UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY G OOO 084 078 5 v Jn. *~ nj^. THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES THE BRASILIAN LANGUAGE AND ITS -A-<3-C3-X,XJTIlSr-A.TI03Sr AMARO CAVALCANTI, L. L. B. COIINSF.LLOII AT LAW, FRLLOW OF VARIOUS LITERARY AND EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES, EX -INSPECTOR GENERAL OF PUBLIC EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR OF THE LYCEUM IN THE PROVINCE OF CEAIIA (BRASH.), ETC, ETC., ETC., _, RIO JANEIRO TYPOGRAPHIA NACIQNAL 1883 ft J Bibliotlu .. N \ CIDADE DO RIO GRANfrti £ | ^äo concedidos <*ias| « i ,ara a leitura externa. | | H THE BRASILIAN LANGUAGE ITS ^G-G-X/UTTIISr^TIOlXr / c7 r' AMARO CAVALCANTI, L. L. B. COUNSELLOR AT LAW, FELLOW OF VARIOUS LITERARY AND EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES, EX -INSPECTOR GENERAL OF PUBLIC EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR OF THE LYCEUM IN THE PROVINCE OF CEARA (ERASIL), ETC., ETC., ETC., / 1062—83 RIO JANEIRO TYPOGRAPHIA NACIONAL TO -7H in- HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY, DON PEDRO SEGUNDO Sire ! It is a well known fact, that Your imperial Majesty,during Your reign has been the constant Protector of the intellectual development and the general instruction of the country. Numerous in- stitutions, which Your Majesty's private liberality has so often assisted, give the most authentic proof of our assertion in this respect. Therefore, publishing this insignificant work, presently, the object of which is to contribute to the in- struction of the country and facts concerning it; I fulfil the agreeable duty of placing it, respect- fully, under your Majesty's August protection, 178; » Sa-'O' in the hope, that your Majesty's generosity may not decline its acceptance. It is, Sire, a sincere expression of the respect and profound veneration of Your Imperial Majesty, whom God may preserve. YOURS VERY HUMBLY tjz/matc icam/cana. PREFACE The principal object of the present elementary book is: (1) to verify if several opinions suggest- ed by philologists and linguists, as the peculiar characteristics of the so-called « agglutinative languages » are, indeed, found in the Brazilian language ; — (2) to contribute, by some infor- mations on the grammatical elements and pro- cesses of this language, for the progress of Com- parative Grammar. « We use the terms « Brazilian language », as embracing the several dialects spoken in Brasil by the savage tribes, since the discovery of the country. Among those dialects, the Guarany and the Tupy are the most important. They hold the same close relation, as is found between High and Low German. — Guarany was spoken, principally, in the South-part of Brazil, and Tupy, along the coast, at the time of the discovery, and now, in the central parts of some provinces of the North, especially, in Pará, Ama- zonas and in the border-territories. « — The language of cultivated people, as it is known, is the Portuguese*. Rio de Janeiro, December, 2, 1883. KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION AND READING VOWELS a, e, i, o, u, ( unmarked ) have short sounds, sometimes scarcely perceptible in ending syllables. ,A, (upon vowel) markes long sound, \ ( » » ) « broad sound. u (upon u) • a guttural sound, like the Greek u. tot (upon any vowel) markes nasal sound : — am, em, im, om, um. ? markes stress of voice ( accent ) upon certain syllables of words. CONSONANTS AND DIPTHONGAL SOUNDS "will be indicated afterwards"- PRINCIPAL ABREVIATIONS USED: Lat Latin. Ger German. Eng English. It Italian. Fr French. Sp Spanish. Port Portuguese. Br Brasilian. Sing Singular. PI Plural. Pers Person. Prep Preposition. Adv . Adverb. Conj Conjunction. Interj Interjection. Nom Nominative case. Gen Genitive case. Dat Dative case . Ace Accusative. Abl Ablative. i e Id est (that is). Adj Adjective. Pron Pronoun. Poss Possessive. Lang Language. Pref Prefix. Sf. . Suffix. rad radical. cf confer (compare). lit. literally. ex: for example. on onomatopaic. BRASILIAN LANGUAGE CHAPTER I CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES 1. — Glottology divides the numerous lan- guages of the World, according to the peculiari- ties of their grammatical structure, into three classes : (1) Monosyllabic or Isolating ; ^Agglu- tinative; (3) Inflectional or Polysyllabic. These terms also represent three periods in the growth of languages, that is to say, that language, as an organism, may pass through three stages, as follows: (*) l 1 ) Dr. R. Morris, English Accidence, pag. 2. (I) — The monosyllabic period, in which roots are used, as words, without any change of form. In this stage there are no prefixes or suffixes, and no formally distinguished parts of speech. The Chinese is the best example of a language in the isolating or monosyllabic stage . « Every word in Chinese is monosyllabic; and the same word, without any change of form, may be used, as a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb or a particle . Thus, ta, according to its position in a sentence, may mean great, great- ness, to grow, very much, very.» « We cannot in Chinese (as in Latin) derive from ferrum, iron, a new substantive ferra- rius, a man who works in iron, a blacksmith ; ferraria, an iron-mine ; and again, ferraria- rius, a man who works in an iron-mine ; all this is possible only in an inflected language. » ( 2 ) In the languages of this last kind, the various relations of thought are declared by means of certain formative elements (suffixes and inflec- ( J ) Dr. R. Morris, English Accidence, pag. 2. tions) joined to root or to theme, as we see in the examples above. In Chinese, on the contrary, such relations are declared by the simple disposition of words in the sentence. Thus, ngo tá mi, means « I strike thee, » and mi tá ngö means, on the contrary, « thou strikest me ; » fu, father, mu, mother, and fu-mu, parents (Fr. parents); shi, ten, eul, two, and eid-shi, twenty; i. e: two ten ; gin, a man, kiai, many, (collection, assembly, etc.), gin-kiai, men; küö, empire, cung, middle (or midst), kuo-cung, in the em- pire; i. e: — the word, cung, joined to a noun, converts it into the locative case of the Indo- European languages. ( 3 ) (2) ÍÍ. — The agglutinative period. — In this stage two unaltered, or scarcely modified roots are joined together to form words; in these compounds one root becomes subordinate to the other, and so loses its independence : cf:- — man- (3) Max. Miiller, Science of Language- kind, heir-loom, war-like, which are agglu- tinative compounds. So long as words keep their radical meaning, the language remains in its first period, that of roots . But, since certain words, by losing their original or etymological import, have become mere signs of derivation, the language has reached to its second period, that of desinences, (terminations of word). ( ; ) The greatest portion of the languages, spo- ken in the World, remain in this second stage; and all of them form the so-called Turanian- group, which, in the present condition of science, might give the explanation of most important problems, if it were better studied by the liv- ing philologists. According to Prof. Townsend, this group of tongues is found, first and last, to have rang- ed from Norway almost to Behring's Straits; ( 3 ) and according to the opinion of Mr . Müller, it embraces two great divisions : that of the North that of the South. ('<■) Max. Muller, Science of Language, cit. (s) L. T. TowDsond (Prof, in Boston Wuiversity) — The Art of Speech. The former, called sometimes the Urdl-altaic, is again divided into five sections: the languages of the Tonguses, the Mongols, the Turks, the Finns, the Samoyeds. The latter, which occupies the South-part of Asia, is also divided into four sections : the Tamul, the dialects of Tibet and Bhotan, the dialects of Siam and those of Malaca and Polynesia. With the group of the agglutinative lan- guages are classed the African tongues, so-call- ed atonic, the words of which are mostly form- ed by means of prefixes, a characteristic, that distinguishes them from the Ural-altaic tongues, which, as a rule, do not admit of the root of a word occupying the second place. Still there must be considered, as belonging to the same agglutinative group, the numerous dialects or tongues of America ; and among these, those, spoken by Brasilian savages, present undoubtedly all the supposed essential charac- teristics of an agglutinative language, as we hope to prove beyond contest by our further illustrations. 3. — It is, certainly, too difficult for the lin- guist to establish a distinct and uniform clas- sification out of the speeches of those multitudes — 6 — of scattered races and tribes ; but it is just this want of uniformity in their grammatical forms or in their usages and applications, which con- stitutes one of the fundamental reasons of this group . « They are speeches of nomadic people and of savages, and only, by this characteristic, they des tinguish themselves from the Aryan and Semitic languages. In these two families of tongues, « Aryan and Semitic » the majority of words and their grammatical forms were produced, at once, for all of them, by the creative force of one generation ; and it would be very difficult to abandon them, though their primitive clear- ness had been obscured by further phonetic alterations . « The transmission of a language in such con- ditions would be only possible among people, whose history flows, as a large river, and among whom religion, laws and poetry serve, like dams, to bound the current of speech. « But we know, that among nomadic people there was never established a true nucleus of political, social and literary institutions. Their, so-called, empires were no sooner found- ed, than they were scattered, like sand -clouds in the desert : — almost no laws, legends, stories and songs have survived the generation, that saw them rise ( 6 ) . (3) ^. — The inflectional period. In this stage roots are modified by prefixes or suffixes, which were once independent words. In agglutinative languages the union of words, says Dr. R. Morris, may be compared to mecha- nical compounds, in inflective languages to che- mical compounds. « I call period of flections, adds Prof. M. Mül- ler, that one, in which roots are blended in such a way, that none of them keeps a genuine and total independence, as it is found in the Aryan and Semitic families. « The first period does not admit of phonetic alteration, at all. « The second period does not admit of such al- teration in the principal root, but admits of it in the secondary or demonstrative elements. « The third period admits of phonetic altera- ( 6 ) Mr. Muller, w. cit. — 8 — tion, both in the principal root and in the desi- nences (flections). » In most living languages we find traces of all these processes, and thus are enabled to see how one stage leads gradually to another. Take, for example, the following. He is like God, = monosyllabic He is God-like, = agglutinative. (") He is God-ly, = inflectional. Mann ist frei, = monosyllabic Er ÍBtfrei-mann, = agglutinative Er ist frei-mannes (gen.), == inflectional. By carefully inquiring, we should be able to discover similar instances in the Romance-lan- guages, although not so frequently, in relation to the monosyllabic and agglutinative forms. 2>- — The very learned American linguist, Prof. "Whitney, in his important book — « Life (') Dr. Morris, book cit. — pag. 3. and Growth of language, » discussing on the subject-matter, says, as follows : « Proceeding by analogy and taking, as a starting point, the Indo-European languages, we can state, — that what the remaining languages of the World may contain about the matter of flections and of formative instruments, has all been elaborated, as in these languages, from the mass of a rude vocabulary, formed with entirely concrete words, which constitutes the primitive period of languages. « If, however, it were possible to demonstrate the existence of languages, — which were brought forth at once, as inflectional; then, this opinion should be renounced . But very rigorous proofs would be required for making good such a de- monstration . « Language is an instrument, and the laio of the simplicity of 'beginnings is applied to lan- guages, as it is to any other thing. Each root must have begun by containing, (as it is still noted, now-adays, in certain mo- nosyllables under the character of interje- ctions,) an affirmation, an idea, a question, an order, etc., — and the tone and the gesture or the circumstances would complete their signi- fication. » — 10 — THE STUDY OP LANGUAGE C — Among all languages, the Aryan or Indo-European family is the only one, which has been well studied by linguists, in the present condition of our knowledge of the matter. This preference of studies, which has brought forth the best results to science, is quite justified by the capital reason, that in that family of lan- guage sare found the richest scientific and literary monuments of the three classical languages of mankind, — Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. «In relation to the study of the other languages, «Semitic, monosyllabic and agglutinative » we may affirm, that our scientific knowledge about it is yet entirely unsatisfactory, and does not enable the philologist to profer a conscientious decision on the very important problem of their reciprocal relations among themselves, and to the Aryan family. « Leaving aside the group of isolating lan- guages, represented by the Chinese and by the Indo-Chinese, who lead their lives, separately from other people ; it is true, that the greatest ignorance prevails, relating to the agglutinative tongues, although these be spoken by innume- rable nations in the five parts of the World. The only circumstance, which may somewhat excuse such a fault, is the lack of literary monu- ments, that provoke the curiosity and wish to know them . T. — By reading, sometimes, the best authors on the subject, we have found frequent hypothe- ses, the ones, suggested by mere logical indu- ctions, the others, based on informations, not well established, and most of them, wanting of every scientific criterium. And although it may seem strange to some, these facts, which came under our observation, have constituted for us the primary motive for writing the present ele- mentary book . In comparing the grammatical forms and the lo- gical processes of some other languages, with the usages and manners of the common speech of Brasilian savages ; we arrived at the well esta- blished conclusion, that in the uncultivated lan- guage of these people, not only are there found grammatical forms, used regularly and in accor- dance with logical principles ; but also, that the same language offers an evident confirmation of the various hypotheses, which have been ad- 12 vanced by philologists, when intending to cha- racterize the agglutinative family. We have not yet any settled fact, relating to the ethnographic origin of the Brasilian savages, nor to the particular point of their primitive or derived speech. No accurate inquiry or suc- cessful investigation exists on this very impor- tant matter. It is, however, a fact of the easiest intuition, that an immense result would issue for history and science, if it were possible to prove, in a satisfactory way : — « from what country these millions of individuals who came to live in Ame- rica emigrated ; — in what century this great event happened ; — and what speech, what religion, what degree of civilisation they have brought with them to the lands of their new abodes. » For want of these important data, the only way to obtain some regular information, relating to the language of our savage tribes, is, undoubt- edly, to study and analyse their forms and processes in the state and conditions, in which they have come to our knowledge and actual observation. As a guide, or as auxiliary instru- ments, to such work, we have nothing more, than those books of prayer or instruction, pre- — i3 — pared by missionaries, about four ou five gene- rations ago, which have become in a great part antiquated . Words and their uses arise to meet some wants of the time ; they disappear, when no longer needed . From all these circumstances it results, that this elementary work will be framed from no abundant materials ; and, therefore, not only it will be of more difficult execution, but also, as a natural consequence, not entirely satisfactory. Notwithstanding, we hope to be able to avoid every error in the statement of principles and their dependent facts. THE BRASILIAN LANGUAGE AND ITS POSITION S. — The Brazilian language exhibits itself under an aspect, quite uncultivated. The people, who speak it, do not possess, at the best, the knowledge of the aphabetic signs; they are, simply, savages, the most complete type of human ignorance. Nevertheless, by studying all the organism or — 14 — the structure of such savage speech, and making rigorous analysis of its forms, used regularly in the expression of thoughts ; it results, to envi- dence, that it has passed the monosyllabic period, and has kept itself, long since, in the agglutinative stage, which is owing, perhaps, to the want of in- dispensable culture, which enables it to reach the richest stage of a language, — that of inflection. It is a fact sufficiently proved by experience and by the existing writings on the subject, that the morphology and the syntax of the Brazilian language have been kept unaltered, since the discovery of the country up to the present days. The grammatical elements and forms in usage, which, in this respect, were soon noted by the missionaries, at the time of their catechising among the savage tribes, so far back as the 16° century, are still almost identical with these, which may be observed in the speech of the remaining people of the same race. It is certain, that the greatest alteration is noted in its phonetic forms, and, consequently, in its vocabulary which is, now, very different from that of the times of the discovery and the conquest of the country. Besides the natural phonological laws, which govern the frequent changes of every vocable; — i5 — with respect to Brazilian savage people, there occurred another circumstance, that ought to influence and to increase this result, that is : — that these people were, in general, composed of nomadic tribes ; and it is easy to imagine, — how gradually from differences of climate and of natural scenery, — from differences in the various objects of perception, each day renewed, wha- tever they might be, there should result diffe- rences of speech, especially with respect to the words, already in usage. 