r ^OF-CALIFORto ^OFCALIFOfi^ y 0AbVHHIl# ■ 1/ a a v ^JTO-SOl^ "%»■ <: "%3AINfl^ jAttl //j r ^lOSANCElfj %3 'JH'JN fc~l liill Jl v L.W, />? _ RY0/ $ 1 THE SERPENT OF EDEN THE SERPENT OF EDEN A PHILOLOGICAL AND CRITICAL ESSAY ON 'I HI. TEXT OF GENESIS III., AND ITS VARIOUS INTERPRETATIONS. I;', J. P. VAL d'EREMAO, D.D, MEMBER OF THE ANJUH1 K-I-Pl •-JAB; LATE KECTOR OF Tin: H"i '. CHOS1 I HI Rl ii, BASINGSTOKE, now OP st. mary's, DERBY, ami CHANCELLOR "i TH1 mocBSE OF NOTTINGHAM. ■ LO NDON : I \n PA1 I , I i I N( II & CO., i, PATERNOSTER SQUAR] 1888. ' ■ • • , ' ' . • ... < ' I I ■ • • • • ■ . ■ ' {The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserTcd.) \ -^3 5 TO THE REV. SIR W. H. COPE, BART. 1 )i.\k Sir William, To no one can I more fitly dedicate this little book than to you, who have so kindly allowed me free access to your magnificent library at Bramshill Park, I have aided me with many a valuable suggestion. Without, therefore, making you responsible for any view here put forth, I offer it to you as a token of our mutual friendship, and in grateful acknowledgment of much kindness from you. Believe me always, yours very faithfully, [OSE I". VAL d l REMAO. r;,\ PREFACE. COMMENTATORS have always found great difficulty in interpreting Gen. iii. ; and the difficulty has not diminished with time. A long-felt need e x i - 1 of an interpretation satisfactory to science and human reason. Such an interpretation I now beg to offer for tin nsideration of all classes of Christians, for hen at least the into r< A of all shades of belief an identical. My »ole object Is to defend the truth Holy Scripture against objections from scienci and reason. It is neither my object nor my wish to prove that the received interpretations, given in the past, an either false or absolutely untenable. \\ here I hav< :d such words as "untenable" I wish to be undei \i li PREFACE. stood, not as absolutely condemning the theory or interpretation to which I apply it, or as declaring it to be utterly incorrect. I mean to say only that the difficulties and objections raised against it are, to my mind and from my point of view, so strong and cogent as to render that theory or interpretation utterly untenable to my reason. Those difficulties, during years of reading and reflection, have always kept increasing to my mind ; and the explanations given to obviate or meet those difficulties have con- tinually become less and less satisfactory. Many others, doubtless, have felt and feel as I do. I have tried to state these difficulties fairly and fully, yet moderately. The chief among them, from my point of view, is common to every past interpre- tation. It is that they all deal largely in gratuitous suppositions, which are absolutely without any foundation in the letter of the sacred narrative, as given in Gen. iii. Those who find no difficulty in that narrative, and those whose minds are satisfied with any of the interpretations hitherto given, are welcome to hold such interpretations, and to defend them to PREFACE. IX the best of their ability. Those, however, who have felt the force of the man)- and serious difficulties attending Gen. iii. are invited to consider the interpretation now offered. J. P. VAL d'EREMAO. Basingstoke, Feast of St. Hilary, January 14, 1887. CONTENTS. i'a<;e I. Object stated ... ••• ••• ••• l II. The Sacred Narrative ... ... ... 5 III. Various Theories on the Manner of the i i mm a iion by "the Serpent" ... ... 15 IV. Difficulties attending Temptation by a Bi si 1 ai. Serpent ... ... ... 3 2 1. I., \. A> 1 in'; "i 1 1 -1 1 1 ... ... 3 2 . II., \ , POSSES 5ED BY Sa 1 w ... 66 V. <); \r. -1 PROPOSING \ NEW THEORY 72 . i. Tin Nkv. Theory ... •■• 77 VII. Tm 1 n " mi Si in ... ••• 97 .111.(1 ,1 mi- • ommoni i Received [ntei pri IAI ... ... ••• ••• "7 i\. Conni 1 now Dl iv. 1 1 • ( 'i ■ 1 tl. AN" SEl 11 '■ i- Wok, nil' ... ... .. •■■ ... '27 Wiia 1 1 ■ 1 in Wi I'. 11 1 "i 1 in A.RG1 Ml '■ 1 1 ROM Si Mi-. 1 WOR HIP? ••• ... ••• 13° XI l CONTENTS. CHAPTER J' AGE XI. Was Serpent- Worship Universal? ... ... 135 XII. Origin of Serpent- Worship ... 151 XIII. Conclusion ... ... ... ... ... l ^ Q Appendix.— Hekrew and Greek Texts ok the Sacred Narrative ... ... ... ... ^ x THE SERPENT OF EDEN, CHAPTER I. OBJECT STATED. THE temptation of Eve by " the Serpent " has been, on all hands and always, viewed as a matter full of mystery. This mystery is by no means satisfactorily plained by the various interpretations given by mmentators to its attendant circumstances, as i) in the acred narrative. It contains an nowledged difficulty, and a great one. To both J< '• and Chri tians alike, the narrative of the temptation anil fall ol man is an article of faith. It i^ tin- very foundation of the edifice of faith ; the very groundwork of tin- whole scheme of redemption. It is an article of faith that Eve i; 2 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. was tempted by " the Serpent," and fell ; — that she, in her turn, tempted Adam, who also fell ; — and that Adam, Eve, and this " Serpent " were sub- jected each to a special condemnation by God, in punishment of the sin which each had committed. But who or what that " Serpent" was ; — and in what way he tempted Eve ; — and in what precisely his condemnation consisted ; — and in what manner it worked in him : — these are details which have never been defined as articles of faith. Provided, there- fore, that we do not violate the laws of scriptural interpretation, we are free to choose such explana- tions of these details as may suit our individual reason. The manner and means of the temptation have been and arc still matters of discussion, in which, if the substantial and literal truth of the sacred narrative be held intact and inviolate, opinions on details may well be left free. In necessariis unitas ; in dubiis libertas. Now, while the faithful, holding fast to the facts of the temptation and fall, seek to explain their attendant circumstances as best they may, to unbelievers the whole narrative has long been a choice object of ridicule and a rich source of amuse- ment. They assert that here, in the very beginning of the scriptural history of the human race, the OBJECT STATED. 3 narrative lays before us a mass of glaring absurdities and improbabilities. They declare that a bestial serpent could not possibly tempt Eve ; — that Eve would certainly have been surprised and startled .ind alarmed at hearing a dumb animal speak with a human voice ; — that it is no real curse for the serpent to go on its belly ; — that it is not a fact that it eats dust at all. Commentators have striven to reply to these and other important objections with more or less ability and learning. But we must candidly acknowledge that they have not been so successful as we could wish them to be, in so im- portant an encounter. With every wish to believe and to accepl any reasonable interpretation, even the faithful still find the difficulty unsolved, though they believe simply because God so teaches. But it is not at all likely that such explanations will tisfy those whose faith i. anything but strong and deep. Under th< e i in umstani es, and considering the many unsolved diflfii ulties attending the < ommonly received opinion, I think thai ly any apolo iry for ol an interpretation whi< h ry lull and complete solution to .ill tho e diffii ult B< ton- proce< ding, howe^ i i . to give this interpretation, it will add to the clear 4 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. understanding of the whole question regarding the serpent of Gen. ill., if I first give the sacred narra- tive itself, with the various interpretations till now- advanced to explain its details, and the objections that are made against it. ( 5 ) CHAPTER II. THE SACKKI) NARRATIVE. I HERE give the sacred narrative from the Au- thorized English Version, side by side with the of the Douay Bible from the Latin Vulgate; and I place at the foot as literal a translation as I am able to make from the original 1 hbn I. lii. I. No ■ l" nt of thi which the I And he I •■•■ of the fruil <<{ th< ,{ the Bui of (he fruil ol . the Douay I et 'ion. Gen. iii. i. Now the serpenl ■ le than any oi the 1 1 1 1 which the Lord < iod had made. And he to the woman, Why hath led you thai you should do) eal of every tr< \ii'l the woman an w him ■nni r; 01 ill. fruil of the re in Paradi >e w< do Bui of the frnii of the h is in (I. of Para 6 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. garden, God hath said, Ye shall not eat nf it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die. 4. And the serpent said unto the woman, Ye shall not surely die. 5. For God doth know that in the day ye eat thereof, then your eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil. 13. And the Lord God said unto the woman, What is this tliat thou hast done? And the n said, The serpent be- guiled me, and I did eat. 14. And the Lord God said unto the serpent, Because thou hast done this, cursed art thou above all cattle, and above every beast of tli' field : upon thy belly shalt thou go, and dust shalt thou eat all the days of thy life : 15. And I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed ; it shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel. dise, God hath commanded that we should not eat, and that we should not touch it, lest perhaps we die. 4. And the serpent said to the woman, No; you shall not die the death. 5. For God doth know that in what day soever you shall eat thereof, your eyes shall be opened and you shall be as gods, knowing good and evil. 13. And the Lord God said to the woman, Why hast thou done this? And she answered, The serpent deceived me, and I did eat. 14. And the Lord God said to the serpent, Because thou hast done this, cursed art thou among all cattle and beasts of the earth ; upon thy breast shalt thou go, and dust shall thou eat, all the days of thy life. 15. And I will put enmities between thee and the woman, and thy seed and her seed, she shall crush thyjiead, and thou shalt lie in wait for her heel. Hebrew, Gen. iii. I. And the serpent was intelligent among all living (beings) of the field which the Lord God had made. And he said the woman : Strange ! that God has said, Ye shall not eat of every tree of the garden ! 2. And said the woman to the serpent, Of the fruit of (each) tree of the garden we may eat. 3. but of the fruit of the tree which (is) in the midst of the THE SACRED NARRATIVE. 7 garden, God hath said, Ye shall not eat of it and shall not touch it, lc>t perhaps ye die. 4. And said the serpent to the woman, Not dying shall ye die. 5. For God knoweth that in the day ye eat of it, your eyes will be opened, and ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil. 13. And said the Lord God to the woman, What (is) this thou ha^t done? And .said the woman, The serpent deceived me, and I did eat. 14. And said the Lord God to the serpent, because thou hast ! \art) thou above every beast and every living ie field. Upon thy belly thou shalt go, and dust thou shah eat, all the days of thy life. niiiy I will put between thee and between the nan; and between thy seed and between her seed. He shall ■ml thou shalt crush his heel. Such is the sacred narrative, which forms the subject of our discussion. Well known as it is to us all from our earliest days, it will still repay a nd detailed consideration. It will be useful for us to note that the literal translation given above differs, in some important particulars, from the existing versions in the Eng- 1 ,<-t us consider each point oi variant l. In ver. 1, I have put the word "intelligent" instead of " ubtil." The Hebrew word is c-ny (g/tnni This conveys tin- idea of somethi more than mere animal jubtility or cunning. It is lived from the wad "■; ';, 11,1111 , uhuh pi 1 marily means "he made naked," "he discovered 8 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. Hence proceeds the secondary meaning of dis- covery by the intellect or reason — discursive specu- lation. In consequence of this, it is used in the Holy Scriptures to indicate the rational qualities of prudence or wisdom. In this sense we find the very word which is here used in Gen. iii. I, applied repeatedly to the prudent or wise man, in contrast with the foolish. Thus, in Prov. xii. 16, "A fool's wrath is presently known ; but a prudent man covereth shame." And further on, in ver. 23, " A prudent man concealcth knowledge ; but the heart of fools proclaimcth foolishness." It is unnecessary to multiply instances of this exact meaning of this word. So, too, the Greek Septuagint gives the word povifiu>Tarog, which is derived from povia). To this root Schrivellius gives the meanings intclligo, cogito, sentio, judico, delibero, — " I understand," " I think," "I perceive," "I judge," "I deliberate." This is also the scriptural meaning of the word. In Matt. x. 16, where our Lord says, " Be ye there- fore wise as serpents," the word used is the posi- tive degree, of which the superlative is used in Gen. iii. 1 : (ppuvifxoi /.V 01 oeig. Here too, then, in the Septuagint, as in the Hebrew, a word is used which distinctly shows us that the " Seventy inter- THE SACRED NARRATIVE. g pretcrs " understood the Hebrew text to indicate the intention of the sacred writer as meaning that the Serpent was subtil, if you like, but with an intelligent, thinking, and reasoning subtility. Otherwise they would not have used the word i . The .Ancient Arabic Version, too, uses the word kakmimunh, which signifies "wisest." In the Greek and the Arabic, the expression is in the superlative degree. In the Hebrew language, which has no superlative form for the adjective, the superlative sense is indicated by the words "above all," or "among all :" this is also done in the text, ( ren. iii. i. Add to all this, that where the Latin Vulgate uses the word callidior — " more subtil," — St. Augustine, in his "Genesis ad Literam" (in /or.), citing the •u^ Itala, or < )M Italian Bible, says in one place, "serpens autem erat prudentissimus," and in another p erat sapientissimus omnium besti- arum quse sunt super terrain." " Most prudent," "in" t -,'. i e," urely indicate reasoning powers, and not mere animal i unnin 'I I: i k Septuagint, the Vetu i [tala, and th< An< ienl Ai abic all th< refore, with the original Hebrew text, in giving words whicl io THE SERPENT OF EDEN. signify, not mere animal cunning, but something really rational and intelligent. We must conclude, therefore, that the subtility which the text predi- cates of this Serpent is an intelligent, thinking, and reasoning subtility. The importance of this con- clusion we shall soon perceive. 2. In this same first verse, the word which our English versions render "beasts" has, in the Hebrew, a far more general sense. It is IVn (ehaiath), which means any living being, and not merely a beast. It is from the same root as " life." When God breathes the breath of life into Adam, and he becomes a living soul, the same word is used ; and it is used also when (Gen. iii. 20) Eve is called Chavvah, because she is to be the mother of all living — meaning men. This is the plain scriptural use of the word, in confirmation of which numerous other examples could be adduced. It follows, therefore, from this usage, and from the original meaning of this word, that we are pre- cluded from limiting the comparison of this Serpent's subtility to other beasts only. The comparison extends to all living beings of the earth ; for the word " field " is plainly synonymous with " world." * Therefore it includes all beasts, * " field " is not used in its restricted sense, as is evident, because THE SACRED NARRATIVE. n and man himself; and possibly also some angels who minister on earth. God alone seems to be excluded from this comparison, as the Creator of all ; for the comparison is urged in the fullest and widest sense, asserting that this " Serpent was the most intelligent among all living beings on the earth which the Lord God has made." That this important extension of the comparison is correct, is confirmed by the wording of ver. 13 in this same chapter. Here the serpent is declared accursed "above all beasts" fruora, behemali), and "above all living beings" (rvn, c/iaiath). " Cattle " and " beasts," as given in the English version a mere meaningless tautology, which . not exist in the original Hebrew. There, two distinct words are used, the one applicable to beasts alone ; the other, by its very derivation, including all "living being The text, therefore, indicates that th rpent was them' t intelligent II living bein n including man him- self ; v. hi is another important point. 3. In this same ver. 1 the Serpen! h to othi lude tl" ■ 11 living l» of 1 that is a lai portion "f a and it would thus •■■ cry rity in subtility which 12 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. Eve opens with the interjection, *?"*)$ (Aph-ki). This word is not an interrogation, as rendered in the Vulgate " Quare?" and the Douay Version " Why ? " Nor is it a mere exclamation, as in the Authorized Version, " Yea," with an interrogation after it. The Greek Septuagint approaches nearer the mark: T/, on, "What! that God," etc. The precise meaning, however, of ApJi-ki is an excla- mation of surprise — " Strange ! that," or, " It is a strange thing that." Slight as this difference may at first sight appear, it is not without importance in considering the manner of the temptation. If we put the temptation as a direct question (as it is in the English versions) it may lead the mind to imagine a visible and audible questioner. But the plain Hebrew interjection, " Strange ! that God hath said, Ye shall not cat of every tree in the garden," sounds much more like an internal suggestion to the mind, put forth as if it proceeded from Eve's own thoughts. 4. In ver. 14 the word "belly" is very correctly translated from the Hebrew word Jim (ghechon). Yet it is necessary, in order to understand the nature of the curse, to point out the derivation of this word ; because by means of this derivation we shall see that this passage becomes more THE SACRED NARRATIVE. 13 intelligibly and naturally connected with other passages of Scripture, which will be adduced later on to explain the nature of the curse. Ghechon, then, is derived from the root \n\ (ghachan), which originally signifies " he bent," " he bowed down," " he was curved." In the word ghecJwn, therefore, we not only have the meaning of "belly," but, included in that meaning, we have the idea of bending or bowing down to the ground ; because the "bellies" of almost all animals except man are turned earthwards ; and even man, when bowing before a superior, necessarily bends his belly towards the ground. This will have to be recalled to mind when we are considering parallel passages of Scripture, with the view of ascertaining the precise meaning of the curse. These four points will prove to have a very important bearing on the question, What or who is tl rpent? It is very necessary that we should keep them constantly in our minds, while te the various th< orie r< garding th< temptation, and i the argun* nl u i< d again t the commonly re< < ived interpretation of < ren. hi. I have not thought il expedient to discuss the question whether, in ver. 15, the correel rendering hould 1- "hi lull crush" or "she," "his heel" 14 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. or "her." It docs not concern our present subject ; and, as it has been repeatedly discussed, those interested may find the subject treated in numerous works. Both renderings understand and admit that the agent in crushing the serpent's head is the seed of the woman, our Lord Jesus Christ. ( 15 ) CHAPTER III. THEO] ON THE MANNER OF THE TEMPTATION BY "THE SERPENT." U E need not waste time on Rabbinical and Kor- anic theories of the manner in which the Serpent tempted Eve. They arc not only palpably absurd in themselves, but the)- are also quite foreign to the purpose in hand. They aggravate rather than solve the difficulties that we have to consider. I proceed, therefore, to state the other princip theories which have been, at various times and by various writers, upheld, in explanation of th< circumstan the temptation by the Serpent. I Some Jewish and Christian authors have con tended that the whole narrative <>f the temptation and fall i an allegory, written by Mose in ordei 1 6 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. to convey a deep spiritual meaning. But this cannot be. If they found their deep meaning on the denial of the historical truth (as a fact) of this sacred narrative, then neither Jews nor Christians can admit such an explanation. We may and do admit that a deep spiritual meaning can be derived from this, as from other passages of Scripture ; but still we must and do hold the facts there stated to be historical truths. The whole narrative speaks as of a fact. It so interlaces the acts and words of God, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent ; of the creation, the temptation, and the fall ; that if the truth of any one part is denied, varied, or changed into a mere allegory, then the whole falls to pieces, or can be held only as a mere allegory. It is a case of all or none. But there is a further objection against this view. What, I ask, is an allegory ? An allegory is a spiritual interpretation, given in addition to the admission of natural facts ; and it therefore necessarily presupposes those natural facts. By an allegory, a second interpretation is built upon the natural and literal one, as the second story of a house is built upon the first. It is thus that St. Paul (Gal. iv. 21 and following verses) alle- THEORIES ON MANNER OF TEMPTATION. 17 gorizes on the history of Isaac and Ishmael. But he holds unquestioned, nay, he presupposes, in their full integrity, the historical facts narrated in Gen. xxi. In truth, without the previous admission of those facts, his allegory could have no existence, any more than a second story of an edifice can stand without the first. Such is the very nature of an allegory. When it is stated, therefore, that the narrative in Gen. ii. and iii. is an allegory, it must first of all be admitted that it is a true state- ment of historical facts. If not, then it must be erted that the whole is a mere fable or myth. Tin- latter no one, not even the authors of this theory, can admit. But if we once admit as an historical fact what is there narrated, then the difficulties, whatever they are, must still continue to notwithstanding a mythii al or allc- :planation. The building up of an allegory upon tho I . will not help to remove the diffi- cultie att< nding the circumstan< es of thi i i facts, Tlii I may, therefore, be al once rejected ; it eith( r denie i the literal truth of the it ive, and is th< refore subver live of faith ; (seraph, plural seraphim) does not, in Hebrew, mean a " serpent " or " ser- pentine body," as is erroneously stated by these authors. It is an adjective, and not a substantive noun. It simply signifies " fiery," " burning," or "ardent." 