draw several semicircles. Now draw several circles and divide them into semicircles. 136 OP..JECT LESSONS. LESSON XXII. THE QUADRANT. Make a circle with a horizontal diameter. What have we here ? A circle with its diameter. How many semicircles ? Two. Draw a radius perpendicular to this diameter and it will, as you see, divide the semicircle into two equal parts. Now draw a radius downward in the same straight line with the last and how many parts have we divided the lower semicircle into ? Two equal parts. How many such parts have we in the whole circle ? Four. What part of the whole circle, then, is each one of these? A quarter of the whole circle. The word quadrant means quarter. What may we call each of these quarters, then ? A quadrant. How much of the circumference of the circle is there in each quadrant? A quarter. How is each quadrant bounded ? By two radii and a quarter of the circumference. What kind of angle do the radii make ? A right angle. EYE CULTURE. 137 In this way the teacher may, if he thinks proper, teach the nature of the tangent, sine, cosine, se cant, etc. SOLIDS. IN DRAWING LESSONS OR FROM MODELS IN WOOD. Wooden models of some of the more simple of the regular solids, will be needed for the following lessons. Any teacher who is accustomed to use car- penters' tools, can make them for himself. Other- wise, they can be made without much expense by the nearest mechanic. A large assortment of such models can be obtained from Holbrook & Co., Hartford, Ct., or from Sherwood & Co., Chicago. These firms have agencies in all our large cities. Perhaps the figures of solids to be presented, will be too difficult for models in drawing. If so, they should be taught simply from the models of wood. LESSON I. A SOLID. Here is a glass full of water. Suppose I try to put more water into the glass? It will run over. What if I turn the glass a little ? The water will run out. Can you think of any other things that would do this ? Yes, sir ; milk, or oil, or molassts. Well, things like water that always run down hill 138 OBJECT LESSONS. when there is nothing to prevent them, and change their shape easily to fit the vessel that holds them, are called fluids. What is vinegar? A. fluid, Why ? Because it runs easily like water and changes its shape to fit the cruet. Well, there are a great many things that do not change their shape easily. Here is a piece of chalk ; when I put it into the glass does it change its shape and fit the glass like water ? No, sir. Anything that does not easily change its shape is a solid. Think of some other things that are solids. A stone. A 'book. The table. My knife. Very well ; here is an egg is it a solid or a fluid ? A solid. If I break the shell does it not run ? Yes, sit' ; the shell is a solid but the inside is a fluid. LESSON II. EVERY SOLID BOUNDED BY LINKS. I have drawn three lines on the board ; tell me what lines they are. One is a straight line, one is a curve, and one is a crooked' line. EYE CULTURE. 139 What is a straight line ? The nearest way or dis- tance between two points. [Teacher illustrates l)y two points on the ~board, making several curves and one straight line between them.} What is a curved line or curve? A. line that changes its direction equally at every point. Look now at the crooked line ; you see it is made up of very small curves and bits of straight lines all mingled together, so that the whole line changes its course unequally at different points. What, then, is a crooked line ? A line that changes its course unequally at different points. [Illustrate ~by making examples.} Which of these lines can you measure exactly 9 The straight line and the curve. Why can you not measure the crooked line ? The rule would not Jit it. Everything solid is bounded by lines, straight, curved, or crooked. Open the door and look at its edges ; are they straight, curved, or crooked ? Straight. Yes ; whether you look at the top. bot- tom, or side, it is still straight. What lines bound tjie door, then ? Straight lines. Look at the stove- pipe ; what lines bound it up and down ? Straight lines. What lines run around it ? Curved lines. Here are some solids a stone, a brick, and a globe. Look at the stone as I hold it up ; what lines run around it every way ? Crooked lines. Notice the brick ; what lines run along the outside ? Straight lines. Now the globe ; what line surrounds it ? A curved line. What sort of curve is it? The circumference of a circle. IJ.0 OBJECT LESSONS You remember we can measure straight lines arid curves, but can not measure crooked lines. Now such solids as the brick and globe, being bounded by straight or curved lines, can, for that reason, be measured ; but the stone, being bounded by crooked linos, can not be measured. [Illustrate with the ruleJ\ LESSON III. THE SOLID ANGLE. All the angles that you have drawn as yet, have been made by two lines meeting on a plane or flat surface. A surface, you know, is the outside of anything. The outside of the table is its surface. Here is the surface of the blackboard. Tell me of some other surfaces. The surface of the desk the stone the door. Well, a plane surface is such that, if you lay a straight line on it in any direction, every part of the line will touch the surface. The edge of this ruler is a straight line ; see me lay it on the surface of the table several ways ; does every part of the edge touch the table ? Yes, sir. What kind of a surface is it, then ? A plane surface. Try the globe in the same way ; has it a plane sur- face ? No, sir. Try the blackboard ; what surface lias it? A plane surface. What other plane sur- faces do you see ? The wall. The slate. The cove* of the book. Yery well ; now I will tell you that EYE CULTURE. 