9. — As a point, deserving especial remark, we must declare, now, that in various instances of usages of the Brazilian speech, there are still found certain processes, pertaining to the isolating period, — as for example, — the in- variable place of words in a sentence, which, as it is known, constitutes almost the entire grammar of the languages of this kind. But this circumstance, though important, is not sufficient to decide against our opinion, given before; because in Brazilian tongues are found also all the other characteristics, which are, generally, required in the very agglutinative languages. — « Agglutination, writes Mr. Müller, does not mean only, that in the grammar pronouns — lb — are, so to say, glued to verbs in order to form the conjugation, or prepositions to substantives to form the declension; — because it would not be a distinct character of nomadic tongues, only, for both in Sanskrit and Hebrew the conjugation and the declension were originally constituted, accor- ding to the same principles. But that which distinguishes the Turanian languages (agglutinative) is, that the words, which form their conjugation and declension, are always susceptible of easy decomposition ; and although in many cases the terminations keep their modificative value, as independent words, yet one sees, that these are modificative sylla- bles, quite distinguished from the roots, to which they are joined. ( 7 ) — The hypotheses advanced by the very learned linguist, M. Miiller, are entirely identi- cal with those, which Prof. Whitney has veri- fied in the Scythic tongues, that he considered, as a complete type of the agglutinative family. « By this term, adds Whitney, one means to say, that the elements of several origins, which compose the Scythic words and their forms are (?) Science of lung, cit, 17 less blended, less closely aggregated ; and that, therefore, they keep themselves more indepen- dent, than in the Indo-European languages. « The root, as a rule, remains invariable in all derived words, and each suffix also keeps its form and invariable application : — and from this results, on the one side, great regularity of forms, on the other, great complication . For instance, in Turkish, larfor ler) is the form of the plural; — to it are joined terminations or particle-suffixes, — which form the cases of the singular number, and there may still be inserted pronominal elements, indicative of pos- session ; thus: — ev, house, ev-den, of a house; ev-üm-den, of my house; — ev-ler, houses; ev-ler-v.m-den, of my houses. « The verb presents an analogical and still more striking example. — There are a few modi- fying elements , that may be inserted , either isolated, or grouped in different ways, between the root and the terminations, to express pas- sivity, reffexion, reciprocity , causality, nega- tion, impossibility, etc. « The distinction between verbs and nouns is not quite so original and fundamental, as in the Indo-European languages. The words used, as verbs, are scarcely distinguished from nouns, that — 18 — are used predicatively , on their appearing com- bined with subjects or possessive pronouns. « The Scythic adjective is deprived of flection, like the English adjective; and there is the same lack of gender in nouns and pronouns, as in Persian . « Words, which indicate relations, and con- junctions, are almost entirely unknown; the combination of the terms of a sentence is made, as is natural, «wherein verbs are not quite dis- tinguished, » by means of declensions and verbal nouns . » ( 8 ) — Except this last observation, relative to the words, which express relations and con- junctions, which are very numerous in Bra- zilian languages; we think, we are enabled to affirm, that in this speech are clearly and, perhaps, better realised all the characteristics, that Mr. Whitney has reputed essential to every agglutinative language. From the clearly made analysis and the ex- planations, which will be given in the following chapters, we hope, the truth of our proposition will be firmly established. ( 8 ) Life 4 Growth of L,ang. cit. — i9 CHAPTER II PHONETIC PRINCIPLES lO. — A fact, generally noted by linguists, is — the rapidity or facility, with which the dialects and tongues of people, deprived of literary monu- ments, are altered or changed. Literature serves, so to say, as the standard, after which the spoken language is modelled in order to be preserved in its integrity. — In relation to the savage tribes ofBrasil, the frequent change of their vocabulary was one of the leading circumstances , which were noted by the catechising missionaries, who, very often, expressed their admiration at the fact, that a dialect had undergone, within a short time, after it was knwon, so many alterations, as to become quite a different one. They have observed, that the names -of the most common objects themselves, as, for in- stance, — father, son, etc, were, sometimes, so much altered by pronunciation, that they form- — 20 — ed different words, and, sometimes, were replaced by synonyms of remote relation. All this was, indeed, very natural. « One must not, says W. von Humboldt, con- sider a language, as a dead product formed, once for all : it is an animate being and ever creative. Human thought elaborates itself with the progress of intelligence; and language is a manifestation of this thought. « An idiom cannot, therefore, remain statio- nary . « It changes, it develops, it grows up, it forti- fies itself, it becomes old, and it reaches decre- pitude. » 11. — According to these principles, it is rea- sonable to admit, that there must be many words, used among each class of the Brasilian nomadic tribes, which were not understood by the rest. Besides this, simpler causes, such, for instance, as result from the use of synonymous terms, would be sufficient to produce radical icord- changes. We know that, when there are several equiva- lent terms in a language to express the same idea or object, it is very common, that the dialects, — issuing from this language, select diversely, among such equivalent terms, and, as a rule, one of these becomes the prevailing one in one dialect, another in another, to the neglect and loss of all, but the one selected. ( l ) — We insist on this point, though sufficiently proved by constant observation, as the funda- mental reason, or the cause, that most con- tributed to the formation of the numerous dia- lects, which composed the Brasilian speech, at the time of the discovery and conquest of the country. According to our humble opinion, all Brasilian tribes spoke tongues of one general family, al- though much altered by frequent phonetic chan- ges, owing, principally, to the above-mentioned causes. Among the leading reasons, which enable us to emit such a proposition on the nature of Brasi- lian tongues, there exists one, that, as we think, should be regarded, as of the most legitimate inference, viz : — that in all Brasilian dialects, of which there are grammars and vocabularies, some of which were composed, since the colonial period, we find the greatest agreement in gram- (') Townsond, book cit . — 22 — matical forms. Especially, with respect to the morphological and syntactical processes, their identity is an evident fact, beyond all possible contest. SOUNDS AND LETTERS 1Ä. — The letters of the Latin alphabet, which may be used to represent the phonetic elements of the Brasilian language, are the following : a, b, d, e, g, h, i, k, (=c, q,) m, n, o, p, r, s, ( = g,) t, u, x, y. ( 2 ) « The letters — f, j, 1, v, z — find no employment in this lang. » When we have well understood and compared certain little discordances, which are found in the authors, most of them owing to diversity of characters, chosen, as representatives of sound, for instance, the one having used the Spanish alphabet, the other the German, another the ( 2 ) Wo call Latin alphabet — in the state, wherein it passed to the Romance languages. — 23 — Portuguese, and yet another, the French and so on ; — we can, rightly affirm, that the alphabetic characters, above indicated, have been, as a rule, considered sufficient and quite apropriate to the phonetic usages of the Brasilian language. ( 3 ) Consonants 13.—- We preferred this letter — s, instead of — c before e, i, and c, which have been adopted by some writers. It is observed, that the hissing of s is contrary to the savage's pronunciation. But we cannot admit of such a reason, as a good one; because it cannot be denied, that the syllables ga, ce, ci, have the same phonetic value, as, sa, se, si, in Latin pronunciation. Moreover, the s has in itself the advantage of replacing the two characters — g, c, ( the latter before e, i), and, therefore, it will be used in this book, as representative of the sound c, in the word city. (3) Cf:— A. G. Dias, Did. ofTupy Lang ;Montoya, Arte, Vocabulary and Treasury of Guarany Lang ; Figueira, Gram, of Brasit. Lang ; Dr. Couto Magalhäes, The Savage; Mamiani, Gram, of the Kiriri Lang., etc. etc. — 24 — G g, is only used, with a hard sound, before a, o, u, as in the word — garden. This letter keeps the same sound in ending syllables, and sometimes becomes nasal, as we shall see here- after. H h, before a vowel, is the sign of a soft aspi- ration. It r, has always a very soft sound, something like the r in the French word — f aimer ai, I will love. X x, is pronounced, like sh in the word she, or the German sch, in the word schaf, sheep. Y y, is used to represent a sound, like ii, as the i consonant in Italian, or the German j in the words — Jagd, Jäger, Jeder. Nh. This compound sound is perfectly equi- valent to the French gn in the word mignon, delicate. « The other consonants, respecting which we do not make any observation, will be pronounced, as their correspondent ones in the English al- phabet. » Ba, be, bo. — These syllables, in some words, are nasal, that is, they are pronounced, as if they had an m before :=mba,mbe, mbo. Na, ne, nh, no — are, also, pronounced with — 2D — as strong a nasal sound , as if they had a d be- tween the consonant and the vowel :=nda, nde, ndi, ndo. Vowels A 14. — a (unmarked) has the brief sound of the Portuguese a in the preposition para = to and for, or of the final a in the word — America ; ex: marika, the belly. In final syllables, this short sound sometimes becomes almost undistin- guishable, as : — menclra, to marry. á has a long sound, as the a of the Portuguese word fado, fate, or of the a in father; em'. — taud, the town. « has a broad sound, almost like two aa ; ex: — para, the sea (or a large river); aba, creature. ä has, finally, a nasal sound, like the Portu- guese compound am ; ex: — Tupä, God ; kunhä, woman. E e (unmarked) has a brief sound, sometimes almost undistinguishable, like the e in the word some ; ex: petima, tabaco ; moäme, to arm. — 2b — é has the long sound of the French é in the word eté, the summer ; ex: ike, here, keté, to or for (prep.) é has a sound, like the first é in the word where ; ex : ipéka, the goose ; — eté, much (excellent) . e has, finally, a nasal sound, as the Portu- guese compound em ; ex: — hche, yes. i (unmarked) has a brief sound as in the word ill; ex: ibdk, heaven. 7 has the nasal sound of the Portuguese com- pound in, ex: — mirT, small. [ See y, before. ] o (unmarked) has the brief sound of the Portu- guese o in final syllables, almost undistinguish- able, as in the verb — amo, I love ; ex: ixebo, to me ; — yo (particle, which expresses the reci- procal action of the verb.) — 2 7 — 6 has a long sound, almost — u, as in the verb to go, or rather in to prove; ex: mo (particle, formative of active verbs) ; pd,the hand. Ö has a sound, like the diphthong aio in the word — law; ex: sökö, Brasilian bird; ikö, to be, (=Port. estar). has, finally, a nasal sound, as the Port, com- pound — on; ex: — möclá, to steal. u u (unmarked) has a short sound, like u in full; ex.: mu, brother. ü has a long sound, something like oo in too (adv.) ex: tasüba, fever. u has a very peculiar sound, something like the German ü, or rather the Greek u ; ex : müra, wood. « This sound of ä is, generally, represented by the grammarians of the Brasilian language by y, which they have called the full i. » M has, finally, a nasal sound, like the Port, compound — um; ex: pitüna, night (dark or black.) 28 Diphthongs IS. — The principal diphthongs of the Bras, lang. are the following : — Vi It sounds, like the German diphthong ai in Kaiser, the emperor ; ex : mairi, city. \u It sounds like ow in the adverb — now; ex: aud, who ? Ei It sounds, just like the alphabetic sound of a, in the word fate ; ex: — eima, spindle. Ku It has the sound of the Portuguese diphthong eo in the words céo, heaven ; véo, veil ; ex : monbéu, to confess. — 2Q — Oí It has the sound of the Italian oi in the pro- nouns noi, we ; voi, you ; ex : mokoi, two. ui It has the sound, which results from the two short vowels u and i, being pronounced toge- ther ; ex : pui, slight or delicate. [ We find in Brazilian words other examples of two or even three successive vowels; but they are, in general, pronounced distinctly, and, so, do not make diphthongs or triphthongs pro- perly so-called.] TABLE OF THE ALPHABETIC SOUNDS Consonants Gutturals. Sharp Flat Aspirate Nasal Trilled R=(p, q) G H Y,X S N ff ,Nh N, Nd M, Mb R Dentals . . Labials . . D B T P — 3o Volwels a á á a(') e e e e i % ö 6 ö u \u 11 u (*) [ See Key to tbe pronunciation and reading, PHONETIC ALTERATIONS 16. — It is to be recollected, that the Bi*asi- lian language is the speech of savage tribes, destitute of every notion of letters and of their representative value in pronunciation; and, the- refore, it is unnecessary to premise, that we are not able to state all the rules, which govern the phonetic developments of their language. Yet, by making a patient analysis of its vocabu- laries, grammars and other literary informations we could obtain ; we have come to ascertain in this language some of the general principles, which are of frequent application in its phonetics. — 3i — For instance, although it is a language spoken by savage people, as we said, it is liable to gene- ral laws, which produce phonetic alterations ; viz : greater facility of pronunciation, and better harmony of sounds : — the former, a physiological principle; — the latter, a eupho- nical principle. From these two principles results, that har- der sounds pass successively into softer, and unpleasing sounds become sonorous or eupho- nical. So far as we can see in the matter, in the pho- netic alterations of Brasilian languages, prevail the following rules : PERMUTATION OF SOUNDS (a) IT- — The savage tribes of Brasil very often confound certain consonants in pronunciation, especially, when they belong to the same organ, as p, m and b ; n, and d; r, s and t. It is also necessary to note, that the most fre- quent changes take place in the processes of agglutination (composition and derivation by — 32 — prefixes, and suffixes, or juxta-position ) ; ex: Tdpe = Taba, town, + pé, = supé, (prep.) to, — to the town ; — moraukepé = moräuke, work, labor, H- pé — yepé, one or the first, — Monday, that is, the first working-day. (e) IS. — When the pronouns of the first and second persons sing. — xe =se, f/and my) ; — né = re, (thou and thy) — are followed by some word beginning with t, this is changed into r ; ex: — tatci, fire, — se or xe-rata, my fire ; tuba, father, ne-ruba, thy father. («; 10. — If the possessive pronoun i, his, her and whose, etc., is followed by a word, begin- ning with s, this is changed into x; ex: Siyra, aunt, — i-xiyra, his or her aunt; Siy, mother, — i-xiy, her or his mother ; sö, to go, — i-xd, his going ; sui, of, — i-^cui, of him or of her ; supe t to, — i-xupé, to him, etc. OJ (o; íiO. — When, however, the s is preceded by another vowel of different sound, it is frequently changed into r, ex: Sana, hair,— se-raua, my hair; — ré-ráua, thy hair;— saisü, to love, — Tupä raisü, to love God. (U) Nasal sounds are very frequent in Brasi- lian speech; and, as a general rule, when a preceding vowel is nasal, the following must also be nasal ; ex : Nahä, that, amo, other ; — nahä-ämö, that other. As it is seen, the a of amo becomes nasal, because of the ä of nahä. SUPPRESSION AND ADDITION OF LETTERS (1) SI- — Aphoeresis. Sounds (letters) are dropt, very frequently, in the beginning of words. — « Accent plays an important part in these chan- ges ; unaccented syllables, which precede the accented one, are the most liable to drop off. » — 34 — Take, for example, the following : Urdpdra, bow ,=mur dp cir a; — «murd, (wood) + para, to bow, bowed or crooked); — pé, (prep, corresponding to the dative and locative case,)= supé, in, or to ; né or ré (pron.) = iné or ire, thou or thy; — xé (pron.)= ixe, I or my, etc. etc. 22. — Syncope. There also are found various instances of letters dropt in the body of words, most usually in the agglutination of roots with suffixes or prefixes ; ex : täuasü, a hog, = tanhäudsü (tanha, tooth + uasu, long) ; koatia- sdba, painting, = koatidra, -+- sdba ; kameri- kdra, a kneader, = kamerihe + dra [38, 39] . 