4. Even if in any other passage of the Scripture seraph were used to signify " a serpent," that would not help their argument in the case of Gen. in. Here the word used is not seraph at all, but B>ru (uaehash), which is derived from quite a different THEORIES ON MANNER OF TEMPTATION. 21 root, and signifies "the hisser," indicating the peculiar sound made by the serpent. It seems difficult at first sight to account for the origin of so erroneous a theory. But, on further investigation, it will be found to have arisen from a misunderstanding of Numb. xxi. 6 and following verses. There, the fiery serpents sent among the lelites for their sins are called D^SNX'Tt Dorian mnechashim kasseraphim) ; that is to say, "burning or fiery serpents." Further on Moses 1 irdercd to make a brazen s^b' (sarap/i), that is to say, a " brazen fiery one," nacliasJi (serpent) being understood. This, in the English versions, as also in the Vulgate, has been translated "a brazen i rpent," which gave rise, doubtless, to the erroneous idea that in Hebrew seraph meant a rpent" Hence these commentators concluded that the angelic seraphim must be angels with rpentine form ; whereas in truth tiny arc so called !>• in a spe< ial manner they are "lniiii ry, and ardent angels." On this light and unstable foundation wa ted tin', preten tious l>nt untenable theory. B ;>t<-r nowhere repre lent • him el. Mi Eve might, to a certain extent, have 22 THE SERrENT OF EDEN. been excusable, if she had yielded to a supposed messenger from God. The whole theory, therefore, is, from beginning to end, a groundless supposition in every detail, besides being opposed to the literal wording of the sacred narrative ; it cannot, therefore, be admitted. V. A few commentators have not rested content with holding that the tempter assumed the form and status of an angel from God. They have gone the extravagant length of holding that he " assumed the form of the Son of God " in order to tempt Eve. What they mean by " the form of the Son of God " I really cannot conceive. For the Divinity has no visible form ; and a human form was not united to the Son of God till nearly four thousand years afterwards, in the Incarnation, of even the possibility of which Eve could then have had no idea. Whatever they may mean, it will be sufficient to point out, in refutation of this (as of the preceding) theory, that Eve's acting upon an apparent instruction from God Himself would not have been a sin at all. But, in addition to this, the very words of the sacred narrative give a flat con- THEORIES ON MANNER OF TEMPTATION. 23 tradiction to this, as to the preceding- theory. Reperuse the words of the tempter in Gen. iii. 4, 5. He not only does not so represent himself as either an angel from God or as the Son of God ; but he clearly, distinctly, and openly mani- fests a direct opposition to God, against whose command he plainly and deliberately urges Eve. He also flatly contradicts the efficacy of God's threat of death. The theory, moreover, is a purely gratuitous supposition, and clearly against the letter of Scripture. It seems difficult to account for the proposition and adoption of such evidently erroneous and pal- pably incorrect views, by men of intellect and learning, except on the fact of the admitted difrj culties experienced in interpreting Gen. iii. Like drowning men, they have grasped at straws. VI. Another theory is thai tin- tempter was Satan, wli imed tli'- viable but unsubstantial and apparitional form "fa serpent — just as angels have appear* d as men, and the Holy Ghost, at one time a dove, .nid at another as "parted tongui it were of fire "—and that Satan then 1 24 THE SEKPENT OF EDEN. the sound of a human voice to proceed from the jaws of this apparition, which Eve took to be a living, bestial serpent. This theory also labours under the insurmount- able objection, that it is a purely gratuitous asser- tion, without the shadow of a foundation in the words of the sacred narrative. There we have not even a hint of there having been an apparition, and not " the Serpent " in his natural reality. Besides, as live, in this supposition, must have taken it for a living, bestial serpent, all the difficulties which beset the next following and commonly received theory would, under this interpretation, still remain un- touched. This theory, therefore, is as useless as it is opposed to the literal wording of Gen. iii. VII. The generally received theory is that the tempter (Satan) entered into the body of one of the bestial serpents then existing in Eden, and took possession of it, as he did, in after times, of the energumeni, or possessed persons, mentioned in the Gospels ; that he used the vocal organs of this serpent for his purpose, forming a human voice in the serpent's mouth, and discoursing thence with Eve, as one might through a mask, or as the evil spirits used THEORIES ON MANNER OF TEMPTATION 25 to reply to our Lord, according to the Gospels, out of the mouths of possessed persons. That Satan is endowed with, and has been allowed to exercise, similar powers, we know from the Scriptures them- selves, not to mention the cases of the pagan oracles. This theory has been so commonly propounded and accepted as the only one which holds stead- fastly to the literal sense of the sacred narrative, that most readers will doubtless be surprised at my saying that it also is a purely gratuitous supposi- tion, which has not the slightest foundation in the words of Gen. iii. ! Where, I ask, is there on- single word indicating to us the presence of any other being except "the Serpent," himself alone ? Nowhere! Is there one single word anywhere to show us that the sacred writer meant that " the Serpent" was possessed, or was acting under th< coercion of a higher being, or was not himself tl e one, free, deliberate, and actual agent? Not one word! All through it is, "the Serpent was," "the Serpent aid,"— Eve, and alt' 1 wards God, "said to the Serpent ;" — " the Serpent " always, and not any one who |i ed it, or acted in or by it. No evil pirit is mentioned at all. Thereisnol the remote t trace of the presence or action of any other beil 26 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. except " the Serpent." All that is said and clone, is said and done to or by " the Serpent," and " the Serpent " alone. Whence, then, comes this theory of Satanic possession? Certainly not from the literal wording of the sacred narrative. That says nothing of Satanic possession ; it clearly and dis- tinctly and simply attributes the temptation to " the Serpent " alone. Satan's entering the serpent's body and possessing it, and speaking by means of it, are all gratuitous assumptions on the part of these commentators ; and they are all directly con- tradictory of the literal sense of the text. My first objection, therefore, against this theory, as against others, is that it violates this literal sense of the sacred narrative, and is a mere hypothesis. Besides this, Eve must have taken the serpent to be a mere bestial serpent, because she could not have known that it was possessed by any superior power. She had no previous knowledge of such an event or of its possibility. Hence to her mind it would have been only a bestial serpent, talking and reasoning in a manner in which she knew that bestial serpents could not talk and reason. Hence all the difficulties besetting temptation by an appa- ritional serpent would still continue to exist in the supposition of a Satanic possession of the serpent. THEORIES ON MANNER OF TEMPTATION. 27 Nay, this would add a few more difficulties to those already besetting the narrative, as we shall see in the next chapter. For the present, it is quite enough to say that this theory does not lessen the difficulties of interpreting Gen. iii., and that it is a gratuitous supposition, opposed to the literal wording of the text. To hold this theory we should be obliged to add to the words of the text, and to put con- structions upon those words which they do not naturally bear. For instance, we should be obliged to say, "The serpent was (not, indeed, himself the most subtil, but, having been tem- porarily possessed by the superior power and intelligence of one of the rebel angels, he for a little while seemed to be) the most subtil of all the beasts of the field." What a long and self-contra- dictory parenthesis is this which we should have to insert, especially as, after all, it flatly contradii the plain words," The serpent was tin- most subtil"! Again, the words "lie said to Eve" would have to be eli.;: : ' I : did not himself speak to 'ait Satan who po I him used his vocal 1 id caused a human speech to issue from tl pent's jaws, by whi< h, not tli<- 1 rpent, but Satan, said to ! And so on. Each clan 2S THE SERPENT OF EDEN. which the sacred narrative clearly assigns to the Serpent alone would have to be explained away, as referring, not to the serpent, but to Satan who possessed him. Surely this is doing fearful and needless violence to the literal sense of the Scrip- tures ! How differently the Scriptures speak of Satanic acts and words in the cases of real posses- sion, we may easily see in the Gospels. There the acts and words are clearly and unmistakably referred to the evil spirits, though there was the less necessity for so doing, because it had already been stated that the men were possessed by the devil. Here, in Genesis iii., no such antecedent announcement is made ; the words are not attri- buted to Satan, and no indication is given of his presence. The usage of Scripture, therefore, to- gether with the absence of any hint of Satanic possession, convinces us that this theory is opposed to the literal and obvious sense of the sacred narrative. I have put this argument at a greater length than absolute necessity required, because this theory has been most erroneously called the "only literal interpretation " of Gen. iii. To this it has not the remotest claim. The fact is precisely the reverse. Whatever other merit this theory THEORIES ON MANNER OF TEMPTATION 29 may or may not have, it is most evidently and most certainly not a literal interpretation of this narrative. Yet under this false pretence it has succeeded only too long in usurping in Christian literature a most notable place, to which it is in no way entitled. VIII. One writer only, that I know— Cardinal Cajetan —seems to have put aside all idea of either a Satanic apparition, or of a Satanic possession, or of a myth ; and to have propounded a novel idea. I le holds that the temptation was a purely internal temptation ; that it was not an audible or visible temptation ; that it did not, therefore, need eithcr an apparitional or a bestial serpent. In fact, he ms to dispense with "the Serpent" altogether. This, of course, raises against his theory the insurmountable objection that the Scripture most distinctly and positively Laches that "the Ser- pent " did tempt Eve. No theory which excludes "the Serpent" is consistent with the requirements of the acred narrative. THE SERPENT OF EDEN. IX. Our interpretation, which (as will be seen here- after) avoids all difficulty, is that " the Serpent " is — in Gen. iii. as elsewhere — only another scriptural name for Satan. Of this interpretation I shall here say no more, as it will be fully considered in Chapter VI. Of the preceding eight theories, none seems to deserve any serious consideration except that given under No. VII., p. 24, which is the com- monly received one. The question, therefore, may be narrowed to this one point. The Scripture tells us plainly that " the Serpent " tempted Eve. This Serpent was cither a bestial serpent, or it must have been some other serpent, not a bestial one, if such a one we can find mentioned in the Scriptures. If it was the bestial serpent, as the commonly received theory maintains, then it must have acted either by its own natural powers or under a higher influence. That it could have tempted Eve of its own natural powers is a physical impossibility. That it did so under a higher influence is a mere gratuitous supposition, not only unsupported by the plain words of the sacred narrative, but posi- tively contradicting them. THEORIES ON MANNER OF TEMPTATION. 31 We are, therefore, left under the necessity of seeking out from the Scriptures themselves if there be not some " Serpent " other than a bestial one. But before we do so, let us suppose, for the time being, that the bestial serpent is the one here indicated, in order that we may realize how many and how great arc the difficulties attending the commonly received theory. I HE SERPENT OF EDEN. CHAPTER IV. DIFFICULTIES ATTENDING TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. These difficulties may be placed under two heads : (i) those which tell against the serpent considered as a mere bestial serpent ; and (2) those which tell against the serpent as having acted under the coercion of a superior Satanic power. SECTION I. — Difficulties attending Temptation by a mere Bestial Serpent. 1. I f " the Serpent " was a mere bestial serpent, how came he to become " more subtil " than other serpents in Eden ? In the Hebrew text, we not only have the definite article before the word " Ser- pent," L' : n$n (hannachash), and in the Scptuagint TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 33 also 6 6 34 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. how did it become so ? Was it created so ? or how- did it make itself such? If it was created "most subtil," while other serpents were created different in subtility, then the serpent race at least cannot have been created, as the Scripture expressly tells us that all animals were, " after their kind." If it afterwards became the " most subtil " of all, by what means was this done? Of itself? That is physically impossible. By God's power? Then God would have been working miracles, Himself to ruin His own work, which is absurd. By Satanic possession ? That, as we shall see hereafter, does not remove all the difficulty (see Section II., p. 66). Besides, which of all the serpents, or which of the two, became the tempter ? Why did that one specially undertake that office ? Above all, why is that one, above all other serpents, called " the Serpent " ? and why is it not stated, as in this hypothesis it ought to have been, that " one of the serpents was the most subtil," instead of merely saying " the Serpent " ? There is no reasonable answer to these questions. This special Serpent is said to have been " the most subtil of all the beasts of the field ;" or rather, TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 35 as I have shown from the Hebrew text, " the most intelligent of all living beings," including men, and perhaps some angels. The word " subtil," too, we have seen to mean, in the original, " intelligent, with reasoning powers." This Serpent, therefore, is declared to have been the most intelligent or rational of all living beings on the earth — more intelligent than man himself, for the text will bear that interpretation. Serpents are not, of course, intelligent with reasoning power; that is certain. But (not to insist too much on the special and peculiar meaning of Hebrew or Greek words), is it at all true, that the serpent, even in mere animal subtility or intelligence, is above all the beasts of the field? Not in the least true. Far from ex- celling all other animals in intelligence, it is, in fact, much inferior to many of them. This is a most important point. I say that in no reasonable sense is any bestial serpent "more subtil than all the beasts of the field." Lei ' : examine the cast- in detail, for it is a crucial statement in the narrative. Most animal, can be tamed and taughl and trained. They display more or less animal intelli- nce, in answering the calls made upon them, to irn something more than natural instinct teachi J 6 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. them. But neither in its natural state, nor under domestication, has the serpent any, even the slightest, claim to being considered " the most subtil of all the beasts of the field." In its natural state it is far surpassed by many animals ; as, for in- stance, the ant, the beaver, the bee, the elephant. In a domesticated state it is simply immeasurably inferior to most other animals ; as, for instance, the dog, the goat, the horse, the monkey, the elephant. It is marvellous to see what some animals are capable of being taught. But the serpent? No- thing at all ! During my long sojourn of a score of years in India, I have seen hundreds of tamed serpents, of every variety and size. The same natives who train them and make a living by them, train also other animals for the same purposes. They succeed in teaching some wonderful things to these other animals : — to the serpents — nothing ! The performances of these tamed serpents consist solely in erecting and waving their crests to the sound of a flageolet — and no more. And even during this poor performance, their sole object seems to be to glide away to any cover near at hand, that may suggest to them the possibility of an escape, or of a hiding-place. If there be no such cover, the serpent quietly coils himself up, It** TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 37 and listens, with head erect, to the music. Among serpents, the cobra di capello (Naja tripudians), which erects its crest higher than most other ser- pents, does wave itself to and fro, and sometimes execute what is, by courtesy, called a " dance." It advances and recedes according as the snake- man recedes or advances. But close observation shows that this also is an unintelligent and purely instinctive motion. Never once have I seen or heard of a serpent having been successfully taught to perform any tricks, or having learned to do any actions, or of having been trained to anything more than to a passive submission (not without frequent symptoms of anger in each performance) in being exposed to public gaze, and being handled, and put around the person of the ex- hibitor. The so-called "fight" of these trained serpents with the munghoose Cor newla), a kind of weasel common ill India, is a mere matter of in tin< tive self-defence. Such fighl are of frequent occurrence even in wild forest life. And besides, both iu the wild and in the tamed state, the inun- gho ii' rally, almosl invariably, gel i the better in the fight. The only cases of defeat are when a not fully grown mun is pitted against an eptionally large or vigorous serpent. 1 do not 99T.U 38 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. wish to deny, nor does my thesis require me to deny, the possibility of teaching tricks to a serpent, at the expense of very great care, skill, and patience. It is enough for the purpose of the objection which we are considering, that the serpent cannot be said to be "the most subtil of all the beasts of the field." For the ordinary care, skill, and patience, which in India are successful in teaching the goat, the monkey, and the elephant to do such strange and wonderful things, fail utterly to do as much, or anything like as much, with serpents. This alone would suffice to prove the fact that the bestial serpent is not, by any means, the " most subtil of all the beasts of the field," as the sacred narrative states that the Serpent-tempter was. In order to ascertain yet further the alleged subtility of the serpent race, I visited the London Zoological Gardens on purpose, and spoke to one of the keepers at the snake-house, who has had an experience of over a score of years, he told me, with serpents. In answer to my question, he em- phatically declared that, as a class, serpents could by no means be called intelligent animals. What intelligence they possess is of a very low type, and is confined almost exclusively to a bare recognition, in a very undemonstrative way, of the TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 39 keepers who have for some time attended and fed them. The facts of natural history, therefore, are con- clusively against the bestial serpent being, in any sense, the most subtil, clever, or intelligent of all the beasts of the field. Yet, under the erroneous impression that the letter of Gen. iii. 1 required them to produce proofs of superior and surpassing intelligence in bestial serpents, even grave authors have not scrupled to put forward the most shallow and absurd reasons (if by courtesy they may be so termed) for their unnatural belief in the serpent's ^ubtility. A mere statement, however, of these so-called reasons will suffice to show us that they deserve no serious consideration, and will excite our wonder how they were ever seriously adduced, discussed, and accepted. I proceed to place here all these so-called proofs of serpent-wisdom which I have been able to collect from various authors, most of whom go on merely repeating their prede- ces: tatements. 1. it is given as a proof of the serpent's wisdom or intelligence, that when it is attacked, it tries to hide its head, and seeks, above all oth( 1 1 on ;id< ra tions, to keep that afe ; knowing that, if its head is air.it need not fear being killed. 