141 all the figures that we have been making have been drawn on a plane surface, and are called plane fig- ures. [Illustrate by drawing a figure on the board J\ "What, then, is a plane angle ? An opening made by two lines meeting on a plane surface. Now I can show you what a solid angle is. It is made up of three or more plane angles meeting at one point. Here are three pieces of card cut so as to represent three plane angles. I will put them together so that the three angles meet at one point, thus : This, too, is a solid angle. [Shows the class the angle of a cubeJ] What kind of plane angles make up this solid angle ? Right angles. {The teacher shows a variety cf solid angles^] LESSON IV. THE TRIANGULAR PRISM. This is a beautiful solid. How many surfaces has it ? Five. Yes three sides and two ends. 142 OBJECT LESSONS. What sort of surfaces are they? Plane surfaces, By what lines are they bounded ? /Straight lines. What is the shape of each end ? It is a triangle. What is the shape of each side ? It is a parallelo- gram. How many solid angles has this solid ? Six. Of what kind of plane angles is any one of these solid angles formed ? Of two right angles and one acute angle meeting at one point. Look at the ends of this solid again. Notice, once more, that they are equal triangles, and that the three straight lines that bound the sides and touch each angle of the two triangles are of equal length. The two triangles, then, are everywhere the same distance from each other. What can you say of them in view of this fact ? They are parallel. And what, again, is the shape of each side ? It is a parallelogram. Well, any solid whose ends are equal, alike in shape, and parallel to each other, and whose sides EYE CULTURE. are parallelograms, is called a prism. Kepeat care- fully. Now give me the different reasons why this solid is called a prism ; first, as to the ends ? They are alike. "Why ? Because they are both equilateral triangles. The next reason? They are equal. Wliy ? Because the sides of both triangles are of eq ual length. The third reason ? These two tri- angles are parallel to each other. The fourth rea- son ? The sides between the two triangles are paral- lelograms. LESSON V. THE QUADRANGULAR PKISM. Another solid for this lesson. How many sui- aces has it ? Six surfaces. How many sides and ends ? Four sides and two ends. What kind of figures are the ends ? They are [44 OBJECT LESSONS. squares. Why ? Th^y have four equal sides and four right angles. Is one square larger than the other? JVo, sir; they are equal. ETow these four edges or lines bound the sides and touch every angle of the square. Are they equal or uneqm.l? Equal. The squares, then, are everywhere equally distant from each other; what of that? They are parallel to each other. And now what is the form of each of the four sides ? It is a parallelogram. Tell me again what a prism is. It is a solid whose ends are alike and equal and parallel and whose sides are parallelograms. What is this solid, then ? A prism. Well, quadrangular means having four angles. How many angles have the ends ? Four. What may this prism be called, then? A quad- rangular prism. How many solid angles has this prism ? Eight. How are they made ? By three right angles. Let us now put this prism out of sight and review the lesson from memory. LESSON VI. FIVE-SIDED PRISM. Count the surfaces of this solid. Seven five sides two ends. What are the ends ? Equal penta- gons or five-sided figures. What else can you tell me about them ? They are parallel. What arc the EYE CULTURE. 145 five sides? Parallelograms. What is this solid, then ? A prism. And as it lias five sides } we may call it a five-sided prism. LESSON VII. SIX-SIDKD PRISM. How many sides? Six. What are the ends? Two equal sexagons. What further? They are 7 U6 OBJECT LESSONS. parallel. What are the sides? Parallelograms. What is this solid, then? A six-sided prism. Notice that the ends always have as many line- sides as there are surface-sides in the prism. LESSON VIII. REVIEW OF PRISMS. Answer the questions in this lesson without the models. What is a prism ? What is a triangular prism? A quadrangular prism? A five-sided prism? A six-sided prism ? How many line-sides will the ends of a prism have ? How do you know that the planes of the two ends are parallel ? LESSON IX. THE TRIANGULAR PYRAMID. Here is a new solid different from the prism. How many surfaces has it ? Four. What are these surfaces ? Triangles. Look at the sides of one of these triangles ; are they equal or unequal ? Equal. What kind of triangles are the surfaces of this solid, then ? Equilateral triangles. How many solid angles has this solid ? Four. How are they formed? By three acute angles meeting at the same point. EYE CULTURE. 