Dm OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES Cbe %m^ of tbc illations. THE WEST INDIES. "9 . THE STORY OF THE NATIONS ^3- 24. 25- 26. 27. 28. r,y Akthur Gilma.v, By Prof. J. K. r-y ROME. U.A. THE JEWS. HOS.MEK. GERMANY. By Rev. S. Baring- Gould, I\I.A. CARTHAGE. By Prof. Alfred I. Church. ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J. P. Mahafiy. THE MOORS IN SPAIN. St.^nley Lane-Poole. ANCIENT EGYPT. By George Rawlinson. HUNGARY. By Prof. Arminius V.'^MBERV. THE SARACENS. By Arthur Gilman, M.A. IRELAND. By the Hon. Emily Lawless. By Zenaide a. Prof By Henry Brad- By ZenaVde a. By Stanley Lane- T. E. chaldea. Ragozin'. THE GOTHS, I,EY. ASSYRIA. Ragozin. TURKEY Poole. HOLLAND. By Prof. Thoroi.d Rogers. MEDI.5!VAL FRANCE. P.y Gustave ?.Iasson. PERSIA. By S. G. W. Ben- jamin. PHCENICIA. By Prof. Geo. Rawlinson. MEDIA. By Zenaide A. Ra- gozin. , THE HANSA TOWNS. By Helen Zimmern. EARLY BRITAIN. By Prof Alfred J. Church. THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. ]5y Stanley LaNe-Poule. RUSSIA. ByW. !\IoRFiLL, M.A. THE JEWS UNDER THE ROMANS. By W. D. Morki- sox. SCOTLAND. By John Mackin- tosh, LL. D. SWITZERLAND. ByMrs. Lina Hug and K. .Stead. MEXICO. By Susan Hale. PORTUGAL. By H. Morse StEI'HENS. 34- THE NORMANS. By Sarah Ok.ne jEWEir. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. ByC. W. C. Oman. SICILY ; Phoenician, Gre^k and Roman. By the late Prof. E. A. Freeman. THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. By Bella Duffy. POLAND. By W. R. Morfill, ^L.\. PARTHIA. By Prof. George Rawlinson. AUSTRALIAN COMMON- WEALTH. By Greville Treg.\kthen. SPAIN. By H. E. Watts. JAPAN. By D.wtd Murray, Ph.D. SOUTH AFRICA. By George M. Theal. VENICE. By Alethea Wiel. THE CRUSADES. By T. A. Archer and C. L. Kingsford. VEDIC INDIA. By Z. A. Ra- gozin. WEST INDIES and the SPANISH MAIN. By J.\MES Rodway. BOHEMIA.. By C. Edmund Ai.\URICE. THE BALKANS. ByW. .Miller, M.A. CANADA. By Sir J. G. Bouri- NOT, LL.D. BRITISH INDL&- By R. W. Frazer, LL.B. MODERN FRANCE. By Andr6- Le Bon. THE FRANKS. By Lewis Ser- ge .\nt. AUSTRIA. By Sidney Whit- .man MODERN ENGLAND. Before the Reform Bill. By Justin McCarthy. CHINA. By Prof. R. K. Douglas. MODERN ENGLAND. From the Reform Bill to the Present Time. By Justin McC.\rthy. MODERN SPAIN. By Martin A. S. HuMi:. MODERN ITALY. By Pietro Oksi. NORWAY. By H. H. Boyicsen. WALES. By O. M. Edwards. London : T. FISIIF.R UNWIN, rAiERNOsTER Squark, E.C. ^ w 4' r.Nf.l^'i l^l^^'- HI" THE WEST INDIES AND THE SPANISH MAIN BY JAMES RODWAY THIRD IMPRESSION LONDON T. FISHER UN WIN PATERNOSTER SQUARE, E.G. S 5 3 1 3 c c c c e « • « € « « • • • . c c c * e Copyright my T. Fisher Unwix, 1896 INTRODUCTION. The story of the West Indies and Spanish Main is one to stir the hearts of many nations. The shores of the Caribbean Sea have been the scene of mar- vellous adventures, of intense struggles between races and peoples, of pain, trouble, and disaster of almost every description. No wonder that the romance writer has laid his scenes upon its beiuitiful islands and deep blue waters, for nowhere in the world, perhaps, could he find such a wealth of incident. From " Robinson Crusoe " to Marryat's genial stories, and down to " Westward Ho ! " and " Treasure Island," old and young have been entranced for many generations with its stories of shipwrecks, pirates, sea-fights, and treasure-seekers. Yet with all this the field has not been exhausted, for hardly a year passes without a new romance dealing more or less with the " Indies." Under this name of the Indies the islands and continent were first known to the Spaniards, and it was not until some years had passed that the main- land received the name of Terra Firma. The string of islands facing the Atlantic were the Antilles, so Vlll INTRODUCTION. called from a traditional island to the west of the Azores, marked on maps and globes of the fifteenth century. This " Bow of Ulysses," as Froude called the islands, was divided into the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the latter being also known as the Caribbees, from their original inhabitants. Other divisions were made later into Windward and Leeward Lslands, but these differed so much in the descriptions of different nations that it would be as well to leave them out of the question. Perhaps the best way would be to name the whole the Antilles or West Indian Islands and divide them, in going from north to south, into the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the Caribbees. When we think of these beautiful islands and shores they recall those of that other " Great Sea " which was such a mighty factor in the development of Greece and Rome, Phoenicia and Carthage, Venice and Genoa. As Ulysses and ^neas wandered about the Mediterranean, so the early voyagers sailed along the coasts of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico in fear of anthrojDophagoi, amazons, giants, and fiery dragons. As the Indies were the scene of struggles between great nations and the raids of buc- caneers, so also was the Mediterranean a battlefield for Christian and Turk, and a centre for piracy. Reports of golden cities, pearls and emeralds in profusion, and wealth that passed all description, led the Spaniards to explore every island and river, until the cannibals became less alarming. Yet their suffer- ings were terrible. Hurricanes sunk their frail craft on the sea and earthquakes wrung their very souls on land. Starvation, with its consequent sickness and INTRODUCTION. IX death, destroyed one party after another, but they still went on. The discovery of the riches of Mexico and Peru led them to look for other rich nations, and to travel thousands of miles on the mainland, guided by the reports of the Indians. Undaunted by suffer- ing and failure, they would often try again and again, perhaps only to perish in the attempt at last. The treasures of the Indies made Spain the greatest nation in Europe. With her riches she could do almost anything. Other nations bowed down before her, and she became sovereign of the seas and mistress of the world. No matter how it was obtained, gold and silver flowed into her coffers ; what did she care that it was obtained by the bloody sweat of the poor Indians? Then came envy and jealousy. Why should Spain claim the whole of the New World? England, Holland, and France began to dispute her supremacy and determined to get a share of the good things. The "invincible domination" of Spain led her to declare war against England, with the result that the hardy sea-dogs of that time began to worry the fat galleons at sea, and to pillage the treasure depots on the Main. And here we must mention that there were two important places in the Indies where Spain was most vulnerable — the Mona Passage between His- paniola and Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien. Through the first came the outward fleets with supplies, and on their return with gold and silver, while on the Isthmus was the depot for merchandise and the great treasure store. At these two points the X INTRODUCTION. enemy congregated, either as ships of war, buccaneers, corsairs, or pirates, and in their neighbourhood some of the most bitter struggles took place. There was no peace in the Indies, whatever might nominally be the case in Europe. Englishmen's blood boiled at the atrocities of the Spaniards, but we are afraid it was not love for the oppressed alone that made them massacre the Spaniards whenever they got an oppor- tunity. The poor Indian received but a scant measure of justice from these very people, when as a matter of convenience they required possession of the Caribbee islands. Other nations took possession of smaller islands, unoccupied by Spain, and from these centres con- tinued their raids, as privateers in war, and as pirates at other times. Sometimes they were united among themselves against the common enemy, sometimes at war with each other. France and Holland against England, England and Holland against France — nothing but quarrels and fighting. Now an island changed hands, and again it was restored or recaptured. The planters were never sure of being able to reap their crops, and often had literally to superintend the estate work, armed with sword and arquebuse, while their black and white slaves cultivated the soil. Now the West Indies became the great training ground for three maritime nations — England, France, and Holland. Spain lost her prestige, and the struggle lay among her enemies for over a century. At first the three disputants for her place were equally matched ; then Holland dropped behind, leaving England and France to fight it out. The struggle INTRODUCTION. XI was a very close one, which only ended with the fall of Napoleon, and it was in the Caribbean Sea where the great check to France took place. Here Rodney defeated De Grasse, and here Nelson and many another naval officer gained that experience