'I his conducl 4 o THE SERPENT OF EDEN. reminds us of the proverbial stupidity of the ostrich, a great deal more than it gives us any specially high idea of the serpent's intelligence. This is the more evident when we consider that the head is not the only vulnerable part of a serpent's body ; and that, therefore, it is not true that, the head of the serpent being safe, the life of the animal is also safe. A good blow with any instrument, whether sharp or blunt, on any part of a serpent's body except the tail, causes a lingering but certain death, by sever- ing or crushing the spinal vertebrae, even though the head, by being hidden or kept out of harm's way, remains untouched. So, likewise, death can also be easily inflicted on a serpent, without touch- ing its head, by any severe cutting, ripping, or biting open of the thorax, belly, or abdomen. It is thus that the munghoose generally attacks and kills the serpent, when the head is either hidden under the coils of the body, or under some other object. It is no proof, therefore, of intelligence that the serpent hides its head ; just the reverse. For if it looked danger in the face and opposed it courageously, its deadly poison might often give it a victory, where it generally finds death, by hiding its head. 2. Some commentators have adduced, as a sign TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 41 of the serpent's superior intelligence, a silly tale believed in former times, that when the animal is about to drink, it first lays aside its poison-bag, to prevent the possibility of imbibing its own poison ; and that, after having slaked its thirst, it replaces the bag in its mouth, to be ready for offensive or defensive purposes. I suppose no one believes this fable now ; yet I have found it repeated in very modern works. The serpent has not the power of ejecting its poison gland or bag. Nor would there be any necessity for doing so. It has been long since proved, by actual experiments, that serpent- poison is innocuous in the healthy stomach, which can easily digest it ; and that it does not prove fatal, except when conveyed directly into the blood, either by a bite, or through a wound or ulceration. This, therefore, even if it were true, would be no proof of superior intelligence in the serpent 3. It is another old fable, that the serpent shows its intelligence by attacking nude men, but flying from those who are clothed, knowing thai it has a chance of killing these than the others. It is e that "me authors pul it exactly the oppo site way ; -that the serpent avoids a nude man, but attacks one who i i lothed. But this contradiction ■ wonder ; for when people talk ol wh.it has no 42 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. foundation in truth, it is very natural that they should fall into absurd blunders. So it is here ; for the assertion is not true, as a matter of fact. Except when defending its young (as all animals do in the most ferocious way), the serpent, if it has the possibility of an escape, invariably glides away at the approach of man, or of any large animal. It never attacks them, except when hurt, or when surprised without the possibility of escape. In countries much infested with serpents, it is not an uncommon event for one of these reptiles to glide over a limb, or over the body of a man, without inflicting a bite, if the man remains still and quiet. But it is equally a common event for a bite to be inflicted, if the serpent, before it has glided quite away, be startled and frightened by any sudden, even involuntary, movement of the man. If such a movement, however, occurs immediately after the reptile has glided even a short distance, it at once seeks safety in flight, and docs not attempt to return and bite the cause of its terror. Being clothed or nude has nothing to do with the matter. This instance also of the serpent's intelligence or malice is as untrue as it is inconclusive. 4. It is a very common assertion among com- mentators, that the serpent, full of subtle cunning TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT 43 and malice, lies in stealthy ambush for man and other animals, and bites them unawares in the heel to kill them. To begin with, we are not concerned with malice, but with intelligence, of which this, of itself, would be no proof. It would, at most, be an instinctive act, like that of the lion watching for its prey. But the statement, though repeated by dozens of authors, is utterly untrue ! All the facts and observations of natural history show the ser- pent to be a quiet, shy, retiring animal, which (as stated in the preceding paragraph, No. 3) never willingly or wilfully attacks either man or other of the larger animals. It does, of course, attack the smaller animals on which it feeds, as frogs, mice, small birds, etc. These, however, are only its natural food ; and seeking that food is no sign or proof of malice, cunning, or intelligence. 5. Pliny and others give, anion;,; the instances of the intelligence and cunning of the serpent, a number of talcs, presenting us with imaginary details of the manner in which it casts its skin. These taleswe need not consider minutely, b< those of them which are not simply untrue indii neither intelligence nor cunnii They merely describe a natural operation, taught to the serpent by simple animal instin< t 44 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. 6. Nor can the fascination which the serpent is said to exercise on the small birds and animals on which it feeds be cited as a proof of its subtility or intelligence. This is a merely natural effect, not depending on the intelligence of the serpent, but proceeding from the natural instinct of the victims. It is merely the fascination, or rather the paralysis, of fear and deadly terror. It occurs with other beasts of prey also. Nay, man himself, in certain circumstances of fear, gives way to such paralysis of the motive powers. It is the gaze of the serpent that produces this effect, which is not the result of any manoeuvres or plans of the serpent. It is, therefore, no proof of superior intelligence, but only of a special instinct. These six points exhaust the list ! There is absolutely nothing more than this put forward by any one, to prove the superior intelli- gence or subtility of the serpent. It does not prove it in the least degree. Nay, more. This utter and complete failure to prove the serpent to be "the most subtil of all the beasts of the field," aggravates and emphasizes the difficulty it was supposed to remove. Were it the dog, the elephant, or the monkey, how easy would it not be to prove that they possess a considerable TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 45 amount of an intelligence which seems at times almost superior to mere bestial cunning and sub- tility, and almost approaches to reason ! But nothing of the kind can be brought forward in favour of the serpent. I unhesitatingly affirm that the facts of natural history prove to a certainty that there is no possible sense in which it can be asserted with truth of any bestial serpent, that it is "the most subtil of all the beasts of the field." Yet such, the Scripture expressly tells us, was the Serpent-tempter. Therefore he could not have been the bestial serpent. I [ere it may be objected by some, that our Lord Himself praises the wisdom of the serpent (Matt. x. 16), saying, " Be ye therefore wise [prudent] as serpents, and simple as doves." One may easily reply to this objection, that our Lord spoke of these two animals only as of two well-known symbols, and not of their animal natures. It was then His intention to inculcate a moral prim iple to guide us in our acts, and nol to teach natural history. Hence M<: took, as illustration, of His meaning, two symbols well known to His hearers the ser- pent as the symbol of prudence, and the dove as th<- symbol of simplicity. The serpent maybe used and he really was in an< ient times) as the symbol 46 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. of prudence without his being, therefore, actually wise or prudent. Was not the owl, Minerva's bird, also used as the symbol of wisdom ? But does that prove that the Greeks considered the owl to be the wisest of birds? Certainly not. Again, take the other symbol here used by our Lord — the dove. The dove is not naturally simple in any sense. It is just as wide awake and alert and watchful as any other wild bird ; and it is perhaps the most erotic of all animals. So much for its simplicity ! The serpent is no more intelligent or prudent by nature, than the dove is simple. But they were well-known symbols in Judaea. As such our Lord used them, in their symbolic, and not in their natural, sense. Hence His words create no difficulty in the way of our holding, as is clearly proved by natural history, that the serpent is not, by any means, " the most subtil of all the beasts of the field." If, therefore, by "the Serpent" in Gen. iii. i, is meant a bestial serpent, the facts of natural history would be in open and direct contradiction with the words of Scripture. It is impossible to over-esti- mate the trenchant force of this objection, which is absolutely fatal to the commonly received interpre- tation, that the bestial serpent was (in any way) TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 47 concerned in the temptation. The Serpent that was concerned in the temptation " was the most subtil " of all on earth ; and such the bestial serpent neither is, nor ever was, nor naturally could be. A bestial serpent could not be, of himself, such a tempter as is represented in Gen. iii., talking and reasoning with Eve. He could not, of himself, have spoken with a human voice. That is a physical impossibility. In answer to this otherwise insurmountable diffi- culty, we are told that " with God all things arc possible," even making dumb, irrational animals speak with a human voice, as lie actually caused Balaam's ass to do (see Numb. xxii. 28). Hut the cases are not parallel ; and the almighty power of God cannot be brought forward for the explanation of Gen. iii. We all admit, of course, the almighty power of God j and that lie could, if lie (hose to exercise that power, cause even a bestial serpenl to speak and reason lor a time. This He did in the case of Balaam Bui this animal wa caused to peak, in order to prevent Balaam from further resisting the will oi God. The serpent, in the other case, would have been caused to speak, 48 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. in order directly to excite Eve to sin against God's express command. God would thus have been working a stupendous miracle, against His own command, and in order to cause a breach of that command. This is simply absurd. He would, moreover, have become, in this way, the direct author of moral evil, the direct agent Himself of the temptation. This is opposed to the Scripture : "God tempteth no one" (James i. 13). The reply, therefore, which urges the almighty power of God as the means of the temptation, fails to solve the difficulty ; and it remains in its full force. 4- The sacred narrative represents Eve as entering into a rational conversation with " the Serpent," without showing any sign of surprise or alarm. If "the Serpent" was a bestial one, such conduct would have been both foolish and unnatural. It is true that the world was yet young, and that experience was still but small. Adam and Eve, however, had been created in the full perfection of man and woman-hood, of both body and mind. They knew that they were the only two human beings in Paradise ; the only two rational animals among the innumerable species of animals, over TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 49 which power and dominion had been given to them, by the common Creator. This is evident from Gen. i. 27, 28, compared with Gen. ii. 18-22. The other animals had even been brought by God to Adam, who had given to each its appropriate name. All this Eve knew well. She was aware that these animals did not talk with a human voice, an articulate speech, and rational arguments. She would, therefore, have been natural]}- much surprised and alarmed at such voice, speech, and argument from a bestial serpent. She would naturally have gone at once to Adam, to consult with him on this preternatural phenomenon. Yet the sacred narrative represents her as doing nothing of the kind. She does not manifest the least surprise, suspicion, or alarm. On the con- trary, she takes it as a matter of course. She appears to have talked and argued with "the Ser- pent," in the most natural and unconcerned manner ; just as if 3he had been dealingwith another rational human being. This unnatural unconcern, if "the Serpent" was a bestial serpent, can be explained only on the supposition of a silliness and lolly in Eve, utterly incompatible with tin- perfection -l that state in which the first pair were created and placed. 50 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. In reply to this most serious objection, it has been urged, that the serpent may have stated to Eve, that it acquired the use of speech and of reason from having itself eaten of the fruit of that forbidden tree ; and that this statement, together with its apparent verification, may have both conquered Eve's surprise, and prevented her having recourse to Adam. We may at once candidly admit that this suppo- sition, if it could but be proved to be a. fact, might be considered to remove this difficulty in a plausible way ; provided it Were the sole difficulty attending the narrative. But it is not the sole difficulty ; and the solution does not touch any others. Besides, admitting that supposition, it would still seem to most of us, that even then Eve would naturally have had good grounds for intense surprise, for deep reflection, and for immediate consultation with Adam. But however that may be, the great and fatal flaw in this reply, — as in all these theories — is that it is, simply and purely, a mere gratuitous supposition. It has no foundation in the sacred narrative. We find not a single word in Gen. iii. of such a statement having been made by the Serpent. We are not allowed, in the interpretation of Scripture, to make such gratuitous suppositions TEMPTATION EY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 51 without good grounds in the text itself; and here none are to be found. A difficulty which requires nothing short of so groundless a supposition to meet it, may fairly be considered a very grave, nay, an absolutely insurmountable, difficulty. 5- There is no reasonable sense in which the ser- pent is " cursed above all cattle, and above all beasts of the field." If it cannot compare to advantage with the higher and nobler animals, it is itself greatly superior, in its natural condition, to many of the lower ones. It is but one of many creeping things or reptiles, and by no means the least among them. It is superior in the conformation of its body, in the rapidity of it- movements, and in the keenn« of its instincts, to many other similar creeping thin It is well provided with a means of defence in the noiseless swiftness of its course as a i .i])'- ; and in it . deadly poison .1 a n of ait.: it . enemies when esi ape is impossible. It is equally well able to provide i"i its food and subsistence with the besl favoured animal.. In all these matters it j s immeasurably tuperior to many of its fellow reptil< ; for instance, 52 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. to the lizard, the earthworm, the frog, the snail, or the slug. It is not, therefore, the most cursed of all creatures. In reply we are told, that the serpent is abomin- able to all creatures, and is most detested and avoided by all ; and that, in this way, it is the most cursed of all. But, in the first place, the Scripture does not say that the serpent is to be the most abominable and detested of all creatures, but the most cursed ; and we have no right to twist the meaning of that word to suit our theories. Being cursed, in the scriptural sense, means being made despised, abject, helpless, and miserable. This is not verified in the serpent above all other animals, as we have seen. In the next place, it is not true that there is any special natural abhorrence in all creatures towards the serpent, more than there is, for instance, towards the lion, the tiger, the alli- gator, the crocodile. Hence the difficulty remains ; and no amount of cavilling can be made to verify this curse in the case of the bestial serpent. 6. There is no special reciprocal enmity between the serpent tribe and man. On the part of the serpent there is not found the TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. DJ least appearance of an)- special enmity against man. As has been already said, the serpent is by nature a shy and timorous animal. He never goes in quest of man, or lies in wait for him, or attacks him, or longs to kill him, any more than he docs for other larger animals — that is to say, not at all. When it is possible, he avoids man and seeks to fly from his presence, having this trait in common with most wild animals. Nay ; wolves, tigcr^, lions, and some other animals, have a far greater, intenser, and more active enmity against man — if that can, properly speaking, be called an enmity, which is but the result of mere animal instinct. These animals, according to their nature, do attack man, either openly or by stealth, and fight him often not unsuccessfully, when hunted. Hence the enmity again »t man on the part of the serpen! is conspicuous by its absence, or is < ertainly much less than that which certain other animals bear to man. Neither can it I;' truthfull) ted that man has any special enmity again i th pent tribe. He kills serp< ni . it i true, wh< rev* r he i an find them, because they are a danger to his life. Bui this i no sign of any ■])<■! ial enmity ; for he does the same equally, and for the same reason, to many othej 54 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. animals ; for instance, to the scorpion, the lion, the tiger, the wolf, the bear, the eagle, the alligator. Nay, more. Man shows a far greater antagonism against some other wild animals than against the serpent ; say, for instance, the larger animals of the feline race. For man never goes in quest of the serpent to kill it, though he invariably tries to kill it when he meets it. But he does actually go in quest of the larger animals, for the express purpose of killing them, besides killing them when he happens to meet them. In some countries, man has waged a war of extermination against some specially obnoxious animals ; as, for instance, in England against wolves. But when or where has such a war been ever waged against serpents ? The apparent hatred, therefore, of man against serpents is not a special enmity ; it is merely his common natural enmity against all wild noxious animals. Nor, on the other hand, as we have shown, has the serpent any special enmity against man. Hence this clause also of the curse upon "the Serpent" is not at all verified in the case of the bestial serpent ; and this fact constitutes another insuperable difficulty against the generally received theory. TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 55 7- Condemning a bestial serpent to "go on its belly" is not a curse or punishment, in any reasonable sense of the words. Going on its belly is, and always was, and must, of its essential nature, always be the ordinary mode of progression of the serpent. Whether there were or were not, both before and since the curse, other animals with serpentine bodies, having wings or feet, and hence called flying or crawling serpents, is foreign to the question in hand. Such would have retained their previous forms. The text of Gen. iii. docs not speak of such flying or crawling serpents; nor does it say that by the curse the serpent lost its pristine form and mode of progression, or its wings and feet, and had thereafter to go on its belly. This would be another of the man)- gratuitous suppositions mad. t<> maintain this theory, and as such it is clearly inadmissible. Such animals could not Ik- called simply "tin: Serpent," as we have it in (.en. iii. 'I 1,' tf the really guilty ut? The cases in 1 ev. xx. i ;, \6 are not t<. 63 THE SERTENT OF EDEN. the point ; because death is there decreed not so much as a punishment on the beast, as the means of preventing a repetition of the acts ; and of those acts the animals had been the real active agents, and not merely the passive instruments. 4, If by "the Serpent" we are to understand (according to the commonly received theory) the bestial serpent acted upon for a time by Satan, then the same bestial serpent must have been the subject of the curse. Only three are cursed — Adam, Eve, and " the Serpent." Satan, therefore, who in this theory is the most guilty of all, escapes without any curse or punishment what- soever, although, as the most guilty, his punish- ment should have been the heaviest of all. n w 5- If "the Serpent" was a bestial serpent tem- porarily possessed and used by Satan to seduce Eve, then, the seduction having been effected, and the sin of Adam and Eve having been completed when both had eaten of the forbidden fruit, that possession must have ceased as soon as its object was accomplished. The serpent, therefore, must TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 69 have become free from that possession. It was then no longer anything except a mere bestial ser- pent. Yet God addresses, and curses the poor bestial serpent, even after the Satanic possession had ceased, as if it had been the real agent of a deed, done under entirely different circumstances, which had ceased, and as if it were responsible for that deed, as under this hypothesis it neither was nor could be. " Because thou [bestial serpent, accord- ing to this theory] hast done this," said God ; when as a matter of fact the poor beast had done no- thing at all, and when the assumed connection between it and Satan, the real agent, had ceased for ever. Is it not the height of absurdity to represent God acting as this theory makes Him? 6. Whether we consider "the Serpent" as acting under Satanic coercion or by itself, the argument drawn from the absence in tin- sacred narrative, of any surprise on the part of Eve at tin- serpi nl sped. in;.; ami reasoning, still hi ood. For to her it would still have been hut an irrational animal, a< tin;.; pretcrnaturally as a rational human being. What can ihe have known of Satani< possession ? ;o THE SERrENT OF EDEN. These difficulties, superadded to most of those already given in the preceding section (especially the inapplicability of the curse), attend the theory of a Satanic possession and coercion of a bestial serpent for the purpose of tempting Eve. No successful attempts have been made to furnish a reasonable answer to any of these difficulties. Every reply ever attempted has been met, as we have seen, and refuted without much trouble or waste of ingenuity. All these difficulties (each one in itself being of much individual weight) form, when taken all together, a cumulative argument so strong as to render perfectly hopeless the attempt to over- turn it. I lay special stress upon the indubitable fact, that not a fragment of these theories can be founded on a literal understanding of the sacred narrative, without bringing in the support of a series of suppositions, which are purely gratuitous, and have not the least suggestion of them in the text. Then- is not a single clause regarding " the Serpent" which fits in with what we know, from natural history, of the nature of a bestial serpent. There is not a single clause which docs not furnish a special difficulty and objection of its own, against the supposition that a bestial serpent TEMPTATION BY A BESTIAL SERPENT. 