23. — Apocope. The suppression of letters in the end of words is most generally noted in un- accented syllables ; ex : akdn, the head , = akdnga; — menfdjdr, to marry, = me nddra; — pötdr, to wish, =potare ; etc. etc. (3) 24. — Prothesis. Letters, as a rule, are added at the beginning of a word, to produce a nasal or more euphonical sound; ex : — mbaé, thing, =bae; — ikatü-reté, very good, = katu, good -h eté, much or very; imiira, wood, =mi(ra ; — epya, the heart, =pya; — epo, the hand, =pd. 35 S^- — Epenthesis. As exam pies of addition of letters to the body of a word, we are only able to present the cases, in which some euphoni- cal letters are used to be intercalated, either between the root and the suffix, or between the personal prefix and the verb. These cases are, indeed, very numerous; but regularly depending on certain rules. — Thus, in the verbs, which begin with one of these syllables — ra, re, ro, ru is intercalated the suffix gué, between the personal prefix (*) and the verb in the third person sing, of the Present Indicative ; ex: oca rasa, I carry ; re-rasö, thou carriest ; o-gué-rasö, he carries ; etc. — In many other instances it is found, that a word ending in a vowel and followed by an- other, beginning, likewise, with some vowel, one euphonical letter is also intercalated, most commonly an r ; ex. : — sé, my, — oka, house ; — se-(r)oka, my house; ne, thy, — okér, to sleep, ne (r)oker, thy sleeping, etc. '2 G. — Epithesis. It can be affirmed, that the addition of letters at the end of words are, either modifying elements, as suffixes and preposi- tions, or some distinct words by juxla-position. (*) Sec in the n. S3 what means ptrsonai prefix. — 36 — CHAPTER III PARTS OF SPEECH ST. — In order to give a more complete infor- mation about the grammatical forms and pro- cesses of the Brasilian language, we will treat of each class of words, separately. According to their distinct functions in a sen- tence, the words of this language may be arrang- ed under the following headings : (1) Noun. (2) Adjective. (3) Pronoun. (4) Verb. (5) Preposition (rather, — Postposition). (6) Adverb. (7) Conjunction. (8) Interjection. — All of them are indeclinable. There is no article, definite or indefinite. - 3 7 - ACCIDENCE OR THE FORMS OF WORDS 28. — The changes, which words undergo to mark case, gender, number, comparison, tense, person, etc. are called infections. The inflection of nouns, adjectives and pro- nouns is called — declension; when applied to verbs, it is called — conjugation. In the inflectional languages, as Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, etc, the various relations, which a word may express in a sentence, are indicated through different changes in the ending-syllable of the word. Thus, in order to declare the various rela- tions, in which the word — God — may appear in a sentence, as : — — God is love ; — God's love or love of God ; — love to God ; — oh ! God ; — to love God; — love comes from God, etc ; — in such a language as Latin, for instance, all of them could be plainly expressed in this way : — 38 — — Deus (nominative. ) — Dei (genitive.) — Deo (dative.) — Deum (accusative.) — Deus (vocative.) — Deo (ablative.) If , instead of these logical relations, we had to express the gender, the number and the com- parison (degree of quality) of a noun, it would be, likewise, sufficient to change only the no- minal inflection, as, for ex: — Deus, God, — Dei, Gods ; — Vir, a man, — Yiri, men ; — and so also : — Deus, God. — Dea, Goddess ; JEquus, horse, — jEqua, mare; eto. ÍÍ9. — In the modern European languages, as German, English, Italian, French, Spanish and Portuguese, although of the same stock, as the Greek and Latin, but not so thoroughly synthetical themselves, and which are, therefore, called — analytical languages, the various ideal relations of nouns in a sentence are expressed by the use of prepositions, whilst the other relations of gender and number, etc, continue, in a great many instances, to be destinguished likewise, by nominal inflections ; ex : 3 9 — It. sing, amico, friend, — plur. amici, friends; — sing, figlia, daugther, — plur. figlie, daugthers ; cf : — Fr. sing, ami, — plur. amis; — Sp. & Port. sing, amigo, — plur. amigos; — Fr. sing, fille, — plur. filles ; — Sp. sing, hija, — plur. hijas ; — Port. sing, filha, — plur. filhas. — « The letter — s — , which we find in English, French, etc., replaces the inflection of the ori- ginal coses. — Gender is equally indicated, in many in- stances, by regular inflections, which distin- guish the masc. & fern; ex : — Ger. Gott, masc. (God) ; Gottin, fern . (Goddess) ; — It. amico, masc, arnica, fern.; cf : — Fr. ami, masc, amie, fem.; — Sp. & Port, amigo, masc, amiga, fem. etc. [The Italian words "given as examples" have the same meaning, as those taken from the other languages ; and so, it is unnecessary to repeat the corresponding translation in English to each example.] 40 — Gender, number and case of nouns 30. — Such changes at the end of nouns, as the aforesaid of the Indo-European languages, are entirely unknown in Brasilian languages, the morphology of which is governed by quite different principles . Nouns are always invariable ; and, therefore, number, gender and case can be only expressed by adding some especial words, called — forma- tive elements or suffixes . 31. Gender. — In the Brasilian speech the distinction of gender is only applied to living objects; and can be marked in two regular ways : either by different words, designating each one sex, or by the use of postpositive words, which mean essentially the male and the female. ( 1 ) — By distinct loords, for each sex; ex: Apegdua, man, kwihd, woman ; Mu, brother, rendéra, sister ; Tuba, father, siy, mother; etc., etc. ( 2 ) By postpositive words; ex : Idudra- apegdua, the dog; Idudra kunha, the bitch ; Tapir-apegaua, the ox; Tapir-kunlxä, the cow ; etc., etc. — 4i — S2. — The latter way of marking the gender is also used in the modern European languages, when the names of animals are epicene, as for ex: — It. aquila maschio, a male eagle, — aquila femmina, a female eagle; and likewise : — Port, aguia macho, aguia femea, etc, etc. In English the process of agglutination in this respect is kept in its original form ; ex : — He-goat and she-goat ; man-servant and woman or maid-servant, etc. The only difference of the English form con- sists in placing the demonstrative of gender before noun, and not after, as in the Brasilian language . SSS£. — Number. Nouns may be applied to one or more objects, and this constitutes the singular and the plural. In the Brasilian language the plural is express- ed by the use of a postpositive particle — étá, which means in itself a collection or multitude of things ; ex : Oka, a house, oka-éta, houses ; Anäma, a relative or friend, anäma-étá, some relatives or friends ; Apegdua, a man, apegaua-étá, men. — 42 — « It must be added, that the suffix étä is un- doubtedly the same word sétá (by aphoeresis) which means multitude, or great quantity, as a noun, and many or several as an adjective. » 34. — Cases. The noun being always in- variable, as we said before, in the Brasilian language, there cannot be of course such in- flections, as the cases, to express the various ideal relations of the words in a sentence. These relations are only expressed by means of prepositions, which are always placed after noun, and, therefore, might rather be called postpositions . From this general rule we must except the possessive case (genitive), which is expressed, as in English, by placing the name of the possessor before that of the object possessed. In the folloving table we give a complete illus- tration of cases : Nom. Deus Go 1 =Tupa Gen. Amor Dei God's love or love of Goi=Tupä-saisu Dat. Deo to God =Tupä supé Ac. Deum God =Tupä Abl . Deo from Go 1 *=Tupä sui « The especial relation, which is expressed in Latin by the so-called, ablativus de materia, is equally expressed in the Brasilia n language by the same process, as the possession; ex : Oha, house, itá, stone, — itd-oha, a house made out of stone, or a stone-house. » Diminutive and augmentative 3^- — In the Brasilian speech, no diminutive nouns, properly so-called, are found, as eaglet, gosling, etc; they are, however, expressed, either by means of suffixes, or by regular adjec- tives, placed after the noun modified. The only suffix, which denotes diminuition is — y or i, and the adjective, used with the same signification, is — miri, small ; ex: Pirä, fish, — pirdy, or pird-mirl, a small fish; Putyra, flower, — putyra-mirl, a small flower. « The suffix i or y seems to be a contracted form of the same adjective miri : [See Aphoe- resis, Q 1 .] 36. — The augmentative is, likewise, formed by an especial adjective, placed after the noun. This adjective is turusu, great, large or broad, — 44 — which, according to euphonical principles, takes the forms — asü, osi'i, uasu, goasü; ex : Pirá, fish, — pirci-uasu, a big fish ; Pará, the sea, —pará-goasü, the Ocean, that is, a broad sea. DERIVATION AND FORMATION OF NOUNS OR ADJECTIVES 3^"- — « The primary elements and signi- ficant parts of words are called roots. A root or radical is that part of a word, which cannot be reduced to a simpler or more original form. According to their origin, roots are, either pre- dicative or demonstrative . (*) » These terms correspond to the expressions — verbal and pronominal roots, used hy the learn- ed linguist, F. Bopp. ( 2 ) The root may be modified by endings, called suffixes, which form derivatives, as, rich-ly ; by particles, placed before the root, called prefixes, ( 4 ) Dr. Morris, English Gram. ( 2 ) Bopp. Gram. Comparte des hug. Indo-Europeennes v. i. - 45 - as, for-hiá, un-tvue ; two words may be placed together to form compound-words, as, black- bird. ( 3 ) All these processes, in the formation of words, we find operating in the Brasilian language. Although we are not quite able to distin- guish and explain the roots of many words of this speech; yet, we hope to present numerous examples, which shall illustrate the subject- matter . Noun-suffixes 3^. — Aba or äua (usually with a s, as, säba, säiia) means the place, or the mode, and, sometimes, the time and the instrument of an action ; ex : — « Moseröka, to baptize,— moseroka-sclua, the occasion, or the place of the baptism (baptistery); « Katü, good, — katüsába, goodness ; « Möeté, to respect or to venerate, — moetésá- ba, respect or veneration ; « Petybon, to help, — petybon-sdba, help, or assistance, etc. (3) Dr. Morris, cit* - 4 6 - 39. — Ara or uad (sometimes, also, preceded by an s,) joined to verbal root, means the actual agent or subject of an action ; it corresponds to the Latin participles in ans and ens, as, amans, regens; ex : Moseroka-sdra, or moseroha-uad, the person who baptizes. At othertimes, it means the action itself, as the English Present Participle, as, for instance, — the thinking persons, (=who think) and also the act of thinking ; ex : Morypdra (moryb = toryb, to caress), a loving man, or the act of loving itself. 40. — Bora or pora (b = p) means: (1) a person who lives or exists nabitua!ly in a place, or doing the same thing or office; (2) an object na- turally contained in, or depending on another; ex : (1) Kaa, wood, — kaapöra, who lives always in the wood ; » Mbasy, sickness, — mbasij-böra, a diseased man ; » Mondd, to steal, — mondapöra, a robber; (2) Monde, prison, — mode-pora, a prisoner ; » NamT, ears, — narrií-pöra, ear-riug. » Py, foot, — py-pöra, afoot-step. 4L\. — Räma or arama 'joined to the radical of a transitive verb) forms verbal adjectives, — 47 — which correspond to the Latin participles in — rus, — as, amaturus ; ex : Saisü, to love, — saisurama, about to love. If the root is of an intransitive verb, the verbal adjectives correspond to the Latin participles in dus, as, amanclus ; ex : Yopuéka, to revenge oneself, — Yopuéka- ráma, about to be revenged. — « Rama is a postposition = to or for . » 42. — Yma, joined to any predicative root, noun or adjective, expresses the want or lack of the object contained in the word; ex: — Sesd, eye, — sesd-yma, blind; Katu, good, — katu-yma, bad, that is, without goodness ; Moserokaudra, a baptised man, — moseroha- udra-yma, a man not baptised; Akanga, the head, — akanga-yma, decapi- tated . 43. — Oéra (often with some euphonical letter, before) joined to verbal roots, means a past agent, — the person who has exercized an action in a past time; ex : Kapik, to comb , — kapiköéra, the person who has combed. The same suffix, joined to noun, modifies it in two particular ways; either converting the noun - 4 8- into an adjective, or making it express a thing, which existed once in a different mode or in better condition ; ex : (1) Soerum, jealousy or distrust, — soerum- oéra, a jealous or distrustful man ; (2) Akanga, the head, — akang-öéra, the skull of a dead man ; « Pi, the skin of a living animal, — piré- ra, the skin, which has taken from a killed animal. « Taba, a village, — tapéra (p = b) a ruined and abandoned village. 44. — Oclra or ucira, (joined to the original form of a verb) forms the Past Participle ; it cor- responds to the English — (e)d; ex: moseroka- odra, the baptised person ; — iuká, to kill, iukd- udra the killed man ; etc. [The letters within()in a word are mere eupho- nical sounds , which are very frequently used in the processes of derivation and word- formation of Brasilian languages.] 4». — We have just indicated the suffixes, most commonly used in the Tupy dialect, almost all of which are still in use, now-adaj-s. In old language, « Tupy — Guarany, » we find many other formative wordSi the most of — 49 — which, either were totally antiquated, or are now very rarely employed. For the better understanding of some deriva- tive or compound-iuords, we will present several instances of those other suffixes : — Abá, means « creature », an human being. — Baé or mbaé, — means « thing » = the Latin res. When joined to verbal roots, it forms the Present Participle. Besides , this baé is the same demonstrative root — aé, which serves, now, as the pronoun of the third person singular. — Pyra, joined to the radical of verbs, has the same meaning, as the suffix uára, we have spoken of before, [no. 44]. AGGLUTINATION OF WORDS -4L6. — Rati. Ae (a demonstrative) he, she, it, they, this, these, that, those, etc. Aébaé {(b)aé, the same), himself, herself, themselves, etc. « The savage repeats the word to give greater energy to its meaning or his affirmation. » — 5o — Aé-sui (sui, prep.), — from there, from that place. Aékety (kety—io), — to that place. Aéramé (ramé=wheii) , — then, at that time. Aéresé (resé = from or for), — for this, or therefrom. Aériré (riré = after), — after that or there- after. Aeriré-miri (mirT— small, little), — soon after. 47. — Rai Ar, to be born, to occur, to hap- pen, to appear, or to fall, etc. Ara, — time, day, hour, occasion, and also — the World. Araaybaeté (ayba = bad, + eté, much), — storm. « This word ayba is pronounced some- times, as — auba and ayua. » Arakatu (katu = good), — opportunity. Arakuá (kuá = the waist) , — at noon . Arösü (ösü— great, much), — to fall or to grow plentifully. Ara-(r)angaba, — watch or clock; (ang, spirit or life, + aba, thing ; = a thing possessing the life of time). — Ar, used as suffix: — to take or the act of taking. Ara (ara=iara) , — the agent, one who does an action in the present time . — 5i — Idra, — the owner, the actual possessor of some thing. Ibytuar (ibytu, wind) — to fall the wind. Ayurár (ayür, the neck) , — to take by the neck. Mar-äar, (marä=mbäasy, a pain or ache), — to fall sick or to catch sickness. Podr (pd, a hand) , — to take or to catch by the hands. Puar (pü ovpij, the foot) , — to catch by the feet. Pitiiar, (pitü=pitüna, night), — to grow dark or night. Téköar (tekö,— custom or manner), — to imi- tate or to take the manners of another. Teöar, (teo, death or the act of fainting), — to die, or rather, to decay, to fail. Tapeydra (ta = taba, the town -h péyara, the pratical man) , — who knows the way to the town, the head, the chief or guide. 4L&* — M. Iby=ipy, — the land (earth), origin, beginning, etc. Ibykodra (kodra, a hole), — ditch, grave, etc. Iby-kety (kety = toward), — downward. Ibi/oka (oka, house), — a wall, a thing made out of land. Ibypéba (péba, long or flat), — a tract of low lands. — D2 — Ibyreté (the r is a euphonical letter, + été, much), — main-land. Ibypé {(pé = in, prep.), — down, on the soil, the ground. IbyrirT (rirT, — to shake), — an earthquake. Ibytyra (atyra, a heap), — a hill or mount. Ipysuigodra (sui, prep . == from , + goára =ara, byProthesis, an agent), — original, native or primitive. ^4S>. — Rail. Ibdk, (also written Iuc'tk), — heaven, the firmament, the atmosphere. Ibaketinga, (tinga, white), — clouds, snow. Ibakepora (pora, somebody ), — who lives in heaven . Ibákepé-o-sö (pé === to, prep, -j- o-sö — he goes), — salvation, — i e: who goes to heaven. Ibakepétoryba (ioryba, merry), — the celes- tial glory, i e: — merry in heaven. Sí>o— RaÖ. Ig, (also written — If/), water. Igdba (aba, suffix), — lime, a thing within the water . Igára (ára, suffix), — a canoe. Igapö (ape, spread), — marshy. Iggatu (gatu—katu. good), — fresh water. Igse?-erusába (sererü = sarerü, to flow, to slip,-H«foz, suffix), — a channel Igkoára (koára, a hole), — a fountain. Igyusei (yusei, wanting), — thirsty. Igotü (tü, — onomatopaic, = imitating the noise of the fall of water), — an waterfall. Igtykir (tykir, onomatopaic, =the drip-drip of falling water), — a drop. S>1. — Rid. Pé, way, track, path, etc. Pekoameéng (koameéng , to show or declare), —to guide. Peyara, ( (y) ára=dra, suff. ), — a pratical man, a guide. Péosü (osü, great, large), — a road. Pékü, — long . Pérupy (rupy, prep. = through), — by the way. £>i£. — Rafl. Po, the hand, a finger, etc. Pöakanga (akanga, the head, or the end of the hand), — the fingers. Pöakanga-osü (see — osü), — the thumb. Pöái, — to beckon. Poapem, — the nail "of a finger or toe". Pöápar (dpar, crooked, tortuous), — crippled or lame. Pöapyka, — the fist. Popytéra, (pytéra, middle, the central portion of a thing), — the palm. Pöök (ok=to take), — to pick up the fruit. -5 4 - ^3. — Ral pya, the heart. Pyakatü (katu, good), — of good manners, peaceful. Pyakatu-rupy (rupy, prep.