which served them so well in other parts of the world. Here also was the scene of that great labour ex- periment, the African slave-trade. The atrocities of the Spaniards caused the depopulation of the Greater Antilles, and led to the importation of negroes. Whatever may be said against slavery, there can hardly be any question that the African has been improved by his removal to another part of the world and different surroundings. True, he has not pro- gressed to the extent that was expected by his friends when they paid such an enormous sum for his enfranchisement; still, there are undoubtedly signs of progress. The white colonists in the West Indies never settled down to form the nucleus of a distinct people. Since the emancipation, the islands have been more and more abandoned to the negroes and coloured people, with the result that although the government is mostly in the hands of the whites, they are in such a minority as to be almost lost. In Cuba there appears to be such a feeling of patriotism towards their own island that probably we shall soon hear of a new republic, but elsewhere in the islands our hopes for the future must lie in the negroes and coloured people. On the mainland the original inhabitants were not exterminated as in the large islands, and consequently Xll INTRODUCTION we have there a most interesting process in course of accomplishment — the development of one or more nations. Here are the true Americans, and as the Gaul was merged in the Frank, and the Briton in the Saxon, so the Spaniard has been or will ultimately be lost in the American. At present the so-called Spanish republics are in their birth-throes — they are feeling their way. Through trouble and difficulty- revolution and tyranny — they have to march on, until they become stronger and more fitted to take their places among other nations. Out of the struggle they must ultimately come, and it will be a most interesting study for those who see the result. In Hispaniola we have also a nation in the course of development — an alien race from the old world. More backward than the Americans, the Africans of Haiti are strugglmg to gain a position among other nations, apparently without any good result. The nation is yet unborn, and its birth-throes are dis- tressing. We look upon that beautiful island and feel sad that such a paradise should have fallen so low. As a race the negro has little of that internal power that makes for progress — he must be compelled to move on. Some are inclined to look upon him as in the course of degenerating into the savage, but we, on the contrary, believe him to be progressing slowly. In the islands belonging to European nations the influence of the dominant power is visible in the negro even when he has no trace of white blood. The French, English, or Dutch negro may be recognised by his manners, and even features. In some places INTRODUCTION. Xlll East Indians and Chinese have been imjxnted, but these stand alone and make little impression. They are aliens as yet, and take little part in the develop- ment of the colonies. Latterly the West Indies have sunk into neglect by Europe. Except for the difficulties of the planters their history is almost a blank sheet. Few know anything about the beautiful islands or the grand forests of the mainland. Even the discovery of gold in Guiana, which goes to confirm the reports of Ralegh, three centuries ago, is only known to a few. Ruin and desolation have fallen upon them since the peace of 1815 and the emancipation. Even the negro — the protege of the benevolent — is no longer the object of interest he once was. Cane sugar is being gradually ousted by that from the beet, and hardly anything has been done to replace its cultivation by other tropical products. Yet the islands are still as lovely as they were four centuries ago, and on the continent is a wealth of interest to the naturalist and lover of the beautiful. Now and again a tourist goes the round of the islands and publishes the result in a book of travel ; but the countries are out of the track of civilisation and progress. Possibly if the Panama or Nicaragua Canal is ever finished things may be a little better, but at present the outlook is very dismal. In attempting to compress the story of the West Indies and Spanish Main within the covers of one volume we have undertaken a task by no means easy. Every island and every province has its own tale, and to do them all justice would require a hundred books. Xl\ INTRODUCTIOh Every West Indian will find something missing — some event unmentioned which is of the greatest importance to his particular community. This is only to be expected, yet we believe that the reader will get a fairer idea of their importance when they are comprehended in one great whole. The photo block illustrations are from negatives prepared by Mr. Thomas B. Blow, F.L.S. CONTENTS. I. The Spaniards and their Victims PAGE 1—22 The native Americans — The Arawak and the Carib— Their independent spirit— Their country— The character of the Spaniard— He wants to convert the natives to Christianity — • A ton of gold "—First Spanish settlers in Hispaniola — They ravage the island and are entirely cut off — The second colony oppresses the Indians — Repartimientos — Cruelties to the Indian slaves— Decrease of the population —Slave-hunting in other islands and on the Main — Resis- tance of the cannibals — Decline of Hispaniola. II. The Quest for " El Dorado 23-47 Treasure-seeking and its dangers — Alunzu de Ojcda — The proclamation to the Indians— Disastrous voyage of Valdivia —A cannibal story—" El Dorado," the gilded one— The German knights— Ambrosio de Aliinger— George of Spires —Nicholas Fedreman and others— Pedro de Ursun and Lope de Aguirre— Pedro de Acosta— Diego de Ordas and Juan Martinez— The quest and its dangers. XV XVI CONTENTS. III. PAGE "Singeing the Spaniard's Beard" . 48-67 The Papal Bull of partition — English and French seamen in the Indies — Raids on the Spanish possessions — Master William Hawkins goes to Brazil — The Caribs friendly to the enemies of Spain — John Hawkins carries negroes from Africa — Francis Drake's attack on Nombre de Dios — The Simaroons — Drake captures the Panama train — John Oxen- ham — Andrew Barker — Drake's second voyage — He captures St. Domingo and Carthagena — Last voyage of Drake and Hawkins — Death of Drake — Exploits of other adventurers. IV. Ralegh and the First British Colonies 68-89 " Letters Patent " to Kalegh — " El Dorado " again — Ralegh's first voyage to Guiana — Keymis and Berrie — The Dutch in Guiana — Charles Leigh founds a settlement — Robert Harcourt's colony — Ralegh's imprisonment — He is released to again visit Guiana — Disastrous results — Roger North's colony — King James's want of policj- — Changes after his death— St. Christopher's and Barbados — North's colony again — The Bahamas — The French and Dutch settlements — Rise of the Dutch — The French and English at St. Christopher's. V. Buccaneers, Filibusters, and Pir.\tes . 90-112 The buccaneers of Hispaniola — Tortuga — Hay of Cam- peachy — Privateers turning pirates — Pierre Legrand — Captains de Basco and Brouagc — Captain Lawrence — Montbar the " Exterminator " — Lolonois — Morgan storms and captures Panama — He settles down in Jamaica — Van Ho'ii — Raid on the South Sea — Lionel Wafer's journey across the Isthmus. CONTENTS. XVii VI. ^ .^ PAGE War in the Young Colonies . . . 113-136 Spanish raids — Effects of the " Great Enj^lish Revolution " — The Caribbee Islands in revolt — Cavaliers and Round- heads in Barbados — Charles the Second declared king — Lord Willoughby arrives with a Commission from the fugitive — Persecution of the Roundheads — Sir George Ayscue sent out with a fleet to reduce Barbados — The island blockaded — Its surroiidcr — Surinam held for the king — Cromwell and Spain — The Expedition to St. Domingo — Capture of Jamaica — Colonisation of the island — The Council for foreign plantations. VII. The Planters and their Slaves . . 137-159 First adventurers not agriculturalists — Slaves wanted — Negroes imported — Sugar — Cotton — Tobacco — First plan- tations — Kidnapping — Prisoners transported — English slave-trade — Comparative cost of negroes and whites — Rebels — Story of Henry Pitman — Condition of the bond- servants — Life of the planter — Dangers of the voyage — Jamaica — Slavery in Africa — Treatment of the West Indian slave. VIH. The Struggle for Supremacy . , . 160-183 Trade disputes between England and Holland — War — The buccaneers employed— Repulse of De Ruyter at Barbados — Capture of Dutch colonies by English — The French drive the English from St. Kitt's — Abortive attempts for its re- capture — Peace of Breda — The value of the buccaneers to Jamaica — Character of the three nations now contending for supremacy — Case of Surinam — English refused per- mission to leave with their slaves — War again — Peace of Westminster and the e.xodus from Surinam — Case of Jeronony Clifford — Sir Hem-y Morgan represses buccaneer- ing — Another war — Du Casse and the Corsairs — Jacques Cassard — Curious position of Bcrbice — Cassard takes Curacao — His downfall. 