147 Place this solid on the table, it stands on, is called its base. The surface that Now how many sides has it? Three. "What kind of sides? Tri- angles. "Where do the sides or triangles meet? At the top. "Well, the top where the triangles meet is called the vertex. Look at the base again ; how many sides has it? [The teacher should point out carefully the difference between surfaces and sides of lines. The sides of a plane figure may be catted line- sides ', while the sides of a solid may be called surface- sides.} Three. "Well, the base will always have as many line-sides as there are surface-sides in the solid. Count and see. Shall I tell you the name of this solid? It is a pyramid. A pyramid is a solid whose sides are. three or more triangles meeting, as you see, in a point called a vertex, and whose base is a plane fig ure like this, bounded by lines which form the bases 148 OBJECT LPJSSONS. of the triangles. [ Teache^ reviews each of the ab&i e particulars.] Pyramids are always named from the shape of the base. What is the shape of this base ? Triangu- lar. What sort of pyramid is this, then ? A tri- angular pyramid. Notice that this solid is of such a form that we can take any side as the base. LESSON X. THE QUADE ANGULAR PYRAMID. Another pyramid. How many surface-sides has it? Four. What are they? Triangles. What kind? fsosceles. Where do these triangles meet ? At the vertex. Now look at the base. How many line- eides has it? Four. If the base of each trianglo, as you see, forms one line-side of the base of the EYE CULTURE. 149 pyramid, how many line-sides must the base have ? Four. As the base has four line-sides and four angles, what may this pyramid be called? A quadrangu- lar pyramid. LESSON XI. THE PENTANGULAR PYRAMID. Describe this pyramid ; first as to the surface- sides. It has Jive isosceles triangles meeting at the vertex. Next as to the base. Its base is a penta- gon. It has five line-sides^ and each side is the base of one of the triangles. As the base is a pentagon and has five angles, we may call this pyramid a pentangular pyramid. Review these particulars thoroughly. 150 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON XII. REVIEW OF THE PYRAMIDS. (WITHOUT THE MODELS.) What is the least number of surface-sides that a pyramid can have ? "What shape must every side have ? Where will all the triangles that form the sides of the pyramid meet? How many line-sides must the base of a triangular pyramid have? What part of the triangles will these sides be ? How many sides must a quadrangular pyramid have ? LESSON XIII. THE CUBE. How many surfaces lias this solid? Six. What kind of surfaces are they ? Plane surfaces. Look at one; what is its shape? It is a square. What EYE CULTURE 151 is a square ? A plane figure that has four equal sides and f OUT right angles. How do these six sides compare with each other as to size ? They are all equal. This solid is called a cube. A cube is a solid with six sides which are equal squares. How many solid angles has the cube ? Eight. How are they formed ? By three right angles meet- ing in a point. Tell me again what a cube is. LESSON XIV. TIIR CYLINDER. What kind of surfaces has this solid ? A surface like a circle on the sides and two plane surfaces at the ends. What kind of lines would fit the side crosswise ? Curved lines. Well, we will call the side a curved surface, then. Here are several 152 OBJECT LESSONS. curved surfaces. [Showing a globe, a hemisphere, a half -dollar. ~\ You see they are curved like curved lines. Now this curved surface of the sides is not divided as in the prism but is all one surface. Notice the ends. What are they ? They are circles. How do they compare in size ? They are equal circles. Are they not an equal distance apart ? Yes, sir ; they are parallel. Again looking at the side of this solid carefully, we see that its diameter or distance through the center is everywhere the same as the diameter of the circles at the ends. This solid is a cylinder. A cylinder is a circular solid whose diameter is everywhere the same, and whose ends are equal parallel circles. LESSON XV. THE CONE. Have you ever seen anything like this solid '( James. Yes j it is like the steeple on the church. Susan. It is exactly like a sugar-loaf. Very well ; let us see in what respect it is like a pyramid. It comes to a point called the vertex like a pyramid, and has a plane surface for a base. But you see it is not shaped like the base of a pyramid. In what respects is this solid like a cylinder? It has a plane surface for its base, which is circular EYE CULTURE. 