71 tempted Eve, with or without Satanic possession and coercion. It is not in any of these theories, therefore, that we must seek for a correct and satisfactory explanation of this most important narrative. We must look elsewhere for " the Serpent "- tempter. Whoever he was, he certainly was not a bestial serpent, nor any one using a bestial serpent as his instrument. These suppositions are merely gratuitous, and are attended with insoluble difficulties 72 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. CHAPTER V. OBJECTIONS AGAINST PROPOSING A NEW THEORY. The difficulties which have been shown to attend every one of the theories hitherto used for an explanation of the temptation of Eve by " the Serpent," leave the question still very mysterious, and still open for a satisfactory solution. I purpose, without actually condemning the commonly propounded and, doubtless, well-meant theories, to argue (as against unbelievers only) that there is yet remaining a literal sense — and the only really literal sense — in which the Scripture narra- tive, of the temptation and fall of man and the subsequent curse on the Serpent, can be rationally held, without admitting any unnatural apparition, or any Satanic possession of a bestial serpent, or any conversation with Eve in a human manner by OBJECTIONS AGAINST NEW THEORY. 73 a bestial serpent. If this can but be proved, and such an explanation be given, the narrative would be at once freed from all improbabilities and difficulties, and be rendered impregnable against infidel and rationalistic attacks. And yet the faithful would still be left at full liberty to choose whatever interpretation might best suit the taste and mind of each individual. 1 1 ere, however, I must answer, in anticipation, two objections that may be raised, with some plausibility, against my proposed undertaking. I. It may be argued that I am needlessly abandon- ing the literal and natural sense of the sacred narrative, and flying to a figurative sense. This, if true, would indeed be a grave objection ; but it is not true. I might reply that this is one of those cases in which, if even a novel figurative sense were sought for, 1! could not be •aid thai uch a search wa a need one. This is proved by the very existence of tin- numerous and insurmountable difficulties which, as we have een, attend the red narrative, when taken in the sense in which it ha- been commonly interpn ted. Bui that is not 74 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. my chief reply. My principal answer to the objection is, that I am not at all abandoning the real literal sense. I abandon only the common interpretation of the text, which I have already shown to be by no means a literal one. On the contrary, it has been shown to be a pure supposition, completely opposed to the letter of the sacred narrative. I purpose to substitute for it a -very literal interpre- tation, which shall be a truly literal sense, instead of being only a pretended literal one. I am not going to maintain that there was no serpent con- cerned in the temptation ; or that " the Serpent " is a metaphorical, or figurative, or allegorical expres- sion for something else. I shall hold that " the Serpent" did tempt Eve, and was really cursed for having done so. I shall hold all the facts as related in the sacred narrative to be literally true, as a plain historical narrative of facts. The point at issue is not whether the literal sense is not prefer- able to any figurative sense. I admit that it is so. The real question is, Which is the really literal sense? Who is this serpent, in a literal sense, without any gratuitous suppositions, inadmissible by the sacred text ? 0BJECT10XS AGAINST NEW THEORY. 75 II. Catholics may, moreover, urge against me, that if I deny that the temptation of Eve was effected by Satan, by his taking possession of a bestial serpent, or, in other words, under the appearance of a bestial serpent, then I shall be going against the commwtem sententiam, and consequently against the express prohibition of the Holy Council of Trent (Sess. IV.)- 1 But to this I answer that new objections must necessarily be met by new replies ; that varying circumstances, of time and of increased knowledge, change the old grounds of polemics ; that new theories may, and should, be advanced (with due submission to the judgment of Holy Mother Church) in order to strengthen the cause of truth against modern educated unbelief. This has already been done, with much advan- 1 The decree ol 1 ■ forbids the pi jntei >n of I [olj & ripture, " in rebus fidei el morum, ad d di rtinentium." The manner^ how I 1 1 forbid the private interpn 1 11 ion >r that ! nned the apparition <>f one for thi^ end. [f, ti»' ii, "tin- Serpent" in Gen. iii. was not a merely bestial serpent, nor a ed pent, nor an appariti rpertt,what " Serpent " it J The question may, in a differenl form, be finally 5>ut thus : [s there, pent, any other Serpent mentioned in the Scriptures ?— any 78 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. other Serpent whose existence is proved from the Scriptures themselves ; — and whose nature, as related in those very Scriptures, fits into the narrative of Gen. hi., — who has a just title to being, par excellence, called " tlie Serpent " ? Yes : there is such a scriptural Serpent, distinct from the bestial one. Several passages of Scripture exhibit before us a certain Serpent, who is also called by various other titles. This Serpent, though not a bestial serpent, is still a real Serpent. He is described in the Scriptures as being of such a nature as to have been most naturally the primary and sole agent in the temptation of Eve. His claim to being "the Serpent " of Gen. iii. can be established without an)- unnatural circumstances of fact, with- out any insurmountable difficulties of interpre- tation, especially without any violation of the natural and literal sense of Scripture, and without the use of any gratuitous suppositions. In fact, "The Serpent" is one of the special scriptural titles of the great arch-rebel angel, Satan. This is the key to the true interpretation of Gen. iii. This key is found in the Apocalypse (or Revela- tion; xii. 7, 8, and 9, where this chief leader of the rebel angels is thus spoken of: — THE NEW THEORY. 79 " 7. And there was war 1 in heaven : Michael and his angels fought against 2 the dragon; and the dragon fought and his angels, " 8. And 3 prevailed not ; neither was their place found any more in heaven. " 9. And the great dragon 4 was cast out, that old Serpent, 5 called ,; the 7 Devil, and Satan, 8 which deceiveth 9 the whole world : 1IJ he was cast out into u the earth, and his angels were cast out 12 with him." This passage of holy writ pointedly refers to Gen. iii. The words, "the Serpent, he of old," as the Greek text has it, and the words, " who causes t<> go astray the whole world," both directly in- dicate the fall of the human race in our first parents. They attribute that fall to the being who is here described in Rev. xii. This being is I I loiiny V' r ion, " ' gTI at battle : " x6\ipOS. : D.V., "with." J I). v., "and thi ' D.V., "tl • " 6 Bp&Kwv, 6 fxtyds. » D.V., "th it;" 6 t ipx«oj, literally, "tin ..I; if Old." '■ I >.\ . . ' ' ■ I n\avu)i>, f or to wander." II D.V. u/mj»» &ynv, "the whole habitable ■' I). V., "unto;"Wf. '- D.V., •■ thrown So THE SERPENT OF EDEN. called the Great Dragon, the Serpent of old. Dragon and Serpent are synonymous in Scripture and ancient natural history; a dragon being simply an older, greater, and mightier serpent among other serpents. This same being is also called Devil and Satan. It is not the Devil and Satan, who is also called the Serpent. Just the reverse. It is "the Serpent," who is also called "Devil and Satan." We are therefore compelled to conclude, that " the Serpent " is the primary name of this being ; and that the Devil and Satan arc only his secondary names. Now, there is absolutely no doubt possible as to the personality of him who is here described in Rev. xii. A portion of the angels of God, here said to have been one-third of the whole, fell from their high estate, headed by a leader, who is primarily called "the Serpent," and variously and equally named Lucifer, Satan, and the Devil. And this being is not only called " the Serpent," but he is expressly called 6 otyiq, 6 ap%mog — "the Serpent, he of old." This leader, therefore, of the rebel angels, in this passage of Scripture is clearly and distinctly and expressly identified with that Serpent of olden times, the deceiver of the human race from all time, whose first dealings with the THE NEW THEORY. Si human race are recorded in Gen. in. He and he alone is the Serpent-tempter of Eve. He and he alone is the Serpent of Eden. " The Serpent " is simply one of his many scriptural titles or names. The true interpretation of Gen. iii. consequently requires no aid of any bestial serpent at all ; and "the Serpent," interchangeable with "Dragon" or " Great Serpent," is only a plain literal scriptural expression for the Devil, Satan, or Lucifer. I do not assert positively that " the Serpent " is the sole and individual name of precisely the leader of the rebel angels. What do we really know as to whether each of the multitudinous angels, both good and bad, has or has not an indi- vidual name ? " The Serpent " may or may not be an individual name ; it may or may not be a common or generic name for many evil spirits. This does not affect the argument in the least. For even if " the Serpent " be only ric or common name for many, so also is "Devil" Au5j3oXoc, the Calumniator) and "Satan" |p# the Ad :). Whatever may be held as to indi- vidual names, it is certain that this text Rev. xii. (j) clearly and conclusively pone, that " the Serpent" is one of the scriptural titles or names ol <; 82 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. the great leader of rebel spirits, and is literally equivalent to and interchangeable with " Satan," or with " Devil." But Rev. xii. 9 is by no means a solitary passage of the Scriptures upon which I am trying to build up a new interpretation of Gen. iii. There are many other passages to the same effect. In sacred Scripture, in fact, Satan is repeatedly called " the Serpent." Take Job xxvi. The holy sufferer eloquently mentions some of the greatest phenomena of nature, and some of the mightiest works of God. " 7. He stretcheth out the north over the empty place, and hangeth the earth upon nothing. "8. He bindeth up the waters in His thick- clouds ; and the cloud is not rent under them. "9. He holdcth back the face of His throne, and spreadeth His cloud upon it. " 10. He hath compassed the waters with bounds, until the day and the night come to an end. "11. The pillars of heaven tremble, and are astonished at His reproof. "12. He divideth the sea with His power; and by His understanding He smiteth through the proud. " 13. By His Spirit He hath garnished the THE NEW THEORY. 83 heavens ; and His hand hath formed the crooked Serpent. " 14. Lo, these are parts of His ways ; but how little a portion is heard of Him ? but the thunder of His power who can understand ? " I hold that in ver. 13, by "the garniture of the heavens," are meant, not the inanimate stars, but the angels of heaven. This is proved by a com- parison with Ps. xxxiii. (in the Douay Bible, Ps. xxx ii.) 6, " By the word of the Lord the heavens were made ; and all the host of them by the breath of His mouth." The expression "breath of His mouth " indicates the creation of living and rational hosts ; for in Gen. ii. 7 also, God " breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul." In this enumeration of the mighty works of God, therefore, ver. 13 is devoted to a description of the angels; and anion;.; the angels, as another notable instance of the almighty power of God, Job nanus one sole brute animal — "His hand hath formed the (rooked Serpent." "Crooked " is not merely used to indicate the Winding of a serpent The word i^ repeatedly used in Scripture to mean pervet w or wicked. Deut xxxii. J, " they are a crooked generation ; " P ,< ... Douay, cxx.), 'crooked ways;" Phil. ii. 13, "a crooked nation ' 84 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. This special crooked Serpent, therefore, is a specially perverse and wicked being, called the Serpent. Now, from the context, it is evident that Job desired to indicate the power of God as shown by His works. Among these works he mounts from the greater physical wonders of creation (he omits even man) to the wonderful existence of the angels, or (if you do not admit the parallel from the Psalms) to the marvels of the starry heavens ; and he ends his catalogue with the creation of the crooked Serpent ! Now, the bestial serpent race has no possible claim whatever to being ranked among the chief works of God, much less to being the apex of the whole, the most sublime of all God's works. But such precisely is Satan, the devil, the old Serpent. Here, therefore, Job distinctly and clearly names Satan under his scriptural title of "the Serpent." So, too, Isaiah (xxvii. i) speaks of one particular great Serpent, which the Lord will punish on the day that He punishes the iniquity of the earth : xxvi. 21, "For, behold, the Lord cometh out of His place to punish the inhabitants of the earth for their iniquity : the earth also shall disclose her blood, and shall no more cover her slain." xxvii. i, "In that day the Lord, with His sore, THE NEW THEORY. 85 and great, and strong sword, shall punish Leviathan that piercing Serpent, even Leviathan that crooked Serpent, and He shall slay the Dragon that is in the sea." The punishment of this one particular Serpent is the culminating point of the anger and justice of God. The context precludes the possibility of its referring to any bestial serpent. The word " crooked " connects this text with the preceding one given from Job ; and the juxtaposition of the terms '• I >ragon " and " Serpent " seems to connect it with Rev. xii. 9. Again, let us open Isa. Ixv. Here the prophet typifies the greatness and glory of the Church. In ver. 25 he says, "The wolf and the lamb shall feed together, and the lion shall cat straw like the bullock : and dust shall be the Serpents meat.'* This conclusion, with its special marked reference to !i. iii. i), makes it impossible to doubt that the prophet was not thinking of any bestial serpent, but of that old Serpent Satan the sole agenl in the temptation of Eve. To interpret this text of a bestial serpent would be to thrust the serpent into .1 prominence now. mipatible with its natural place in the creation. B< iidi , when the othei animals are repn iented a 1 1 . < ■ ing 1 hanged tin i 86 THE SERPEN! OF EDEN. natural habits, clearly showing the presence of a metaphorical sense, it follows naturally that the serpent here indicated is not the mere bestial serpent, but some other Serpent. In Rev. (Apocalypse) xx. 2, an angel of God " laid hold on the dragon, that old Serpent [again 6 o(j>ig, 6 apxalog, 'the Serpent, he of old'], which is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him for a thousand years." And, in the already cited chapter (xii.), the words " Satan," " Devil," " Serpent," and " Dragon " are repeatedly used, both simultaneously and interchangeably, for one and the same person. This person is identified as the leader of the rebel angels, and, by being indicated as the enemy of the seed of the woman, is also identified as the Serpent-tempter in Gen. iii. From these texts, it is evident that the sacred Scripture makes special and frequent mention of a certain Serpent, also the leader of the rebel angels, one of the chief of God's mightiest works ; and it speaks of him under the name or title of "the Serpent." The Scripture speaks of him, in these cases, in his own individual personality, unconnected with any apparition or possession of a bestial Serpent. Yet it calls him simply " the Serpent," as in Gen. iii. It is evident, therefore, that "the THE NEW THEORY. 87 Serpent" is simply one of his scriptural names. Satan is " the Serpent," and " the Serpent " is Satan. The words are interchangeable. They mean the same person. I hold that, under the name of " the Serpent," Gen. iii. makes as literal and direct a mention of the same leader of rebel angels, as do the other texts here cited ; and that it mentions him equally in his own individual personality, unassociated with any bestial possession or apparition, as these texts do. It speaks of him simply under one of his well-ascertained scriptural titles. In Gen. iii. the words "the Serpent" are literally meant for " Satan," and for " Satan " alone, just as they are in Job xxvi., with no reference whatsoever to any connection with a bestial serpent. In consequence, we may, throughout the whole scriptural narrative of the temptation and fall of man, safely substitute the word " Satan " for the words "the Serpent" without (loin; 1 , any violence to the text, or putting any construction upon it opposed to its literal sense, or making any un- warranted suppositions. Literally true it will still remain thai "the Si rpenl " was the tempter ; only it will have been proved that by " the Serpent " is simply meant Satan in his own pel Onality. Then' 88 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. is not only thus no need for any apparition or possession of a bestial serpent ; there is no room left for either in the sacred narrative, the literal wording of which both those suppositions would violate. " The Serpent " is simply equivalent to " Satan," both being titles of the same person, and capable of being substituted for each other. To see how completely, naturally, and perfectly this interpretation fits into the sacred narrative of Gen. iii., I proceed to repeat that narrative as we found it in the original Hebrew text, substituting the word " Satan " instead of " the Serpent ; " just as in algebra we may substitute the ascertained value of an x or a y for x or y in an equation, without altering its value. I add a running com- mentary. {Satan ) _ \ was more subtil the SerpentJ than any living being of the earth which the Lord God had made ; " because his angelic nature and qualities, though dimmed and degraded by his fall, still constitute him superior to all animals on earth, including man, against whom principally (and not against irrational beasts) the comparison ((j>povi/xu>- rarog, most intelligent or thinking) is urged ; for it was to cope with man that Satan came. THE NEW THEORY. 89 "And he 'said* unto the woman," not by any- articulate audible speech, made to proceed preter- naturally from the jaws of a possessed bestial serpent, or of an apparitional one ; but by an internal and inaudible, yet most intelligible and soul-felt communication, of mind with mind and spirit with spirit. Thus God speaks to the heart of man with I lis inspirations, and our guardian angels communicate with us ; and thus, too, the same Satan daily and hourly speaks to ourselves, in our various temptations. Even thus internally and inaudibly, yet quite intelligibly, Satan spoke to Eve's mind and soul. No bestial serpent, or appearance of one, was at all needed. Eve had most probably often thought over and wondered at the prohibition against the eating of that par- ticular fruit. She had on this occasion, probably, • Ii iry to point <>ul thai "to say," in Scripture, when the thought is ■1 by audibli A f< w ex pli musl suffi Lai think in youi ielvi '], \\ e 1.7, " And ■ lit within tin n 'in. Matt, x \i. 25 (Ma ! "And they thought within thi 1 And m written, " l hen • . I ."In M in. in H nil th( blood, who in M I within hei • If, nted ■imply a " F01 . and thinkin I ire, ao ordii pturaJ u the l it. 90 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. wandered near the tree, from motives of natural curiosity. Or she may have been, perhaps, moved by previous internal, indirect temptations of Satan, seemingly her own thoughts, but excited by his baleful and powerful influence, prompting her to approach and look at that wonderful tree. When she arrived there and was viewing the beautiful tree and fruit, Satan (invisibly present with her and in her, for a spirit is where it thinks) makes his first direct internal suggestion or temptation. Not through the corporeal ear, or in an audible voice caused by vibrations in the air produced from the jaws of any serpent body or apparition, but straight to the soul, by spiritual intercommunication. The serpent, Satan, therefore in this manner " said unto the woman : Strange ! that God has said, Ye shall not eat of every tree of the garden ! " This intcr- jectional form of the beginning of the temptation is a matter of some importance. The temptation, in the original, is not in the interrogative form. It is not a question asked from outside ; but the sentence seems much more like a thought de- veloped in Eve's own mind, under Satanic sugges- tion. Satan speaks to her soul ; and in her mind he causes to arise a feeling of surprise at the restraint put upon her liberty. To this thought, THE NEW THEORY. 91 raised in her mind by Satan's insidious sugges- tion — as he daily raises similar thoughts in our- selves — Eve silently and mentally replies, as we ourselves daily argue with and reply to our own temptations. (Satan ) 2. " And the woman said to < > : We J (the Serpent) may eat of the fruit of the trees of the garden." And here there seems already to be a partial yield- ing to the influence of the temptation, in the exclu- sion of the phrase " of every tree," used by God in Gen. ii. 16. Eve already seems to consider the permission to eat " the fruit of every tree," except that one, to be so limited that she leaves out the "every." Thus she already resents the slight re- striction, and despises the wide permission. 3. "But of the fruit of the tree which is in the midst of the garden, God has said, Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lesl perhaps y< die." The addition by Eve of the word " perhaps" which is not found in the original prohibition in Gen. ii. 17, is remarkable, a ihowing the incr< ing force of the temptation the fii I glimmer of a doubl in her faith. < M tin's doubt Sat. in adroitly avails him elf, and ugj I i strong and open temptation against faith, a yielding 92 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. unhesitating assent to God's teaching. He en- larges the doubt into a certainty ; that there is no chance of their dying ; that there is no certainty in God's threat ; and that it proceeds only from a jealous envy on the part of God. All this he, therefore, again communicates inaudibly to the mind of Eve as before. (Satan ) 4. " And < > said unto the woman, (the Serpent) Ye shall not surely die." And he then proceeds to add another temptation. He appeals to her pride and ambition, his own favourite vices, by which he himself had fallen. Me suggests to Eve a false suspicion as the reason of God's pro- hibition ; and he finally holds out to her the false promise, that a disobedience of so arbitrary and interested a command would result in an increase of knowledge, and, in consequence, an enlargement of power, and an improvement of condition. 