42 b XVlll CONTENTS. IX. PAGE The Struggle for the Darien Trade . 184-206 Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs — The trade of the Isthmus — The joint-stock mania — William Paterson and the Darien scheme — Caledonia and New Edinburgh founded — Destruc- tion of the colony — ^The Assiento contract — ^The Great South Sea Bubble — -Vain attempts of the English to obtain free trade with the Spanish provinces — Attacks on the logwood cutters of Campeachy — War with Spain — Contraband traders and their losses^Captain Jenkins' ear — Another war with Spain — Admiral Vernon takes Porto Bello — His failure at Carthagena — English exploits. X. Slave Insurrections and Bush Negroes . 207-236 Sufferings of the planters from war — Barbados alone as having never fallen to the enemy — Internal difficulties- Ferocity of slaves and cruelty of their punishments — The Maroons of Jamaica and bush negroes in Guiana — Slave insurrections — Abortive plots in Barbados — Troubles in Jamaica — Revolt in Antigua — The great slave insurrection in Berbice — ^The whites driven from the colony — Haunts of the Guiana bush negroes — Surinam in continual fear of their raids — Expeditions sent against them — Treaties — Great insurrection in Jamaica and suppression of the Maroons. XI. The Sovereignty of the Seas . . . 237-255 Downfall of Spain — England and France — Contraband traffic of the Dutch and Danes — Advantages of neutralit}- — The Jews in the islands — They support the buccaneers — The great war — England against the world — Admiral Rodney — His abortive fights with De Guichen — The train- ing of his fleet — He captures St. Eustatius and confiscates private property — Capture of Demerara — Outcry against Rodney — British disasters — Rodney appears again — His decisive victory over De Grasse — Peace and its results — CONTENTS. XIX PAGE The great struggle with France and her allies — British supremacy — Peace of Amiens — War again — Nelson in the West Indies — The American war — Decline of the planta- tions from the abolition of the slave-trade. XII. Downfall of Hispaniola .... 256-275 Results of the French Revolution — The friends of the blacks — The rights of man — Civil disabilities of free coloured people — Agitation in the French colonies — James Oge — Demand of the coloured people for equal rights — Civil war in Hispaniola—" Perish the colonies " — Great slave insur- rection — ^The whites concede equal rights, but the Conven- tion revokes their original decree — ^Truce broken — The struggle renewed — Devastation of the colony — The British expedition and its failure — Toussaint L'Ouverture — Slavery abolished — It is re-established by Napoleon — Treachery to L'Ouverture and the negroes — Dessalines and Christophe declare the independence of Hayti — Massacre of the whites — The Empire and Republic. XIII. Emancipation of the Spanish Main . . 276-288 Influence of the French Revolution on Spanish America — Miranda vainly attempts to rouse Venezuela — Revolution at Caracas — Simon Bolivar — Struggle for independence — Atrocities of both parties — Bolivar proclaims extei"mination to the Royalists — Spanish successes — The British Legion — Devastation of the countrj- — The Columbian Republic — • Guatemala. XIV. Abolition of Slavery . . . , . 289-313 Agitation against slavery by the Quakers — Abolition of the African slave-trade — Effects of this on the plantations — Condition of the slave — Registration — Rising in Barbados XX CONTENTS, PAGE — The Protestant missionaries arrive — Opposition of the planters — Ordinance against preaching and teaching slaves passed in Jamaica — The anti-slavery party in England — Amelioration of the condition of the slave — Insurrection in Demerara — Prosecution and conviction of the Rev. John Smith — Emancipation in the British colonies — Its effect on colonies of other nationalities — Insurrection at St. Croi.x — Total abolition of slavery in the West Indies. XV. Results of Emancipation .... 314-345 Ruin of the planters — Difficulty of procuring labour — Abolition of the differential duties — Immigration — Barbados an exception when ruin fell on the other colonies — Labour laws in Fi"ench, Danish, and Dutch colonies — Another insurrection in St. Croix — Race prejudice causes riots in Demerara — Insurrection at Jamaica — Confederation riot at Barbados. XVL The Isthmus Transit Schemes . . . 346-364 Nelson's expedition to the San Juan — Miranda's project — Importance of a canal — ^Central America — Effects of the discovery of gold in California — The Panama railway — Canal projects — Darien again — The Times and the Nicaragua project — Ship railway — Lesseps and the Panama Canal— Difficulties of the work — Its downfall — Character of Lesseps — The Nicaragua Canal. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 2.- -Reception of Spaniards by Arawaks. From Gottfried's " Reisen " Frontispiece -Reception of Spaniards by Caribs. From Gottfried's " Reisen " ... PAGE 3. — A corner of Paradise. The Victoria Regia 4. — En route to the goldfields of Guiana. Passing the rapids of the Essequebo 5. — Worrying the natives with dogs. From Gottfried's " Reisen " ... 6. 7- 8.— A modern alluvial gold washing Suicides. From Gottfried's "Reisen"... A Guiana river. The Tumatamari falls 5 8 10 13 16 17 26 9. — Inhabitants of the Spanish Main, From Colijn's " Reisen " ... ... ... 28 XXll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE TO. — " El Dorado." From Gottfried's "Reisen" 3-7 II. — Negro woman returning from market ^'}^ 12. — Negro barber 54 13. — Negro family on holiday ... ... 55 14. — Negresses gossiping ... ... ... 56 15. — Ralegh in Trinidad. From Gottfried's "Reisen" yi 16. — Gold hunting. From Gottfried's "Reisen" ... ... ... ... 80 17. — Carib attack on a settlement. From Gottfried's "Reisen"... ... ... 89 18. — St. Kitt's. From Andrews' "West Indies" 118 19. — A Surinam planter. From Stedman's " Surinam " ... ... ... ... 138 20. — A negro festival. From Edwards' "West Indies" 140 21. — Voyage of the sable Venus. From Edwards' "West Indies" ... ... 142 22. — Slaves landing from the ship. From Stedman's "Surinam" ... ... 144 LIST OF HJ.USTRATIONS. XXlll PAGE 23. — Map of "-Terra Firma. From Gottfried's " Reisen " ... ... ... ... 197 24. — A rebel negro. From Stedman's "Surinam" ... ... ... ... 209 25. — The execution of breaking on the rack. From Stedman's " Surinam " ... ... 212 26. — March through a swamp. From Sted- man's " Surinam " ... ... ... 224 27. — Trelawny town. From Edwards' "West Indies" 231 28. — Pacification of the Maroons. From Edwards' " West Indies " ... ... 234 29. — View of part of Hispaniola. From Andrews' "West Indies" ... ... 258 30. — La Guayra on the Main. From Andrews' "West Indies" ... ... 280 31. — The First of August. From Madden's "West Indies" ... 308 32. — A rehc of the slavery days — old slave buying fish ... ... ... ... 310 Z1- — Negress, Guiana ... ... ••• 315 34. — Negress fish-sellers, Guiana ... ... 316 XXIV LIST OF fLl.USTRATfONS. 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 -Chinese wood-carrier ... PAGE 317 318 319 321 322 —East Indian coolie —East Indian coolie family — Coolie barber ... — East Indian coolie girl... — Coolie women, British Guiana — Coolie vegetable sellers, British Guiana 323 — East Indian coolies, Trinidad ... ... 324 — East Indian coolie, Trinidad ... ... 325 — Trinidad coolies ... ... ...326 — Barbados. From Andrews' " West Indies" ... ... ... ... 330 46. — St. Lucia. From Andrews' " West Indies" ... ... ... ...331 47. — Atlantic entrance to Darien Canal. From Cullen's "Darien Canal" ... 