UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EARTH SCIENCtj LIBRARY WILLIAM DJLLER MATTHEW i GIFT OF WILLIAM DILLER MATTHEW e225?^ MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE THEIR ENVIRONMENT, LIFE AND ART HITCHCOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, 1914 Pl. I..\ |>Jt;ai^d'pe specimens of human and pre- human races {in color) facing 19 Plate III. Pithecanthropus, the ape-man of Java 87 Plate IV. The Piltdown man 145 Plate \'. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints .... 203 Plate VI. The 'Old Man of Cr6-]\Iagnon' 273 Plate VII. Cr6-]Magnon artists in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume (/;/ tint) Jacing 358 Plate VIII. Bison painted by Palceolithic artists in the cavern of Alta- mira {in color) Juicing 414 FIG. 1. ^Modern, Palaeolithic, and chimpanzee skulls compared .... 8 2. Skull and brain of Pithecanthropus, the ape-man of Java .... 9 3. Three great types of flint implements 11 4. Evolution of the lance-point 15 5. ]Map — Type stations of PaL-eolithic cultures 16 6. Section — Terraces of the River Inn near Scharding 25 7. Section^Terraces of the River Rhine above Basle 26 8. Section — Terraces of the River Thames near London 28 9. Magdalenian loess station of Aggsbach in Lower Austria .... 29 10. Section of the site of the Neanderthal cave 31 11. Sections showing the formation of the typical limestone cavern . . 32 12. Map — Europe in the period of maximum continental elevation . . 35 13. Section showing snow-lines and sea-levels of the Glacial Epoch . . 37 14. Chronological chart — Great events of the Glacial Epoch .... 41 15. Zoogeographic map 45 16. The gibbon 50 xvii xviii ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 17. The orang 51 18. The chimpanzee, walking 52 19. The chimpanzee, sitting 53 20. The gorilla 55 21. IVIedian sections of the heads of a young gorilla and of a man . . 56 22. Side view of a human brain of high type 57 23. Outlines of typical human and prehuman brains (side view) . . 58 24. Outlines of typical human and prehuman brains (top view) ... 59 25. Map — Europe during the Second Glacial Stage 65 26. The musk-ox 66 27. The giant deer (Mcgaccros) 68 28. The sabre-tooth tiger {MachcBrodus) 70 29. Restoration of Pithecanthropus , the Java ape-man 73 30. Discovery site of Pithecanthropus 74 31. Section of the volcano of La woe and the valley of the Solo River 75 32. ]Map — Solo River and discovery site of Pithecanthropus .... 75 2,^. Section of the Pithecanthropus discovery site 76 34. Skull-top of Pithecanthropus, top and side views 77 35. Head of chimpanzee, front and side views 78 36. Restoration of P////cca?z//?ro^M5 skull, side view 79 37. Restoration of Pithecanthropus skull, three views 80 38. Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, side view 81 39. Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, front view 82 40. Side view of a human brain of high type 83 41. Outlines of human and prehuman brains, side and top views . . 84 42. The hippopotamus and the southern mammoth 92 43. Merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant 93 44. Map — Geographic distribution of Merck's rhinoceros, the hippo- potamus, and the straight-tusked elephant 94 45. Section of the Heidelberg discovery site 96 46. The sand-pit at Mauer, discovery site of the Heidelberg man . . 97 47. The Heidelberg jaw 98 ILLUSTRATIONS XIX PACK 48. Ja\vs of an Eskimo, of an orang, and of Heidelberg (side view) . . gq 49. Jaws of an Eskimo, of an orang, and of Heidelberg (top view) . . 100 50. Restoration of Heidelberg man loi 51. Map — Europe during the Third Glacial Stage 105 52. Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial Epoch . . . 108 53. Map — Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations '. . log 54. j\Iap — Europe during the Third Glacial Stage ........ 1 10 55. Excavation at Chelles-sur-]\Iarne in 56. Map — Western Europe during the Third Interglacial Stage . . . 116 57. Three terraces on the Connecticut River 120 58. Four forms of the Chellean coup de poing 121 59. Section — Terraces on the Somme at St. Acheul 122 60. Very primitive pala^oliths from Piltdown 127 61. Pre-Chellean coups de poing from St. Acheul 128 62. Pre-Chellean grattoir or planing tool from St. Acheul ..... 120 63. Discovery site of the Piltdown skull 131 64. Section of the Piltdown discovery site 133 65. Primitive worked tlint found near the Piltdown skull 134 66. Eoliths found in or near the Piltdown site 135 67. Piltdown skull and skull of South African Bushman 136 68. Restoration of the Piltdown skull, three view^s 137 69. Section of the Piltdown skull, showing the brain 140 70. Brain outlines of the Piltdown man, of a chimpanzee, and of mod- ern man, compared 140 71. The Piltdown man, side view 142 72. The Piltdown man, front view 143 73. Map — Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations . . , 149 74. Section — Middle and high terraces on the Somme at St. Acheul . 150 75. Excavation on the high terrace at St. Acheul 151 76. Small Chellean implements 153 77. Map — Palaeolithic stations of Germany . 160 78. Entrance to the grotto of Castillo 163 XX IJJASTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 79. Section — archa^ologic layers of ihe grotto of Castillo 164 80. Map — Acheulean stations 167 81. Late Acheulean station of La Micoque in Dordogne 168 82. Method of 'flaking' ilint 169 83. Method of 'chipping' flint 170 84. The fracture of flint 171 85. Large Acheulean implements 173 86. Map — Valleys of the Dordogne and the Garonne 175 87. The valley of the Vezere 176 88. Acheulean implements, large and small 178 89. A Levallois flake 179 90. The grotto of Krapina 181 91. Section — Valley of the Krapinica River and grotto of Krapina . . 182 92. Section — The grotto of Krapina 183 93. Skull from Krapina, side view 184 94. Map — Europe during the Fourth Glacial Stage 189 95. The woolly rhinoceros and the woolly mammoth 190 96. Typical tundra fauna 193 97. Map — Palaeolithic stations of Germany 195 98. The type station of Le Moustier 197 99. Excavations at Le Moustier 198 100. The Mousterian cavern of Wildkirchli 200 loi. Entrance to the grotto of Sirgenstein 201 102. The woolly mammoth and his hunters 208 103. The woolly rhinoceros t 210 104. Map — Distribution of Pre-Neanderthaloids and Neanderthaloids . 214 105. The Gibraltar skull, front view 215 106. Section of the Neanderthal discovery site 216 107. The Neanderthal skull, side view 217 108. The skull known as Spy I, side view 220 109. Discovery site of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 222 ILLUSTRATIONS xxi FIG. PAGE no. Entrance to the grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 223 111. The skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints, three views 224 112. Human teeth of Xcanderthaloid type from La Cotte de St. Brelade . 225 113. Skulls of a chimpanzee, of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and of a modern Frenchman, side view 227 114. Outlines of the Gibraltar skull and of a modern Australian skull 228 115. Skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints compared with one of high modern type, side view 230 116. Skulls of a chimpanzee, of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and of a modern Frenchman, top view 231 117. Diagram comparing eleven races of fossil and living men .... 233. 118. Section of the skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, showing the brain . 235. 119. Brain outHnes of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, of a chimpanzee, and of modern man, compared 235. 120. Brains of Lower and Upper Palaeolithic races, top and side views . 236 121. Skeleton of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 238 122. Thigh-bones of the Trinil, Neanderthal, Cro-Magnon, and modern races 240 123. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, side view . . . 242 124. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, front view . . 243 125. Map — Mousterian stations 245 126. The Mousterian cave of Hornos de la Pena 246 127. Outlook from the cave of Hornos de la Peiia 247 128. Typical Mousterian 'points' from Le Moustier 250 129. Mousterian 'points' and scrapers 251 130. Late Mousterian implements 255 131. Entrance to the Grotte du Prince near Mentone 262 132. Section of the Grotte des Enfants 265 133. The Grimaldi skeletons 267 134. Skull of the Grimaldi youth, front and side views 268 135. Map — Distribution of Upper Palaeolithic human fossils .... 279 136. Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial Epoch . . . 280 137. 'Tectiforms' from Font-de-Gaume 283 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Map — Distribution of the reindeer, mammoth, and woolly rhi- noceros 285 Section of the grotto of Aurignac 290 Section of the grotto of Cro-Magnon 291 Skull of Cro-Magnon type from the Grotte des Enfants .... 292 Head showing the method of restoration used by J. H. McGregor . 293 The rock shelter of Laugerie Haute, Dordognc 296 Skeleton of La Chapelle-aux-Saints and skeleton of Cro-Magnon type from the Grotte des Enfants, compared 297 Sections of normal and platycnaemic tibias 298 The 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' side view 300 The 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' front view 301 Brain outlines of Combe-Capelle, of a chimpanzee, and of modern man, compared 303 Evolution of the burin, early Aurignacian to late Solutrean . . . 307 Typical Aurignacian grattoirs, or scrapers 309 Evolution of the Aurignacian 'point' 311 Prototypes of the Solutrean 'laurel-leaf point' 312 i\Iap — Aurignacian stations 314 Outlook from the cavern of Pindal 315 Mammoth painted in the cavern of Pindal 316 Primitive paintings of animals from Font-dc-Gaume 318 Woolly rhinoceros painted in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume . . . 319 Carved female figurine from the Grottes de Grimaldi 321 Female figurine in limestone from Willendorf 322 Female figurine in soapstonc from the Grottes do Grimaldi . . . 323 Superposed engravings of rhinoceros and mammoth from Le Tri- lobite 324 Silhouettes of hands from Gargas 325 The rock shelter of Laussel on the Beune 326 Section of the industrial layers at Laussel 327 Bas-relief of a woman from Laussel 328 ILLUSTRATIONS XXI a PAGE i66. Bas-relief of a man from Laussel 329 167. Map — Solutrean stations 331 168. The skull known as Briinn I, discovered at Briinn, Moravia . . . 335 169. Solutrean 'laurel-leaf points' 339 170. The type station of Solulre 342 171. Excavations at Solutre 343 172. Typical Solutrean implements 346 173. ]\Iammoth sculptured on ivory, from Predmost, jNIoravia .... 349 174. Engraved and painted bison from Niaux 353 175. Decorated 5aga/e5 or javelin points of bone 354 176. Horse's head engraved on a fragment of bone, from Brassempouy . 355 177. Painting of a wolf, from Font-de-Gaume 356 178. Crude sculpture of the ibex, from ]Mas d'Azil 357 179. Decorated batons de commandement 359 180. Chronological chart of the last third of the Glacial epoch . . . 362 181. Engraved and painted reindeer from Font-de-Gaume 365 182. Four types of horse frequent in Upper Palaeolithic times .... 367 183. Horse of Celtic type, painted on the ceiling of .\ltamira .... 363 184. Four chamois heads engraved on reindeer horn, from Gourdan . . 369 185. Typical alpine fauna 371 186. Typical steppe fauna 374 187. Ptarmigan or grouse carved in bone, from ]\Ias d'Azil 375 188. The rock shelter of Laugerie Basse, Dordogne 377 189. Human skull-tops cut into bowls, from Placard 379 190. iSIale and female skulls of Cr6-]Magnon type, from Obercassel . . 381 191. The type station of La Madeleine 383 192. Magdalenian flint implements 386 193. Magdalenian bone harpoons 387 194. Magdalenian flint blades with denticulated edge 390 195. Bone needles from Lacave 391 196. Map — Palaeolithic art stations of Dordogne, the Pyrenees, and the Cantabrian Mountains 394 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Primitive engravings of the mammoth from Combarelles .... 397 Preliminary engraving of painted mammoth from Font-de-Gaume . 397 Charging mammoth engraved on ivory, from La Madeleine . . . 398 Human grotesques from Marsoulas, Altamira, and Combarelles . 399 Entrance to the cavern of Combarelles, Dordogne 400 Engraved cave-bear, from Combarelles 401 Magdalenian stone lamp, from La Mouthe 401 Entrance to the cavern of La Pasiega 402 Engraved bison from Marsoulas 403 Herd of horses engraved on a slab of stone, from Chaflaud . . . 404 Herd of reindeer engraved on an eagle radius, from La Mairie . . 405 Reindeer and salmon engraved on an antler, from Lorthet . . . 406 Engraved lioness and horses, from Font-de-Gaume 407 Painted horse of Celtic type, from Castillo 408 Galloping horse of steppe type, from Font-de-Gaume 408 Entrance to the cavern of Xiaux 409 Engraved horse with heavy winter coat, from Niaux 410 Professor Emile Cartailhac at the entrance of Le Portel .... 411 Engraved horse and reindeer, from La Mairie 412 Engraved reindeer, cave-bear, and two horses, from La Mairie . . 413 Engraved wild cattle, from La Mairie 413 Preliminary etched outline of bison from Font-de-Gaume .... 414 Entrance to the cavern of Font-de-Gaume 415 Map of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume 416 Narrow passage known as the 'Rubicon,' Font-de-Gaume . . . 417 Plan showing reindeer and procession of bison, Font-de-Gaume . . 419 Plan showing preliminary engraving and painting of the procession of mammoths, superposed on drawings of bison, reindeer, and horses 420 224. Example of superposition of paintings, from Font-de-Gaume . . 421 225. Entrance to the cavern of Altamira 422 226. Plan of paintings on the ceiling of Altamira 423 ILLUSTRATIONS xxv FIO. PAGE 227. The ceiling of Allamira 424 228. Painting of female bison lying down, from Allamira 425 229. Royal stag engraved on the ceiling of Altamira 426 230. Statuette of a mammoth carved in reindeer horn, from Bruniquel . 427 231. Entrance to the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert 428 232. Engraved head of a reindeer from Tuc d'Audoubert 429 233. Two bison, male and female, modelled in clay, from Tuc d'Audou- bert 430 234. Horse carved in high relief, from Cap Blanc 431 235. Horse head carved on a reindeer antler, from Mas d'Azil .... 432 236. Statuette of horse carved in ivory, from Les Espelugues .... 432 237. Woman's head carved in ivory, from Brassempouy 433 238. Map — Magdalenian stations 435 239. Necklace of marine shells, from Cro-Magnon 437 240. Map — Palaeolithic stations of Germany 439 241. Reindeer engraved around a piece of reindeer antler, from Kess- lerloch 441 242. Entrance to the grotto of Kesslerloch 444 243. The rock shelter of Schweizejsbild 445 244. The open loess station of Aggsbach 448 245. Saiga antelope carved on a bone dart-thrower, from Mas d'Azil . . 449 246. Western entrance to the cavern of Mas d'Azil 460 247. Azilian harpoons of stag horn 462 248. Azilian galets calories, or painted pebbles 464 249. Tardenoisian flints 467 250. Map — Azilian-Tardenoisian stations 471 251. Azilian stone implements 473 252. Double-rowed Azilian harpoons of stag horn, from Oban .... 474 253. Section— Archaeologic layers in the grotto of Of net 476 254. Burial nest of six skulls, from the grotto of Ofnet 477 255. Brachycephalic and dolichocephalic skulls from Ofnet 478 256. Broad-headed skull of Crenelle 482 xxvi ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 257. Entrance to the grotto of Furfooz on the Lesse 482 258. Section of the grotto of Furfooz 483 259. One of the type skulls of the Furfooz race 483 260. Restoration of the man of Crenelle 484 261. Implements and decorations from Maglemose 487 262. Ancestry of the Pre-Neolithic races 491 263. Stages in the manufacture of the Neolithic stone ax 493 264. Stone hatchet from Campigny 494 265. Stone pick from Campigny 494 266. Restoration of the Neolithic man of Spiennes 495 267. Stag hunt, painting from the rock shelter of Alpera 497 268. Map — Distribution of the types of recent man in western Europe . 499 Map of Palaeolithic Tour folded at the end of the volume MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE INTRODUCTION GREEK CONCEPTIONS OF MAN'S ORIGIN — RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY, OF ARCREOLOGY, OF THE GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN — TIME DIVISIONS OF THE GLACIAL EPOCH — GEOGRAPHIC, CLIMATIC, AND LIFE PERIODS OF THE OLD STONE AGE The anticipation of nature by Lucretius* in his pjiilosophical poem, De Reriim Natura, accords in a broad and, remarkable way with our present knowledge of the prehistory qI nxaii: . > ; ,• "Things throughout proceed In firm, undevious order, and maintain, To nature true, their fixt generic stamp. Yet man's first sons, as o'er the fields they trod, Reared from the hardy earth, were hardier far; Strong built with ampler bones, with muscles nerved Broad and substantial; to the power of heat. Of cold, of varying viands, and disease, Each hour superior; the wild lives of beasts Leading, while many a lustre o'er them rolled. Nor crooked plough-share knew they, nor to drive, Deep through the soil, the rich-returning spade; Nor how the tender seedling to re-plant. Nor from the fruit-tree prune the withered branch. "Nor knew they yet the crackling blaze t'excite, Or clothe their limbs with furs, or savage hides. But groves concealed them, woods, and hollow hills; And, when rude rains, or bitter blasts o'erpowered, Low bushy shrubs their squalid members wrapped. * Lucretius was born 95 B. C. His poem was completed before 53 B. C. In the opening lines of Book III he attributes all his philosophy and science to the Greeks. See Appendix, Note I. 1 2 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE "And in their keen rapidity of hand And foot confiding, oft the savage train With missile stones they hunted, or the force Of clubs enormous; many a tribe they felled, Yet some in caves shunned, cautious; where, at night, Thronged they, like bristly swine; their naked limbs With herbs and leaves entwining. Nought of fear Urged them to quit the darkness, and recall. With clamorous cries, the sunshine and the day: But sound they sunk in deep, oblivious sleep, Till o'er the mountains blushed the roseate dawn. "This ne'er distressed them, but the fear alone Some ruthless monster might their dreams molest, The foamy boar, or lion, from their caves Drive them aghast beneath the midnight shade. And seize their leaf-wrought couches for themselves, "Ytt then scarce more of mortal race than now Left the sweet lustre of the liquid day. Some doubtless, oft the prowling monsters gaunt Grasped in their jaws, abrupt; whence, through the groves, The woods, the mountains, they vociferous groaned, Destined thus li\dng to a living tomb. "Yet when, at length, rude huts they first de\'ised, And fires, and garments; and, in union sweet, Man wedded woman, the pure joys indulged Of chaste connubial love, and children rose. The rough barbarians softened. The warm hearth Their frames so melted they no more could bear, As erst, th' uncovered skies; the nuptial bed Broke their wdld vigor, and the fond caress Of prattling children from the bosom chased Their stern ferocious manners." * This is a picture of many phases in the Hf e of primitive man : his powerful frame, his ignorance of agriculture, his dependence on the fruits and animal products of the earth, his discovery of fire and of clothing, his chase of wild beasts with clubs and missile stones, his repair to caverns, his contests with the lion * Lucretius, On the Nature of Things, metrical version by J. M. Good. Bohn's Classical Library, London, i8qo. GREEK CONCEPTIONS OF :\rAN'S ORIGIN 3 and the boar, his invention of rude huts and dwellings, the soft- ening of his nature through the sweet influence of family life and of children, all these are veritable stages in our prehistoric devel- opment. The influence of Greek thought is also reflected in the Satires of Horace,* and the Greek conception of the natural history of man, voiced by ^schylusj as early as the fifth cen- tury B. C, prevailed widely before the Christian era, when it gradually gave way to the Mosaic conception of special creation, which spread all over western Europe. Rise of Modern Anthropology As the idea of the natural history of man again arose, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it came not so much from previous sources as from the dawning science of compara- tive anatomy. From the year 1597, when a Portuguese sailor's account of an animal resembhng the chimpanzee was embodied in Filippo Pigafetta's Description of the Kingdom of the Congo, the many points of Hkeness between the anthropoid apes and man were treated both in satire and caricature and in serious anatom- ical comparison as evidence of kinship. The first French evolutionist. Buff on, J observed in 1749: "The first truth that makes itself apparent on serious^ study of nature is one that man may perhaps find humiliating; it is this — that he, too, must take his place in the ranks of animals, being, as he is, an animal in every material point." Buffon's con\ictions were held in check by clerical and ofiicial influences, yet from his study of the orang in 1766 we can entertain no doubt of his beHef that men and apes are descended from common ancestors. The second French evolutionist, Lamarck, |1 in 1809 boldly * Horace was born 65 B. C, and his Satires are attributed to the years 35-29 B. C. See Appendix, Note II. , tiEschjdus was born 525 B. C. See Appendix, Note III. + Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon (b. 1707, d. 1788). For reviews of Buffon's opinions and theories see Osborn, 1894. i, pp. 130-9; also Butler, igii.i, pp. 74-172. II Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, known as the Chevalier de Lamarck (b. 1744, d. 1829). For a summary of the \dews of Lamarck see Osborn, 1894. i, pp. 152- 181; also Butler, 191 i.i, pp. 235-314, an excellent presentation of Lamarck's opinions. 4 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE proclaimed the descent of man from the anthropoid apes, point- ing out their close anatomical resemblances combined with in- feriority both in bodily and mental capacity. In the evolution of man Lamarck perceived the great importance of the erect position, which is only occasionally assumed by the apes; also that children pass gradually from the quadrumanous to the upright position, and thus repeat the history of their ancestors. Man's origin is traced as follows: A race of quadrumanous apes gradually acquires the upright position in walking, with a corre- sponding modification of the limbs, and of the relation of the head and face to the back-bone. Such a race, having mastered all the other animals, spreads out over the world. It checks the increase of the races nearest itself and, spreading in all directions, begins to lead a social life, develops the power of speech and the communication of ideas. It develops also new requirements, one after another, which lead to industrial pursuits and to the gradual perfection of its powers. Eventually this pre-eminent race, having acquired absolute supremacy, comes to be widely different from even the most perfect of the lower animals. The period following the latest publication of Lamarck's^* remarkable speculations in the year 1822, was distinguished by the earliest discoveries of the industry of the caveman in southern France in 1828, and in Belgium, near Liege, in 1833; discoveries which afforded the first scientific proof of the geologic antiquity of man and laid the foundations of the science of archaeology. The earliest recognition of an entirely extinct race of men was that which was called the 'Neanderthal,' found, in 1856, near Diisseldorf, and immediately recognized by Schaaffhausen- as a primitive race of low cerebral development and of uncommon bodily strength. Darwin in the Origin of Species,^ which appeared in 1858, did not discuss the question of human descent, but indicated * References are indicated by numbers only tlirougliout the text. At the close of each chapter is a list giving the author, date, and reference number for every citation. \ full list of all the works cited, including those from which illustrations have been taken, together with complete references, will be found in the bibhography at the end of the book. RISE OF ANTHROPOLOGY 5 the belief that light would be thrown by his theory on the origin of man and his history. It appears that Lamarck's doctrine in the Philosophie Zoolo- giqiie (1809)^ made a profound impression on the mind of Lyell, who was the first to treat the descent of man in a broad way from the standpoint of comparative anatomy and of geologic age. In his great work of 1863, The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, Lyell cited Huxley's estimate of the Neander- thal skull as more primitive than that of the Australian but of surprisingly large cranial capacity. He concludes with the no- table statement: "The direct bearing of the ape-like character of the Neanderthal skull on Lamarck's doctrine of progressive development and transmutation . . . consists in this, that the newh' observed deviation from a normal standard of human structure is not in a casual or random direction, but just what might have been anticipated if the laws of variation were such as the transmutationists recjuire. For if we conceive the cranium to be very ancient, it exemplifies a less advanced stage of pro- gressive development and improvement."" Lyell followed this by an exhaustive review of all the then existing evidence in favor of the great geological age of man, considering the 'river-drift,' the 'loess,' and the loam deposits, and the relations of man to the divisions of the Glacial Epoch. Referring to what is now known as the Lower Palaeolithic of St. Acheul and the Upper Palaeolithic of Aurignac, he says that they were doubtless separated by a vast interval of time, when we consider that the flint implements of St. Acheul belong either to the Post-Phocene or early Pleistocene time, or the 'older drift;' It is singular that in the Descent of Man, published in 187 1,*"' eight years after the appearance of Lyell's great work, Charles Darwin made only passing mention of the Neanderthal race, as follows : "Nevertheless, it must be admitted that some skulls of very high antiquity, such as the famous one at Neanderthal, are well-developed and capagous." It was the relatively large brain capacity which turned Darwin's attention away from a t\pe 6 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE which has furnished most powerful support to his theory of human descent. In the two hundred pages which Darwin de- votes to the descent of man, he treats especially the evidences presented in comparative anatomy and comparative psychology, as well as the evidence afforded by the comparison of the lower and higher races of man. As regards the "birthplace and an- tiquity of man,"^ he observes: " . . . In each great region of the world the li\dng mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is therefore probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by ex- tinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee ; and as these two species are now^ man's nearest alhes, it is somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject; for two or three anthropomorphous apes, one the Dryopithecus of Lartet, nearly as large as a man, and closely alHed to Hylobates, existed in Europe during the ^Miocene Age; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale. "At the period and place, whenever and wherever it was, when man first lost his hairy covering, he probably inhabited a hot country ; a circumstance favorable for the frugivorous diet on which, judging from analogy, he subsisted. We are far from knowing how long ago it was when man first diverged from the catarrhine stock ; but it may have occurred at an epoch as re- mote as the Eocene Period ; for that the higher apes had diverged from the lower apes as early as the Upper Miocene Period is sho\\Ti by the existence of the Dryopithecus.'' With this speculation of Darwin the reader should compare the state of our knowledge to-day regarding the descent of man, as presented in the first and last chapters of this volume. The most teUing argument against the Lamarck- Ly ell- Darwin theory was the absence of those missing links which, theoretically, should be found connecting man with the anthro- poid apes, for at that time the Neanderthal race was not recog- RISE OF AXTimOPOLOGY 7 nized as such. Between 1848 and 191 4 successive discoveries have been made of a series of human fossils belonging to inter- mediate races: some of these are now recognized as missing links between the existing human species, Homo sapiens, and the anthropoid apes; and others as the earliest known forms of Homo sapiens : Year Locality Character of Remains Race 1848 Gibraltar. Well-preserved skull. Neanderthal. 1856 Neanderthal, near Diissel- Skullcap, etc. Type of Neanderthal dorf. race. 1866 La Naulette, Belgium. Fragment of lower jaw. Neanderthal race. 1867 Furfooz, Belgium. Two skulls. Type of Furfooz race. 1868 Cro-Magnon, Dordogne. Three skeletons and frag- Type of Cro-Ma- ments of two others. gnon race. 1 887 Spy, Belgium. Two crania and skeletons. Spy type of Nean- derthal race. iSgi Trinil River, Java. Skullcap and femur. Type of Pithecan- thropus race. 1899 Krapina, Austria-Hungary. Fragments of at least ten Krapina type of Ne- individuals. anderthal race. 1901 Grimaldi grotto, Mentone. Two skeletons. Type of Grimaldi 1907 Heidelberg. Lower jaw with teeth. race. Type of Homo heidd- bcrgensis. .1908 La Chapelle, Correze. Skeleton. Mousterian type of Neanderthal race. 1908 Le Moustier, Dordogne. Almost complete skeleton, greater part of which was in bad state of preservation. Neanderthal. 1909 La Ferrassie I, Dordogne. Fragments of skeleton. Neanderthal. 1910 La Ferrassie II, Dordogne. Fragments of skeleton, fe- male. Neanderthal. 1911 La Quina II, Charente. Fragments of skeleton, sup- posed female. Neanderthal. 1911 Piltdown, Sussex. Portions of skull and jaw. Type of Eoanthropus, the 'dawn man.' 1914 Obercassel, near Bonn, Ger- Two skeletons, male and fe- Cro-Magnon. many. male. In his classic lecture of 1844, On the Form of the Head in Dif- ferent Peoples, Anders Retzius laid the foundation of the mod- ern study of the skulL^ Referring to his original publication, he says : "In the system of classification which I devised, I have distinguished just two forms, namely, the short (round or four- cornered) which I named brachycephalic, and the long, oval, or dolichocephalic. In the former there is little or no difference MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE between the length and breadth of the skull ; in the latter there is a notable difference." The expression of this primary distinc- tion between races is called the cephalic index, and it is deter- mined as follows : Breadth of skull X loo -^ length of skull. In this sense the primitive men of the Old Stone Age were mostly 'dolichocephalic,' that is, the breadth of the skull was in general less than 75 per cent of the length, as in the existing Australians, Kaffirs, Zulus, Eskimos, and Fijians. But some of the Palaeolithic races were 'mesaticephalic'; that is, the breadth was be- tween 75 per cent and 80 per cent of the length, as in the existing Chinese and Polyne- sians. The third or 'brach- ycephalic' type is the excep- tion among Palaeolithic skulls, in which the breadth is over 80 per cent of the length, as in the ]\Ialays, Burmese, American Indians, and Andamanese. The cephalic index, how- ever, tells us little of the po- sition of the skull as a hrain-case in the ascending or descending scale, and following the elaborate systems of skull measurements which were built up by Retzius^ and Broca,^*^ and based chiefly on the outside characters of the skull, came the modern system of Schwalbe, which has been devised especially to measure the skull with reference to the all-important criterion of the size of the different portions of the brain, and of approximately estimating the cubic capacity of the brain from the more or less complete measurements of the skuU. Fig. I. Outline of a modern brathyccphalic skull (fine clots), superposed upon a doli- chocephalic skull (dashes) , superposed upon a chimpanzee skull (line). g. glabella or median prominence between the eyebrows, i. inion — external occipital protuberance. g-i. glabella-inion line. Vertical line from g-i to top of skull in- dicates the height of the brain-case. ^Modified after Schwalbe. RISE OF AXTHROrOLCKiY 9 Among these measurements are the slope of the forehead, the height of the median portion of the skullcap, and the ratio between the upper portion of the cranial chamber and the lower portion. In brief, the seven principal measures which Schwalbe now employs are chiefly expressions of diameters ^^'hich corre- spond with the number of cubic centimetres occupied b\' the brain as a whole. In this manner Schwalbe" confirms Boule's estimates of the variations in the cubic capacity of the brain in different members of the Neanderthal race as follows : Xeanderthal race — La Chapellc. .1620 c. cm. " — Neanderthal.. 140S " " — La Quina L3fi7 " ^ ^ —Gibraltar 129G " \\ _KL#^ 'j; Thus the variations between the ( ^_ ,_^ ^ ^ largest known brain in one mem- ' . ' ber of the Neanderthal race, the male skull of La Chapelle, and the smallest brain of the same race, the supposed female skull of Gibraltar, is 324 C.cm., a Fig. 2. The skull and brain-case, showing ., , ,1 , 1 • 1 the low, retreating forehead, prominent range similar to that which we supraorbital ridges, and small brain find in the existing species of capacity, of Pithecanthropus, the Java , . , ape-man, as restored by J. H. McGregor. man {Homo sapiens). As another test for the classification of primitive skulls, we may select the well-known frontal angle of Broca, as modified by Schwalbe, for measuring the retreating forehead. The angle is measured by drawing a line along the forehead upward from the bony ridge between the eyebrows, with a horizontal line carried from the glabella to the inion at the back of the skull. The \'arious primitive races are arranged as follows : PER CENT Homo sapiens, with an average forehead frontal angle 90 ZZowo 5G/»/6'H5, with extreme retreating forehead " " 72.3 Homo neanderthalensis, with the least retreating forehead. " " 70 Homo neanderthalensis, with the most retreating forehead. '' '' .57.. 5 Pithecanthropus erectiis (Trinil race) " '' 52 . .5 Highest anthropoid apes '' " 56 10 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE For instance, this illustrates the fact that in the Trinil race the forehead is actually lower than in some of the highest an- thropoid apes ; that in the Neanderthal race the forehead is more retreating than in any of the existing human races of Homo sapiens. Arch.5:ology of the Old Stone Age * The proofs of the prehistory of man arose afresh, and from, an entirely new source, in the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury through discoveries in Germany, by which the Greek an- ticipations of a stone age were verified. For a century and a half the great animal life of the diluvial world had aroused the wonder and speculation of the early naturahsts. In 1750 Eccardus" of Braunschweig advanced the first steps toward prehistoric chronology, in expressing the opinion that the human race first lived in a period in which stone served as the only weapon and tool, and that this was followed by a bronze and then by an iron period of human culture. As early as 1700 a human skull was discovered at Cannstatt and was believed to be of a period as ancient as the mammoth and the cave-bear, f France, favored beyond all other countries by the men of the Old Stone Age, was destined to become the classic centre of prehistoric archaeology. As early as 1740 MahudeP^ pub- lished a treatise upon stone implements and laid the founda- tions both of Neolithic and Palaeolithic research. By the begin- ning of the nineteenth century the problem of fossil man had awakened wide-spread interest and research. In Buckland's^^ Reliquice dihiviance, published in 1824, the great mammals of the Old Stone Age are treated as rehcs of the flood. In 1825 Mac- Enery explored the cavern of Kent's Hole, near Torquay, finding human bones and flint flakes associated with the remains of the * The best reference works on the history of French and German Palaeolithic Archae- ology are: Cartailhac,^'- La France Prehistoriqite; Dechelette," Manuel d'Archeologie, T. I; Reinach," Catalogue du Musee de St.-Germain: Alluvions el Caverncs; Schmidt, '^ Die dihiviale Vorzcit Deutschlands ; Avebury/^ Prehistoric Times. t The Cannstatt skull and Cannstatt race are now regarded as Neolithic, and there- fore not contemporary with the mammoth or the cave-bear. RISE OF ARCHEOLOGY 11 cave-bear and cave-hyaena, but the notes of this discovery were not pubKshed until 1840, when Godwin- Austen-" gave the fn-st description of Kent's Hole. In 1828 Tournal and Christol -^ announced the first discoveries in France (Languedoc) of the association of human bones with the remains of extinct animals. In 1833-4 Schmerling-- described his explorations in the cav- FiG. 3. Three great types of flint implements. A. An eolith of accidental shape. B. A palasolith of Chellean type, partly fashioned. C. A Neolithic axe head, partly pohshed. After ISIacCurdy. erns near Liege, in Belgium, in which he found human bones and rude flint implements intermingled with the remains of the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the cave-hyaena, and the cave- bear. This is the first published evidence of the life of the Cave Period of Europe, and was soon followed by the recogni- tion of similar cavern deposits along the south coast of Great Britain, in France, Belgium and Italy. The work of the caveman, gradually revealed between 1828 and 1840, is now known to belong to the closing period of the Old Stone Age, and it is very remarkable that the next discovery related to the very dawn of the Old Stone Age, namely, to the life of the 'river-drift' man of the Lower Palaeolithic. 12 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE This discovery of what is now known as Chellean and Acheu- lean industry came through the explorations of Boucher de Perthes, between 1839 and 1846, in the valley of the River Somme, which flows through Amiens and Abbeville and empties into the English Channel half-way between Dieppe and Boulogne. In 1 84 1 this founder of modern archaeology unearthed near Abbe- ville a single flint, rudely fashioned into a cutting instrument, buried in river sand and associated with mammalian re- mains. This was followed by the collection of many other ancient weapons and implements, and in the year 1846 Boucher de Perthes published his first work, entitled De V Industrie pri- mitive, oil des Arts a leiir Origine,-^' in which he announced that he had found human implements in beds unmistakably belong- ing to the age of the 'river-drift.' This work and the succeed- ing (1857), Antiquites celtiques et anted iluvieunes,-^ were received with great scepticism until confirmed in 1853 by RigoUot's-^ discovery of the now famous 'river-drift' beds of St. Acheul, near Amiens. In the succeeding years the epoch-making work of Boucher de Perthes was welcomed and confirmed by leading British geologists and archaeologists. Falconer, Prestwich, Evans, and others who visited the Somme. Lubbock's-*^ article of 1862, on the Evidence of the Antiquity of Man A forded by the Physical Structure of the Somme Valley, pointing out the great geologic age of the river sands and gravels and of the mammals which they contained, was foUowed by the discovery of similar flints in the 'river-drifts' of Suffolk and Kent, England, in the valley of the Thames near Dartford. Thus came the first posi- tive proofs that certain t^pes of stone implements were wide- spread geographically, and thus was afforded the means of com- paring the age of one deposit with another. This led Sir John Lubbock'-" to divide the prehistoric period into four great epochs, in descending order as follows : The Iron Age, in which iron had superseded bronze for arms, axes, knives, etc., while bronze remained in common use for ornaments. The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for arms and cut- ting instruments of all kinds. RISE OF ARCH.EOLOGY 13 The later or polished Stone Age, termed by Lubbock the Xeolithic Period, characterized by weapons and instruments made of flint and other kinds of stone, with no knowledge of any metal excepting gold. Age of the Drift, termed by Lubbock the PalccoUthic Period, characterized by chipped or flaked implements of flint and other kinds of stone, and b\- the presence of the mammoth, the cave-bear, the woolly rhinoceros, and other extinct animals. Edouard Lartet, in i860, began exploring the caverns of the Pyrenees and of Perigord, first examining the remarkable cavern of Aurignac with its burial vault, its hearths, its reindeer and mammoth fauna, its spear points of bone and engraxangs on bone mingled with a new and distinctive flint culture. This dis- covery, published in 1861,-^ led to the fuU revelation of the hitherto unknown Reindeer and Art Period of the Old Stone Age, now known as the L'pper Palaeolithic. As a palaeontologist, it was natural for Lartet to propose a fourfold classification of the 'Reindeer Period,' based upon the supposed succession of the dominant forms of mammalian life, namely : id) Age of the Aurochs or Bison. (c) Age of the \Vooll\- ^Mammoth and Rhinoceros. {h) Age of the Reindeer. (a) Age of the Cave-Bear. Lartet, in association with the British archaeologist, Christy, explored the now famous rock shelters and caverns of Dordogne — Laugerie, La Aladeleine, Les Eyzies, and Le ^Moustier — which one by one yielded a variety of flint and bone implements, en- gra\'ings and sculpture on bone and ivory, and a rich extinct fauna, in which the reindeer and mammoth predominated. The results of this decade of exploration are recorded in their classic work, ReliqiiicB AquitaniccEp Lartet, observes Breuil,-^^ clearly perceived the level of Aurignac, where the fauna of the great cave-bear and of the mammoth appears to yield to that of the reindeer. Above he perceived the stone culture of the Solu- 14 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE trean tjpe in Laugerie Haute, and of the Magdalenian t}'pe in Laugerie Basse. Lartet also distinguished between the archae- ological period of St. Acheul (= Lower Palasohthic) and that of Aurignac (= Upper PalaeoUthic) . It remained, .however, for Gabriel de Mortillet, the first French archaeologist to survey and systematize the development of the flint industry throughout the entire Palaeolithic Period, to recognize that the Magdalenian followed the Solutrean, and that during the latter stage industry in stone reached its height, while during the jMagdalenian the industry in bone and in wood developed in a marvelous manner. Mortillet failed to recognize the position of the Aurignacian and omitted it from his archae- ological chronology, which was first published in 1869, Essai de classification des cavernes et des stations sous ahri, fondee siir les produits de Vindustne hiimaine :^^ (5) Magdalenien* characterized by a number and variety of bone implements; (4) Solutreen, leaf-like lance-heads beautifully worked; (3) Mousterien, flints worked mostly on one side only; (2) Acheideen, the 'langues de chat' hand-axes of St. Acheul; (i) Chelleen, bold, primitive, partly worked hand-axes. Shortly after the Franco-Prussian War, Edouard Piette (b. 1827, d. 1906), who had held the ofhce of magistrate in vari- ous towns in the departments of Ardennes and Aisne, France, and who was already distinguished for his general scientific attainments, began to devote himself especially to the evolution of art in Upper Palaeolithic times, and assembled the great col- lections which are described and illustrated in his classic work, L'Art pendant VAge du Renne (1907).^- He first estabHshed several phases of artistic evolution in the Magdalenian stage, and only recognized in his later years the station of Brassempouy, not * Note that lists and tables of races, cultural stages, faunae, etc., in this volume are gi\-en not in chronological but in .stratigrapliic order, beginning with the most recent at the top and ending with the oldest at the bottom. RISE OF ARCHAEOLOGY 15 comprehending that the Aurignacian art which he found there underlay the Solutrean culture and was separated by a long in- terval of time from the most ancient Magdalenian. His dis- tinct contribution to Pakuolithic history is his discovery of the Ckellea,v hate Achenleayv MQHsiericin Early Acheuleayi. Fig. 4. Evolution of the lance-point, spear, or dart head. Note the increasing sym- metry and skill in the flaking and retouch as the types pass in ascending order through the Chellean, Acheulean, Mousterian, and Aurignacian, into the perfected, symmetrical, double-pointed 'laurel-leaf of the Solutrean; and into the subsequent decHne in the flint industry of the Magdalenian and Azilian stages. After de Mor- tillet, Obermaier, and Hoernes. Etage azilien overlying the Magdalenian in the cavern of Mas d'Azil. Henri Breuil, a pupil of Piette and of Cartailhac, exploring during the decade, 1902-12, chiefly under the influence of Car- tailhac, formed a clear conception of the whole Upper Palas- oHthic and its subdivisions, and placed the Aurignacian definitely at the base of the series. Thus step by step the culture stages of archaeological evolu- tion have been established and may be summarized with the type stations as follows : 16 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Tardenoisien, Azilien, Magdalenien, Solutreen, Aurignacien, ]Mousterien, Acheuleen, Chelleen, Pre-Chelleen (= Mesvinien, Rutot), STATION Fere-en-Tardenois, Aisne. Mas d'Azil, Ariege. La Madeleine, pres Tursac, Dordogne, Solutre pres Macon, Saone-et-Loire. Aurignac, Haute-Garonne. Le Moustier, commune de Peyzac, Dordogne. St. Acheul, pres Amiens, Somme. Chelles-sur-Marne, Seine-et-Marne. Mesvin, Mons, Belgique. These stages, at first regarded as single, have each been subdivided into three or more substages, as a result of the more refined appreciation of the subtle advances in Palaeolithic inven- tion and techniciue. ^ Fig. 5. The type stations of the successive stages of Palaeolithic culture from the Chellean to the .\zilian-Tardenoisian. A new impulse to the study of Palceolithic culture was given in 1895, when E. Riviere discovered examples of Palaeolithic RISE OP^ ARCILEOLOCiY 17 mural art in the cavern of La Mouthe,'"' thus confirming the original discovery, in 1880, by ]\Iarcelino de Sautuola of the wonderful ceiling frescoes of the cave of Altamira, northern Spain/* This created the opportunity for the establishment by the Prince of Monaco of the Institut de Paleontologie humaine in 1 9 10, supporting the combined researches of the Upper PalaeoHthic culture and art of France and Spain, by Cartailhac, Capitan, Riviere, Boule, Breuil, and Obermaier, and marking a new epoch in the brilliant history of the archaeology of France. It remained for the prehistory of the borders of the Danube, Rhine, and Neckar to be brought into harmony with that of France, and this has been accomplished with extraordinary pre- cision and fulness through the labors of R. R. Schmidt, begun in 1906, and brought together in his invaluable work, Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands?'' To an earher and longer epoch belongs the Prepalaeohthic or Eolithic stage. Beginning in 1867 with the supposed dis- covery by I'Abbe Bourgeois^*^ of a primordial or Prepalaeohthic stone culture, much observation and speculation has been de- voted to the Eolithic^" era and the Eolithic industry, culmi- nating in the complete chronological system of Rutot, as follows : lowe:r quaternary, or pleistocene Strepyian (= Pre-Chellean, in part). Mesvinian, culture of Mesvin, near Mons, Belgium (= Pre-Chellean). Mafflean, culture of Maffle, near Ath, Hennegau. Reutelian, culture of Reutel, Ypres, West Flanders. Prestian, culture of St. Prcst, Eure-et-Loire, Upper Pliocene. Kentian, culture of the plateau of Kent, Middle Pliocene. Cantalian, culture of Aurillac, Cantal, Upper Miocene or Lower Pliocene. Fagnian, culture of Boncelles, Ardennes, Middle Oligocene. Only the ^lesvinian stage is generally accepted by archcT- ologists, and this embraces the prototypes of the Lower Palae- 18 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE olithic culture, which among most French authors are termed Pre-Chellean or Proto-Chellean. The EoHthic problem has aroused the most animated controversy, in which opinion is divided. A critical consideration of this era, however, falls without the province of the present work. SUCCESSION OF HUMAN INDUSTRIES AND CULTURES* V. LATER IRON AGE (L.\ Tene Culture) Europe 503 B. C. to Roman Times. IV. EARLIER IRON AGE Europe 1000-500 B. C. (Hallstatt Culture) Orient I 800- I 000 III. BRONZE AGE Europe about 2000-1000 Orient 4000- I Soo II. NEW STONE AGE, NEOLITHIC 3. LATE NEOLITHIC and COPPER AGE (Transition Period) Eltrope 3000-2000. 2. TYPICAL NEOLITHIC AGE (Roben hausian, Sotss Lake -Dwellers) . . . Europe 7000. 1. EARLY NEOLITHIC STAGES (Campignian Culture) Eut^ope I. OLD STONE AGE, PAL.EOLITHIC UPPER PAL.EOLITHIC . Eltrope 8. Azilian-Tardenoisian. s- " 12,000. 7. Magdalenian. (Close of Post- g§ 16,000. glacial time.) 2 2 6. Solutrean. 5. AuRiGN.\ci.\N. (Beginning of Post- ■ . a glacial time.) M < LOWER PAL.EOLITHIC 11 .. 4. Mousterian. (Fourth Glacial 40,000. time.) ^ "^ 3. AcHEULE.^N. (Transition to shelters.) j!li 2. Chellean. V S g w " 100,000. I. Pre-Chelle.\n CMesvinian.) qH^ EOLITHIC. * This table is a modification of that of Obermaier in his Mensck der Vorzeit.