= by), — obliging man, or affability. Pyakatasaba, — frankness, kindness. Pyaosu, (osu= great), — courage, audacity. Pya~yba, — (yba = aüba, bad, cruel), — bad affliction or rage . Pyubarupy, (rupy=by or for), — furiously. &4L. — Rati. Söba = röba, — the human face. Söba(a.)pyra (pyra = atyra, a heap), — the front. Söbasy (sy =asy, to be in pain), — spleenfull, or sorrowful. Sobauba (ub= auba, bad), — pale. Söbaosü (osü, great), — frown, or ugly coun- tenance. Söbapetéka (petéka, a blow), — a slap. Söbapokéka (pokeka, — to wrap), — to muffle oneself up. ^S. — Eäfl. Tekö, mode, rule, custom, state, or condition, etc. Tekö-asy — (asy, which causes pain), — rigour. Teköayba (ayba, bad, cruel, etc.), — torment, prison, peril, etc. — 55 — Teköayba-goara (goara = ara, agent), — the guilty. Teköayba-moapir (mo = to make or cause, -\-pyr=pyre, more), — to aggravate the guilt. Teköayba-pöra — (see para), — the condemned to punishment. Tekökatü (= good state), — peace. Tekömönhä (mönhä, io make), to constitute, to state. Teköpöranga (poranga, beautiful), — good fortune or success. Tekbpoxl (poxi, bad), — vice. Longer -agglutinative words lid. — M. Abd, creature, human being. Abá-angaypdba-osü-eté, — an tyrant, a cruel man. (Aba, — creature, + ang, the soul or the spirit of man, -f- ayp = ayba, bad, evil, -\-ba = dba, — suffix — meaning thing, -\-osu, great, + eté, — very or very much ; — literally, = a man of too great bad soul. Abákuáuayma, — a foolish or silly man. — Db — (Aba, — creature, + kuduba, — learning, -\-yma, without ; — lit. =a man without learning. Abdmendasdrayma,—a. bachelor, unmarried. ( Aba — (as before) -f- menda = menddra, to marry, -\-sara = ctra, an agent, + yma, not, without ; — lit.=a man married not. Abdöba-monhangdra, — a tailor. (= Aba (as before) -+- oba, clothing, + monlia, — to make, 4- dra, an agent ; lit.=a man who makes clo- thing. Abápörobebya(r)yma, — a proud or an arro- gant man. ( — Aba (as before ) H- poro, so- mebody, a person, + be =pe, (prep.) to, -\-bya =pya, heart, + ijma, without; lit.= a man without heart to anybody. Äbdpörohikására, — an assassin or murderer. (Abd — (as before) + pbro (idem) + iakd, to kill,+ (s)dra, an agent; — lit.=a man who kills some body. Abá-Tupä-moetésära, — a religious man. (Abd (as before) + Tupa, God, -f- moeté, to venerate, -+- (s)ara (as before); lit. = a man who venerates God. And again: Abá-Tupä- moétésara -yma, — an unbelieving, an atheist. Abaybaosi'c, a destoyer. (Abd (as hefove)-\-yba = ayba, evil,-f- osü, great; lit.=a great maker of evils. — o 7 — 2>T. — M. ltd, stone, iron or metal, in general . Itdpömondé (po, hands, -\-mondé, prison), — manacles. Itá(r)eté (eté, very or excellent), — steel. Itá-Tupä-süi ('Tupä sui, from God), — an aerolite, — a stone which has fallen from God. Itábaböka (baböha, — onomatopaic word), — millstone. Itábebüi (bebui, light, puffy) — the pumice stone. Itdkantim (kantim,& peak, or sharp-pointed), — boar-spear, pike. Itá(g)oasü (see oasü), — a rock. Ita-yüa (yellow metal), — money. Itd-yüa-ydra or Itáyubayára,{*) (yára,i\ie owner), — a rich man. Itáyubarerü (rerü, a vessel ), — treasury . a coffer . Itá-nimbö ( nimbo = inimo, a thread), — brass-wire. Itápéba (peba, flat), — a plate of metal. Itápekü (pekü, long) a lever, an iron-bar. Itdpuä (puä, standing up or erect), — a nail. (*) In vory numerons instancos the b is found instead of u, and erciproeally. — 58 — öS. — Rail. Müra, — wood, or tree. Müraáka (dka, a point or peak) , — a branch. Müra-báka, — spinning wheel, made out of wood. Murakamblj (kamby = akdmby, the groin, i e: the angular curve between the legs), — a pitch- fork. Mürakoréra, — brushwood. Mura-y (y , diminutive), — sprig, or stick. Murapéba (peba, flat), — a board. Mürapekü (pekü, long), — a long wood. Mura(r)akanga (akanga, the head), — the shoots. Murayra (yra, honey), — bee honey, i e: honey of wood. ^O. — Mopya (mo, to do or to make do, 4- pya, heart.) [53, 96] Mopya-ayba,, — to aggravate, to offend, to make one be sorrowful. Mopya-katu, — to console, to make one be satisfied . Mopyá-katuaba-pupé, (pupé, prep. = in or within), — to please, to be pleased. — Monhä or monhang, — to make, to fabri- cate or to create. Monhangäba, — fabric, factory, etc. _5 9 - Monhangára , — working-man , a manu- facturer . Yemonhang, — to grow, to prosper ; ( — ye, (particle) . [ See no. 9 1 ?]. Moyémonhang, — to ingender, to generate. 60- — M Nhee or nheéng, to speak, to discuss, to talk, to converse, etc. Nheeng-dyba, (ayba, bad), — to injure, to de- fame, or to reproach . Nheengayba-eté, (eté, very, much, too), — to slander, to curse. Nheeng-santdn, (santan, — loud), — to speak loud . Nheeng-sese, (sese = rese, prep., by), — to bind by word, to bespeak. Nheeng-eté, (eté, much, excellent, etc.), — to speak with power or authority. Nheenga, — speech. Nheengaiára (iclra, owner, an agent), — interpreter . Nheenga-o-meeng, (omeeng, to give), — to promise, to compromise oneself. Nheengapora-poranga (pora-poranga, nice or fine thing), — gallantery, corteous behaviour, polite address. Nheenga-poxi (poxi, evil), — obscenty. Nheengdr (dr, to take), — to sing. ÜO Nheenga-sára, — a singer. Nheengaba, — a song. 61. — M. Nitio, intio, ti or ni, — no, not, nor. Nitiokangaba, the immensity ; ( — hang = akanga, head, top, + aba, thing) ; = a thing without head or end. Nitio-paya-oaé, — an orphan ; ( — paya, — a corruption of the Port, word páe = father, + oaé, he or she ; = a person without father. Nitiogoasü ( goasü, great, difficult, etc., ), — easy. Nitio(g)oatá'Oaé, ( (g)oatd, to walk or to be in motion ), — immovable. Nitio -iap ysá-oaé (iapysä, to ear ), — a deaf man. Nitio-ipöroaé (ipor = pöro , something re- siding within), — unoccupied, hollow. Nitiomámé (mamé, where), — no-where. Nitio -posanga (posanga, medicine), — irreme- diable. Nitio-posi/ (posy, heavy), — light, slight. Nitio- oikö-katii, — to behave badly; ( — oiko= to be, + katu, good, = to be not well). OS. — Päna, corruption of the Portuguese word — panno, cloth. Päna-ayba, — clout, rags. — 6i — Päna-monhangaba, (aba, suffix , meaning the place, the instrument of the action), — weaver's-loom . Päna-monhangara, — a weaver, the maker of cloth . Päna-petéka (petéká, to beat), — a washing- woman, — who beats the cloth, in washing it. 63. — Rad. Tupä or Tupäna, God. Tupaberába (beráb, to light), — a light- ning. Tupä-iandé-rekö-bebé-meengara, — Provi- dence; that is, — God who gives to us the mode of living. Tupä-nheenga (see nheenga), — the Gospel. Tupä-nheenga-kotiasára (kotiasára, who discribs or paints), — an evangelist. Tupa-nheenga~o-mosem (o-mosem, to pu- blish), — a preacher. Tupä-uatá (uatá, to walk), — a religious procession. Tupä(r)öka (Oka, house), — church. Tupä-oka-mírT (miri, small), — a niche. Tupä-rokára (rokára or okdra, street or a line of houses),— church-yard. Tupä-polába (potdba, a present), — alms. Tupäratá (rata = tatci, fire ),— purgatory, place of punishment. - 62 - Tupärayra (rayra=tayra, son), a christian, a son of God. Tupärekö (rekö = tekb, law, precept, etc.), — religion. Tupä-rekö-ydbisaba, (yabisaba, error), — superstition . Tupärekö-monhangára, — blessed, that is : « Tupärekö, religion, -f- monhangara, who exercises or makes ;=a man who practises the re- ligion . » Tapa-yi or Tupa-yg (yg, water), — holy water. Tapanár (ar, to take), — to communicate, to receive the Sacrament. 64.- Rgfl. — Tdtd, fire. Tatd-ar, (ar, to bring forth, to take, etc.), — to set on fire, or to take fire. Tatá-beráb, — flames. Tatá-(g)oasü, (oasü, great), — a stove or bon- fire. Tatamirt, (mirT, small), — a spark of fire. Tatdpunha, — live coal. Tatapunha-osu, — a fire-brand. Tatdrendy, (rendy, to shine), — light, illumi- nation. Tatdtinga (ting a, white) smoke, i é : white fire. — 63 — Tatátinga-monhä (monhä, to make), — to smoke or to be smoking. <>£>. — Rail. Yurü, the mouth. Yuruayba (ayba, bad), — slanderous. Yurükanhéme ( kanhéme or kanhümo, to disappear), — to be silent, or to grow dumb. Yuruiäi (icii, interg. of admiration), — to wonder, to gaze. Yurüyib (yib = moryib, to caress), — civility, courtesy. Yuruosü (osü, great ), — foulmouthed, hard- mouthed (horse). Yurüpoxi (poxi, bad), the same, as yuru- ayba. Yurüré, — to ask, to beg, to pray. Yuráré-hatü (katu, good), — to intreat. Yurürésese (sése = rese, by or for) , — to intercede . Yururé-ruré (frequentative, — ruré=yururé, to pray), — to insist, to urge. Yururé-ruré-katü, (katü, good), — to pray humbly. Yurüré(s)aba, — a petition, deprecation. Yururésära, — one that is always begging . Yurüseem (seem, sweet), — civil, corteous, affable; i, e: sweet mouth. - 6 4 - ONOMATOPAIC WORDS 66. — In the Brasilian language are, cer- tainly, numerous words created by onomatopoeia ; and we offer, as examples, the following : — Akauä, — a bird, which, when singing, re- peats this word . Ae, — this or that, and there (=the voice of one, who indicates a thing). Bébé, — to fly, (the beating of wings) . Güéne, — to vomit ( = the noise of one who vomits). lau-ara, — dog, ( = idu, the barking, + ara, suffix, an agent, etc.) Mdbabök, — to grind, (babök, the crack of the cane crushed in the sugar-mill). Moposok, — to shake a liquid (water) within a vessel. Mopok, — to break, (pök,=the cracking of something, which is broken up) . Mosdk, — to to dig up, (sdk, the blow of a thing pulled violently). Motcih, — to beat, (the sound of a blow). Piocana, — cat, (the cry of a cat.) — 65 — Pipik,— -to sprinkle, (the sound of splashing water). Tata, — fire, (the crackling of flames). Yurii-karu (yurü, mouth, -f- karü, the noise of mastication), — to ruminate . CHAPTER IV ADJECTIVES ©^'. — In most of the modern languages of the inflectional group, adjectives, in the same way, as nouns, have different forms of endings (flections), according to the gender and number of the sub- stantives, with which they agree in a phrase or sentence . The Romance languages, principally, still pre- sent almost the same inflections, corresponding to the gender, as they were in Latin, from which they are derived . Take, for instance, the following : Latin — bonus, masc; bona, fern.; bonum, neutr. (good.) — 66 — Italian — buono, raasc; buona, fem.; (there is no neuter gender.) (') French — bon, ma.sc; bonne, fem.; ( there is no neuter gender.) Spanish — bueno, masc; buena, fem.; (there is no neuter gender . ) Portuguese — bom, masc; boa, fem. ; (there is no neuter gender. ) Latin — totus, masc; tota, fem.; totum, neuter, (the whole). Italian — tutto, masc; tutta, fem.; (the neuter wanting) . French — tout, masc; toutte, fem. (the neuter wanting) . Spanish — todo, masc. ; toda, fem. (the neuter wanting). Portuguese — todo, masc; toda, fem.; tudo, neuter. Latin— iste, masc; a, fem. ; ud, neuter, (that). Italian — questo, masc. ; questa, fem. ; (the neuter Wanting). French — ce ou cet, masc; cette fem. ; ( the neuter wanting) . (*) The neuter gender was almost quite abolished in the Romanee- iongues; nevertheless we find some casos therein, as the above mentioned. -6 7 - Sp. — este, masc. ; esta, fem.; esto, neuter. Port. — este, masc. ; esta, fem. ; isto, neuter. We find the same equivalent forms of all Latin adjectives or pronouns of three endings, which passed into Romance tongues; — viz : — « JJnus, a, um, one. « Ullus, a, um, any at all. « N ullus, a, um, none at all. « Alter, a, um, one of two. « Ille, a, ud, that other; etc, etc. ACCIDENCE OF BRASILIAN ADJECTIVES 68. — But in Brasilian languages the prevail- ing system in this resoect is quite opposite. Adjectives are, without exception, invariable, like nouns . In this point they offer a complete likeness with the adjectives of English , from which, however, they entirely differ in relation to their place in a sentence. In English the general rule is, that the adjective is placed before the noun, whilst the Brasilian tongue proceeds just in a contrary way . — 68 — In this last language the word, expressing substance, must precede the word of quality or of relation . Thus, for instance, this phrase : — a good friend, in Brasilian can only be said — anäma katü, = friend good . Gender and number 69. — For want of distinct forms to mark gender and number the adjective can appear in a sentence, with nouns of every gender and number ; ex : Mu poranga, fine brother; Rendéra poranga, fine sister; Oka katii, a good house ; oka-étá katti, good houses ; Kunhápoxi, a bad (or ugly) woman; kunhá- étá poxi, bad women, etc. Degrees of quality or comparison TO. — Comparison is called that change of form, which the adjective undergoes to denote degrees of quality or quantity. 6q The comparative is formed by placing the ad- verb-suffix. — pyre, more, after the adjective, and the postposition sui, from, after the latter term of comparison; ex : Paul is better than Peter, = Paul katii pyre Peter sui, — word for word : — Paul good more Peter from . As to the peculiar use of the postposition — sui, from, to denote the relation between the two terms of comparison, we find a very similar form in the Italian language, in which the same sen- tence above would be, as follows : — Páolo é megliore del Pietro,=P&u\ is better from Peter. If the comparative is of inferiority, as less prudent, less fine, etc. it must be formed by means of the word mirl, small or little, followed by the same adverb pyre ; ex: You are less fine than Jo\m,=penhe p? poranga miri pyre John sui; — literally = You, yourselves, fine little more John from . This adjective mirl is equally employed, as an adverb, in sentences, like these : — I slept little, = xa ker an mirl; I walked little, =xa uatcl an mirl, etc. The superlative is, likewise, formed, by placing the particle été, very or much, which takes the euphonical letter r, if it is preceded by some vowel; ex: poranga, pretty, — poranga(r)eté, «- 7o — very pretty; katü, good, — hatu(r)eté, very good, etc. — It is unnecessary to observe, that these manners of forming the comparative and the su- perlative are, in general, used in the modern European tongues. But the placing of the particle (adverb of quantity) after the adjective is an idiomatic usage, of which we will speak further on . NUMERALS Tl. — Comparing the authors, we find some discordances of opinion in relation to the nume- rals, which were used by Brazilian savages. The question is this : — up to what number could they count?. . . — It appears, however, for sure, that, in general, they did not count objects, individually, above the number five, which was expressed, among several tribes, by the word pu, — a hand or the five fingers . In the old documents, concernimg this point, — 7i — the writers affirm, that the savages used only the following numbers : BRAS. ENGL. Iepe or oiypé one MokoT or mokuen two Mosapvr or mosapeire three Irundy or mokoT-mokoin (repeated). four P6, xepo (properly, — my hand) five By repeating these numerals they could ex- press greater quantities of objects, as, for instance: pomokoi, ten, =two hands; xepo — xepy,tventy, =my hands and my feet . ^'Ä. — Nevertheless we must add, that some living tribes in North-Brasil, owing, perhaps, to their commerce with white people, use, at present, the numerals of greater quantity, as we can see in the following examples : BRAS. ENGL. Oaxiny five Mosüny six Seié (apparent corruption of the Portuguese — sete — ) seven Oisé (apparent corruption of the Portuguese — oifo — eight Oisepé {=oisé, eight,-t-iepé, one) nine Peye ten Peiyéiepé eleven /* After ten begins the process of repetition, as in Latin; ex: twelve — peyé-mokoT; — thir- teen, — peye-mosapvr; — twenty, mokoT-peyé ; thirty, — mosapür-peyé ; etc, etc. Iepé papasdua, one hundred, (properly a great quantity) — and again : — mokoT-papa- sdua, two hundreds; — peyé-papasdua, one thousand, and so forth ORDINALS 13. — The ordinals are formed out of the cardinals, by the suffix — uara [44]; ex: BRAS. ENGL. Iepé(r)uára first MokoTuara second Mosapurudra third Irundyudra fourth Oaxinyudra fifth Mosunyudra sixth Seyéudra , seventh Oiséüdra eighth Osepéüdra ninth Peyeüära tenth And so forth . -73 - CHAPTER V PRONOUNS 7'4,— In the Brasilian language there are found the pronouns — personal, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, possessive and indefinite, perfectly distinct, both in forms and in uses; the most important peculiarities of which we are about to note . ^^. — Personal pronouns . These have no dis- tinction of gender. There are three persons: — the person who speaks, called the first person; — the person spoken to, — called the second person ; — the person (or object) spoken of, called the third person. These persons are represented by the pronouns: RRAZILIAN ENGLISH Ixé or xé I Indé, iné or ne Thou Ianclé or iané (=ia, I -\-né thou) We, = I and thou Ore (exclusively) TT e, and not you Pe2 or penhc You Aetci or aitci They (") (*} This second form of Iho plural — ore or oro is a peculiarity of Brasilian languages, or rather of all American tongues ; it moans —we exclusevoly, that is, we without you. — 74 — These forms of the personal pronoun are kept identical, whether they be the subject or the object of a sentence. It is true, that sometimes the particle — bo is found, joined to the pronouns of the first or of the second persons singular, denoting the relation of the dative case; — ex: Ixebo, to me ; — indebo, to thee . But this particle — bo — , we suppose, to be the same contracted preposition pé (postposition) , which is used to express such a relation ; cf: — ixupé, to him or to her, = i, his, her or hers, -+- pé = supé, (by Apheresis) — to ; — hope, to the plantation, = ho, — plantation, + pé, to ; tape, to the village,=ta&a, village, (by Syncope) + pé, to ; and also : — orebé (b=p) to us, =ore, we without you, and bé=pé, to ; etc. That which remains to be observed on personal pronouns, will be treated of in a proper way, when we have to speak of verbs. Tö. — Demonstrative pronouns. There are three demonstrative pronouns : — Koahd, this ; = ho, here, + ahá = iiaá, an agent, — the person here ; Nhähä, that ; = ni, not, -{-aliá=hoaliá , — not this. Nhähä amo, that other ;—nhähä, íhsd,-\-amo, — another . -75- These pronouns correspond exactly to the Latin pronouns — hie, iste, ille, or to the Portu- guese — este, esse, aquelle, which keep their original Latin signification. They have no distinct gender, but they take the plural form by the postpositive particle — etá, like nouns; ex: — koahdetd, these ; nhähä-etd, those : nhähä- amoetá, those others . When the demonstratives are employed, as adjectives, they do not take the suffix of the plural number; because, in this case, they are always in- variable and must be placed before the substantive, with which they agree in the sentence; ex: Koahá (r)öka, this house; — koahd (r)oka-étá, these houses; Nhähä kunhä, that woman ; — nhähä ku- nhäétá, these women ; Nhahäamo kisé, that other knife ; — nhahä amo kiséetd, those other knives. IT. — Interrogative pronouns . The interro- gative pronouns of this language are : Aud, who ? — It is only applied to person, like its correspondent in English, and is invariable in every case ; Mad, what ? — It is also invariable, and only applied to things. — « Mad means, precisely, thing = Latin res, or Italian — cosa . — 76 — It is known that in Italian the word cosa may be used, as interrogative pronoun ; ex : cosa fate, or cosa dite, = what are you doing, or what are you saying? = in Bras. — maa-ta peémonhä, or maá-ta pé nehce ?. The particles td, tahd, sera are used, as mere signs of interrogation. 