5. " For God knoweth that in the day ye eat thereof, then your eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil." From curiosity Satan leads her to unbelief, and from unbelief to pride and ambition. Eve dwelt with pleasure on these evil sugges- tions. She offered no resistance. She did not fly THE NEW THEORY. 93 from the occasion of sin. She did not pray. She hesitated. She viewed the tree with a well- developed and growing desire to taste the fruit. She gazed long, perhaps, at it, till her desire for it made it seem to be " good for food," which mere sight could not tell her ; and " pleasant to the eyes," which in Hebrew is "a desire unto the eyes;" and "a tree to be desired to make one wise," which also her sight could not prove, and which she had no reason to believe, except Satan's suggestion and her own longing thoughts. She yielded, and cat of it. Satan's purpose was accomplished. 1 [e ceased to act further. We proceed to note that " the Serpent " — Satan — is not said to have come to Eve before her temptation, or to have gone away after her fall, because he is a spirit ; and his coming and going arc not recorded, because they did not fall under thi Vet they would naturally have been re- corded, if a bestial serpenl had been in any manner the instrument of the temptation, The Serpent- tempter is represented as being all the time present with Ik r. Satan had been indeed really present, v. plot and working out his evil purpose in Ev< mind, though neither visible nor audible. He now seems to disappear for awhile 94 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. from the scene, and remains unnoticed in the sacred narrative. He continues still present, how- ever, though invisible and inaudible ; gloating over Eve's fall, while she eats of the fruit, and takes of it to Adam, and coaxes him to eat of it ; and he does eat, and falls likewise. Still invisibly present with them, he continues to watch them, awaiting the result of his success. He watches the guilty pair, after the opening of their eyes, while they make aprons for themselves, and hear the voice of God, and hide, and are sought by Him and found, and spoken with. When the time for issuing the sentence of condemnation arrives, lo ! unsought, un- summoned, this same serpent — Satan — is again on the scene, invisible yet really present, and again not mentioned as having either come or gone. How perfectly does not all this coincide with the narrative, when " the Serpent " is simply taken as another name for Satan ; and how utterly it seems at variance with the commonly received theories ! Continuing still to substitute " Satan " for " the Serpent," we still find the rest of the narrative proceed rationally and intelligibly as before. „ a , , . , (Satan ) , 13. "And the woman said, < > be- (the Serpent J guiled me, and I did eat. THE NEW THEORY. 95 {Satan ) , _ >, Be- the SerpentJ cause thou hast done this," etc. These words of the curse we shall consider separately hereafter, p. 97. When put thus, the sacred narrative, while still retaining its literal sense in the highest degree, becomes both natural and intelligible. In fact, this is the sole interpretation which retains the natural and literal sense. It needs no ingenious theories to make it probable. It presents no physical difficul- ties against its possibility. It holds before us the temptation and fall, both as an historical fact in its most literal sense, and also as an instructive fact for the foundation of any allegory which we may be competent to build upon it. It maintains a positive and real temptation by " a real Serpent," who is Satan himself — such a temptation as is daily experienced by ourselves. It brushes away at one stroke all cavils and sophisms, nay, all those arguments which are of some, and perhaps of great weight, against an audible temptation from a visible serpent And yet the narrative (I repeat it, because it is of the utmost importance to be known continues to be held in its most literal sense; >ubstituting no metaphor, no allegory, no 96 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. myth ; excluding all figurative interpretation ; in- sisting solely on the fact, proved from the Scrip- tures themselves, that " the Serpent " is one of Satan's scriptural names, and that by "the Serpent" in Gen. iii. Satan is meant, to the exclusion of any visible serpent. Hence no violence is done to the text, and no gratuitous supposition is adopted. The text itself is left inviolate, by substituting " Satan " for "the Serpent;" firstly, because reasons already adduced preclude the possibility of a bestial serpent having been even the instrument of the temptation ; and secondly, because the Scrip- tures themselves tell us that Satan is " the Serpent, he of old." It is like substituting D»pfy| for rrtfl*, Kvptoc for 6foc, Doi/iiniis for Dens, or " Lord " for " God." The meaning remains the same; the sense remains the same ; the person meant remains the same. This is all that we need do in Gen. iii. ( 97 ) CHAPTER VII. THE CURSE ON "THE SERPENT." I ! 'REMISE four points for consideration, which, after what has been already seen, will easily command assent : — i. The words of this curse are inapplicable to the bestial serpent. 2. They do not apply to any material being, and cannot, therefore, be taken in a material and literal sense. 3. If they .ne applicable only t<> a spiritual or immaterial being, they must be taken in an im- material and spiritual 4. Such an application, under the circumstam doe-, no violence to the letter ol the sacred text. Weli.iv no insider the words of the cut upon the Serpent, in the light of the theory now advanced. r. 14. " 1'.' I lion nasi don,- tin , 1 ur »ed ai I 11 98 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. thou above every beast and above all living beings on the earth. Upon thy belly shalt thou go, and dust shalt thou eat all the days of thy life. 15. "And I will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed. It shall bruise thy head, and thou shalt bruise his heel." Such are the words of the curse on "the Serpent." If, putting aside the prejudices naturally caused in us by the teaching of our earliest days, we dis- passionately examine the words of this curse, we shall be compelled to acknowledge that there is not one single clause in the text which can in any imaginable way be naturally applicable to a bestial serpent : cursing an apparition is, of course, too glaring an absurdity to need any examination. We have seen the ingenious theories built up, and the bold assertions made, in order to show how the curse could work on a bestial serpent. They all leave untouched the question why at all the serpent, sinless by nature, because irrational, should have been cursed. They are all, besides, more or less improbable in themselves, and opposed to real facts. Yet these theories and assertions have been copied by one author or commentator from his predecessors, till quite a literature of nonsense (I THE CURSE ON " THE SERPENT." 99 speak with all due reverence) has grown up around the subject. But it has all been in vain. The facts of natural history are too stubborn to be bent to the aid of distorted theories and tortured inter- pretations. We have already seen that the bestial serpent is by no manner of means the most accursed of all animals. It does, it is true, go upon its belly ; but it must have done so from the beginning, and it shares this natural mode of progression with many other animals. Unless this is equally a curse on them, it cannot be any special curse on the serpent. It docs not eat dust as food. If in taking its natural food it docs receive some dust into its stomach with that food, this also is natural to it, with other animals, and therefore cannot be a curse on the serpent above all other animals. There is no ; 1 enmity between the serpent and man -nay, Considerably less than there is between man and me other wild and savage animals. The curse, therefi ilutely meaningless when it is applied to the bestial serpent ; thus rendering it impossible that the be tial serpent could have been the Serpent-tempter in any sense. Not one singli • I.e. the be tial serpent. But if we con ider this cur having been ioo THE SERPENT OP EDEN. passed upon Satan — "the Serpent, he of old " — then every clause assumes a definite and appropriate meaning, consonant both with the nature of things, and with numerous other passages of Holy Scrip- ture. Let us consider it in detail in this sense, and we shall easily realize its full and true signifi- cation. Satan is indeed cursed above every beast and above all living beings of the earth. For while they serve God, each according to his nature, and thus fulfil the end of their creation, and have an attainable object for their existence, Satan has fallen away for ever from his end. As a useless branch, he has been cut off and cast into the fire. As a sickly one out of the flock, he has been sentenced to eternal death. His punishment is made greater than that of all others, because he was the first originator and cause of all evil. This casting away, this living death, this complete degradation and punishment, have thrown him down, and lowered him beneath even the beasts of the field. He has forfeited his original end; and the object he now strives at, — to resist and oppose God, — he cannot possibly obtain ; for God is Almighty. " On thy belly shalt thou go, and dust shalt thou THE CURSE ON " THE SERPENT" 101 eat all the days of thy life." Satan, being an incorporeal spirit, has no corporeal belly on which to go, in a literal sense ; and as he requires no material sustenance, he neither eats dust nor any other food, in a literal sense. We find, however, on examination, that these two expressions have a very definite and special sense and meaning in the Holy Scriptures. The two clauses, through insen- sible gradations and through various shades of meaning, merge into the one idea, which in scrip- tural usage is most applicable to the case of Satan's ndemnation iri consequence of his evil deed. ling, sitting, lying, and grovelling in dust and ashes, or on the earth ; prostrating, placing one's body or putting one's mouth to the earth in dust and ashes; eating or licking dust and ashes ; — all these are common scriptural expressions for misery, helplessness, degradation, servitude, humiliation, and defeat. One may easily convince one's elfol this,b;.. ny full i rdan< eofthe Bible. Let me cite a few notable instanci , and in con sidering them, we mould recall what is stated at pp. [4, 15, that in Hebrew the derivation itself of the word "belly" includes the idea ol the bowii down and bendii en in thes< ti 102 7//E SERrENT OF EDEN. I. Prostration, which, by bringing the belly to the earth and placing the mouth in the dust, as an analogous act with "going on the belly," is the ordinary Oriental and scriptural sign of subjection, of veneration, and of the acknowledgment of infe- riority and submissive helplessness. I need hardly multiply cases. In Gen. xxxiii. 3, Jacob " bowed himself to the ground seven times, until he came near to his brother;" — xlii. 6, and xliii. 26, Joseph's brethren " bowed themselves to him to the earth;" — xliv. 14, "they fell before him upon the ground." Balaam, in Numb. xxii. 31, "bowed his head, and fell fiat on his face." Ruth (ii. 10) "fell upon her face, and bowed herself to the ground." In 1 Sam. (Douay, 1 Kings) xx. 41, David in his distress " fell on his face to the ground, and bowed himself three times" to Jonathan; — xxv. 23, Abi- gail " fell before David on her face, and bowed herself to the ground;" — xxviii. 14, "Saul perceived that it was Samuel, and he stooped with his face to the ground, and bowed himself." In 2 Sam. (Douay, 2 Kings) i. 2, the messenger announcing Saul's death came, " with his clothes rent, and earth upon his head : and so it was, when he came to THE CURSE ON " THE SERPENT" 103 David, that he fell to the earth, and did obeisance ; " — xiv. 4, the woman of Tekoah " fell on her face to the ground, and did obeisance, and said, Help, O king;" — and vcr. 22, " Joab fell to the ground on his face, and bowed himself;" and again, ver. 33, Absa- lom "came to the king, and bowed himself on his face to the ground before the king." In I Kings (Douay, 3 Kings; i. 23, Nathan " bowed himself before the king with his face to the ground." In 2 Kings Douay, 4 Kings; ii. 15, the sons of the prophets "bowed themselves to the ground before" Elisha. In 1 Chron. xxi. 21, Oman "bowed himself to David with his face to the ground." In 2 Chron. \ ii. 3, at the dedication of Solomon's temple, "when all the children of Israel saw how the fire came down, and the glory of the Lord upon the house, they bowed themselves with their faces to the ■und upon the pavement, and worshipped, and praised the Lord." Now, falling prostrate upon the ground, with the face to the earth, must necessarily bring the belly to tin earth also. Thus tin's action, voluntary in th c ( . cited, corresponds to the involuntary compulsion, which was to be the punishment oi Satan. Reluctantly, in spite of himself, and against his will, he would be compelled to give glory to io 4 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. God, by being made prostrate, in helplessness, and by being forced to submit to His decrees. II. Next follows another group of phrases, which speak of dwelling, lying, or being in the dust ; most of them being so worded as to include also the belly being upon the earth. In Micah i. 9, 10, the prophet says of Samaria and Judah, "her wound is incurable . . . declare it not in Gath ... in the house of dust roll thyself in the dust." In Nahum iii. 18, the prophet speaks of the downfall of Assyria — " thy nobles shall dwell in the dust." — Ps. vii. 6, "Let the enemy persecute my soul, and take it ; yea, let him tread down my life upon the earth, and lay mine honour in the dust;"— xxii. (Douay, xxi.) 14, 15, "I am poured out like water, and all my bones are out of joint ; my heart is like wax ; it hath melted in the midst of my bowels ; my strength is dried up like a pot- sherd ; and my tongue cleaveth to my mouth ; and Thou hast brought me to the dust of death;" — xliv. 24, 25, " Wherefore hidest Thou thy face, and forgettcst our affliction and our oppression? For our soul is bowed down to the dust ; our belly cleaveth to the earth," which is an evident equiva- THE CURSE ON " THE SERPENT." 105 lent to the phrase, " on thy belly shalt thou go ; " — cxix. (Douay, cxviii.) 25, "My soul cleaveth unto the dust: quicken Thou me." Job (ii. 8), in his sore distress, "sat down among ashes ; " — and ver. 13, his friends, sharing his affliction and misery, " sat down with him upon the ground seven days and seven nights;" — xvi. 15, "I have sewed sackcloth upon my skin, and defiled my horn in the dust ; " — xxx. [9, " He hath cast me into the mire, and I am become like dust and ashes." Isa. iii. 25, 26, " And th)- men shall fall by the sword, and thy mighty in the war ; and her gates shall lament and mourn ; and she being desolate shall sit upon the ■und ; " — xxvi. 19, " Awake ye and sing, ye that dwell in the dust;" — xxix. 4, speaking of the humili- ation of Jerusalem, Isaiah prophesies, " And thou shalt be brought down, and thou shalt speak out of the ground; and thy speech shall be low out of the dust, and thy voice shall be .1- "I one who hath a familiar spirit, out of the ground, and thy spei shall whisper out of the du t." I [ere we must note the well-known fact, that those who had familiar pint , and those who were |> ed, often fell in fits to the ground ; and that similar epilepti< fits often occurred at the delivery ol paganoraclt . [sa. Iii. 2, " Shake thyself from the du t ; ari '.sit down, io6 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. O Jerusalem ; loose thyself from the bands of thy neck, O captive daughter of Zion." Jer. vi. 26, " O daughter of my people, gird thee with sack- cloth, and wallow thyself in ashes : make thee mourning, as for an only son, most bitter lamenta- tion ;" — xxv. 33, "the slain of the Lord . . . shall not be lamented, neither gathered nor buried ; they shall be as dung upon the ground ; " — and vcr. 34, " Howl, ye shepherds, and cry ; wallow yourselves in ashes, ye principal of the flock ; for the days of your slaughter and dispersion are accomplished, and ye shall fall." Lam. iii. 16, " He hath broken my teeth with gravel stones, He hath rolled me in the dust ; " — and ver. 29, " He putteth his mouth in the dust, if so be that there may be hope." III. We have yet another group of passages, which speak of being cast down, or lying down, upon the ground, or dust, or earth, or ashes, or the dunghill ; — always in the same sense of defeat, misery, and humiliation. 2 Sam. (Douay, 2 Kings) xii. 16, "David therefore besought God for the child ; and David fasted, and went in, and lay all night upon the earth." Ps. cxlvii. (Douay, cxliv.) 9, " The Lord lifteth up the THE CURSE ON " THE SERPENT" 107 meek ; He casteth the wicked down to the ground." Isa. li. 22, 23, " Behold, I have taken out of thine hand the cup of trembling, even the dregs of the cup of My fury ; thou shalt no more drink it again. But I will put it into the hand of them that afflict thee, which have said to thy soul, Bow down, that we may go over; and thou hast laid thy body as the ground, and as the street, to them that went over." Lam. ii. 10, " The elders of the daughter of Zion sit upon the ground, and keep silence : they have cast up dust upon their heads ; they have girded themselves with sackcloth ; the virgins of Jerusalem hang down their heads to the ground ;" — and vcr. 11, "Mine eyes fail with tears, my bowels are troubled, my liver is poured upon the earth, for the destruction of the daughter of my people " (the "liver" here being an equivalent for the "belly" in Gen. iii. y ;— iv. 5, "They that did feed delicately are de olate in the street ; they that wen- brought up in scarlet embrace tlr hill." l./.ek. xxvi. "Then all the princes "I the sea shall comedown from their throne, and lay away their robes, and put off their broidered garments ; they shall clothe them 1 iv . with trembling ; they -hall sit down upon tin- ground, and shall tremble at ev< moment, and b< al thee;" — xxviii. \7, 10S THE SERPENT OF EDEN. 'Thy heart was lifted up because of thy beauty, thou hast corrupted thy wisdom by reason of thy brightness ; I will cast thee to the ground, I will lay thee before kings, that they may behold thee;" and ver. 18, "Thou hast defiled thy sanctuaries by the multitude of thine iniquities, by the iniquity of thy traffic ; therefore will I bring forth a fire from the midst of thee, and it shall devour thee ; and I will bring thee to ashes upon the earth, in the sight of all them that behold thee." Obad. 3, 4, " The pride of thine heart hath deceived thee, thou that dwellest in the clefts of the rocks, whose habitation is high ; that saith in his heart, Who shall bring me down to the ground ? Though thou exalt thyself as the eagle, and though thou set thy nest among the stars, thence will I bring thee down, saith the Lord." IV. We have yet one more and last group of phrases, which have a special reference to eating or licking dust or ashes. Ps. lxxii. (Douay, lxxi.) 9, "They that dwell in the wilderness shall bow before Him ; and His enemies shall lick the dust." Both these clauses are equivalent to the double clause of the curse THE CURSE ON " THE SERPENT." 109 on the Serpent ; and here they actually again occur together, and in the same sense. Ps. cii. (Douay, ci.) 9, " For I have eaten ashes like bread, and mingled my drink with weeping ; and ver. 10, " Be- cause of Thine indignation and Thy wrath : for Thou hast lifted me up, and cast me down." This, too, has a close and evident parallel with Satan's former state, and his great fall and humiliation. Isa. xliv. 20, " He feedeth on ashes : a deceived heart hath turned him aside, that he cannot deliver his soul ;" xlix. 23, " Kings shall be thy nursing fathers, and their queens thy nursing mothers : they shall bow down to thee with their face towards the earth, and lick up the dust of thy feet ; and thou shalt know that I am the Lord." Here also we have the same two ideas of being cast to the ground and of eating dust, which occur in the curse on the Serpent, placed again in juxtaposition. Micah vii. [6, 17, "The nations shall see and shall be nfounded at all their might: they shall lay their hands upon their mouth, their ears shall be deaf They shall lick the dust like a serpenl ; they shall move out "f their holes like worm, of the earth: they shall be afraid of the Lord our God, and shall fear b of I hee." I [ere on< in are the very same two ideas of the i urse, in juxtaposition, no THE SERPENT OF EDEX. though in inverted order. Again \vc have the creeping on the ground and the licking of dust placed side by side, as in Gen. iii. In the last place I cite Isa. lxv., in which is a very striking passage indeed, having a direct refer- ence to Gen. iii. It speaks of the punishment mentioned in Gen. iii., that the Serpent shall eat dust. It clearly states that this punishment had not yet taken effect in the prophet's days, but that it was still to be accomplished hereafter. He prophesies the calling of the Gentiles into the Church, and the rejection of the Jews for their incredulity and sins. Still, he says, a remnant shall be added to the number of the elect ; the wicked shall be punished, and the godly rewarded. In the last place he describes the blessings and peace of the Church, or new Jerusalem ; and, as the culminating point of these, he says (ver. 25), "The wolf and the lamb shall feed together, and the lion shall eat straw like the bullock : and dust shall be the Serpent's meat." In many of the foregoing texts a literal meaning is excluded by the very nature of the context. They are, however, phrases with a very clear and definite metaphorical meaning, which is, indeed, the same meaning as the words have in the natural and THE CURSE ON "THE SERPENT." in literal sense. They arc all very clear proofs of what is the usage of Scriptural language in this matter. Prostration on the ground, dwelling or being on the ground, licking or eating dust and ashes, — all these are found to be cognate phrases, implying punishment, defeat, degradation, humi- liation ; voluntary or involuntary submission to a superior power ; overthrow, and despair. With these expressions in our minds, we cannot fail to perceive plainly and distinctly the nature of the curse inflicted, in Gen. iii. 14, 15, on "the Serpent" It may be paraphrased, as if God had thus spoken to "the Serpent," who is no other than Satan : — For having caused the fall of man, and for op: My will, "thou art cursed above all rational and irrational beings;" for they shall In- able to fulfil their end, and to attain to the happi- ness of which their nature is capable. But thou shalt f.iil to be happy, having forfeited thy end; and thou halt thus be more mi erableand wretched than they. Immortal and spiritual as thou h en, and art by nature, and must always be, thy punishment (hall not be m< rely a temporary one, like that of Adam and Eve and their deseeiidan! 