^^ To each period of the chronologic reckoning should be added the 1900 years of our era. Geologic History of Man Man emerges from the vast geologic history of the earth in the period known as the Pleistocene, or Glacial, and Postglacial, the 'Diluvium' of the older geologists. The men of the Old Stone Age in western Europe are now known through the latter iOOffii -mil (JKOI.OCIK^ HISTORY OF MAN 19 half of Glacial times to the very end of Postglacial timcs^ when the Old Stone Age, with its wonderful environment of mammalian and human life, comes to a gradual close, and the New Stone Age begins with the climate and natural beauties of the forests, meadows, and Alps of Europe as they were before the destro\'ing hand of economic civilization fell upon them. It is our difficult but fascinating task to project in our imag- ination the extraordinary series of prehistoric natural events which were witnessed by the successive races of Palaeolithic men in Europe ; such a combination and sequence never occurred be- fore in the world's history and will never occur again. They centred around three distinct and yet closely related groups of causes. First, the formation of the two great ice-fields centring over the Scandinavian peninsula and over the Alps ; second, the arrival or assemblage in western Europe of mammals from five entirely different life-zones or natural habitats; third, the ar- rival in Europe of seven or eight successive races of men by migration, chiefly from the great Eurasiatic continent of the East. Throughout this long epoch western Europe is to be viewed as a peninsula, surrounded on all sides by the sea and stretching westward from the great land mass of eastern Europe and of x\sia, which was the chief theatre of evolution both of animal and human life. It was the 'far west' of all migrations of animals and men. Nor may we disregard the vast African land mass, the northern coasts of which afforded a great southern migration route from x\sia, and may have supplied Europe with certain of its human races such as the 'Grimaldi.' These three principal phenomena of the ice-fields, the mam- mals, and the human life and industry, together establish the chro- nology of the Age of Man. In other words, there are four ways of keeping prehistoric time: that of geology, that of palaeontology, that of anatomy, and that of human industry. Geologic events mark the grander divisions of time ; palaeontologic and anatomic events mark the lesser divisions ; while the successive phases of human industry mark the least divisions. The geologic chro- 20 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE nology deals with such immense periods of time that its ratio to the animal and to the human chronology is like that of years to hours and to minutes of our own solar time. The Glacial Epoch when first revealed by Charpentier^^ and Agassiz,^° between 1837 and 1840, was supposed to correspond to a single great advance and retreat of the ice-fields from various centres. The vague problem of the antiquity of Pliocene man and Diluvial man soon merged into the far more definite chro- nology of glacial and interglacial man. As early as 1854, Morlot discovered near Diirnten, on the borders of the lake of Zurich, a bed of fossil plants indicating a period of south temperate cli- mate intervening between two great deposits of glacial origin. This led to the new conception of cold glacial stages and warm interglacial stages, and Morlot^ ^ himself advanced the theory that there had been three glacial stages separated by two inter- glacial stages. Other discoveries followed both of fossil plants and mammals adapted to warmer periods intervening between the colder periods. Moreover, successive glacial moraines and Mrifts,' and successive river 'terraces' were found to confirm the theory of multiple glacial stages. The British geologist, James Geikie (1871-94) marshalled all the evidence for the extreme hypothesis of a succession of six glacial and five inter- glacial stages, each with its corresponding cold and warm climates. Strong confirmation of a theory of four great glaciations came through the American geologists, Chamberlin,^- Salisbury,^^ and others, inthe discovery of evidence of four chief glacial and three interglacial stages in northern portions of our own continent. Finally, a firm foundation of the quadruple glacial theory in Europe was laid by the classic researches of Penck and Briickner^^ in the Alps, which were published in 1909. Thus the exhaustive research of Geikie, of Chamberlin and Salisbury, of Penck and Bruckner, and finally of Leverett^^ has firmly established eight subdivisions or stages of Pleistocene time, namely, four glacial, three interglacial, and one postglacial. These not only mark the great eras of European time but also make possible the synchrony of America with Europe. GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 21 Since most of the skeletal and cultural remains of man can now be definitely attributed to certain glacial, interglacial, or Major Divisions Periods and Epochs ; Advances in Life Dominant Life QUATERXARY. HOLOCENE. Recent alluvial. PLEISTOCENE, Postglacial or 1 stage. ICE AGE. ! Glacial stages. 1 Rise of world civiliza- tion. Industry in iron, cop per, and polished stone. Extinction of great mammals. Dawn of mind, art, and industry. Age of Man. Iron, Bronze, and New Stone Ages. Men of the Old Stone Age. PLIOCENE. Late Tertiary-. Transformation of man-ape into man. MIOCENE. Culmination of mam- mals. Age OF Mammals and Modern Plant Life. Tertiary. OLIGOCENE. Early Tertiary. Beginnings of anthro- poid ape life. EOCENE. Appearance of higher types of mammals, and vanishing of archaic forms. PALM.OCENE. Rise of archaic mam- mals. Late Mesozoic. Cretaceous. Extinction of great reptiles. Age OF Reptiles. Extreme specializa- tion of reptiles. Comanchian. Rise of flowering plants. Early Jurassic. Rise of birds and fly- ing reptiles. Mesozoic. Triassic. Riije of dinosaurs. PLACE OF THE OLD STONE AGE IN THE EARTHS HISTORY (Indicated in heavy-face letter.) Compare Schuchert's Table, 1914. postglacial stages, vast interest attaches to the very difficult problem of the duration of the whole Ice Age and the relative duration of its various glacial and interglacial stages. The fol- 2^2 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE lowing figures set forth the wide variations in opinion on this subject and the two opposite tendencies of speculation which lead to greatly expanded or greatly abbreviated estimates of Pleistocene time : DURATION OF THE ICE AGE 1863. Charles Lyell,*^ Principles of Geology .800,000 years. 1S74. James D. Dana/^ Manual of Geology ■. . . . . 720,000 " 1 893. Charles D. Walcott,*^ Geologic Time as Indicated b\ 400,000 << 1893. W. Upham/* Estimates of Geologic Times, Amer Jour. ScL, vol. XLV . 100,000 " 1894. A. Heim,^" Ueber das absolute Alter dcr Eiszeit . . . . . 100,000 " 1900. W. J. Sollas,^! Evolutional Geology .400,000 " 1909. Albrecht Penck/^ Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter . 520,000- 840,000 1914. James Geikie,^^ The Antiquity of Man in Europe. . .620,000 (min.) We may adopt for the present work the more conservative estimate of Penck, that since the first great ice-fields developed in Scandinavia, in the Alps, and in North America west of Hud- son Bay a period of time of not less than 520,000 years has elapsed. The relative duration of the subdivisions of the Glacial Epoch is also studied by Penck in his Chronologie dcs Eiszeitalter s in den Alpen}'^ These stages are not in any degree rhythmic, or of equal length either in western Europe or in North America. The unit of glacial measurement chosen by Penck is the time which has elapsed since the close of the fourth and last great glaciation ; this is known as the Wiirm in the Alpine region and as the Wisconsin in America. While more limited than the ice- caps of the second glaciation, those of the fourth glaciation were still of vast extent in Europe and in this country, so that an esti- mate of 20,000 to 34,000 years for the unit of the entire Postglacial stage is not extreme. Estimating this unit at 25,000 years and accepting Reeds' s^^ estimate of the relative length of time occu- pied by each of the preceding glacial and interglacial stages, we reach the following results (compare Fig. 14, p, 41) : GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 23 Relative Duration Units Years 25,000 25,000 1 00,000 25,000 200,000 25,000 75, 000 I 25,000 Grand Totals of Alpine Postglacial Timk. (Period of Upper Paleolithic culture, Cro- Magnon and Briinn races) IV. Glaclal Stage (=Wurm, Wisconsin). (Close of Lower Palaeolithic culture, Neanderthal race) 3d. I nterglacial Stage. (Opening period of Lower Paleolithic culture, Piltdown and pre-Neanderthaloid races) III. Glacial Stage ( = Riss, Illinoian) 2d. Interglacial Stage ( = Mindel-Riss, Yarmouth) . . (Period of Heidelberg race.) II. Glaci.al Stage ( = Mindel, Kansan) I St. Interglacial Stage ( = Giinz-Mindel, Aftonian) . (Period of Pithecanthropus or Trinil race.) I. Glaci.al Stage ( = Giinz, Nebraskan) Years 25,000 175,000 375,000 400,000 475,000 The Postglacial time di\dsions are dated by three successive advances of the ice-caps, which broadly correspond with Geikie's fifth and sixth glaciations ; they are known in the Alpine region as the Buhl, Gschnitz, and Daiin. These three waves of cold and humid climate, each accompanied by glacial advances, finally terminated with the retreat of the snow and ice in the Alpine region, the same conditions prevailing as with the present cli- mate. The minimum time estimates of these Postglacial stages and the corresponding periods of human culture, as calculated by Heim,'^" Xiiesch,-^'^ Penck,'^- and many others, are summarized in the Upper Palaeolithic (p. 281). Geologic axd Human Chronology There are four ways in which the lesser divisions and sequence of human chronology may be dated through geologic or earth- forming events. First, through the age of the culture stations or human remains, as indicated by the 'river-drifts' and 'river terraces ' in or upon which they occur ; second, through the age of the open 'loess' stations which are found both on the 'older terraces ' and on the plateaus between the river valleys ; third. 24> MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE through the age of the shelters and caverns in which skeletal and cultural remains occur; fourth, through the age of the 'loam' deposits, which have drifted down on the 'terraces' from the surrounding meadows and hills. The men of the Old Stone Age were attracted to these natural camps and dwelling-places both by the abundance of the raw flint materials from which the palaD- oliths were fashioned and by the presence of game. In more than ninety years of exploration only three skeletal rehcs of man have been found in the ancient ' river-drifts ' ; these are the 'Trinil,' the 'Heidelberg,' and the 'Piltdown'; in each instance the human remains were buried accidentally with those of extinct animals, after drifting for some distance in the river or stream beds. It is only in late Acheulean times that human burial rites or interments begin and that skeletal remains are found. Owing to the less perishable nature of flint, relics of the quarries and stations are infinitely more common; they are found both in the river sands and gravels, in the 'river terraces,' and in the 'loess' stations of the plateaus and uplands. Thus pre- historic chronology is based on observations of the geologist, who in turn is greatly aided by the archaeologist, because the evolution stages of each t^-pe of implement are practically the same all over western Europe, with the exception of unimportant local inven- tions and variations. In brief, the large divisions of time are determined by the amount of work done by geologic agencies; the comparative age of the various camp sites is determined b}" their geologic succession, by the mammals and plants which oc- cur in them, and finally by the cultural ty^e of any industrial remains that may be found. Times of the 'High' and 'Low' River 'Terraces' The so-called 'terrace' chronology is to be used by the prc- historian with caution, for it is obvious that the 'terraces' in the different river-valleys of western Europe were not all formed at the same time ; thus the testimony of the ' terraces ' is always to be checked off by other evidence. GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAN 25 As to the origin of the sands and gravels which compose the ' terraces ' we know that the glacial stages were periods of the wearing away of vast materials from the summits and sides of the mountains, which were transported by the ri\'ers to the valleys and plains. These vast deposits of glacial times spread out over the very broad surfaces of the pristine river-bottoms, which in many valleys it is important to note were from loo to 1 50 feet above the present levels. The diminished and contracted 2 4 6 2 10 12 km Fig. 6. Terraces on either side of the valley of the River Inn, Scharding, Austria, formed by sand and gravel deposits partly covered with loess. After Bruckner. lb. Very broad river deposits of First Glaciation, on the first erosion level, covered ■with the 'Upper Loess' of the Second Interglacial Stage, lib. Somewhat narrower river deposits of Second Glaciation on the second erosion level. I Tib. Still narrower river terraces of the Third Glaciation on the third erosion level, covered with the 'Lower Loess' of the Third Interglacial Stage. . IVb. Fourth or lowest terrace of the Fourth Glaciation on the fourth erosion level. Vd. Erosion terraces, Achen. Via. Post-Biihl erosion. Loess', 'Upper Loess' of Second Interglacial. Loess", 'Lower Loess' of Third In- terglacial. Streams of interglacial times cut into these ancient river beds, forming narrower channels into which they transported their own materials. Thus, as the successive 'river terraces' were formed, a descending series of steps was created along the sides of the valleys. In many valleys there are four of these ' terraces,' which may correspond with several glacial stages ; in other val- leys there are only three ; in others, again, like the valley of the River Inn which flows past Innsbruck in the Tyrol (Fig. 6), there are five 'terraces,' while in the valley of the Rhine above Basle there are six, corresponding, it is believed, with the mate- rials brought down by the four great glaciations and with the river levels of Postglacial times. In general, therefore, the 'high terraces' are the oldest ones, that is, they are composed of 26 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE materials brought down during the pluvial periods of the First, Second, and Third Glacial Stages, while the 'lower terraces' and the 'lowest terraces' in the alpine regions are composed of materials borne by the great rivers of the Fourth Glacial and Postglacial Stages. In the region around the Alps the 'higher terraces ' are products chiefly of the third glaciation ; in the Ehdnfdder Hill Upper Schworstadt MolinerMeld ( 2 3km Fig. 7. Cross-section through the terraced Pleistocene formations of the Rhine valley above Basle, Switzerland. After Penck. Ih. Outwash of the First Glaciation — Giinz — Deposits on the first erosion level. Ilh. Outwash of the Second Glaciation — Mindel — Deposits on the second erosion level. Illb. Outwash of the Third Glaciation — Riss — Deposits on the third erosion level. IVb. Outwash of the Fourth Glaciation — Wiirm — Deposits on the fourth erosion level. Va. Erosion terrace, Achen oscillation — fifth erosion level. Via. Vila. IIIc. Moraine of the Third Glaciation — Riss. The section of the Rheinfelder Hill lies 3 km. west from the Moliner Field. Post-Biihl erosion — sixth and seventh erosion levels. valley of the Rhine they are visible near Basle. On the upper Rhine the ' low terraces ' are products of the fourth glaciation ; they cover vast surfaces and contain remains of the woolly mam- moth {E. primi genius) , an animal distinctive of Fourth Glacial and Postglacial times. More remote from the glacial regions, but equally subject to the inundations of glacial times are the ' high terraces ' along the River Seine, which are ninety feet above the present level of the river and contain the remains of mammals characteristic of the First Interglacial Stage, such as the southern elephant {E. meridionalis) , while the 'low terraces' along the Seine are only fifteen feet above the present level of the river and contain mammals belonging to the Third Interglacial Stage. Similarly, GEOLOGIC HIS'lORY OF MAN 27 the ' high terraces ' of the River Eure contain mammals of First Interglacial times, such as the southern elephant {E. mcridionalis) and Steno's horse (£. stenonis) ; these fossils occur in coarse river sands and gravels which were deposited by a broad stream that flowed at least ninety feet above the present waters of the Eure. The human interest which attaches to these dry facts of geology appears especially in the valleys of the Somme and the Marne in northern France; here again we find 'high terraces,' 'middle terraces,' and 'low terraces'; the latter are still sub- ject to flooding. In the deep gravels upon each of these terraces we find the first proofs of human residence, for here occur the earliest Pre-Chellean and Chellean implements associated with the remains of the hippopotamus, of Merck's rhinoceros, and of the straight-tusked elephant (E. antiquus), together with mam- mals which are characteristic both of Second and Third Inter- glacial times. This raises a very important distinction, which is often mis- understood; namely, between the materials composing the orig- inal terraces and those subsequently deposited upon the terraces. It appears to be in the latter that human artifacts are chiefly, if not exclusively, found. Times of the Loam Stations The 'loam' which washes down over the original sand and gravel 'terraces' from the surrounding hills and meadows is of much later date than the 'terraces' themselves, and the archae- ologist in the valley of the Somme as well as in that of the Thames may well be deceived unless he clearly distinguishes between the newer deposits of gravels and of loams and the far older gravels and river sands which compose the original 'terraces.' This is well illustrated by the observations of Commont on the section of St. Acheul.^^ The loams and brick-earth are of much more recent age than the original gravels and sands of the 'terraces' which they overlap and conceal; the lowest and oldest 'loam' 28 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ilimon fendiUe) contains Acheulean flints, while the overlying 'loam' contains Mousterian flints. Although occurring on the 'higher terraces,' these flints are of somewhat later date than the primitive Chellean flints which occur in the coarse gravels and sands that have collected upon the very lowest levels (Fig. 59). A similar prehistoric inversion doubtless occurs in the 'ter- races' of the Thames, for materials on the 'highest terrace' (Fig. 8) contain Acheulean flints, while materials on the ' lowest terrace' belong to a much more recent age. Cretaceoi/si inn. f miles Fig. 8. Section — Four terraces indicated in the valley of the Thames at Galley Hill, near London. Site of the discovery of the 'Galley Hill Alan' in deposits overlying one of the high terraces. Site also of Gray's Thurrock, a deposit of Third Interglacial ' times containing mammals and flints of Chellean age. A typical camping station of 'river-drift man.' Drawn by Dr. C. A. Reeds. We have no record of a single Palaeolithic station found in the true original sands and .gravels of the 'higher terraces' in any part of Europe ; only eoliths are found on the ' high terrace ' levels, as at St. Prest. The earliest palaeoliths occur in the gravels on both the ' mid- dle ' and ' upper terraces ' of the Somme and the Marne, proving that the gravels were deposited long subsequent to the cutting of the original terraces. Geikie,^' moreover, is of the opinion that the valley of the Somme has remained as it is since early Pleistocene times, and that even the 'lowest terrace' here was completed at that period ; this is contrary to the view of Commont, who considers that this 'lowxst terrace' belongs to Third Inter- glacial times ; a restudy of the stations along the Thames may throw light upon this very important difference of opinion. GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF MAX 29 Times of the 'Loess' Stations The glacial stages were generally times of relative!}- great humidity, of heavy rain and snow fall, of full rivers charged with gravels and sands, and with loam the finest product oi the ero- FiG. 9. IMasdalenian loess station of Aggsbach, in Lower Austria. A quarry camping station of the open-plains type. This typical Postglacial loess de- posit contains flints of early Magdalcnian age. After Obermaier. sive action of ice upon the rocks. This loam on the barren wastes left bare by the glaciers or on the river borders and o\-er- flow basins was retransported by the winds and laid down afresh in layers of var}-ing thickness kno^^^l as 'loess.' There was no ' loess ' formation either in Europe or America during the humid climate of First Interglacial times, but during the latter part of the Second Interglacial Stage, again toward the close of the Third Interglacial Stage, and finally during Postglacial times there were periods of arid climate when the 'loess' was lifted and transported by the prevailing winds over the ' terraces ' and 30 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE plateaus and even to great heights among the mountain valleys. As observed by Huntington'^^ in his interesting book Tlie Pulse of Asia, even at the present time there are districts where we find 'loess' dust filling the entire atmosphere either during the heated months of summer or during the cold months of winter. In Pleistocene Europe there were at least three warm or cold arid periods, accompanied in some phases by prevailing westerly winds/^ in which 'loess' was widely distributed over northern Germany, covering the 'river terraces,' plateaus, and uplands bordering the Rhine and the Neckar. These 'loess' periods can be dated by the fossil remains of mammals which they con- tain, also by the stations of the flint quarries in different culture stages. Thus we find late Acheulean implements in drifts of 'loess' at Villejuif, south of Paris. Among the most famous stations of late Acheulean times is that of Achenheim, west of Strasburg, and not far distant is the 'loess' station of Mom- menheim, of Mousterian times ; both belong to the period of the fourth glaciation. An Aurignacian 'loess' station is that of Willendorf, Austria. Times of the Limestone Shelters and Caverns Beginning in the late or cold Acheulean period, the Palae- olithic hunters commenced to seek the warm or sheltered side of deepened river-valleys, also the shelter afforded by overhanging chffs and the entrances of caverns. It is quite probable that during the warm season of the year they still repaired to their ■open flint quarries along the rivers and on the uplands ; in fact, the river Somme was a favorite resort through Acheulean into Mousterian times. In general, however, the open rivers and plateaus were aban- doned, and all the regions of limestone rock favorable to the formation of shelter cliffs, grottos, and caverns were sought out by the early Palaeolithic men from Mousterian times on ; and thus from the beginning of the Mousterian to the close of the Upper Palaeolithic their lines of migration and of residence followed the geologic: history of :\ian 31 exposures of the limestones which had been laid down b}' the sea in bygone geologic ages from Carboniferous to Cretaceous times. The upper valleys of the Rhine and Danube traversed the white Jurassic limestones which are again exposed in a broad band along the foot-hills of- the Pyrenees, extending far west to the Cantabrian Alps of modern Spain. In Dordogne the great horizontal plateau of Cretaceous limestone had been dissected b\' branching rivers, such as the Vezere, to a depth of two hun- Fig. 10. Ideal section of the bluff overlying the Diissel Rixcr, near Diisseldorf, showing the mode of formation of the famous Neanderthal Cave, where the original type of the Neanderthal race was discovered in 1856. A typical resort of the 'cave man.' After Lyell. c. Entrance of percolating waters from above. /. Exit from the grotto. a-b. Interior of the cavern. dred feet. Under overhanging cliffs long rock shelters were formed, such as that of the Magdalenian station at La Madeleine. Many caverns were formed, some of them in early Pleistocene times, by water percolating from above and (Fig. ii) resulting in subterranean streams which issued at the entrance ; this formed the expanded grotto, sometimes a chamber of vast dimensions, such as the Grotte de Gargas. Outside of this, again, may be an ahrl or shelter of overhanging rock. In other cases the rock shelter is found quite independent of any cave. WTiere the glaciers or ice-caps passed over the summits of the hills the subglacial streams penetrated the hmestone of the mountain and formed vast caverns, such as that of Niaux, near the river Ariege. Here a nearly horizontal cavern was formed, extending half a mile into the heart of the mountain. The ma- 32 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE terial with which the floors of the caverns are covered is either a line cave loam or the insoluble remainder of the Hmestone form- ing a brown or gray clayey substance. The Magdalenian artists produced drawings on these soft clays and, in rare instances, used them for modelling purposes, as in the Tuc d'Audoubert. The sands and gravels were also swept in from the streams above and carried by strong currents along the wall surfaces, smoothing and polishing the Hmestone in preparation for the higher forms of Upper Pal^oHthic draughts- manship and painting. It would appear that the majority of the cav- erns were formed in plu- vial periods of early glacial times ; the for- mation had been com- pleted, the subterranean streams had ceased to flow, and the interiors were relatively dry and free from moisture in Fourth Glacial and Post- glacial times, when man first entered them. There is no evidence, however, that the cavern depths were generally in- habited, for the obvious reason that there w^as no exit for the smoke; the old hearths are invariably found close to or outside of the entrance, the only exception being in the en- trance to the great cavern of Gargas, where there is a natural chimney for the exit of smoke. There was no cave life, strictly speaking — it was grotto life; the deep caves and caverns were probably penetrated only by artists and possibly also by magi- cians or priests. It is in the abris or shelters in front of the grottos and in the floors of the caverns that remarkable prehistoric records are found from late Acheulean times to the very close of Fio Formation of the typical limestone cav- ern. After Gaudr>'. V. Vertical section of limestone cliff showing (S) waters percolating from above; (^4-0) inte- rior of the cavern; and (G) grotto entrance, orig- inal exit of the cavern waters. H. Horizontal section of the same cavern showing the (G) grotto entrance and {A, G, 0, B) the ramifica- tions of the cavern. GEOLOC.IC HISTORY OF MAN 33 the Palaeolithic, as in the wonderful grotto in front of the cave at Castillo, near Santander. Thus, as Obermaier"" observes : ''In Chellean times primitive man was a care-free hunter wandering as he chose in the mild and pleasant weather, and even the colder climate of the arid ' loess ' period of the late Acheulean was not sufficient to overcome his love of the open; he still made his camp on the plains at the edge of the forest, or in the shelter of some overhanging chff." Only in rare instances, as at Castillo, were the Acheulean hearths brought within the entrance line of the grotto. Geologic Time Penck, igio Geikie, 1914 Wiegers, 1913 Boule, Hreuil, Obermaier, 1912 Schmidt, 1912 Postglacial. Magdalenian. Bronze. NeoUthic. Azilian. Magdalenian. Solutrean. Aurignacian. IV. Glacial. Solutrean. Magdalenian. Solutrean. Aurignacian. Mousterian. IVIousterian. Third Interglacial. Mousterian. Mousterian. Early Mousterian. Cold Acheulean. Warm " Chellean. Pre-Chellean. III. Gl.\cial. i Cold Acheu- Moustenan. ,^^^ Second Interglacial. Acheulean. Chellean. Warm Acheu- lean. Chellean. II. Glacial. Pre-Chellean First Interglacial. DIFFERENCES OF OPINION AS TO THE GEOLOGIC AGE OF THE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURE STAGES The right-hand column represents the theory adopted in this volume. Interpretation of these four kinds of evidence as to the an- tiquity of human culture in western Europe still leads to widely diverse opinions. On the one hand, we have the high authority of Penck^^ and Geikie«- that the Chellean and Acheulean cul- tures are as ancient as the second long warm interglacial period. 34 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE An extreme exponent of the same theory is Wiegers,''' who would carry the Pre-Chellean back even into First Interglacial times. On the other side, Boule,*'^ Schuchardt,*^^ Obermaier,*^'' Schmidt/^ and the majority of the French archaeologists place the begin- ning of the Pre-Chellean culture in Third Interglacial times. In favor of the latter theory is the strikingly close succession of the Lower Palaeolithic cultures in the valley of the Somme, fol- lowed by an equally close succession from Acheulean to Mag- dalenian times, as, for example, in the station of Castillo. It does not appear possible that a vast interval of time, such as that of the third glaciation, separated the Chellean from the Mous- terian culture. On the other hand, in favor of the greater antiquity of the Pre-Chellean and Chellean cultures may be urged their alleged association in several localities with very primitive mammals of early Pleistocene t>;pe, namely, the Etruscan rhinoceros, Steno's horse, and the saber-tooth tiger, as witnessed in Spain and in the deposits of the Champs de Mars, at Abbeville. It is true, moreover, that at points distant from the great ice-fields, like the valley of the Somme and that of the Marne, we have no other means of separating glacial from interglacial times than that afforded by the deposition and erosion of the ' terraces ' ; in fact, the interpretation of the age of the cultures may be similar to that applied to the age of the mammalian fauna. There are no proofs of periods of severe cold in western Europe in any country remote from the glaciers until the very cold steppe-tundra climate immediately preceding the fourth glaciation swept the entire land and drove out the last of the African-Asiatic mammals. Geographic Changes The migrations of mammals and of races of men into western Europe from the Eurasiatic continent on the east and from Africa on the south were favored or interrupted by the periods of elevation or of subsidence of the coastal borders of the .^gean, Mediterranean, and North Seas, and also of the Iberian and GEOGRAPHIC CHANGES 35 British coast-lines. The maximum period of ele\'ation of the coastal borders, as represented in the accompan\ing map (Fig. 12), never occurred in all portions of the continent of Europe at the same time, because there were oscillations both on the north- FiG. 12. Europe in the period of maximum continental elevation, in which the coast- Hnes are widety extended, connecting Africa and Europe — including Great Britain and Ireland — in a single vast peninsula, and affording free migration routes for animal and human races north and south, as well as east and west. The ocean boundaries are more remote and the interior seas are greatly reduced in area. After Obermaier. ern and southern coasts of Europe and Africa. The early Pleis- •tocene, especially the period of the First Interglacial Stage, was one of elevation remarkable for the broad land bridges which brought the animal Kfe of Europe, .Africa, and Asia together. The Mediterranean coast rose 300 feet. Land bridges from .Africa were formed at Gibraltar and over to the island of Sicily, so that for the time there was a free migration of mammalian life north and south. It is to this that western Europe owes the majestic 36 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE mammals of Asiatic and African life which dominated the native fauna. In general, the elevation of the continent took place during interglacial, the subsidence during glacial times, but Great Britain appears to have been almost continuously elevated and a part of the continent, and was certainly so during the Third Interglacial, Fourth Glacial, and Postglacial Stages, because there was a free migration of animal life and of human culture. The Lower Palaeohthic peoples of Pre-Chellean and Chellean times wandered at will from the valley of the Somme to the not far distant valley of the Thames, interchanging their weapons and inventions. The close proximit}' of these stations is well illus- trated in the admirable map (Fig. 56) prepared under the direc- tion of Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock). The relation which elevation and subsidence respectively bear to the glacial and inter- glacial stages is believed to be as follows : Elevation, emergence of the coast-lines from the sea, broad land connections facilitating migration, retreat of the glaciers, deepening of the river-valleys, and cutting of terraces. Arid continental climate and deposition of 'loess.' Subsidence, submergence of the coast-lines and advance of the sea, interruption of land connections and of migration routes, advance of the glaciers, filling of the river-valleys with the prod- ucts of glacial erosion, the sand and gravel materials of which the 'terraces' are composed, and subglacial erosion of the loam, from which in arid periods the 'loess' is derived. Subsidence was the great feature of closing glacial times both in Europe and America. During the Fourth Glacial and Post- glacial Stages the Black and Caspian Seas and the eastern por- tion of the Mediterranean were deeply depressed, while the British Isles were still connected with France, but by a nar- rower isthmus than that of early interglacial times. The scat- tered stations of Upper Palaeolithic culture found in the British Isles include one Aurignacian, one Solutrean, two Magdalenian, and two Azilian ; this shows that travel communication with the continent continued throughout that period, in all proba- CLIMATIC CHANGES 37 bility by means of a land connection. In late Neolithic times the English Channel was formed, Great Britain became isolated from Europe, and Ireland lost its land connection first with Wales and then with Scotland. Changes of Climate Penck^^ estimates the intensity of the cold and of the humid- ity which prevailed during the glacial stages by the descent of the snow-line in the Alps, which in the two periods of greatest Sierra oie Credos Atlas Mrs. I Pyrenees Mrs I I I Frar,, . i.ftfJSCf/ CpiiTseN- [i LS'^ PROgABLB \s£A LEVEL AT THE \tiHE oAMAxmuM ELEVATION. | }SECCIIO CLACIATION. Ml NOEL. i»' Strwr cf Gibraltar Garonne f^hone North Skager Val/ey Val/ey Sea ffak SNOW LINES OF THE FOUR PRINCIPAL GLACIAL EPOCHS OF THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD A'B Profile across Europe along The line A-B of map 5 Presenr snow line 4 Snowline of The Fourth (\Nurm) Glacial Epoch 3 „„.... Third (f?iss) 2 n n « n Sfconi (.Mindel) •» . •' ; K t. . " First CGunzl " » Fig. 13. An ideal earth section from the North Cape across the Scandina\-ian plateau, through the North Sea, Swiss Alps, PjTenees. and Straits of Gibraltar, to the Atlas ^lountains in northern Africa, along the line indicated on t^e map (Fig. 25, p. 65), illustrating the sea-level at the time of the greatest elevation of the conti- nent during the Second Glacial Stage, as compared with the present sea-level; also the successive lines of descent of the region of perpetual snow during the four great glacial advances, as compared with the present snow-line. From studies by Dr. C. A. Reeds. glaciation reached from 1,200 m. (3,937 ft.) to 1,500 m. (4, 921 ft.) below the present snow-level, with the consequent formation of vast ice-caps hung with glaciers which flowed great distances do^\Tl the valleys of the Rhone and of the Rhine and left their moraines at very distant points. The moraines and drifts of the lesser glaciations, such as the first and fourth, stand considerably within the boundaries of these outer moraines and drift fields. On the contrary, the warmer climates of interglacial times are indicated by the sun-loving plants found at Hotting, along the valley of the Inn, in the Tyrol, which are proofs of a tempera- ture higher than the present and of the ascent of the snow-line 300 m. (984 ft.) above the •existing snow-level of the Alps. 38 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The alternation of the cold climates of the glacial stages with the warm temperate climates of the interglacial stages formed great oscillations of temperature (Figs. 13, 14). The fossil plant life indicates that during the periods of the First, Second, and Third Interglacial Stages the climate of western Europe was cooler than it had been during the preceding Pliocene Epoch and somewhat warmer than it is at the present time in the same localities. During the First, Second, and Third Glacial Stages there was certainly a marked lowering of temperature in the regions bordering the great glacial fields. This is indicated by the arrival in the northern glacial border regions of animals and plants adapted to arctic and subarctic climates. It has been generally believed that the whole of western Europe was extremely cold during these glacial stages, and that the heat-loving animals, the southern elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotami, were driven to the south, to return only with the renewed warmth of the next interglacial stage. There is, however, no proof of the departure of these suppos- edly less hardy mammals nor of the spread over Europe of the more hardy arctic and steppe t>pes until the advent of the Fourth Glacial Stage. Then, for the first time, all western Europe north of the Pyrenees experienced a general fall of temperature, and conditions of climate prevailed such as are now found in the arctic tundra regions of the north and in the high steppes of central Asia, which are swept by dry and cold winter winds. Fluctuations of temperature, of moisture, and of aridity in Pleis- tocene time, are evidenced not only by the rise and fall of the snow-line and the advance and retreat of the ice-caps but also by the appearance of plant and animal life in the periods of the ' loess ' deposition, indicating the following cycles of climatic change as witnessed from beginning to end of the Third Interglacial Stage : IV. Glacial maximum, cold and moist climate, arctic and cold steppe fauna and flora. Cool and dry steppe climate, wide-spread deposition of 'loess.' CLIMATIC CHANGES 39 Interglacial maximum, a long period of warm temperate forest and meadow conditions. Glacial retreat, cool and moist climate bordering the gla- cial regions. III. Glacial maximum, cold and humid climate bordering the glaciers, favorable to arctic and subarctic plant and animal life. That great fields of ice and advancing glaciers alone do not constitute proof of very low temperatures is shown at the present time in southeastern Alaska, where ^'er^•^ hea\y snowfall or pre- cipitation causes the accumulation of vast glaciers, although the mean annual temperature is only io° Fahr. (5.56° C.) lower than that of southern German}'. Neumayr*^^ estimated that during the Ice Age there was a general lowering of temperature in Eu- rope of not more than 6° C. (10.8° Fahr.), and held that even during the glacial advances a comparatively mild climate pre- vailed in Great Britain. Martins'^ estimated that a lowering of the temperature to the extent of 4° C. (7.2° Fahr.) would bring the glaciers of Chamordx down to the level of the plain of Geneva. Penck estimates that, all the atmospheric conditions remaining the same as at present, a fall of temperature to the extent of 4° to 5° C. would be sufficient to bring back the Glacial Epoch in Europe. These moderate estimates entirely agree with our theory that animals of African and Asiatic habit flourished in western Europe to the very close of the Third Interglacial Stage, and that then for the first time the warm fauna, or Jaime chaiide, gradually disappeared. Similarly the h}'pothesis of extremely warm or subtropical conditions prevailing in interglacial times as far north as Britain, which originated with the discovery of the northerly distribution of the hippopotami and rhinoceroses, animals which we now associate with the torrid climate of Africa, is not supported by the study either of the plant life of interglacial stages or by the history of the animals themselves. It is quite probable that both the hippopotami and the rhinoceroses of the ' warm fauna ' 40 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE were protected by hairy covering, although not by the thick undercoating of wool which protected the woolly rhinoceros and woolly mammoth, animals favoring the borders of glaciers and flourishing during the last very cold glacial and Postglacial periods. The combined evidence from all these great events in western Europe leads us to conclusions somewhat different from those reached by Penck as to the chronology of human culture. In the chart (Fig. 14) on the opposite page, prepared by Dr. C. A. Reeds in collaboration with the author, a new correlation of geologic, climatic, human, industrial, and faunal events is presented. The great waves of glacial advance and retreat (oblique shading) are based upon Penck' s estimates of the rise and fall of the snow-line (vertical dotted lines) in the Swiss Alps. (Compare Fig. 13.) The length of these waves corresponds with the relative duration of the glacial and interglacial stages as estimated by the varying amounts of erosion and deposition of materials. The entire Pala:olithic or Old Stone Age is thus seen to occupy not more than 125,000 years, or only the last quarter of the Glacial Epoch, which is estimated as extending over a period of 525,000 years. The present opinion of the leading archaeologists of France and Germany, which is shared by the author, is that the Pre-Chellean industry is not older than the Third Interglacial Stage. As the Piltdown man was found in deposits containing Pre-Chellean implements, he prob- ably lived in the last quarter of the Glacial Epoch, and not in early Pleistocene times as estimated by some British geologists. This causes us to regard the Piltdown remains as more recent than the jaw of Heidelberg, which all authorities agree is prob- ably of Second Interglacial Age. According to our estimates the Heidelberg man is nearly twice as ancient as the Piltdown man, while PWiecantliropus (Trinil Race) is four times as ancient. Yet the Piltdown man must still be regarded as of very great antiquity, for he is four times as ancient as the final type of Ne- anderthal man belonging to the Mousterian industrial stage. The various archaDologic and palaeontologic evidences for this Fig. 14. Great events of the Glacial Epoch. To the left the relation of glacial and in- terglacial stages in Europe and North America, with the author's theory regarding the divisions of time, the beginning of the Old Stone Age, and the successive appearance in Europe of different branches of the human race. To the right the prolonged warm temperate period in Europe in the non-glaciated regions, followed by the relatively brief cold period during the past 70,000 years. Prepared by Dr. C. .\. Reeds, in co-operation with the author. 41 42 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE general correlation theory of the Glacial Epoch are fully dis- cussed in the succeeding chapters of this volume. Mammals of Fn^r: Distinct Geogr^ajphic Regions (Compare Color Map, PL II, and Fig. 15) As we have already observed, during the whole history of mammalian life in various parts of the world never did there prevail conditions so unusual and so complex as those which surrounded the men of the Old Stone Age in Europe. The suc- cessive races of Palaeolithic men in Europe were all flesh eaters, depending upon the chase. The mammals, first pursued only for food, utensils, and clothing, finally became subjects of artis- tic appreciation and endeavor which resulted in a remarkable aesthetic development. From the beginning to the end of Palaeolithic times the vari- ous races of man witnessed the assemblage in Europe of animals indigenous to every continent on the globe except South America and Australia and adapted to every climatic life-zone, from the warm and dry plains of southern Asia and northern x\frica to the temperate forests and meadows of Eurasia; from the heights of the .Alps, Himalayas, Pyrenees, and Altai ^^lountains to the high, arid, dry steppes of central Asia with their alternating heat of summer and cold of winter ; from the tundras or barren grounds of Scandinavia, northern Europe, and Siberia to the mild forests and plains of southern Europe."^ Members of all these highly varied groups of animals had been evolving in various parts of the northern hemisphere from the Eocene Epoch onward. In Pliocene times they had become thoroughly adapted to their various habitats. Throughout early Pleistocene times, with the increasing cold extending southward from the arctic circle, such mammals as the elephant, rhinoceros, musk-ox, and rein- deer had become thoroughly adapted to the climate of the ex- treme north. There is every reason to beheve that when these tundra quadrupeds first arrived in Europe, during early mid- glacial stages, they had already acquired the heaw coat of hair MIGRATIONS OF IVLVMIVLVLS Recent Prehistoric. Return of the Alpine Mammals to the Mountains. Wide dispersal of Forest and Meadow Mammals over the Northern Hemisphere. POSTGLACLVL. Severe climate. IV. Glacial. Cold Steppe cli- mate. 3d Interglacial. Warm climate. Retreat of the Tundra and Steppe Mammals to the North and East. Mingling in the lowlands of France and Germany of the Reindeer-Mammoth fauna, the Alpine fauna, the Steppe Mammals, and the hardy Eur- asiatic Forest and Meadow Mammals. .\rrival of the Tundra Mammals from the North. Arrival of the Steppe Mammals from Western .\sia. Southward migration and extinction of all the African-Asiatic Mammals except the lions and hytenas. III. Glacial. Mingled African-Asiatic and Eurasiatic Mammals in different parts of the non-glaciated regions, the hippopotamus, southern mammoth, straight- tusked elephant, Merck's broad-nosed rhinoceros, lion, hyaena, jackal, sabre- Reindeer and tooth tiger. Woolly Mam- moth in North Germany and the .\lps. 2d Interglacial. Reindeer and 11. Glaclal. Woolly Mam- moth in North- ern Germany. tst Interglacial. Musk-ox in Sus- sex, England. Also the stag, giant deer, bison, wild cattle, forest horse, boar, wolf, fox, lyiuf, wildcat, several species of bear. Survival of many Pliocene African- AsiaticMammals, mingled withPliocene and recent Eurasiatic Forest and Mead- ow Mammals. Period of Recent Animals. Reindeer Period Western Europe. Period OF THE Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, AND Elephant. Also OF the Stag and Bison in Western Europe. Geologic and Climatic Stages. Early Migrations of Scandinavian and North Sibe- rian Mammals near the Ice- fields. 'Warm' African- More hardy Eur- Asiatic Mammals. asiatic Mammals. Temperate and shel- Cool temperate for- tered parts of ests and mead- Western Europe. ows. Regions near More Sheltered Non-Glaciated Re- THE Ice-fields gions Remote from the Glacial and Glacial Borders and Ice-fields. Borders. Three Chief Life Periods. MIGRATIONS AND EXTINCTIONS OF MAMMALIAN LIFE DURING THE FOUR GLACIAL, THREE INTERGLACIAL, AND POSTGLACIAL STAGES 44 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE and undercoating of wool, such as now characterizes the musk- ox, one of the Hving representatives of this northern fauna. The five great sources of mammalian migration into western Europe in Pleistocene times were accordingly as follows: 1. Warm plains of northern Africa and of southern Asia. "African- Asiatic" fauna — hippopotamus, rhinoceros, elephant. 2. Teiviperate meadows and forests of Europe and Asia. "Eura- siatic" fauna — deer, bison, horse. 3. High, cool mountain ranges — Alps, Pyrenees, Caucasus, Urals. Fauna — chamois, ibex, ptarmigan. (See Fig. 185.) 4. Steppes and deserts. Dry, elevated plateaus and steppes of east- ern Europe and central Asia. Fauna — desert ass and horse, saiga ante- lope, jerboa. (See Fig. 186.) 5. Tundras and barren grounds within or near the arctic circle. Fauna — reindeer, musk-ox, arctic fox. (See Figs. 95 and 96.") (Compare Figs. 14 and 15.) In the warm plains, forests, and rivers of southern Asia and northern Africa there developed the elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, lions, hyaenas, and jackals, which, taken together, may be known as the African-Asiatic fauna. It contains alto- gether fourteen species of mammals. The great geographic area from the far east to the far west over which ranged similar or identical species of these pachyderms and carnivores is indicated by the oblique lines in the geographic chart (Fig. 15). The north temperate belt of Asia and Europe, with its hardy forests and genial meadows, was the home of the even more highly varied Eiirasiatic Forest and Meadow fauna. This includes twenty-six or more species. Of these the red deer, or stag, was most characteristic of the forests and the bison and wild cattle* of the meadows. Even at the very beginning of Pleistocene times there appear the stag, the wild boar, and the roe-deer with their natural pursuers, the wolf and the brown bear. From the northern woods came the moose and the wolverene. Most of these mam- mals were so similar to existing forms that the older naturaUsts * Bison and wild cattle are grass eaters, and their natural habitats are the open plain and meadow regions. They also range into open forest lands where grasses can be found. The prehistoric 'urus' and 'wisent' of Europe were both found in forests, but this may not have been their natural habitat in Palasolithic times. See Appendix, Note IV. MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS 45 placed them in existing species, but the tendency now is to sepa- rate them or place them in distinct subspecies. Mingled with these forest and meadow mammals were a few others which ha^'e Fig. 15. Zoogeographic map. Range of the large mammals of Africa and southern Asia in Pliocene and Pleistocene times mitil nearly the close of the Lower Palaeo- lithic (obliciue lines). Range of the forest and meadow fauna of Europe and Asia from early Pleistocene to prehistoric times; stag and bison fauna (horizontal lines). Present range of the tundra or barren-ground mammals (dots) which wan- dered south during the fourth glaciation, expelling the large Asiatic mammals. Present range of mammals of the deserts and steppes of eastern Europe and southern Asia, which also invaded western Europe during the glacial and Post- glacial stages (vertical lines). The alpine mammals dwelt in the high mountain regions and invaded the plains and lowlands during Fourth Glacial and Post- glacial times. since become extinct, such as the giant deer (Megaceros), the giant beaver (Trogonthcrium), and the primitive forest and meadow horses. From this region also there developed the cave- bear (Ursus spelmis). Certainly it is astonishing to find the re- mains of these mammals mingled with those from southern Asia and Africa, as is frequently the case. In early glacial times the 46 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE bison and wild cattle mingled freely with the hippopotami and rhinoceroses, but in late glacial and Postglacial times they oc- curred as companions of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros. In prehistoric times they survived with the mammals brought from the Orient by the Neolithic agriculturists. During a great glaciation, but especially during the severe climate of late Pleistocene times, the Alpine mammals were driven down from the heights into the plains and among the lower mountains and foot-hills. Thus the ibex, chamois, and argali sheep from the Altai Mountains are represented both in drawing and in sculpture by the men of the Reindeer Period. Still more remarkable is the arrival in Europe of the Steppe Fauna of Russia and of western Siberia, mammals which now survive in the vast Kirghiz steppes, east of the Caspian Sea and the Ural Mountains, where the climate is one of hot, dry summers and prolonged cold winters, with .sweeping dust and snow storms. These animals are very hardy, alert, and swift of foot, such as the jerboa, the saiga antelope, the wild asses, and the wild horses, including the Przewalski type, which still sur- vives in the desert of Gobi. From this region also came the Elasmothere {E. sibiricum), with, its single giant horn above the ^yes. Very distinctive of the fauna frequenting the caverns are the small rodents, including the dwarf pikas, the steppe hamsters, and the lemmings. These animals were attracted into Europe during the 'steppe' and 'loess' periods of cold, dry climate. The advance of the great Scandinavian glaciers from the north crowded to the south the Tundra or Barren Ground fauna of the arctic circle. The herald of this fauna during the First Glacial Stage was the musk-ox, which appears in Sussex, and then came the reindeer of the existing Scandinavian type. These animals are followed by the woolly mammoth {E. primigemus) and the woolly rhinoceros {D. antiquitatis) with their panoply of hair and wool which had long been developing in the north. Finally in the Fourth Glacial Stage arrived the lemming of the river Obi, also the more northern banded lemming, the arctic fox, the wolverene, and the ermine, as well as the arctic hare. MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS 47 These tundra mammals for a short period mingled in places with survivors of the AJrican-Asiatic fauna, such as Merck's rhinoc- eros and the straight- tusked elephant {E. antiqims). In general, they Fjwept southward as far as the Pyrenees over country which had long been enjoyed by the African- Asiatic mammals, while the hippopotami and the southern elephants retreated still far- the;r south and became extinct. The only survivors of the^ great AJrican-Asiatic idiundi, in Fourth Glacial and Postglacial times were the hyaenas (H. crocuta spclcm) and the lions {Felis leo spelcea). The lion fre- quently appears in the drawings of the cavemen. The various species belonging to these five great faunas ap- parently succeed each other, and wherever their remains are mingled with the palajoliths, as along the rivers Somme, Marne, and Thames, or in the hearths of the shelters and caverns, they become of extreme interest both in their bearing on the chronolog}^ of man and on the development of human culture, art, and in- dustry. They also tell the story of the sequence of climatic conditions both in the regions bordering the glaciers and in the more temperate regions remote from the ice-caps. Thus they guide the anthropologist over the difficult gaps where the geologic record is limited or undecipherable. The general succession of these great faunae is illustrated in Fig. 14 and also in the above table. (i) Lamarck, 1815.1. (17) Eccardus, 1750.1. (2) Schaaffhausen, 1858. i. (18) Mahudel, 1740. i. (3) Darwin, C, 1909.2. (19) Buckland, 1824.1. (4) Lamarck, 1809. i. (20) Godwin-Austen, 1840.1. (5) Lyell, 1863. 