153 like one end of a cylinder, and it rises from its lase with a curved surface that tapers to a vertex, This solid is a cone. A cone has a circle for its base and rises with a curved surface to a vertex. Repeat. LESSON XVI. THE SPHERE. Here is an interesting solid. You see it is not divided into different surfaces like the other solids which we have studied, but is surrounded by a single surface. What sort of a surface has it ? A curved surface. Look at it as I hold it up, and sup- pose a line to run around it on its surface, what would such a line be? The circumference of a circle. Now look at it on this side, and now on this, and what do you see? The circumference of 154 OBJECT LESSONS. a circle. This solid, then, has a circular form in every direction. This is called a sphere. What is the distance through the center from one side of it to the other called ? Its diameter. And what do you call the greatest distance around it on the surface ? Its cir- cumference. You see that this sphere has holes running straight through its center in different di- rections : by thrusting this knitting-needle through these holes, thus, we can measure the different diameters. How do they compare in length ? They are equal. Well, if I could, in the same way, measure from different points of the surface to the center, I should find the distance everywhere the same. Here is a sphere which is cut through the center into two equal parts or halves. Taking these apart you see, on the inside of this one, a round dot of ink, which marks the center of the sphere. You see, too, the straight ink lines running every way EYE CULTURE. 155 on the plane surface from the center to the circumfer- ence. These lines are the radii of the sphere. Meas- ure them. You see they are all equal, and so, if we could divide the sphere still further, so as to meas- ure lines running from center to circumference at right angles to these, we should find them the same length. A sphere, then, is a solid bounded by a single surface, so curved in every direction that the dis- tance from the center to the circumference,is every- where the same. What things can you think of that are spheres in shape ? LESSON XVII. THE HEMISPHERE. You saw in our last lesson that this sphere was divided into two equal parts. What part of the whole sphere is one of these parts ? Jt is half the 156 OBJECT LESSONS. sphere. The word hend means half; what, then, may we call one of these parts ? A hemisphere. How many surfaces has this hemisphere? Two, a curved surface and a plane surface. What is the shape of the plane surface ? It is a circle. Well, you see, by putting the two hemispheres together, that the circumference of this circle is the same as the circumference of the sphere. LESSON XVIII. REVIEW. (WITHOUT THE MODELS.) How many surfaces has the cylinder? What kind of surfaces are they ? What is the shape of the ends ? How do these circles compare in size ? What can you say of their position in respect to each other ? What is a cylinder ? How many surfaces has the cone ? What kind are they ? What is the shape of the base ? Where does the curved surface end ? What is a curve? How many surfaces has the sphere? What kind of a surface is it ? What is the distance through the center of the sphere called ? What is the greatest distance around the surface called ? Ho-* do the radii of the sphere compare in length ? EYE CULTURE 157 SPELLING 15Y OBJECT LESSONS. For the following lessons, cadi pupil should be furnished with a pencil and a slip of paper or a slate. The object selected for the exercise should be held up in view of the whole class, and the teacher may proceed in the lesson according to the scheme below. As each property or part is named, let the pupils write its name neatly in the proper place. OBJECT General Properties Parts -< Properties of Parts - 158 OBJECT LESSONS. Uses of Parts General Uses - SPECIMEN OBJECT LESSON FOR SPELLING. Draw the plan for writing the words which the lesson will furnish, and direct the class to copy it on their papers. Then, when their attention is called to any part or property, request them to write its name in the right place. "What do I hold in my hand ? An apple. What is its shape? Round or spherical. Yes, nearly spherical, though you see it is indented at the ends. What is its color? Light green. Are all apples light green ? No ; some are dark green, some are red, some are russet, and some nearly white. Right. I have here on my desk a dozen apples of different colors. Name the color of each as I show it to you. [Pupih name the colors.} What do you name this part that I am now hold- ing the apple by ? The stem. The part opposite the stem is called the bud end. EYE CULTURE. 