18. — Relative pronouns. As relative pronoun is found only this word — uad, who ; it is invariable and serves for all genders and numbers. Uad is the same suffix, which means an actual agent, as the Latin ans, ens, or it is the subject of an action, as we may see in the instances, given before; [no. 39], The relative uad has yet another idiomati- cal application : it is always placed at the end of the sentence; ex : — have you the arrow ichich my brother sent ? = re-rekö sera ouoa sé mu mundü-an uad ? — word for word, — you have the arrow my brother sent ichich ? 11>. — Possessive pronouns. These are iden- tical with the personal pronouns, as follows : Sé or xé, my and mine . Né or ré, thy and thine. Aé or i, his and her (s), its. lane, our and ours . Penhc or pec, your and yours . Acta or aitci, their or theirs. « The possessive of the third person is very fre- quently represented by an i, which ssems to be a contracted form of aé = at, he, she, or his, hers, its, as was seen in the foregoing example » . Possessive pronouns must be placed before the noun, with which they agree; but they do not undergo any particular change to correspond in gender and number. — [See no. gs] £*0 •—Indefinite pronouns. It is our opinion, that most of the suffixes, which are aggluti- nated to predicative or verbal roots, are, un- doubtedly, indefinite pronouns. It is certain, that some of them have lost their original significa- tion, but many others keep it still in a clear and independent way. Thus, for example : Aucl, used also as interrogative pronoun, means, precisely, a person or human being; cf: — « Inti-auci, nobody; — inti, not,-\-aucl, body; « Maud, whoex er :=ma d , aught, -\-auci, body. « Yepéaud, each one, —yepé, one, -{-awl body. Abd, creature. We think this word, iden- tical with — aucl, scarcely modified by pronun- ciation ; cf: _ 7 8- « Nitio-abä , nobody, = initio , not, -f- aba, person ; « Amöabd , another ; = amö, other, + aba, person . — As inde finite pronouns , properly so-called, we now find these : — Amö, other, others. From this are formed the following phrases : « Amö-ara-pupé, on another occasion, = amo, other, ?\-ara, time, -\-pupe = ope, on or at. « Amö-mámé, in another place, = amo, -f- mämé, where. Amorupy, to the contrary, = amo, + rupy, to, by, (prep.) « Amo-ramé , sometimes, = amo, + ramé, when, other when. « Amo-iby-sui, from another land, =amo, + iby, land,+si«, from. — Yabé, each. From this are derived or formed the following : « Yabe-yabé, each one, = yepé-yepé, one by one; « Amö-yabé, so much or so many. — Mad. aught, something. From this are formed : « Intimad, naught, nothing, = inti, not, + mad, thing ; — 79 — « Yepémari, some-body, = yepé, oae,-t-maá thing : — Mira-y, few, a few; =mira, people, + y = mirí, small, little. [35] Pabe or opal, all, all together. These indefinite pronouns are, as a rule, in- variable. CHAPTER VI VERBS SI- — According to their meaning, the verbs of the Brasilian language may be classified, as transitive and intransitive. By the use of some regular particles (prep, or suffix) the transitive may become intransitive, as well as, the intransitive may pass into trans- itive. Transitive verbs are also used reflexively and reciprocally, by means of certain particles, joined to them . There are found, yet, a few verbs, which may — 8o — be rightly considered, as causative, in view of their grammatical functions in the sentence. — All those classes of verbs are invariable words, like the other parts of speech, that is to say : — that their radical does not undergo any change of form to express the various relations of voice, mood, tense, number and person of conjugation. 82. — Voice, (a) AVe think., we may affirm, that in this language there are wanting, not only the passive verb, but also the passive voice itself. First, the Brasilian language does not possess the especial verb, — so-called substan- tive, — as the Latin esse, to be. Sentences, such as ; Paul is good, are expressed in Brasilian by the simple words, — Paid, hatü, that is, Paid good, or Paul has goodness. [104] In order, then, to denote something, like the passive voice, it is, as a rule, sufficient to place certain words, which have themselves the mean- ing of passive participles, after the substantive or pronoun serving, as the subject ; ex : — « Paul was killed, =Paid iuhcludra, or Paul iulia-pyra ; = iukcl, to kill, -+- udra or pyra, suffix denoting the object of the action, — as killed. — « Thou art baptised ; = iné remoseroh- — 8i — üára ; = re, personal prefix of the second person sing., H- moseröka, to baptise, -\-udra, suffix, as the before said. [44]. S3. — (e) Reflexive or reciprocal verbs are forme 1 from the transitive by particles plac- ed, as infixes, between the personal prefix and the verb. The most used of those particles are ye, yo (sometimes, nhé or nho) equivalent to the Latin and Portuguese pronoun — se (ace.) ; ex : « Pé-iuká, you kill, — pé-yo-iukd , you kill yourselves, one another ; « Moapdra, to crook, —ye-moapdra, to bend oneself. When the subject is a pronoun of the first or of the second person, it is usual to express the reflexive form by the mere repetition of the those pronouns, as in the Romance-tongues ; ex : « Thou killest thyself, = ré iné iukd, or ré yé-iukd ; lit. — thou thee killest. « We kill ourselves, 5= ore-oro ye-iukd ; — lit. — we us kill, etc. 84. — (i) Transitive verbs can, as a general rule, be formed from the intransitive by the use of the prefix mo, which sometimes works, as a causative, and sometimes has the particular function of converting nouns and adjectives of quality into regular verbs ; ex : — 82 — (1) « A-ln, (or oca-in) I lay down, — a-mo-in, I place or I cause to sit down ; « Xa-ropare, I lose myself,— xa mo-ropare, I make somebody go astray ; « Xa-puam, I rise or arise, — xa-mo-puam, I cause something or somebody to arise ; « Sém, to go out, — má-sém, to make go out ; « Tii/, to tremble, — mo-tilj, to make trem- ble ; (2) « Abaeté, renowned, — mö-abaeté, to re- nown, or to make renowned ; « Abyk, needle, — mo-abijliik, to sew ; « Apdra, crooked, — mo-apara, to crook or to make crooked ; « Ayba, evil, — mo-ayb, to offend, to injure ; « Péb, flat, — mö-péb, to flatten. « Poxi, bad, evil, — mo-moxi (m = p) , to viciate, to adulterate. [ This prefix mo, we supple to be a con- tracted form of the verb mánA«, which means, exactly, to do or to make. ] From the foregoing illustrations we maj r judge, how frequent must be the employment of this prefix or root mo, which, indeed, is found in most Brasilian verbs. 83 PRONOMINAL SUBJECTS AND PERSONAL PREFIXES ©55«. — We call « personal prefixes » certain particles, which are invariably affixed to verbs with the same signification, as the personal suffixes of the Latin verbs . In the following table we make a complete enumeration of such personal prefixes, indicating their corresponding signification in Latin : BRAZILIAN ENGLISH Pars. pron. Pers, pref. Meaning. Ixe or xé a — I or me. hide, iné or né ré = Thou, thee. Aé = He, she, it, or him, her . Ianclé or iané (*) ia = We, us. Penhe or pee pi = You, ye, Acta or aitd = They, them . LATI> E.NGLISH Pers si /fixes. ~~cf7- Meaning amo = I love. S amas = Thou lovest. t amat = He loves. mus amamus = We love. tis amatis = You love . nt amant s= They love . — 84 — [ (*) It must be repeated, that in Brazilian languages, as in most American tongues, there are two forms for the pronoun of the first person plural, the one inclusive, the other exclusive. « The inclusive form is that presented above — iandé or iané (= ia, I 4- né, thou, = wej, the exclusive is — ore or oro, (we, without or minus you) ; ex : we (exclusive of you) kill, oro ia-iukd . ] — As we see, the personal prefixes represent the pronominal subject of the verb ; but, while they can be used alone without the personal pro- nouns, these, on the contrary, can never appear, without them. We could say, for instance : amamus,= ia-saisü, we love, — wherein is not expressed the personal pronoun iandé or iané = we ; but we cannot say : — iandé or iané saisü, without the personal prefix — ia . — The leading rule, in relation to pronom- inal subjects, is this : — in the first person sing, it is always expressed, and takes the con- tracted form — xa, = xe + a . In the second and the third persons sing, they are regularly omitted, being in this case substituted by the afore-said personal prefix; ex : amas , = re- saisü; amat = o-saisu, thou lovest, he loves. — 85 — In the plural, the pronominal subjects need not be, particularly, expressed . 86. — The most original form, in which the verb appears in the Brasilian speech, is one affirming the action or existence of an indefi- nite subject ; that is to say, it has not the Infini- tive mood, properly so-called, and always expresses the action of a subject, — "determinate or indeterminate". The word, or rather the particle, which comes joined to the verb, as its indefinite subject, is the prefix — o, and has a meaning, just like that of the German man, or the French — on in these phrases, — man spricht, on parle == o-nhee, to speak, that is, one speaks. Now it must be remembered, that this con- crete mode of speech is, doubtless, more natural to savage people, who deal, very seldom, with abstract ideas . In the grammars and vocabularies of their language, it is certain, that we find the verbs used, as in the Infinitive mood ; but, when we pay better attention to the practical applications, 86 it results, that the savages do not know the use of such a mood. [ An example of this kind is found in Arabic, wherein the third person sing, of the Perfect is th? simplest form of the verb; and this is also liable to change into transitive or in- transitive, active or reflexive, by means of some particle?, use! as prefixes, as in Bra- silian. ] (') Nevertheless, as it facilitates the understand- ing of the examples, which illustrate the matter, we continue, likewise, to consider that indefinite form of Brasilian verbs, as being their Infinitive mood ; ex : — Saisi'i or o-saisu, to love ; — iukd or o-iukci, to kill, etc. From this simple form, which is always in- variable, are formed — moods, tenses and par- ticiples, or verbal adjectives, by the regular use of some special particles, which occur, either isolated or grouped together . ST. — The simple tenses are : — Present, Past (= the Latin Perfect) and Future. (*'i William Wright, Arabic Gram. (Dublin, 1859.) - 8 7 - Present tense The Present is formed by adding the pronom- inal subjects, or the personal prefixes alone, to verbs ; ex : BRAS. BNGLISH Xa (=xe+a) mehén . I give. Re-mehén Thou givest. Aé o-mehén He, she or it gives. lane ia-mehen We (I and thou) give. Ore ia-mehén We (minus you) give. Penhl pé-mehén You give. Ait a o-mehen They give. The «Imperfect Present* can be also formed by placing the verb ikö, to be [101] with its pers. prefixes, after the other verb, to which it serves, as an auxiliary ; thus: BHAS. ENGLISH Xa mehén-xa ikö. ... I am giving, = Igive-j- I am. Re-mehen-re(r)ikd . . Thou art giving, =thou givest+thou art. Aé o~mehén->o-ikö. . . He is giving, = he gives+he is. Iané ia-mehén-iaik. — As a general rule, ali predicative roots may be converted into verbs, — by affixing to them the personal prefix, by itself, or with — the pronoun, as subject ; — ex : sém, the act of going out or appearing, — xa-sem, — I go out ; — kér, sleep, — o-ker, to sleep, that is, = he sleeps ; — tog, the act of covering, — re-tog,— thou cover est, etc. Besides this, there are certain formative ele- ments, which occur, very frequently, in the for- mation or derivation of a great many verbs . — 9? — The formative elements, most ordinarily used, are the two following : — 96. — Mo, particle, (prefix) which works, either as a causative verb, or converts any pre- dicative roots into transitive verbs. It may, likewise, be joined to intransitive verbs to transform them into transitive ones, [s-i] Examples : Aku, warm ; — mo-aku, to warm or to make hot. Asiih, the act of taking a bath ; — mo-asuk, to bathe somebody. Asy, pain, or ache ; — mo-asy, to ache or to be in pain. Ayba, bad ; — mo-ayba, to ruin, to waste, to demolish, etc. Pé, road, way, track etc ; — mo-pé, to level the path or the way . Pekit, long ; — mo-pekii, to lengthen. Poránga, fine or beautiful ; — mo-poranga, to trim or to attire . Scli, sour ; — mo-sdi, to make sour, to em- bitter. Seem, sweet; — mo-seem, to sweeten. - 9 6- Sardy, jest ; — mo-saray, to jest. Tapy, deep ; — mo -tap y, to sink. Yaseon, to weep or to mourn ; — mo-yaseon, to make weep . Ye-mombdu, to confess oneself ; — mo-ye-mom- beu, to avow . Ye-nong, to lie down ; — mo-ye-nong, to put down. Yo-yabe, to pair, or to make oneself equal o ; — mo-yo-yabe, — to equal, to adjust, to compare. Yokök, to lean upon ; — mo-yo-kok, to uphold. Ye-mendra, to marry ; — mo-ye-mendra, to make marry . 97. — Ye or yo (also rihé or nho), particle- prefixes, denoting that the predicative root ex- presses a reflexive, intransitive or reciprocal action. — [83] Examples : Kapik. to comb; — ye-kapik, to comb oneself. Komeeng, to indicate ; — ye-komeeng, to appear, to expose oneself. Koéma, dawn or morning ; — ye-koéma, to dawn or to grow day. Moasuk, to bathe somebody ; — ye-moasuk, to take a bath . — 97 — Mo-ayba, to ruin something; — ye-mo-ayba, to ruin oneself. Mosaém, to divulge ; — ye-mosaém, to be divulged. Meeng, to give or to deliver ; — ye-meeng, to deliver or to render oneself up. Mo-tykan, to dry or to wipe; — ye-mo-tykdn, to dry oneself. Participles The rules, by which in Brasilian the several participles are, in general, formed, will be found in the chapter on nouns. [3s to 4-±] CHAPTER VII POSTPOSITIONS 5>S. — The usual relations, expressed by prepositions, as we see in the modern European languages, are denoted in Brasilian languages by means of postpositions. — They are various in form and number, and correspond, in their 9 8 applications and meaning, to prepositions, in general . The principal postpositions of the Brasilian language are : Sui — denotes separation or removal from one place to another, or derivation and motion from the interior of an object ; it is equivalent to the Latin prepositions — a or db and e or ex ; ex : I came from the city ,=xa iur-an mairy sui ; lit : — I came city from . Opé, — in, (sometimes = upon and within) denotes position of an object ; it corresponds to the Latin prep . in with ablative ; ex : In the Church, = Tupan (r)oka opé ; lit : — God's house in. Supé — denotes relation to an object, that is, limitation oy destination, «= to or for, as in the phrases — to me or foryou» — ; it expresses a re- lation equivalent to the Latin dative ; ex : Give this hat to my friend, = re-mehen iné koahd xapéua kamarara supé; lit: give thou this hat friend to ; — love to God, = saisü Tupän supé; lit : =love God to . Arama — denotes also the relation to an object, but is especially employed, when we desire to express a « destination or purpose », as will be better understood from the following — 99 — Latin example : — Exitio est mare nautis, (the sea is for a destruction to sailors), = para porarasoba igatinijba aräma ; — word for word: the sea, a torment pilots to ; — I want her for my wife, == xa potare aé se xemerikb aräma; lit: I want her my wife for. Pope — denotes interior position, = within; ex: Within thy house, = re (r)öka pope ; lit: — thy house within. Yma signifies without, as the Latin sine ; ex: Woman without her husband, =kunhä i mena-yma; word for word: = woman her hus- band without. Iromo — denotes company, as the Latin cum, with ; ex: — With my brother, = se mü irömo; lit := my brother with. [ From this postposition iromo is derived irömo-dra, fellow, companion. ] Kite or kéty — denotes motion to a place, as the Latin ad, to ; ex : I go to thy house,= xa-sb ré (r)6ka kété ; lit: = I go thy house to. [ In phrases such as : — eo ad te, acliit regem, etc. the postposition, mostly used, is piri = to ; ex : Paulus adiit fratrem, = Paulü o-sb-an i mu piri; lit : = Paul went his broth- er to ] . Aärpe or áWpe — are used with the signifi — IOO — cation of « upon »; ex : Upon the table, = mv.ra- peua aripe ; lit: = table upon. Sesé or resé — denotes a cause or reason, « on account of, for the sake of » ; ex : For the sake of God,= Tupan resé ; — on account of bad weather, = dra ayba sese\ lit: = weather bad because of. Rupy — denotes cause, instrument, and in a limited sense, = « through either in space or in time » ; a it corresponds to the Latin per ; ex : He goes through the street, = aé-o-sö okdra rupy ; — in jest,= mosardya rupy ; lit: he goes street through ; — jest in. Uérpe or uyrpe — are used with the signifi- cation of the Latin prep, sub, under ; ex : Under the table, = mürapéua uérpe ; lit : = table under. Renöné or tenondé (r = t, n = d),= coram or ante, before ; ex : Before me, = xe renöndé; lit : = me before. Rehuidra,= « instead of » ; ex : Thou art playing, instead of working, =re-porauke re- kuidra, re-yo-mosdrai re-iko, — word for word: =thou working instead of, thou playing thou art. [We find yet other simple or compound-words used as postpositions; but we think, they may be con- sidered with greater reason, as pure adverbs.] — 101 CHAPTER VIII ADVERBS 99. — According to their signification, ad- verbs may be divided into the following classes : — (1) adverbs of place; (2) adverbs of negation, affirmation and interrogation ; (3) adverbs of time, "determinate or indeterminate"; (4) ad- verbs of manner, degree of quality, etc. (1) ADVERBS OF PLACE Mamé " ubi, where " generally used, as in- terrogative ; ex : Where is your land, = mamé- taá né (*) retáma ? « This mamé is a derivative from mad, thing, in its most absolute meaning, — as the Latin res = an object, place, occasion, action, etc. -|- mé = pé, in ; therefore, mamé = maapé, in a thing or place. » The following adverbs will give further illustration : — Macl-sui (mad + sui, postp.