1, pp. 84-89. (21) Christol, 1829. i. (6) Darwin, C, 1871.1, p. 146. (22) Schmerling, 1833. i. (7) Darwin, C, 1909. i, p. 158. (23) Boucher de Perthes, 1846. i. (8) Retzius, A., 1864.1, p. 27. (24) Op. cit. (9) Op. cit., p. 166. (25) RigoUot, 1854. 1. (10) Broca, 1875. i. (26) Lubbock, 1862. i. (11) Schwalbe, G., 1914.1, p. 592. (27) Avebury, 1913.1, pp. 2, 3. (12) Cartailhac 1903. i. (28) Lartet, 1861.1. (13) Dechelette, 1908. i, vol. I. (29) Lartet, 1875. i. (14) Reinach, S., 1889. i. (30) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 165. (15) Schmidt, 1912. 1. (31) de Mortillet, 1869.1. (16) Avebury, 1913.1. (32) Piette, E., 1907. i. kS MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE .33) Riviere 1897.1. (34) de Sautuola, 1 880.1. (35) Schmidt, 1912.1. (36) Bourgeois, 186 7.1. (37) Schmidt, op. cit., p. 5. (38) Obermaier, 191 2.1, pp. 170-174; 316-320; 332, 545. (39) Charpentier, 1841.1. (40) Agassiz, 1 83 7.1; 1 840.1; 1840.2. (41) Morlot, 1854. 1. (42) Chamberlin, 1895. i; 1005.1, vol. Ill, chap. XIX, pp. 327-516. (43) Salisbury, 1905. i. (44) Penck, 1909. 1. (45) Leverett, 1910.1. (46) Lyell, 1867. 1, vol. I, pp. 293- 301; 1877. 1, vol. I, p. 287. (47) Dana, 1875. i, p. 591. , (48) Walcott, 1 893. 1. (49) Upham, 1 893. 1, p. 217. (50) Heim, 1 894.1. (51) Sollas, 1900. 1. (52) Penck, 1909. 1, vol. Ill, PP- 1153- 1176. (53) Geikie, 1914.1, P- 302. (54) Reeds, 191 5.1. (55) Niiesch, 1902. i. (56) Geikie, op. cit., pp. iii-ii'4- (57) Op. cit., p. 108. (58) Huntington, 1907. i. (59) Leverett, 1910.1. (60) Obermaier, 1912. 1, p. 132. (61) Penck, 1908. 1 ; 1909. i. (62) Geikie, 1914. i, p. 312. (63) Wiegcrs, 191 3- 1- (64) Boule, 1888. 1. (65) Schuchardt, 1913.1, p. 144. (66) Obermaier, 1909.2; 1912.1. (67) Schmidt, 191 2.1, p. 266. (68) Penck, 1909. i, vol. Ill, p. 1168, Fig. 136. (69) Neumayr, 1890. i, vol. II, p. 621. (70) Martins, 1847. i, PP- 941; 942. (71) Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 386-427. CHAPTER I ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES — PLIOCENE CLLMATE, FORESTS, AND LIFE OF WESTERN EUROPE — TRANSITION TO THE PLEISTO- CENE, OR AGE OF MAN — THE FIRST GLACIATION, ITS EFFECTS ON CLIMATE, FORESTS, AND ANIMAL LIFE — THE PREHUMAN TRINIL R-\CE OF JAVA — THE EOLITHS OR PRIMITIVE FLINTS — THE SEC- OND GLACIATION — THE HEIDELBERG, EARLIEST KNOWN HUMAN R.\CE — THE THIRD GLACIATION The partly known ancestors of the anthropoid apes and the unknown ancestors of man probably originated among the for- ests and flood-plains of southern Asia and early began to migrate westward into northern Africa and western Europe. As early as Oligocene times a forerunner of the great apes {Propliopithecus), most nearly resembUng the gibbons, appears in the desert bordering the Fayum in northern Egypt. Early in Miocene times true tree-living gibbons found their way into Europe and continued throughout the PHocene in the forms known as Pliopithecus and Pliohylohates, the latter being a true gibbon in its proportions ; it ranged northward into the present region of Germany. Another ape which early reached Europe is the Dryopitheciis; it is found in Miocene times in southern France ; the grinding-teeth suggest those of the orang, the jaw is deep and in some ways resembles that of the Piltdown man. A third ape (Xeopithecus) occurs in the Lower Pliocene near Eppelsheim, in Germany, and is known only from a single lower molar tooth, which recalls the dentition of Dryopithecus and more remotely that of Homo. In the Pliocene of the Siwalik hills of Asia is found Palceopithecus, a generalized form which is believed to be related to the chimpanzee, the gorilla, and the gibbon ; the upper premolars resemble those of man. None of these fossil anthropoids either of Europe or of Asia can be regarded as ancestral to man, although both Xeopithecus -19 50 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE and Dryopithecus have been placed in or near the Hne of human ancestry by such high authorities as Branco and Gaudry. WTien Dryopithecus was first discovered by Lartet, Gaudry^ considered it to be by far the most manUke of all the apes, even attributing to it sufScient intelligence for the working of flints, but fuller Fig. i6. The gibbon is primitive in its skull and dentition, but extremely special- ized in the adaptation of its limbs to arboreal life. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park. knowledge of this animal has shown that some of the living anthropoids are more manlike than Dryopithecus. This animal is closely related to the ancestral stock of the chimpanzee, gorilla, and orang. The jaw, it is true, resembles that of the Piltdown man (Eoanthropus), but the grinding-teeth are much more primitive and there is little reason to think that it is an- cestral to any human t^pe.* * A recent article by A. Smith Woodward describes the fourth known specimen of Dryopithecus, lately discovered in northern Spain (see Woodward, 1914.2). ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 51 Among these fossil anthropoids, as well as among the four living forms, we discover no evidence of direct relationship to man but \-ery strong evidence of descent from the same ances- tral stock. These proofs of common ancestry, which ha\'e already been observed in the existing races of man, become far more conspicuous in the ancient Palaeolithic races ; in fact, we cannot interpret the anatomy of the men of the Old Stone Age without Fig. 17. The orang has a high rounded skull and long face. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park. a survey of the principal characters of the existing anthropoid apes,, the gibbon, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla. The gibbon is the most primitive of living apes in its skull and dentition, but the most specialized in the length of its arms and its other extreme adaptations to arboreal life. As in the other anthropoids, the face is abbreviated, the narial region is narrow, /. e., catarrhine, and the brain-case is widened, but the top of the skull is smooth, and the forehead lacks the promi- nent ridges above the orbits ; thus the profile of the skull of 52 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the gibbon (Fig. i6) is more human than that of the other an- thropoid apes. When on the ground the gibbon walks erect and is thus afforded the free use of its arms and independent move- ments of its fingers. In the brain there is a striking develop- ment of the centres of sight, touch, and hearing. -It is these characteristics of the modern gibbon which preserve with rela- FiG. 1 8. The chimpanzee. This figure illustrates the walking powers of the chimpanzee, the great length of the arms, arid the abbreviation of the legs. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park. tively slight changes the t}pe of the original ancestor of man, as noted by Elliot Smith.- The limbs of the orang are less elongated and less extremely speciahzcd for arboreal life than those of the gibbon but more so than those of the chimpanzee and the gorilla. The skull is rounded and of great vertical height, with broad, bony ridges abo\^e the orbits and a great median crest on top of the skull in old males. The lower jaw of the orang is stout and deep, and, although used as a fighting weapon, the canine tusks are much ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 53 less prominent than in either the gibbon, chimpanzee, or gorilla. Of all anthropoids this jaw "most nearh' resembles that of the Piltdown man. ^ In the chimpanzee we observe the very prominent bon\' ridges above the eyes, like those in the Trinil and Neanderthal Fig. 19. The Chimpanzee. This figure shows certain facial characteristics which are preserved in the Neanderthal race of men. Note also the shortening of the thumb and the enlargement of the big toe. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park. races of men. The prognathous or protruding tooth rows and receding chin suggest those in the Heidelberg, Piltdown, and Neanderthal ^aces. " When the chimpanzee is walkings (Fig. 18) the arms reach down below the level of the knees, whereas in the higher races of man they reach onh' half-way down the thighs. 54 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Thus, the fore Hmb, although much shorter than that of the gib- bon, is relatively longer than that of any human race, recent or ancient. We observe also in the walking chimpanzee (Fig. i8) Existing Apes and Man. Gibbon. Asia. Glacial or Pleistocene Age. Primitive Gib- Pliocene bon of Eu- Age. rope {Pliohylobatcs). Man _ {Homo sapiens) Asia, Europe. Cro-Magnon and other races. More primitive spe- cies, human and prehuman. Neanderthal race. Piltdown race. Heidelberg race. Trinil race {Pithecanthropus). Unknown Pliocene ancestors of man. Chimpanzee. Gorill.j Africa. .\frica. Orang. Asia. poidi tral anthro- s of Asia / Macaque ■ of Eu- / rope. Macaques of Asia and Europe. Miocene Age. Earliest 'Gibbons ; of Europe i {Pliopithecus). \ K J_ .Ancestral anthro- Oligocene. poids of Egypt {Propliopithecus) . Primitive anthropoids of Asia and Europe. Small monkeys of Egypt. Unknown ancestral stock of the Old World pri- mates, including man. ANCESTRAL TREE OF THE ANTHROPOID APES AND OF MAN From the unknown and ancestral stock of the anthropoid apes and man the gibbon was the first to branch off in Oligocene times; the orang then branched off in a widely different direction. The stem of the chimpanzee and of the gorilla branched off at a more recent date and is more nearly allied to that of man. Five early human races have been found in Europe in Glacial or Pleistocene times, but no traces of other primates except the macaques, which are related to the lower division of the baboons, have been found in Europe in Pleistocene times. Modified after Gregory. (For latest discoverj' see Appendix, Note VII.) ANCESTRY OF llIE ANTHROPOID APES 55 that the upper part of the leg, the thigh-bone, or femur, is rela- tively long, while the lower part, the shin-bone, or tibia, is rela- tively short. Indeed, both in the arm and in the leg the upper bones are relati\'ely long and the lower bones are relatively short. These proportions, which are inheritances of arboreal life, are in very marked contrast to those observed in the arms and Fig. 20. The Gorilla. An immature female, about three years of age, showing none of the adult male characteristics. Photo- graph from the New York Zoological Park. legs of the Neanderthal race of men, in which the Hmbs are of the terrestrial or walking type. We observe also in the chimpanzee a contrast between the grasping power of the big toe, which is a kind of thumb, and the lack of that power in the hand, in which the thumb is nearly useless ; in all apes this function is characteristic of the foot, in man of the hand alone. The opposable thumb , with its power of bringing the thumb against each of the fingers, is the one char- acter which is lacking in every one of the anthropoid apes and which was early developed among the ancestors of man. The skull of the chimpanzee is longer than that of the orang, '^e most prominent feature in the top view being the extreme I'otuberance of the orbits, which are surrounded by a supra- 56 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE orbital and circumorbital bony ridge, which is also strongly de- veloped in the Neanderthal skull as well as in the Pithecanthropus or Trinil skull but, so far as we know, is entirely lacking in that of Piltdown. As in the orang and the gorilla, a crest develops along the middle of the top of the skull for the insertion of the powerful muscles of the jaws, a crest which is wholly wanting in the gibbon and probably wanting in all the true ancestors of man. The gorilla illustrates in the extreme the specializations which are begun in the chimpanzee, and which are attributable to a Fig. 21. Contrast of the projecting face (prognathism), retreating forehead, and small brain-case of a young gorilla, as compared with the vertical face, promi- nent nose, high forehead, and large brain-case of a high race of man. After Klaatsch. life partly arboreal, partly terrestrial, with the skull and jaws used as powerful fighting organs. The head is lengthened by the for- ward growth of the muzzle into an extreme prognathism. ' The limbs and body of the gorilla show a departure from the primitive, slender-limbed, arboreal t\pe of apes and are partly adapted to a bipedal, ground-dwelling habit. As regards psychic evolution,^ Elliot Smith observes that the arboreal mode of life of the early ancestors of man developed quick, alert, and agile movements which stimulated the progress- ive development of the posterior and lateral portions of the brain. The sense of smell had been well developed in a pre\T ? ' terrestrial life, but once these creatures left the earth and t^ ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES .57 to the trees, guidance by the olfactory sense was less essential, for life amidst the branches of the trees is most favorable to the high de\'elopment of the senses of vision, touch, and hearing. Moreover, it demands an agility and quickness of movement that necessitate efficient motor centres in the brain to co-ordinate and control such actions as tree life calls for. The specialization of sight awakens curiosity to examine objects with greater mi- MuSCHl z^c SELF CONTROL ATTENTION CONDUCT ^u^dviory l^f Fig. 22. Side view of a human brain of high type, showing the chief areas of muscular control and of the sensory impressions of sight and hearing, also the prefrontal area in which the higher mental faculties are centred. Modified after M. Allen Starr. nuteness and guides the hands to more precise and skilled move- ments. The anatomy of man is full of remote reminders of this orig- inal arboreal existence, which also explains the very large and early development of the posterior portions of the brain, in which the various senses of sight, touch, and hearing are located. The first advance from arboreal to terrestrial life is marked \ by the power of walking more or less erect on the hind limbs and thus releasing the arms; this power is developed to a greater or ess degree in all the anthropoid apes ; with practice they become 58 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE expert walkers. The additional freedom which the erect atti- tude gives to the arms and to the movements of the hands and the separate movements of the fingers is especially noticeable in the gibbon. The cultivation of the powers of the hand reacts upon the further growth and specialization of the brain; thus the brain and the erect attitude react upon each other. In Fig. 23. The evolution of the brain. Outlines (side view) of typical human and prehuman brains, showing the early development of the posterior por- tions of the brain and the relatively late development of the anterior portions, the seat of the higher mental faculties. the gibbon there is a marked increase in the size of those por- tions of the brain which supply the centres of touch, vision, and hearing. Discussion as to how the ancestors of man were fashioned has chiefly dealt with the rival claims of four hnes of structural evo- lution : first, the assumption of the erect attitude; second, the development of the opposable thumb; third, the growth of t^-^ brain; and fourth, the acquisition of the power, of speech. T argument for the erect attitude suggested by Lamarck, and ' put by Munro"^ in 1893, indicates that the cultivation of ANCESTRY OF THE ANTHROPOID APES 59 with the hands and fingers Hes at the root of man's mental su- premacy. ElHot Smith's argument that the steady growth and speciaUzation of the brain itseU" has been the chief factor in lead- ing the ancestors of man step by step upward indicates that Fig. 24. The evolution of the brain. Outhnes (top view) of typical human and prehuman brains, showing the narrow forebrain of the primitive type and the successive expansion of the seat of the higher mental faculties in the successive races. such an advance as the erect attitude was brought about be- cause the brain had made possible the skilled movements of the hands. The true conception of prehuman evolution, which occurred during Miocene and Pliocene times, is rather that of the coin- cident development of these four distinctively human powers. It appears from the limb proportions in the Neanderthal race 60 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE that the partly erect attitude and walking gait were assumed much earlier in geologic time than we formerly imagined. The intimate relation between the use of the opposable thumb and the development of the higher mental faculties of man is sus- tained to-day by the discovery that one of the best methods of developing the mind of the child is to insist upon the constant use of the hands, for the action and reaction between hand and brain is found to develop the mind. A similar action and reac- tion between foot and brain developed the erect gait which re- leased the hand from its locomotive and limb-grasping function, and by the resultant perfecting of the motion of thumbs and fin- gers turned the hand into an organ ready for the increasing specialization demanded by the manufacture of flint imple- ments. This is the stage reached, we believe, in late Pliocene times in which the human ancestor emerges from the age of mammals and enters the age of man, the period when the prehistory of man properly begins. The attitude is erect, the hand has a well- developed opposable thumb, the centres of the brain relating to the higher senses and to the control of all the motions of the limbs, hands, and fingers are well developed. The power of speech may still be rudimentary. The anterior centres of the brain for the storing of experience and the development of ideas are certainly very rudimentary. Change of Environment in Europe Considering that the origin and development of any creature are best furthered by a struggle for existence sufficiently severe to demand the full and frequent exercise of its powers of mind and body, it is interesting to trace the sequence of natural events which prepared western Europe for the entrance of the earliest branches of the human race. The forests and plants portray even more \dvidly than the animals the changing conditions of the environment and temperature which marked the approach and various vicissitudes of the great Ice Age. PLIOCENE ( LIMATE, FORESTS, AND LIFE 01 The forests of central France in Pliocene times, as well as those of the valley of the Arno in northern Italy, were very similar to the forests of the middle United States at the present time, comprising such trees as the sassafras, the locust, the honey- locust, the sumach, the bald c>'press, and the tulip. Thus the regions which harbored the rich forest and meadow fauna of northern Italy in Upper Pliocene times abounded in trees fa- mihar to-day in North and South CaroHna, including even such distinctively American forms as the sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua), the sour gum {Nyssa sylvatica), and the bay, beside those above mentioned. To the south, along the Mediterranean, there also flourished trees incident to a more tropical climate, the bamboo, the sabal palm, and the dwarf fan-palm ; most interest- ing is the presence of the sabal, which now flourishes in the sub- tropical rain forests of central Florida. The sequoia also was abundant. Toward the close of the Pliocene the first indications of the coming Glacial Epoch were a lowering of the temperature, and, in the higher mountainous areas perhaps, a beginning of the glacial stages. The ancestors of the modern forests of Europe predominated in central France : the oak, the beech, the poplar, the willow, and the larch. It is these forests, which survived the vicissitudes of glacial times, that gave descent to the forests of Postglacial P_^urope, while all the purely American t>pes disappeared from Europe and are now found only in the temperate regions of the United States.^ We have seen that anthropoid apes have not been discovered either in the Middle or Upper Pliocene of Europe ; the gibbon- ape line disappears with the Pliohylobates of the Upper Pliocene. These animals are, however, rarely found in fossil form, owing to their retreat to the trees in times of flood and danger, so that we need not necessaril}- assume that the anthropoids had actually become extinct in France. The primates which are found in the Upper Pliocene belong to the lower t}T3es of the Old World monkeys, related to the Hving langur of India and to the macaque and baboon. The evidence, as far as it goes, indicates that the 62 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ancestors of man were at this time evolving in Asia and not in Europe. This evidence, nevertheless, would be completely off- set if it could be proven that the eoHths, or primitive flints, found in various parts of Europe from Oligocene to Pleistocene times are really artifacts of human or prehuman origin. The mammals of Europe in Pliocene times were derived by very remote migrations from North America and, more directly, from southern Asia. The Oriental element is very strong, in- cluding t^pes of rhinoceroses now peculiar to Sumatra and south- ern Asia, numerous mastodons very similar to the south Asiatic t}qDes of the times, gazelles and antelopes, including t^-pes re- lated to the existing elands, and primitive t}pes of horses and of tapirs. Among the carnivores in Europe similar to south Asiatic species were the hyaenas, the dog bears {H yceiiarctos) , the civets, and the pandas {Ailurus); there were also the sab re- tooth tigers and numerous other felines. In the trees were found the south Asiatic and north African monkeys ; and in the forests the axis deer, now restricted to Asia. But the most distinctive African- Asiatic animal of this period was found in the rivers; namely, the hippopotamus, which arrived in Italy in the early Pliocene and ranged south by way of the Sicihan land bridge into northern Africa and east along the southern shores of the Black Sea to the Siwalik hills of India. Thus, many of the ancestors of what we have termed the African- Asiatic mammal group of Pleistocene times had already found their way into Europe early in Pliocene times. In middle and late Pliocene times there arrived three very important t>'pes of mammals which played a great role in the early Pleistocene. These are : The true horses {Equiis stenonis) of remote North American origin. The first true cattle {Lcptohos elatiis), originating in southern Asia. The true elephants, first Elephas planifrons and later E. meridi- onalis, better known as the southern mammoth, both orig- inating in Asia. TRANSITION TO THE PLEISTOCENE 63 The forests and river borders of the valley of the Arno, near Florence, contained all these African-Asiatic animals in Upper Pliocene times. Here they received their names which remind us of this region of Italy as it is to-day, such as the Etruscan rhinoceros {Dicerorhinus ctniscus), the Florentine macaque {Ma- cacus jlorcntinus), Steno's horse {Eqiiiis stcnonis), the Etruscan cattle {Leptohos c(rusciis), which was the earhest ox to reach Europe. In Italy and France these African-Asiatic mammals were mingled with ancestors of the more hardy Eurasiatic forest and meadow group. Of these the most graceful were a variety of deer with very elaborate or many-branched antlers, hence known as the ' polycladine ' deer. In the forests roamed the wild boars of Auvergne (Siis arvernensis), also the bears of x\uvergne (Ursiis arvernensis), lynxes, foxes, and wildcats. In the rivers swam the otter and the beaver, closely allied to existing forms. Among the rocks of the high hills were the pikas or tailless hares {Lagomys), also hamsters, moles, and shrews. Many of the most characteristic animals of the dry modern plateaus of Africa had disappeared from Europe before the close of PHocene times, namely, species of gazelles, antelopes, and the hipparion horses, all of which were adapted to the dry uplands or deserts of Africa. In the remaining /az/;;c Pliocene recente of French authors we find e\ddence that the Pliocene in all of western Europe closed with a moist, warm, temperate climate, with wide- spread forests and rivers interspersed with meadows favorable to the Hfe of a great variety of browsing deer as well as of grazing elephants, horses and cattle. The flora of the Middle PHocene as found at Meximieux indicates a mean annual temperature of 62° to 63° Fahr. One of the proofs of the gradual lowering of temperature toward the close of Pliocene times in Europe is the southward retreat and disappearance of the apes and monkeys ; the Upper Miocene gibbon is found as far north as Eppelsheim, near Worms, Germany; in Lower Pliocene times the monkeys and apes are found only in the forests of the south of France; in Upper 64 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Pliocene times they are recorded only in the forests of northern Italy ; the evidence, so far as it goes, indicates a gradual retreat toward the south. Finally, at the end of the Pliocene there existed very close geographic relations eastward with the mammalian life of India by way of what was then the isthmus of the Dardanelles and southward with the mammahan life of Africa by way of the Sicilian land bridge. This would indicate that the long lines of eastward and westward migration were open and favorable to the arrival in western Europe of new migrants from the far east, including perhaps the most primitive races of man. There is not the least evidence that Pliocene man or ancestors of man existed in Europe, excepting such as may be afforded by the problematic eoliths, or most primitive flints. The First Glaciation In Upper Phocene times cold marine currents'"' from the north began to flow along the southeastern coast of England, with in- dications of a gradually lowering temperature culminating at a time when the sea abounded in the arctic mollusks, which have been preserved in the 'Weybourn Crags,' a geologic formation along the coast of Norfolk. This arctic current was the herald of the First Glacial Stage. * It does not appear that a glacial cap of any considerable extent was formed in Great Britain at this stage, but about this time the first great ice-cap was formed in British North America west of Hudson Bay, which sent its ice-sheets as far south as Iowa and Nebraska. In the latter State forests of spruce and other coniferous species indicate the appearance of a cool tem- perate flora in advance of the glaciation. In the Swiss .\lps the snow descended 1,200 meters below the present snow-Une, and in Scandinavia and northern Germany the first great ice-sheets were formed from which flowed the glaciers and rivers convey- ing the 'Old Dilmdum,' or the 'oldest drift.' Accompanying the cold wave along the eastern coast of England we note, in the famous fossil deposits known as the 'Forest Bed of Cromer/ THE FIRST GLACIATION 65 which o\-erHc the Wcybourn Crags, the arrival from the north of the lir-tree (Abies). This is most significant, because it had hitherto been known only in the arctic region of Grinnell Land, and this was its first appearance in central Europe. Another Fig. 25. The First {Giinz) Glacial Stage was far less extensive than that in the above map, which shows Europe in the Second Glacial Stage, during the greatest extension of the ice-fields and glaciers (dots), a period of continental depression in which the Mediter- ranean, Black, and Caspian Seas were connected. The line from Scandinavia to the Atlas Mountains corresponds with the section shown in Fig. 13, p. 37. Drawn by C. A. Reeds, after James Geikie and Penck. herald of northern conditions was the first occurrence of the musk-ox in England, which is attributed" to the 'Forest Bed' deposits. WTiile Great Britain was less affected at this time than other regions, there is no doubt as to the vast extent of the First Glacial Stage in British America, in Scandinavia, and in the x\lps ; in the latter region it has been termed 'the Giinz stage' by Penck and Bruckner. The 'drift' deposits have a general thickness of 98^2 66 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE feet (30 m.), but they are largely covered and buried by those of the far more extensive Second Glacial Stage. The Scandi- navian ice-sheet^ not only occupied the basin of the Baltic but overflowed Scania — the southern part of Sweden — and extended as far south as Hamburg and Berlin. In the Alps the glaciers Fig. 26. The musk-ox, belonging to the tundra region of the arctic circle, which is reported to have migrated as far south as the southern coast of England during the First {Giinz) Glacial Stage. passed down all the great mountain valleys to the low grounds of the foreland, implying a depression of the snow-line to 4,000 feet below its present level. The First Interglacial Stage. Eoliths Proofs that a prolonged cool wave passed over Britain dur- ing the first glaciation are seen in its after effects, namely, in the modernization of the forests and in the disappearance both in Britain and France of a very considerable number of animals which were abundant in Upper Pliocene times. Yet by far the greater part of the Pliocene mammal life survived, a fact which tends to show that, while very cold conditions of climate and great precipitation of moisture may have characterized the regions immediately surrounding the ice-fields, the remainder of western Europe at most passed through a prolonged cool period during THE FIRST INTERGLACIAL STAC.E 07 the climax of the First Glacial Stage. This was followed during the First Interglacial by the return of a period somewhat warmer than the present. This First Interglacial Stage is known as the Norfolkian, from the fact that it was first recognized in Europe in the deposits known as the 'Forest Bed of Cromer,' Norfolk, which contain rich records not only of the forests of the period, but of the noble forms of mammals which roamed over Great Britain and France in Norfolkian times. The forests of Norfolk, in latitude 52° 40' N. mainly abounded in trees still indigenous to this region, such as the maple, elm, birch, willow, alder, oak, beech, pine, and spruce, a forest flora closely corresponding to that of the Norfolk and Suffolk coasts of England at the present time, although we find in this fossil flora several exotic species which give it a slightly different character. ° From this tree flora Reid concludes that the climate of southeastern England was nearly the same as at present but slightly warmer. We note especially that a very great change had taken place in the entire disappearance in these forests of the trees which in Pliocene times were common to Europe and America, as described above ; in other words, the flora of Europe was greatly impover- ished during the first cold wave. In southern France, as at the present time, the interglacial chmatic conditions were milder, for we find numerous species of plants, which are now represented in the Caucasus, Persia, southern Italy, Portugal, and Japan. Thus the First Intergla- cial Stage, which was a relatively short one, enjoyed a tempera- ture now belonging about 4° of latitude farther south. This First Interglacial Stage is also known as the St.-Prcstien, because among the many locaHties in France and Italy which preserve the plant and mammal life of the times that of St. Prest, in the Paris basin, is the most famous. Here in 1863 Desnoyers^" first reported the discovery of a number of mammal bones with incision lines upon them, which he considered to be the work of man. These deposits were regarded at the time as of Pliocene age, and this gave rise immediately to a wide-spread theory 68 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of the appearance of man as early as the PHocene. The human origin of the incisions discovered by Desnoyers has long been a matter of dispute and is now regarded as very improbable. Sim- ilar lines mav be of animal origin, namely, marks left bv claws Fig. 27. The giant deer (Megaceros), which first appears in western Europe during the First Interglacial Stage, probably as a migrant from the forested regions of Eurasia. After a painting by Charles R. Knight, in the American Museum of Natural Historj-. or teeth, or due to accidental pressure of sharp cutting surfaces. However, we do not pretend to express an opinion of any value as to the cause of these incisions. Supposed confirmation of the evidence of Desnoyers of the existence of Pliocene man was the alleged finding b}- Abbott of se\^eral worked flints, two in situ, in the 'Forest Bed of Cromer,' Norfolk. Many years later in sim- ilar deposits at St. Prest were discovered the supposed ' eoliths ' which have been referred to the Etage Prestien by Rutot. The age of the St. Prest deposits is, therefore, a matter of the very highest interest and importance. EARLY PLEISTOCENE FAUNA 69 St. Prest is not Pliocene; it is rather the most ancient Pleis- tocene deposit in the basin of Paris/ ^ and these incised mammal bones probably date from the First Interglacial Stage. The bed which has yielded the incised bones and the rich series of fossils consists of coarse river sands and gravels, forming part of a 'high terrace,' 98>2 feet (30 m.) above the present level of the river Eure. This, like other 'high terraces,' contains a characteristic First Interglacial fauna, including the southern mammoth (£. meridionalis), and Steno's horse {E. stenonis). We also find here other very characteristic early Pleistocene mammals, such as the Etruscan rhinoceros {D. etrusciis), the giant hippopotamus of early Pleistocene times {H. major), the giant beaver of the earh' Pleistocene (Trogontherium), three forms of the common beaver (Castor), and one of the bison {Bison antiquus). This mammalian life of St. Prest is very similar to that of Norfolk, England ; to that of Malbattu in central France, Puy-de-D6me ; of Peyrolles, near the mouth of the Rhone, in southern France ; of Solilhac near Puy ; of Durfort, Gard ; of Cajarc, Lot-et-Garonne ; and finally to that of the valley of the Arno, in northern Ital}-. One reason why certain authors, such as Boule and Deperet, have placed this stage in the Upper Pliocene is that the mam- mals include so many surviving Pliocene forms, such as the sabre-tooth tigers {Machcerodus), the ' polycladine ' deer with the elaborate antlers (C. sedguicki), the Etruscan rhinoceros, and' the primitive Steno's horse. But we have recently discovered that, with the exception of the 'polycladine' deer, these mam- mals certainly survived in Europe as late as the Second Inter- glacial Stage, and there is said to be evidence that some even persisted into the Third Interglacial Stage. It is, therefore, the extinction or disappearance from Europe of many of the animals very abundant even in late Pliocene times which marks this fauna as early Pleistocene. Anthropoid apes are no longer found; indeed, there is no evidence of the sur\'ival of any of the primates, except macaques, which survive in the Pyrenees to late Pleistocene times; the tapir has entirely disappeared from the forests of Europe ; but the most signifi- 70 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE cant departure is that of the mastodon, which is beheved to have Hngered in north Africa and which certainly Survived in America into very late Pleistocene times. The animal life of western Europe, like the plant life, has lost one part of its Pliocene aspect while retaining another part, both in its mamma- Han fauna and in its forest flora. The li^•ing environment as a whole, moreover, takes on a novel aspect through the arrival, chiefly from the north, of the Fig. 28. The sabre-tooth tiger {Machcrrodus), which survives from the Upper Pliocene and is widely distributed over western Europe until the Middle Pleistocene. After a painting by Charles R. Knight, in the American Museum of Natural History. more hardy animals and plants which had been evolving for a very long period of time in the temperate forests and meadows of Eurasia to the northeast and northwest. From this Eurasiatic region came the stag, or red deer {Cervus elaplms), also the giant deer (Megaceros), and from the northerly swamps the broad- headed moose {Alces latifrons). The presence of members of the deer family (Cervidae) in great numbers and representing many different lines of descent is one of the most distinctive features of First Interglacial times. Beside the new northerly forms mentioned above, there was the roe-deer {Capreolus), which still survives in Europe, but there is no longer any record of the EARLY PLEISTOCENE FAUNA 71 beautiful axis deer (Axis), which has now retreated to southern Asia. The ' polycladine ' deer, first observed in the valley of the Arno, is represented in First Interglacial times by Sedgwick's deer (C. scdguicki), in Norfolk, and by the species C. dicranius of northern Italy, where there also occurs the 'deer of the Car- nutes' (C. carniitorum). We observe that browsing, forest-living, and river-living types predominate. Among the forest-frequenting carnivores were the wolverene, the otter, tw^o kinds of bear, the w^olf, the fox, and the marten ; another forest dweller w^as a wild boar, related to the existing Sus scrofa of Europe. Thus in the very beginning of Pleistocene times the forests of Europe were full of a wild life very similar to that of prehistoric times, mingled with which was the Oriental element, the great elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotami connecting Europe with the far east. Among these eastern migrants in the early Pleis- tocene were two new arrivals, the primitive wild cattle {Bos primi genius), and the first of the bison (Bison priscus). The theoretical map of weste'rn Europe during First Inter- glacial times (Fig. 12, also Fig. 56) enables us to understand these migrations from the northeast and from the Orient. As in- dicated by the sunken river channels discovered on the old con- tinental shelf, the coast-line extended far to the west to the bor- ders of the continental plateau which is now sunk deep beneath the ocean ; the British Isles were separated from France not by the sea but by a broad valley, while the Rhine, with the Thames as a western tributary flowed northward over an extensive flood- plain, which is the present floor of the North Sea basin. ^- It is not improbable that the rich mammalian life deposits in the 'Forest Bed of Cromer,' Norfolk, were washed down by tribu- taries of this ancient Rhine River. In all the great rivers of this enlarged western Europe occurred the hippopotami, and along the river borders and in the forests brow^sed the Etruscan rhinoceros. Among the grazing and meadow-living forms of the Norfolk country of Britain were species of wild cattle {Bos, Leptohos), together with two species 72 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of horses, including a lighter form resembhng Steno's horse {E. stcnonis cocchi) of the Val d'Arno and a heavier t^^^ie probably belonging to the forests. The giant elephant of this period is the southern mammoth (£. meridional is trogontherii), a somewhat specialized descendant of the Pliocene southern mammoth of the valley of the Arno ; this animal is best known from a superb specimen discovered at Durfort (Fig. 42) and preserved in the Paris Museum. It is said to have attained a height of over 12 feet as compared with 11 feet 3 inches, the height of the largest existing African elephants. It is probable that all these south Asiastic migrants into Europe were partially or wholly covered with hair, in adaptation to the warm, temperate climate of the summers and the cool winters. To the south, in the still milder climate of Italy, the arrival of another great species, known as the 'ancient' or ' straight- tusked elephant' (£. antiqims), is re- corded. This animal had not yet reached France or Britain. Preying upon the defenseless members of this heterogeneous fauna were the great machaerodonts, or sabre-tooth tigers, which ranged over Europe and northern Africa and into Asia. It does not appear that the true lions {Felis leo) had as yet entered Europe. An intercommunication of life over a vast area extending 6,000 miles from the Thames valley on the west to India on the southeast is indicated by the presence of six or more similar or related species of elephants and rhinoceroses. Twenty-five hun- dred miles southeast of the foot-hills of the Himalayas similar herds of mammals, but in an earlier stage of evolution, roamed over the island of Java, which was then a part of the Asiatic mainland. The Trixil Race of Java The human interest in this great hfe throng lies in the fact that the migration routes opened by these great races of animals may also have afforded a pathway for the earhest races of men. Thus the discovery of the Trinil race in central Java, amidst a THE TRIML RACE 73 fauna closely related to that of the foot-hills of the Himalayas and more remotely related to that of southern Europe, has a more direct bearing upon our subject than would at lirst appear. On the Bengawan River in central Java, a Dutch army sur- geon, Eugen Dubois, had been excavating for fossils in the hope of finding prehuman remains. In the year 1891 he found near Trinil a deposit of numerous mammal bones, including a single upper molar tooth which he regarded as that of a new species of Fig. 29. Restoration of Pithecanthropus, the Java ape-man, modelled by the Belgian artist Mascre, under the direction of Professor A. Rutot, of Brussels, Belgium. ape. On carefully clearing away the rock the top of a skull ap- peared at about a meter's distance from the tooth. Further ex- cavation at the close of the rainy season brought to light a second , molar tooth and a left thigh-bone about 15 meters from the spot where the skull was found, imbedded and fossilized in the same manner. These scattered parts were described by Dubois'' in 1894 as the t\pe of Pithecanthropus erect us * a term signifying the * There is a vast Pithecanthropus literature. That chiefly utihzed in the present de- scription includes Dubois," Fischer,'^ Schwalbe,'^ Biichner.'^ 74 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE upright-standing ape-man. The specific term erectus refers to the thigh-bone, of which the author observes: "We must there- fore conclude that the femur of Pithecanthropus was designed for the same mechanical functions as that of man. The two articu- lations and the mechanical axis correspond so exactly to the same parts in man that the law of perfect harmony between the form and function of a bone will necessitate the conclusion that this Fic. 30. The Solo or Bengawan River in central Java. Scene of the discovery of the type specimen of Pithecanthropus erectus in 1894. After Selenka and Blanckenhorn. Compare map (Fig. 32, p. 75). fossil creature had the same upright posture as man and likewise walked on two legs. . . . From this it necessarily follows that the creature had the free use of the upper extremities — now su- perfluous for walking— and that these last were no doubt already far advanced in that line of differentiation which developed them in mankind into tools and organs of touch. . . . From a study of the femur and skull it follows with certainty that this fossil cannot be classified as simian. . . . And, as with the skull, so also with the femur, the differences that separate Pithecanthropus from man are less than those distinguishing it from the highest anthropoid. . . . Although far advanced in the course of differ- entiation, this Pleistocene form had not yet attained to the human THE TRINIL RACE 75 \olcano Lame 3254- M i Pleistocene and Recent A'A'f Alluvium ,, Neogene Trinil t}pe. Pithecanthropus erectus is the transition form between man and the anthropoids which the laws of evolution teach us must have existed. He is the ancestor of man." Thus the author placed Pithecanthropus in a new family, of the order Primates, which he named the Pithecanthropidas. The geologic age of the bones referred to is a matter of first importance. The re- mains of Pithecan- thropus lay in a de- posit about one meter in thickness, consist- ing of loose, coarse, tufaceous sandstones, below this a stratum of hard, blue- gray clay, and under that marine breccia. Above the Pith- ecanthropus layer were the 'Kendeng' strata, a many-layered tufaceous sandstone, about 15 meters in thickness. This geo- logic series was considered by Dubois and others to be of late Tertiary or Plio- cene age; -Pithe- canthropus ac- cordingly became known as the long- awaited 'Pliocene 10 20 30 ^ so 60 70 60 Kilometers Fig. 31. Geological section of the volcano of Lawoe in the Solo River basin. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. Sca/e l:'^aoo ^ f ir -v^^. TRINIL r^^" ^^*^ ^^-JH^i ^"H iv %^. quent researches by expert geolo- gists have tended to refer the age to the early Pleisto- cene.'" According to Elbert's ^-j^ Kendeng strata overlying the Pithecanthropus layer correspond to an early plu- vial period of low temperature and, in point of time, to the .£ Smile Fig. 32. Map of the Solo River, showing the Pithecan- thropus discovery site, also two excavations (Pit No. i, Pit No. 2) in the ancient gravel of the river-bottom, made by the Selenka-Blanckenhorn expedition of 1907. .\fter Selenka and Blanckenhom. 76 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Ice Age of Europe. For even in Java one can distinguish three divisions of the Pleistocene period, including the first period of low temperature to which the Pithecanthropus layer is referred. The fossil mammals contained in the Pithecanthropus layer have also been thoroughly studied/^ and they tend to confirm the original reference to the uppermost Pliocene. They yield a very rich fauna similar to that of the Siwalik hills of India, in- cluding the porcupine, pangolin, several felines, the hyaena, and fflver Solo 1 Pithecanthropus High watermark of Ri\jer Solo ^ ■'"'-':~^~~'r^y^. ?• pmtLinn7rnj\.FLn,^^^^[^A..^}_.rpE_ ^^^^M / '-°J<°t '\°o:o^°°{^^^^^^ 100 '500 ' 1000 fee f 10 M .80M . 75 M . 70M 65 M above Sea level Fig. 2>2i- Section corresponding to line A-B in Fig. 32, showing the river-drift gravels and sands at the point where the skull-top oi Pilhecanthropus was found. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. Recent 7 River wash, blue-black clay. [ 6 Light-colored sandstone, like tuff. I 5 Gra\- tuff with balls of clay, fresh-water shells. . . I 4 White streaked sandstone resembling tufa. Pleistocene ^ Blue-black clay with plant remains. 2 Bone-bearing stratum. Pithccanlhropiis. I Lahar conglomerate. the otter. Among the primates beside Pithecanthropus there is a macaque. Among the larger ungulates are two species of rhi- noceros related to existing Indian forms, the tapir, the boar, the hippopotamus, the axis and rusa deer, the Indian buffalo, and wild cattle. It is noteworthy that three species of late Pliocene elephants, all known as Stegodon, and especially the species Stegodon ganeza, occur, as well as Elcphas hysudricus, a species related to E. antiqtius, or the straight- tusked elephant, which entered Europe in early Pleistocene times. Fossils of the same animals are found in the foot-hills of the Himalayas of India, about 2,500 miles distant to the northwest. The India deposits are considered of uppermost Pliocene age,^° for this is the closing life period of the upper Siwaliks of India. THE TRIML RACE 77 Certainly Java was then a part of the Asiatic continent, and similar herds of great mammals roamed freely over the plains from the foot-hills of the Himalaya Alountains to the borders of the ancient Trinil River, while similar apes inhabited the for- ests. At this time the orang may have entered the forests of Borneo, which are at present its home ; it is the only ape thus far found in the uppermost Pliocene of India. We may, therefore, anticipate the dis- covery, at any time, in India of a race similar to Pithecanthropus. The geologic age of the Trinil race is, therefore, to be considered as late Plio- cene or early Pleistocene. This great discovery of Dubois aroused wide-spread and heated discussion, in which the foremost anato- mists and palaeontologists of the world took- part. Some regarded the skull as that of a giant gibbon, others as prehuman, and still others as a transition form. We may form our own opinion, however, from a fuller understanding of the specimens themselves, always keep- ing in mind that it is a question whether the femur and the skull belong to the same individual or even to the same race. First, we are struck by the marked resemblance which the top of the skull bears, both on viewing it from the side and from above, to that of the Neanderthal race. This fully justifies the opinion of the anatomist Schwalbe'-^ that the skull of Pithecanthropus is nearer to that of Neanderthal man than to that of even the Fig. 34. The top (i) and side {la) views of the skull-top of Pithecanthropus credus. After Dubois. One-third life size. 78 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE highest of the anthropoid apes. As measured by Schwalbe, the index of the height of the cranium {KalottenhoJieindex) may be compared with others as follows : Lowest human race 52 per cent. Neanderthal man 40.4 per cent. Pithecanthropus, or Trinil race 34.2 per cent. This accords with the estimate of the brain capacity* of 855 c.cm. (Dubois) as compared wdth 1,230 c.cm., the smallest brain Fig. 35. Head of chimpanzee — front and side views — exhibiting a head of somewhat sim- ilar shape to that of Pithecanthropus, with prominent eyebrow ridges, but much smaller brain capacity. Photograph from the New York Zoological Park. capacity found in a member of the Neanderthal race. Second, as seen from above, we are struck with the great length of the calvarium as compared with its breadth, the cephalic index or ratio of breadth to length being 73.4 per cent (Schwalbe) as compared with 73.9 per cent in the Neanderthal type skull ; this dolichocephaly accords with the fact that all of the earliest human races thus far found are long-headed, although according to Schwalbe" all anthropoids are broad-headed. This is a very important distinction. The third feature is tjie prominence and width of the bony eyebrow ridges above the orbits, which are almost as great as in the chimpanzee and greatly exceed those * In the Trinil skull as restored by McGregor (Fig. 36) the cranial capacity is 900 c.cm. THE TRINIL RACE 79 of the Neanderthal race and of the modern Austrahan. The profile of the Trinil head restored by McGregor (Fig. 38) ex- hibits this prominent bony ridge and the low, retreating fore- head. In the latest opinion of Schwalbe-^ Pithecanthropus may be regarded as one of the direct ancestors of Neanderthal man and even of the highest human species, Homo sapiens. He also considers that when the lower jaw of the Trinil race becomes Fig. 36. Profile of the skull of Pithrcanthropiis, as restored by J. H. McGregor. 