159 1 will cut the first apple into two equal parts. What are these parts called ? Halves. If the whole apple is a sphere, what should we name each of the halves? A. hemisphere. Now let us examine carefully the inside of tins half. In the first place, what is this thin part that covers the entire apple called? The skin. What is this large part that extends from the skin to the center called ? The pulp. What do we find near the center of the apple? The seeds. Now every seed, you see, lies in a little sheath called a cell. "What do we name the seeds and cells together? The core. Now read all the names of the parts that you have written down. Stem, bud, skin, pulp, seed, cell, core. We will next examine the stem. Is the stern easily broken ? N~o. What shall we call it in view of that fact? Tough. James, what is the stem made of? It is made of wood. Well, then, it io woody. Again, you see I can divide it lengthwise, with my penknife, into small pieces, which look like bits of string. These pieces are fibers, and be- cause the stem is made up of fibers, it may be said to be fibrous. Look now at the skin ; you see it has a shining appearance. That is, it is glossy. I will peel off a piece. Look at it carefully and tell me all about it. (George) It is thin. (Mary) It is smooth. (Will- iam) It is tough. 16C OBJECT LESSONS. What of the pulp? (Class) It is white. It is soft. It is juicy. It is thick. How does it taste? Sweet. Are all apples sweet ? No, sir / some are sour and some are tart. The pulp, you see, is good to eat, and whatever is good to eat is nutritious. Here are several seeds ; I will cut one in two. "What is it composed of? Of a shell and meat. Look closely at the shell and tell me all you see. It is black and glossy. What farther ? It is smooth. Does it yield easily to the touch of a knife or pin ? No, sir ; it is hard. Can it be easily torn like paper? No, sir it is tough. Does it taste like anything? No. Then it is tasteless. The shell, then, is black, glossy, smooth, hard, tough, and tasteless. Take a bit of the meat, each one of you. What can you say of it ? It is white and smooth. It is hard. Can it be easily broken ? Yes, sir. Well, anything that is easily broken is called brittle. How does it taste ? Hitter. Last of all we have the cell. I have cut one out for each of you. What are its properties? (Class) It is white, and thin, and hard, and tough, and tasteless. Beginning with the stem again, let us ask what is its use to the apple ? The apple hangs on the tree ~by its stem. Eight. What is the value of the skin ? It surrounds the apple and keeps it safe from harm. Eight again ; water can not get through the ekin, so it keeps the rain out of the apple and also. EYE CULTURE. 161 prevents the pulp from drying up. Now give me the uses of the pulp. It is good to eat. Is it good for nothing else? (Henry) It covers the seeds and tceeps them safe. True ; this is its greatest use. Now as to the cells. They also envelop the seeds and keep them safe. So you see that all the other parts of the apple are made simply for the seeds. First, the cells inclose the seeds, and lest these should be injured, they are again inclosed by the pulp, and that the pulp may be preserved, it is covered by the skin. Surely the seeds must be very valuable when all this pains is taken for their safety and growth. Can you tell me what their value consists in ? Yes, sir ; new trees grow from the seeds, and if all seeds were destroyed there would be no more trees after these we have now, should die. True. The seeds, then, are the most important of all the parts of the apple, because new trees will grow from them and, for this reason, all the other parts of the apple are made to protect the seeds. AN APPLE. Gen. ( Form . . . . . Eound or spherical. Prop. ( Color Light green. Parts 4 stem bud end skin - pulp or meat seed cells core. 162 OBJECT LESSONS. r Properties of Farts Stem -j woody [ fibrous. ' glossy Skin H Pulp thin smooth tough. " white soft juicy sweet nutritious. black glossy Seeds Shell < Meat - smooth hard tough tasteless. white smooth hard brittle bitter. Uses (white thin hard tough tasteless. Apples hang by the stem. The skin keeps the apple safe from harm. The pulp is good to eat. The pulp covers the seeds and keeps them safe. The cells envelop the seeds. New trees grow from seeds. EYE CULTURE. 163 LESSON II. AN EGG (BOILED). General Properties Oval. White. Properties of Parts - Shell ' white smooth dull opaque tin brittle fragile outside inside, white thin tender translucent, white glossy smooth elastic nutritious, globular yellow opaque eatable ^ nutritious. (All the other parts of the egg are made for the safety of the yolk, because the yolk is the part that a chicken is hatched trom. Eggs are nutritious. Skin White Yolk n 164 OBJECT LESSONS. LESSON III. A BOOK. Parts f black (edges whitej General Properties { square [ solid. f sides f black back Sides 4 parallelograms edges [ of cloth. corner f stiff top Back < strong bottom 1 gt. outside inside covers {inside of pasteboard outside of cloth stamped title figured. author (name) a> f thin printer (name) ^ firm leaves PH ' Leaves j light blanks