112 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. They, if they choose, shall, after their short lives on this earth, still be able, through the grace of the Redemption which I shall presently announce, to rest for ever in heaven, and to enjoy an eternal happiness. Thy chance has been once for all forfeited without the possibility of any further hope. Thou hast exalted thyself against Me, in trying to ruin the work of My hands ; I shall cast thee down and humble thee lower than thy victim ; yea, and lower than " all the beasts of the field." I shall cast thee down to the earth ; thou shalt grovel in the dust. Degraded from thy former high estate as thou art, thou shalt be yet further lowered and humbled. Every action thou dost shall add to thy condemnation and humilia- tion. Always thus grovelling on the earth, "on thy belly shalt thou go." Unable to rise, and powerless to exalt thyself, thou shalt feed on defeat, rage, and despair, and torture thyself with thy own feelings. " Dust shalt thou eat all the days of thy life." This curse, therefore, is simply, in Scriptural language, a strong and clear expression for humi- liation, defeat, rage, and despair. Satan was to be humbled most completely. His schemes were to be defeated, his power overthrown ; and the ruin THE CURSE ON "THE SERPENT." 113 he had wrought was to be repaired by the Re- deemer, promised in the next following verse. The last-quoted text from Isaiah, moreover, proves that the curse was not considered by the prophet to have been accomplished immediately after it had been pronounced. It was not con- sidered as quite accomplished even in the days of the prophet. This would not be the case had it referred to a bestial serpent, and to a corporeal going on its belly, to a material eating of dust. For all these should have been accomplished (in the commonly received theory) immediately after the condemnation. Yet the prophet still speaks <>f it in the future tense. It was, therefore, under- od and proclaimed by the prophet as still await- ing accomplishment. It awaited its full, entire, and perfect realization till the time should come, not only for the death-blow to Satan's power by thi ith of oui Lord Jesus Christ, bul even for thai further time-, wli laini I triumph nf the Church, t\ of the Lamb, was destined t' put the fmal seal on the work of the redemption Then, when all evil i rminated, and eternal peai e hall 1"' the Serpent' i meat." then hall be the i omplete triumph of < ■<>{ their predecessors. Not one <>i them 'ems t<. have tried to find out for himself the real sen e "f the sacred narrative according t<> its literal up .mill Not one 'em . tO have in\ the in. -.miii'; of obviously analogous phi .'no-. Some, "f difficulty, held it a myth, or fi , and not 120 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. an historical fact. But nearly all the others went on, in the name of the literal sense, to do violence to the literal sense of the sacred narrative, over- loading it with gratuitous suppositions, and sur- rounding it with incorrect statements. They seem never to have considered the existence of that real scriptural Serpent — Satan — as a being quite distinct from the bestial serpent, and utterly unconnected with it. Much less did their readers or hearers. But now arises the further question : Whence came the Rabbinical fable, introducing this sup- posed possession of a bestial serpent by Satan ? I think that we can trace it back to that intense fear and hatred of serpents which is, and has always been, prevalent in the East, owing to their being there so common and terrible a danger to human life. To Orientals, all serpents are an object of the intensest detestation ; for in the East the deadly venom of the serpent is a standing menace, and a continual danger to man. Few, if any, innocuous serpents are there to be found ; all are very formidable to man, with either poisonous bite or ponderous crushing coil. All creeping things, in fact, are an abomination to the Oriental mind. We have a significant proof in Lev. xi. 41, 42 : " And every creeping thing that crecpeth upon the ORIGIN OF RECEIVED INTERPRETATION. \i\ earth shall be an abomination ; it shall not be eaten. Whatsoever goeth upon the belly, and whatsoever goeth upon all four, or whatsoever hath more feet among all creeping things that creep upon the earth, them ye shall not eat ; for they are an abomination." One would think that this was quite sufficient to mark the rejection of such animals for food. But no! With an emphasis altogether wanting in the rejection of other unclean animals, the sacred Lawgiver goes on, in vers. 43, 44: "Ye shall not make your- selves abominable with any creeping thing that creepeth, neither shall ye make yourselves unclean with them, that ye should be defiled thereby. For I am the Lord .your God: ye shall therefore sanctify yourselves, and ye shall be holy; for I am 1ml}-: neither shall ye defile yourselves with any maimer of creeping thin- that creepeth upon earth." Why this reiterated condemnation ol articles of food, with the extr. ordinary assertion of God's power and holine altogether omitted in othei imil.n' prohibitions? I' maybe aid that the emphasis is due to this very supposition, that tin rpent had 1 »* - * 1 1 trumental in the fill. But this cannot be. I tli'- prohibit! not limited i" th' 122 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. things which go on the belly, but it is extended to all reptiles — even to those which, like lizards, crawl on four feet, and to those, like spiders and centipedes, which crawl on many feet. These are entirely different in form, nature, habit, and anatomy, from the serpent. They are not only specifically but generically distinct. The reason is simply a general reason ; it is the antipathy of all Orientals, and of the sacred writer, Moses himself, to all creeping things. There is nothing more horrible, abominable, and detestable to the Oriental mind than creeping things ; but among these the quick-gliding, silent, and deadly serpent is the climax of his hatred and terror. Moses (Exod. iv. 3) flies in terror when his rod is changed into a serpent, though immediately afterwards the appearance of even the loathly leprosy on his hand does not seem to disquiet him much. The forked tongue and deadly venom of the serpent (Ps. cxl. 3, and lviii. 4 ; Douay, exxxix. and lvii.) ; — its un- certain and unasccrtainable course (Prov. xxx. 19); — its treacherous bite (Prov. xxiii. 32) ; — all exhibit the serpent as being to the Oriental mind the very type and symbol of whatever is most malignant, deceitful, and evil. The numerous and dreadful deaths in the desert from the bites of the fiery ORIGIN OF RECEIVED INTERPRETATION. 123 serpents (Numb. xxi. 6 and following verses) must have been quite fresh in the mind of the sacred writer of Gen. iii. That remembrance must have been perpetuated by the preservation of the brazen serpent, which had been very carefully kept, as is evident from 2 Kings (Douay, 4 Kings) xviii., etc. Those who have never been in the East, or have not lived in other countries where serpents are many and deadly, may think that I am exaggerat- ing this terror and abomination, in order to prove my point But it is quite the reverse. I have not said all that could be said. But, lest I be too prolix, I will add but one more proof. God, by the mouth of the Prophet Jeremiah (viii. 17), after mentioning numerous other punishments, including war and the devastation of their country, in punishment of the crimes of His people, holds out against them in the last place, and as the most terrible of all 1 1 is punishments, a plague i if serpents ! "1<], [ will send serpent , cockatrices, among you, which shall not \n charmed ; and they shall bite you, saith the Lord." How truly I to their minds mu t not that be, which is considered worse than e\ horrors of war ! All this proves that to the Jews, .1 to other Oriental . there was nothing on earth worse, or 124 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. more terrifying, or more antagonistic than the serpent. With such impressions in their minds and such feelings in their hearts, what wonder that they gave the name of " the Serpent " — to them the most odious and terrible of all things — to Satan, the arch-enemy of the human race, the subtil de- ceiver of Eve, the cause of all human ills ! " He is an Arab to my sight," is the Turk's expression for any person he dislikes. Similarly Orientals express their detestation and horror of a thing by calling it a " serpent." Hence they gave to Satan (itself meaning " the Adversary ") the name of " The Serpent." It was not because they origi- nally believed that he had entered into, or used the bestial serpent, in any way while tempting Eve. It was because in his dealing with the human race, both in the case of Eve and ever afterwards, he had acted towards it as a deadly serpent might do with a human individual ; creeping upon it un- awares to deceive it ; beguiling it with false and forked tongue ; infecting its very nature with venomous poison ; killing it with death-giving bite. For this reason Satan was justly abominable to man, and came by him to be called "the Serpent." For this same reason, also, the sacred writer of Gen. iii., wishing to represent Satan to his people ORIGIX OF RECEIVED INTERPRETATION. 125 as their worst enemy, called him " the Serpent " — to them the most terrible of all animals. For the same reason, further on in the curse, he uses words which still compare Satan to a serpent, making him metaphorically a "creeping thing," an object of utter abomination to his people. Most probably Satan had, long before the time of Moses, been commonly referred to under the name of "the Serpent." When Moses wrote of him by that title, he was doubtless clearly and distinctly understood by his people to mean Satan, and no bestial ser- pent. An expression well understood at one time, and under one set of circumstances might easily become ambiguous and doubtful under other cir- cumstances of time, place, or persons. I may give here an instance of a somewhat similar phi, regarding serpents. In India, especially durii the hours of darkness, the Hindoos will not speak of a serpent without an absolute n< But if they an- compelled to peak of the animal at all, they will not call it by th il names of sanp or uch times they always speak of il russy, a rope. Vet, v. ' n of, every one pr< rly and at once understands the ti ■when, for ii :i ,,f a mpany in ide a hut ays that h< a n ;■ in 126 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. the garden." To a stranger, or under other cir- cumstances, the expression might suggest a doubt of a literal meaning, and start him on the search for some figurative sense. But it is clear and in- tclligible enough to those to whom it is addressed. So the sacred narrative, at the time that it was written, was doubtless perfectly intelligible to all for whom it was meant, that " the Serpent " meant Satan himself. Gradually it was allegorized. It began to be taken in various senses ; much as some texts are used by preachers at all times in a very different sense from the original meaning. Then new and strange constructions began to be put upon it, and quaint stories built upon it, by the rabbinical writers and commentators, one of which I have already cited. In course of time the original meaning was overlaid with a fable, and the teaching settled down to the commonly received interpretation, that Satan had used a bestial serpent as his instrument in tempting Eve. This will furnish us with a very probable and sufficient origin for the common belief, till a better is found. ( 1^7 ) CHAPTER IX. CONNECTION BETWEEN GEN. III. AND SERPENT- WORSHIP. ANOTHER very important matter remains to be examined, and the difficulty it offers remains to be answered. Numerous authors have been at very great pains to show that serpent-worship has been most widely diffused ov< r the earth. The)- say that wherever there was idolatry, there \. also serpent-wor ship. This would, of course, simply mean that il tended the whole globe; for where ha idolatry not prevailed at ome time? They ex- plain this universality ■ rpent-worship by th. upposition that Satan, having ruined human nature by mean i of a t, and w i hing to p petuate thai ruin by idolatry, kepi alive the tra dition that through the serpenl came knowledge; 128 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. and thus induced men to worship him under that very form in which he had first effected man's ruin. Or the argument may be stated under a second form. The original tradition of the temp- tation and fall of man must be coextensive with the human race ; and serpent-worship also is co- extensive with the human race. This points to the truth of the belief that Eve must have been tempted by Satan under the form of a serpent ; and that afterwards he so far succeeded in further seducing man, as to get himself worshipped uni- versally under the form of a serpent, as the great benefactor of the human race, to which under that form he had communicated the godlike gifts of wisdom and of the knowledge of good and evil. Thus, for instance, argues Mr. Bathurst Deane, among others, in his learned and erudite work on " The Worship of the Serpent." I may candidly admit that, if all that has been said and written of serpent- worship were strictly correct, this might prove an argument of some weight against the conclusion which I have endeavoured to establish. True serpent-worship, if universal, might perhaps, in some way, be used as a proof of a universal tradition of a temptation under the form of a serpent ; whereas I have tried to GENESIS III. AND SERPENT- WORSHIP. 129 prove that the temptation must have been effected directly, and without the aid of any serpent except Satan himself, spoken of under his scriptural title of " the Serpent." In dealing with this matter, I shall examine it under three distinct heads : 1. What weight has it in determining that serpent-worship proves the theory of Satan's having used the bestial serpent as his instrument in tempting Eve ? 2. Was serpent-worship really so universal as is repre- sented ? 3. What is the real origin and meaning of serpent-worship ? I shall discuss each point in a separate chapter. K txo THE SERPENT OF EDEN. CHAPTER X. WHAT IS THE WEIGHT OF THE ARGUMENT FROM SERPENT-WORSHIP? Two considerations will show us that the argu- ment from serpent-worship is not a strong one in itself. It would be a very strong one if there were no other hypothesis for the existence of serpent- worship than its supposed derivation from the incidents of the temptation of Eve. But, as I shall show in Chapter XII., the rise and progress of serpent-worship can be satisfactorily explained by a rival and better theory. Hence the mere fact (if it were a fact) that serpent-worship be- came prevalent, to a certain or to a great extent, throughout the world, would not of itself, prove the conclusion sought to be deduced from it. For if there is a second hypothesis, as good at least as ARGUMENT FROM SERPENT-WORSHIP. 131 the first, the conclusion would at best be a very doubtful one. There is another point of great weakness in this hypothesis. If, as assumed, the serpent was known and acknowledged to have been the instrument of the fall of man, it would very naturally have become the object of detestation and abomination to man, rather than the object of his love and worship. It is easy to attribute this supposed, but most unnatural, result to the wiles of the arch- deceiver, Satan. I rather think he showed his wilincss in getting himself worshipped under in- direct forms. No amount of wilincss could possibly make mankind, with such a tradition of the serpent alive among them, love and reverence and worship the very instrument of their ruin. To suppose the sibility of this, is to suppose a most irrational disposition in man. Nor may it be said, in reply, that the serpent was worshipped as the cause of the knowled of good and evil to man. For it is a very evident thing that Satan and the serpent could not be, and were not as a fact, either the canst- or the occasion of the knowledgt ol good and evil. This knowledge "I good and evil is essential to the nature ol man. a. a rational animal, endowed with 132 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. an intellect and a will, and capable of knowing and serving God, his Creator. This knowledge must have been possessed by Adam and Eve at the very first instant of their creation ; otherwise they could not have been real and perfect human beings. This knowledge must have existed in them, there- fore, even before the suggestion of Satan, and before the eating of the forbidden fruit. If Adam and Eve had not already possessed this knowledge of discriminating between good and evil, they would have been utterly incapable of receiving a precept or command. It would have been quite useless for the Lord God to order them not to eat of any particular fruit ; because, in the absence of know- ledge, they could not have any free choice, which presupposes knowledge. Nor could they have in- curred any responsibility in disobeying that com- mand. Nor could they have committed any sinful act. Nor could they have deserved any punish- ment for their deed. All these things necessarily presuppose the knowledge of good and evil, which is essential to all rational beings. There cannot, therefore, be the slightest doubt that Adam and Eve, even in the first moment of their existence, possessed the use of intellect and free-will ; and consequently the knowledge, together with the ARGUMENT FROM SERPENT- WORSHIP. 133 choice, of good and evil. These are essential to human nature. 1 1 It may be asked, What, then, are we to understand by the fact mentioned in Gen. ii. 9, that God planted in the garden of Eden " the tree of life, and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil " ? Whatever meaning we may seek to find in this passage, one thing is certain, namely, that it cannot mean that Adam and Eve did not know right from wrong, and good from evil, till they eat of the fruit of that particular tree. We readily admit that God could, by His almighty power, create a tree the fruit of which could have the power of conferring a knowledge of good and evil, where such knowledge did not naturally exist. But this was not at all necessary in the case of Adam and Eve, who naturally possessed that know- ledge as part of their human nature. This is simply a plain and admitted point. What is really meant by that tree being called "the tree of the knowledge of good and evil," is generally ami rightly explained of experimental knowledge, which Adam and Eve acquired by sin — of their change from a good to an evil moral condition. I am inclined to add, that the word " knowledge " here may mean " test." Then' 110 prohibition against the eating of the fruit of the tree of life. There was only one tree of which the fruit was forbidden (den. ii. 17 ; iii. 3). That Was the one tree for causing a certain knowli of good and evil. Nol in Adam and Eve. Nol thai they did nol already know good and evil. Not that the use of the fruit of thai ■ would confei on them tint knowh Nol thai the know I. would be acquired by Adam and Eve. I'm thai ii was the testby which God was to .ii criminate tin- ot, io.ni the evil ■ mong mankind. 'I he kit « hit b 1 from no inten live knowledge in the oul of those who eal of it; but il wa tie knowledge of them, tint I .a bad, that ii produi ed. I' nt, in ai. . in produi in;; knowledge in Adam and II knowledge — that i>, of tie- i^mmI bein tii led from tin evil. [I mad. known who were good and who weir evil, ei ing the purpo ••■ "l 1 tt ! on tie 1 . ,.|. 134 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. This truth is so self-evident, that it is an insult to human nature to suppose that mankind could have ever been induced to believe universally that the serpent, by causing sin, communicated the knowledge of good and evil to man. The ser- pent, therefore, could never have been considered the cause or the occasion of the bestowal of reason upon man. Therefore, supposing the existence of such a tradition, namely, that the serpent was the instrument of the temptation and fall of man, it would naturally have been associated with the ideas of sin, evil, and ruin to man. It could not in any way have been looked upon as the bestower of reason. It is, therefore, utterly unnatural to suppose that it could ever, with such a tradition, have become the object of human worship. The tradition, therefore, fails to explain the origin [of serpent-worship ; and, consequently, that tradition can receive no strength or support from serpent- worship, local or universal. This proof, therefore, fails signally, and is of but little weight. But if this argument from the universality of serpent-worship is so weak and unnatural as I have just shown it to be, the very ground is cut away entirely from under it — such as it is — when we come to examine the next question. ( 135 ) CHAPTER XI. WAS SERPENT-WORSHIP UNIVERSAL? '0io\aTptia, or serpent-worship, is a study of such great extent, so vast in its literature and so varied in its details, that it would require a bold man to say that he had anything like a mastery of it. Nearly all the authors also who have written on the subject have tried to establish a connection between erpent-worship and the generally received opinion of the fall of man, through the instrumen tality of a bestial serpent, and have declared and maintained that it was universal. Vet, with all due deference to them, I venture openly and boldly to contradict the universality of serpent-worship in If. I do not speak diffidently on this matter, in ol the learning and erudition, and tin numbers < hold the opposite opinion. For f think that I have succeeded in 136 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. detecting an important fallacy, pervading all their arguments and all the facts by which they support their assertions. It is not because of any over- weening self-confidence, but because I feel that I should otherwise be wanting in the interests of truth, that I purpose here to show how very slight a consideration (as natural and necessary as it has simply been absolutely wanting) is sufficient to overturn the entire edifice of serpent-worship, with its superstructure of a supposed primaeval tradition, in the commonly received sense. Has serpent-worship really been universal or even almost universal ? All writers on serpent-worship say " Yes ; it has." They go into minute details of all the countries where it was practised, and all the places where temples were erected for it. Assyria, Arabia, India, China, Palestine ; Egypt, and all the rest of Africa ; Greece and Rome ; Scandinavia and Britain ; North and South America, and many islands of the Pacific Ocean ; — all these, that is to say, the whole world, are stated to have been given to serpent-worship. Anterior authors are cited ; hundreds of facts are given ; monuments are in- dicated, including temples, statues, rings, gems, obelisks, and tablets. All these are, with much WAS SERPENT-WORSHIP UNIVERSAL? 