1914. One-third life size. known, it will be found to be very similar to that of the Heidel- berg man, the final conclusion being that Piihecanthropus and the nearly allied Heidelberg man may be regarded as the common ancestors of the Neanderthal race, on the one hand, and of the higher races on the other. There are, however, reasons for ex- cluding Pithecanthropus from the direct ancestral line of the higher races of man. This prehuman stage has, none the less, a very great signifi- cance in the developmental history of man. In our opinion it is the very stage which, theoretically, we should anticipate finding in the dawn of the Pleistocene. i\ similar view is taken by Biichner,-^ who presents in an admirable diagram (Fig. 117) the 80 MEN OF THE OLD. STONE AGE result of his comparison of twelve different characters in the skulls of Pithecanthropus, the Neanderthals, the Australians, and the Tasmanians. One of the main objects of Biichner's research was a very detailed comparison of the Trinil skull with that of the lowly and now extinct Tasmanian race, which, we observe Fig. 37. Three views of the skull of Pithecanthropus, as restored by J. H. ]McGregor, showing the original (shaded) and restored (black lines) portions. About one-quarter life size. in the diagram, occupies a position only a little higher than that of the Spy-Neanderthal race. If the femur belongs with the skull, the Trinils were a tall race, reaching a height of 5 feet 7 inches as compared with 5 feet 3 inches in the Neanderthals. The thigh-bone (Fig. 122) has a very slight curvature as compared with that of any of the apes or lemurs, and in this respect is more human ; it is remarkably elongate (455 mm.), surpassing that of the Neanderthals; the THE TRINIL RACE 81 shin-bone (tibia) was probabl}' correspondingly short. The two upper grinding-teeth preser\'ed are much more human than those of the gibbon, but they do not resemble those of man closely enough to positively confirm the prehuman theory. Dubois ob- serves :-"' "That the tooth belongs to some hominid form needs no Fig. 38. Profile \ie\v of the liead of Pillicranthyopus. tlic Ja\;i ape-man, after a model b\- J. II. IMcGregor. One-quarter life size. further demonstration. Aside from its size and the greater roughness of the grinding surface, it differs from the human grinder in that the less developed cusp of Pithecanthropus is the posterior cusp next the cheek, while in man it is generally the posterior cusp next the tongue. The simplification of the crown and the root of the Trinil grinder is quite as extensive as it usually is in man." Various efforts have been made to supplement the scattered and scanty materials collected by Dubois. The Selenka expedi- tion of 1907-8 brought back a human left lower molar as the only result of an express search for more Pithecanthropus remains. 82 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Dubois is also said to possess the fragment of a primitive-looking lower jaw from the range known as the Kendeng Hills, at the southern base of which lies the village of Trinil. It remains for us to consider the stage of psychic evolution attained by the Trinil race, and this naturally turns upon the Fig. 39. Front view of the head of Pithecanthropus, the Ja\ a ape-man, after a model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. erect attitude and what httle is known of the size and proportions of the brain. The assumption of the erect attitude is not merely a cjuestion of learning to balance the body on the hinder extremities.-'' It involves changes in the interior of the body, the loss of the tail, the freeing of the arms, and the establishment of the diaphragm as the chief muscle of respiration. The thigh-bone of Pithecan- thropus is so much like that of man as to support the theory that the erect position may have been assumed by the ancestors of man as early as Oligocene times. It would appear that Pithe- canthropus had free use of the arms and it is possible that the THE TRINIL RACK 83 control of the thumb and fingers had been cultivated, perhaps in the fashioning of primitive implements of wood and stone. The discovery of the use of wood as an implement and weapon probably preceded that of the use of stone. Elliot Smith describes this stage of development as follows :" "■. . . The emancipation of the hands from progression threw the whole responsibihty upon the legs, which became more effi- cient for their pur- pose as supports once they lost their pre- hensile powers and became elongated and specialized for rapid progression. Thus the erect atti- tude became stereo- t\ped and fixed and the limbs specialized, and these upright simians emerged from their ancestral forests in societies, armed with sticks and stones and with the rudiments of all the powers that eventually enabled them to conquer the world. The greater exposure to danger which these more adventurous spirits en- countered once they emerged in the open, and the constant struggles these first semihuman creatures must have had in encounters with definite enemies, no less than with the forces of Nature, provided the factors which rapidly weeded out those unfitted for the new conditions and by natural selection made real men of the survivors." The undeveloped forehead of Pithecanthropus and the dimin- utive frontal area of the brain indicate that the Trinil race had a limited faculty of profiting by experience and accumulated tra- dition, for in this prefrontal area of the brain are located the powers of attention and of control of the activities of all other 5ELF CONTROT ATTENTION CONDUCT Fig. 40. Side view of brain of high type, ilhistrating the contrast between the motor, sensory, and idea- tional centres in a high type of modern brain; and EIHot Smith's characterization of the probable cen- tres in the Pithecanthropus type of brain. Modified after M. Allen Starr. 84 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE parts of the brain. In the brain of the ape the sensory areas of touch, taste, and vision predominate, and these are well devel- oped in Pithecanthro- pus. The central area of the brain, which is the storehouse of the memories of actions and of the feelings associ- ated with them, is also well developed, but the prefrontal area, which is the seat of the faculty of profiting by experi- ence or of recalling the consequences of previ- ous responses to experi- ence, is developed to a very limited degree.-^ Thus, while the brain of Pithecanthropus is estimated at 855-900 c.cm., as compared with 600 c.cm. of the largest simian brain, and 930 c.cm. of the smallest brain recorded in the lower members of the Fig. 41. Diagram showing the side (lower figure) , 'f " ^' f and top (upper figure) views of the outHne of the llUmaU raCC, it mcllCateS Pithecanthropus brain as compared with that of q^ VCrv low Stao'C of in- the chimpanzee and the higher human types of ii- "^ the Pihdo\\^l, Neanderthal, and modern races. telllgCnce. Absence of Paleoliths and Presence of Eoliths in Western Europe Returning to First Interglacial conditions in Europe, we ob- serve that the river courses flowed through the same valleys as at present but that in early glacial times the channels were far EOLITHS, OR PRIMITIVE 1 LIMS 85 broader and were elevated from loo to 150 feet above the present relatively narrow river levels. The vast floods of the succeeding glaciation filled these valleys, but some of the 'high terraces' were already formed. It is extremely important to note that Pre-Chellean flints or true palseoliths have never been found in the sands or gravels of these 'high terraces.' Eoliths found on this 'high-terrace' level at St. Prest belong to the Prestien culture of Rutot,'-^ who regards this station as of Upper Pliocene age. These, like other supposed EoHthic flints, are very rough, but, rude as they are, they generally exhibit one part shaped as if to be grasped by the hand, while the other part is edged or pointed as for cutting. It is generally admitted that these flints are mostly of accidental shapes, and there has been little or no proof of their being fashioned by human hands. On this point Boule'^" observes : "As to the eoliths, I have combated the theory not only because it seems to me improbable but because a long geological experience has shown me that it is often impos- sible to distinguish stones split, cut, or retouched by purely physi- cal agents from certain products of rudimentary workmanship." On the other side, it is interesting at this point to quote the words of MacCurdy:^^ "My opinion, based on personal experi- ence, ... is that the existence of a primitive industry, antedat- ing what is commonly accepted as Palaeolithic, has been estab- lished. This industry occurs as far back as the Upper Miocene and continues on through the Upper Tertiary into and including the Lower Quaternary. The distinguishing characters of the in- dustry remain but little changed throughout the entire period, the subdivision of the period into epochs being based on stratig- raphy [geologic stages] and not on industrial characters. The requirements in the wa}' of tools being very simple and the supply of material in the way of natural fl.akes and fragments of flint being very plentiful, the inventive powers of the population remained dormant for ages. Hammer and knife were the orig- inal tools. Both were picked up ready-made. A sharp-edged, natural flake served for one, and a nodule or fragment served for the other. When the edge of the flake became dulled by use, the 86 MEN OF THE OLD STONE, AGE piece was either thrown away or the edge was retouched for further use. If hammer or flake did not admit of being held com- fortably in the hand, the troublesome points or edges were re- moved or reduced by chipping. The stock of tools increased slowly with the slowly growing needs. As these multiplied and the natural supph' of raw material diminished, the latter was supplemented by the manufacture of artificial flakes. When the lesson of associating definite forms of implements with definite uses was learned, special types arose, notably the amygdaloid implement and the poniard. Then came the transition from the EoHthic to the Palaeolithic, a stage that has been so thoroughly investigated by Rutot." It is not improbable that the Trinil race was in a stage of Eolithic culture ; it is highly probable that the prehuman races of this very remote geologic age used more than one weapon of wood and stone. The Great Second Glaciation (Fig. 25, p. 65) In early Pleistocene times a general elevation of southern Eu- rope united the islands of the Mediterranean with Europe on the north and with Africa on the south, forming broad land connec- tions betw^een the two continents which afforded both northward and southward migration routes. At this time certain character- istically African mammals, such as the straight-tusked elephant and the lion, were probably finding their way north ; Sicily at this time gained its large fauna of elephants and hippopotami, and the island of Malta was connected with the mainland, as well as the easterly islands of C>^rus and Crete. It appears probable that the connection between the Italian mainland and Malta was renewed more than once. The approach of the second glaciation is indicated along the southeast coast of Great Britain by the subsidence of the land and the rise of the sea, accompanied by a fresh arctic current, bring- ing with it an invasion of arctic mollusks which were deposited in a layer of marine beds directly over those which contain the Pl. III. Pithecanthropus erediis, the ape-man of Java. Antiquity' 6*diittated' '&t 500,000 years. After the restoration modelled by J. H. ^McGregor. It is not im- probable that the prehuman races of this remote geologic age used more than one natural weapon of wood or stone, the latter of the accidental 'Eolithic' type. THE SECOND GLACIATION 89 rich warm fauna and flora of the 'Forest Bed of Cromer,' Nor- folk.^- It also appears probable that a cold northern current swept along the western coasts of Europe, and Geikie estimates that a lowering of temperature occurred of not less than 20° Fahr., a change as great as is now experienced in passing from the south of England to the North Cape. The second glaciation was by far the greatest both in Europe and America. In the region of the Pyrenees, which at the ver}' much later period of the Third Interglacial Stage became a favor- ite country with Palreolithic man, there were glaciers of vast extent. This is realized by comparison with present conditions. The largest of the present glaciers of the Pyrenees is only 2 miles in length and terminates at a height of 7,200 feet above the sea. During the greatest glaciation the snow appears to have de- scended 4,265 feet below its present level. From the Pyrenees through the Gallego valley into Spain there flowed a glacier 38 miles in length, while to the north the glacier in the valley of the Garonne flowed for a distance of 45 miles to a point near Montre- jeau. Even in its lower reaches this glacier was over half a mfle in thickness. To the east was a glacier 38 miles in length, filling the valley of the, Ariege and covering the sites of such great Pa- laeolithic caverns as that of Niaux ; it is probable that at this time the formation of this cavern began. That these glaciers were all prior to the period of the Lower Palaeolithic Acheulean culture is proven by the fact that Acheulean implements are frequently met with lying on the surface of the moraines laid down by these ancient ice-floes.''^ To the north was the vast Scandinavian ice-field, which swept over Great Britain and beyond the valleys of the Rhine, Elbe, and Vistula, reaching nearly to the Carpathians. Even the lesser mountain chains were capped with glaciers, including the Atlas Mountains in northern Africa. In North America from the great centre west of Hudson Bay the ice-cap extended its drift southward into Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska, beyond the hmits of earlier and sub- sequent glaciations. 90 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The materials of the chief 'high terraces' of the great river- valleys of western Europe were deposited at this time. Life of the Warm Second Interglacial Stage The long warm period which followed the great glaciation is remarkable in presenting the first proofs of the presence of man in western Europe. It is the period of the Heidelberg race of man (Homo heidelbergensis), known only from a single jaw dis- covered by Schoetensack in the Mauer sands near Heidelberg, in 1907. No other proofs of the existence of man have been found in any of the deposits which took place during this vast interval of geologic time, unless we accept the theory of Penck and of Geikie that the Pre-Chellean and Chellean quarries of the River Somme belong in the Second Interglacial Stage. The vast duration of this interglacial time is evidenced both in Europe and America by the deep cutting and wearing away of the 'drifts' brought down by the second glaciation. Penck believes that this 'long warm stage' represents a greater period of time than the entire interval between the third glaciation and the present time. The climate immediately following the re- treat of the glaciers was cool and moist in the glaciated regions, but this was followed by such a prolonged period of heat and dryness that the glaciers on the Alps withdrew to a point far above their present limits. In one of the old 'high terraces' of the River Inn, in the north Tyrol, is a deposit containing the prevailing forest flora of the period, from which Penck concludes that the climate of Inns- bruck was 2° C. higher than it is at the present time. Correspond- ing with this the snow-line stood i ,000 feet above its present level, and the Alps, save for the higher peaks, were almost completely denuded of ice and snow. A characteristic plant is the Pontic alpine rose {Rhododendron poniicimi), which flourishes now in an annual temperature of 57°-65° Fahr.,^^ indicating that the cli- mate of Innsbruck was as genial as that of the Italian slopes of the Alps to-day. This rhododendron is now found in the Cau- casus. Other southern species of the time were a buckthorn, THE SECOND INTERGLACIAL STAGE !)1 related to a species now living in the Canary Islands, and the box. There were also more hardy plants, including the fir {Piniis sylvestris), spruce, maple, willow, yew, elm, beech, and moun- tain-ash. The forests of the same period in Provence were, for the most part, similar to those now found in that region ; out of thirty-seven species twenty-nine still occur in this part of southern France. On the whole, the aspect of southern France at this time was surprisingly modern. The forests included oaks, elms, poplars, willows, lindens, maples, sumachs, dogwood, and hawthorn. Among the climbing plants were the vine and the clematis. Here also were some forms which have since retreated to the south, such as species of the sweet bay and laurel which are now confined to the Canary Islands. The great humidity of the time is indicated by the presence of certain species of con- ifers which require considerable moisture. As in First Intergla- cial times, the presence of the fig indicates mild winters. It is difficult to imagine forests of this modern character, which farther northward included a number of still more tem- perate and hardy species, as the setting of the great African and Asiatic life that roamed all over western Europe at this time. It was the presence of hippopotami, elephants, and rhinoceroses which gave to Lyell, Evans, and other early observers the im- pression that a tropical temperature and vegetation were char- acteristic of this long life period. These animals were formerly regarded as proofs of an almost tropical climate, but the more trustworthy evidence of the forests, strengthened by that of the presence of very numerous hardy types of forest and meadow animals, has set aside all the early theories as to extremely warm temperatures during Second Interglacial times. The remains of what is still conveniently known as the ' faime chaude, ' or warm fauna, are chiefly found in the sands and gravels of the ancient beds of the Neckar, Garonne, and Thames, and other rivers of the north and south, also in Essex, England. The most surprising fact is that the mammal life of western Europe remained entirely unchanged by the vast second glaciation just described ; the few extinctions which occurred as well as a num- 92 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ber of new arrivals may be attributed to new geographical con- nections with Africa on the south and to the steady progress of migration from the far east. Fig. 42. The hippopotamus (//. major) and the southern mammoth {E. meridionalis trogonlherii), a pair of mammals which enjoyed a similar range over western Europe from the close of the Pliocene until the middle of Third Interglacial times, when their remains are found associated with flints of Pre-Chellean, Chellean, and early Acheulean age. One-sixtieth life size. Drawn by Erwin S. Christman. There were four very important and distinctive new arrivals from the African-Asiatic world, namely, the straight-tusked or ancient elephant {E. antiqiius), the broad-nosed rhinoceros {D. merckii), the African lion (Fdis leo), and the African hyaena {H. striata), which bespeak close geographical connections with THE SECOND INTERGLACIAL STAGE 93 northern Africa. Of these the ancient elephant and the broad- nosed rhinoceros were close companions; they enjoyed the same regions and the same temperatures, their remains are very fre- quently found together, and they survived to the very end of the great life stage of western Europe, which closed with the advent of the fourth glaciation. They are in contrast to the other pair Fig. 43. The other and hardier pair of large African-Asiatic mammals, namely, the broad-nosed or ]\Ierck's rhinoceros {R. mcrckii) and the straight-tusked or ancient elephant (£. anliquus), which entered western Europe in Second Interglacial times and survived until Third Interglacial times, when their remains are found intermingled with flints of the Acheulean and early Mousterian cultures. These mammals were doubtless hunted by men of the early Neanderthal races. One-sixtieth life size. Drawn by Erwin S. Christman. of great mammals which was already present in Europe in PHo- cene and First Interglacial times, namely, the southern mam- moth, at this stage known as Elephas trogonthcrii, which had a preference for the companionship of the hippopotamus {H. major) ; it would seem that these animals were less hardv because both 94 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE disappeared from Europe a little earlier than the ancient elephant and Merck's rhinoceros. The African lion would appear to have been a competitor of the sabre-tooth tiger, for the latter animal now becomes less abundant, although there is reason to believe that it survived until the Third Interglacial Stage. With the ancient Pliocene Fig. 44. ]Map showing the wide geographic distribution (horizontal lines) of Merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant, which first entered western Europe dur- ing the First Interglacial Stage and survived until nearly the close of the Third Inter- glacial Stage. The hippopotamus, which entered Europe in Pliocene times, surs'ived until after the middle of the Third Interglacial Stage and had a more limited dis- tribution. After Boule. t\pe of the sabre-tooth were also found the Etruscan rhinoceros, the primitive bear of Auvergne {Ursiis arverncusis), and the giant beaver {Trogonthcrium ciivier'i). The northern forests of the time were frequented by the broad- faced moose, the giant deer, and the roe-deer, as well as by noble specimens of the stag (Cervus elaphiis). In the open forests and meadows the wild cattle {Bos primi genius) began to be more THE ni:ii)i:Liu:RG race 95 numerous and the bison {Bison prisciis) also occurred. Among the meadow or forest frequenting forms were horses of larger size, such as the horses of Mosbach and of Siissenborn. In this assem- blage of northern and southern types it is noteworthy that the Eurasiatic forest and meadow t\pes of mammals greatly predomi- nate in numbers and in variety over the African- Asiatic types; this, together with the flora, is an indication that the climate was of a temperate character ; it is probable, therefore, that all the mammals were well protected with a hairy covering and adapted to a temperate climate. The fact that the fauna as a whole re- mained practically unchanged throughout the second glaciation is a proof not that it migrated to the south and then returned but that the non-glaciated regions of western Europe were tem- perate rather than cold. The Heidelberg Race To us by far the most interesting mammalian life is that found south of the mouth of the Neckar along the ancient stream Elsenz, Heidelberg man. where were deposited the lower 'sands of Ancient elephant. Mauer,' containing the lower jaw of the Hei- Etruscan rhinoceros, delberg man and the remains of many ani- Wild boar Tddls of the period. The enumeration of this Broad-faced moose. entire fauna is very important, as indicating Red deer, or stag. the temperate climatic conditions which sur- Roe-deer. rounded the first true species of man which (wisent) ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ hQ^n discovered in Europe. The Primitive ox discoverer, Schoetensack,^^ referred these (Aurochs, urus). mammals and the Heidelberg man to the Auvergne bear. ^-^.^^ Interglacial Stage, and a similar opinion Demnger s bear. i LJQj^ has recently been expressed by Geikie. The Wildcat. presence of the Etruscan rhinoceros would ap- W°^^- pear to point to such great antiquity, but the evidence afforded by this primitive animal is overborne by that of three mammals which are highly character- istic of Second Interglacial times ; these are the straight-tusked or 96 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ancient elephant {E. antiquus), the hon, and the Mosbach horse. Excepting only the Etruscan rhinoceros, all these species fre- quenting the ancient stream Elsenz and deposited with the ' sands of Mauer ' occurred also in the forests and meadows of the region now known as Baden, where the fossil mammal deposits of Mosbach near the Neckar are found. A similar mammalian Hfe of a somewhat more recent time occurs in the river gravels of Siissenborn, near Weimar. The horses of Mauer, of Mosbach, fAfo Upper MuschelhatH Miidlt Tnessie \Mm Middle iMu Loner lo^^.T- o-.> fSo Upper Bunrsandstein 3000 4000 meters a Recent, marl, loam, sand } Recint c/ol Hede posited loess of the slopes dh iounger loess Pleii- dle " " ham tocene dia Older dun Mauer sand INechar, gravel and sand) Fig. 45. Section of the valley of the stream Elsenz, near Heidelberg, showing the location of the Mauer sand-pit in which the Heidelberg jaw was discovered. An ancient layer of river-drift. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. and of Siissenborn* were of much larger size and of more speciahzed character than Steno's horse of First Interglacial times. Thus the Fleidelbergs, the first human race recorded in west- ern Europe, appear in northern Germany early in Second Inter- glacial times, in the midst of a most imposing mammalian fauna of northern aspect and containing many forest-living species, such as bear, deer, and moose ; in the meadows and forests browsed the giant, straight-tusked elephant [E. antiquus), which from the simple structure of its grinding-teeth is regarded as similar in habit to the African elephant now inhabiting the forests of central Africa ; the presence of this animal indicates a relatively moist climate and well-forested country. The Etrus- * These horses are now identified respectively as E. maucrensis, E. mosbachcnsis, and E. siissenhornensis. THE HEIDELBERG R AC E 97 can rhinoceros differed from the larger Merck's form in the pos- session of relatively short-crowned grinding-teeth, adapted to ">■> Fig. 46. Sand-pit at ]Mauer, near Heidelberg, discovery site of the jaw of Heidel- berg man. After Schoetensack. a-b. 'Newer loess,' either of Third Interglacial or of Postglacial times. b-c. 'Older loess' (sandy loess) of the close of Second Interglacial times. c-f. The 'sands of Mauer.' d-e. An intermediate layer of clay. The white cross (X) indicates the spot at the base of the 'sands of Mauer' at which the jaw of Heidelberg was discovered. browsing habits and a forested country ; on the head were borne two horns ; it was a long-limbed, rapidly moving t>'pe ; the herds 98 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of bison and of wild cattle (urus) which roamed over the plains were now subject to the attack of the lion. The discovery in 1907 of a human lower jaw in the base of the 'Mauer sands' is one of the most important in the whole history of anthropology. The find was made at a depth of 79 feet (24.10 m.) from the upper surface of a high bluff (Fig. 46), in ancient river sands which had long been known to yield the very old mammalian fauna described above. For years the Fig. 47. The Heidelberg Jaw, type ol lli))>io hndrnicrgnisis. About two- thirds hfe size. After Schoetensack. workmen had been instructed to keep a sharp lookout for human remains. The jaw had evidently drifted down with the river sands and had become separated from the skull, but it remained in perfect preservation. The author's description may first be quoted. ^"^ The mandible shows a combination of features never before found in any fossil or recent man. The protrusion of the lower jaw just below the front teeth which gives shape to the human chin is entirely lacking. Had the teeth been absent it would have been impossible to diagnose it as human. From a fragment of the symphysis of the jaw it might well have been classed as some gorilla-like anthropoid, while the ascending ramus resembles that of some large variety of gibbon. The absolute certainty that these remains are human is based on the form of the teeth — molars, premolars, canines, and incisors are all essen- THE HEIDELBERG RACE 99 tially human and, although somewhat primitive in form, show- no trace of being intermediate between man and the anthropoid apes but rather of being derived from some older common an- cestor. The teeth, however, are somewhat small for the jaw; the size of the border would allow for the development of much larger teeth ; we can only conclude that no great strain was put on the teeth, and therefore the powerful development of the bones of the jaw was not designed for their benefit. The conclusion is ««WW Fig. 48. Side view of Heidelberg jaw (centre) compared with that of an oranj: (right) and of an Eskimo (left); the latter an individual of exceptionally large proportions. that the jaw, regarded as unquestionably human from the nature of the teeth, ranks not far from the point of separation between man and the anthropoid apes. In comparison with the jaws of Neanderthal races, as found at Spy, in Belgium, and at Krapina, in Croatia, we may consider the Heidelberg jaw as pre-Xeander- thaloid; it is, in fact, a generalized t}pe. In a conservative spirit, Schoetensack named the t>'pe rep- resented by this jaw Homo heidelbcrgcnsis. Other authors have regarded it as of distinct generic rank ; thus it has been termed PalcEoanthropiis heidelbergensis by BonarelU.''" The jaw itself is extremely massive ; the canine teeth, unlike those of the an- thropoid apes and of the Piltdown race, do not project beyond the line of the other teeth and were therefore not used as weapons of offense and defense as in the anthropoids, in which these teeth 100 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE are prominently developed as tusks. As noted by Schoetensack, the teeth are not very massive in proportion to the jaw itself, which is the most powerful human jaw known, even ex- ceeding the largest Eskimo jaw and indicating a skull of very massive and primitive character. It resembles that of the ape in the recession of the chin, hence it has been termed amentalis. There is a large development of the - coronoid process of the man^ dible for the attachment of the temporal muscle. This jaw may well have been used as a tool in the last stages of the preparation of hides, as is the practice of the Eskimo races. We observe that the powerful bony branches of the jaw, when regarded from above, close in upon the space left for the tongue ; iji fact, the bone closes in to such an extent as to inter- fere seriously with the free use of the tongue in articu- late speech. It would seem that in the jaw, and probably in all other characters of the skuU, as they become known, the Heidelberg race will be found to be a Neanderthal in the making, that is, a primitive, more powerful, and more ape-like ancestral form. In the matter of the retreat- ing chin, the true Neanderthals of Spy, Malarnaud, Krapina, Fig. 49. The jaws shown in Fig. 48 seen from above. A massive Eskimo jaw (above) , the Heidelberg jaw (centre), the jaw of an orang (below). THE HEIDELBERG RACE 101 and La Chapelle rank exactly half-way between the most in- ferior races of recent man and the anthropoid apes. Not only among the Eskimos, but generally throughout the savage races of Australia and of other countries, the jaws are used as tools ; among the Australians the teeth are very much worn Fig. so. Restoration of the Man of Heidelberg by the Belgia.i artisi; M^srre, under the direction of Professor A. Rutot, of Brussels. This restrirA^ion* pre- sents an advance upon the Pilhecanthropus type. In our spinifjn the H^idql- ,, berg man was more human and less ape-like in appearance.^ , ^ down but are in admirable preservation. WTien seen from above, we observe that the 'Heidelberg' grinding-teeth form a perfect arch, or horseshoe-shaped arrangement, whereas in all the apes the two lines of grinding-teeth are almost parallel with each other. Thus, while there may be wide differences of opinion as regards the relationships of the Heidelberg man, all agree that Schoetensack's discovery affords us one of- the great missing links or t}'pes in the chain of human development. The t}'pical mammalian life of Second Interglacial times as found at ]Mosbach and Siissenborn belongs perhaps to a some- what more recent stage of Second Interglacial times than that of the '^Nlauer sands,' for in these localities the Etruscan rhinoceros 10^2 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE is wanting and the more specialized broad-nosed rhinoceros is abundant ; this animal differs from the Etruscan form in the pos- session of relatively long-crowned grinding-teeth, w^hich were bet- ter adapted to grazing habits. On the head were borne two horns. A variety of the southern mammoth {E. trogontherii) is so highh' characteristic of Second Interglacial times that Pohlig refers to this life period as the E. trogontherii stage. From the structure of its grinding-teeth it is regarded as similar in habit to the Asiatic elephant, which now inhabits the forests of India, but it has the peculiar concave forehead distinctive of the mammoth and quite unlike the convex forehead of the Indian elephant. The bears of this period belong to the primitive species U. deningeri and U. arvernensis, for so far there is no certain record of the presence of the true brown bear of Europe {U. arctos). The sabre-tooth tiger of this time is preserved in the caverns of the Pyrenees near Montmaurin, associated with the remains of the striped hyaena {H. striata), a species which was widely distributed over western Europe in early Pleistocene times. This species w^as contempo- rary with, and later replaced by, the spotted hyaena {H. crocuta), from which the very hardy cave-hyaena {H. crocuta spelcea) of the 'Reindeer Pgrjod,' descended. We observe that the 'polycla- ^ine^'*.de^f/^^, tipper Pliocene and First Glacial times has disap- .peaf^d. if om •^vestern Europe ; nor are there any traces of the •aki^*decr.**'TTi*e"*hippopotamus is still represented by the giant species, H. major. Early Northern Migrations of the Reindeer The animals that we have described belong in the warmer and more temperate regions of Europe. In the regions near the glaciers the reindeer was already to be found; in fact, this char- acteristically northern animal is recorded in the gravels of Slis- senborn, near Weimar. There is evidence of a succession of climatic changes in the region of Heidelberg. The Heidelberg jaw with its temperate mammalian fauna occurred at the very base of the Mauer bluff, MIGRATIONS OF THE REINDEER 103 but higher up the bluff (Fig. 46) on a corresponding level are found the remains of mammals which indicate a marked lowering of temperature and which are referred by some authorities to the period of chilling climate that characterized northern Europe toward the close of Second Interglacial times. The reindeer also occurs in the 'high terrace' gravels of the River Murr, near Steinheim ; thus, at Mauer, at Siissenborn, and at Steinheim, we find proof that the reindeer had begun to spread over the colder regions of Europe, and there is some ground for belief that it found its way even as far south as the Pyrenees. The evidence of the first cold, arid period which for the time greatly affected the cHmate of western Europe is also found in the layer of so-called ' ancient loess ' w^hich lies in the bluff above the 'sands of Mauer.' This loess covers the warm mammalian deposits of the ' sands of Mosbach ' as well as the ' high terraces ' of many of the ancient river-valleys. Both in Europe and Amer- ica the climatic sequence of the Second Interglacial Stage from moist to dry appears to have been the same. Thus, after the recession of the ice-fields of the second glacia- tion, the climate was at first cold and moist ; then followed a long w^arm stage, favorable to the spread of forests ; this was finally succeeded by a period of aridity in which the most ancient 'loess' deposits occurred. In Russia, also, the third glaciation was preceded by an arid and steppe-like climate with high winds favorable to the transportation of 'loess.' No palaeoliths or other proofs of human occupation have been found in this cold, dry period, for there is no evidence in an}' part of Europe of camping stations in this 'ancient loess' such as we find in the 'loess' which was deposited during the similar arid period toward the close of Third Interglacial and again dur- ing Postglacial times. Nor have we any record of the mammalian Hfe in this 'ancient loess' of Europe. 104 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The Third Glaciation * This arid period in northern ^Europe and in North America was followed by the moist, cool cHmate of the third glaciation. It is estimated by Penck that the advance of these new ice-fields began 120,000 years ago and that the period of advance and re- treat of the glaciers was not less than 20,000 years. In the Alps the snow-line descended 1,250 metres below the present level; consequently this glaciation was more severe than the first but somewhat less severe than the second. In northern Europe the Scandinavian ice-field did not cover so wide an area as during the second glaciation, although Britain and Scandinavia were again deeply buried by ice ; the glacial cap and glaciers flowed in a westerly and southwesterly direction across Denmark and the southern portion of the basin of the Baltic into Holland and northern Germany. In the Alps the third glaciation sent vast ice-floes along the valley of the Rhine, into eastern France, and into the valley of the Po, where this glaciation was even more extensive than the second. But the greatest glacier of this time was that of the Isar, a southern tributary of the Danube, which rises in the Bavarian Alps.^^ During the Third Glacial Stage certain of the 'middle terraces' along the Rhine and other rivers flowing from the Alps were formed. In Britain,^^ whereas during the second glaciation the ice-fields extended as far south as the Thames, during the third glaciation they did not extend beyond the midlands ; yet an arctic climate prevailed over southern England, with tundra con- ditions and temperature, as indicated by the plant deposits at Hoxne'*° in Suffolk. Even before the third glaciation began in Europe a great ice-cap had formed over Labrador, on the eastern coast of North America, and the ice-sheets flowing to the south and southwest extended as far as Ilhnois, depositing the great lUinoian 'drifts.' * This glaciation as it occurs in northern Europe has been termed Polandian by Geikie ; in the Alps Penck has termed it the Riss ; in America it is known as the lUinoian from the great drifts it deposited over the State of Illinois. THE THIRD G1>ACIATI0N 105 Along the borders of these great ice-fields in both countries a cold and moist climate prevailed, for a prime condition of glacia- tion is the heavy precipitation of snow. In northern Europe, be- tween the great Alpine and Scandinavian ice-fields of the third glaciation a cold climate undoubtedly prevailed ; in the region £UflOFE DURING THE THIRD GLACIAL EPOCH. A-B Line or Profile (ffISS) (after JAMES GEIKIE] Fig. 51. The ice-fields and glaciers of the Third Glacial Stage are seen to be much less extensive than those of the Second Glacial Stage, shown in Fig. 25, p. 65. The conti- nental depression and invasion of the sea is also believed to have been less extensive. At this stage there are broad areas free from ice between the Scandinavian, the Alpine, and the Pyrenean ice-caps. Drawn by C. A. Reeds, after James Geikie. (Compare Fig. 13-) of the Neckar River, near Cannstatt, is found a deposit known as 'mammoth loam,' which Koken believed to be contemporaneous with the period of the third glaciation, although the evidence is certainly not convincing.'*^ Here are found fossil remains of the Scandinavian reindeer, also of two very important new arrivals in Europe from the tundra regions of the far northeast, animals 106 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE which had wandered along the southern borders of the Scandi- navian ice-sheet from the tundras of northern Russia and Siberia. This is the first appearance in western Europe of the woolly mam- moth (E. primigenius) and the woolly rhinoceros {D. antiquitatis). In this 'mammoth loam' there also occur two species of horse, the giant deer (Megaceros). the stag, the wisent, and the Aurochs. If the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros actually en- tered eastern Germany at this time, they certainly retreated to the north with the approach of the warm temperate chmate of the Third Interglacial Stage, because no trace of these animals has been found again in Europe until the advent of the fourth gla- ciation. p. 582. (i) Gaudry, 1890. i. (2) Smith, G. E., 1912.1 (3) op. cit. (4) Munro, 1893. i. (5) Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 306, 307. (6) Geikie, J., 1894. i, pp. 329-336; 1914.1, p. 227. (7) Dawkins, 1883. i, pp. 576-579. (8) Geikie, J., 1914.1, p. 248. (9) Reid, C, 1908.1. (10) Desnoyers, 1863. i. (11) Haug, 1911.1, p. 1807. (12) Geikie, J., 1894. i, p. 682; p. 250. (13) Dubois, 1894. 1. (14) Fischer, 1913.1. (15) Schwalbe, 1899. i; 1914.1 (16) Buchner, 1914.1. (17) Volz, 1907. 1. (18) Elbert, 1908. i. (19) Selenka, 1911.1. (20) Pilgrim, 1913.1. (21) Schwalbe, 1899. i, pp. 227, 228. (22) Op. cit., p. 223. (23) Schwalbe, 1914.1, pp. 601-606. (24) Buchner, 1914.1, p. 129. (25) Dubois, 1894,1, p. 14. (26) Keith, 1912.1. (27) Smith, G. E., 1912.1, p. 595. (28) Op. cit. (29) Rutot, 1907. 1. (30) Boule, 1913.1, pp. 266, 267. (31) MacCurdy, 1905. i, pp. 468, 469. (32) Geikie, J., 1914.1, p. 251. I9i4-i> (33) Op. cit., p. (34) op. cit., p. 238. (35) Schoetensack, 1908. i. (36) Op. cit., pp. 25-43. (37) Bonarelli, 1909.1. (38) Penck, 1909. 1. (39) Geikie, J., 1914.1, P- 258. (40) Op. cit., pp. 257-262. (41) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 181 CHAPTER II ARRIV.\L OF THE PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT WORKERS DURING THE THIRD INTERGLACI.\L — GEOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, AND THE RIVER DRIFTS — PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT INDUSTRY — THE PILTDOWN RACE — MAMM-YLIAN LIFE — CHELLEAN .AND ACHEULEAN INDUSTRIES — THE USE OF FIRE — THE SECOND PERIOD OF ARID CLIMATE — THE NEANDERTH.\L R.\CE OF KRAPINA, CROATIA The geologic epoch of the arrival of the Pre-Chellean flint workers in western Europe is by far the most important and in- teresting one before the prehistorian. Upon it depends the ques- tion of the duration of the Old Stone Age, the date of appearance of the Piltdo\^Ti and of the Neanderthal races, and the whole sequence of climatic and geographic changes surrounding the early liistory of man. After weighing all the e\'idence very care- fully, the balance of opinion seems to sustain the view that this epoch should be placed after the close of the third glaciation and before the advent of the fourth, that is, during the Third Inter- glacial Stage. Penck estimated that the third warm interglacial stage* opened about 100,000 years ago and lasted between 50,000 and 60,000 years. According to the theory that we have adopted in this work, the Third Interglacial and Fourth Glacial embraced the entire period of Lower Palaeolithic time, a period of from 70,000 to 100,000 years, much longer than that of Upper Palaeo- lithic time, which is estimated at 16,000 to 25,000 years. Geologic .Antiquity of the Beginning of the Stone Age x\ttention should first be called to the fact that, preceding the epoch we have now entered, the glacial and interglacial forces * This stage is known as the Hchctian or Durntenian of Geikie; it is the Riss-Wiirm of Penck's terminology and the Sangamon of the American glaciologists. 107 108 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE operating over the great peninsula of western Europe had left their impress chiefly on the glaciated areas and only to a minor degree on the free, non-glaciated areas. Until toward the close of Third Interglacial times no traces of northern much less of arctic forests and animals are discovered anywhere, except along the borders of the ice-fields. It would appear as if the animal and plant hfe of Europe were, in the main, but slightly affected _OLITHI C 8 A-^JUAN-TARDEmiSIAN \ UPPER 7 MAGDALENIAN 6 SOLUTREAN _5AURIGNAC.IAN_ 25p00 YEARS ' 4 MOUSTERIAN SOpOO YEARS 3ACHEULEAN 75p00 YEARS 2CHELLEAN lOOpOO YEARS I PRE-CHELLEAN I25P00 YEARS "^6 /SOpOO VAfr\ IIPPFQ PALAEO- .UTHIC LOWER "^PALAEO- LITHIC CRO-MAGNON CRIMALDI NEANDERTHAL (KRAPINA) P/LTDOWN Glacial Epoch Culture Stages Iluman Types Fig. $2. Human types and culture stages of the last third of the Glacial Epoch. Theo- retic estimates of the geologic and time divisions and introduction of human races during the Third Interglacial, Fourth Glacial, and Postglacial Stages (see Fig. 14, p. 41). Prepared by the author with the aid of C. A. Reeds. by the first three glaciations. We cannot entertain for a moment the behef that in glacial times all the warm flora and fauna mi- grated southward and then returned, because there is not a shred of evidence for this theory. It is far more in accord with the known facts to believe that all the southern and eastern forms of life had become very hardy, for we know how readily animals now living in the warm earth belts are acclimatized to northern conditions. If, on the other hand, we depend solely on the testimony of the life conditions, we might conclude that the Pre-Chellean flint workers reached western Europe either in Second Interglacial DATE OF THE PRE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY 109 times, or during the third glaciation, or again during Third In- terglacial times. Let us consider this exidence of the fossil mammals more closely. In favor of the theory that the Pre-Chellean culture is as an- cient as Second Interglacial times, we should consider the fact 10 15 Fig. 53. Distribution of the principal Pre-Chellean and Chellean industrial stations in western Europe. that in several locahties palasoHths of Pre-Chellean if not of Chellean t}pe have been recorded in association with the re- mains of a number of the more primitive mammals which we have described above as characteristic of Second Interglacial times. For example, at Torralba, Province of Soria, Spain, there has been discovered^ an old typical Chellean camp site, containing abundant remains of the broad-nosed rhinoceros and of the south- ern mammoth, mingled with the remains of other mammals of very ancient t}'pe, identified as the Etruscan rhinoceros and as 110 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Steno's horse. Again, along the River Somme, near Abbeville, in the gisement dii Champ de Mars- it is said that Pre-Chellean and Chellean implements have been found in association with the Etruscan rhinoceros, Steno's horse, and very numerous specimens of the sabre-tooth tiger and of the striped hytena. Moreover, in Fig. 54. Western Europe during the extension of the ice-fields and glaciers (dots) of the Third Glacial Stage — a period of continental depression believed to have been less extensive than that of the Second Glacial Stage (see Fig. 25, p. 65). The line from Scandinavia to northern Africa corresponds to the section shown in Fig. 13, p. 37. Drawn by C. A. Reeds, after Geikie and Penck. (Compare Fig. 13.) Piltdown, Sussex, Pre-Chellean flints and the Piltdown skull are said to have occurred in a layer containing a rhinoceros which may be identified with the Etruscan, If these very ancient species of animals are rightly recognized and determined, and if they are truly found as reported in close association in the same layers with Pre-Chellean and Chellean flints, the evidence may DATE OF THE PRE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY 111 be considered as quite strong that the beginning of Chellean cul- ture dates from Second Interglacial times; unless, indeed, it should prove that these primitive species of mammals survived into Third Interglacial times in certain favored districts. We should also consider the possibiHty that these more ancient animals, the sabre-tooth tiger, Steno's horse, the Etruscan rhinoceros, and the giant beaver, did not really belong in the same layer with these Fig. 55. Excavation at Chelles-sur-IMame, the Palaeolithic station where Chellean flint implements were first discovered. We obser\^e the very close, regular, and unbroken succession of the geological layers containing the Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian flints. old palaeoliths but were accidentally washed into this layer from other more ancient deposits. As a rule, it is the most recent animals which establish a prehistoric date, because we know that a palaeolith cannot be older than the most recent mammal with which it occurs. The record of the three early glaciations is not fully written in the animal and plant life, but it appears to be found in the river channels. Both in England and France these channels at- test flooded conditions during the earlier glaciations,^in which large 112 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE quantities of gravels and sands were transported, and it is of these materials that the 'high terraces' were built up. It is chiefly the geologic evidence which establishes the Pre-Chellean date. Geologic and chmatic lines of evidence in France indicate that the Pre-Chellean culture is first witnessed during the begin- ning of Third Interglacial times. This is the opinion of Boule, Haug, Obermaier, Breuil, Schmidt, and many other geologists and archaeologists. That the first Palceolithic flint workers found their way into western Europe during the early part of Third Interglacial times is consistent with our observations on the se- quence of climate, on the formation of the 'low river terraces,' where palaeohths of the earUest type occur, as well as with the general succession of mammalian life throughout the climatic changes of this interglacial period. It would appear, in explana- tion of the facts cited above regarding the fossil mammals, that when the Pre-Chellean flint workers established their camps along the valley of the River Somme in northern France a very genial climate prevailed in this region, favorable even, as we shall see, to the survival of some of the Pliocene types of mammals, such as the sabre- tooth tiger and the Etruscan rhinoceros. During the early part of the Third Interglacial Stage the cli- mate, so far as we can judge by the unchanged aspect of the animal life, remained of the same warm temperate character. Two only of the surviving Pliocene forms, namely, the sabre- tooth tigers and the Etruscan rhinoceroses, became rare or extinct. From evidence afforded in Kent's Hole, Devonshire, Dawkins is led to believe that the sabre-tooth tiger survived in Britain until Postglacial times. All the rest of the animal world, both the African- Asiatic and the Eurasiatic mammals, continued to flourish throughout western Europe. Not until the latter part of Acheulean times do we discover proofs of a decided change of cHmate ; in the approach of arid conditions similar to those of the steppes of western Asia there was a renewal of the great dust-storms and depositions of 'loess,' such as had previously occurred toward the close of Second Inter- glacial times ; this was followed by the still colder climate of the DATE or THE PRE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY 113 fourth glaciation, which corresj^onds with the closing period of Lower Palaeohthic culture. The evolution of the Pre-Chellean into the Chellean and finally into the Lower Acheulean palaeoliths certainly occupied a very long period of time if we assign it merely the 50,000 or 60,000 years allotted to the Third Interglacial; but even this allotment seems far too long when we observe the relatively limited depth of the river deposits in which these flint cultures succeed each other. For we cannot fail to be impressed by the regular and very close and unbroken succession of the geologic layers contain- ing the Chellean and Acheulean artifacts. (See Fig. 55.) None the less it follows that a long lapse of time must be allowed for each culture period, and for the advance in technique.