348 48. — Europe supported by Africa and America. From Stedman's " Surinam " n^6i^ Map or The WEST iroiES London- T. Fisher UN,vm. pATefi^osTER Squahe. E-C THE WEST INDIES. THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. When the early writers spoke of America as the new world, viundiis tiovus, they could hardly have ap- preciated the full meaning of the name. True, it was a new world to them, with new animals, new plants, and a new race of mankind ; but the absolute distinct- ness of everything, especially in the tropical regions, was not understood. With our fuller knowledge the ideas of strangeness and novelty are more and more impressed, and we are ready to exclaim, Yes ! it is indeed a new world. Unlike those of the eastern hemisphere, the peoples of the West are of one race. Apart from every other, the development of the American Indian has gone on different lines, the result being a people self- contained, as it were, and unmodified until the arrival of the European. The American is perhaps the nearest to the natural man, and his character is the result of nature's own moulding. When com- 2 THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. pared with the European or Asiatic he seems to be far behind, yet the civilisation of Peru and Mexico was in some respects in advance of that of their conquerors. This was brought about by a dense population which forced men into collision with each other — in other parts of the continent and on the islands they were more isolated and therefore less civilised. In the forest region of the Spanish Main, and on the West Indian islands, the communities were, as a rule, very small and isolated one from another. A kind of patriarchal system prevented much com- munication, and inter-tribal disputes were a bar to union. Every community distrusted every other, and even when one tribe fought against its neighbour there were few attempts to bring the sections together against the common enemy. On the coasts and islands of the Caribbean Sea, at the time of their discovery, lived two distinct peoples, the Arawaks and the Caribs. There were also a few other tribes of minor importance, such as the Warrows, but these made little impression, and may therefore be left out of consideration. The remnants of the two great stocks still exist in Guiana and at the mouth of the Orinoco, living to-day in much the same manner as they did when the country was first discovered by the Spaniards. Four centuries ago the Greater Antilles were ex- clusively inhabited by Arawaks, and the Lesser by Caribs. The Arawak, as his name implies, was more or less an agriculturalist — a meal-eater, a cultivator of vegetables, mainly cassava. From the poisonous THE ARAWAKii. 3 root of this i)lant bread, drink, and a preservative sauce for meat, were prepared, so that, with game or fish, it formed the staff of Hfe. The probable course of his migration was from Yucatan or Mexico to the south-east, terminating in Guiana, and from thence north through the whole of the Antilles. When Columbus arrived people of this stock filled the larger islands and the Bahamas, but along the coast C^ and in the island of Trinidad they disputed the occupation of the territories with the Caribs. In Porto Rico also the Caribs had become aggressive, and even in Hispaniola the Arawaks had to defend their shores against that warlike people. If we believe the accounts of the Spaniards the inhabitants of the Greater Antilles were not altogether a savage people. Whether they had destroyed all the larger game, or whether they found none on their arrival, the fact remains that they were agriculturalists rather than huntsmen. They were, however, expert in fishing, and built great canoes with sails, in which they carried on their operations even in comparatively rough water. Their provision grounds were highl}' praised by the Spaniards in language that could hardly apply to little clearings like those in the Guiana forest. In them were grown, besides cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, and maize, while other things such as cotton and tobacco were also largely culti- vated. The natives had . also acquired several arts besides that of canoe building, which, when we con- sider their want of proper implements, was almost wonderful. Cotton was spun and woven into cloth for their scanty garments, gold cast and hammered 4 THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. into figures and ornaments, and wood and stone idols and weapons were also carved. All this was done with stone implements, even to the work of hollowing great logs for their canoes, and shaping planks. We read of axe-heads made of giianin, an alloy of gold and copper, and also of attempts to make similar tools of silver, but these were very rare, and could hardl}' have been utilised to any good purpose. When we appreciate the labour and pains taken in excavating a large canoe, with only fire and the stone adze, we can see that these people were by no means idle. Nor were they altogether wanting in apprecia- tion of art, for the figures on their baskets and pottery were beautifully true geometrical patterns, and their so-called idols, although grotesque and rude, often striking. On the mainland the Arawaks lived in small communities, only electing a war-chief as occasion \ required — in Haiti the Cacique seems to have been leader and ruler as well. And here we must mention the most striking characteristic of the American Indian — his utter abhorrence of anything like coer- cion. Even in childhood his parents let him do as he pleases, never attempting to govern him in any way. It followed therefore that neither war-captain nor Cacique had any real power to compel them to a course they disliked, and that discipline was entirely wanting. The traveller in Guiana at the present day can thoroughly understand this trait of character, for he has to take it into account if he wishes to get their assistance. They must be treated as friends, not as servants, and the greatest care taken not to 6 THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. offend their dignity, unless he wishes to be left alone in the forest. They quarrelled little among themselves, and only fought against the Caribs ; they were peaceable, kind, and gentle, so hospitable to strangers that Columbus could hardly say enough in their favour. " A better race there cannot be," he declared to his sovereigns, and this opinion was confirmed by all who came into contact with them. In fact if you do nothing to offend him, the Arawak of to-day is the same quiet and gentle fellow who met the voyagers on their arrival at Guanahani. The Caribs were a stronger race, and had probably followed the same track as the Arawaks in a later migration. At the time of the discovery they appear to have driven the more gentle race from the smaller islands south of Porto Rico, and had taken their women as wives. All along the coast the two tribes fought with each other, but on account of the greater stretch of country there was nothing like the ex- termination which took place in the Lesser Antilles. The Arawaks retired up the rivers and creeks, leaving their enemies to take possession of the coast, which they did to such good purpose that the Spaniards were unable to get a footing in Guiana. All the early writers agree that the Caribs were man-eaters — in fact the word cannibal seems to have been derived from their name. In the smaller islands they had eaten all the men of the gentler tribe, and now made periodical raids on the larger, from whence they carried off prisoners to be cooked and devoured at leisure. These raids led to combinations on the part THE CARIES. 7 of the inhabitants of Haiti and Porto Rico, and hitherto they had been successful in preventing any- thing Hke an occupation of these islands by their enemies. Whether these successes would have con- tinued is doubtful ; the arrival of the Spaniards upset everything. The Carib was not so entirely dependent on the produce of the soil as the meal-eater. He was a hunter and fisherman, but above everything else a warrior. His women had provision grounds like those of the Arawak, possibly because they came from that stock. The Carib's hunting grounds were circumscribed and poor, and his craving for meat could only be appeased in one way — by eating his enemies. Probably this made him all the more fierce and bloodthirsty, as a flesh diet is certainly more stimulating than one of fish and starchy tubers. If the Arawak was impatient of control, the Carib was even more independent. The former would pine away and die under coercion, the latter refused absolutely to be a slave. He would die fighting for his liberty, but never admit that he was conquered. Tt^vas not he who welcomed the Spaniards to the West Indies — on the contrary, he did everything pos- sible to prevent their landing on his shores. His so-called treachery caused many difficulties to the new-comers, but taken altogether he was much re- spected by them as a foe worthy of their steel. These two peoples lived in a country whicH"^ Columbus described as a veritable paradise — in fact he thoucfht he had discovered the site of the Garden , of Eden. Into this beautiful world he let loose a -^ a O THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. band of robbers and murderers, to depopulate and make it a wilderness. They were the product of an entirely different environment — a continent in which A CORNER OF PARADISE. THE VICTORIA REGIA. every man's hand was against that of his neighbour. For a long time Spain had been a battle-field, on which the most warlike instincts of mankind came co the front. Her soldiers understood the advantages of INTRODUCING CHRISTIANITY. 