= from), "unde, (") Retama or tetama moans properly nativejcountry. — 102 — whence"; ex : Whence do you come, = mad-sui tad re-iur ? Mad-heli/ (maa •+■ kety, postp. = to), " quo, whither" ; ex: Whither are you going, = mad- kety penhe pe-sö ? Mad-rupy ( = mad ■+■ ntpy, postposition, = through), "qua, in what way" ; ex : In what way does flow the river, = mad-rupy parand td o-nhdna ? Ike, and also ko, "hie, here (by the speak- er)" ; ex : Here is our land, = iké yané ré- táma. « From iké are derived : « Kisiy,= ike-\- sui, "hinc, from hence (from the speaker) "; « Ki-kité,= ike -\-kely, "hue, hither, (to the speaker)". Adpe, " istic, there, (by the person adressed)" ; ex : He was there, = o-ikö-an aapé. Mime, "ibi, there" ; ex : See my dog there, = mime pe-maht se iau-ara . « From mime are derived : « Mi-xihy, = mime -4- sui, " istinc, from thence, (from the person addressed)" ; « Mi-kité, = mime ■+■ kite, "eo, thither". Arpe, "above, upwards". Uerpe, "below, down". — io3 — . [ These two adverbs are also used, as postpo- istions, of which we treated before. ] Okdr-pe, "foris or foras, out, without," ( = okara, street, -\-pé, in); ex : I was out, okdr- pe xa iko-an. Sakakoéra, "pone or retro, hehind"; ex : It is behind,= sakakoéra o-iko. Ape-katu, "ionge, far" ; ex : Far from the city,= ape-katu taud sui ; lit: far city from . Poiterpe or pyterpé, " between, amidst ". (2) ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION, NEGATION, ETC, Affirmative or concessive particles Hehe, "etiam, yes". Empo, "quippe, of course". Hehe-empö, "in this way perhaps". Katu-ente, "so so, or verily". Ae-katu, "recte, quite right". — io4 — (e) Negative particles Nitio, intio, inti,tioT ni, "non, no, not, nor". « All these forms are found, either in the nega- tion of verbs, or as prefixes of other words ; ex : Nitio-abd, nobody; nitio-mame, no where; — inti-mad, nothing ; — inti-ape-kalu, not far ; — inti or ti xa-potare, I will not; — ni-amo- ara, never ;(= ni, nbr-|- amö, other -\-ara, time.) Yma, "minus, without. [ See the postpo- sitions.] (i) Interrogative particles One of these particles, sera, tafia, ta or pa must always occur in the interrogates phra- ses, which is to be placed after the verb in case this be the modified word ; ex: Iné re-rekö será meape ? = have you some bread ? In case, another be the modified word, the par- ticle must be placed after that one and before the verb ; ex : Mad meapé tahd re-reko ? = what bread have you ? IOD These particles may also be joined to a simple noun, as for ex : mad, thing ; and mad tahd ?== what ? (3) ADVERBS OF TIME Mair-ramé, " quum or quando , when. " Ara-pökü-sdua, " semper, always •'. — «Ara time, -\-poku-saua, length ; == length of time.» Inti-an-kuri, " never ". « Inti, not,+an, particle denoting the Past, + kuri, another particle denoting the Future ;=neither in the Past nor in the Future . » Ni-amo-ara, " never ". — « Ni, nor, + amo, other, -\-ara, time ;= in no other time. » Aramé or ramé, " tunc, then, " at that time . «Ramé is also the sign of the Imperfect, as in the Latin verb, amabam, facerem, I was loving, I was making ; = xa saisu ramé, xa monhä ramé . » Kuür, — " nunc, now, on this occasion." « It is also used, as the sign of the the Present Subjunctive, as, for instance: — the Latin verb amem, that I love, = xa saisü kuur . » — 100 — Amö-ara, — " in the coming time ". « Amö, other, -\-ara, time.» Ana, " now, just now " ; — and its derivative — inti-ana, not yet. Ranhe, or rat, *' still, till the present". Oiy, — " hodie, to day". Oiype-i, — "once." Kuisé, — " heri, yesterday " ; — and its de- rivative — amö-kuisé, before yesterday, that is, another yesterday. Kurl, "after, presently". « It is the sign of the Future ; — and its derivative — kuri-miri, soon after, = a little after. » An, — " already". « It is the sign of the Past.» Rete-an, " too late, " — « Réte, much or too,+an . » Riri or riré, "post, posted, after, afterwards." « Riré is also used, as a postposition. » (4) ADVERBS OF MANNER, DEGREE, QUALITY, ETC. Iaué, — " ita, so." Tenhe, " item, itidem, likewise, " in the same manner. — 107 — Katu-ente, — " so so." Eté [or reté, " much, very much. " Pau or pane, " so much, or so many. My üre, " as, how much or how many". Pyre, *' magis, more. " Amo-yre, a little more; « amo,-\-pyre,— other more . » Xinga, — "minus, less, or hardly". Anhü,nhön or nhonte, "alone, only, solely." May, " as, so. " Teipo, " at last. " — There are yet many other words, used as adverbs, which we have not mentioned. The place of the adverb in the sentence may be before or after the verb ; but always after the adjective or another adverb ; ex: 1 go to-day, = xa-so oiy, or oil) xa-so' ; ■ — very good, = katu- reté ; much more, = pyr-été ; etc . CHAPTER IX CONJUNCTIONS lOO. — The particles, which may be classed, as conjunctions, are the following : y,— •" and" 6,— "or" — io8 — Aa-resé (aa = maá, + resé), " ideo, quam- obrem," for that reason, because of, etc. A-suy, "ergo, therefore," — (ae,+ sui,= from that) . Ni, * ' nor " . [n . 6i] Arery, " autem, however or but." Aramé, " enim, etenim for, for indeed. " Ydtir, ' ' neither, nor. " May, — "quare, why, on account of"? CHAPTER X INTERJECTIONS lOl. — The particles or words used, as in- terjections, are numerous ; among others we ill mention the following : — { ) Of astonishment : — Shi... . 2 ) Of inquiring : — an? . .= what ? 3 ) Of pain : un un ! ' . .. . '') Of satisfaction and of praise: ape /. . . . ') Of encouragement : éré! . . . . ; ) Of calling : höhö ! . . . . '') Of reprobation : athié ! . . . . ! ) Of profound disgust : aradn != oh tem- pora I ! — log — ( 9 ) Of compassion : tuté ! aud-teité ! H Of doubt : id!..... ( u ) Of approbation : heém ! ( 12 ) Of interrogation : serd ? ( 13 ) Of sending away : atimböra ! = be off ! . CHAPTER XI MISCELLANEOUS RULES AND REMARKS 102. — Nouns of the Brasilian language, as was noted before, have no inflections to mark "gender, number and case" ; and therefore can appear in a sentence, as the subject or the object of verbs, without change of forms. Syntax of the subject (i) As a general rule, the subject" noun or pronoun" is placed before the verb. The only real exception to it, we know, is the peculiar use of the relative pronoun — udd — , that occurs invariably after the verb of the dependent sen- tence ; ex: hast thou the arrow which my brother sent me ? = re-rekö será auoa se mu — I 10 — mundü uaá ixé aräma ? — « word for word: = thou hast the arrow ray brother sent which me to ? » \_n. rs] (ii) When the subject is of the third person and the object of the verb is a pronoun of the first or second person, and the verb is of the Imperative or Subjunctive mood, the subject is regularly placed after the verb ; ex: that f John kill thee,= t-ine iukcl John \ [tiné = iné, thou or thee, by Prothesis] . (in) When it is necessary to use greater ener- gy in the assertion, or in the expression of feeling, they repeat the pronoun-subject and the personal prefix ; ex: Ixe xa-reho, I, myself, have ; — iné re-reko, thou, thyself, hast, etc . (iv) In the sentences, in which verbal-phra- ses occur, such as: — Lat. eo petitum (ad petendum),= Port. voupedir, I am going to ask ; — Lat. venio auditum{dA audiendum),= Port. venho ouvir, I come to hear; — the repetition of the pronoun, as the subject joined to each verb, is indispensable ; ex: xa-sö xa senöi se mira,= l go to call my people ; — literally: I go +1 call my people . (v) The same rule applies to the auxiliary verb — ihö, to be, in the formation of the Imperfect Present, as was said before [sr],-ex: I am — Ill — mak'mg,=xá morihä 'xaikö ;|i. e : I make+I am ; — she is working, = aé o-paráuké o-ikö; — literally: she works-j-she is, etc. The syntax of the object 103. — In respect to the object, we find the following rules : (i) When it is a pronoun of the first or second person, it must be placed between the subject and the verb; ex: I kill jon, = xa pee iukä ; — thou killest me,= ré ixe iukci, etc. (n) But when the object is a substantive, or pronoun of the third person, the most regular use in the speech of the living tribes is to place it after the verb; although it seems, that the general rule in past times, was to place the verb always after its object; ex: — thou hast the knife,— ré kisé rekö, (old order) or re-reho liise (new order); — the serpent bites him, — boia o-söu aé, (new order) — or boia aé o-söü, (old order). Sytatax of the verb IO^S. — In the Brasilian speech, as in many other savage languages, there is not the so* called, « auxiliary verb », as the Latin esse, — 112 — to be, [sa] i. e: — a verb, which stands, as a mere connective of assertion between a subject and some word discribing this subject, and so has no meaning of its own, except that of indicating assertion, coupling together two words in the relation of subject and predicate. — In this language the simple union of a subject to a predicate supplies the corresponding value of such a verb; ex: xé katü, means — I am good, I have goodness, or more strictly, my goodness ; — ré pordnga, means — thou art beautiful, thou hast beauty, or simply, — thy beauty. For better illustration we present below other examples of the kind : BRAS. ENGL. Sakü será iné ? Are you warm ? lit : warm [90,2] you ? Ixe saku I am warm ; i. e: I warm . Ixé intimaá sakü. I am not warm ; lit : » » » I nothing warm. Ine ruy sera ? . . . . Are you cold ? lit : » » » you cold? Ixe inti-madseruy I am not cold ? i. e: » » I nothing-|-I cold Re sekv.ie sera ?... Art thou fearful ? lit : » » » thou fearful? Heheixexasekuie Yes, I am fearful ? i. e : yes, I myself, fearful. — ií3 — » The verb ikö which has been considered by some writers, as an equivalent to the » au- xiliary verb to be, — meaning mere assertion, is not so ; it signifies, on the contrary, a parti- cular condition or situation of the subject, that is ; it expresses a concrete mode of being and the actual relation of the subject with the 'predicate in a definite way. » In English there is want of this special verb ; because the verb — to stand, — which seems like it, keeps, in general, the same particular meaning of the Latin stare, to be erect. » But in the Romance languages this verhstare has not kept such a limited signification, and, in general, means the existence of a subject in a certain state or condition at a certain time. From the following examples will be better understood what is its proper use and import ; ex : » It. — stö bene, = Sp.— stoy bien,— Port. — estou bom, = » original Latin words » — sto bene, which means precisely I stand well ; whilst the actual meaning of this sentence in the above Romance languages is : — I am veil, or rather, I feel veil now . » The meaning of the Brasilian verb iho is entirely identical with the aforesaid stare of the Romance languages ; and, therefore, if — 114 — we had to express the foregoing sentences, — xé katü, re poranga, combined with such a verb, saying, for instance, — xä-ikö kalu, re-iko poranga, their signification, now, would be, precisely, this : — I am » ' ell or I feel well, at this moment, and thou lookest pretty, at this moment, — which would be different from their previous meaning. « In short, the verb iko always implies the idea of a certain state at the time spoken of. » 10£> . — Another fact, which we consider, as deserving especial remark, is the use of adjectives agreeing with verbs in the same way, as if these were true substantives ; ex : — pah, to awake, — xé pah, my waking ; — her, to sleep, — reker> thy sleeping ; — so, to go, — i-xo, = i-so, his going, etc. In such a usage we discover manifest relics of the preceding period of the language, when words had yet no grammatical distinction among them, that is ; when all words were the original expressions of feelings and ideas, scarcely distinguished, as predicative and demonstrative roots . I 10 — The peculiar construction of some verbs IOC — Avery notable idiom of the Brasi- lian language is the peculiar construction of certain verbs, which appear governing another verb, as their object. Thus, for instance : — « Lat. — volo viclere, I wish to see, =Br. — xa mahepötdre; literally, = Ito see wish; — « Lat. — jubetis ilium, occidi, you order him to be killed , = Br . — pé-iukd kdre aé, or p 5 aé pe-iukd kdre; lit.— you to kill order him, or you him to kill you order. « Lat. — scirnus Tupy loqui, we can speak Tupy, === Br. — iané ia-nehe? kudu Tupy ; lit : we speak can Tupy, &, &. The verbs, which usually require this especi. al construction of the sentence, are : potdre, to wish or will ; kudu, to know or can \—maasy, to need or to feel uneasy about ; kdre, to make or to bid make. [04] — The sentences formed with these verbs also constitute an exception to the general rule oi pronouns, as subjects, which we have treated of already in the foregoing. [ 10a] — lib — To need and (to) will lOT. — We cannot fail to remark the usual distinction, made by our savage people, between the two ideas, — expressed by the verbs (to) will and to need. They express them by the words « potare, and masy » — The latter is derived from the root — asy, to feel pain or grief; cf : — mo-asy, to be sick or to feel hurt ; — ye-moasy, to be stimulated or aggravated ; — ma-asy, to grow sick ; etc. Now, let us see the distinction : potare is used, when they mean to express a desire or want, the satisfaction of which depends on human power, as, for instance : I wish to go, = xa so potare, or I desire to eat fish, = oca v -potáre pircl, & &. But when, instead of a simple desire, depending on their free-will or choice, they speak of a natural necessity, as of drinking, eating, sleeping, etc . , they never use the verb — potáre, — but the verb masy only, which expresses a necessity imposed on man. Indeed, we can rightly say : — we wish to eat fish, or to eat bread, & ; but we must say, — we need eating, as it is a thing indispensable to life. — "7 ~~ And it is for this reason, that sentences, such as, — 2" need eating, and drinking, are usually expressed in Brasilian by the verb masy ; namely : xa-iu masy ; — lit : — I eating or drinking need. « As is seen from the preceding example, this verb or verbal root masy is liable to the same grammatical construction of the verbs — potare, kudu, etc. [ See ios ] . » Est meum, est tuum, etc. 108 . — As it is natural to their intellectual conditions, savage people, in the most ordinary way of speaking, use only concrete names. It is clear, that abstract words denote a certain degree of mental culture, to which, in general, they cannot attain by their simple way of living restricted to eating, drinking, hunting and the like. Hence results, that phrases like these : Lat. — est meum, = Fr. — c 'est a moi, — it is mine; and again: Lat. — est tuum, =Port . — é teu, it is thine; — can only be expressed in Br. lang. by — 11« — the possessive agreeing with a noun, clearly expressed, namely: sé mad, né maá, = my thing, thy thing. « The copula est (=is) is omitted, because such a verb does not exist in Brasilian». [10-4 ] DIVISION OF TIME 109. — Brasilian savage tribes did not divide time into months and weeks ; at the most, they in- dicated the space between the one moon and the other, by the word — yacy, which means, pro- perly, the moon. a) But, afterwards, through being catechised, or through dealing with white people, they have come to designate the days of the week with special names, as follows : ENGLISH BRAS. Sunday (*) Motou or metuü. Monday ('-) Morauke-pé . Tuesday ( 3 ) Morauke-mokoT . Wednesday i k ) M or alike -mosapur . Thursday (*) Svpapaü. Friday ( 6 ) lükuahü. Saturday ( 7 ) Saurü. — ii9 — (*) Motöü,=mo (formative element of verbs)* [ 96 ]-+- tuü=potuü, rest, repose ;=the resting- day. ( 2 ) Moraukepe,—morauke, to work,4-pe = yepé, one ; =the first loorking day. ( 3 ) Morauke-mokoT, =morauke, -\-mo~koe, two ;=the second working day . ( 4 ) Morauke-mosapur , = morauke , H- mo- sapiir, three ;=the third working-day. ( s ) Süpapáu, sü=söö , meat, + papdu = opciu, to be finished ;=the day in which the eating of meat is finished. (■) Iükuaku,=uküakü, to fast, i. e: — in, to eat or the eating, + kuakü, to put a stop to;=a day, in which eating is suppressed. ( 7 ) Saurü, = sabarü, is a corruption of the Portuguese word sabbado, Saturday. Days and nights b) The savages divide day and night into sev- eral portions of time, -after the position of the sun in the day-time, after the course or the rising and setting of the moon or the stars, at night . — 120 — We give, in the examples below, a complete idea of this usage: Space of time Names From the sun-rise to 9 o'clock Koema (morning) . From 9 o'clock to noon . Koarasj-uate, (sun high). — Noon Saié, or iandclra (tan- dara,= iandé,our, -\-dra, time,= our time.) From noon to 5 o'clock. — Ara, (time) . From 5 o'clock to 7 o'clock in the evening Karuka, (darkening.) From 7 o'clock to mid- night Pitnna, (quite dark). — Midnight Pi'saié. From midnight to 4 o'clock Pitvaa poku ( long From 4 o'clock to 6 in night.) the morning Koéma piranga (mor- From 6 o'clock to 9 ning red.) o'clock Koéma . — 121 — SALUTATION OR GREETING HO. — The words used by the savages, as greeting, which may correspond to our il good morning, good evening " etc, are these: — lane koéma, good morning, that is, literally: — oar morning ; — lané karüka, good evening, i. e: — our evening ; — iané pituna, good night, — lite- rally: — our night. — The person, the salutation is addressed to, ought to reply in each one of these cases: — Inddué, that is, — thine also. This word indaué is=Ind(e), thine, -f aué also. 111. — Those, which they distinguish ordi- narily, are the following : — White Murütinga (in compound words — ting a, only . Yellow Taud, (also yuba). Black Pixuna or pituna (in comp. words — {ma, only. Red Piranga. Azure Suikvra. Green Iakura . Grey Tuura . — 122 — REVIEW OF VARIOUS AGGLUTINATIVE FORMS (I). —To mark number IIS Kurumi, a boy KurumT-etd, boys . Rise, a knife Kisé-éta, knives. Meapé, a loaf Meapé-éta, loaves . P6, the hand Pö-étd, hands. Putyra, a flower. .. . Putyra-étá, flowers. Sesd or tesd (t = s) an eye Tesá-étd, eyes. Tama, a child TaTna-éta, children. Koahd, this Köahá-éta, these. Nahci, that Nahä-etá, those. Nahä-amö, that other Nahä-amö-étá, those others. Amo, other Amo-éta, others. Sé-maá, mine Sé maa-étá, mine(plur). Né-mad, thine Né-maá-étá,thme(p\\ir). I-mad, his or hers. . . I-mad-éta, theirs. Yané mad, our Yane-mad-etd, ours . Aé, he, she, it Aétá, they [33] . — 123 — ( II ). — To mark gender : <»> Apegdua, man... (") Kunhä, woman. Kurunii, boy Kunhä-tén, girl . Mü, brother Render a, sister. Tuba, father Sy, mother. Anáma-apegáua, a male relation Anarna-kunha, a female relation. Ydudra-apegdua,dog Yaudra-kunhä, bitch. Pixäna-apegdua,h.e- cat Pixäna-kunhä, she cat. Suasümé apegdua, he goat Suasümé-hunhä, she goat. Tapyra- apegdua, an ox ... . [3i 9 33] Tapyra-kunhä, a cow. (") — This form, as we see, is not agglutinative : the gender is rendered by distinct names. — 124 — (III).