^ It is this wide distribution that has enabled the de Mortillets (father and son), Capitan, Riviere, Reboux, Daleau, Peyrony, Obermaier, Commont, Schmidt, and others to establish in vari- ous parts of Europe the main stages of the industrial evolution of the Old Stone Age, or Lower Palaeohthic. Subdivisions of the Lower Paleolithic Cultures^* MousTERiAX. Late industry of the Neanderthal races. Extensive use of the 'flake.' Late Mousterian. La Quina scrapers, small 'coups de poing,' and bone anvils, closing with the Abri Audit culture. Middle Mousterian. Culmination of the IMousterian 'point' finely flaked and chipped on one side, the best examples approaching the Solutrean perfection of technique. Early Mousterian. Heart-shaped 'coups de poing' and Mousterian flake 'points' and flake scrapers. Acheulean. Early industry of the Neanderthal races. Extensive use of the nodular core. Late Acheulean. Miniature ' lance points ' of La Micoque type, triangular 'coups de poing,' and flint flakes of Levallois type. Middle Acheulean. Pointed oval 'coups de poing,' much lighter than the Chellean types, and small implements similar to the Chellean but much improved in workmanship. Early Acheulean. Broad oval 'coups de poing' much more symmetrical than the Chellean but still rather heav\^ Small types. * Modified after Schmidt. lU MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Chellean. Late Chellean. Long pointed 'coups de poing,' in most cases flaked on both sides, with httle of the crust of the nodule adhering and the edges still unsymmetrical. First appearance of the oval 'coups de poing.' Early Chellean. First appearance of 'coups de poing' of almond shape. Small implements, including scrapers, planes, and borers. All imple- ments unsymmetrical and with uneven Pre-Chellean. Probable industry of the Piltdown and of the (Pre- Neanderthaloid) Heidelberg races. Use of chance and accidental forms. Forms partly accidental; retouch limited to the few strokes necessary to give a point or edge to the tool, or to allow a firm grasp (protective retouch). Prototypes of 'coup de poing' formed of flint nodules with crust only partially removed. If we suppose that the Pre-Chellean flint workers arrived in Europe not earlier than Third Interglacial times, we can ex- plain all the gradations in the evolution of their implements in connection with the changes of climate and of animal life which the geologic and fossil deposits reveal, especially in the" valleys of the Somme and of the Thames. If, on the other hand, the Pre-Chellean is dated in Second In- terglacial times,* it carries this culture back another hundred thousand years and involves our prehistory in great difhculties. First, there is no proof whatever that the Pre-Chellean and Chel- lean flint workers lived during the period of the formation of the 'high river terraces' of the third glaciation, for no Palaeolithic flints have ever been found buried in the sands or gravels of the 'high terraces.' The occurrence of archaic flints on the 'high terraces' of the Somme and of the Seine is in superficial gravel beds which were deposited long after these 'terraces' had been cut by river action ; this is best seen in the Somme, where archaic flints occur alike in the gravels deposited upon the 'low,' 'mid- dle,' and 'high terraces.' Second, there is no proof that the Pre-CheUean and CheUean flint workers passed through the cold climatic period of the third glaciation ; nowhere in Europe have * The weakness of Penck's argument for placing the Chellean in the Second Inter- glacial was exposed by precise observations of Boule* and Obermaier'' in the Alps, the Jura, and the Pyrenees. DATE OF THE PRE-CHELLEAN INDUSTRY 115 any records been found of their camps or stations in association with the cold fauna or flora of Third Glacial times. Third, the geographical evidence is ecjuall}' at variance with the theory that the Pre-Chellean flint workers entered Europe during the Second Interglacial Stage, for we know positively that in many of the great river-valleys of Europe, especially those surrounding the .Alps, the rivers were at much higher levels than at present and that they were transporting the materials out of which the ' high terraces' were being formed or cutting these 'terraces' down by erosion. In other words, the geography of Europe in First and Second Interglacial times was very different from what it is at present ; most of the river- valleys were broader and less deep ; some of them had been eroded to a point below their present levels and had begun to silt up in allu\ial deposits. In Third Interglacial times the river geography of Europe was substantially as it is to-day, although the coast-lines were still very different. When Pre-Chellean man appeared, we shall see that the river-valleys of the Somme and Marne, in northern France, as well as of the Thames, in southeastern England, were closely similar to what they are at present in respect to their water- levels; in other words, the inland geography of Europe in the north in Chellean times and in central and southern France in the immediately succeeding Acheulean times was very much like it is at present. The superficial characters of the valleys were different ; the streams in Chellean times flowed through gravels and sands, partaking of a glacial aspect ; one or more of the ' river terraces ' composed of sands and gravels were still sharply defined, for the soft covering of 'loam' and alluvial soil from the surrounding uplands and hills had not yet washed down to soften the outlines of the 'terraces.' Neither were the 'terraces' covered with the newer deposits of 'loess.' Fig. 56. Restoration of the geo^raph)' of western Europe during the Third Interglacial Stage, showing the ancient hind areas (dots) and the ancient river channels now submerged by the sea. INIodified after Avebury's Prchislork Times by permission of Henry Holt & Co. The si.\ white crosses (X) indicate the location of the principal Pre- Chellean stations of Piltdown on the Ouse, and Gray's Thurrock on the Thames, in England; of Abbeville, on the north bank, and St. Acheul, on the south bank of the Somme, and Chelles on the Marne, in France; and of Helin in Belgium. It will be observed that the English stations are separated from the others only by the ancient broad valley corresponding with the present English Channel. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 117 Secular Changes of Climate in Lower Paleolithic Times We find evidences of four climatic and life phases during the long period of Lower Palaeolithic evolution, as follows : 4. Cold Moist Climate. — Advent of the fourth glaciation. Arrival of the 'full jMousterian' culture and of the Neanderthal race in Belgium and France. Repair of men to the warmer shelters, grottos, and entrances to the caverns. Final disappearance of the hardy Merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant. Arrival of the tundra fauna, the reindeer, the woolly mammoth, and the woolly rhinoceros. Refrigeration of western Europe as far south as northern Spain and Italy. Wide distribution of cold alpine, tundra, and steppe mammals all over Germany and France, and into northern Spain. Cold tundra flora in the Thames valley, and at Hoxne, in Suffolk. ISIigration of the tundra mammals, the reindeer, mammoth, and rhinoceros all over southern Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, and Austria. 3. Arid Climate in Western Europe. — Period of the close of the Acheulean culture ; some of the flint workers seeking the shelter of cliffs and approach- ing the entrances to the grottos during the cold season of the year. A dry steppe climate, prevafling westerly winds, and deposits of 'loess' aU over northern France and Germany. Appearance of the first Neanderthaloid men in Krapina, Croatia. Cool forest flora in the region of La Celle-sous- Moret near Paris, followed by depositions of 'loess' and increasingly cool and arid climate. Early Mousterian industry. Disappearance first of the more sensitive pair of Asiatic mammals, the hippopotamus and the southern mammoth (£. trogontherii) ; persistence of the more hardy, straight-tusked elephant (£. antiquus) and the broad-nosed rhinoceros {D. merckii). 2. Continued Warm Temperate Period. — Time of the Chellean culture found at Chelles, St. Acheul, Gray's Thurrock, Ilford, Essex, and southward in Torralba, Spain. Abundance of hippopotami, rhinoceroses, southern mammoths, and straight-tusked elephants in northern Germany at Taubach, Weimar, Ehringsdorf, and Achenheim. Rare appearance of sabre-tooth tigers. Temperate forest and alpine flora of Durnten and Utznach, Switzer- land. Early Acheulean culture widely distributed over all of western Europe. I. Early Warm Temperate Period. — The warm climate of the Pre-Chel- lean culture period, as seen in the valleys of the Somme, of the Thames, and of the Seine near Paris, favorable to the southern mammoth and the hip- popotamus. Apparent survival of the sabre-tooth tiger and the Etruscan rhinoceros in favored regions. A warm temperate forest flora in La Celle- 118 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE sous-Moret near Paris and in Lorraine. Arrival of the Pre-Chellean flint workers and of the Piltdown race in southern England. It is believed that the cHmate of Third Interglacial times when it reached its maximum warmth was again somewhat milder than the present climate in the same region. In the Alps the glaciers and the snow-line retreated once more to their present levels. The period opened with humid continental conditions. The areas left bare by the ice were gradually reforested. A picture of the climate in this warm period is presented in the region near Paris in the so-called tuf de La Celle-sous-Moret (Seine-et-Marne) . This tufa, which is a hot-springs deposit, overlies river-gravels of Pleistocene age.'^ The lower levels of the tufa contain the syca- more-maple (Acer pseudo plat anus), willows, and the Austrian pine, indicating a temperate climate. Higher up in the same deposits we find evidences of increasingly mild temperatures in the pres- ence of the box (Buxus) and not infrequently of the fig-tree ; the Canary laurel (Laurus nobilis) is somewhat rarer and both it and the fig indicate that the winters were mild, because these plants have the pecidiarity of flowering during the winter season ; we infer, therefore, that the chmate was somewhat milder and more damp than it is in the same region at the present time. The mollusks also indicate greater equabihty of climate. These deposits are believed to correspond with the period of Chellean and early Acheulean industry. The plants in the highest levels of the same tufa, however, indicate the advent of a colder climate and also connect this with the Acheulean culture stage through the presence of Acheu- lean flints. The deposit of tufa is covered by a sheet of 'loess' corresponding with the return of an arid period in late Acheulean times, in the very heart of northern France. Thus we have a record in the region near the present city of Paris of three cli- matic phases, which are also more or less completely indicated in deposits to the north along the River Somme and in the valley of the ancient Thames. In western France we again interpret the fossil flora of Lor- raine as belonging to the cooler closing period of Third Intergla- GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 119 cial times and to the advent of the fourth glaciation, for here the most northern varieties of the larch [Larix) and of the moun- tain-pine {Piniis lambcrtiana) predominate. The clearest \dew of the contemporary alpine forests is found near ZUrich in the lignitic deposits of Diirnten and of Utznach, which are so characteristic of the temperate period of the Third Interglacial Stage that Geikie has proposed to call this stage the Dilrntenian} It was, we recall, at Diirnten that Morlot^ found the first proofs of a warm or temperate interglacial flora, between the deposits of a retreating glacier and those of an advancing glacier ; for Diirnten is well within the region which was covered by the vast ice-fields both of the third and fourth glaciations. The forests which flourished there in Third Interglacial times were similar to those now found in the same region, consisting of the spruce, fir, mountain-pine, larch, beech, yew, and sycamore, with undergrowth of hazel. With this hardy flora are associated the remains of the straight-tusked elephant, of Merck's rhi- noceros, of wild cattle, and of the stag ; another evidence for our opinion that all these Asiatic mammals had become habituated to the cool temperate climate of the north. Life on the River Somme from Pre-Chellean to Neolithic Times The borders of the River Somme at St. Acheul give us a vista of the whole story of the succession of geologic events; the great changes of climate, the procession of animal life, the sequence of human races and cultures. Here Commont^° has found the key to the history of this entire country and enabled us to parallel events here with those occurring far away in Taubach, on the borders of the Thuringian forest, and at Krems in Lower Austria, as studied by Obermaier. This is because the ' older ' and ' newer ' loess periods, the succession of climates and of mammals, and the development of human cultures were all not local but con- tinental events. The purely local events are found in the kinds of gravels and soils which washed down over the terraces. 120 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE It is very important first to clearly picture in our minds and understand the geography of the Somme at the time of the arrival of the Pre-Chellean flint workers. It appears certain that all three of the old river terraces composed of limestone had been cut long before and that the river had already reached the bottom level of the underlying chalk rock.^^ The higher terrace, then as now, was loo feet above the Somme, the middle terrace about 70 feet, and the lowest terrace extended from a height of about 40 feet down underneath the present river level (see Fig, 59). ■1 1 m m ET d j^^^^^^SOB g^^ w Bi S i* m Fig. 57. Three ancient river terraces (I, II, III), on the west bank of the Connecticut River in Vermont, believed to be of Postglacial age. The terraces are respectively 140, 60, and 20 feet above the river, and thus show a profile similar to that of the ter- races on the Somme in Pre-Chellean times previous to the accumulation of the deposits bearing Palaeolithic flints. Photograph by H. H. H. Langill. Since the most primitive Pre-Chellean flints occur in the coarse gravels which lie on the floors of these terraces immediately above the chalk, they prove that the entire excavation of the valley had been completed when the Pre-Chellean workers arrived there. Commont believes that this was the actual topography of the valley during the Third Interglacial Stage. The occurrence of Chellean flints in the white sands overlying the coarse gravels of the middle and upper terraces does not indicate that the flint workers were encamped here while these terraces were being cut out by the River Somme but rather that they sought these convenient bluffs for their quarries during the time that these sands and gravels were washing down from the sides of the valleys and from the plateaus above. Fig. 58. Four typical forms of the Chellean coup dc poijig, or ' hand-stone,' from the ancient quarries of St. Acheul. About one-half actual size. a. Disc-shaped — upper left. c. Poniard-shaped — lower left. b. Oval — upper right. d. Almond-shaped — lower right, In the collection of the American Museum of Natural History. ^ >^- ^ m^ 1 if i % 4 ^ J 1 1 j 1 i 1 1 1 1 V 1 t-3 < \ § H ■: 1 i i 1 1* o s -S 5i ^ ^ f^ •^ 1 § 1 ^ % 1 -^ V 1 3 1 1 '^ 1 "i ^ ^ 1 '~S 1 if ■- • ^ - 1 ^ 1 \3 »-2 ^ -i i "^ 1 W 1 ^ o H ^ •2 1 J 3 i i ^° 1 ^ : CO ~^ 5 ^ f\^ ^^ 1 i l/!ll / =^ "^ ^fei'^ WJa ^ I \ i#Ul| ,/ '^ 3 W ^ pif ^^^" \ C ItesL^ A ! s W^ SM K s in ^i m.^ ^ lV.1 1 1 v5 ^ "|o ^t<(\"]%^^i-LLL:\i 1 ::2 C 00 ^V' ^^ ■ '•' TnTn^r^-----^ ^ '^ p^" X%t' ^' 1 1\ '"^ o so ^ 1 is ~-\ 'i' .0 05 ^ § ^S w p> \\. ^5 H ^Sl H w ^ !;^ w In ^ -^ i ►-3 W \ 1 ^1 « ''■/ 1 / 1 E 1 "w e 1' g 1' it 1 ^ 1/ jt/j g 1 kH S o w w K vV*^!^ \ H , h4 1 IS ^n^ ^I^In^ g^ V 2 ^ M ^ I O M lU 11?^ UH ? 1 S "^ o E o -53 • 2 u ^ °2 5 cj t« rt "^ Ji '^ s go §.|-^ -< ■S a. o ° O IT: ^ Tn u:, O -S ^ ^ .S « ^ o =^ *^ ■S "^ o '-S 2 *" «i !o , <^ bf5 " ?2 o a .S 3 ^ S ^, § bo. ^ c r; O p , rt I- " x: C o rt a £ E T;^.- THE RIVER-DRIFT STATIONS 123 Prehistory of St. Acheul X EOLITH IC. Campignian loam. recent earth and UPPER PALEOLITHIC. Solutrean. Upper Aurignacian, loam. Middle Aurignacian, 'newer loess' and gravel. and of The history of the climatic changes in the ancient valle\' of the Somme is most clearly written in these successive deposits, 15 feet in thickness, above the 'lower gravels' at St. Acheul. lAlong with the Pre-Chellean and Chellean flints in the ' old gravels ' and 'white sands' we find rec- ords of the moist warm temperate climate which then prevailed in northern France and which un- doubtedly was most favorable to the hippopotami, rhinoceroses, and elephants of those times. The river mollusks found with the late Chellean flints are another indication of the temperate forest climate which continued through early Acheulean times. In the middle Acheulean are found the earhest deposits of 'older loess' which indicate a cli- mate still temperate but arid, be- longing to the middle of the Third Interglacial Stage. In Mouste- rian times we find heavy deposits of gravels corresponding to the moist cold climate of the Fourth Glacial Stage, followed in middle Aurignacian times by fresh layers of 'newer loess,' indicating the return of a dry climate. FinaUy, the layers of loam which were washed dowm over the sides of the vaUey, and in which the re- mains of Solutrean and Aurignacian camps are found, indicate the renewal of moist and probably forested conditions. Thus, two dry loess periods are indicated in this valley, the first or 'older loess' belonging to Third Interglacial times, and the second or ' newer loess ' to Postglacial times ; and we clearly perceive that in the culture layers here there is no evidence what- LOWER PALEOLITHIC. Late Mousterian, gravel 'newer loess.' Early Mousterian, base 'newer loess' (Verger on). Middle Acheulean, 'older loess' and drift. Early Acheulean, gravels below 'older losss' (£. antiquus). Late Chellean, flu via tile sands and mollusk fauna. Early Chellean, first coups de poing; old 'white sands' (£. antiquus). Pre-Chellean, prototypes of coup de poing; old 'lower gravels' (£. antiquus). 124 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ever of more than one glacial stage preceded by a dry climatic period and deposits of loess. If the Pre-Chellean flint workers had arrived in this river-valley as early as Second Interglacial times, we should find proofs of three periods of arid chmate and loess deposition and of two glaciations. Beginning wath middle Acheulean times the flints are found in deposits of gravels, loams, brick-earths, and 'older loess,' which all belong to a succeeding geologic stage and are of more recent date than the lower gravels and sands on the terraces which they overlap and conceal. Deposits of this kind have also been drifted down from the highest levels toward the bottom of the valley, and Commont distinguishes three different depositions or layers of 'loess loam,' the lowest or oldest of which contain Acheulean flints, while the middle loams contain Mousterian im- plements. Even toward the close of the Third Interglacial Stage there were periods of warmth, perhaps during the height of the hot summer season, when animals of the warm fauna migrated from the south. Thus Commont has recently discovered in the valley of the Somme a station of Mousterian flint workers, whose in- dustry is associated with remains of the three animals typical of the warmer cHmatic phase ; namely, the straight-tusked elephant, the broad-nosed rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus. He has re- affirmed his belief that the greater part of this chapter of human prehistory, both as to the surface topography of the Somme valley and the evolution of the flint cultures from Pre-Chellean to Mousterian times, occurred during the Third Interglacial Stage. The Early Warm Temperate Period of the Pre- Chellean Culture* We have observed that from Torralba in the Province of Soria, Spain, to Abbeville, near the mouth of the Somme, in the north of France, three tj^pes of animals which entered Europe as * The writer is indebted to M. Marcelin Boule and to M. I'Abbe Henri Breuil for their observations on this fauna and culture period. THE RIVER-DRIFT STATIONS 125 early as Upper Pliocene times, namely, the Etruscan rhinoceros, the horse of Steno, and the sabre-tooth tiger, are said to occur in connection with early Chellean artifacts. The two former species may possibly be confused with early forms of Merck's rhinoceros and the true forest horses of Europe, but there can be no question as to the identification of the sabre-tooth tiger, num- bers of which were found by M. d'Ault du ]\Iesnil, at Abbex-ille, on the Somme, with early Chellean flints. The mammalian life of the Somme at this time, as found in the gisement du Champ de Mars near Abbe\dlle, is very rich. Among the larger forms there is cer- Pre-Chellean Fauna tainly the great southern mammoth {E. Southern mammoth. meridionalis trogontherii), and possibly Etruscan rhinoceros. also the straight-tusked elephant (E. Hippopotamus. antiquus). There are unquestionably Primitive horse ^ . . ^ • ^ ^^ {Eqims stenonis)? ^wo species of rhmoceros, the smaller Sabre-tooth tiger. of which is recognized by Boule as the Broad-nosed rhinoceros. Etruscan, and the larger as Merck's Straight-tusked elephant. ^hi^^.^.^g, S^^no's horse is said to oc- Giant beaver {Trogontherium ciivieri). cur here, and there are abundant re- Short-faced hyaena. mains of the great hippopotamus {H. T>Tical Eurasiatic forest ^^^ajor) ; the sabre-tooth tigers were and meadow fauna, in- ^^ ^ j i ^.i j- eluding deer, bison, and ^^^ry numerous as attested by the dis- w-ild cattle. covery of the lower jaws of thirty or more individuals. The short-faced hyaena {H. hrevirostris) is also found, and there are several species of deer and wild cattle. This remarkably rich collection of mammals is associated with fhnts of primitive Chellean or, possibly, of Pre-Chellean t\-pe.^2 In Torralba, Spain, the same very ancient animals occur, and it appears possible that this was the prevailing mammalian life of Pre-Chellean times. We may conclude, therefore, that there is considerable evi- dence, although not as yet quite convincing, that the early Chel- lean flint workers arrived in western Europe before the disap- pearance of the Etruscan rhinoceros and the sabre-tooth tiger. 126 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The Pre-Chellean Stations (See Figs. 53 and 56.) The dawn of the Palaeolithic Age is indicated in various ri\'er- drift stations by the appearance of crude flint weapons as well as tools or implements, in addition to the supposed tools of Eolithic times. There is an unmistakable effort to fashion the flint into a definite shape to serve a definite purpose : there can no longer be any question of human handiwork. Thus there gradually arise various types of flints, each of which undergoes its ow^n evolution into a more perfect form. Naturally, the workers at some stations were more adept and inventive than at others. Nevertheless, the primitive stages of invention and of technique were carried from station to station; and thus for the first time we are enabled to establish the archaeological age of A'arious stations in western Europe. Only a few stations have been discovered where the Palaeo- lithic men were first fashioning their flints into protot)^es of the Chellean and Acheulean forms. With relation to the theory that these primitive flint workers may have entered Europe by way of the northern coast of Africa, we observe that these stations are confined to Spain, southern and northern France, Belgium, and Great Britain. Neither Pre-Chellean nor Chellean stations of unquestioned authenticity have been found in Germany or central Europe, and, so far as present evidence goes, it would appear that the Pre-Chellean culture did not enter Europe directly from the east, or even along the northern coast of the Mediter- ranean, but rather along the northern coast of Africa,* where Chellean culture is recorded in association with mammahan re- mains belonging to the middle Pleistocene Epoch. The southernmost stations of Chellean culture at present known in Europe are those of Torralba and San Isidro, in central Spain. In the Department of the Gironde is the Chellean station of Marignac, and it is not unlikely that other stations will be dis- * Industry similar to the Chellean, but not necessarily of the same age, is distributed all over eastern Africa from Egypt to the Cape. PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT INDUSTRY 127 covered in the same region, because the PalaeoHthic races strongly favored the valleys of the Dordogne and Garonne, but thus far this is the only station known in southern France which represents this period of the dawn of human culture. The chief Pre-Chellean and Chellean stations were clustered along the valleys of the Somme and Seine. Of those rare sites Fig. 6o. Ven- primitive palaeoliths from PiltdowTi, Sussex, consisting chiefly of tools and points of triangular and oval form, fashioned out of flint nodules split in two and flaked on one side only, with very coarse marginal retouch. After Dawson. Nos. i and 2 are nearly one-half actual size; No. 3 nearly one-quarter actual size. presenting a t>^ical Pre-Chellean culture, we may note the neigh- boring stations of St. Acheul and IMontieres, both in the suburbs of Amiens on the Somme, and the station of Helin, near Spiennes, in Belgium, explored by Rutot. A very primitive and possibly Pre-Chellean culture was found on the site of the Champ de Mars, at Abbeville. This culture also extended westward across the broad plain which is now the Strait of Dover to the valley of the Thames, on whose northern bank is the important station of 128 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Gray's Thurrock, while farther to the south is the recently dis- covered site of Piltdo\\Ti, in the valley of the Ouse, Sussex. The flint tools (Fig. 60) found in the la}'er immediately over- lying the Piltdown skull are excessively primitive and indicate that the Piltdown flint workers had not attained the stage of craftsmanship described by Commont as ' Pre-Chellean ' at St. Acheul. "Among the flints," observes Dawson, "we found sev- eral undoubted flint implements besides numerous 'eoliths.' ^^ The workmanship of the former is /' % similar to that of the Chellean or '"^'^hk ^^^^ Pre-Chellean stage; but in the ma- jority of the Piltdown specimens the work appears chiefly on one face of the implements." /J" ^^ '.\ I^ t^^ Helin quarry near Spien- nes^^ occur rude protot>TDes of the ^ ^ r, . • • . J . ■ Palasolithic coup de poing associated F1G.61. FnmiUvecoupsae po!Hi; or jr i o 'hand-stones' of Pre-Chellean with numcrOUS flakeS which do not rh/Zdlir *d 5'.?™:': g^eatly differ from those in tire lowest at St. Acheul. After Commont. river-gravcls of St. Achcul; there is a One-quarter actual size. , j • ^i i close correspondence m the workman- ship of the two sites, so that we may regard the Mesvinian of Rutot* as a culture stage equivalent to the Pre-Chellean. The river-gravels and sands of Helin which contain the implements also resemble those of St. Acheul in their order of stratification. Of special interest is the fact that a primitive flint from this Helin quarry, known as the 'borer,' is strikingly similar to the 'EoUthic' borer found in the same layer with the Piltdown skull in Sussex. By such indications as this, when strengthened by further evidence of the same kind, we may be able eventually to establish the date both of this Pre-Chellean or ]\Ies\dnian culture and of the Pfltdown race. In considering the Pre-Chellean implements found at St. Acheul in 1906, we note^'' that at this dawning stage of human * Schmidt regards the Strepyan implements, which are considered by Rutot and others to be transitional, between the Mesvinian and the Chellean, as closely similar to the Pre-Chellean of France and probably of the same age. PRE-CHELLEAN FLINT INDUSTRY 129 invention the flint workers were not deliberately designing the form of their implements but were dealing rather with the chance shapes of shattered blocks of flint, seeking with a few well- directed blows to produce a sharp point or a good cutting edge. This was the beginning of the art of 'retouch,' which was done by means of light blows with a second stone instead of the ham- mer-stone with which the rough flakes were first knocked off. The retouch served a double purpose: Its first and most im- portant object was further to sharpen the point or edge of the ■ Fig. 62. Primitive gratloir, or planing tool (side and edge views), of Pre- Chellean type, found in the lowest gravels of the terraces at St. Acheul. After Commont. One-quarter actual size. tool. This was done by chipping off small flakes from the upper side, so as to give the flint a saw-like edge. Its second object was to protect the hand of the user by blunting any sharp edges or points which might prevent a firm grip of the implement. Often the smooth, rounded end of the flint nodule, with crust intact, is carefully preserved for this purpose (Fig. 61). It is this grasping of the primitive tool by the hand to which the terms 'coup de poing,' 'Faustkeil,' and 'hand-axe' refer. 'Hand- stone' is, perhaps, the most fitting designation in our language, but it appears best to retain the original French designation, coup de poing. As the shape of the flint is purely due to chance, these Pre- Chellean implements are interpreted by archaeologists chiefly according to the manner of retouch they have received. Already 130 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE they are adapted to quite a variety of purposes, both as weapons of the chase and for trimming and shaping wooden implements and dressing hides. Thus Obermaier observes that the concave, serrated edges characteristic of some of these implements may well have been used for scraping the bark from branches and smoothing them down into poles; that the rough coups de poing would be well adapted to dividing flesh and dressing hides; that the sharp-pointed fragments could be used as borers, and others that are clumsier and heavier as planes (see Fig. 62). The inventory of these ancestral Pre-Chellean forms of im- plements, used in industrial and domestic life, in the chase, and in war, is as follows : Grattoir, planing tool. j^ includes five, possiblv six, Racloir, scraper. i- r ^ n.. \ ^ a Per^oir, drill, borer. chief t\pes. The true coup de Couteau, knife. poing, a combination tool of Percuteur, hammer-stone. Chellean times, is not yet devel- Pierre de jet? throwing stone? .^ ^^^ Pre-Chellean, and the Prototypes 01 ^ ' coup de poing, hand-stone. other implements, although sim- ilar in form, are more primitive. They are all in an experimental stage of development. Indications that this primitive industry spread over south- eastern England as well, and that a succession of Pre-Chellean into Chellean culture may be demonstrated, occur in connection with the recent discovery of the very ancient Piltdown race. The Piltdown Race^^ The 'dawn man' is the most ancient human tj'pe in which the form of the head and size of the brain are known. Its anatomy, as well as its geologic antiquity, is therefore of pro- found interest and worthy of very full consideration. We may first review the authors' narrative of this remarkable discovery and the history of opinion concerning it. Piltdown, Sussex, lies between two branches of the Ouse, about 35 miles south and slightly to the east of Gray's Thurrock, the Chellean station of the Thames. To the east is the plateau of Kent, in which many flints of Eolithic tx-pe have been found. THE PILTDOWX RACE 131 The gravel layer in which the Piltdown skull occurred is situ- ated on a well-dehned plateau of large area and Hes about 80 feet above the level of the main stream of the Ouse. Remnants of the flint-bearing gravels and drifts occur upon the plateau and Fig. 63. Discovery site of the famous Piltdown skull near Piltdown, Sussex. After Dawson. A shallow pit of dark-brown gravel, at the bottom of which were found the fragments of the skull and a single primitive implement of worked flint (see Fig. 65). the slopes down which they trail toward the river and streams. This region was undoubtedly favorable to the flint workers of Pre-Chellean and Chellean times. Kennard^^ believes that the gravels are of the same age as those of the 'high terrace' of the lower valley of the Thames ; the height above the stream level is practically the same, namely, about 80 feet. Another geologist, Clement Reid,^^ holds that the plateau, composed of Wealden chalk, through which flowed the stream bearing the Piltdown gravels, belongs to a period later than that of the maximum de- 132 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE pression of Great Britain ; that the deposits are of Pre-Glacial or early Pleistocene age ; that they belong to the epoch after the cold period of the first glaciation had passed but occur at the very base of the succession of implement-bearing deposits in the south- east of England. On the other hand, Dawson,^^ the discoverer of the Piltdo\^Ti skull, in his first description states : "From these facts it appears probable that the skull and mandible cannot safely be described as being of earlier date than the iirst half of the Pleistocene Epoch. The individual probably Hved during the warm cycle in that age." The section of the gravel bed (Fig. 64) indicates that the re- mains of the Piltdown man were washed down with other fossils by a shallow stream charged with dark-browTi gravel and un- worked flints; some of these fossils were of PHocene times from strata of the upper parts of the stream. In this channel were found the remains of a number of animals of the same age as the Piltdown man, a few flints resembling eoliths, and one very primi- tive worked flint of Pre-Chellean type, which may also have been washed down from deposits of earlier age. These precious geo- logic and archaeologic records furnish the only means we have of determining the age of Eoanthropus, the 'dawn man,' one of the most important and significant discoveries in the whole his- tory of anthropology. We are indebted to the geologist Charles Dawson and the palaeontologist Arthur Smith Woodward for preserving these ancient records and describing them with great fulness and accuracy as follows (pp. 132 to 139): Several years ago Dawson discovered a small portion of an unusually thick human parietal bone, taken from a gravel bed which was being dug for road-making purposes on a farm close to Pfltdown Common. In the autumn of 191 1 he picked up among the rain-washed spoil-heaps of the same gravel-pit another and larger piece of bone belonging to the forehead region of the same skull and including a portion of the ridge extending over the left eyebrow. Immediately impressed with the importance of this discovery, Dawson enlisted the co-operation of Smith Woodward, and a systematic search was made in these spoil- THE PILTDOWN RACE 133 heaps and gravels, beginning in the spring of 191 2 ; all the material was looked over and carefully sifted. It appears that the whole or greater part of the human skull had been scattered by the workmen, who had thrown away the pieces unnoticed. Thor- • • O . ^ (27 ^ c^ I. Surface soil, with flints. Thick- ness = I foot. Palc-yellow sandy loam with gravel and flints. One Palseo- lithic worked flint was found in the middle of this bed. Thickness = 2 feet, 6 inches. Dark-brown gravel, with flints. Pliocene rolled fossils and Eoanthropus skull, beaver tooth, ' eoliths ' and one worked flint. Thickness=i8 inches. Pale-yellow Thickness clay and sand. = 8 inches. Undisturbed strata of Wealden age. Fig. 64. Geologic section of the Piltdown gravel bed, showing in restored outlines at the bottom of layer 3 the position in which the fragments of the skull and jaw were found. After Dawson. ough search in the bottom of the gravel bed itself revealed the right half of a jaw, which was found in a depression of undis- turbed, finely stratified gravel, so far as could be judged on the spot identical with that from which the first portions of the cranium were exhumed. A yard from the jaw an important piece of the occipital bone of the skull was found. Search was renewed in 1913 by Father P. Teilhard, of Chardin, a French anthropologist, who fortunately recovered a single canine tooth, and later a pair of nasal bones were found, all of which frag- 134 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE merits are of very great significance in the restoration of the skull. The jaw appears to have been broken at the symphysis, and somewhat abraded, perhaps after being caught in the gra\-el before it was completely covered with sand. The fragments of the cranium show httle or no signs of stream rolhng or other abrasion save an incision caused by the workman's pick. Analysis of the bones showed that the skull was in a condi- tion of fossilization, no gelatine or organic matter remained, and Fig. 65. The single worked flint of very primitive type found in the same layer (3) with the fragments of the Piltdown skull. After Dawson. One-half actual size. mingled with a large proportion of the phosphates, originally present, was a considerable proportion of iron.* The dark gravel bed (Fig. 64, layer 3), 18 inches in thickness, at the bottom of which the skull and jaw were found, contained a number of fossils which manifestly were not of the same age as the skull but were certainly from Pliocene deposits up-stream ; these included the water-vole and remains of the mastodon, the southern mammoth, the hippopotamus, and a fragment of the grinding- tooth of a primitive elephant, resembhng Stegodon. In the spoil-heaps, from which it is beHeved the skull of the Pilt- down man was taken, were found an upper tooth of a rhinoceros, either of the Etruscan or of Merck's type ; the tooth of a beaver and of a hippopotamus, and the leg-bone of a deer, which may have been cut or incised by man. Much more distinctive was a * The original paper describing this remarkable discovery was read before the Geo- logical Society of London, December, 1912, and published as a separate pamphlet in March, 1913. A discussion as to the geologic age by Kennard, Clement Reid, and others was held at the time of the reading of the original paper. THE PILTDOWN RACE 135 single flint (Fig. 65), worked only on one side, of the very primi- tive or Pre-Chellean t\pe. Implements of this stage, as the au- thor observes, are difficult to classify with certainty, owing to the rudeness of their workmanship ; they resemble certain rude im- plements occasionally found on the surface of the chalk downs near Piltdown. The majority of the flints found in the gravel were worked only on one face ; their form is thick, and the flaking is broad and sparing; the original sur- face of the flint is left in a smooth, natural condition at the point grasped by the hand; the whole implement thus has a very rude and massive form. These flints ap- pear to be of even more primitive form than those at St. Acheul described as Pre-Chellean by Com- mont. The eoHths found in the gravel- pit and in the adjacent fields are of the 'borer' and 'hollow-scraper' forms ; also, some are of the ' crescent-shaped-scraper ' t}pe, mostly rolled and water-worn, as if transported from a distance. This is a stream or river bed, not a Palaeolithic quarry. There can be Httle doubt, however, that the Piltdown man belonged to a period when the flint industry was in a very primi- tive stage, antecedent to the true Chellean. It has subsequently been observed that the gravel strata (3) containing the Pilt- down man were deeper than the higher stratum containing flints nearer the Chellean t}^^ The discovery of this skull aroused as great or greater inter- est even than that attending the discovery of the two other 'river-drift' races, the Trinil and the Heidelberg. In this dis- cussion the most distinguished anatomists of Great Britain, Arthur Smith Woodward, Elliot Smith, and Arthur Keith, took Fig. 66. Eoliths found in or near the Piltdown gravel-pit. After Dawson. One-half actual size. a. Borer (above). b. Curved scraper (below). 136 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE part, and finally the original pieces were re-examined by three anatomists of this country.* It is important to present in full the original opinions of Smith Woodward, who devoted most careful study to the first reconstruction of the skull (Fig. 67), a model which was subse- quently modified by the actual discovery of one of the canine teeth. In his original descrip- tion it is observed that the pieces of the skull preserved are noteworthy for the great thickness of the bone, it being II to 12 mm. as compared with 5 to 6 mm., the average thick- ness in the modern European skull, or 6 to 8 mm., the thick- ness in the skull of the Neander- thal races and in that of the modern AustraUan ; the cepha- lic index is estimated at 78 or 79, that is, the skull is beheved to have been proportionately low and Avide, almost brachy- cephaUc ; there was apparently no prominent or thickened ridge above the orbits, a feature which immediately distin- guishes tliis skull from that of the Neanderthal races ; the sev- eral bones of the brain-case are t\^icaUy human and not in the least like those of the anthropoid apes ; the brain capacity was originally estimated at 1070 c.cm., not equalling that of some of the lowest brain t^-pes in the existing Australian races and de- * By the author of this work, and also by Professor J. Howard McGregor of Columbia University and Doctor William K. Gregory of Columbia University and of the American Museum of Natural Historj'. m-"^^ 4 Fig. 67. Skull of South African Bushman (upper) exhibiting the contrast in the structure of the jaw and forehead. One- quarter life size. Original restoration of the Piltdown skull (lower) made by Smith Woodward in 1913. One-quarter life size. THE PILTDOWN RACE 137 cidedh' below that of the Neanderthal man of Spy and La Chapelle-aux-Saints ; the nasal bones are typically human but relatively small and broad, so that the nose was flattened, re- sembling that in some of the existing Malay and African races. Fig. 68. Three views of the I'iltdown skull as reconstructed by J. H. McGregor, 191 5. This restoration includes the nasal bones and canine tooth, which were not known at the time of Smith Woodward's reconstruction of 1913. One- quarter life size. The jaw presents profoundly different characters ; the whole of the bone preserved closely resembles that of a young chim- panzee ; thus the slope of the bony chin as restored is between that of an adult ape and that of the Heidelberg man, with an extremely receding chin ; the ascending portion of the jaw for the attachment of the temporal muscles is broad and thickened 138 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE anteriorly. Associated with the jaw were two elongated molar teeth, worn down by use to such an extent that the individual could not have been less than thirty years of age and was prob- ably older. These teeth are relatively longer and narrower than those in the modern human jaw. The canine tooth, identified by Smith Woodward as belonging in the lower jaw, strength- ened by the evidence afforded by the jaw itself, proves that the face was elongate or prognathous and that the canine teeth were very prominent like those of the anthropoid apes ; it affords definite proof that the front teeth of the Piltdown man resembled those of the ape. The author's conclusion is that while the skull is essentiall}- human,' it approaches the lower races of man in certain char- acters of the brain, in the attachment of the muscles of the neck, in the large extent of the temporal muscles attached to the jaw, and in the probably large size of the face. The man- dible, on the other hand, appears precisely like that of the ape, with nothing human except the molar teeth, and even these ap- proach the dentition of the apes in their elongate shape and well- developed fifth or posterior intermediate cusp. This type of man, distinguished by the smooth forehead and supraorbital borders and ape-like jaw, represents a new genus called Eoanfhropus, or Mawn man,' while the species has been named dawsoni in honor of the discoverer, Charles Dawson. This very ancient t^'pe of man is defined by the ape-like chin and junction of the two halves of the jaw, by a series of parallel grinding-teeth, with narrow lower molar teeth, which do not diminish in size backward, and by the steep forehead and slight development of the brow ridges. The jaw manifestly differs from that of the Heidelberg man in its comparative slenderness and relative deepening toward the symphysis. The discussion of this very important paper by Smith Wood- ward and Dawson centred about two points. First, whether the ape-like jaw really belonged with the human skull rather than with that of some anthropoid ape which happened to be drifted down in the same stratum ; and second, whether the extremelv THE PILTDOWN RACE 139 low original estimate of the brain capacity of 1070 c.cm., was not due to incorrect adjustment or reconstruction of the separate pieces of the skull. Keith, ^^ the leader in the criticism of Woodward's reconstruc- tion, maintained that when the two sides of the skull were properly restored and made approximately symmetrical, the brain capacity would be found to equal 1500 c.cm. ; the brain cast of the skull even as originally reconstructed was found to be close to 1 200 c.cm. This author agreed that skull, jaw, and canine tooth belonged to Eoanthropiis but that they could not well belong to the same individual. In defense of Woodward's reconstruction came the powerful support of Elliot Smith.