9 discipline, and would follow their leaders wherever anything was to be gained, yet at the same time they were individuals, and as such fought for their own hands as well. Like the rest of Christendom Spain was very religious, and after treasure-seeking, the adventurers of that nation meant to convert the heathen. The cross was erected everywhere on landing, and religious services held to pray for help in their undertakings. If the cruelties that followed were not quite in accordance with Christ's teachings we must put it down to the manners and customs of the age. Ignor- ance was really the great characteristic of that period, and the brilliancy of the few only shone out the brighter because of the dark background. The majority were steeped in superstition, and almost entirely dominated by their passions. Columbus was continually harping upon the desir- ability of making the natives of the new world Christians. "Your Highness," he said, in one of his letters, " ought to rejoice that they will soon become Christians, and that they will be taught the good customs of your kingdom." He took nine of them to Spain, on his return from the first voyage, who were baptized and taught the Spanish language. The king and queen told him to deal lovingly with those in the Indies, and to severely punish any who ill-treated them. More were sent to Spain and allowed to go back for the purpose of " gaining souls." Columbus, however, did not altogether agree with his sovereigns — his project was to send enough as slaves to pay the expenses of his expeditions, and he actually shipped lO THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. four lots for that, purpose. But Ferdinand and Isabella would not have this, and even went so far as to prohibit the deportation of the Caribs notwith- admiral's argument that they were standing the EN ROUTE TO THE GOLDFIELUS OF GUIANA. PASSING THE KAPIDS OF THE ESSEQUEBO. unworthy of the royal clemency, because they ate men and were enemies of the friendly Arawaks. How the new world was discovered in 1492 has been told so often that it is hardly necessary to repeat the story. Haiti, named Hispaniola or Little Spain, was chosen from the first as the island on which a settlement should be planted. Here Columbus left A TON OF GOLD. II thirty-nine colonists under the command of Diego de Arana, and under the protection of the great Cacique Guacanagari. He " trusted to God " that on his return he would find a ton of gold and a large quantity of spices, with the proceeds of which his sovereigns might undertake the conquest of Jerusalem from the infidels. A ton of gold ! This was the whole end and aim of his expedition. Everything else was subordinate to this. He had seen the natives wearing gold orna- ments, and found that the precious metal could be gathered from certain streams on the island. But, could he estimate the amount of labour required to procure such an enormous quantity, by people who had no other appliances than baskets ? This alone was enough to bring trouble upon the peaceful island. But this was not all. The colonists quarrelled among themselves, interfered with the Indian women, went hunting for gold all over the country, took it wherever it could be found, and stole provisions when their friends did not bring them enough. Not satisfied with the district of the friendly Cacique, they ravaged that of Caonabo, the Carib chieftain of another clan, a man of a different stamp. He re- sented the insults at once by attacking the Spaniards, who, notwithstanding the assistance of their allies, were utterly exterminated. When Columbus arrived, instead of a ton of gold, he found nothing but the blackened ruins of the fort and houses. This should have been a lesson to the Spaniards, but unfortunately it only led to further quarrels. The new-comers did not intend to cultivate the soil ; their 12 THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. main object was treasure, and they expected the natives to provide them with food. And here we must mention the fact that the people of tropical climes never have any store of provisions laid up — this is only necessary where winter prevails for half the year. It follows therefore that however liberal they may feel towards strangers, their supplies being restricted to their own wants leave little to give away. Up to a certain point the Indian gives freely, but when this means privation to himself he withholds his hand. The want of a full appreciation of this fact caused great trouble in many of the early settlements, and in some cases led to their destruction. The natives promised food supplies ; but when they found them- selves starving, naturally withheld further assistance. The settlers considered this a breach of faith, and made incursions on the provision grounds, taking what they wanted, and seriously injuring the crops. This the Indians resented, and deadly quarrels en- sued, which ended in their driving out the colonists or deserting the place altogether. In the latter case the food supply was necessarily cut off, and often led ultimately to the abandonment of the colony. To the kindly people of Hispaniola the new-comers were gods, and their horses and cattle preternatural creatures. While wondering and admiring, they were at the same time frightened at these out-of-the-way men and animals, especially when the soldiers ex- hibited themselves on horseback. At first they thought them immortal, and were disagreeably sur- prised when they fell before the army of Caonabo. But even the proverbial worm will turn, and soon the \s^^%^^. 14 THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. oppressions of the second colonists drove the poor Haitians to resist. To labour in the field was beneath the dignity of the adventurous treasure-seekers — the natives must supply them with provisions. What they had brought from Spain was soon spoilt in such a hot climate — no one had yet learned how to pack for long voyages. They must get food, and what was the good of having thousands of people, and acres of cultivated land in their neighbourhood, if the natives did not bring in as much as was required ? At first they were supplied willingly, but when the results of this profuse hospitality began to tell upon themselves, the poor Haitians withheld their hands. Then the Spaniards began complaining to the Cacique, who, however, had no real authority over his people in a matter of this kind, and therefore could do nothing. Driven by want the Spaniards made incursions on the provision grounds, where they spoilt as much as they took away, and left a waste behind. Sometimes they met with resistance, and the defenders were cut down without mercy. The spoilers only wanted an excuse for fleshing their swords ; they were even anxious to show their powers, and make the natives feel that at last they had masters. Before two years had passed the Spaniards were beset with difficulties. The Indian looked despair- ingly at his wasted fields, and refused to cultivate them any longer. Why should he plant for others when he himself was starving ? Some fled into the mountains and forests of the interior, others died of want. This naturally told upon the white men, who had not yet learnt that they must cultivate the soil if REPARTIMIENTOS. 15 they wanted its produce. They could not demean themselves to this, but must have the power to compel the inhabitants and owners of this beautiful island to work for them. The home authorities knew what was going on, and did their best according to their lights to provide a remedy. At first they gave large tracts of land to the settlers, repartimietitos as they were called, but what was the use of these if their owners could get no labourers ? Then to every grant was allotted a certain number of Indians as slaves, and thus the cruel system that ultimately depopulated the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas was introduced. Those who were not allotted as slaves were com- pelled to pay tribute. In the neighbourhood of the gold-washings this was to consist of a little bcUful of gold ; in other places of an arroba (28 lbs.) of cotton, once a quarter for every person above the age of fourteen. Metal tokens to hang upon the neck were given as receipts, and when these were absent the people were severely punished. Thus this gentle and independent race was enslaved. Even with modern appliances and the use of quick- silver, gold-washing is a most precarious business ; what then could it have been here with nothing but a basket and gourd ? Columbus had such exaggerated ideas that, when he saw the gold-washings of Cibao, he came to the conclusion they were the Ophir of the Bible ; from his reports the king and queen thought nothing of demanding this small tribute. To the Indian, however, the gleaning of the tribute meant the labour of days and weeks, and when there were i6 THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. SO many seekers it was found utterly impossible for each to gather his amount. Then they ran away, and were hunted with dogs, brought back, and com- A MODERN ALLUVIAL GOLD WASHING. pelled to wash the gravel under surveillance, subject to the pricks of a sword if they were not active enough. But, even