— To form augmentatives and diminutives Apegdita, man... Apegäua-uasü, a tall man, (=Port. — homenzarräo. Kunhä, woman.. Kunhä-uasü, a big wo- man, (=Port. — midhe- rona . Kurwrii, boy Kurumi-uasü,a. big boy , (= Port. — rapagäo. Oka, house Oka-uasu,SL large house, (=Port . — casäo . (e) Apegdua, man... Apegdiia-mirT , a short man , ( = Port. — ho- mensinho . Kunhä, woman ... Kunhä-mirT, a short wo- man, (=Port. — mulher- sinha . KurumT ', boy KurumT-mirT , a little boy ( = Port. — rapa- ziriho. Oka, house Oka-mirl ', a small house. [ 33, 36 ] — 125 — (IV).— To mark degree of quality or to express comparison (a) Kati'i, good Kutu-pyre, better. Turusü , great , large, broad. . .. Turusu-pyre, greater, lar- ger, broader. Poxi, bad Poxi-pyre, worse. Mirl, small or lit- tle Mirl -pyre, less, lesser- Poku, long Poku-pyre, longer. Poranga , fine , prettv Poranga-pyre, finer, pret- tier. Katu, good Katu(r)été, very good . Maracire, tired . . . Maraáre(r)été, very tired. Poranga, fine. . . . Poranga-été, very fine or the finest. Turusu, great. . .. Turusu-etc, very great, the greatest . [ to ] — I2b — (V). — To express state, condition, business or office, etc. [ 3^ to 6o,+9S to 0*y ] KauT, brandy . , Kurihä, woman . » » Meapé, bread Kaui-piranga, wine, (pi- ranga, red. Kunhä-koára-yma, a vir- gin, (=kodra, " fora- mine,+ yma,siné",— an intact or untouched wo- man, intrega ftlia. Kunhä-iména-momoxika- rd, an adulteress, (ime- na, married , + mo- moxi=mopoxi, to ruin or to viciate,-|-^ara,an agent, or person ; = a woman, toho vitiates matrimony .) Kunha-oba, a gown, (oba, clothes. Meapé-monhangára, a ba- ker, (monhang, to make, -+-dra, an agent ;=a per- son, who makes bread. 127 Mendara, to marry or matrimony... Mendasára-yma, a bache- lor ; « — mendara, -+- (s)dra, an agent, -\-yma, without or not ;—a man not married. « « « Menduba, father in-law ; « mendara, -\-uba = tuba, father; i. e: the father of matrimony. Mira, people Mira-resd-pe, publicly ; « mira , + resd = sesd , eyes, -h pé (prep . ) in ;= in the eyes of the people. Mirá-reapü, an uproar, a mob ; « mira, + reapü = teapu, noise ; = the noise of people. Mira-rekb-rupy , popular, common; «mira, + rekb, custom, + rupy, by ( prep. ) ; = according to the popular custom. Mo = monhä , to make Mo-apyre-saba, increase, augment « mo, -\-(a)pyr =pyre, moYe,-+-(s)aba, a suffix, like the English ness in the word good- ness ; = to make some- thing become more. — 128 — Mokciua or mo- kaba, musket.. Mokciua or mo- kaba, musket.. Okuciu = kudu, to know, or to be learned Oyaby = yaby, to miss, to mistake. O-yok = yok , to separate Moka-oka-miri ', garrison ; « mokciua, -\-dka, house, -\-mirT, small ;=a place, trhere - in there are soldiers icith muskets. Moka-oka-osu, fortress, « moka-oka, + osu, great ; i e: a place uhere-in there are a great many muskets. Okuciu- y ma- osü, a savage man ; « okuaü, + yfna without, + osu, great ; = a great ignorant man . Oyapy-akanga-pupé , to commit a blunder ; « ya- py = yaby, + akanga, head, -\-pupe, in (prep ) ; — to miss with the head. O-yoka-iakanga-sui , to dis- suade ; « yok, -\- iakanga — I2(j — = akanga, ■+■ sui, from (prep.) ; = to remove out of the head . 0-pis\k, to hold, to grasp O-pisik-tayra-rdma, to a- dopt ; «o-pisik, + tayra, son, + ráma or aráma, to or for (prep.) ; I e: to take for a son . (*) Pay a, priest or friar Paya-étü-roka, a convent ; « paya-etd, ( plural ) friars, + (r)oka, house ; i, e : a house of friars . » » Paya-nongara,steip-fathev; « pay a, + nongclra, like or alike; = a man, like father. Potdre, to wish . . . Potare-uasu or potare- opaT, ambition, covetous- ness ; « potare, +■ uasü great, or opal, every- thing ; = to covet all . (*) Corruption of Iho Port, word pae, father. — i3o — Taba, village or town Tába-pöra, free -man, citi- zen ; « pora, person [40] ; = who lives in the town. Tayra, son Tayra-angdba, a god -son ; « tayra, -+- ang spirit, + aba, (suffix) thing ; = a son by the spirit. Timiü, meal, re- past Timiu-monhangdra , a* cook ; « timiü, + mo- nhangdra, who makes. Tinodba,the beard. Tinodba-monhangdra, a barber. (VI).— To mark tenses of verbs : Xa monök, I cut . . Xa monok-dn, I have cut . Re-kudu , thou knowest Re-hudu-dn, thou knewst. Ae o-potdre, he de- sires Ae o-potdre-an, he desired. landé ia-pdu, we finish Iande ia-pdu-an,\ve finish- ed. — i3i — Pee-pé-saharu,yovL wait Pe~ pe-saharü-an, you have waited . Aitd o-mahc, they look Aitd o-mahc -an, they looked . Xa monhä, I make Xd monhä-kuri, I will make. Re-mo-aku, thou warmest Re-mo-aku-kuri, thou wilt warm . Aé o-iko ike, he is here Aé o-iko-kuri iké, he will be here lane ia-u, we eat or we drink. . . . lane ia-u-kuri, we will eat or drink . Pé-rasö, you take out Pe-rasd-kuri,yo\i will take out. Aétd o-mondü,they send Aétd-0-mondü-kuri, they will send . [st to so] — 132 — (VII) To express the present, past, future agent, or subject : Monhä, to make. . . Monha-sara, who makes, now. Monhä, to make . . Monhä-udra or monhä pi/ra, that who has made . Karihem, to fly, to run away Kanhem-bora or kanhem- pöra, who runs away very often or continually, — a fugitive man. Rasö, to take away Raso-rama, about to take away . — [ For further illustration on these last words, seethe nos. 41,43,44] ORIGINAL WORDS 113. — The list below contains several terms of Brasilian speech, that we suppose to be, with a few exceptions, original ones, both in form and meaning. — [ Besides, see "onomatopaic words" — no. 66 ]. — i33 — A, formerly, the pronoun of the first person sing, and now used, as the personal prefix of the same person . [ss] Aän (interjection), I say not. Ab, to open, to cut, to divide, to turn up ; cf: — iby-db, to break up the soil,(= iby, soil,+a£) ; — o-ab puti/ra, the flower expands, (=o, pers. prefix 4- ab, -f- puti/ra, flower ) . Aba, creature, human being; cf: abá-nee, hu- man speech, that is, — the speech of the natives of the country, (= abd,-\-nee, speech) ; — abd-reko, the state or natural condition of man,(=a&«,+re- kö=tehö, state, condition, custom), [ss] ; — abd rod, human flesh, (=abä,-\-röö=söö, flesh). Abi/, to miss, that is, not to hit the mark, not to reach or to attain. Aé, he, this, that, etc. [ 46 ] Aib or ayba, bad, evil, also an interjection, = unfortunate ! poor-devil ! Aha, point; — cf: akuc'ii, pointed; — akab, to fight, that is, — to turn the point of lance against somebody, (=aka,-\-ab, to turn). Akü, warm, to warm. Am, to be up, to stand firm, to rise up, to be over-placed or to over-rule. — i:>4 — Ambü (on.), sonorous, sounding, to sound. Ami, to squeeze, to hold fast, to clinch, etc. Ang, spirit, life, or the origin of life; — cf: — mo-ang, to think, ( = mo, particle [n.90], + ang, spirit) ; and again : — mo-ang, to engender, to give life to. Apijk or apig, to sit down, seated, steady, to be quiet, etc. ; cf: iby-apik, to sit down, that is, to sit upon the soil,( = iby, land or soil, + apyk) • Ar, to be born, to occur, to fall, to bring forth, etc. [-*r] Asy, to be in pain, to ache. Asu, great, large, big, tall, etc. Atir, hill, heap, pile. Baé = aé, thing, this, that, etc. , etc. [-45,46] Bag, to turn, to move the body; cf: bang, turned up. Bébé (on.), to fly. [ss] Bög (on.), to cleave, to crack, to be parted by force, etc. Bobbg (frequentative), to shoot, to burst with great noise. Bür (on.), to spout, to spurt, to spring up or to rouse, to gush out with noise. — i35 — Ée, (or a5), yes, I say yes; — cf: nhee, to tell, to speak, or the speech. E, (contracted form of aé), the third person, = another ; cf: abdé, a distinct or different person, (neither I, nor thou), (abd,-\-é=aé). Em or éma, to empty, to become void. Enoi, to call, to name, to call upon. Eo or téo, to die, to finish, to succumb or to yield, to fail. Éu, (on.), to belch, or belching. o Goéne or guena{on.), to vomit. Guéy or héy (on.), to toast, or rather, to frolic, frolicking . Guegu T> (on. frequentative), to be hoarse, or having a rough voice, — raucus, or husky. T-I Hääng, to measure, to compare, to confer. Hesd =sesd, eyes . Hiy, to depress, to lower. Ho = so, to go, to go away . i36 — Iby, land, earth, origin. [4s] Iké or iky, here, to come in. Ir oryr, to get loose, to leave off, and also (used as suffix) to raise, to pick up ; cf: aka-bir, to raise the head ; — kaa-pir, to clear, to remove herbs or trees ; — supir= tuplr, to take up, to lift ;— tipy- kuir, to distil, to take out the liquid, etc. Iar ( = ar), to take away, to take by force ; cf : — iara, the owner. Isig, to glue, to stick, to unite, to adhere, and also to hold, to catch. ltd, stone, metal, in general, [sr] ly or yg, water, to flow, [so] Compare: (*) « Koriaihish ( Oriental Asia ). . . . i ; « Semoyedish ( Siberia ) i', or iy ; <.< Kamtchakish ( Oriental Asia ). iij, or ya ; « Mandingoish ( Central Africa ) . . y\ ; « Erse uisy ; « Irish isg ; « Albancan ( South Europe ) ui ; « Arabic ( Oriental Asia ) mai ; [L'étude comparative des langues pur le Baron df Merian, Pariz 1828. ] — - 07 — Kad, herb, wood, leaves of tree, ; of: ipéka- kuänha or pekad-guäna, medicinal herb, (pe ^=peb, flat, lovr,-\-kaa, herb, +grw£na, to vomit; = an herb, which makes vomit, an emetic agent). Kdb, to wound, to strike, to hurt, to tight. [ See — akcib } . Kar = kari, to order, to force to make, to con- strain, etc. Kau or haul, wine, (had, herb, +$, drink, potion). Kér, to sleep, sleeping. Kudu, to know, to understand, etc. KuZ'kul — « See — gu?gue » . Kdi, to burn, to be ardent. K6, the plantation, (the place planted). Kui, far, at great distance Kutr or kuir-kuir ( on . frequentative), to rain, to drop, to trickle. Kud, the waist; cf : ku-dr, to tie about, to gird, to embrace, etc. Kuk (on.), to beat, to crack. — i38 — M Mad, thing. Mae, (or make) to see, to look, (the voice of one who indicates or shows a thing. Mbaé, — « See baé » . Mámá—maámaá (frequentative), to file, to roll, to put a thing upon others, to make a bundle. Mémé, the same ; that is, continuous, uninter- rupted, as the two syllables repeated — mé-mé. Meen or meeng, to give. Mi or rnimi, to hide, or to abscond oneself. Mo, to make. [96] Mü, brother, a relation. is- Nhee, to speak. (See ee). To nhee belong the derivatives : « Nee-gu, to swallow the word, or to be reticent. . . «Necg-uru (on.), to mutter, to whisper ; « Necgétá, to speak too long, ( — neeg, -\-étá, much, many) ; « Nec-taby, to speak incorrectly or to speak non-sense. — i3g — Ob=tob, leaves, in general ; when is used as verb, it means to spread, to stretch, and also, to cover . Og = ok, (on.), to take hy force, to pull, to pluck off, and also, which is squeezed out or sprung forth from one thing squeezed. Pä (on.), to sound, toned, sonorous, etc. Pa á (on.;, to entangle oneself, (the voice of one who has something in the throat), to choke, etc. Pab or pau, to finish, all is finished, com- pleted ; — cf: pabé, all, all together, (pab= pdu,-\- é = aé, this or that thing). Pag or pak, to awake, awaked. Pdnpdn (on.), to spring, to shoot out, to re- bound. Pé, way, path, track, course ; and from this: pe-dr, to cross^oathuarta place, to hinder. [47-] Peb, flat, low. « Pebur ( is a derivative of peb ), to swell, swollen, =to become flat. — 140 — Petég or peték (on.), to beat, that is, the clapping of hands . Pi, the skin. Pig, to cease, to leave off, to give over, to stop. Pindd or pinci, to harpoon, or every thing which is harpooned ; — (pindd is, precisely, the hook or fish-gig). Pipig (on.), to boil, to gush violenty, and also to scintillate. «Pirog (it is a derivative), to peel or to skin, etc; ( pi, skin ,-\-rög=ög , to take, to pull off). Pita, to stay, to rest in a place . Ptu, soft, smooth. Po, hand. Pog=pok (on.), to break into pieces, to burst with great noise. Pukd (on.),' to laugh, that is, to expand, to open one's heart . Pong (on.J, to sound, to beat, sounding. Pug (on.), to shoot out, to crack. Püpíí or pupur (on.), to boil, that is, the water of the pot boiling with noise. Piipü orpüpung (on.), to wound with blows, to strike buffets. Py, foot, base, seat, sitting, etc. Pya, heart, and also the thorax. — 141 — Rci, marked, painted, with stripes. Rab, to loosen, to unbind or unfasten. Ry = tiy, the liquid, the humor, sweat, or the current of water, etc. Ririy, {frequentative) to tremble, to shake with cold or on account of fear . Rob, bitter, to embitter or to be embittered. Rög = tog, to cover, covering, etc., and also to stop. Säang, to ape, to imitate the voice of some- body. Sa-sdi (frequentative), to spread, to scatter about, etc. Sent, to go out, to be off. — [See Em.'] Sesd = tesd, eyes or sight, the sense of seeing. Se-sem (frequentative of Sem), to shed, to be dispersed, to empty. Séy, to need. — [SeeAsy, 10» ]. Sir, sharp -pointed, keen-edged. Sög—sák (on.), to pluck off, to draw violent- ly, etc . — 142 — Sö, to go. Sod, animal, game, flesh or meat ; and also, to feed or to give for food. «Sou (it is a derivative), to bite, that is, to eat meat ; (söö, meat, -\-u, to eat). Sy or sig, spring, fountain, origin, mother, a well. [ See Ig ] . Td, to abound, to exist in plenty, etc. Tag=tak (on.) to beat, to make noise. Tai = sdi, acid ou sour, piquant. Tang (it is a derivative), new, vigorous, fixed, hard ; (ta, plentous, -4- ang, life or spirit). Tar, to take or to catch . [47] Tata (on.), fire ;= the noise of fire burning wood. Tata, (on.), strong, solid, having the sound of a well strung chord. Toto (on.), to palpitate, palpitation. Torib, merry, joyful, to rejoice, etc. Tü or tuk (on.), to strike a blow. Tutü (frequentalive), to wound somebody with blows . Tuba, father. " From this word, we think, — 143 — was derived : Tupcin, God ; Tupa — tuba, father -\-an, elevation, superiority, or elevated, over- ruling, — i. e: the father above:" Tété or tuté, body, the human body. Tim, the nose. u U, to eat and drink. Ub, to lie down, to rest in peace ; (ub means, precisely, the thigh.) Un, black or negro; cf: — pitüna, night. Ungd, to hand, to touch, to handlle, etc. Ur = tur, to come, to arrive. Xáxá (on.), to tear, to cut asunder, etc. CHAPTER XII BRASILIAN COMPOSITIONS lly£.— Under this head we arrange " the Lord' sprayer "and a few legends of the Indians, written in Brasilian by Dr . Couto de Magalhäes in his excellent work, Selvageni, to which we — 144 — are already indebted for other references made in this book. We have endeavoured to be literal inbur trans- lation imitating, as nearly as possible, the originals, and the only alterations made are owing to the orthography, that we have, especially, adopted . It is unnecessary to be recollected, that with such a translation we mean, principally, to give — " more complete instances " of the usual speech of the Brasilian tribes and thus to enable the reader to apreciate, by himself, the correct application of the rules, we have stated before. Accordingly, we will present : firstly, the original Brasilian compositons, — secondly, the English translation, — thirdly, the explanation of the grammatical construction and the meaning of each term separately. NHAXE RUBA llä. — (') Nhané Ruba o-ikd uad naha uuák opé; ( 2 ) Né réra o-yo-moeté (t)o-ikö; ( 3 ) Re-mehe iané arnma v.uáka, mamé re- ikö : — 143 — ( ; ) Né remimutára (t)o-oyo-monhä üuá- ka-pé, ipür (*) yüpe ; ( s ) Ré-mehd oiy iané aräma iané remiü ara yepé yepé sui-uära ; ( 6 ) Be-mehc né yron iané angaipäua resé, may-aué ia-mehe liurl iané yron aitá supé inti o-monhä-na katu uaá iané aräma ; ( 7 ) Inti rexáre, iané Iará, ia-monhä poxl maá-étá ; ( 8 ) Repüsürü ianeopai mad aüa sui; Amen. TRANSLATION The Lord's prayer Our Father which art in heaven ; Hallowed be thy name ; Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven ; Give us this day our daily bread ; And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors ; And lead us not into temptation ; But deliver us from evil; Amen. (*) J.OUT moans cither, or. and also, neither, nor. [jlOOJ 10 — 146 — Literal Explanation ( 1 ) Nhane=iane, our; Ruba = tuba, father; o-ihd, is ; uad, who [ts ] ; nahä, that ; viw.k or ybdk, heaven; ope, in. ( 2 ) Né, thy; réra, name; o, pers. prefix, yo, particle [ov] moéte, to venerate ; /o-z'&d == o-i&d, be (the £ is used to denote the third pers. of the Imperative), that is, be hallowed. ( 3 ) Re-mehe, give; iané, us, aráma, to or for ; üuák, heaven ; mamé, where ; re-ihd, Thou art ; ( 4 ) Né, thy ; remimutara, will ; ( t sign of the Imperative) (pers. pref. ), yo-monha, — be done; — vuaka-pé, in heaven; iuür, as well as ; yüpé = ibypé, in earth. ( s ) Re-mehe, give ; oiy, today ; iané aráma, to us ; iané remiu , our bread ; ara yepe yepé suiudra, day each one of. ( 6 ) Re-me)i~, give ; ne yron, thy forgiveness ; iané angaipdua rese, our debts for ; may-aué, as well as; ia-mehc kuri, we will give ; iané yron, our forgiveness ; aita supé, them to ; inti o-monha, not do ; katü, well ; uad, who ; iané aráma, us to. — 147 — ( 7 ) Inti re-ocare, not leave ; iané Idra, our Lord, ia-monha, we to do; poxi maa-etci, bad actions. ( 8 ) Re-piisvru, deliver ; iané, us ; opal, all ; maä, things; ava = ayba, evil, that is, all evil things . Amen . « May pituna o-yo-kudu an. . . .» HO. Iupirungdua ranié, inii-maá pitüna ; ara anho opaT or a opé. Pituna o-kéri o-ikö iy rupy-pé. Inti-maá soö-e-tä] opaT mad o-nhe^ . Boia-Uasü membyra, ipahri, o-yo-menar yepé kurwm-uasü irümo . Koahd hurumi-uasü o-rekd masapür miasua katu-rété. Oiepé ára öpé, o-senöi mosapür miasüa, o-nhee aitá supé: « PekoT pe-uatd, se remirekd inti o-kéri potare sé irumo . » Miasua o-su-än. Aramé aé o-senöi xemirehá okéri aráma aé irümo . — 148 — Xemirekö o-suaxára : Inti räipitvna. — Inti-maá pitüna ; dra anhö. «Se ruba o-reko pitüna. Re-keri potare ramé se irümo, re-mondü pichno aé par and rupy . — Aé o-senöí musapür miasüa ; Xemirekö o-mundü aüáiruba öka piri o- sö o-piamo aráma yepé tukuman-rainha . Aitá o-süka ramé Boia-Uastiokaöpé, koahá o-mehe aitá supé tukuman-rainha, oyo-sikináu reté, o-nhee : « Kusuküi äna ; — re-rasö tenhe ; inti pe- pirári kuri\pe-pirariramé,pe-kanhumo-kuri ! Miasüa o-sö-an ; o-senön teapü tukuman rainha pépé : ten, ten, ten. . . .