^° He maintained that the evidence af- forded by the re-examination of the bones corroborated in the main Smith Woodward's identification of the median plane of the skull ; further, that the original reconstruction of the prog- nathous face was confirmed by the discovery of the canine tooth, also that there remained no doubt that the association of the skull, the jaw, and the canine tooth was a correct one. The back portion of the skull is decidedly asymmetrical, a condition found both in the lower and higher races of man. A slight rearrange- ment and widening of the bones along the median upper line of the skull raise the estimate of the brain capacity to iioo c.cm. as the probable maximum. ElHot Smith continued that he considered the brain to be of a more primitive kind than any human brain that he had ever seen, yet that it could be called human and that it already showed a considerable development of those parts which in modern man we associate with the power of speech ; thus', there was no doubt of the unique importance of this skull as representing an entirely new t}pe of "man in the making." As regards the form of the lower jaw, it was observed that in the dawn of human existence teeth suitable for \veapons of offense and defense were retained long after the brain had attained its human status. Thus the ape-like form of the chin does not signify inability to speak, for speech must have come when the jaws were still ape-like in char- 140 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE acter, and the bony changes that produced the recession of the tooth Hne and the form of the chin were mainly due to sexual ^ selectior^, to the reduction in the size of the grinding-teeth, and, in a minor degree, to the growth and specialization of the muscles of the jaw and tongue employed in speech. At first sight the brain-case resembles that of the Ne- anderthal skull found at Gib- raltar, which is supposed to be that of a woman ; it is rela- tively long, narrow, and es- pecially flat, but it is smaller and presents more primitive features than those of any known human brain. Taking all these features into consideration, we must regard this as being the most primitive and most ape-like human brain so far Fig. 69. The Piltdown skull with the right half removed to display the extreme thick- ness of the bones and the shape of the brain. As restored by J. H. jMcGrcgor. One-quarter life size. Fig. 70. Outline of the left side of the Piltdown brain, compared with similar brain out- lines of a chimpanzee and of a high type of modem man. One-half life size. THE PILTDOWN RACE 141 recorded ; one such as might reasonably be associated with a jaw which presented such distinctive ape characters. The brain, however, is far more human than the jaw, from which we may infer that the evolution of the brain preceded that of the man- dible, as well as the development of beauty of the face and the human development of the bodily characters in general. The latest opinion of Smith Woodward* is that the brain, while the most primitive which has been discovered, had a bulk of nearly 1300 c.cm., equalling that of the smaller human brains of to-day and surpassing that of the Australians, which rarely' exceeds 1250 c.cm. The original \iews of Smith Woodward and of Elliot Smith regarding the relation of the Piltdown race to the Heidelberg and Neanderthal races are also of very great interest and may be cited. First, the fact that the Piltdown and Heidelberg races are almost of the same geologic age proves that at the end of the Phocene Epoch the representatives of man in western Europe had already branched into widely divergent groups : the one (Heidel- berg-Neanderthal) characterized by a very low projecting fore- head, with a subhuman head of Neanderthaloid contour; the other with a flattened forehead and with an ape-like jaw of the Piltdown contour. We should not forget that in the Piltdown skull the absence of prominent ridges above the eyes may possi- bly be due in some degree to the fact that the type skull may belong to a female, as suggested by certain characters of the jaw ; but among all existing apes the skull in early life has the rounded shape of the Piltdown skull, with a high forehead and scarcely any brow ridges. It seems reasonable, therefore, to interpret the Piltdown skull as exhibiting a closer resemblance to the skulls of our human ancestors in mid-Tertiary times than any fossil skull hitherto found. If this view be accepted, we may suppose that the Piltdown t\pe became gradually modified into the Neander- thal t>^e by a series of changes similar to those passed through by the early apes as they evolved into t>T3ical modern apes, with their low brows and prominent ridges above the eyes. This * Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man, 1915.1. 14^2 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE would tend to support the theory that the Neanderthal men were degenerate offshoots of the Tertiary race, of which the Piltdown skull provides the first discovered evidence — a race with a simple, flattened forehead and developed eye ridges. Elliot Smith concluded that members of the Piltdown race might well have been the direct ancestors of the existing species Fig. 71. Restoration of the head of Piltdown man, in profile, based upon the reconstruction shown in Fig. 68, p. 137. After model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. of man {Homo sapiens), thus affording a direct hnk with undis- covered Tertiary apes; whereas, the more recent fossil men of the Neanderthal type, with prominent brow ridges resembling those of the existing apes, may have belonged to a degenerate race which later became extinct. According to this view, Eoan- thropiis represents a persistent and very slightly modified de- scendant of the type of Tertiary man which was the common THE PILTDOWN RACE 143 ancestor of a branch giving rise to Homo sapiens, on the one hand, and of another branch giving rise to Homo ucandcrtha- Icnsis, on the other. ■ Another theory as to the relationships of Eoantliropus is that of ^NlarceHn Boule,-^ who is incHned to regard the jaws of the Piltdown and Heidelberg races as of similar geologic age, but of Fig. 72. Restoration of the head of Piltdown man, full front, after model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. (Compare Figs. 68 and 71.) dissimilar racial t\pe. He continues: "If the skull and jaw of Piltdown belong to the same individual, and if the mandibles of the Heidelberg and Piltdown men are of the same type, this dis- covery is most valuable in estabhshing the cranial structure of the Heidelberg race. But it appears rather that we have here two t}pes of man which lived in Chellean times, both distinguished bv verv low cranial characters. Of these the Piltdown race seems 144 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE to us the probable ancestor in the direct hne of the recent species of man, Homo sapiens; while the Heidelberg race may be con- sidered, until we have further knowledge, as a possible precursor of Homo neanderthalensis.'' The latest opinion of the German anatomist Schwalbe-- is that the proper restoration of the region of the chin in the Pilt- down man might make it possible to refer this jaw to Homo sapiens, but this would merely prove that Homo sapiens already existed in early Pleistocene times. The skull of the Piltdown man, continues Schwalbe, corresponds with that of a well-developed, good-sized skull of Homo sapiens ; the only unusual feature is the remarkable thickness of the bone.* Finally, our own opinion is that the Piltdown race was not related at all either to the Heidelbergs or to the Neanderthals, nor was it directly ancestral to any of the other races of the Old Stone Age, or to any of the existing species of man. As shown in the human family tree in Chapter VI, the Piltdown race represents a side branch of the human family which has left no descendants at all. jVIammalian Life of Chellean and Acheulean Times -^ The mammalian life which we find with the more advanced implements of Chellean times apparently does not include the old Pliocene mammals, such as the Etruscan rhinoceros and the sabre-tooth tiger. With this exception it is so similar to that of Second Interglacial times that it may serve to prove again that the third glaciation was a Ipcal episode and not a wide-spread climatic influence. This life is ever^'where the same, from the * The reconstruction (Fig. 66) of the Piltdown skull made by Professor J. H. Mc- Gregor has a cranial capacity of about 1300 c.cm. The brain (Fig. 70) is seen to be very narrow and low in the prefrontal area, the seat of the higher mental faculties. In the re- construction the cranial region is in the main very like the second restoration by Doctor Smith Woodward, but the jaws differ in some respects. The tooth hitherto regarded as a right lower canine, is now placed as the left upper canine, in accord with the con- clusions of the author of this work and of Doctors Matthew and Gregory of the Ameri- can ^Museum of Natural History. The dental arches are more curved, thus more human and less ape-like than in the Smith Woodward restoration, and the chin region is made somewhat deeper, thus giving a somewhat less prognathous aspect to the face. Pl. I\'. The Piltdovm man of Sussex, England. Antiquity variously estimated at 100,000 to 300,000 years. The ape-like structure of the jaw does not prevent the expression of a considerable degree of intelligence in the face. After the restora- tion modelled by J. H. McGregor. MAMMALIAN LIFE 147 valley of the Thames, as witnessed in the low river-gravels of Gray's Thurrock and Ilford, to the region of the present Thu- ringian forests near Weimar, where it Southern mammoth. j^ f^^^d in the deposits of Taubach, Sgtousked elephant. Ehringsdorf, and Achenheim, in which Broad-nosed rhinoceros. the mammals belong to the more recent Spotted hyaena. date of early Acheulean culture. The .^'^^ , ., , life of this great region during Chellean Bison and wild ox. i i . i i • Red deer ^^^ early Acheulean tmies was a mm- Roe-deer. gling of the characteristic forest and Giant deer. meadow fauna of western Europe with Brown bear. ^^^ descendants of the African-Asiatic u oil. gadger. invaders of late Pliocene and early Marten. Pleistocene times. ^^^^^- The forests were full of the red deer Hamster {Cervus elaphus), of the roe-deer (C. cap- Water-vole. reolus) , and of the giant deer (Megaceros) , also of a primitive species of wild boar {Sus scroja ferns) and of wild horses probably representing more than one variety. The browTi bear {Ursus arctos) of Europe is now for the first time identified ; there was also a primitive species of wolf {Canis snessi). The small carnivora of the forests and of the streams are all considered as closely related to existing species, namely, the badger {Meles taxus), the marten {Mustela martes), the otter (Lutra vulgaris), and the water-vole {Arvicola amphibius). The prehistoric beaver of Europe {Castor fiber) now replaces the giant beaver (Trogontherium) of Second Interglacial times. xAmong the large carnivora, the Hon {Felis leo antiqua) and the spotted hyaena {H. crocuta) have replaced the sabre-tooth tiger and the striped hyaena of early Pleistocene times. Four great Asiatic mammals, including two species of elephants, one species of rhinoceros, and the hippopotamus, roamed through the forests and meadows of this warm temperate region. The horse of this period is considered ^^ to belong to the Forest or Nordic type, from which our modern draught-horses have descended. The 148 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE lions and hysenas which abounded in Chellean and early Acheulean times are in part ancestors of the cave t^pes which appear in the succeeding Reindeer or Cavern Period. In general, this mam- malian life of Chellean and early Acheulean times in Europe fre- quented the river shores and the neighboring forests and meadows favored by a warm temperate climate with mild winters, such as is indicated by the presence of the fig-tree and of the Canary laurel in the region of north central France near Paris. Undoubtedly the Chellean and Acheulean hunters had begun the chase both of the bison, or wisent {B. priscus), and of the wild cattle, or aurochs.* This warm temperate mammalian life spread very widely over northern Europe, as shown especially in the distribution (Fig. 44) of the hippopotamus, the straight- tusked elephant, and Merck's rhinoceros. The latter pair were constant companions and are seen to have a closely similar and somewhat more north- erly range than the hippopotamus, which is rather the climatic companion of the southern mammoth and ranges farther south. These animals in the gravel and sand layers along the river slopes and Herraces' mingled their remains with the artifacts of the flint workers. For example, in the gravel 'terraces' of the Somme we find the bones of the straight-tusked elephant and Merck's rhinoceros in the same sand layers with the Chellean flints. Thus the men of Chellean times may weU have pursued this giant elephant (£. antiqiius) and rhinoceros {D. merckii) as their tribal successors in the same vaUey hunted the woolly mam- moth and woolly rhinoceros. Distribution of the Chellean Implements .All over the world may be found traces of a Stone Age, ancient or modern, primitive implements of stone and flint analogous to * The early Teutonic designation of these animals was as follows: bison, 'wisent,' wild ox, 'auerochs,' 'urochs' (the 'urus' of Caesar). The urus survived in Germany as late as the sev^enteenth century, while a few of the bison or 'wisent' survive to the present time. The bison was distinctively a short-headed animal, while its contemporary, the urus, was long-headed and less agile. At Diirnten, near Zurich, remains of the urus are found associated with those of the hardy, straight-tusked elephant and of ^Merck's rhinoc- eros. (See Appendix, Note IV.) CHELLEAN INDUSTRY 149 those of the true Chellean period of western Europe but not really identical when ver}' closely compared. These represent the early attempts of the human hand, directed by the primitive mind, to fasliion hard materials into forms adapted to the pur- poses of war, the chase, and domestic life. The result is a series l''iG. 73. Distribution of the principal Pre-Chellean and Chellean industrial stations in western Europe. of parallels in form which come under the evolution principle of convergence. Thus, in all the continents except Australia — in Europe, in Asia, and even in North and South America — primi- tive races have passed through an industrial stage similar to the typical Chellean of western Europe. This we should rather at- tribute to a similarity in human invention and in human needs than to the theory that the Chellean industry originated at some particular centre and travelled in a slowly enlarging wave over the entire world. 150 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE In western Europe the Chellean culture certainly had a de- velopment all its own, adapted to a race of bold hunters who lived in the open and whose entire industry developed around the products of the chase. For them flint and quartzite took the place of bronze, iron, or steel. This culture marked a distinct and probably a very long epoch of time in which inventions and multipHcations of form were gradually spread from tribe to tribe. Fig. 74. Section of the middle and high terraces at St. Acheul, from southwest to north- east. After Commont, 1908, igog, mochfied and redrawn. The Pre-Chellean workers first estabHshed themselves here at the time when the Somme was visited b}^ the straight- tusked elephant and other primitive mammals of the warm African- Asiatic fauna. (Compare Fig. 59, p. 122.) exactly as modern inventions, usually originating at a single point and often in the mind of one ingenious individual, gradually spread over the world. The clearest examples of the evolution of the seven or eight implements of the Chellean culture from the five or six rudimen- tary types of the Pre-Chellean have been found at St. Acheul by Commont. The abundance and variety of flint at this great station on the Somme made it a centre of industry from the dawn of the Old Stone Age to its very close. It was probably a region favorable to all kinds of large and small game. The researches of Commont show that with the exception of Castillo in northern Spain no other station in all Europe was so continuously occupied. CHELLEAX INDUSTRY 151 From Pre-Chellean to Neolithic times the men of every culture stage except the IMagdalenian and Azihan-Tardenoisian found their way here, and thus the site of St. Acheul presents an epit- ome of the entire prehistoric industry. Even during the colder periods of chmate this region continued to be visited — possibly during the warm weather of the summer seasons. At Montieres, along the Somme, we find deposits of Mousterian culture which Fig. 75. Excavation on the 'high terrace' at St. Acheul. known as the anciennc carriers Dupont and more recently as the carriere Bidtel, showing eight geologic layers from the Upper Palaeolithic deposits of brick -earth at the top (9) down to the sub-Chellean yellow gravels (2) overljang the chalk terrace at the bottom. is generally characteristic of the cold chmatic period but is here associated with a temperate fauna, including the hippopotamus, ;Merck's rhinoceros, and the straight-tusked elephant. Great geographic and climatic changes took place in the valley of the Somme during this long period of human evolution. The Pre- Chellean workers first established their industry on the middle and high 'terraces' at the time when the Somme was visited by the straight-tusked elephant and other much more primitive mammals of the warm Asiatic fauna. The early Acheulean camps on the same terraces were pitched in the gravels be- low layers of 'loess' which betoken an entire chmatic change. The fourth glaciation passed by, and the Upper Palaeolithic flint 152 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE workers again returned and left the debris of their industry in the layers of loam which swept down the slopes of the valley from the surrounding hills. This succession will be studied more in detail in connection with the industry. As contrasted with the four or more Pre-Chellean stations already known, namely, St. Acheul, Montieres, Helin, Gray's Thurrock, and possibly Abbeville and Piltdown, there are at least sixteen stations in western Europe which are characteristi- cally Chellean. In addition to the sites named above, all of v\^hich show deposits of typical Chellean implements above the Pre-Chellean, we may note the important Chellean stations of San Isidro and Torralba in central Spain ; Tilloux and Marignac in southwestern France ; Creteil, Colombes, Bois Colombes, and Billancourt on the Seine, in the immediate vicinity of Paris; Cergy on the Oise ; the type station of Chelles on the Marne ; Abbeville on the northern bank of the Somme ; and the famous station of Kent's Hole, Devon, on the southwestern coast of Eng- land. Thus far no typical Chellean station has been discovered in Portugal, Italy, Germany, or Austria, nor, indeed, in any part of central Europe. This leaves the original habitat of the tribes that brought the Chellean culture to western Europe still a mys- tery ; but, as already observed, the location of the stations favors the theory of a migration through northern Africa rather than through eastern Europe. Compared with the Pre-Chellean flint workers the Chellean artisans advanced both by the improvement of the older types of implements and by the invention of new ones.^^ As observed by Obermaier, the flint worker is still dependent on the chance shape of the shattered fragments of flint which he has not yet learned to shape symmetrically. In the experimental search after the most useful form of flint which could be grasped by the hand, the very characteristic Chellean coup de poing was evolved out of its Pre-Chellean prototype. This implement was made of an elon- gate nodule, either of quartzite or, preferably, of flint, and flaked by the hammer on both sides to a more or less almond shape ; as a rule, the point and its adjacent edges are sharpened ; the 1^- ^^^-^AfiL^^ Fig. 76. Principal forms of small, late Chellean scraping, planing, and boring tools of flint, after Comment and Obermaier. One-half actual size. i. Combination tool— small flake with a sharp point (a), cutting edge {b), and curved-in scraper (c). 2. Cutting tool with protective retouch for the inde.x finger on the upper edge (a), and a sharp cutting edge (b). 3. Primitive knife. 4. 'Point.' 5. Combination tool— small flake with scraper edge (b), and two curved-in scraper edges (a and ai). 6. Borer. 7. Pointed scraper. 8. Knife with coarse boring point at one end. 9. Thick scraper or planing tool. 10. Curved scraper. 154 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE other end being rounded and blunted. Like most, if not all, of the Chellean implements, it was designed to be grasped by the bare hand and not furnished with a wooden haft or handle. It is not impossible that some of the pointed forms may have been wedged into a wooden handle, but there is no proof of it. In size the coup de poing varies from 4 to 8 inches in length, and examples have been found as large as g}4 inches. That it served a variety of purposes is indicated by the existence of four well- defined, different forms : first, a primitive, almond-shaped form ; second, an ovaloid form; third, a disk form; and fourth, a pointed form resembling a lance-head. De Mortillet-^ speaks of it as the only tool of the Chellean tribes, but in its various forms it served all the purposes of axe, saw, chisel, and awl, and was in truth a combination tool. Capitan-'^ also holds that the coup de poing is not a single tool but is designed to meet many various needs. The primitive almond and ovaloid forms were designed for use along the edges, either for heavy hacking or for sawing ; the disk forms may have been used as axes or as sling-stones ; the more rounded forms would serve as knives and scrapers; while the pointed, lance-shaped forms might be used as daggers, both in war and in the chase. The Chellean flint workers also developed especially a num- ber of small, pointed forms from the accidentally shaped frag- ments of flint, showing both short and long points carefully flaked and chipped. Thus, out of the small types of the Pre-Chellean there evolved a great variety of tools adapted to domestic pur- poses, to war, and to the chase. Chellean Geography in England and France The type station of the Chellean culture is somewhat east of the present town of Chelles. Here in Chellean times the broad floods of the ancient River Marne were transporting great quanti- ties of sand and debris, products of the early pluvial periods of Third Interglacial times; and here, on the right bank, embedded in sands and gravels 24 feet thick, are found the typical Chellean CHELLEAX GEOGRAPHY 155 implements mingled with remains of the hippopotamus, straight- tusked elephant, Merck's rhinoceros, giant beaver, hyaena, and many members of the Asiatic forest and meadow fauna. The flint-working stations at St. Acheul were on bluffs from 40 to 80 feet above the present level of the Somme. The Chel- lean and the following Acheulean industry was carried on here on a very extensive scale. In one year RigoUot collected as many as 800 coups de poing from the ancient quarries ; near by are other quarries equally rich in material, and we may imagine that the products of the flint industry in this favorable locaHty were car- ried far and wide into other parts of the country. In the vicinity of Paris, and again at Arcy, in the vaUey of the Bievre, the workers of CheUean, Acheulean, and Mousterian flints sought in succession the old river-gravels belonging to the lower levels ; these ' low terraces ' are only 1 5 feet above the present height of the ri\xr and are still occasionalh^ flooded by the high waters of the Seine, indicating that the Seine borders have not altered their levels. The animal life here was identical with that of the Somme and of the Thames and included the hippopotamus, Merck's rhinoceros, and the straight- tusked elephant. Thus it would appear that, in regard to the river courses and the hills through which they flowed, the topography and land- scape of northern France and of southern Britain were everywhere the same as at the present time. The forests w^hich clothed the hiUs were not greatly different from the present, except for the presence of a few trees of a warmer cUme, nor was there anything strange or unfamiliar in the majority of the animals that roamed through forest and meadow. The three chief archaic elements consisted in the presence of two very ancient races of men and their rude stage of culture, in the great forms of Asiatic and African life which mingled with the more familiar native tA-^^es, and in the broad, continuous land surfaces which swept oft' un- broken to the west and southwest. For in those days Europe, though even then little more than a great peninsula, extended far beyond its present limits. Eng- land and Ireland were still part of the mainland, and great rivers 156 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE flowed through the broad valleys that are now the Irish Sea, the North Sea, and the English Channel — rivers that counted the Seine, the Thames, the Garonne, and even the Rhine, as mere tributaries. The Strait of Gibraltar was then the Isthmus of Gibraltar — a narrow land bridge connecting Europe with Africa. The Mediterranean was then an inland lake, or rather two inland lakes, for Italy and Sicily stretched out in a broad, irregular mass to join the northern coast of Africa, while Corsica and Sardinia formed a long peninsula extending from the Italian mainland and almost, if not quite, reaching to the African coast. The Thames Valley in Chellean Times The interpretation of the features of stratification in the valley of the Somme is especially interesting because it gives us a key to the understanding of a similar sequence of prehistoric events in the valley of the Thames. The station of Gray's Thurrock in this valley is barely 120 miles distant from the Chellean station of Abbeville, in the val- ley of the Somme, and it is apparent that the old flint workers were freely passing across the broad intervening country and in- terchanging their ideas and inventions. Thus it happened that CheUean implements identical with, or closely related to, the types of the Somme valley were being fashioned all over southern Britain from the Thames to the Ouse. The ancient River Thames (Lyell,^^ Geikie^^) was then flowing over a bed of boulder-clays which had been deposited during the preceding glaciations. Its broad, swift stream was bringing down great deposits of ochreous gravels and of sands interstratified with loams, and clays. It is these old true river-gravels which display their greatest thickness on the lowest levels of the Thames and which are largely made up of well-bedded and distinctly water-worn materials. On these low levels the flint workers sought their materials, and here they left behind them the archaic Chellean implements which are now found embedded in these older river-gravels, just as they occur in the gravels washed down over the three terraces of the Somme and the Marne. In the Thames this old gravel wash seems to have CHELLEAN GEOGRAPHY 157 been down-stream, whereas on the middle and upper terraces of the Somme the gravel wash came directly down the sides of the valley, except, perhaps, in very high floods. These deep beds of gravel, sand, and loam lie for the most part above the present overflow plain of the Thames, although in some places they de- scend below it ; which proves that the main landscape of the Thames also, except for the changes of the flora and of animal Hfe, was the same in Pre-Chellean and Chellean times as it is at present. Thus the Somme, the Thames, and the Seine had all worn their channels to the present or even to lower levels when the Pre-Chellean hunters appeared. Since Chellean times all three rivers have silted up their channels. The changes along the Thames which have since occurred are in the superficial layers brought down from the sides of the valley which have softened the contours of the old terraces and have also entombed the later phases of the valley's prehistory. Sections on the south bank at Ilford, Kent, and on the north bank at Gray's Thurrock, Essex, confirm this view. At the latter station, in low-lying strata of brick-earth, loam, and gravel, such as would be formed by the silting up of the bottom of an old river channel, are found the remains of the straight-tusked elephant, broad-nosed rhinoceros, and hippopotamus. All the discoveries of recent years lead to the conclusion that the old flu- viatile gravels which contain these ancient mammals and flints are restricted to the lower levels of the Thames valley, while the high level gravels and loams are of later date. Old Chellean flints also occur occasionally on the higher levels, but here it would seem that they have been washed down from the old land surfaces above, because they are found mingled with flints of the late Acheulean and early Mousterian industry. England in Early Paleolithic Times It is on the higher levels of the Thames, as of the Somme, and in the superficial deposits covering the sides of the valley that we read the story of the subsequent Paloeolithic cultures and of an early warm temperate climate being followed by a cold climate 158 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE with frozen subsoil belonging to the fourth glaciation and the contemporary Mousterian flint industry. The Palaeolithic his- tory of the Thames^° has not yet been fully interpreted, but it would appear that the relics of the old stations of Kent and Nor- folk will yield all the forms of Chellean and Acheulean imple- ments, and probably also those of the Mousterian which have been discovered in the valley of the Somme, thus proving that the Lower Palaeolithic races of this region pursued the same cul- ture development as the neighboring tribes of France and Bel- gium, as well as those of Spain, up to the close of middle Acheulean times. A similar sequence of events appears to be indicated at Hoxne, Suffolk, where archaic palaeoliths were discovered as far back as 1797. This discovery was neglected for upward of sixty years, until in 1859 these flints were re-examined by Prestwich and Evans after their visit to the stations of the Somme (Geikie,^^ Avebury^-). This site was in 4he hollow of a surface of boulder- clay, overlain by the deposit of a fresh-water stream ; in the bed of its narrow channel, besides flint implements of early Acheulean t>pe, abundant plant remains were found which give us an inter- esting vision of the flora of the time. These plants are decidedly characteristic of a temperate cli- mate, including such trees as the oak, yew, aind fir, and mostly of species which are still found in the forests of the same region. This Hfe gave place, as indicated in plant deposits of a higher level, to an arctic flora, probably corresponding with the tundra climate of Mousterian times, the period of the fourth glaciation. Above these are found again layers of plants and of mollusks which point to the return of a temperate chmate. Spread of the Acheulean Industry It is noteworthy that not a single 'river-drift,' Pre-Chellean or Chellean, station has been found in Germany or Switzerland, or, in fact, in all central Europe in the region lying between the Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers. Either this region was un- PAL.EOLITHIC STATIONS OF GER:MAXY 159 favorable to human habitation or the remains of the stations have been buried or washed awa}'. It is significant that the earhest proof of human migration into this region, whether from the east or from the west we do not certain!}' know, is coincident with the dry cUmate of Acheulean times. The 'loess' conditions of cUmate seem to be coincident \Yith. the earhest Acheulean stations in Germany, such as Sablon. 'Loess' deposition is by no means a proof of a cold cHmate but rather of an arid one, especial!}' in regions where areas of finely eroded soil were Uable to be raised by the wind ; such areas were found over the whole recently glaciated country north of the Alps and south of the Scandinavian peninsula. The Palaeolithic discovery sites of German}' are principally grouped in three regions'^'^ as follows : To the south, along the headwaters of the RJiine and the Danube, among the Hmestones of Swabia and the Jura were formed the caverns sought by early ]Mousterian man. To the west of these were many older stations in the 'loess' deposits of the upper Rliine, between the mountain ridges of the \'osges and the Black Forest, and still nearer the sources of the Rhine, ex- tending over the border into Switzerland, are a number of famous cave sites in the \'al!eys cut by the Rhine and its tributaries through the white Jurassic Hmestone. To the west is the group of the middle Rhine and of Westphalia, which includes the open Acheulean camps in the 'loess' deposits above the river and a number of cavern stations. To the north is the scattered group of stations, both of Acheulean and INIousterian times, of north Germany. Here the sites are few and far between. The open- country camps were estabHshed chiefly in the valley of the Ilm and near the caves of the Harz Mountains, in the neighborhood of Gera. Xo discoveries of certain date or unquestioned authen- ticity are reported from eastern Germany. Along the upper Rhine the flint workers of Acheulean times established their ancient camps mostly in the open on the broad sheets of the 'lower loess,' which, constantly drifted by the wind, covered and preserved the stations. These stations are • PAL^^OIJTHfC STATIONS O CITIES OF MODERN GERMANY Fig. 77. Flint working stations of the ]\Ien of the Old Stone Age along the waters of the Ilm, the Rhine, and the Danube, from Acheulean to Azilian times. After R. R. Schmidt, modified and redrawn. These PalaeoHthic sites of German}^ lie between the terminal moraines of the successive glacial advances of the Second, Third, and Fourth (II, III, \\) Glacial Stages, extending from the borders of the Scandinavian ice-fields on the north to those of the Alpine ice-fields on the south. The dotted surface represents the area covered by the drift of the Fourth Glacial Stage. ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 161 widely scattered, but the\' were frequented from earliest Acheu- lean times, and the region was revisited to the very close of the Upper Palceolithic. Early in Acheulean times the important 'loess' station of Achenheim was established. This is a most famous locality and is of especial importance because it is the only station in Ger- many which was continuously frequented from late Acheulean times throughout the Lower Palaeolithic and into the beginning of the Upper PalcTohthic ; here the ' older loess ' of the Third Inter- glacial Stage yields a t\pical Acheulean industry. Thus far the region of the middle Rhine and of Westphalia has not shown any e\idence of Acheulean culture. The north German stations, however, were entered in Acheulean times, and the principal open stations of this region lie along the valley of the Ilm. Here, at Taubach, Ehringsdorf, and Weimar, we find implements of typical Acheulean form belonging to the early warm temperate Acheulean period. The stations of the Ilm val- ley southwest of Leipsic are also of great importance because of the rich record which they contain of the warm temperate animal life of early Acheulean times ; the flint culture is typically Acheu- lean, and the climatic conditions are read both in the travertines and in the subsequent deposits of the 'low^r loess,' which be- long to the cold dry period of late Acheulean times. Here lin- gered the straight-tusked elephant and jMerck's rhinoceros, con- temporary with the workers of the Acheulean flints. It \vi\\ be observed that in Germany the early Acheulean was a warm period which in certain regions was also arid and subject to great dust-storms. At this time the camps were for the most part in the open country. In the late period, also arid and sub- ject to high winds but with a cooler cHmate, the flint workers continued to frequent the open Acheulean stations in the 'loess.' If there were shelter and cavern stations in this region, they have not as yet been discovered. This would appear to indicate that the cHmate had not yet become severe. Similar testimony is found in the great scarcity of cavern and shelter stations in Acheulean times in every part of western Eu- 162 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE rope ; yet occasionally the tribes repaired to the vicinity of shel- tering cliffs, as along the Vezere. In some scattered localities they sought the caverns, as at Krapina, in Croatia, at Spy, on the Meuse in Belgium, and at Castillo, in northern Spain. These rare exceptions to the open camps would tend to prove that the caverns were sought rather for protection from enemies and as rain shelters than as retreats from a bitter-cold climate. In the valley of the Beune, a small tributary of the Vezere, in Dordogne, we find a true Acheulean station quite close to the river shore. This proves that in Acheulean times this valley was already deepened to the same degree as it is to-day. In the valley of the Somme the Acheulean culture stretches from the 'highest terrace' down below the present level of the river, which has made for itself a new high channel. The fact that two Acheulean stations are found on the upper Garonne, high above the present water-level, is of little significance, as at that time the water-level was also high. In general the Acheulean flint workers preferred the open stations throughout all Acheulean times, and their camps are found on the open plateaus between the rivers or on the various 'terrace' levels, as on the higher, middle, and lower 'terraces' of the Somme at St. Acheul, or again close along the borders of the rivers and streams, as in the Dordogne region. Even during the early Acheulean stage a dry climate had begun to prevail in certain parts of Germany, Near Metz is the 'older loess' station of Sablon, which was occupied in early Acheulean times, indicating a warm period of arid climate fa- vorable to the transportation of the wind-blown ' loess ' ; doubt- less, this fine dust at times filled the entire atmosphere and ob- scured the sun, as is the case to-day on the high steppes and deserts of eastern Asia, An exception to the open-country life preferred by the Acheu- lean fhnt workers is found in the great grotto* of Castillo, near Puente Viesgo, in the Province of Santander, northern Spain, * The author was guided through this station by Doctor Hugo Obermaier in the summer of 1912. ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 163 The deposits which filled this grotto to a thickness of 45 feet from the floor to the roof were explored by Obermaier, who found them divided into thirteen layers, covering eleven periods of industry and presenting the most wonderful epitome of the pre- FiG. 78. Entrance (white cross) to the great grctto of Castillo in northern Spain. This grotto was frequented by the Men of the Old Stone Age from Acheulean to Azilian times, an archaeologic sequence surpassed only by that of the open camps along the terraces of the Somme. Photograph from Obermaier. history of western Europe from Acheulean times to the Age of Bronze, in Spain (Fig. 79). As early as 1908, BreuiP^ discovered in the interior of the cave back of the grotto some quartzites worked into Acheulean t}^es, proving that the cavern was entered in Acheulean times. Obermaier,^^ in the course of three years' work, has found that the floor of the grotto was possibly used as a flint-making station in Acheulean and, possibly, in Chellean times. The culture sec- tion which he has revealed here under the direction of the In- stitut de Paleontologie humaine can be compared only with that which Commont has found on the 'terraces' of the Somme at St. Acheul. The difference is that in the shelter of the Castillo 164 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE ^-Q"-^-^-^^^,^,!, ^ «B.'^i g p- grotto the climate is recorded only through the changing forms of animal Hfe which are mingled around the fire-hearths and with the flints in the ascending levels. (13) Eneolithic Age. Small, triangular dagger in copper. (12) Azilian. Flint industry — Age of the Stag. (11) Upper Magdalenian. Artistic engravings on stag-horn. (10) Lower jMagdalenian. Flints and fine en- gravings on bone. Reindeer baton. (9) Archaic Solutrean. FeuiUes de laicrier, re- touched on one side only. (8, 7, 6) Upper Aurignacian in three layers. Remains of the reindeer and burins. (5) Lower Aurignacian. Implements of stone and bone. Remains of an infant. (4) Upper Mousterian. Rich in small imple- ments and large tools of quartzite. Merck's rhinoceros very abundant. (3) Topical Mousterian flints and cjuartzites. Merck's rhinoceros. (2) Early Mousterian industry. Bones of cave-bear and Merck's rhinoceros. (i) Acheulean flints. The entrance to this grotto is on the side of a high hill overlooking the valley and might easily have been barricaded against attack. In early Acheulean times, when the flint workers were on the very floor of the grotto, the lower entrance of the cavern was still open, leading far into the heart of the mountain. The succes- sive accumulations of debris, cave loam, fire-stones, bones, and innumerable flints, together with great blocks falling over the entrance of the cavern, reached a height of 45 feet, so that during the Upper Palaeolithic only the upper entrance to the cavern was used by the artists of Magdalenian Fig. 79. Stratigraphic sec- tion showing the archajo- logic layers of the great grotto of Castillo. After Obermaier. THE USE OF FIRE 165 times. The subsequent Azilian and Eneolithic cultures were crowded under the very roof of the grotto at the sides. This station, repaired to and then abandoned by tribe after tribe over a period estimated at present as not less than 50,000 years, is a monumental volume of prehistory, read and interpreted by the archaeologist almost as clearly as if the whole record were in writing. The first positive evidences of the use of fire are the layers of charred wood and bones frequently found in the industrial deposits of early Acheulean times. Geographic and Climatic Changes During the early period of development of the Acheulean industr}-, the geography, the climate, and the plant and animal life continued to present exactly the same aspect as during Chel- lean times. The mammals which we find in Thuringia in the lower travertines of the valley of the Ilm, at Taubach, near Wei- mar, and at Ehringsdorf, mingled with flints of early Acheulean industry, are of the same species as those found in the valley of the Somme mingled with the implements of the Chellean indus- try. The southern mammoth occurs at Taubach, and we find the straight- tusked elephant (£. antiquus), Merck's rhinoceros, the liippopotamus, the lion, and the h}^aena representing the an- cient African-Asiatic migrants, while the north European and Asiatic life is represented by the giant deer, roe-deer, wild goat, brown bear, wolf, badger, marten, otter, beaver, meadow ham- ster, and shrew. Grazing in the meadows were the aurochs, or wild ox, and the wisent, or bison. There was one variety of horse, probably of the forest t}pe. Thus, the fauna as a whole contains six Asiatic types, or eight if we include the bison and wild cattle. Of the forest life there are nine species, including the wild boar {Sus scroja ferns) not mentioned above. The layers of travertine are indicative of very important geographical changes which were occurring in central and southern Europe in the middle period of Third Interglacial times. The 166 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE travertines of the Ilm and of other parts of central Germany were due to wide-spread volcanic disturbances and eruptions, accom- panied by the deposition of travertines, gj-psums, and tufas. To this volcanic disturbance in central France is attributed the deposition of the tiif de La Celle-sous-Moret, near Paris, which records the warm temperate cHmate of early Acheulean times, as well as the somewhat cooler succeeding cKmate of late Acheulean times. This uplift in the centre of Germany and France appar- ently left the region between France and Great Britain undis- turbed, because there is evidence of continued free migration of the tribes and of the Acheulean cultures ; but there appears to have been a wide-spread subsidence of the coasts of southern Europe by which the islands of the Mediterranean became iso- lated from the mainland, and the migrating routes between Europe and Africa across the central ^Mediterranean region were cut off. Thus, Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia were separated from the mainland after having received a large contingent of mammahan life from the continents both to the north and to the south. WTiile descendants of the African and Asiatic mammals, as well as of the northerly European forest and meadow t\pes, survive on these islands, there is, thus far, no indication that they were invaded by hunters carr^dng the implements of the Acheulean culture, although these Acheulean flint workers ranged over all parts of the Itahan peninsula (Fig. So), as indicated by the dis- covery of nine stations. Distribution of Acheulean Stations The Acheulean stations are widely distributed along the Seine, Marnc, and Somme in northern France, where flint is abundant and well adapted for fine workmanship. In central and southern France, where large fhnts are scarce, the Acheulean tribes were forced to use quartz, wliich fashions into clumsier forms. In the north the Acheulean workers continued on the old CheUean sites at Chelles, St. Acheul, Abbe\dlle, and HeUn. In late Acheulean times were estabhshed the new stations of ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 167 Wolvercote on the Thames, near Oxford, and of Levallois on the Seine, near Paris, both famous for their 'Levallois' flint knives or blades. Xear Levallois is the late Acheulean station of Ville- juif, south of Paris, where the flints are buried in drifts of loess. In Normandy are the important stations of Frileuse, Bleville, Fig. So. Distribution of the principal Acheulean industrial stations in western Europe. and La ]Mare-aux-Clercs, which give the whole Acheulean de\"el- opment, both early and late. On a small tributary valley of the Vezere, in Dordogne, in late Acheulean times there was estab- Hshed the station of La Micoque, which gives its name to a num- ber of miniature flints of distinctive form which were first found there and are known as the 't}pe of La ]\Iicoque.' Other sta- tions, such as Combe-Capelle, also show examples of this 'minia- ture ' Acheulean workmanship. .Altogether, over thirty Acheulean stations have been found in France, two — Castillo and San Isidro — in northern and central 168 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Spain, the single station of Furninha in Portugal, over eight in Germany, three in Austria, and three in Russian Poland. Espe- cially remarkable is the wide distribution of this culture all over Italy, where explorations by no means exhaustive have resulted in the discovery of at least nine or ten very prohfic stations ex- tending from Goccianello in the north to Capri in the south, but not into Sicily as far as is at present known. Thus all of western Fig. 8i. Late Acheulean station of La Micoqiie, in Donlogne, where miniature flints of distinctive late Acheulean form are found. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. Europe, excepting the area covered by the Scandinavian ice- fields on the north and by the Alpine ice-fields on the south, was penetrated by the workers of Acheulean flints, probably members, for the most part, of the Neanderthal race. The general uniformity of Acheulean workmanship in all parts of western Europe is an indication that these Neanderthaloid tribes were more or less migratory and that the inventions of new and useful implements, such as the lance-pointed coup de poing of La Micoque and the flint-flakes of Levallois, which probabh' ACHEULEAX INDUSTRY 169 originated at an especial centre, or perhaps even in the inventive mind of a single workman, became widely distributed and highly- distinctive of certain periods. The development of the imple- ments in different regions is so uniform as to prove that the evo- lution of the early Palaeolithic cultures extended all over western Europe and that the various t)'pes or stages were essentiall\- contemporar}-. Forms of Acheulean Implements There is a close sequence between the coup de poing of the Chellean workers and its development into the finer and more Fig. Illustrating the method of 'flaking' flint implements by direct or indirect blow with a hammer-stone. symmetrical forms of the Acheulean. The latter, according to Obermaier,"''' is distinguished by the flaking of the entire surface, by the far more skilful fashioning, and by the really symmetrical almond form w^hich is attained by retouching both the surface and the edges. This more refined retouch becomes the means of producing symmetrical instruments, with straight, convex, or concave cutting edges, as well as finer and lighter tools. The early Acheulean industry belonged to a warm temperate climatic period and directly succeeds the Chellean, as shown in 170 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE a most perfect manner in the quarries of the type station of St. Acheul on the Somme. In these earUer strata the prevaiHng forms of coup de poing are the 'pointed oval' and the 'lance- pointed,' the latter showing very simple chipping, a broad point, and a thick base. The oval coups de poing are smaller than the Chellean tools of the same kind, carefully fashioned on all sides and round the base, and very symmetrical ; there are four dis- tinct varieties of these : the almond t\pe, oval almond-shaped, elongate oval, and sub triangular— the latter evolving into the %^ Fig. 83. Illustrating the method of 'chipping' flint implements by pressure with a bone or wooden implement, to produce the finer retouch of the surfaces and edges. finely modelled t^-pe of late Acheulean times. It may have been from these oval t\pes that the disc form was finally evolved. There is wide difference of opinion regarding the use of these thin ovaloid, triangular, and disc forms. Obermaier considers that they may have been clamped in wood, or furnished with a shaft, thus forming a spear head. Another suggestion is that they were used with a leather guard to protect the hand ; and there is no doubt that in either case they would have served as effective weapons in chase or war. Another view is that of Com- ment," who believes that not a single implement down to the very end of Acheulean times can be regarded as a weapon of war ; this author maintains that many of these implements, including those dressed on both edges, were still in various ways grasped ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 171 by the hand, although they do not present the firm, blunted grip of the ancient coups de poing. We also note the development of a type of coup de poing, with cutting blade fashioned straight across the end : this primitive Point of percussion Bulb of percussion Scir Concentric waves Fig. 84. Method of producing the \on^ flake and the central core of flint by sharp blows at the indicated point of percussion. After R. R. Schmidt. In this case a series of flakes have been cut off the entire periphery of the core. The primitive use of the flake begins in the Pre-Chellean. chisel or adze-shaped tool may have been used as a chopper, or as an axe, in fashioning wooden tools. In the lance-pointed coup de poing of narrow, elongate shape, the flaking is very simple and the edges are continued into the short base, generally very thick, and often showing part of the original crust of the flint nodule, which is well adapted for the grip of the hand. This implement, which serves the original idea of the coup de poing, develops into the round-pointed and lance- pointed forms. There is no question that, whether in industrial 172 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE use, in war, or in the chase, these implements were held only by the hand. The small implements of the early Acheulean included a great variety of designs developing out of the far more primitive tools of Chellean and Pre-Chellean Industrial. times, namely, the planing tool, the scraper, the borer, and the knife. Each of these t}pes de- velops its own variety, often fashioned with great care, prim- itive blades, straight-edged cut- ting tools, with the back rounded or blunted for the grip of the fingers, scrapers with straight or curved edges, and pergoirs or borers. The scraping and plan- ing tools, doubtless used for the dressing of hides, are now more carefully fashioned. We also observe the racloir and the scraper finished to a point which is the precursor of the graving tool of the Upper Palae- ohthic.'^s Characteristic of this stage is the systematic use of large 'flakes' or outlying pieces of which were used as scrapers or 'haches,' or coups de poing. The core or centre of the flint nodule still constitutes the ma- terial out of which the large t^-pical implements are fashioned; but the jlake begins to lend itself to a great variety of forms, as witnessed in the evolution of the Levallois knives of the Upper Acheulean and the highly varied flake implements of the Mousterian and Aurignacian industries. The 'pointe,' or point, is a special implement chipped out Coup de poing. Ovaloid. Double-edged. Subtriangular. Straight cutting blade across the end. Disc-shaped. Triangular — very thin and flat. Hachette, chopper. Grattoir, planing tool. Racloir, scraper. Pergoir, drill, borer. Couteau, knife. 