137 labour, and ingenuity, and research, and erudition, marshalled to prove that serpent-worship was universal with the human race. But, the wish of being able to prove this having been the father to the thought, the usual results have followed. Statements have been accepted without examina- tion. Suppositions have been largely dealt in, where proofs were wanting. Above all, a certain distinction has not been made, where it is most imperatively required. Even admitting all their facts and assertions and suppositions, this dis- tinction, once made, is fatal to the assertion of the universality of serpent-worship. It is a simple distinction — one that they have all failed to use — and yet it is one which both can be and ought to be made. All the writers whom I have been able to con- Milt — and I have consulted a very great number — have confused two entirely different kinds of scr- pent-worship, which, if we arc to arrive at tin truth in the matter, must it I ily be carefully kept separate and examined apart. of these two things, one is serpent-worship, pro- perly so railed —the worship of the serpenl as a god, in himself and for Ids own sake. This is direct serpent-worship. The other is serpent-wor 138 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. ship, improperly so called ; that is, the use and veneration of the serpent not for himself but merely as the symbol or emblem of some one or more of the gods of different nations. This is indirect serpent- worship. 1 The mere statement of this distinction will, I am certain, suffice to gain the assent of all my readers. That there is an essential difference between the .two kinds, I think needs no proof. It is so self- evident as to have an irresistible claim on our minds as the voice of truth. It is these two en- tirely different kinds of serpent-worship which all authors on this subject confuse and blend into one, and treat of as one ; as if there were no radical and essential difference between them. I take my stand by this distinction. Now, even the most superficial glance at the works on serpent-worship will suffice to convince 1 One very important fact may here be noted with reference to ^crpc-nt-worship. In no country was it more prevalent than in Egypt. Yet among the objects of Egyptian worship was the ibis. And why? Because of its deadly hatred to serpents, which it instinctively sought out and killed ! The serpent itself, therefore, could not have been the direct object of worship, for the Egyptians would not then have worshipped an animal for killing their god. The serpent, in itself, therefore was to them an object of fear and hatred, which they rejoiced to see killed. When they wor- shipped it, it was, and could only be, as the symbol of some other deity. WAS SERPENT-WORSHIP UNIVERSAL? 139 us, that nearly all that is there adduced regards serpent-worship of the second kind — that is, indirect serpent-worship — not for its own sake, but as a symbol of other gods. This is by no means true and real serpent-worship. It is, indeed, still a certain veneration of the serpent. But when that veneration is paid to it as the symbol of another, and solely for the sake of that other, and not for its own sake, then it is no longer directed to the serpent itself, but to that other. Therefore it is not really serpent-worship at all. indirect serpent- worship can have no connection at all, not even an apparent one, with the history of the temp- tation as represented by the commonly received theory. All those facts of serpent-worship, there- fore, which regard indirect serpent-worship as a symbol, are quite foreign to the question in hand. They have nothing to do with the temptation of E\ Tiny ma)- and should, therefore, be quietly and .imply put aside, as not being to the purp 1 Simple and necessary as this operation evidently it is surprising t<» see what terrible havoc and devastation it doe 1 to tin fabric of serpent-worship. Down at one blow goes all that is piled up from the serpent-worship of China, India, Babylon, 140 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. Greece, Rome, Palestine, Arabia, Egypt, Scan- dinavia, Britain, and America ; that is to say, the so-called serpent-worship of nearly the whole world ! All this was only indirect serpent-worship. In all these countries the serpent was simply the symbol or emblem of some god, with whom he had some either real or supposed connection. This god (and not the serpent) was the direct and sole object of the worship paid. It was a veneration extended to the serpent for the sake of this god — to one thing for the sake of another ; not for its own sake, but simply and solely with reference to that other. It is like the veneration paid by Christians to the cross ; not for the sake of the wood or image, but solely for the sake of Him who upon it, and by means of it, vouchsafed to redeem us from the slavery of sin. It is like the reverence and honour paid to a flag ; not for the sake of its design or its material, but solely for the sake of the country of which it is the symbol. After eliminating from the mass of what has been written regarding serpent-worship all those parts which treat of indirect serpent-worship as above described, we find very little indeed left for our consideration. The effect has been like that WAS SERPENT- WORSHIP UNIVERSAL ? 141 of sticking a knife into an inflated balloon. What remains is but as very little compared with what appeared before. And even in what little remains, we can still find place for a further reduction. For, in examining even those cases in which we are told that living serpents were kept and fed in certain temples, and there venerated and wor- shipped, we shall still find that, even in these cases, — not many, after all — the great majority arc still found to be nothing but instances of mere symbolic worship of the living serpent for its real or supposed connection with some god. The only difference is that in such cases a living and moving symbol was used instead of an engraved, carved, or sculptured one. The adoration is still indirect serpent-worship. In none of these cases, therefore, can it be said that real, direct serpent-worship, properly so called, existed. In other cases the serpent was kept, not as a real god or object of worship, but for the sake of beii a mean i of taking auguries, by the method known to the ancients as 6f Bel and the Dra| ("dragon" in Scripture simply meaning " a gnat serpent"; narrated in the Book of Daniel, in a part which the Protestant Churche have relegated among the Apocryphal writings, lint, this draj seems l<> have been only a living symbol of Bel i 4 4 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. himself, for he had no separate temple or priests of his own, as each ancient god had. He was, it appears, kept in or near the temple of Bel ; because, after the destruction of Bel, it is said, " And there was a great dragon in that place, and the Babylo- nians worshipped him " (ch. xv.). And he seems to have been ministered to by the priests of Bel ; for it is said further on, " He hath destroyed Bel, he hath killed the dragon, and slain the priests " — mentioning only one set of priests for both. Daniel was not at first asked to worship this dragon or serpent, but to worship Bel. When Daniel objected to do so on the ground that Bel was only an inanimate object of brass and clay, and further- more, when he had proved Bel's inability to do anything, even to eat, the king bethought him of the dragon. Turning then to Daniel, he said to him, that as this dragon was at least a living god, Daniel could not object to worshipping him. This, too, is therefore only another instance of venera- tion paid to a serpent, as the living symbol of a deity, as in the cases of Greek and Roman paganism. 3. The veneration of the Hindoos for living serpents is easily explained by their belief in the transmigration of souls, coupled on the one side WAS SERPENT- WORSHIP UNIVERSAL t 145 by their fear of the death-giving reptiles, and on the other with the fact that the serpent is, in their mythology, the symbol of Shiva, the Destroyer, the third god of their trinity, and the most powerful and dreaded of all their deities. 4. The only real cases of serpent-worship, direct and for its own sake, are found in a few tribes, among the most degraded, of Africa. This, how- ever, is too small and insignificant a portion of the human race to adduce for so mighty a statement as the alleged universality of serpent-worship. Be- sides, even among these tribes, some substitute an iguana, or lizard, instead of the serpent. This shows us clearly that we must look for the origin of this local and degrading superstition in some- thing very different from the ancient tradition of the fall of man, corrupted by human weakness. There are literally no other authenticated casus of real din-' t serpent-worship to l><: met with even in the work-, of profes ed writers Oil this subject. And be it remembered tint they are by no means particular or critical in the selection "I thi n 1 a A l an instance of this, I following. Mr. Bathui ' I' .UK-, in his justly admired and learned work"The Worship of the Serpent," cites Bishop Pococke as furnishing us with an instance of real 1. 146 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. serpent-worship in modern Egypt ; and he pro- ceeds at once to adduce it in support of his theory — the commonly received one. Yet, on examining the case, what do we find ? Simply a mass of contradiction, and supposition. Pococke is told that in a certain place there dwells a holy serpent : — not so, said others ; there are two of them. No one present had seen it, or could tell to which of the varieties of Egyptian serpents it belonged. It had been there, said some, from the time of Mohammed : — not at all, said others ; it has been there since the day when the angel who accompanied Tobias bound Satan. All this might have convinced most men that this serpent was merely a legendary one. Not so Bishop Pococke. He goes to pay it a visit. He is taken to the place, and is told that the serpent dwells under the dome-covered mausoleum of a Mohammedan saint, in one of the clefts of the rock on which that mausoleum was built, while certain angels and devils and jinns dwelt in the neighbouring clefts. Most of us would have been fully convinced that the serpent was quite as mythical as the presence of those spirits. But not Bishop Pococke. He finds people bowing down and praying and kissing the ground, accord- WAS SERPENT-WORSHIP UNIVERSAL* 147 ing to Mohammedan fashion, before a saint's tomb ; and he concludes that they are worshipping this serpent. He sees signs of blood and entrails at the entrance of the mausoleum. The people, on being questioned, deny that sacrifices are offered to the serpent. Bishop Pococke forgets that Moham- medans, on certain feasts, sacrifice animals. In spite of everything, he jumps to the conclusion, that divine worship, in this case, really is paid to this living serpent which no one has seen, and which all deny to be a god ! And Mr. Bathurst I > ane adopts the tale ! ! I give this merely for the purpose of showing, by one instance, the uncriticiz- ing and uncritical mode in which cases of so-called serpent-worship are related by travellers, honest doubtless in purpose, and otherwise men of learning and ability ; and how they arc blindly accepted by authors who have a theory to maintain, in aid of which they arc ready to accept any .1 rted facts, no matter how inconsequential to their purpose, or how self-contradictory in their details. Having thu ide all direct worship of th< .'■nt, except in a few in Africa, I shall ak briefly of the ilical worship of the pent 'I'll- nt was ti ibol of various clc.it 14S THE SERPENT OF EDEN. It represented among Greeks, the god of wisdom, of healing, of chastity, of agriculture, of war, of sensuality, of drunkenness. If, as asserted, serpent- worship was simply Satan-worship, under his favourite symbol of the animal by means of which he had achieved his greatest triumph, how came the serpent to represent agriculture (Cybe/e), chastity (Piidicitia), truth ( Veritas), and healing (/Escula- pius)? The arts of peace, the glories of self- mortification, the light of truth, the benefits of healing, are all diametrically opposed to what we know and can guess of the desires and wishes of Satan. The serpent could not, therefore, have been worshipped as the direct symbol of Satan himself. This also clearly proves that the serpent was regarded merely as a symbol of those deities ; because he has not in himself any of the qualifica- tions necessary to indicate those virtuous offices. He has not a multiplicity of attributes, powers, or influences, so as to have become the original object of worship, and to have been afterwards deified, under these various titles, into various gods. His worship began after he had been made the symbol. lie is, therefore, simply a symbol, under various shapes and under diverse circumstances, of different gods, that had already been deified and worshipped WAS SERPENT-WORSHIP UNIVERSAL] 149 for various reasons. Even when the serpent Python — representing Satan, or the Principle of Evil — is being slain by the Principle of Good, the serpent is shown as the symbol of the Good Principle, even during the actual destruction of the Evil Principle. A striking instance of this multifarious symbolic use of the serpent may be seen in the world-renowned statue known as the Belvedere Apollo. " Or view the lord of the unerring bow, The god of Life, of Poetry, and Light — The Sun in human form arrayed, ami brow All radiant from his triumph in the fight; The shaft has just been shot — the arrow bright With an immortal's vengeance ; in his eye trils beautiful disdain, ami might, And majesty flash their full lightnings by, I '■ veloping in that one glance the Deity." (■■< hiide Harold.") It represents him, then, as having just dis- charged the holt of death against Python. Th< handle of the DOW is shown in his left hand, while the right arm and hand are thrown back in the attitude -)f an an h< i" exulting in the a< i ura< y of his aim. V< 1 while h<- i . thus r< pre -in. d in the very ■ of triumphing over the Pythonic serpent, the Principle of Evil, then, to his right and behind him, coiled <»n the trunk of a tree, is again the pent, the symbol <>f Apollo himself, the ( iood 150 THE SERTENT OF EDEN. Principle. 1 This multifarious use of the serpent for so many and such varied deities is a very strong proof that he is a mere symbol himself, and no deity. 1 There is a cast of this statue in the Crystal Palace, in the same room as the models of the Forum, the Pantheon, and the Colosseum. The original, as all the world knows, is in the Vatican Museum in Rome. ( i5i ) CHAPTER XII. ORIGIN OF SERPENT-WORSHIP. It is, of course, quite foreign to the purpose of this work to indicate an alternate hypothesis, different from that generally given, for the origin of the use of the serpent as a symbol of divinity, and for the consequent veneration of this symbol. Yet, lest I be accused of being one who can only rashly attacl; to destroy, and is impotent to build up, I may be allowed here briefly to sketch the skeleton of such an hypothesis. My limits will allow me i" do no mor God, the purest and simplest of all spiritual ha ■ no shape or fi >rm of I lis own ; and He could not, therefore, in the beginning, while the lighl of true tradition remained undimmed among men, be worshipped under any material image or r< itation, Bui in i our ie of time 152 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. corrupt human nature hastened to represent the Deity to itself under sensible forms and images, chosen from the objects around them. At first these images and representations may have been used merely as symbols ; but in course of time they became the objects themselves of idolatrous worship. Among such objects, the sun, the most impressive to man of all God's material works, and the most universally known, would certainly become the first, both in time and in rank, of all the subsequent objects of idolatry. The sun, as a matter of fact, is directly and in himself the chief god, or at least one of the chief gods, of every system of idolatry, absolutely all over the world. Wherever his enlightening beams penetrated and his vivifying influence was felt, there he was made a god, and became the direct object of real idolatrous worship. With the universal spread of this idolatry of the sun, came the necessity of adopting some object as a symbol to represent it, when its own form, or the human form of the sun-god, could not, for any special reason, be used. Such reasons might be the want of space, the maintenance of the secrets of mysteries, and others. ] fence a symbol was adopted for the representation of this god, even as he had most probably been ORIGIN OF SERPENT- WORSHIP. 153 himself, in the beginning, the symbol of the one true and living God. That symbol was first found in the circle, because the sun is apparent to man always in that shape or form. In course of time the plain circle was improved upon, and was changed into the serpent-circle — that is to say, a serpent depicted in a circular form, with its tail in its mouth. Various reasons may be suggested for the adoption of the serpent, especially for the symbol of the sun. i. Because of its apparent connection with the movements of the sun, with which it hybernates and grows torpid in winter, reappearing with renewed life and vigour when the sun returns northward with vernal heat rekindled. 2. Because each year, after winter, it renews its skin and apparent youth, as the sun seems to do 1) sprin Becau e it loves to bask in tin rays <>f the sun. .). Be< an i of it, disc-like "i < ir< ular shape when coiled up, which is its favourite po ition while at ■ Whether th< ic and i ither are or are nol the right ones, it is quite certain that in every country of the earth, and in every system of 154 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. mythology, wherever sun-worship has prevailed — all over the world, in fact — the serpent is always the sure and inseparable symbol of the various sun-gods. There is, literally, no variety of mytho- logical worship in which the serpent is not the chief symbol of the sun. In process of time, the many qualities, real or supposed, of the sun came to be deified, each into a separate god. An analysis of mythology would prove this beyond a doubt. All these gods, how- ever, having been but one in origin, continued to retain the original distinctive sun-symbol, the ser- pent. Once started on the downward path of idolatry, all nations went on adding gradually to the numbers of their gods. Then, by a communi- cation of attributes, privileges, and qualities, all these gods, sharing in the idolatrous worship of the sun, came also to share with him the honour of having the serpent as their symbol. From this it followed that the serpent, become the symbol of numerous other deities, in time was adopted as the generic symbol of ALL divinity. Wherever a divinity was worshipped, the serpent, its symbol, was in constant use and veneration. Yet this veneration was given to it, not for itself, but merely as the symbol of the divinity. This, I am con- O RIG IX OF SERPENT-WORSHIP. 155 vinced, is one source of the origin and universality of the fact that the serpent has been chosen for veneration as the symbol and emblem of the divinity in every system of false worship. There is yet a second source to point out. The greatest of all mysteries in the world is the exist- ence and permission of evil. Its complete incom- " prehensibility led mankind very early into the dual worship of the Good and the Evil Principles. The Good Principle, however, was supposed, of His own nature, to be inclined to do good to all, and consequently to need no conciliation. On this account I Ic was both less thought of and almost commonly forgotten, and His worship very gene- rally neglected. On the contrary, the Evil Prin- ciple became the chief, almost the sole, object of the worship of the ignorant, owing to the fear which it caused in them, and owing to tin bi that it was always meditating and contriving evil, and would certainly inflict it unless deprecated with worship and sacrifice. '1 he serpent becani' the symbol <>i the Evil Principle, owing t.