with all this, the returns were not equal to what was expected, and the tribute had 1 8 THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. ultimately to be abandoned. However, it was stated that as much as the value of a million crowns per annum was extracted during the best years, at a cost of pain and suffering awful to contemplate. The cotton tribute had also to be abandoned, and even the reparthnientos were not a success. If they had been willing, the natives could hardly have per- formed steady work, and as slaves they were almost valueless. In their natural condition they laboured when they chose, wasting time as we should say with little good result. Now their masters demanded heavy tasks which prevented their working on their own provision grounds, and yet provided little or nothing in the way of rations. Hundreds died of starvation ; thousands committed suicide. Some jumped from high precipices ; they hanged, stabbed, drowned, and poisoned themselves ; mothers de- stroyed their babes to save them from the misery of living. If caught in such attempts they were flogged, had boiling water or melted lead poured over them, and were otherwise tortured until death came to their relief Their cruel masters, however, rarely- wished to kill them outright — they were too valuable. No, they must break down this dogged, stubborn spirit — treat them as horses and mules, until they bent themselves to the yoke. It was left for bands of soldiers on foraging expe- ditions to kill in mere wantonness. A company would be travelling through the island and come upon a village, where perhaps they stopped for a short rest. The people looked on, admiring their shining armour and weapons, wondering what sort WANTON MASSACRES. I9 of creatures these were that so quietly cropped the grass and shrubs. One of the soldiers would take out his sword, feel its keen edge, and think what a pity it was that the weapon should be used so little. Behind him comes a little boy. The temptation is great ; in a moment the sharp weapon flashes and the child lies dead. The Indians fly, and the whole party follows, chasing and slaughtering to their heart's content, not knowing nor caring why. In a few minutes fifty are killed, the soldiers return to their bivouac, and if they inquire into the matter at all pass it off as a good jest. Is it any wonder that the population decreased to a wonderful degree in a few years ? The sugar-cane had been introduced by Columbus on his second voyage, and labour was soon required for cultivating this and other crops. As long as slaves were procur- able the planters throve, and as by that time His- paniola had become the great centre of the Indies, the settlers were in a fair way to make fortunes. But the decrease in the population became alarming, and something had to be done ; then, new settlers were continually arriving who also wanted slaves. It fol- lowed, therefore, that some of the more audacious of the adventurers took up the trade of kidnapping the Indians from other islands and the mainland. A host of disappointed treasure-seekers had ransacked every shore, and were now well prepared for the business of man-hunting. The first people to suffer were those who so kindly welcomed Columbus on his arrival — the gentle in- habitants of the Bahamas. They were even more 20 7HE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. peaceful than the Haitians, because they had not suffered from Carib invasions. When the slave hunters told them to come to the south and live with their ancestors, they willingly allowed themselves to be carried off to suffer like their neiijhbours. Some ran away and got to the northern shores of Hispaniola, where they stretched out their hands to their beautiful homes and then died of grief Having- entirely depopulated the smaller islands, and being prevented from kidnapping the people of Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, by the settlers on those islands, they tried the Caribbees. Here they met their match. No longer was it the gentle Arawak v/hom they encountered, but the ferocious cannibal. Like his foes he had been trained in war for many generations. Not only did he refuse to work for the stranger, but even vv^ent so far as to oppose his land- ing. On his islands was little to attract the treasure- seeker, and if he would not submit to be a slave, nothing was to be gained by interfering with him. This the Spaniard found out by bitter experience. A few vessels were wrecked on these inhospitable shores, the crews of which escajoed to land only to be killed and eaten, after being tortured with all the ingenuity of the savage. E\-en a landing for fresh water had to be made in the most cautious manner, and the carriers protected b}' a strong guard. No doubt the Caribs had heard of the white man's ciuel- ties from their Arawak prisoners, and were therefore all the more ready to repel their invasions. This was particularly noticeable later when the English and French arrived and found them by no means so DEPOPULATION OF HISPAXIOLA. 21 ferocious as the Spaniards had reported. Possibly they knew these people to be enemies to their foes, and were therefore all the more ready to be friendly as long as no attempts were made to oppress them. Hispaniola rose to some importance very quickly, and almost as quickly declined. The settlers depopu- lated the island, and then complained of the want of labourers. The gold-seekers went elsewhere, and Mexico and the isthmus of Darien became of more importance. Some writers have attempted to give the number of Indians exterminated in the early years of the sixteenth century, but little reliance can be placed on their statistics. Generally, they range from one to three millions, but it is doubtful whether even the lowest figure is not too high. Yet, when we read the statement of Columbus that crowds of people (in one place two thousand) came forth to meet him, and his description of the large area of cultivated land, as well as the broad and good roads, it is not difficult to conceive that a million people lived in these great islands. With the destruction of the labourers down fell the plantations. Cattle had been introduced and throve wonderfully ; now they ran wild over the islands, especially Hispaniola, until they became innumer- able. On the abandoned provision grounds of the Indians they found a virgin pasturage. Hogs also took to the woods, and increased even faster than the cattle. At first there were neither huntsmen nor carnivorous animals to check this wonderful develop- ment. The once domesticated animals recovered some of the powers and capacities of their wild ances- 22 THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. tors, and only required enemies to assist in bringing out other latent characters. And these were not long wanting. Large and powerful hounds had been im- ported from Spain to hunt the runaway Indians, and now that their occupation was gone, they also took to the woods and savannahs. Like their ancestors and cousins, the wolves, they combined into packs and fought the cattle and hogs. Both hunters and hunted became stronger and fiercer — the dogs learnt how best to attack, and their prey to defend themselves. It was a struggle like that between the cannibals and meal-eaters — nature's method of preserving the balance of life. This equalisation no doubt would have been the result had not man interfered ; how this happened we must leave to another chapter. II. THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO." Ophir was not found in the islands, and the bands of adventurers went over to te7'7'a firuia or the main- land to continue the search. Along the coast of Guiana and Venezuela they again came across the gentle Arawak and ferocious Carib, the latter making himself respected everywhere, while his poor-spirited fellow-countryman was alternately caressed and plundered. In every place the Spaniards found gold ornaments, and every tribe told them that the precious metal was only obtainable in some far distant country. The Haitians sent Columbus to the south in search of the guanin country, and it was there he discovered the coast of Paria and the delta of the mighty Orinoco. But he was not fated to come across the treasure cities of the Indies. Others followed to at last conquer Mexico and Peru, but even then it was generally believed that nations existed who had more riches to be plundered than those of the Inca and Montezuma. To find these golden regions the voyagers wandered in ever}* direction, contributing much to the knowledge of the 24 THE QUEST FOR " EL DORADO.'