'Pointe' (Levallois blade). 'Pointe,' point — oval and chisel-shaped. W.^R AND Chase Coup de poing. Of pointed and lance-pointed types. Pierre de jet, throwing stone. Couteau, knife. 'Pointe,' dart and spear heads. flint struck off from the core, planes, or developed into small ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY 173 of a short, sharply convex flake, taking the form of a blunt dart or spear head, pointed at one end and oval or Hat at the other. Fig. 85. Large, typical Achevilean implements, chiefly described as coups dc poing, after de Mortillet. One-ciuarter actual size. One of these (41) shows at one end a part of the crust of the flint nodule left intact to afford a smooth, firm grip to the hand. Another (43) shows a part of the crust remaining along the left side, for the same purpose. Two of the coups de poing (47 and 48) show, the one a double -curved, the other a straight, lateral edge. Another coup de poing (49), from a submarine deposit near the shore at Havre, is partly covered by acorn shells. Late Acheulean Climate The Acheulean industry continued over a very long period, and by the time the late Acheulean culture stage had been reached a decided change of climate ensued in western Europe. Along the borders of the Danube and of the Rhine, in the valley of the Somme, and even in central and southern France there are indi- cations of a cool dry continental climate, similar to that which 174 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE is now found on the southern steppes of Russia, in the Ural Mountains, and in the vicinit}- of the Caspian Sea. Indications of this climate have been mentioned above, as seen in the plant life in the tuj de La Celle-sous-Moret, near Paris, where there are e\adences that trees of a cool temperate cUmate took the place of the warm temperate forests of early Acheulean times. That the cHmate should be considered as cool and arid rather than comparable with the bitter-cold cUmate of the ' upper loess ' period, when a true steppe fauna entered Europe for the first time, is further indicated by the fact that late Acheulean imple- ments are more frequently found in the centre and north of France than in the south. To the far north, before the close of Acheulean times, the Scandina\dan ice-fields had again begun to advance southward ; the region bordering the glaciers was cold and moist and favored the migration from the tundra regions of the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros to the locahty still frequented b}' the Acheulean flint workers, for it is said ^^ that Acheulean flints are occasionally associated even wdth the remains of these tundra mammals. At the very same time the Acheulean fhnt workers along the Somme may have enjoyed a more genial climate. It is only through this interpretation of the various cHmatic and Hfe zones in western Europe that we can explain the survival on the River Somme, or return to this river from the south, of a warm temperate fauna, hippopotami, rhinoceroses, and ele- phants, in the Alousterian period, which is even subsequent to the close of Acheulean times. The valleys of the two great river-systems of southwestern France, the Dordogne draining the central plateau, and the Garonne draining the eastern P}Tenees, were now sought by the Acheulean flint workers. The vaUey of the Vezere, a northern tributary of the Dordogne, cuts through a broad plateau of hme- stone in which the streams have hoflowed out deep beds with vertical sides. Here the landscape of late Acheulean times bore the same general aspect as at present.""^ Evidences of a change of climate are observed even in the sheltered vallevs where the THE SECOND PERIOD OF ARID CLIMATE flint workers were seeking the warmer and sunnier river-slopes. The river channels were the same as they are to-da}', and the quarries of the early Acheulean flint workers are found quite close to the streams; but as the period progressed they moved up nearer to the cliffs and shelters. Here, too, there is evidence that a dr\' continental climate prevailed. On the upper levels of ^^s Hauteur 3400?* Fig. 86. "\'alleys of the two great river-systems of southwestern France, the Dordogne draining the central plateau and the Garonne draining the eastern Pyrenees." After Harle. the old plateaus of Dordogne we still find the Quercus ilex occur- ring quite frequently, a tree which belongs to relatively dry regions and which in southern Russia is reckoned with the flora of the steppes. Yet the greater aridity toward the close of the x\cheu- lean stage was probably not such as to prevent the growth of forests along the borders of the streams. Thus, in the mammalian life of the period there was, perhaps, a division between the more hardy forms which frequented the dry plateaus above and the forest-loving and less hardy forms which frequented the river- vaUeys. The most convincing proof of an arid climate in the north of France with prevaiKng high westerly winds is found in the layers 176 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of ' loess ' which occur on the ' terraces ' of the Somme, the Seine, the Rhine, and the Danube. These 'lower loess' layers of Third Interglacial times frequently contain implements of the late Acheulean industry. Thus, at Villejuif, south of Paris, late Fig. 87. "The valley of the Vezere, a northern tributary of the Dordogne, cuts through a broad plateau of limestone in which the streams have hollowed out deep beds with vertical sides," favorable to the formation of caverns, grottos, and shelters. "Here the landscape of late Acheulean times bore the same general aspect as at present." Photo- graph by N. C. Nelson. Acheulean implements are found embedded in drifts of 'loess.' In the valley of the Somme, flints of the middle Acheulean stage are also found in the loess ancien and 'river-drift.' In the /?// de La Celle-sous-Moret the layer of 'loess' immediately over- lies the tufa layer containing late Acheulean implements and proofs of a cooler climate. Among the most famous of the ' loess ' stations of late Acheu- lean times is that of Achenheim on the upper Rhine, west of Stras- burg. Here the ' older loess ' contains a t>^ical Acheulean culture. LATE ACHEULEAX IMPLEMENTS 177 With this prolonged epoch of cooler temperature the hippo- potamus and the southern mammoth retreated to the warmer portions of southern Europe, and their remains are no longer found associated with the late Acheulean flints. The more hardy straight-tusked elephant and IVIerck's rhinoceros still continued in the north, apparently well adapted to sustain a very consider- able fall in temperature. Forms of Late Acheulean Implements The coups de poing of the late Acheulean exhibit a great ad- vance upon the Chellean, being fashioned into dagger or lance forms, with all the edges carefully chipped. The ovaloid imple- ments of late Acheulean times are often worked into fine and sharp blades, which may have been used like butcher-knives for dismembering the carcasses of game and for cutting up the pelts, while the fine almond and disc shapes may have been used as scrapers to cut off the tissues of the inner surfaces of the hides, which were finally dressed by the grattoir, or flint planing tool. In brief, the coup de poing reaches its acme of development in late Acheulean times, both in the fineness of flaking and retouching and in its symmetry of form. The use of large flakes of flint and the retouching both of the borders and of the extremities of these flakes shows a constantly improving technique. It is in the thin, flat, triangular blades and in the lance-pointed forms that the coup de poing reaches its culmination ; but we still observe the development of the oval or almond-shaped forms and of the flattened discs. The implements of this time reach their greatest perfection in the north of France, where flint is so abundant. The late Acheulean is further distinguished by an advance in all the finer and smaller implements and tools. The knives are now very fine and perfect, although they retain the broad, thick form of the original flint fragment and seldom attain the sym- metrical shape which characterizes the blades of the Upper Palae- oHthic.^^ The 'points' are also of finer technique, with their edges converging from a broad base to a well-formed point. It is 178 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE generally assumed that these were held in the bare hand, but it is quite as probable that they were attached to wooden shafts and used as dart or spear heads. By far the most numerous as well as the most varied of the smaller tools were the racloirs, Fig. 88. Varied shapes of the Acheulean flints described as coups de poing, including some 'miniature' forms, after de Mortillet. The oval, the pointed, the almond, the triangular, the disc -shaped. The late Acheulean is distinguished by an advance in all the finer and smaller implements, tools, and weapons; j'et the finest work of Acheulean times appears thick and clumsy when contrasted with the best Solutrean work of the Upper Paleolithic. One-quarter actual size. or scrapers, which were developed, doubtless, by the increasing use of skins for clothing as a protection against the somewhat more rigorous climate of late Acheulean times. Probably the women of the tribe were employed in dressing hides by means of these scrapers, which were either flat and broad with crescent- shaped edges, flat and narrow, or double-edged with rounded LATE ACHE L LEAN IMPLEMENTS 179 ends. The development of other fine tools — borers, small discs, triangular and ovaloid shapes, miniature coups de poing, and man>- varied forms besides — is best witnessed in the station of La Micoque, close to the junction of the Vezere with the Dor- dogne. These miniature implements may well have been used in the final dressing of skins for clothing, in the chase of smaller kinds of game, or at feasts for splitting marrow-bones. No bone implements whatever have been found even with Fig. 89. The chef-d'oeuvre of the Acheulean industry is the Levallois flake, which may have evolved from the large flakes of Chellean times. After Worthington Smith. these late Acheulean flints, but it is important to observe that the majority of these stations are open and exposed to the weather and that bone implements would not be preserved here as they would in the sheltered grottos and caverns to which the flint workers repaired in the Alousterian and succeeding times. As regards the finish of these flint implements, it is important to note that it is fine only by comparison with the crude work of the early Acheulean or the still coarser types of Chellean times and that the very finest work of Acheulean times appears thick and clumsy when contrasted with the finer work of the Copper PalaeoHthic. The chef-d'oeuvre of the late Acheulean industr}- is the Levallois flake, first found at Levallois-Perret, near Paris, which de Mor- tillet believed to be fashioned out of a divided coup de poing 180 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE with a flat under-side, but which may have been evolved from the very large primitive flakes of Pre-Chellean date. These flakes date back earlier than the Chellean coup de poing but con- tinued in use after its invention and may have been greatly perfected into the Levallois type. This t}pe of 'couteau' is a large, wide, thin flake of fairly symmetrical shape, with a flat back formed by the original smooth surface of the flake. These implements are pointed, oval, or sharply rectangular in form and present the most characteristic tool of the closing stage of the Acheulean industry. It is most interesting at this point to observe the two modes of evolution which seem to pervade all nature : first, the gradual perfection and modification in size and proportion of a certain older form ; second, the sudden change or mutation into a new form, which in turn enters the stage of gradual improvement. The late Acheulean is seen to present the climax of a gradual and unbroken development from the early Chellean industries and ideas; and to our mind this is strongly suggestive of a corre- sponding evolution of manual skill and mental development in the workmen themselves, who may have been partly of Pre- Neanderthaloid race. The next industrial stage, namely, the ^Mousterian, which cer- tainly presents the closing workmanship of the Neanderthal race, shows a marked retrogression of technique in contrast to the steady progression which we have observed up to this time. We have, in fact, witnessed a number of successive stages of progres- sion, which are to be followed in the Mousterian by a stage of retrogression. Such a retrogression in industrial development may for certain known or unknown reasons occur in the same race. It is a noteworthy parallel that in the Upper Palaeolithic, where the Solutrean culture represents the climax and perfection of flint working, the succeeding IMagdalenian shows marked retrogression in the technique of flint retouch. THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA 181 The Krapina Neanderthaloids In northern Croatia, near the small town of Krapina, in the valley of the Krapinica Ri\'er, is the now famous cavern of Kra- pina, where in 1899 was made the fourth discovery of the remains of men of the Neanderthaloid race in western Europe, twelve Fig. 90. The grotto of Krapina, overlooking the valley of the Krapinica River, near Krapina, Croatia, in Austria-Hungary. After Kraemer. years after the discovery of the men of Spy, in Belgium, and forty-three years after the discovery of the man of Neanderthal. Even now opinion is divided as to the age of the human remains found in this cavern. The discoverer. Professor Gorjanovic- Kramberger of Agram considered that the stone implements and chips were of Mousterian age, and Breuil still refers them to the early, or so-called warm, Mousterian period ; this opinion is shared by Dechelette. Schmidt, however, regards Krapina as a true Acheulean station, lacking in some of the typical implements, and of the same age as the 'loess' station of Ehringsdorf. 182 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The mammals found in the cavern certainly belong to the very late Acheulean period and include Merck's rhinoceros, the cave-bear, the urus, a species of horse, the giant deer (Megaceros), the beaver, and the marmot {Arctomys marmotta). The cavern was originally washed out by the river, but now it is 82 feet above the present water-level. When found it was .completely filled with sand and gravel deposits, weathered frag- ments from the roof and walls, and loose stones and boulders.^- Enclosed in this mass, in separate strata which are perfectly Fig. qi. Cross-section of the valley traversed by the Krapinica River showing the loca- tion of the grotto known as the Krapina recess on the bank to the left. Drawn by C. A. distinguishable, there lay, variously distributed through the different la}'ers, thousands of animal bones, mingled with hun- dreds of human bones, and hundreds of stone implements and chips. During the years 1899- 1905 Gorjanovic-Kramberger made a thorough exploration of the contents of this cavern, and published a complete account of his researches in 1906.^^ There were about three hundred pieces of human bones, among them many small fragments, also many sizable pieces of skull and several entire limb bones perfectly preserved. The bones are of a strongly characterized type, and the lower jaws, face bones, bones of the thigh and arm, the teeth, and the bones of many children establish the Krapina race as belonging unquestionably in the same group with that of Neanderthal and of Spy. THE NEANDERTHAL RACE OF KRAPINA 183 The skull of the Krapina man (Fig. 93) is somewhat broader or more brachycephalic than that of any other members of the Neanderthal race. In general, the race is somewhat dwarfed, of broader head form and with less prominent supraorbital processes. The species is unquestionably Homo neanderthalcnsis, of which Fig. 92. Detail showing the interior contents of the Krapina grotto be- fore its excavation in the years 1899 to 1905. After Gorjanovic-Kramberger. the Krapina men constitute a local race. Schwalbe and Boule observe that the greater breadth of the Krapina skull is partly due to the maimer in which the bones have been put together,"'"^ and they do not consider that the Krapina man represents a different subrace {Homo neanderthalensis krapinensis) as held by the discoverer. The cephalic index of one Krapina skull is re- corded as 83.7 per cent (?) as compared with 73.9 per cent, the cephalic index of the true H. neanderthalensis, a difference which, as above noted, may be partly due to the restoration. The bones are in such a fragmentary condition that it is impossible to form a proper estimate of the brain capacity in either the males or females of this race ; nor is it possible to estimate the stature. The space between the eyes is the same as in the Neanderthal 184 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE race ; the angle of the retreat of the forehead (52°) is nearly the same as in the Gibraltar female Neanderthal skull (50°), this high forehead being due to the lesser development of the supra- orbital ridges. That the brain was of a low, flat-headed Nean- derthal t\'|3e is shown by the close similarity of the index of the height of skull (42.2) to that of one of the men of Spy (44-3), as compared with the lowest index among the existing races of men (48.9); yet the Krapina man presents a considerable advance ^ - Fig. 93. Profile view, right side, of one of the skulls from Krapina. This skiill is much broader than that of the typical Neanderthaloid. After Gorjanovic-Kramberger. One-quarter life size. over Pithecanthropus, in which the index of the height of skull is only 34.2. The jaw is more slender than that of the Heidelberg man but is still thick and massive ; the chin is receding, a character- istic of all the Neanderthal races. The broken condition of all the human bones in this cavern, and the abundant indications of fire, have led to the charge that the Neanderthals of Krapina were cannibals, and that these mingled remains are the bones of animals and men collected here during cannibahstic feasts. Against this supposition Breuil ob- serves that none of the human bones are spht lengthwise, as is the usual practice when extracting the marrow, but they are broken crosswise. This is the only evidence of such practice that has been found during all Palaeolithic times, and we should hesi- tate to accept it unless corroborated by other locahties. The various layers indicate that the cavern was successiveh' occupied by man ; in or near the hearths are found stone imple- THE NEAXDERTIIAl. RACE OF KRAPINA 185 ments, broken and incinerated bones, and pieces of charcoal, wliich may indicate that this grotto was visited only at inter\'als, perhaps during the colder seasons of the year. (i) Harle, 1910.1. (2) d'Ault du Mcsnil, 1 896.1, pp. 284-296. (3) Obermaier, 191 2.1, p. 146. (4) Schmidt, 191 2.1, pp. 1 18-126. (5) Boule, 1888.1. (6) Obermaier, 191 2.1, pp. 327-329. (7) Haug, 1907.1, vol. II, pp. 327- 329- (8) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 262. (9) Morlot, 1 854. 1. (10) Comment, 1906. i. (11) Geikie, 1914.1, pp. 107-111. (12) d'Ault du ]\Iesni], op. cit. (13) Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 124, 125. (14) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 118. (15) Dawson, 1913.1; 1913-2; i9i3-3- (16) Kennard, 1913.1. (17) Reid, 1913.1. (18) Dawson, 1913.1, p. 123; 19141, pp. S2-86. (19) Keith, A., 1913.1; 1913.2; i9i3-3- (20) Smith, G. E., 1913.1; 1913.2; 1913-3; 1913-4- (21) Boule, 1913.1, pp. 245, 246. (22) Schwalbe, 1914.1, p. 603. (23) Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 404-409. (24) Ewart, 1904. 1 ; 1907. i; 1909. i. (25) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 120. (26) deMortUIet, 1869. i. (27) Obermaier, op. cit., p. 116. (28) Lyell, 1863. 1, p. 164. (29) Geikie, 1914.1, pp. 119, 263, 264. (30) Schmidt, 1912.1, pp. 125, 126. (31) Geikie, op. cit., p. 228. (32) Avebury, 1913.1, p. 342, Fig. 236. (33) Schmidt, op. cit., pp. 17-105. (34) Breuil, 1912.5, p. 14. (35) Obermaier, 191 2.1, p. 164. (36) Obermaier, o/). cit., pp. 124, 125, 127, 130. (37) Commont, 1908. i. (38) Dechelette, 1 908.1, vol. I, pp. 80-90. (39) Geikie, 1914-1, P- 255. (40) Hilzheimer, 1913.1, p. 145. (41) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 127. (42) Fischer, 1913.1. (43) Gorjanovic-Kramberger, 1901.1; 1903. i; 1906. I. (44) Schwalbe, 1914.1, p. 597. CHAPTER III CLOSE OF THE TfflRD INTERGLACIAL. TEMPERATE, AND ARID CLI- :^IATE, ACHEULEAN INDUSTRY — ADVENT OF THE FOURTH GLA- CIATION, PROFOUND CHANGES IN ANIM.AL AND PLANT LIFE — THE ARCTIC TUNDRA PERIOD OF MAMM.\LIAN AND PLANT LIFE — CHARACTERS OF THE NEANDERTHAL IL\CE, OF THEIR MOUS- TERIAN FLINT INDUSTRY — SUPPOSED CAUSES OF EXTINCTION OR DISPERSAL We now reach a prolonged and important stage in the pre- history of Europe, namely, the period of the fourth glaciation, of the final development of the Neanderthal race of man, of the Mousterian industry, of the beginnings of cave life, of the chase of the reindeer, and its use for food and clothing. In all Europe the Acheulean industry appears to have come to a close during a period of arid climate, warm in some parts of western Europe and cool or even cold in others. The seasonal va- riations may well have been extreme, as on the steppes of south- ern Russia, where exceedingly hot summers may be followed by intensely cold winters, with high winds and snow-storms destruc- tive of life. It is this seasonal alternation, as well as the recurrence, either seasonal or secular, of milder climate, which explains the survival or return of the Asiatic fauna even after the close of the Acheulean industry and when the Mousterian industry was well advanced. From deposits found at Grimaldi, in the Grotte des Enfants and in the Grotte du Prince, it has long been said that men of early Mousterian times lived contemporary with the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant, and Merck's rhinoceros in the genial climate of the Mediterranean Riviera. More recently the same animals have been found as far north as the Somme valley in the * river-drifts' of Montieres-les-Amiens.^ Here, again, we find re- 186 CLOSE OF THE THIRD INTERGLACIAL 187 mains of the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant, and its companion, Merck's rhinoceros, in Mousterian deposits, a surpris- ing discovery, because it had ahvays been supposed that a cold climatic period had set in all over western Europe even before the close of the Acheulean culture. But there is also evidence of a temperate chmate still prevailing in the Thames valley in the period of the Mousterian 'floors.'- Again, along the Vezere valley, Dordogne, we find that at the station of La Micoque, where the industry marks the transition between late Acheulean and early ]\Iousterian times, Merck's rhinoceros is found in the lowest layers associated with remains of the moose (Alces). There is e\'idence that Merck's rhinoceros and the straight- tusked elephant lingered in western Europe during the whole period of the early development of the Mousterian industry. As observed above, these animals were hardier than the southern mammoth, which was the first of the Asiatic mammals to disap- pear, soon to be followed by its companion, the hippopotamus. Even after the advent of the closely associated tundra pair, the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros, ^Merck's rhinoceros persists, as, for example, in the deposits of Rixdorf, near Berlin, where this ancient type occurs in the same deposits with the woolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the reindeer, and the musk-ox, as well as with the forest forms, the moose, stag, wolf, and forest horse. The extreme northern latitude of this deposit explains the absence of the straight-tusked elephant, which may at the time have been living farther to the south. The same mingling of south and north Asiatic mammals is found at Stein- heim, in the valley of the Murr, some degrees to the west and south of Rixdorf, not far from Gottingen, where we find jMerck's rhinoceros^ and the straight-tusked elephant in association with the w^oolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the giant deer, and the reindeer. Thus the Neanderthal races were entering the Mousterian stage of culture during the close of the Third Interglacial Stage and during the early perio'd of the advance of the ice-fields from the great centres in Scandinavia and the Alps. As these ice- 188 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE fields slowly approached each other from the north and from the south a very great period of time must have elapsed during which all the south Asiatic mammals abandoned western Europe or became extinct, with the exception of the lions and hyaenas, which became well fitted to the very severe climate that pre- vailed over Europe during the fourth glaciation, and even during the long Postglacial Stage which ensued. The large carnivora readily become thoroughly adapted to cold climates, as they sub- sist on animal life wherever it may be found; tigers of the same stock as those of India have been found as far north as the river Lena, in latitude 52° 25', where the climate is colder than that of Petrograd or of Stockholm, while the lion throve in the cold atmosphere of the upper Atlas range. Thus the cave-lion {Felis leo spelaa) and the cave-hyaena {H. crociita spekea) doubtless evolved an undercoating of fur as well as an overcoating of long hair, like the tundra mammals. In size the lion of this period in France often equalled and sometimes surpassed its existing rela- ti\TS, the African and west Asiatic lion ; it frequently figures in the art of the Upper PalagoUthic artists and sur\dved in western Europe to the very close of Upper Palaeolithic times. The Fourth Glaciatiox Penck^ has estimated that the first maximum of the fourth glaciation in the Alps was reached 40,000 years ago, and that after the recession period the second maximum ended not less than 20,000 years ago. This would extend the Mousterian in- dustry over a very long period of time, for there can be no doubt that the Mousterian culture was practically contemporaneous with the fourth glaciation, even if a briefer period of time should be allotted to this great natural event. The fourth glaciation, like the first, is believed to have been contemporaneous in Europe and North America,^ a fact which is of especial importance to American anthropologists in connec- tion with the question of the date of arrival of primitive man in America. In both countries the glaciation reached an early HE FOURTH GLA( lAL STAGE 189 maximum, which was followed by a period of recession of the ice-fields, a time during which a somewhat more temperate cli- mate prevailed, but this in turn gave way to a second advance of as great severity as the first.* Fig. 94. Europe during the extension of the ice-fields and glaciers of the Fourth Glacial Stage. This is also supposed to have been a period of land depression and of extension of the inland seas of southern Europe. Britain was probably connected with France. The ice-covered areas in western Europe and Britain were far more limited than during the Third Glacial Stage, yet the climate appears to have been more severe than at any pre\-ious period. For the snow-level compare Fig. 13. Drawn by C. A. Reeds after Geikie and De Geer. In the north, Scandinavia and Finland were again enshrouded in ice, and a great mcr de glace occupied the basin of the Baltic Sea, sending its terminal moraines into Denmark and Schleswig- *The entire fourth glaciation has been termed Mecklenbiirgiau by Geikie;" the recession may correspond with his Fourth Interglacial Stage, the Lourr Forcstian. It is the Wiirm of Penck in the .\lpine region, with a first and second maximum separated by the re- cession known as the Laiifenschivankung. In .\merica it is the early Wisconsin with the Peorian recession interval, followed by the late Wisconsin, which is the final great glaci- ation of America. 190 M^N OF THE OLD STONE AGE Holstein and over the northern provinces of Germany, but this great ice-field did not again become confluent with that of Great Britain.^ At the commencement of the fourth glaciation large Fig. 95. The two large tundra rnammals, the woolly rhinoceros (upper), drawn from the work of Upper Palaeolithic artists and from the specimen chscovered at Starunia, in Galicia, Austria; and the woolly mammoth (Lower). These hardy animals gradually replaced the African- Asiatic pair, Merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant. Drawn hy Erwin S. Christman. One-sixtieth life size. glaciers descended over the Scottish mountain valle}'s and filled many of them even to the sea ; the coast subsided at least 130 feet in this region. In southern Britain along the valle\' of the Thames there spread an arctic flora, with the polar willow {Salix polaris) and the dwarf birch {Betula glandulosa) ; an arctic plant ARCTIC TUNDRA LIFE 191 bed has also been discovered in the valley of the Lea. Thus the tundra chmate extended from the Scottish lowlands to the south of England, the land being bleak and almost treeless.^ This, we believe, was also the period of the arctic flora at Hoxne, Suffolk, and of the arctic plant bpd in the valley of the Thames. At this time the valley was frequented by the reindeer, the woolly rhi- noceros, and the mammoth, whose remains are entombed in the low-level alluvia swept down from the sides of the valley, so that the remains of this arctic fauna may in places actually overlie those of the more deeply buried and far more ancient warm Asiatic fauna of Chellean times. Like the Somme, the Thames^ was then from lo to 25 feet below its present level, the bottom having since silted up with alluvial soil. This was the period of the deposition of the 'upper drift' over the north German lowlands, the AJps, and northern England, also of the early and late Wisconsin, or 'upper drift,' which spreads very widely over the Eastern States, from Wisconsin southward and eastward to the latitude of New York. The gravels and sands of some of the 'lowest terraces' were also deposited. Mammalian Life of Mousterian Times . The three successive phases of chmate and environment sur- rounding the Neanderthal men during the period of the develop- ment of the ]Mousterian industry, were in descending order as follows : 3. Extreme Cold Climate of the Last Great Glacial Advance. Period of the late Mousterian industry of La Quina. Spread of all the arctic and tundra mammals over western Europe, including the musk-ox; migrations of the obi and banded lemming of the extreme north. Life and industry of the Neanderthal races, chiefly in the shelters, grottos, and entrances to the caverns. 2. Cold Moist Climate. Period of the middle or ' full Mousterian' industry of the Neanderthal races. Appearance of the tundra life, including well- protected mammals and birds from the arctic region, .also descent of the Alpine types to the foot-hills and river borders. First forerunners of the steppe life; the full Eurasiatic forest and field life widely spread over 192 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Europe. Life and industry chiefly in the shelters, grottos, and entrances to the caverns. Reindeer very abundant. I. Warm or Cool Arid Climate. Transition from the Acheulean to the early Mousterian culture, as observed in the stations of La Micoque and of Combe-Capelle. The so-called 'warm Mousterian' fauna, including the surviving hippopotamus, Merck's rhinoceros, and the straight-tusked ele- phant in northern and southern France; herds of bison, cattle, and wild horses in southwestern France. Tribal life, with the industry partly in open stations, partly under sheltering cliffs. This is the beginning of the 'Reindeer Period,' for this mi- grant from Scandinavia, with its companions of the northeastern tundras, the woolly mammoth and the rhinoceros, wandered slowly southward before the advancing Scandina\'ian ice-fields, which were greatly augmented by the increasingly cold and moist climate. Thus these animals are found in the north with flints of the Mousterian culture before they appear in the more genial region of Dordogne. In the somewhat older Acheulean- Mousterian station of La Micoque, along the Vezere, the fire- hearths contain almost exclusively the remains of horses and relatively few remains of bison and wild cattle, but no reindeer. A fireplace near the station of Combe-Capelle yields numerous remains of the bison, only a few of the horse, and the first of the reindeer. Before the appearance of the reindeer in the valley of the Vezere we may picture the meadow-lands as covered with bison and wild horses, the latter of the type which is now charac- teristic of the high plateaus of central Asia, while the bison of the period appears to be more similar to the American buffalo than to the surviving European form. Gradually the tundra animals spread toward the south with the cold climate which for the first time swept all over western Europe. The whole aspect of the country slowly changed with the approach of the reindeer, and the northern flora of the spruce, the fir, and the arctic willow clad the more sheltered river- valleys and hillsides,, while the plateaus and fields were partly or wholly deforested. Thus the country became adapted chiefly to the tundra t>^es of mammals ; and in the middle Mousterian strata these herds, Fig. o6. Typical tundra fauna. "Gradually the tundra animals pressed toward the south with the cold climate which for the first time swept all over western Europe." The wolverene, Gido hisciis boreal i s ; the barren-ground reindeer, Rangifcr tarandus (drawn from the living typt); the arctic fox, Canis lagopus; the musk-ox, Ovibos mos- chatus; and the banded lemming, Myodes torquatiis. One-twenty-fifth life size. The lemming (A) is also shown one-seventh life size. Drawn by Erwin S. Christman. 194 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE newly migrated from the far north and from the northeastern steppes bordering the Obi River, largely outnumber the steppe forms, which are limited to two or three species. Of these the principal types are the steppe horse, related to the Przewalski horse now living in the desert of Gobi, the steppe suslik (Spermo- philus rufescens), and the steppe grouse, or moor-hen. The more characteristic forms of steppe life, such as the saiga antelope, the jerboa, and the kiang, were all later arrivals and did not appear until after the close of the Mousterian industry and the disap- pearance of the Neanderthal race. This was due to the fact that the cHmate surrounding the Neanderthal race in Mousterian times was cold and moist, with heavy rainfalls in summer and snow-storms in winter, a climate thoroughly suited to the arctic tundra mammals with their hea\y covering of hair acting as a rain shed and the undercoating of wool protecting them in the most severe weather. The mammal hfe during the fourth glaciation, as it spread into the middle Rhine and WestphaHan region, is fully recorded in the 'loess' deposits of Achenheim and in the famous grotto of Sir- genstein, on the upper Danube, lying northwest of Munich, where, together with traces of the most primitive Mousterian in- dustry, are found remains of the mammoth, the bison, the rein- deer, a species of wild horse, and the cave-bear. Following these mammals there is a record in the same deposit of the arrival of the Obi lemming, from northern Russia. The fact that only seven Mousterian stations are known in all Germany, or eight if we include the site of the Neanderthal burial, may be accounted for by the relatively close proximity of the great Scandinavian glacier on the north, which was only 350 miles distant from the great Alpine glacier on the south. To the east were the plains of Bohemia and the vast lowland region stretching northeastward to the tundras and eastward to the steppes, through which came the great migrations of tundra and steppe life. 6- 7 ^ .' lii 1 1 IJ • PAL.-EOL/TH/C STAT/OXS O CITIES OF MODERN GERMANY Fig. 97. The seven IVIousterian stations of Germany lay between the Scandinavian glacier (IV) on the north and the Alpine glacier (IV) on the south (dotted areas). They include the grottos of Sirgenstcin, IrpfdhShle, and Raiibcrhohle, along the valley of the Danube ; Kartstein and Buchenloch, near the middle Rhine, and Baiimannshohle, south of Han- over; also the open loess station of Mommenheim. The Mousterian grotto of Wild- kirchli, in Switzerland, lay within the limits of the Alpine ice-fields; and the burial at Neanderthal, near Dusseldorf, was probably of Mousterian age. After R. R. Schmidt, modified and redrawn. 196 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Geographic and Climatic Environment of the Neander- thal Race Let us first glance at Dordogne. Among the stations of the early Mousterian industry we have seen that the Neanderthals in the valley of the Vezere, at La Micoque, were in the midst of a fauna chiefly composed of the bison and of the wild horse, the remains found in the hearths being almost exclusively of the latter animal.* In the primitive Mousterian station of Combe- Capelle near by the fire-hearths yield remains of the bison but only a few of the horse. Among the earliest caves inhabited by man^° was that of Le Moustier, situated on the right bank of the Vezere, and about 90 feet above it. This shelter and cave were examined as early as 1860-3 by Lartet^^ and Christy and subsequently by de Vibraye/^ Massenat,^^ and others. Besides the deposits in the floor of the grotto there, a deep Mousterian culture layer has been found under the cHff in front, and this has been selected for our repre- sentation of the life of the men of Mousterian times, and of the flora of the Vezere in this early period (see frontispiece) . Peyrony observes that, here as elsewhere, the older and lower industrial camps were farther away from the shelters; indeed, in this very region there are evidences that the Chellean and Acheulean flint workers occasionally visited the plateaus above ; but as time passed and the weather became more severe the Neanderthals began to work nearer to the overhanging cliffs and finally directly beneath them. At this classic station of Le Moustier, one of the most complete skeletons of Neanderthal man was unearthed by Hauser, in 1908. There was a continuous residence here in mid- dle and upper Mousterian times, extending into the lower Aurig- nacian of the Upper Palseolithic. The contemporary fauna in these deposits included the mammoth, the reindeer, the giant deer {Megaceros), the horse, the bison, the woolly rhinoceros, and the * Obermaier, Breuil,. and Schmidt assign La Micoque to the transition between late Acheulean and early Mousterian times. EXMROXMEXT OF THE XEAXDERTIIAL RACE 107 cave-bear. During the habitation of this t\pical station b\' man the chmate was very cold and damp. In this region is found the complete record of the course of ]\Iousterian evolution, both in the implements and in the advent of new forms of life; the number of reindeer gradually increases in the ascending layers with the development of the ]\Iousterian industry. There is a constant gradation from the Acheulean into the Mousterian industrial tj-pes; according to Cartailhac, this Fig. 98. The type station of Le IMoustier, on the right bank of the Vezere, Dordogne. The culture layer is on the middle terrace, overlooking the hamlet of Le Moustier. (Compare frontispiece, PI. i.) Photograph by Belves. industry is all the work of the same people, with no sharp Unes of division. Thus at Combe-Capelle, where the debut of the true ]Mous- terian culture took place, we find a number of large coups de poing, pointing back to the early Acheulean implements. The gradations which are exhibited here in these successive layers are quite in contrast to the advance of the industry at the close of Mousterian times in the very same locality, where there is an abrupt cultural transition toward the Aurignacian. Southern Britain tells of a similar sequence, which we may interpret as follows. Belonging either to the temperate climate 198 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of early Mousterian times, or to the period of the recession of the fourth glaciation, known in the Alps as the Lauj'enschwankung, are the Mousterian stations along the Lea and near the mouth of the Thames at Crayford (Worthington Smith," Geikie^^). These Palaeolithic 'floors' of Mousterian times are buried be- FiG. 99. Excavations of the Mousterian culture layer under the chh of l.e Alousticr. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. neath 4 to 5 feet of sand and loam and rest upon the surface of older river-gravels. Among the later river deposits several old land surfaces have been discovered ; they consist of a few inches of angular gravel, crowded in places with unabraded implements and flakes which obviously occur just where they were left by Palaeolithic workmen. At one point there is evidence that the flint maker squatted over his work, with his knees slightly apart, for the chips are thrown to the right and left in small piles. Here and there, mixed with these Mousterian implements, are more archaic forms which may have been drifted down from the older land surfaces above. ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 109 One such floor has been traced by Worthington Smith "^ through Middlesex and on both sides of the Thames. Plant remains occur plentifully on this old land surface, including im- pressions of portions of leaves, stems of grass, rushes, and sedges. The birch, alder, pine, yew, elm, and hazel have been recognized. The common male fern is of frequent occurrence, while the royal fern {Osniunda regalis) is found in profusion. Upon the whole, this assemblage of plants indicates a temperate climate. The fhnts described and figured by Worthington Smith are either of the late Acheulean 'Levallois flake' t}'pe or else of early Mousterian age. This writer^' notes the great number of instruments known as trimmed flakes, which are found on the Palaeolithic 'floor' ; these are flakes of large size, trimmed to an implement-like form on one side, while the other side is left per- fectly plain ; the examples are remarkably constant to one form. The type of implement here described resembles the flakes of Levallois or Combe-Capelle, or even the typical 'point' from Le Moustier. Such flakes, shaped into the Mousterian forms of racloir, or scraper, are very common in the gravels of the Lea and of the Thames. While the remains of the woofly mammoth are found here, there are also indications of the presence of a well-marked tem- perate flora. These high-level 'river-drifts' along the Thames ^^ were certainly deposited when the cUmatic conditions were tem- perate, but they are succeeded by deposits indicating a renewed cold period, which may represent the cold 'full Mousterian' times of the Lower PalaeoHthic habitation of the Thames. Here we find the remarkable sheets of contorted 'drift' attributable to the movements of the frozen soil and subsoil when exposed to the heat of the summer sun. At the same time there may have been deposited along the Thames the afluxdal loams and gravels, occasionally containing stones and rocks, which were brought dowTi by ice-rafts ; these low-level gravels are not to be confused with the underlying 'old river-gravels' which contain the warm tem- perate hippopotamus fauna, for they were accumulated under very cold conditions ; they yield remains of the woolh' rhinoceros and 200 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of the mammoth. Thus, on the high levels of the Thames as well as on the low levels we find evidences of the human culture and of the extinct fauna of the period of the fourth great gla- ciation. The upper waters of the Rhine and Danube were also fre- quented by late Acheulean and early Mousterian flint workers. At a point far distant from southern England there is the cavern of Wildkirchli on the Santis Mountains, near i\ppenzell, in Swit- zerland ; in Mousterian times this was in the very heart of the Fig. ioo. Mousterian cavern of Wildkirchli. After Bachler. Entrances indicated at I, 2, and 3, in the side of the limestone cliff. Here, at a height of 4,500 feet above sea- level, Bachler discovered proofs of occupation by Mousterian man in the very heart of the Alpine ice-fields of the Fourth Glacial Stage. north Alpine ice-field. The animal life here may indicate that this cavern was open during the period of recession between the two great advances of the fourth glaciation. Here, at a height of 4,500 feet, Bachler ^^ between 1903-6, discovered proofs of oc- cupation by Neanderthal man during Mousterian times ; the flints are not well formed ; the presence of crude bone implements may point to late Mousterian times ; but the flints are considered by Bachler to be of the same stage as those of Le Moustier. It is asserted that when the Neanderthals followed the chase here ENVIRONMENT OF THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 201 the climate was more genial, because the animals found include the stag, Alpine wolf {Cyon alpinus fossilis) , cave-bear, cave-lion, cave-leopard {Felts pardiis spelcea), badger, marten, and otter, together with the t>pical Alpine forms, the ibex, chamois, and Fig. ioi. Entrance to the grotto of Sirgenstein. After R. R. Schmidt. "Of all the stations along the Danube by far the most important is that of Sirgenstein . . . which was first occupied by the Neanderthals in early Mousterian times and continued to be visited by the Lower and Upper Palaeolithic men until the very close of the Upper Palaeolithic." marmot. But this fauna alone can hardly be taken as proof of a temperate cHmate, for at this .Aipine height wt should not ex- pect to discover the tundra life of the period; in fact, it is entirely absent. Of all the stations along the Danube, by far the most important is that of Sirgenstein, lying between the modern cities of Nurem- berg and Augsburg, which was first occupied by the Neander- thals in early Mousterian times and continued to be visited by the Lower and Upper Palaeolithic men until the very close of the 202 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Upper Palaeolithic. The continuous section of animal life and of human culture which this remarkable cavern >delds afforded Schmidt,-'' who began his researches here in the spring of 1906, a key to the prehistory of all the eighteen caverns in the region of the upper Danube and upper Rhine. In Sirgenstein the primi- tive Mousterian culture of the early Neanderthals was found, to- gether with remains of the mammoth, bison, reindeer, a species of wild horse, and the cave-bear ; this Mousterian industry closed with a record of the arrival in this region of the Obi lemming from northern Russia. Later on the Cro-Magnon race of Aurig- nacian times left on the floor of the cavern remains of their flint industry and of their feasts, including the bones of the w^oolly rhinoceros, mammoth, stag, and reindeer. During Upper Pa- laeolithic Solutrean times the cavern was not occupied ; but early in Magdalenian times it was again inhabited by man, and coin- cident with his return is the arrival of a great migration of the banded lemming {Myodes torquatus) from the arctic tundras of the north. Finally, toward the end of the Upper Palaeolithic, in late Magdalenian times, another climatic transition is indi- cated by the appearance of the pika, or tailless hare {Lagomys pusillus). During the Bronze Age this favorite grotto was again entered, and it was also inhabited during a portion of the Iron Age. The debris of these various cultures, hearths, and deposits of cave loam reach a total thickness of 8 W feet and mark Sirgen- stein as first in rank among the Palaeolithic stations of Germany. Types and Migil^tions of the INIammals Hunted by the Neanderthals This is the life of the period of the fourth glaciation, when a very cold and moist climate prevailed all over western Europe as far south as northern Spain and northern Italy. While the glacial fields were not so extensive as during the third or the second glaciation, the climate was very severe, as indicated by the southward migration not only of the arctic flora but of the mammals and birds of the tundra region bordering the southern shores of the Arctic Ocean. Two or three forms from the cold Pl. V. The Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, inhabiting the Dordogne region of central France in Mousterian times. Antiquity estimated as between 40,000 and 25,000 years. After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. For the bodily proportions of this hunting race compare the frontispiece, PI. I. MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 20.5 steppes of northern Russia also found their way into western Europe, but this was distinctly not a steppe period because of the prevailing moisture of the cUmate ; in place of the westerly winds and great dust clouds of closing Acheulean times, cold mists and clouds hea\y with moisture swept over the countr\', which during the winters was at times buried in snow, and subject to rapid changes of temperature. These cKmatic* conditions appear to be demonstrated by the predominance of the arctic tundra life, mammals which were adapted only to severe weather and attracted by the northern flora. The summers were undoubtedly warm, like the present Arctic summers, but very much longer in these southerly latitudes. It is not improbable that there were seasonal migrations, north- ward and southward, of the mammoths, rhinoceroses, and rein- deer, and also that the northern flint quarries along the Somme and the Marne may have been visited chiefly during the warm summer season. The Asiatic mammals had entirely disappeared from the regions of France and Germany during the first max- imum of the fourth glaciation, but there are some who maintain that during the amehoration of climate that followed, an interval in the .