> In being a deadly terror t" man in ever)- country which was early peopled by the- human race, The qui< 1: and . i N 1 1 1 1 oui e, its blai I-, pro minent, and unflini hii w ift-darting and 156 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. forked tongue, and, above all, its death-giving poisonous bite, constitute it a most malignant and terrible animal. Hence it was deemed the fittest to become the symbol of the Evil Principle. As the Evil Principle succeeded in drawing to itself all worship, to the almost utter exclusion of the Good Principle, it came, in course of time, to be looked upon as the principal, if not the sole divinity ; and in consequence its symbol, the ser- pent, came to be regarded as the generic symbol of all divinity. Of this retirement of the worship of the Good before that of the Evil Principle, we have two clear proofs, among the many that might be adduced, in the deposition of Saturn, followed by the tripartite reign of Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto ; and in the absorbed self-contemplation of Bruhm, followed by the reign of the Hindoo trinity, Brahma, Vaishnu, and Shiva. The serpent, originally the symbol of the Evil Principle, having in time become the generic symbol of all divinity, came to be used also as the symbol of the Good Principle whenever it became necessary to represent Him. Hence the well- known hieroglyph of the two serpents striving for the egg, that is — the Good and Evil Principles sharing the dominion of the earth. ORIGIN OF SERPENT-WORSHIP. 157 These two sources of the origin of the symbol of the serpent for the Divinity, seem to account pretty satisfactorily for the universality, among the hea- thens, of symbolic or indirect serpent-worship. Among the Jews, however, the author of all evil was not regarded as one of two equal gods. Their religion was a pure Monotheism. They were taught that the author of all evil was Satan, the chief of the angelic powers which rebelled against God. They found that the Principle of Evil all around them was symbolized by the serpent. I [ence they also gave the name of " The Serpent " to Satan, the Principle, in their system, of all Evil. Thus this rebel angel-chief came to be indiscrimi- nately called Satan and " the Serpent," and was ually well understood and known under both titles, by the Jews. Summary <>i Si iii vi -WORSHIP, 1 may now briefly sum up the results obtained in this discu lion on serpent-worship. We have drawn the following conclusions : — 1. Real serpent-worship, directly paid to the serpent for its own sal,'-, is too limited and local t<> merit any special attention ; and as it occur* 158 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. precisely among the most degraded specimens of the human race, we conclude that it is not a relic preserved from the deposit of ancient, pure, and primaeval tradition, but merely a case of local human degeneration. 2. Even the very few cases of apparently direct serpent-worship given by writers on this subject, are found, on closer examination, to be easily resolved into cases of symbolic worship, as above. 3. In all other cases serpent-worship is found to be merely an indirect veneration of the serpent, as the symbol, emblem, sign, or representation of some other god, notably the sun ; which god, and not the serpent itself, is the real object of worship. 4. In course of time the serpent was adopted as the generic symbol of all divinity, and was used as the emblem of both the Good and the Evil Principle, but more specially and frequently of the latter. Hence among the Jews it became both the emblem and the name of Satan. 5. The asserted universality of serpent-worship, therefore, is not a fact. The statements made {bond fide, no doubt, but still without objective truth) are due solely to the uncritical want of dis- tinguishing between real and symbolic serpent- worship. This distinction is both essential in itself, 0RIG1X OF SERPENT-WORSHIP. 159 and necessary for the full understanding of the matter. 6. Not being universal — in fact, not being even common — no argument can be drawn from so- called serpent-worship to prove that it indicates any ancient and universal tradition of Satan's having seduced Eve by means of a serpent. 7. The details and facts, therefore, of serpent- worship, so laboriously, laudably, and usefully col- lected by writers like Mr. Bathurst Deanc, Bryant, and Faber, cannot be said to oppose what I am trying to maintain, namely, that no material ser- pent was used by Satan in tempting Eve. 8. Lastly, we have obtained a clear and sub- ntial indication of the manner in which Satan came, not only to be called "the Serpent" by Moses, in Gen. iii., but also commonly, both before and after his time. i6o THE SERPENT OF EDEN. CHAPTER XIII. CONCLUSION. It will be a useful thing to conclude with a brief summary of what has been shown in these pages. We have seen that the interpretation of Gen. iii. presents serious difficulties, which render untenable the explanation commonly received ; and that the other theories are absolutely undeserving of serious consideration. The objections against the use, in any way, of a bestial serpent by Satan or its acting of itself, are many. 1. The serpent is by no means the most subtil of all living beings. 2. It could not naturally talk ; and Satan's talking through it would have ensured the defeat of his scheme, by exciting Eve's suspicions. 3. It is not cursed above all animals. 4. Going on its belly is to the bestial serpent CONCLUSION. 161 no curse, but only its natural mode of progres- sion. 5. It does not and cannot feed on dust. 6. There is no special enmity between it and man, above other animals. 7. God's justice would not allow Him to curse the innocent and irrational instrument of Satan's malice. 8. The Redeemer did not, in any sense, crush the head of any bestial serpent. 9. No particular bestial serpent could have lived till the coming of " the Seed." 10. The serpent is not said to have come or lie, either at the time and place of the temptation, or at the time and place of the condemnation. v i et the presence of a bestial serpent, under the circumstances, would not have been tolerated by Adam and Kvc, even in their hiding-place. [I. As the text ipeaks of one special serpent, there is no rational explanation which of the many was the tempter, and how it became superior to its mat 1 ■ Making this one terpen! to be different in wisdom and nature from the other., « ontradicl the Scripture, that all animals, male and female, were created " ill their kind.'' M 1 62 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. 13. If by "the Serpent" is meant the bestial instrument of Satan, then Satan himself, the real tempter as all admit, is nowhere at all mentioned in the sacred narrative. 14. One serpent alone, as the sole cause of the evil, is cursed. Hence, if it were a bestial one, it must have lived, till its death, differently from other serpents, which would be anomalous. Or they must have shared its curse, without having had any, even material, part in the evil. This would be unjust and absurd. 15. This serpent is represented as acting of his own natural powers, for there is no statement of a superior being in it. These powers, however, of the bestial serpent are incompatible with such acts as are related in Gen. iii. 16. It is not stated to have been possessed, or guided, or aided, or used by any one else, for a purpose that was not its own. That Satan used a bestial serpent is, therefore, a purely gratuitous assertion, unfounded in the narrative. The text speaks of ONE BEING only as tempting, that is " the Serpent," and not of two, Satan and the serpent. 17. The literal sense of the sacred narrative is violated by introducing Satan as possessing the serpent and using it for his purpose. COXCLUSIOX. 163 18. Satan, the author of all this evil, would thus escape all condemnation ; for only three are cursed — Adam, Eve, and this one serpent. 19. The Prophet Isaiah represents the curse as still remaining to be accomplished, and that only at the end of the world. 20. If going on its belly and eating dust were verified in the bestial serpent that tempted Eve, and the crushing of the head in the Satanic Ser- pent, Satan, then there follows the absurdity of one curse being directed partly against one and partly against the other, without any sign being furnished by the sacred writer as to the change thus made. 21. Moreover, the first part of the same curse would be taken in a literal sense, and the second part — the bruising — in a metaphorical sense. Now, two such senses arc absolutely inadmissible in one and the mhih: sentence. 22. There is no possible metaphorical sense in which tin- bestial serpent could "cat du 23. No bestial erpenl that we know bruised oui blessed Lord's heel, "i" injured Him in any way, as it was foretold that the Serpent of Gen. iii. should do. 24. Ni mi has ever been given why this "in 1 64 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. particular bestial serpent is called, par excellence, " the Serpent," as he expressly is in the Hebrew text. These objections seem to render untenable all theories involving any part taken by a bestial serpent in the temptation. This failure authorizes us to seek for any further explanation that we may be able to draw, from the words of the Holy Scrip- tures themselves. The necessity for that search justifies us in quitting the assumed commnnem sententiam of Fathers and commentators, as has been done in some similar cases, with advantage. In the very beginning of such a search, we find, on careful consideration of the Hebrew text, that our translations are by no means strictly accurate, though they are, to all intents and purposes, sufficiently correct. We find that the accurate meaning would run precisely thus : " A certain Serpent was more intelligent than all the living beings of the earth that the Lord God had made. . . Cursed art thou above all beasts and above all living beings on the earth." We find that these words are absolutely in- applicable to the bestial serpent, in any reasonable sense. We find, on further examination of the Holy Scriptures, that there is a certain Serpent CONCLUSION. 165 repeatedly mentioned in them, which is quite dis- tinct from the bestial serpent, and which ranks among the chief works of God, and which formerly- held a very high and exalted position in the universe. We find, moreover, that this Serpent is expressly called " The Serpent, he of old ; " and that he is to cat dust at the end of the world. He is thus clearly designated as the same being who is mentioned in Gen. iii. We learn, moreover, that he is expressly mentioned as the same being who under one name is called " the Serpent;" and under other names is called "the Dragon," " the Devil," and " Satan." We therefore conclude that by the words, "the Serpent," in Gen. iii., the sacred writer meant no bestial or apparitional serpent, cither working of itself or working under external and superior agency ; but that he there meant this ne Serpent, Satan, acting in his own person and individuality. We find that, only one Tempter being mentioned, and that one, as shown, being Satan, called "The Serpent," there is no room left for supp the pr< ence or act of any othei ■ pent, be itial or apparitionaL On further continuing our examination "i the sacred narrative of Gen. iii., ami comparing it with parallel pas. .1 Holy Scripture, we find that 1 66 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. in the narrative Satan, " the Serpent," fits in as appropriately and naturally, as the bestial serpent had been completely out of place and impossible. We conclude, therefore, that in Gen. iii. " the Serpent " is literally a name of Satan, to the ex- clusion of any other serpent, as he is himself a real serpent, nay, par excellence, "the Serpent." Many reasons urge us to hold that " the Serpent " means Satan alone and by himself. i. Satan was, it is admitted by all, the real agent in the temptation. Yet, throughout Gen. iii., he is neither mentioned nor hinted at, unless it be done under the title of " the Serpent." Either, therefore, Satan did nothing ; or he did everything, and then he alone is himself " the Serpent." 2. Satan, "the Serpent," certainly is (as the bestial serpent is not) the most subtil among ajl living beings on the earth ; for he had been once a leader among even the greatest angels, and he has not lost his natural faculties and powers by his fall. 3. A startling preternatural phenomenon, like the talking of a bestial serpent with a human voice, would have been no proof of subtility, but just the reverse ; for it would have been calculated, of its very nature, to defeat the purpose which " the Serpent " had in view. CONCLUSION. 167 4. On the other hand, a very seridus and real temptation, unaccompanied with any preternatural circumstances, could be caused by the Serpent, Satan ; for, by the spiritual intercommunication of thoughts, he could cause thoughts and desires to arise in Eve under the appearance of being the spontaneous acts of her own soul. This would indeed be a very master-stroke of subtility. That this is what really took place is suggested by the interjection, " Strange ! that God hath said." 5. The omission of all mention of the coming and going of the serpent, which has already been thrice dwelt upon, is perfectly right and appropriate, when we hold that the sacred narrative is speaking of an incorporeal and spiritual being. It coincides perfectly with the nature and doings of Satan, who, we are told, "as a roaring lion walketh about, seeking whom he may devour" (1 Pet v. 8 , though always invisible and inaudible. After the curse, "the Serpent" is not again mentioned, though the sacred narrative proceeds to d< icribe how the curse operated on the other two. Adam and I : ■ expulsion from Eden is expressly mentioned, as also are the facts thai Adam tilled the ground, and Eve broii; hi forth children. The working Ol their curS( material 1 68 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. punishments — is recorded, because they began at once. The Serpent's curse is not related as having begun. Another Scripture tells us that its opera- tion was not to be completed for ages to come. This confirms the impression that it was a spiritual, and not a material, curse. Hence Gen. iii. does not describe it as even beginning to operate. 7. Each clause of the curse on " the Serpent," which makes absolute nonsense in the supposition of a bestial serpent, is appropriately verified, in a definite scriptural sense, in the supposition of Satan being " the Serpent." 8. If Satan was not himself "the Serpent," then he alone, of all those concerned in the fall, would escape without any punishment whatsoever, although he was really the most guilty of all, and, in fact, the prime mover and cause of all the evil. 9. Satan did, and no other then living serpent could, continue to live till "the Seed of the woman" came, in the Person of our Lord Jesus Christ, to crush his head ; that is to say, to repair the effects of the fall. 10. With the substitution of Satan as "the Serpent " all those difficulties, which unquestion- ably attend the sacred narrative in Gen. iii., vanish CONCLUSION. 169 at once, and it becomes perfectly intelligible and reasonable. 11. This interpretation makes no gratuitous suppositions, on which all others are manifestly grounded. 12. Satan is expressly called "the Serpent" in several passages of Holy Scripture, and in many of them with special allusions to Gen. iii. 13. This is, therefore, a perfectly literal, nay, the only really literal, interpretation of Gen. iii., with- out suppositions, allegories, myths, metaphors, or impossibilitii 14. Satan's head was bruised by the death of our Lord ; and Satan did metaphorically bruise I lis heel, in I lis Passion. These two clauses cannot, in any possible sense, be made applicable to a tial serpent. I have, moreover, considered the sacn d narrative in it- supposed connection with serpent-worship ; and I have, I trust, proved that no argument can be drawn from serpen t-worship against the inter- pretation which I hav«- advocated, or in favour ol the past theories. I hi •. 1 tried to furnish a satisfactory and sufficient reason why Satan 1 ame to be railed •« The Serpent " by Mose . Having now reached the end of my task, I h« 170 THE SERPENT OF EDEN. but a few more words to add. I have tried not to be unduly severe or harsh in criticizing other theories and interpretations. I have tried to give a clear view of each ; to state succinctly the diffi- culties in its way, to put fully what is advanced in its defence, and to state plainly what I considered its defects. I have ventured to advance another theory and interpretation, taking my key from Rev. (Apocalypse) xii. I wished to show that this interpretation is the only strictly literal one ; that it makes no gratuitous suppositions, unfounded in Holy Writ ; that it fits perfectly and naturally into the sacred narrative ; that it appropriately suits every clause of the text ; that it obviates all the difficulties attending the other interpretations ; that it has the usage of Scripture in its favour ; and that it presents the sacred narrative before ,us, not only as a possible occurrence, but it also furnishes a probable, natural, consistent, appro- priate, and rational explanation of the manner in which " the Serpent " — Satan — tempted Eve, and was punished for his crime. This is what I wished to do ; it is for others to judge with what success I have tried. A I'PENDIX Genesis III., according ro the Hebrew Text. nrriwi jvn 5±p any rpn Briani t . V T - J- - T JT T TT"! *' field-the-ol (beings)-living all-among intelligent was Serpen) Vh nM -.• ; xn- ( px •yon'»i a^x rrtrv niry tj : x '-* t - jt v - :: j - : *. r t t •: —. range : woman ' iid-he-And .God Lord-thi made-had which d] qoi God . i.l-h.i -t ii.ii --;*y nr: r-:-r^x nr'-xn -vrx'ni 2 . n-the-of-ti Vnd the -in (i }-whi< I, I,. Bui >-l]l 001 172 APPENDIX. : priori niKrt6 rtffflfa ^n?n i&n'»;_ 4. .die-ye-shall dying-Not ,woman-the-to Serpent-the said-And •inp23i me>» D3^3K bin »3 D*r6« mv 7> e. *.'::■: v ■ iv : t -: : • • v: -J •< J opened-bc-\vill ,it-of eat-ye day-the-in that God knoweth For :mi 310 nrr D'lfota iag*m oa^y .evil-and good knowing ,gods-as be-shall-ye-and ,eyes-your :b?'«j »3K*0n c'nun ntsten ionwi . . . i*. I*- IT "V- • • /ITT" T *|T V - \J .eat-did-I-and ,me-deceived Serpent-The ,woman-the said-And ntw rrtw »a ipnarr^N D»ri^« nin* *i»k»i i 4 . t j • t i • t t - v 1 • v: t : T^ ,this done-hast-thou Because ,Serpent-the-to God Lord-the said-And miwi n»n "?bo-i nonan-^so nnx thx AVT - j-- >. • t ■• : - t • t - ^t .field-the-of (being)-Iiving every-and beast-every-above thou (a^Vcursed .life-thy-of days-the-all ,eat-shalt-thou dust-and ,go-shak-thou belly-thy-Upon ntrxn P3-1 ?p»3 nw rnw k. t *i t 1 j-* •: 1 ■• • t iT ■• : * j' ; woman-the between-and thee-between put-will-I enmity-And trxi flE»^ wn wit pm sprit raw ,head-thy crush-shall He .seed-her between-and seed-thy between-and : ipv -i3Q-ic ; n nnxi Vt / v : vt - ; .heel-his crush-shalt thou-and APPENDIX. 173 (^exesis iii., from the greek septuagint (Tischendorf's Edition of the Codex Vaticaxus). 1. \J Ci OtjtbQ T]V (f)pOVt/XlvTO.TOQ TTtlVTUV TUiV Ol]pll,)V tiri tt)q yr$ wv eVoujcrf o Qeog. Kcii ttirev o o^ic ru yvvtUKt, I t 'in uirev o Otoq, Ov pi) (puyifn awh Trai'tof," suAou TOV TTItpilCtlfTOU ,' 2. K«i tiTTtv >i yni'i) n„ of/K/, Attu napirov tov £v\ov rou Tupactinov (paytwpiQa' 3. A.WO 01 row tcapiTOV tov £(>\ov o itrnv t V fli(T(^ TOV 7rapuctirrov, tlirtv Qe6g, Oil tftayeadt air avrov ov Se //// ''ii/a-Ot avrov, tva in) airoQawirz. 4. Km) ttirev o'l)tr rl\ ywatxl, Ov Savory airo- Oavuov 5. '\\cu ya • •> I ' o< 'in //I- av fifiipq 0a\[i6i{ lottv, ica) u>pa?6v inn mil Karavorjacu, ica) Xapovaa <'-«» run koottou avroS ',(' KH' - . kni 7<,p mi,,! it\>Ti\i hit uvrfjg, Ka] E^ayov. 174 APPENDIX. 13- Kat hits Kvpiog o Oebg t?) yvvaiKi, Ti tovto iwouiaag ; kol tlirev jj yvvrj, otyiq rjirariiat pe, ku) ttyayov. I4« Kai tiTrtv Kvpiog b Qtbg ti?> bv twl rrig ytjg' £7Ti t^> aTijOti aov Kai ~)j KoiXla Tropsvay, Kai yT)v (jtayy iraaag rag i)p£pag rijg Z,u)i)g aoi). 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In 1 2 volumes Elzevir 8vo., choicely printed on hand-made paper, and bound in parchment or cloth, price £3 \2S., or in vellum, price £4 10s. The set of 1 2 volumes may also be had in a strong cloth box, price £$ lys., or with an oak hanging shelf, ^3 18s. SOME PRESS NOTICES. ". . . Thei . edition in which the wi Shakspere can be read in such luxury of type and q tinction of form as this, and we warmly recommend it. — /f form and beauty 1 T a P n y> u " edition of . publi ' Parchmi nt Library Edition.' ... '1 1 pockel \<>hmics, yel the type i ind-maae pap notes being 1 ry edition . I li< whole will be com] : \\liic li ; ;■.. i!. to the si 1 — / " '1 ; I 1 I i Shaks] 1 »r n i '•- ,/. Price 5*. AN IND] ro 'I III. works OF SHAKSPERE. Applicabl ■I the ; ; t lions of all . By EVANGELINE M. O'CONNOR. Loni 1 ' \r.r. SHAKSPERE'S WORKS. SPECIMEN OF TYPE. 4 THE MERCHANT OF VEX ICE Act i Salar. My wind, cooling my broth, Would Mow me to an ague, when I thought What harm a wind too great might do at sea. I should not see the sandy hour-glass run But I should think of shallows and of flats, And see my wealthy Andrew, dock'd in sand, Y.iiling her high-top lower than her ribs To kiss her burial. Should I go to church And see the holy edifice of stone, And not bethink me straight of dangerous rocks, Which touching but my gentle vessel's side, Would scatter all her spices on the stream, Enrobe the roaring waters with my silks, And, in a word, but even now worth this, And now worth nothing? Shall I have the thought To think on this, and shall I lack the thought That such a thing bechane'd would make me sad ? But tell not me : I know Antonio Is sad to think upon his merchandise. Ant. P.elieve me, no : I thank my fortune for it, My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, Nor to one place ; nor is my whole estate Upon the fortune of this present year : Therefore my merchandise makes me not sad. Salar. Why, then you are in love. Ant. Fie, fie ! Salar. Not in love neither ? Then let us say you are sad, Because you are not merry ; and 'twere as easy For you to laugh, and leap, and say you are merry, Because you are not sad. Now, by two-headed Janus, Nature hath fram'd strange fellows in her time : Some that will evermore peep through their eyes And laugh like parrots at a bag-piper ; And other of such vinegar aspect London J.3CEG an. Pauli Trench & Co., i, Paternoster Squa-ke. M PM vm B ^OJIWDJO^ ^OJITVOJO^ ^IMNV-SOV^ "%M| o so o UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. fnL jan k f> OL/\PR 4 26W I t > < 'I ~ n i«^ "/v'/rimum -iiVV^ o ^uninwi irxS*" UNIVER%. lOSANCflfj^ -^HIBRARY^ «tfHIBJ ^ o <2toi&i %onm-^ .^OFCAIIFO oe t\ / *~m \ CD =0 \to\m-l& 3 1158 01049 3590 § .^OF-CAll F(%, ERSto UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY l\\V >r .HUM ... AA 000 620 459 8 t3 ^HIBRARYQ^ ^tllBKAK^ ^/OJITVOJO^ ^OJIIVDJO^ AOF-CALIFORfe, ^OFCALIFO/?^ Aavu8n# *%nvnaii-i^ HIBRARY^ Ufa [■UNIVERSE lOS-ANCElt 9 o ^^^ "%3MN ?V£ Bft ^ ■UBR V/shi mim-i