^ coasts and rivers, but always coming back disap- pointed. The horrors of this search can hardly be appreciated nowadays. The ships were so small and ill-found that we should hardly care to use them for coasters, yet in them these pioneers crossed the Atlantic and encountered the hurricanes of the West Indies. Decked only at bow and stern, the waves dashed into the hold and wetted the provisions, while the sun poured down upon the water casks and burst their wooden hoops. The butter and cheese stank, the flour in sacks became mouldy, and the bacon and salt fish putrid. Then the hull of the vessel was unpro- tected, and the teredo, or ship worm, bored it through and through, until nothing but careening and caulking could save the poor craft from sinking. When we understand the privations and dangers of this naviga- tion we are not surprised that the adventurers often came to grief, but rather wonder that any of them survived. Living in the West Indies, we have often thought of the pain and suffering it would produce if we were compelled to walk or sit in the burning sun armed as were the soldiers at that period. W^e can hardly believe that they wore steel body armour, yet the evidence is too strong to be refuted. True, they gave it up afterwards in favour of quilted cotton, but before they did so how hot they must have felt ! We can fancy the sentry standing exposed to the full blaze of the sun, his helmet and breastplate burning hot and his woollen underclothing saturated with perspira- tion. Then there would be the open boat ascending HARDSHIPS OF THE EARLY VOYAGERS. 2$ a river. The occupants dared not row in the shade for fear of c ann ibals shooting at them with poisoned (^ arrow s from the thicket, and out in the rivefthey must have felt as if in a furnace. Even with our white clothing and light hats a long journey in an open boat when the sun is high often ends in fever, and almost invariably in a headache. The neck and backs of the hands get blistered, and become sore, the glare on the water dazzles the eye, and we feel faint. In one of the accounts of such a boating expe- dition on a river in Guiana we read of the men finding some yellow plums floating on the water, and of their being much refreshed by them. We also have come across these hog-plums when almost exhausted by a long exposure on the open river, and when even our negro steersman was nodding as he held the paddle. Suddenly we came to our destina- tion, the mouth of a creek, and were under an arcade of vegetation, beneath which the plums floated on the cool dark water. The men of the sixteenth century must have been stronger than ourselves, or they could hardly have endured such pain and privation. They lay down on the bare earth night after night, and on board ship went to sleep on naked planks. As they could endure pain and discomfort, so also could they inflict it on others. The rough seamen learnt to bear hardships which blunted their feelings of humanity and made them inclined to torture others. When in the hands of the cannibals they were almost as stoical as the savage himself, their ruling passion being a desire for revenge. If cruelly treated by one tribe they retaliated 26 THE QUEST FCK '' EL DORADO^ on Others ; in the same way the Indians killed one party of Spaniards to avenge the insults of their countrymen. This led to a great deal of trouble and A GUIANA RIVER. THE TUMATAMARIFALLS. made the voyages of the treasure-seekers dangerous to all. However free from blame one part}- might be, they were liable to suffer for previous wrong-doings SPANISH AUDACITY. 2/ and they in turn left behind them injuries to be avenged on the next comers. And then, how very audacious these adventurers were ! Alonzo de Ojeda was perhaps the most striking example of utter recklessness in face of danger. In 1 509 he entered the harbour of Cartha- gena in spite of a warning that its shores were inhabited by a ferocious tribe who fought with palm- wood swords and poisoned arrows. It was even stated that the women mingled in the battle, and could use the bow and a kind of lance. These people had been irritated by another party of Spaniards, and on sight of the vessels were up in arms at once. However, Ojeda was undaunted, and landed at once with his men and some friars, who had been sent to convert the Indians. In front stood the enemy brandishing their weapons, and prepared for the first hostile movement. Yet, even under these critical circumstances, he ordered the usual proclama- tion to be read to the Indians in a language of which they knew nothing. He, Alonzo de Ojeda, servant of the most high and mighty sovereigns of Castile and Leon, conquerors of barbarous nations, notified them that God had given St. Peter the supreme power over the world, which power was exercised by the Pope, who had given all that part of the world to these sovereigns. They were called upon to acknow- ledge this sovereignty at once, which, if they refused to do, he would bring upon them the horrors of war, desolation to their houses, confiscation of their property, and slavery to their wives and children. While one of the friars read this address the ojeda's narrow escape. 29 savages stood on the defensive, no doubt wondering what the delay meant. Ojeda knew not their language, and they took little notice of his signs of amity. As they still brandished their weapons, the intrepid adventurer led on an attack, calling the Virgin to his aid, and in a few minutes put them to flight, killing a few and taking others prisoners. Not content with this, he followed them through the forest to their village, and after a deadly fight, drove them out and burnt their dwellings. Still undaunted, he went on to another village, which he found deserted, but while his men were searching for plunder he was attacked by the enemy in overwhelming numbers. All his followers were killed, and he himself wounded with a poisoned arrow, yet he managed to escape into the forest to suffer hunger and thirst in addition to the pain of his wound. Meanwhile his men on board the ships were wondering what had become of their leader and his party. They were afraid to venture far into the woods on account of the yells and shouts of the Indians, who were celebrating their triumph. At last, how- ever, they commenced a search, and found their captain in a mangrove swamp, lying on a tangle of roots, speechless and dying of hunger, yet still clutching his naked sword and bearing his buckler. Notwithstanding all this, he ultimately recovered, to go on as eagerly as ever in making fresh conquests. Later, the proclamation to the Indians was inter- preted to them, sometimes eliciting replies very much to the point. When the Bachelor Enciso went in search of the countrv' of Zenu, where gold was so 30 THE QUEST FOR '' EL DORADO." plentiful that it could be collected in the rainy season in nets stretched across the river, he was opposed by two Caciques, to whom the paper was read. They listened courteously, and, when it had been expounded, said they were quite willing to admit that there was one God, the ruler of heaven and earth, whose creatures they were. But as to the Pope's regency and his donation of their country to the king of Spain, that was another thing altogether. The Pope must have been drunk when he gave away what was not his, and the king could only have been mad to ask him for the territory of others. They, the Caciques, were the rulers of these territories, and needed no other sovereign : if their king came to take possession they would cut off his head and stick it on a pole, as they did the heads of their other enemies, at the same time pointing to a row of grisly skulls impaled close by. Their arguments, however, were useless, for Enciso attacked, routed them, and took one of the Caciques prisoner. The accounts of the early voyagers are full of such examples of audacity as well as of endurance of suffering. The perils of the sea were as great as those of the land, but few voyages were as disastrous as that of Valdivia, who in 15 12 sailed from Darien for Hispaniola. When in sight of Jamaica, his vessel was caught in a hurricane and driven upon some shoals called the Vipers, where it was dashed to pieces. He and his twenty men barely escaped with their lives in a boat without sails, oars, water, or provisions. For thirteen days they drifted about, until seven were dead and the remainder helpless. CANNIBAL STORIES. 3 1 Then the boat stiandecl on the coast of Yucatan, and the poor wretches were captured by Indians, to be taken before their Cacique. They were now put into a kind of pen to fatten for the cannibal festival. Valdivia and four others were taken first, and the horror produced on their comrades led them to risk everything and break out of their prison in the night. Having succeeded in reaching the forest, they were almost as badly off, for no food could be had, and they dared not run the risk of going near the villages. Almost perishing with hunger, they at last reached another part of the country, to be again captured, and kept as slaves. Finally they all died except two, one of whom at last escaped to tell the tale almost by a miracle. One of the stories is suggestive of " Robinson Crusoe." In 1499 Nifto and Guerra sailed from Spain in a bark of fifty tons, and, while exploring the Gulf of Paria, came across eighteen Carib canoes filled with armed men. The savages assailed them with flights of arrows, but the sudden boom of the cannon frightened them away at once. One canoe, however, was captured, in which they took a Carib prisoner, and found an Arawak captive lying bound at the bottom. On being liberated, the Arawak informed the Spaniards, through their interpreter, that he was the last of seven who had been taken by the cannibals. The other six had been killed and eaten one after another, and he had been reserved for the next evening meal. The Spaniards, incensed against the man-eater, gave him into the hands of the Arawak, at the same time handing him a 32 THE QUEST FOR " EL DORADO.