= tuküra-étá reapü, iüi-étd irümo, o-nheeg-ar uad pitüna ramé . Miasüa o-ikö ramé äna apekatu, oiepé suiudra o-nheei iromo-udra~etá supé: «Mad- tá koakd teapü ? « la-sö ia mahö t» Iakumäyua o-nhee ; «Inti-mad ; — kurumü tahd ia kanhtimo kuri ; — pe-apukiä,ia~sd äna !» Aitd o-so än. Aitd 0"sendn o-ikö teapü ; inti o~kudu mad nhähä teapü uaá. Aitd O'ikö apekatu reté änaramé, aitá ö-yo- — 149 — mo-atiri igára-pitérapé, opirdri aramatuku- man rainha, o-mahe arámamaá o-iko i pöpé ; Oiepé o-modyka tat a, — aild o mo-yotyku iraity, osikinau oihu uacl tukumdn rainha ; o-kénar. Aitct o-pirdri ramé, kuruty-udrapitüna-uasü anal Aramé iakumäyua o-nhe2 : « Ia-kanhümo ! «Kunhä mokü (s)öka öpé o-kuáu-an iané ia- pirári hoahd tukuman-rainha ! » Aitá o-sá än . Kunhä moku soka öpé o-nhee i ména supé : « Aitá opirari pitv.na. Kuyr ia-sá ia-sarü koéma » . Aramé opaT mad, o-sdin oikö uaa had rupy, oyseréo soö aráma, uyrd aräma. Opal mad, o-sáin oikö parand rupy, oyeréo ipékd aráma, pirá aráma; Uru-sakanga o-yeréo iáuára-eté aráma ; pira- kasdra oyseréo i igára irümo ipeka aräma : i akanga ipék-akanga aráma ;*— i igára ipéka seté aräma ; i apukuitáua oyeréo ipéka-rétima aräma. Boia- Uasu membyra o-mahe raméyasi-tdta- uasu, o-nhee imenasupé: «Koema o-iur oikö ; xa sö xa mom ara pitüna sui. » — i5o — Aramé aé o-mamdn inimö, o-nhe^ : «Indé cuyiibl kuri,o-nhe~gar aräma,koéma o-iur ramé kuri.» Koái o-monhä cuyulñ : o-mo-piranga i setima uruku irümo, o-motinga i akanga taba- tinga iruiíto ; — o-nhe3 ixupé : «Re-nhecgar- kuri opaT ard opé, kocma o-íur ramé ! Ariré aé o-mamdn inimö, o-nheé : — «Indé inambu kuri.» O-pisika tanimuka, omburi sesé, o-nhee i-ccupé: — «Iné inambu kuri, onhe~ngdr arama kuruka ramé,pitüna ramé,pvsaié ramé,pituna- poku ramé, koéma piranga ramé.» [io<>, b] Ad-sui uyrá-étá o-nhecgár dra katu öpé, koéma o-ur ramé,omoröri arama ara. Mosapür miasua o-si I sy o-mongaturu ximidra. Aitd o-u oikö ramé, aé o-puranu: Audsupé o-suka uad amö tetdma sui, mad-td re-monhd i-xupé ? Urubü o-suaxdra: xa senoi ae o-u arama iane irumo. Aramé i sy o -senoi kunha-mohu. Urubü sorib-eté an, kunha-moku poranga reté resé. — 164 — Pitüna opé, aé o-soramé o-yenö aé irwno, kunhä-mokit ompü-án, inema resé aé. Arnö koema öpé, uáimio-mondü rarrik kunhä hioku o-iuuka arama iaped, kunhä-moku o-iauauäii. . . . 111 « Kunhä-mokü, Inayé » Aé o-svka ramé mosapür pé öpé, o-sö cnno rupy. O-sííka oka opé, o-mahe yepé uáimipo- ranga-reté, o-paranü i-xui : — Iné Inayé sy serci ? Uáimi o-suaxdra : Ixé aé terilie. Kunhä-moku o-nhél : xa-ur aé piri xa menar aratna aé irumo. Uaimi o-nhee : xa sö xa-iumimi indé ; sé mbyra mira poxt-reté ! Karuka ramé , rribyra o-svka ; o-rure ximidra, = uirá-mrrl-tá. I sy omon-gatwru uíra mirltá aitá oü aräma. Aitá oü o-Íhö ramé, i sy o-puranü i-xui: Auá supé o-si'ka uaä raraé amo tetama sui, mfiLa iä re-monhä i-xupé? — 1 65 — Inayé o-suaxára : — Xa-senoi aé oü arama iané irümo. Aramé uáimi o-senoi kunhä-mokü. Inayé sorlb reté, kunhä mokü poranga reté resé. Aetd o-keri-an ie'pe-uasü. Amo ara-öpé, Urübü o-süka Inayé oka öpé, o-sikari aräma kunhä moku. Aitä omara-monhä-oan reté kunhä-mokü resé. Inayé ompük-än Urubü akanga. I sy omo-akü iy, mo-astlk i akanga. Iy sakü reté oan; aaresé i akanga-saua-yma opitá ara opé "the young- WOMAN who goes to seek husband" I " The Young- woman and the Fox " One day, a young-woman said to her mother: ' ' I go to seek my husband ; I am feeling great hunger". She went away ; arrived wherein there were three paths, and asked : — which is the Inaye's path? — 1 66 — In the one path, she saw some feathers of inambü ; then she thought: — This must be the Inayé's path. She went along this. At last, she met a house, where was an old woman seated at the fire-side, and asked to her: " Are you the Inayé's mother?" The old -woman replies: — I, myself, yes. The young-woman said : I come to marry with him. The old woman said: — " My son is a very troublesome fellow ! Therefore I go to hide you." This old woman was not the mother of Inayé, but she was the Fox's mother. In the evening, her son came back, and brought his game,= birds. His mother tempered them for eating ; and when they were eating, the mother asked to son : — if now somebody came here from other land, how should you treat him ? The Fox replied: — I would call him to eat with us. Then the old woman called the young-woman, who was hidden. This ate with them . The Fox became very content, because she was very beautiful . — 167 — At night, the Fox went to sleep with the young- woman ; but this expelled him, saying, that he was too stinking , When in the morning the old woman bade the young- woman seek fuel, this went away, and.. . 11 « The Young-woman and the Carrion-Crow. » She arrived at three paths, and went through another . . . At last, she arrived at a house, where she met other old woman, to whom she asked : — Are you the Inayé's mother ? The old woman replied : Yes, I am . The young-woman said : I come to marry with him. The old- woman said: I go to hide you, be- cause my son is a very troublesome fellow ! This old -woman was the Carrion-crow's mo- ther. At evening, her son arrived ; he brought small worms, and said to his mother: "Here is small fish, mother". His mother tempered the prey. — i68 — When they were eating, she spoke: — If some- body came now from other land, how should you treat him ? The Carrion-crow replied: I would call him to eat with us. Then his mother called the young-woman. The Crow became very content, because she was very fine. At night, he went to sleep with the young- woman, but this expelled him on account of his stinking . In the other morning, when the old -woman bade the young-woman . seek fuel, she run away . . . in « The Young- woman and the Sparrow-hawk . » She arrived, again, at three paths, and she went through another. . . She arrived at a house, where she met a fine old-woman, to whom she asked : Art thou the Inayé's mother? The old-woman replied: Yes, I am. IlX) — The young-woman said: I come to marry with him. The old- woman said : I go to hide you, because my son is a very troublesome fellow ! At evening, the son arrived and brought his game, = many small birds. His mother prepared the birds for their eating; and when they were eating, she asked to him : « If somebody came from other land, how should you treat him ? » Inayé replied: I would call him to eat with us. Then the old-woman called the young- woman. Inayé became very glad, because she was very fine. They slept together. In the other day, the Carrion-crow arrived at Inayé's house, looking for the young- woman. They fighted much on account of the young- woman . Inayé brake open the head of the Crow. The mother of the latter warmed water, washed his head ; but the water was too warm, and, therefore, his head became bald, since then. . — i7o — Literal translation I « KUNHÄ-MOKU, MYKURA > « The Young- woman and the Fox » Oiépé hunhä-mokü o-rihee i sy supé: « Xa sö xa sikari se ména ; A young-woman said her mother to : « I go I seek my husband ; « Xa purardre rété iu-masy ! » «1 feel great hunger. » Aé o-sö an ; o-suha o-än, mamé o-ikd mosa- pur pé, o-puranu : — Maá-ta Inayé pé ? (*) « She went away ; arrived, where there were three paths, she asked: — Which Inayé's path ? Oiepé pé öpe, aé o-mahe inambu-rdua ; ara- mé aé o-maüé-oän : — Koahd Inayé pé. One path in, she sees inambu's feathers ; then she thought : This Inayé's path. O-sö-än aé rupy . She went along this through . (*) Inayé is the Brasilian name of a sparrow-hawk. — I 7 I — Opausápe, o-yo-iuanti öka, mamé o-ikö yepé uáimi ö-apik-oikd uad tatä remehüpe ; o-nhee : At last, she met a house, where was one old woman seated was who fire-side at ; she said : « Ine sera Inaye sy ? » « You Inayé's mother ? » Udimi o-suaxdra : — Ixé aé tenhe The old-woman replied : — I myself yes. Kunhä-mokü o-nhec : Xa iur aé piri xa menar aráma aé irümo . The young-woman said : — I come him to, I to marry him with. Uaimi o-nhee: — se mbyra mira poxi-reté aé ; aa-résé xa sö xd iumimi iné . The old woman says : my son bad very he ; therefore I go I hide you . Koahd udimi inti Inaye sy ; Myküra (*) sy aé. This old woman not Inayé's mother ; Fox's mother she. Karuka ramé, i mbyra o-süka-oän; o-rure- an xemiára, — uira-etd. Evening when, her son came back ; he brought his game, — birds . (•) Animal like a fox. — I 7 2 — I sy o-mongaturu aitä o-u arama. His mother tempered them eating for. Aitä o-u o-ikö ramé, i sy o-puranu i-xui : O-süka ramé oiepé amö tetama-uára, may tahá re-rekö aé ? They eating were when, his mother asked him to : Arrives when one other land from, how you treat him ? Myküra o-suaxära : Xa senöi aé o-ü aräma iané irumo. Fox replies : I call him eating for us with. Aramé uaimi o-senoi kunhä mokü, o-iumimi o-ikö uaá . Then the old-woman calls the young-woman, hidden was who. Kunhä-moku o-ü-än aitá irumo. The young-woman ate them with. Mykura sorib o-ihö, maa-resé kunhä-mokií poranga réte. Fox content was, because young woman fine very . Pituna opé, Mykura o-sö ramé, okér aráma kunhä mokü irumo, aé ompü-án aé o-nhee : Night at, the Fox went when sleep to, the young woman with, she expelled him, she said : Inti xa-ieno pot áre né irümo, maa-resé inéma rété iné. - i 7 3- Not I to sleep will you with, because stinking very much you . Koéma ramé, uainii o-mondu ramé kwihä mokü o-iuuka iepea, kunhä moku o-iaudu-än . Morning when, the old woman ordered when the young woman to seek fuel, the young- woman went away .... ii < KUNHA MOKU, URUBU > « The Young-woman and the Carrion-crow » O-svka mosapv.r pé öpé, o-sö amo rupy ; She arrived three paths at, she went another through ; O-suka öka öpé, o-iuuanti amö uaimi irümo ; She arrived house at, met other old-woman with ; O-puranu i-xui : Inäé será Inayé sy ? She asked her: You Inaye's mother? Uáimi o-suaxcira : — Ixé aé tenhe. The old-woman replies: I myself yes. Kunhä moku o-nhee : xa ur aé piri, xa menar aráma aé irumo . — 174 — The young woman said : I come him to, I marry him with. Uáimi onhcc: Xa so xa iumimi indé, se mbyra poxi reté sesé . The old -woman said : I go I hide thee, my son creature rude very because. Koahd uäimi Urubu sy . This old- woman Carrion-crow's mother. Karuka ramé, i mbyra o-sv.ka ; o-rure xemidra,= itapuru mirJetci, onhce i sy supé: Evening when, her son arrived ; he brought game, = worms small, he said his mother to : « Kusukui pird mir7ta,se sy. > «Here is small fish, my mother . » I sy o-mongaturu ximidra. His mother tempered the prey. Aitd o-u-oikb ramé, aé o-puranü : They eating were when, she asked: Aud supé o-sv.ka toad arno tetania sui, mad-td re-monhä i-xupé? Him to arrives who other land from, how do you him with ? Urubu o-suaxdra : xa senoi aé o-u arama iané irümo. The Crow replies: I call him eating for us with. - i 7 5 - Aramé i sy o-senoi kunkä-moku. Then his mother called the young- woman. Urubü sorib-eté an, kunhä-moku poranga reté resé. The Crow glad very was, young-woman fine very because of. Pilüna öpé, aé o-sö ramé o-yenö aé írumo ; kunhä-mokü ompü-án incma resé aé. Night at, he went when, to sleep her with ; the young-woman expelled him, stinking for his. Amö koema öpé,udími o-mondu ramé kunhä mokü o-iuuka arama taped, kunhä-mokti o-iauau-än. . . . Other morning at, the old -woman ordered when, the young- woman seek to fuel /the young- woman went away .... ill « KUNHA-MOK.U, INATE> « The Young-woman and the Sparraw-hawk » Aé o-stiha ramé mosapür pé opé, o-sö amo rupy . She arrived when three paths at, she went other through . — 176 — O-sitka oka öpé, o-mahe yepé udimi poran- ga-reté, o-puranü i-xui : — Iné Inayé syserát She arrived a house at, saw one old-woman fine very, she asked her: Thou Inaye's mother? Uäimi o-sitaxdra: Ixé aé tenhe. Old-woman replies : I myself yes . Kurihä-moku o-nhée : xa-ur aé piri xa menar arama aé irumo. Young-woman said : I come him to, I marry to him with. Uaimi o-nhee : xa so xa-iumimi indé; sé nibyra mira poxi-reté! Old-woman says : I go I hide thee ; my son a fellow troublesome very ! Karuka ramé , inbyra o-sv.ka ; o-rure ximicira, = uira-mirJ-setd . Night at, the son arrived ; he brought game, = birds small many . I sy omon-gaturü iCira mirTtcl ait á oil aräma. His mother prepared the birds small their eating for. Aitd oü o-ikd ramé, i sy o-puranu i-xui: They eating were when, his mother asked him : Aud supé o-svka uaá ramé amo tetäma sui, maä tá re-monha ixu-pel Him to arrives who if other land from, how you do him to? — i 7 7 — Inayé o-suaocára : — Xa senoi aé oü aráma iané irümo. Inayé replied: I call him eating for us with. Aramé uáimi o-senoi kunhä-moku. Then the old woman called the young- woman. Inayé soríb reté, kunhä moku poranga reté resé. Inayé glad very, the young-woman fine very for. Aetá o-ker-an iepe-uasü . They slept together . Amo ara-opé, Urubü o-süka Inayé oka opé, o-sihari aräma hunhä mokü. Other day at, the Crow arrived Inayé's house at, looking for the young-woman. Aitá omara-monhä-oan reté kunhä-mokü resé. They fighted much, the young-woman be- cause of. Inayé ompuk-an Urubu akanga . Inayé brake open the Crow's head . I sy omo-akü iy, mo-asük i akanga. His mother warmed water, washed his head. Iy saku reté oan ; aaresé i akanga-saua-yma opitä ara opé The water was too warm ; therefore his head bald became, since then 1-2 — 178 — CHAPTER XIII CONCLUSION IIS. — From all that has been said before, we think, we are enabled to draw the following general conclusions : (I) That in the Brasilian language all the words are invariable ; [sy] (II) That the distinction of number and gender in nouns, adjectives, and pronouns (except the personal) are indicated, either by special words or by postpositions, and other formative elements ; [30 to 34, 67 to 69, 74 to 80] (hi) That the persons of verbs are designated by means of prefixes which are, so to say, glued to them, with the same value and signification, as the personal suffixes of the Latin language ; [ss] (iv) That the moods and tenses (the Present Indicative excepted) are expressed by the use of — 179 — special particles, which are placed after the ver- bal root ; [se to sa] (y) That, although a noun or an adjective of quality may be used, as a verb, and vice-versa, still we find, in general, quite distinct, all the parts of speech, such as : noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, postposition (prep.), con- junction and interjection ; [ar, os, ioe] (vi) That predicative roots are entirely distinct from demonstrative ones, and that they are never confounded in their applications. (vii) That in derivative or compound-words it is always easy to make the decomposition of the radical and of the formative elements, although there may occur frequent euphonical letters. — Therefore, we consider these facts and other which were presented before, as a proof, quite sufficient, that the Brasilian speech ought to be rightly classed, as belonging to the family of agglutinative tongues. CORRIGENDA Hags. 6... to... 14... 19. . 23... 30... 31... 38... 45... 57... 59... 64... 68... 71... 7'..., 80.., 81... 91.. 96.. 10). . 103.. 110.. 111.. 113.. 1-21.. 125.. 140.. 145.. 147.. 148.. 154.. 157.-. 159.. Errata 3 dostiogulsh... 6 language sare. T indu-ctions. .. lO knwon 13 can, rightly... 16 tho-roforo » gene-ral 3 1 ) distinguished. 38.. .. 57 39 66.... f>9 VI .... 75.... as erciproeally. (partielo)... to to dig... kunhá tventy that 83 baptised; » tho thoso 91 so-coll- » ... ... liing 96 equal o 98 a it 99 postpo-islions. 103 t-iné iukd 103 ixé iukd lOl au-xialiary... vorbstare HO... 113. .. 113.... 115 C) 116. lito-rally. . lossor- violenty..., eithor, or, meither pekoi. . pipe yuorsolvos. maä . . . shcad Corrected distinguish languages are induc-lions known can rightly there-foro gener-al distinguished, : an s. ■ reciprocally : particle) : to dig : kunhä : twonty : that, : baptised, : those : so-call- : living : equal to : it : postpo-sitions : t-iné o-iukd : ixé re -iukd : aux-iliary : verb stare z lit-erally z lesser. ; violently - either, tr, z neither - pekoT, z pope - yourselves = make z s head XusTIDIEiX CHAPTER I CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES 1 (1) Tho monasyllabic period 2 (2) The agglutinative period 3 (3) Tho inflectional period 7 The study of language 10 The Bras. lang. and its position 13 CHAPTER II FHONETIC PRINCIPLES 19 founds and letters 22 Consonants 23 Vowels 25 Diphthongs 28 Table of the alphabetic sounds 29 Thonctic alterations 30 Permutation of sounds 31 Suppression & addition of letters 33 CHAPTER III PARTS OF SPEECH 36 Accidence or tho forms of words 37 Gender, number and case 40 Diminutive and augmentative 43 Derivation and formation of nouns etc 44 Noun-suffixes 45 Agglutination of words 49 Longer-agglutinative words 55 Onomatopaic wor ds 65- II CHAPTER IV ADJECTIVES 63 Accidoncc of Bras, adjectivos 67 Gondor and number 68 Comparison 63 Numerals 70 Ordinals 72 CHAPTER V Pr JNS 73 Personal pronouns 73 Demonstrative pron 74 Interrogative pron 75 Relative pronouns 76 Possessive pron 76 Indeflnito pron 77 CHAPTER VI VERBS 79 Voico of verbs 80 Reflexive verbs 81 Transitivo verbs 81 Prono. subjects & pers. prefixes 83 Mood 84 Tonses 85 Tho negation and interrogation 89 Anomalous vorbs 90 Remarks 92 Formation of verbs 94 Participles 97 CHAPTER VII POSTPOSITIONS 97 Ill CHAPTER VIII ADVERBS 101 Advorbs of place 101 Adverbs of affirmation, etc, otc 103 Adverbs of limo 103 Adverbs of manner, quality, etc 106 CHAPTER IX CONJUNCTIONS 107 CHAPTER X INTERJECTIONS á CHAPTER XI MISCELL. RULES & REMARKS 109 Syntax of tho subject 109 * Syntax of the object Ill Syntax ofthc verb Ill The construction of some verbs 115 To nood and (to) will , 116 Est meum, est tuum 117 Division of time 118 Salutation or grcoling 121 Colours 121 Review of agglutinative forms 122 Original words 132 CHAPTER XII BRAZILIAN COMPOSITIONS 143 Nhané Ruba 144 May pituna o-yo-kuáu-an , 147 Kunhä mokü o-sd uaä & 161 CHAPTER XIII CONCLUSION 178 CORRIGENDA 181 -"V^ *■*"-< UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. Ä OCT SI ^ * ^ ^ «tf 0? ^* 5 1396 386 Form L9-Series 4939 3 1158 011 20 0036 .