^ cudgel, leaving his enemy unarmed. Immediately the Arawak sprang upon him, knocked hjm sprawling, trod his breath out of his body, and at the same time beat him with his fist until nothing but a shapeless corpse remained. But, not yet satisfied, he tore the head off and stuck it on a pole as a trophy. After the conquest of Mexico and Peru had rewarded Cortez and Pizarro, others wished to be /equally fortunate. From the Indians came reports of ' golden countries in the interior, and land expeditions were projected. These reports grew into shape, and at last a quest as romantic as that for the Holy Grail, led one adventurer after another on and on, to starva- tion, sickness, and death. / The germ of the story of " El Dorado," the lake of golden sands, and the glittering city of Manoa, appears to have first arisen in New Granada. Here was the Lake of Guatavita, and before the arrival of the Spaniards this was the scene of an annual religious festival. To the genius of the lake the Cacique of the neighbouring district offered a holy sacrifice on a certain day. In the morning he anointed his body with balsam, and then rolled himself in gold dust until he became a " gilded king." Then, em- barking in a canoe with his nobles, he was paddled to the centre of the lake, crowds of people thronging its shores and honouring him with songs and the din of rude instrumental music. Offerings to the god of the lake were made from the canoe, gold, emeralds, pearls, and everything precious being scattered upon the water. Finally, the Cacique jumped in himself and washed the gold from his body, while the people 'I HE GILDED KING. 33 shouted for joy. To wind up the festival a great drinking bout was held, when canoesful of piwarree, the In Han's beer, were drunk, and every one made merry. Such was the tradition — for the ceremony had been discontinued half a century before — which had so impressed itself over the northern shores of South America, as to be told from the Amazon to the isthmus of Darien. " El Dorado " was gilded every morning, and his city was full of beautiful golden palaces. It stood on the edge of the great salt lake Parima, the sands of which were composed of the precious metal. Some went so far as to say that they had seen the glittering city from a distance, and were only prevented from reaching it by the peculiar difficulties of the way. Not to mention tigers and alligators, starvation and sickness, there were " anthropophagoi and men whose heads do grow beneath their shoulders," besides amazons and fiery dragons. Wherever the story was told the • golden city was located at a far distance, and it seemed ever to recede before the eager seekers. They sought it in the forest and on the savannah, over the lofty peaks of the Andes, and along the banks of the mighty rivers. The whole of the Spanish Main was explored, and places then visited which have hardly been seen again by the white man down to the present date. The quest began in New Granada, and from thence it shifted to Venezuela. The most daring seekers were German knights, the Welsers of Augsburg. They had received charters from Charles the Fifth, 4 34 THE QUEST FOR " EL DORADO.'' under which they were empowered to found cities, erect forts, work mines, and make slaves of the Indians. One of their representatives, Ambrosio de Alfinger, set out in 1 530, accompanied by two hundred Spaniards, and a larger number of Indians, laden with provisions and other necessaries. On the journey the party committed such brutalities upon the poor natives that the reports afterwards helped to fire the blood of Englishmen, and make them bitterly cruel. To prevent the bearers from running away they were strung together on chains, running through rings round their necks. If one of them dropped from sickness or exhaustion, his head was cut off, the ring loosened, and thus the trouble of interfering with the chain saved. If he were to be left behind, it did not matter whether he was alive or dead. At one place on the river Magdalena the frightened natives took refuge on some islands, but the Spaniards swam their horses across and killed or took prisoners the whole of them. From their Cacique Alfinger got booty to the value of sixty thousand dollars, with which he sent back for further supplies. But, al- though he waited for a year his messengers did not return, and the company were reduced to such straits that many died for want of bare food. But the Indians fared much worse, for their provision grounds were utterly destroyed, and what with murders and starvation the surrounding country was quite de- populated and desolate. Even Alfinger had to give up waiting for his supplies and move on at last, for these had been utilised by his lieutenant on an expedition of his own. SUFFERINGS OF SPANIARDS AND INDIANS. 35 The party eked out a bare subsistence with wild fruits and game. If they found a village they plundered it of everything it contained, dug up the provisions from the fields, and left the survivors of the massacre to starve. Not that they themselves were in a much better plight ; fever, the result of want and exposure, carried them off in continually increasing numbers. At last they got into a mountain region, and the poor naked bearers were frozen to death. Descending again they encountered stronger and fiercer tribes, by whom they were defeated, the cruel Alfinger himself dying two days afterwards from his wounds. A small remnant only returned after two years' absence, leaving a track of pain and suffering to make their memory accursed for many generations. George of Spires now fitted out a great expedition of three hundred infantry and two hundred cavalry, which started in 1536. They also went a long dis- tance into the interior, braving hardships and dangers almost incredible. Jaguars carried off their horses, and even went so far as to attack and kill several of the Indian bearers and one Spaniard. Like their predecessors, they also encountered savage Indians, and died of starvation and sickness. After journeying fifteen hundred miles from the coast they had to return unsuccessful ; but as their leader was less cruel than Alfinger, the losses of the party were not so great. Instead of dying on the journey he lived to become Governor of Venezuela. Nicholas Fedreman followed the last party with supplies, but took them to go treasure-seeking on his own account. He wandered about for three years, 36 THE QUEST FOR " EL DORADO." and at last returned with some wonderful stories which induced others to continue the search. Herman de Quesada also travelled about for a year, and re- turned like his predecessors. Then Philip von Huten, who had gone already with George of Spires, fitted out a great expedition. His party was at one time so utterly famished that they had to eat ants, which they captured by placing corn cobs near the nests of these little creatures. They travelled in a great circle without knowing where they went, and at the end of a year came back to the place from whence they had started. Hearing, however, of a rich city called Macatoa, Von Huten started again, and found streets of houses with about eight hundred inhabitants, but no treasure. The people here sent him on farther, with their tales of the Omaguas, a warlike people living away in the south. On he went for five days, and at last came upon what he thought must be the golden city. It stretched away as far as the eye could reach, and in the centre was a great temple. But, although the little party charged gallantly down a hill and into the town, the Omaguas came out in such force that they had to retreat, bearing their wounded leader in a hammock. Continually harassed by Indians, they at last got back, to tell such stories of the dangers of the quest that the Omaguas seem to have been afterwards left alone. Our account of the search for " El Dorado " is necessarily short and imperfect, as it would be im- possible even to enumerate all the expeditions. There is one, however, that was so tragic and awful, that, although it was fitted out in Peru, it must yet be mentioned in the story of the Spanish Main. o - D ■* <