\lpine region termed the Laiifenschwankttng by Penck, the straight-tusked elephant and Merck's rhinoceros again mi- grated into northern France. It is true that occasionally we find the bones of these animals in close association with those of the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros. It is possible to explain such intermingling either as having occurred during the advance of the fourth glaciation, or as due to the northward and southward migration of the respective herds of mammals in the summer and winter seasons. As the period of the fourth glaciation continued it is certain that these Asiatic mammals entirely disappeared. At the same time the Neanderthals had passed through the first stage of development of the Mousterian industry and had reached what is known as the 'full' or 'high' Mousterian, which, '* The climate of the tundras is extreme, the \vinter temperature falling on an average to 27° F. below zero, while in summer the temperature is about 50° F. In the subarctic steppes the average January temperature hardly exceeds 30° F., while that of July is 70° F. 206 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE with few exceptions, was carried on under the shelter of the overhanging cliffs or within the grottos. The mammahan life of these 'full' Mousterian times, as found along the headwaters of the Danube, the Rhine, and the branches of the Dordogne and Vezere, is di\'ided among the various faunal groups as follows : It would appear that the reindeer, the woolly mammoth, and the woolly rhinoceros were already widel}' dis- tributed over western Europe, ac- companied by the arctic fox {Canis lagopiis), the arctic hare {Lepus vari- abilis), and the banded lemming {My odes torquatus). There is no proof that the musk-ox had at this time reached its extreme southerly distribution, and it would appear that the arrival of the second t>pe of northern lemming from the region of the river Obi {Myodes obensis) did not occur until the close of Mous- terian times,'- ^ because the great mi- gration of these animals is recorded by their abundant remains in the so-called 'lower rodent layer' of all the stations along the Rhine and Danube, such as Sirgenstein, Wild- scheuer, and Ofnet, after the final stage of Mousterian industry. In fact, this remarkable little rodent ap- pears to mark the second maximum or close of the fourth glaciation by its migration all over western Eu- rope, and wherever its remains are found in the grotto deposits they furnish one of the most im- portant and positive of prehistoric dates, namely, that of the Life of Middle Mousterian Times Tundra Life. Woolly mammoth. Woolly rhinoceros. Scandina\'ian reindeer. Arctic fox. Arctic hare. Banded lemming. Arctic ptarmigan. Alpine Life. Alpine marmot. Ibex. Alpine ptarmigan. Steppe Life. Steppe horse. Steppe suslik. Moor-hen. Asiatic Life. Cave-lion. Cave-hyaena. Cave-leopard. Forest Life. Stag, lynx, wolf, fox, water- vole, brown bear, giant deer. Cave-bear. ISIeadow Life. Bison. Wild cattle. MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDKRIHALS ^207 'lower rodent layer.' The lemmings surpass all other mammals in the great distances covered by their migrations, and it would appear that this northern species swept all o\'er western Europe at the same time, leaving its remains not onl\- in the caverns along the Danube but in those of Belgium and of Thiede, near Braunschweig. The latter station, Thiede, was not far from the southern border of the Scandinavian glacier ; it was subjected to a very severe arctic climate, as the only associates of the Obi lemming were the banded lemming, the arctic fox, the arctic hare, the reindeer, the mammoth, and the musk-ox. The woolly mammoth now reaches the height of its evolution and specialization ; as preserved in the frozen tundras of northern Siberia, and as represented in very Life of Late Mousteriax numerous drawings and engravings ^'^^^^^ by the Upper PalaeoHthic artists, it Second Maximum of Fourth is the most completely known of all Glaciatwn fossil mammalia.'-'- Its proportions. Tundra, Steppe, Alpine Asi- ^g shown in the accompanving figure, atic and Meadow life, as , . . . .' . ^T^QyQ which represents the intormation Obi lemming. gathered from all sources, are en- Musk-ox. tirely different from those of either ?''"'^!"^- . the Indian or African elephant. Arctic ptarmigan. o^i, u j • v.- x. j Eversmann's weasel The head is very high and sur- (Steppe weasel). m.ounted by a great mass of hair and wool ; behind this a sharp de- pression separates the back of the head from the great hump on the back ; the hinder portion of the back falls away very rapidly and the tail is short ; the overcoat of long hair nearly reaches the ground, and beneath this is a warm undercoating of wool. It is not improbable that the humps on the head and the back were fat reservoirs. The color of the hair was a yellowish brown, varying from light brown to pure brown ; woolly hair, from an inch to an inch and a half in length, covered the whole body ; interspersed with the shorter hairs was a large number of longer and thicker hairs, which formed mane-like patches on the cheeks, chin, shoulders, flanks, and abdomen. A broad fringe of this 208 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE long hair extended along the sides of the body, as depicted in the work of the Upper Palaeolithic artists in the Combarelles Cave. Especially interesting to us is the food found in the stomach and mouth of the frozen Siberian mammoths, which consists chiefly of a meadow flora such as flourishes during the summer in north- ern Siberia at the present day, including grasses and sedges, wild Fig. I02. The woolly mammoth {Elephas primigenius) and the contemporary Neander- thal hunters {Homo neanderthalensis), after the drawings of Upper Palaeolithic artists and the frozen mammoths found in northern Siberia. By Charles R. Knight, 1915. thyme, beans of the wild oxytropis, also the arctic variety of the upright crowfoot {Ranunculus accr). This was the summer food. The winter food undoubtedly included the leaves and stems of the willow, the juniper, and other winter plants. The woolly rhinoceros was the invariable companion of the mammoth, even as Merck's rhinoceros always associated itself with the straight-tusked elephant. This remarkable animal is related to the northern African group of white rhinoceroses, from which it branched off at a very remote period. The profile of its very long, narrow head, of its enormous anterior and lesser pos- terior horn, and its humped back resembles that of the existing MAMMALS HUNTED BY THE NEANDERTHALS 209 African form, but its protection against the arctic climate gave it a wholly different outward appearance ; the hair of the face, of a golden-brown color, with an undercovering of wool, is pre- served in the Museum of Petrograd. Through a discovery at Starunia, in eastern Galicia, in 191 1, this animal is now completely known to us, except the tail ; its remains were found here at a depth of 30 feet, and included the head, left fore leg, and the skin of the left side of the body. The Starunia specimen has a broad^ truncated upper lip adapted to grazing habits, small oblique eyes, long, narrow, and pointed ears, a long anterior horn with oval base, and a shorter posterior horn, a short neck, on the back of which is a small, fleshy hump, quite independent of the skeleton ; the legs are comparatively short. It differs from the li\-ing African form in the somewhat narrower muzzle, in its small, pointed ears, and in the presence of a thick coating of hair. Like the white rhinoceros, the woolly form was a plains dweller, li\'ing on grass and small herbs.^^ This rhinoceros kept more closeh- to the borders of the great ice-sheets than did the mammoth, arrest- ing its migration in Germany and France ; that is, it did not migrate so far to the south as the mammoth, which wandered down into Italy as far as Rome. The reindeer was the herald or forerunner of all the arctic tundra fauna ; it reached the valley of the Vezere at the begin- ning of the period of the true ]\Iousterian culture and already had penetrated much farther south during the Third Glacial Stage, probably migrating along the borders of the ice-fields ; in fact, it is found in northern Europe even during the second glaciation. It is the true Scandinavian or barren-ground species, which is now t^-pified by two forms of the Old World reindeer {R. tarandus, R. spitzbergensis), and by the existing American barren-ground forms. The antlers are round, slender, and long in proportion to the relatively small size of the animal; the brow tines are palmated. There is Httle proof that the Neanderthals made much use of the bones of the reindeer, but there is every reason to suppose that they used the pelts, for the preparation of which the Mousterian scrapers and planers were especially well fitted. 210 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE In the Iberian peninsula the tundra fauna did not penetrate as far south as Portugal, although the Norwegian lemming {Myodes lemmiis) reached the vicinity of Lisbon. The woolly mammoth, accompanied by the woolly rhinoceros, has been dis- covered in two localities on the extreme northern coast of Spain, in the province of Santander, bordering the Bay of Biscay. The 1 «^#d Fig. io.v The woolly rhinoceros {Rh'uwceros antiquitatis), after the drawings of Palaeo- lithic artists and the specimen from Starunia preserved in the museum of Lemberg, Gahcia. By Charles R. Knight, 19 15. reindeer {Rangifer tar and us) is found in the cavern of Serina, south of the Pyrenees ; as early as Acheulean times it reached the region of Altamira, near Santander. Thus Harle-^ concludes it is certain that the tundra fauna spread from France ^vestward into Catalonia, along the northern coast of S^ain, flanking the Pyrenees. It is generally believed that the cave-bear {Ursii^ spelcBiis) occupied many of the caverns before their possession b\- man, and developed certain peculiarities of structure in these haunts. Thus the phalanges bearing the claws are feebly de- CAVE LIFE 211 vcloped, indicating that the claws had parth' lost their prehen- sile function ; the anterior grinding-teeth are very much reduced, and the cusps of the posterior grinders are blunted in a wa}- which is indicative of an omnivorous diet ; yet the front paws were of tremendous size, the body was thick-set and of heavier proportions than that of the larger recent bears {Ursus arctos) of Europe. Hence, it would appear that the Neanderthals drove out from the caves a t\pe of bear less formidable than the exist- ing species but nevertheless a serious opponent to men armed with the small weapons of the Alousterian period. Customs of the Chase and of Cave Life We have only indirect means of knowing the courage and ac- ti\-it}' of the Neanderthals in the chase, through the bones of animals hunted for food which are found intermingled w^ith the flints around their ancient hearths. These include in the early Mousterian hearths, as we have seen, bones of the bison, the wild cattle, and the horse, which are followed at Combe-Capelle by the first appearance of the bones of the reindeer. The bones of the bison and of the wild horse are both utilized in the bone anvils of the closing Mousterian culture at La Quina. What we believe to be the period of the great mammalian life of the region of the upper Danube is found in the Mousterian levels of the grotto of Sirgenstein, from which it would appear that the Nean- derthals hunted the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the wild horse, bison, and cattle, and the giant deer as well as the reindeer. We should keep in mind, however, that when these caves were for a time deserted, the beasts of prey returned, and so it often happens that the succeeding layers afford proofs of alternate occupation by man and by beasts of prey of sufficient size to bring in the larger kinds of eame, while owls ma}' be responsible for the deposits of the lemming, as in the 'lower rodent layer.' Obermaier'-'^ has given careful study to the vicissitudes of cave life in Mousterian times. Long before these caves were in- habited by man, they served as lairs or refuges for the cave-bear 212 MEN OP^ THE OLD STONE AGE and cave-hyaena, as well as for man}- birds of prey. For example, the cave of Echenoz-la-Moline, on the upper waters of the Saone, contained the remains of over eight hundred skeletons of the cave-bear, and no doubt it cost the Neanderthals many a hard- fought battle before the beasts were driven out and man possessed himself of the grotto. Fire may have been the means employed. It has been questioned whether the caves were not unhealthy dwelhng-places, but it must be remembered that, except in cer- tain caverns which had natural openings through the roof for the exit of smoke, there was no true cave life, but rather a grotto life, which centred around the entrance of the cave. The small- est cave, this author observes, was considerably larger and better ventilated than the small, smoky cabins of some of the European peasants, or the snow huts of the Eskimo. The most serious obstacle was the prevailing dampness, which varied periodically in the caverns, so that dry seasons were succeeded by abundant moisture seeping through the limestone roof and do\Mi the side walls. At such times the caverns were probably uninhabitable, and in the bones of both men and beasts many instances ha\'e been observed of diseased swellings and of inflammation of the vertebrae, such as are caused by extreme dampness. The com- pensating advantages were the shelter offered from the rain and cold, a constant temperature at moderate distances from the en- trance, and also the fact that the caves were very easily defensible, because the entrance was generally small and the approach often steep and difhcult; a high stone wall across the opening would have made the defense still easier, and a flaming firebrand would have prevented the approach of bears and other beasts of prey. On account of this shelter from the weather and wild beasts the grottos and the larger openings of the caverns were certainh' crowded with the Mousterian flint workers during the inclement seasons of the year. Yet the greater part of the life of the Neanderthals was un- doubtedly passed in the open and in the chase. Throughout Mousterian times the commonest game consisted of the wild horse, wild ox, and reindeer. Both flesh and pelts were utilized. CAVE LIFE 213 and the marrow was sought b}' spUtting all the larger bones. Thus, frequently we find in the hearths the remains of the mam- moth, the woolly rhinoceros, the giant deer, the cave-bear, and the brown bear. From these beasts of prey the Neanderthal hunters obtained pelts and perhaps also fat for torches used to light the caverns ; there is no proof of the invention of the lamp at this period. The work of the women undoubtedly consisted of preparing the meals and making the pelts into covers and clothing. When- ever possible this would be done in the daylight outside of the grottos, but in chilly, rainy weather, or the bitter cold of winter, the whole tribe would seek refuge in the grotto, gathering around the tire-hearths fed with wood ; odd corners would serve as store- houses for fuel or dried meat, preserved against the days when extreme cold and blinding snow forbade the hunters to venture forth. It appears that the game was dismembered where it fell and the best parts removed. The skull was split open for the brain; the long bones were preserved for the marrow; thus the bones of the flank and shoulder of game occur frequently in cave deposits, while the ribs and vertebrae are rare. The pitfall may have been part of the hunting craft known to the Neanderthals. The chase was pursued with spears or darts fitted with flint points, also by means of ' throwing stones,' which are found in great numbers in the upper Mousterian levels of La Quina, in the Wolf Cave of Yonne, Les Cottes, and various places in Spain. If one imagines, as is quite possible, that the throwing stone w^as placed in a leather shng or in the cleft end of a stick, or fastened to a long leather thong, one can readily see it would prove a very effective weapon. The methods of chase by the Neanderthals are, nevertheless, somewhat of a mystery. There was a very decided disparity between the size and effectiveness of their weapons and the strength and resistance of the animals which they pursued. None of the very heavy implements of Acheulean times was pre- served ; the dart and spear heads are not greatly improved, cer- 21-t MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE tainly they could not penetrate the thick hides of the larger arctic tundra mammals, heavily protected with hair and wool ; the chase even of the horses, wild cattle, and reindeer was apparently without the aid of the bow and arrow and prior to the invention of the barbed arrow or lance head. Fig. 104. Geographic distribution of Pre-Xeanderthaloids and Neanderthaloids in western Europe, showing the locahties where the remains of Pre-Neanderthaloid races (Heidelberg and Piltdown) and of true Neanderthaloids have thus far been dis- covered. (Compare table, p. 219.) Discovery of the Xeanderthaloid Races The open-air or nomadic life of all the tribes of western Europe from Pre-Chellean nearly to the close of Acheulean times was very unfavorable to the preservation of human re- mains. It is possible that the bodies of the dead and of the aged were thrown out to the hyaenas which surrounded the stations, as among some of the tribes of Africa to-day, but it is equally THE NEANDKRTHAL RACE 215 possible that they were interred in some manner. Skeletons buried near the surface in the river sands or gravels of the 'ter- races' would not have been preserved. We have seen that the preser\'ation of the Heidelberg and Piltdown remains was en- tirely due to chance, the bones having been washed down and mingled with those of the animals ; nor has any evidence been found in the grotto of Krapina of ceremonial burial or of respect for the dead, but on the contrary there is some evidence of canni- balistic customs. Even before the close of early Mousterian times all this was changed. Perhaps the closer association en- FiG. 105. Front view of the Xeanderthaloid skull found at Gibraltar in 184S — the earliest discovery of a member of this race, now re- garded as the skull of a woman. Photograph by A. Hrdlicka from ■ the original specimen. One-quarter life size. forced by the more rigorous climate indirectly produced greater respect for the dead and led to the custom of burial or the orderly laying out of the remains of the dead in the floors of the partly protected grottos and caverns, to which custom we owe our present knowledge of the structure of Neanderthal man in Mousterian times. The first discovery of a Xeanderthaloid was made in 1848, eight years before the t}pe of the Neanderthal race came to light. This was the Gibraltar skuir-*^ found b}' Lieutenant Flint, near Forbes Quarry, on the north face of the Rock of Gibraltar. It consists of a well-preserved skull, with the parietal bones only missing and the face and base of the cranium remarkably com- plete. In 1868 it was presented by Busk to the ^Museum of the 216 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Royal College of Surgeons, in London, where it lies to-day. The exact site of the discovery can no longer be positively identified ; it was probably found in a still existing cave, and although its archaeologic age cannot be determined, yet as its anatomical fea- tures are those of the Neanderthal race, and as all the remains of this race which can be dated with certainty are of Mousterian age, it probably belongs to the Mousterian period. Of recent }'ears its great importance in the history of man has been revealed in the studies of Sollas, Keith, and Schwalbe. Thus it has come Sea Level 2000 meters Sea Level Fig. io6. Section of that part of the v^alley of the Diissel known as the Neanderthal, showing the location of the limestone grotto where the Neanderthal skeleton was discovered. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. to be ranked among the Neanderthaloids and is considered of a particularly primitive form, because of the extremely small size of the brain. This feature and the slight development of the supraorbital ridges, so characteristic of the Neanderthaloids, are explained by the theory that the skull belonged to a female. Sera'-' considers the Gibraltar skull to be the most ape-like of all human fossils and thinks it should not be classed with the Neanderthaloids at all, but should be regarded as Pre-Neander- thaloid ; this view is shared by Keith. Boule, however, believes that this skull is of the same geologic age as that of Spy, La Chapelle, La Ferrassie, and La Quina ; everything leads us to be- lieve,^^ he remarks, that the skull of Gibraltar is a female skull of Neanderthal tx-pe. He elsewhere refers to the skulls of Gi- THE NEANDERTHAL RACE ;217 braltar, of La Quina, and of La Ferrassie II as probably those of female Neanderthals. The type skull of this great extinct race of men is that of Neanderthal — certainly the most famous and the most disputed of all anthropologic remains — appreciated by Lyell and Huxley, but passed over by Darwin, and finall}' established by Schwalbe as the most important missing link between the existing species of man {Homo sapiens) and the anthropoid apes. In 1856-'^ some workmen were engaged in clearing a small loam-covered cave about six feet in height, the so-called Feldhofner Grotto, in the cretaceous limestone of the valley known as the Neander- thal, on the small stream Dussel flowing between Elberfeld and Fig. T07. The original type skull of Neanderthal (left side) discovered in 1856. After Schwalbe. One-quarter life size. Diisseldorf. They discovered some human bones, probably a complete skeleton representing an interment, which, unfortu- nately, were allowed to be scattered and crushed. Doctor Fuhl- rott rescued the parts that remained, including the now famous skullcap, both thigh-bones, the right upper-arm bone, portions of the lower arm, bones of both sides, the right collar-bone, and fragments of the pelvis, shoulder-blade, and ribs. All the bones were perfectly preserved and are now to be found in the provincial museum of Bonn. The discovery made a great sensation, but at first the age oL these fossils remained doubtful ; some 150 paces from the grotto, in a similar small cave were found bones of the cave-bear and rhinoceros. In 1858 Schaaffhausen's memoir"*^ appeared, in which he gave the first detailed description of these remains as belonging to a primitive original race differing Jp every point from recent man, and he never wavered from this standpoint. 218 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE In 1863''^ Busk, Huxley, and Lyell also placed this skeleton in its true intermediate position between man and the anthropoid apes. The determined opinion of Virchow that this was not a normal t>pe of man exerted so great an influence that not until the classic work of Schwalbe,^'- between 1899 and 1901, did this skel- eton assume its commanding importance for all time, and even this was subsequent to the discovery of two other Neanderthaloid races. At first, quite erroneously, this was associated with the so- called race of Cannstatt, but long before Schwalbe's work it was recognized by King,^'' in 1864, as a distinct species of man {Homo neanderthalensis) 'the man of the Neander valley.' Not long after the discovery of the Neanderthaloids of Spy, in Belgium, Cope,^^ in 1893, proposed the same specific name of Homo neander- thalensis. In 1897 Wilser^^ suggested the name of Homo primi- genius, which has been widely adopted in Germany,. while among French authors the same species of man is sometimes known to-day as Homo moustcricnsis. This variety of names serves at least to record the unanimous opinion that this mid-Pleistocene man belongs to a distinct species. Since the race was very widely distributed, we may speak of these people as the 'Neanderthals,' while races resembling the Neanderthal species may be characterized as 'Neanderthaloid.' The complete series of discoveries of members of this race is now very large indeed. In the year 1887 the Belgian geologists Fraipont and Lohesf^" discovered in a grotto near Spy, not far from Dinant on the Meuse, the remains of two individuals which are now distinguished as Spy I and Spy II. In the same stratum with the skeletons, beneath a layer of tufaceous limestone, flint implements of Mous- terian age were embedded, together with remains of the woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, cave-bear, and cave-hytena. This discovery is one of the most important in the history of anthro- pology, because it definitely dated the Spy men as belonging to the period of Mousterian industry, and also because the authors immediately recognized these men as belonging to the race of THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 219 DISTRIBUTION OF THE RKMAIXS OF THE XEAXDERTHALS (Compare Fig. 104) I. Of Unk Nowx Lower Pal.^olithic Times 1848. Gibraltar. Forbes Quarry. Fragmentary skull. 1856. Xeanderthal. Diisseldorf, Germany. Skullcap and skeletal fragments. 1859. Arcy-sur-Cure. Yonne, France. I lower jaw. 1866. La Naulette. Belgium. I lower jaw. 1888. Malarnaud. Ariege, France. I lower jaw. PGourdan. Hautes-Pyrenees. I lower jaw. 1906. Ochos. ]Moravia. I lower jaw. 2. With Late :Mousteriax I XDUSTRY 1887. Spy L n. Xear Dinant, Bel- Two skulls and skel- gium. etons. 1907. Petil-Puymoyen. Charente, France. Fragments of upper and lower jaws. 1900. Pech de I'Aze. Dordogne, France. Skull of a child. I9IO. La Ferrassie II. Dordogne, France. I skeleton (female). I9II. La Cotte de St. Brelade. Isle of Jersey. 13 human teeth. I9II. La Quina II. Charente, France. Skull and fragments of skeleton. 3. With :Middle Mousteriax IXDUSTRY 1882. Sipka. Moravia. Jaw of a child. 1908. La Chapelle-aux- Correze, France. Almost complete skull Saints. and skeleton. 1909. La Ferrassie I. Dordogne. France. Portions of one skeleton. I9I0. La Quina I. Charente, France. Foot bones. 4. With Early ]\Iousterian Ixdustry [90S. Le Moustier. \'ezere Valley, Dor- Skeleton of a youth. dogne, France. 1 9 14. Ehringsdorf.''' Xear Weimar. Lower jaw. ;. With ]\Iousteriax or Acheuleax Ixdustry 1899. Krapina. i8q2. Taubach. Croatia, Austria-Hun- Portions of many skel- gary. etons of adults and X'ear Weimar. of children. I milk tooth. 2^20 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Neanderthal and of Cannstatt, which at the time were supposed to be the same. Here for the first time the proportions of the cranium and the brain, the very primitive features of the lower jaw and of the teeth, the low stature, and several ape-like char- acters of the limb bones became known ; here were observed the prominent supraorbital ridges of the Neanderthal type, the receding forehead, the cranial profile inferior to that of the lowest existing Australian races, the narrow, dolichocephalic skull. Fig. io8. Skull known as Sp\^ I, discovered in 18S7, in front of the grotto of Spy, near Namur, Belgium. After Kracmer. One-quarter life size. The limbs were found to have retained the anthropoid dispropor- tion between the thigh-bone and the shin-bone, and the important discovery was made that this short, massively built, heav}-- browed, dull-visaged Neanderthal man was unable to stand absolutely erect, the structure of the knee-joint being such that the knees were constantly slightly bent. In other words, the Spy man had not yet fully acquired the erect position of the lower limbs. This discovery may be said to have established the Neander- thals in all their characters as a very distinct low race, but twenty- two years elapsed before this was further confirmed by the finding of another and still earlier tj^De of Neanderthaloid at Krapina, in northern Croatia, Austria-Hungary, as described at the close of Chapter II (p. i8i above); a type which with its local varia- THE XEAXDERTHAL RACE 221 tions was soon determined as unquestionably belonging in the same group with the man of Neanderthal and the men of Spy. ]Many years before, namely, in 1866, the Belgian anthro- pologist Dupont^^ had discovered the remains of another mem- ber of this race in a grotto on the bank of the River Lesse, near La Naulette, not far from Furfooz, in northern Belgium. This is now known as the La Naulette jaw and is found to be of Neanderthal t^-pe. It was associated with bones of the woolly mammoth, the rhinoceros, the reindeer, and a few fragments of other human bones. Again, in 1882, Maska^^ found in a cave near Sipka, in Mo- ravia, south of Sternberg, and six miles east of Neutitschein, fragments of a child's lower jaw, extraordinarily strong, thick, and large, and showing the incoming of the permanent teeth. From this very same region is the jaw of Ochos, Moravia, found by Rzehak^*^ about 1906. Only the alveolar part of the jaw w^as found, but it served to demonstrate the very wide geographical distribution of the Neanderthal race. At this time the Dordogne region, long known to be an inten- sive centre of Mousterian industry, from the time of Lartet's discovery of Le Moustier, in 1863, had not yielded a single skel- eton, or any anatomical evidence of the type of man which in ^Mousterian times inhabited it. But beginning in the spring of 1908 there came in succession a whole series of such discoveries,, mostly of ceremonial burials, at La Chapelle-aux-Saints, at the type station of Le Moustier itself, at La Ferrassie, another station on the lower Vezere, and at La Quina. In October, 1910, was discovered the skull known as La Fer- rassie II, of late Mousterian age; it is probably that of a female, and the remains were arranged in what was presumably a special form of ceremonial burial, because the bones, instead of being laid out straight in a certain direction, were in a crouching or flexed position. The Le Moustier skeleton was found by Hauser in the lower grotto of Le Moustier, in the Vezere valley, in the spring of 1 908, and carefully removed with the aid of Professor Klaatsch.^^ l^^ MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE It belonged to a youth some sixteen years of age. The most interesting feature of the discovery was the manner in which the skeleton was laid out.^- The head rested on a number of flint fragments carefully piled together — a sort of stone pillow ; the dead lay in a sleeping posture, with the head resting on the right forearm. An exceptionally fine coup de poing was close by the hand, and numerous charred and spHt bones of wild cattle {Bos primigcnius) were placed around, indicative of a food offering. The flints were believed to belong to th? Acheulean stage, which underlies the laver of true Alousterian industrv, long known in Pic. ioq. Grotto of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Correze, a few miles to the eastward of Xe Moustier. After Boule. this locality; but by French archaeologists and by Schmidt these implements are regarded as of the earliest Mousterian age, in which it is well known that the Acheulean coup de poing still persisted. Unfortunately, the skeleton was not very well pre- served and, while Klaatsch was entirely justified in classifying it with the Neanderthaloids, it should be regarded not as a dis- tinct species {Homo moiistcriensis hauseri) but rather as a mem- ber of the true Neanderthal race {Homo neamicrlhalcnsis). It also proves to be a rather stocky individual, robust and of low stature : the arms and legs are relatively short, especially the forearm and the shin-bone. THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 223 At the same time that the skeleton of Le INIoustier was being disinterred, the Abbes A. and J. Bouyssonie, and L. Bar- don^'^ were exploring the jNIoustcrian culture of the grotto near La Chapellc-aux-Saints, a few miles to the eastward of Le Mous- tier, and came upon a skeleton which has proved to be by far the finest of all the Neanderthaloid fossils, including a remark- FlG. EntraiiLL i,, ihu ■^ruiUi >A La ChaiJclle-aux-Saints, where the finest of all the Neanderthaloid fossils was discovered in 1908. After Boule. abl\- well-preserved skull, almost the entire back-bone, twenty ribs, bones of the arm and of the greater part of the leg, and a number of the bones of the hands and feet. This was also a ceremonial burial of an individual between fifty and fifty-five years of age, most carefully laid out in an east-and-west direc- tion in a small, natural depression. With it were found typical Alousterian flints, also a number of shells and remains chiefly of the woolly rhinoceros, the horse, the reindeer, and the bison. The finding of a mature skull with the bones of the face in posi- tion, and in a relatively perfect state of preservation without distortion of the entire cranium, afforded for the first time the 2^2^ MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE opportunity of finally determining not only all the skeletal char- acters and proportions of Neanderthal man but also the actual size and proportions of the brain. This superb specimen was sent to the Paris Museum, and Boule's preliminary descriptions^^ Fio. The Neanderthaloid skull from La Chapelle-aux-Saints — side, front and top views. After Boule. One-quarter life size. and finally his almost faultless monograph^'^ aroused world-wide interest in the Neanderthal race. A year later a third Neanderthal skeleton was discovered in the cave of La Ferrassie not far from Le Bugue, Dordogne, by Peyrony. The bones were badly shattered, and the proofs of ceremonial burial were not perfectly clear, but at a glance the skeleton was clearly recognized from the characters of the skull, 1 THE NEANDERTHAL HA( E 225 and particularly from those of the forehead, as belonging to the Neanderthal race. In the succeeding year, 1910, in the cavern of La Quina, De- partment of Charente, to the north of the Vezere region"^ were found the foot bones of a man precisely resembling the La Cha- pelle t}pe, and again in 191 1 several parts of the skeleton of an- other entirely typical member of the Neanderthal race were dis- covered in the earhest Mousterian strata. The skull bones were somewhat separated at the sutures. This was certainly not a *iiMl I Fig. 112. Human teeth of Neanderthaloid type, discovered in a cave on the Isle of Jersey. After Marett and HrdUcka. case of ceremonial burial. Like the Gibraltar skull, this is sup- posed to be that of a female. Of especial geographic interest is the discovery by Nicolle and Sinel^" of thirteen human teeth in a Mousterian cavern on St. Brelade's Bay, on the Island of Jersey,''^ which furnishes proof of the extension of the Neanderthal race to the Channel Islands, when these were, in all probability, still a part of the mainland. The teeth were associated with bones of the woolly rhinoceros, of the reindeer, and of two varieties of the horse, as well as with evidences of Alousterian hearths and flint imple- ments. The distinctive features of the Neanderthal grinding- teeth are the stout size, deep implantation, and expanded form of the roots, which, with the heavy jaw, point to the toughness of the food and to the muscular strength exerted in mastication. 2^26 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The roots, instead of tapering to a point below, as in modern man, form a broad, stout column, supporting the crown, adapted to a sweeping motion of the jaw. This special feature alone would exclude the Neanderthals from the ancestry of the higher races. Thus, through a long series of discoveries, beginning in 1848 and rapidly multiph'ing during the last few years, we have found the materials for a complete knowledge of the skeletal structure of the men, women, and children of the Neanderthal race ; we know the relative brain development as well as the stature of the sexes ; we have determined that this race, and this only, extended over all western Europe during late Acheulean and the entire period of Mousterian times, and we have also learned that it was a race imbued w^ith reverence for the dead and therefore probably animated by the belief in some form of future existence. Characters of the Neanderthal Race The skulls and skeletons^^ of Neanderthal, Spy, Krapina, Le Moustier, La Chapelle, La Ferrassie, and Gibraltar have so many distinctive features in common that it is beyond question that they must be classed in a closely related group. The dis- tinctive features of this group are : First, features found also in the different existing races of man, but never in the anthropoid apes, and therefore human ; second, features, all of which have never been found combined in any race of recent man, the group, therefore, represents a distinct species of man ; third, features outside of the limits of variation in the recent races of man, and intermediate between them and the variation limits of the anthropoid apes. Before looking at Neanderthal man as a whole, we may turn our attention especially to a number of these peculiar features of the race. All the earliest observers were impressed by the heavy, overhanging brows and retreating forehead. In recent man there is often a decided prominence above the eyes, from the glabella or median point above the nose outward toward each side, but generally the outer third of the margin of these promi- thp: neanderthal race 227 nences turns upward bcncalh the outer line of the eyebrows. In the Neanderthals, on the contrary, these prominences beneath the eyebrows surround the whole upper edge of the eye socket, extending outward around the external borders of the forehead, so that they ma>- be called ' tori sii praorbilalcs ' ; the extent of this prominent ridge above and to the sides forms a veritable roof over the eye sockets, which appear like two deep, lateral cav- erns. Such lateral prominences do occur, though rarely, in re- ^^^ w^^^^^ cent man; ^jJ^HBHl^^^^^ they are observed, for example, in certain Austra- lians. The front view of the Neanderthal face, as seen in the female Gibraltar skull, in which these eyebrow ridges are by no means so prominent as in the male skulls, is no less remarkable for the great height of the face as com- pared with the flatness of the forehead. Placing the skull side by side with that of the Austrahan,'^" we observe at once the enormous difference in the propor- tions of the face and the cranium in these two t}qDes, although the Australian represents one of the lowest existing races of Homo sapiens ; we observe in the Gi- braltar skull the very wide space between the eyes and the very large size of the narial opening, which indicate a broad, flat- tened nose ; there is a correspondingly long space between the bottom of the narial opening and the line for the insertion of the incisor teeth, indicating a very long upper lip. Fig. 113. Skulls of a chim- panzee (left), of La Cha- pelle-aux-Saints (centre), and of a modern French- man (right), showing the gradual disappearance of the eyebrow ridges and pro- jecting face. After Boule. 228 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The jaw is less powerful than that of the Heidelberg man. The Heidelberg jaw^ we have seen to be distinguished by its gen- eral strength and clumsiness and its lack of chin, or rather a chin without the sHghtest indication of a prominence ; on the inside of this very thick, rounded chin plate, the characteristic chin spine {spina mentalis) is lacking ; instead, a double groo\'e is present as the point of attachment for the muscles which con- FiG. 114. Face view of the Gibraltar skull (left) and of a modern Australian skull (right). displaying the high, large visage of the former, which suggests that of the anthropoid apes. After Schwalbe. One-quarter life size. The comparative horizontal lines are across the (a) nasion, or root of the nose, the {b) lower edges of the orbits, and the {c) lower edge of the nasal aperture. nect the chin and tongue with the h\'oid bone ; the ascending process for the attachment of the muscles of the jaw is seen to be unusually broad, 60 mm., in contrast to about 37 mm. in the recent jaw; finally, the condyle for attachment with the skull is particularly large. -^^ Like the Heidelberg jaw, that of the Neanderthals is distin- guished by great thickness and massiveness. In general the contours are similar ; in a few instances the chin process is sug- gested by a slight prominence, but in general the chin is strongly- receding, and it agrees with that of Heidelberg in lacking the spina mentalis. In other characteristics there are decided dif- ferences in the Heidelberg and Neanderthal jaws. The form of the latter is now known from the specimens of Krapina, of Spy, of La Naulette, of Ochos, and of Sipka, and from the perfect examples of Le Moustier and La Chapelle. The Sipka speci- THE NEANDERTHAL RA( E !2^29 men proves that even in a child ten years of age the jaw was remarkable for thickness and strength. Boule''- entirely agrees with Gorjanovic-Kramberger'"' that the chin in the Neanderthal jaw was only in process of formation, and throughout life at- tained no more than an infantile form, that the Neanderthals may be ranked, however, as Homines mcntalcs, whereas the Heidel- bergs, in which the chin is entirely lacking, may be regarded as Homines atnentales. The proportions of the teeth in the Neanderthals are equally distinctive, especially in the size of the true grinders and cutting teeth. As in the Heidelberg jaw, they form a closely set row, from which the canine does not project as in the Piltdown den- tition ; in fact, the contour of the jaw and the proportions of the teeth are distinctly human when compared with the orang- Hke jaw of the Piltdown man. The grinding surface of the teeth has many layers of enamel, and the cusps are well developed. Unlike those of recent man, the incisors display folds of enamel on the inner or lingual surfaces, a condition rarely observed in the modern cutting teeth. In the teeth of the Heidelberg jaw, the pulp cavities are exceptionally large, whereas in the teeth of the Krapina race there is the unique feature that the molars have no normal roots, the roots having been more or less absorbed, a very rare occurrence in recent man. The dentition of La Chapelle is also distinctly human, but extraordinarily massive, correspond- ing with the general massiveness of the skull and masticating apparatus ; in detail it is not that of civiHzed races, but an ex- aggerated form of the type called macrodoni.''^ The elongation of the crown is also similar to what is termed hypsodont. The grinding-teeth do not all show this massive size and co- lumnar form, for about fifty per cent of the Krapina teeth have distinct roots and are more like normal modern grinders. In the Neanderthaloids of Spy the teeth are small and the roots are of moderate size.''"' This study of the forehead and of the eyebrow ridges, of the great depth of the face, and of the peculiarly high, scjuare form of the eye sockets prepares us for a profile view of the skull of 230 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE La Chapelle in contrast with that of the most highly developed and intellectual European t^-pe, namely, the profile of the dis- tinguished .\merican palaeontologist, the late Professor Edward D. Cope, who bequeathed his skull and skeleton for purposes of scientific study and comparison. In La Chapelle we at once notice the platycephaly, or flattening of the skullcap, the retreat- ing forehead, the great prominence of the eyebrow ridges resem- bling that of the anthropoid apes, the lengthening of the face aa Fig. 115. Skull of La ChapeUe-aux-Saints (outline) in comparison with that of a high modern t\-pe (shaded); illustrating the projecting ej-c- brows and prognathous, ape-like face of the Neanderthaloids. After Boule. One-quarter life size. compared with the flattening of the cranium, the great promi- nence or prognathism of the face as a whole, and the special promi- nence of the rows of cutting teeth as compared with the vertical or indrawn line, and the recession of the tooth row in the Cope profile. This comparison also brings out the striking contrast between the high chin prominence of Homo sapiens and the deeply receding chin of the Neanderthals. The contrast is hardly less remarkable in the superior \'iew of the skull in which the Neanderthal t\'pe is seen to be extremely dolichocephalic, the back of the skull being relatively broad and the front narrowing in the region of the forebrain until it suddenly expands in the prominent supraorbital processes. As shown in the diagram on page 8, Fig. i, the greatest THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 231 length of the Neanderthal skull is found on the horizontal line directly through the brain chamber, known as the glabdla-inion line, a line drawn from a prominence between the eyebrow ridges to a point at the back of the skull known as the external occipital protuberance, or inion. This is also the longest line in the skulls of Spy and of La Chapelle, as well as of the anthropoid apes,^^ but in the north Australian skull, Fig. i, owing to the greater expansion of the upper part of the brain, the greatest length of Fig. II 6. Top view of three skulls — of a chimpanzee (left), of the man of La Chapelle- aux-Saints (centre), and of a modem Frenchman (right) — showing the retreat of the projecting face and prominent eyebrow ridges. After Boule. the skull is at a point considerably above the glaheUa-inion line. The median section of the skull of the chimpanzee, of the Nean- derthal, and of the north Australian displays in a ver}- striking manner the generahzation made by Schwalbe, in 1901, that the Neanderthal skull is truly an intermediate or half-wa}- form between that of the anthropoid apes and that of Homo sapiens. We observe in this illuminating section the growth of the dome of the skull, that is, the great brain-bearing cavity above the glabella- inion line g-i, by noting the contrast in the length of the vertical line of the cranial height, as compared with the space below the glabella-inion line indicated b\- the letters. This \'ery important vertical line terminates below at the opening, where the spinal cord enters the base of the brain (see Fig. i). 232 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE In many characteristics the Neanderthal skull is shown to be nearer to that of the anthropoid apes than to that of Homo sapiens. This conclusion arrived at by Schwalbe, in 1901,^^ has been more than confirmed by Boule's masterly study^^ of the very complete skull of La Chapelle. After his detailed review, he concludes : As to the unity of the Neanderthal head form, these features are not peculiar to the skull of La Chapelle ; in every case they are also found in the skulls of Neanderthal, Gibraltar, Spy, Krapina, La Ferrassie, w^hich witness to the homogeneity of that human fossil type called Neanderthal. These features show a structural affinity between the fossil men of the Mousterian period and the anthropoid apes. It must be noted that many of these features may be found also in recent human skulls of the inferior races, but that they are very rare, very scattered, very isolated, and occur only as aberrations. It is the accumulation of all these features in every skull of a whole series which constitutes an assemblage entirely new and of great importance. In the skull, as in other parts of the anatomy of the Neanderthals, we should not expect to find every character intermediate between the anthropoids and recent man. The long Neanderthal face is somewhat similar to that of the Eskimo and is in contrast with the very short face of the existing Australians and Tasmanians. The depression at the root of the nose, just below the glabella, is very marked in all Neanderthals ; there is less of the nose bridge than in any recent races, except those of the male Aus- tralians, yet the nose is not flattened but somewhat arched or aquiline. This feature is not characteristic of all the anthropoid apes, and in this respect the Neanderthals, Australians, and Tas- manians are more different from the anthropoid apes than are some of the white races; thus the Neanderthal nose, far from resembling that of the anthropoids, differs from it more than does that of some recent human types. ^^ Many anatomists, following Huxley, have described the Australian and Tasmanian skulls as more or less Neanderthaloid, and some authors have gone so far as to regard these races as surviving Neanderthals. It is true that some of the skulls in these existing races are ex- THE N E AX I ) EllTI I AL RAC E 233 Cro-Magnon. Euiopean Galley Hill-BrUx-Brunn. Tasmanian. Australian. Spy-Neanderthal. traordinarily platycephalic and show a retreating forehead, that others show supraorbital ridges almost as prominent as in the Neanderthals, that sometimes the prominence of the occipital inion is very marked, that certain jaws show a very retreating chin. Thus one or another of these Neander- thal features has been observed in these lower existing races, but all of these characteristics have never been combined in one race as con- stant features, and invariably asso- ciated, as in all the skulls of the Neanderthals known to us. In brief, the Australian type of head has nothing in common with that of the Neanderthals except in a small number of characteristics in the region of the forehead and of the nose. The distinguishing traits of the Neanderthal head and face are platycephaly, a retreat- ing forehead, flattening of the occiput or lower portion of the skull, prominence of the supraorbital ridges, chin retreating or lacking, pro- jection of the entire face owing to the peculiar form of the upper jaw, and the relatively small size of the frontal lobes of the brain. In fact, concludes Boule : "x\ll these modern so-called ' Neanderthaloids ' are nothing but varieties of individuals of Homo sapiens, remarkable for the accidental exaggeration of cer- Pithecanthropus erectiis ■ Anthropoid ape. Fig. 117. Scale of ascent indicated in the skull form of eleven races of fossil and living men, based on the result of twelve different char- acters of comparison. At the bottom stands the anthropoid ape, and above this Pithe- canthrnpus, the ape-man of Java. A wide range is observed between the Neanderthaloid skulls of Gibraltar and of Spy-Neanderthal. Not far above these in the scale of ascent stand the modem Australians and the re- cently extinct Tasmanians. Above these low races are found the fossil Upper Palaeolithic races of Galley Hill, Brux, Briinn, and Pred- most. At the top stand the modern Euro- pean races, beside which the Upper Palaeo- lithic Cro-Magnon race takes a high rank. After Biichner. 234 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE tain anatomical traits which are normally developed in all speci- mens of Homo neanderthalensis . The simplest explanation of these accidents in most cases is atavism or reversion. We can- not assert that there has never been an infusion of Neander- thaloid blood in the groups belonging to species Homo sapiens, but what seems to be quite certain is that any such infusion can have been only accidental, for there is no recent type which can be considered even as a modified direct descendant of the Neanderthals." This opinion is confirmed by the latest and most exhaustive researches of Berry and Robertson,^" who conclude that neither Australians nor Tasmanians have any direct relationship with Homo neanderthalensis; the superficial points of cranial re- semblance are explicable solely on the grounds of the remoteness of the ancestry. The Australians and Tasmanians are descen- dants not of the Neanderthal stock but of a late Pliocene or early Pleistocene stock, which, following Sergi, may be called Homo sapiens tasmanianus, of which the Tasmanian aboriginal, now extinct, was the almost unchanged offspring. In respect to ' low ' characters, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 117, the Spy-Nean- derthal skulls stand quite close to the Tasmanians and Aus- tralians, and the Gibraltar skull stands midway between this type and Pithecanthropus with respect to twelve different char- acters of comparison. It is interesting to note* that the Tasmanians were found in a stage of flint industry very similar to that practised by the Neanderthals in Mousterian times ; their flints were made from artificially produced flakes, including a few examples^^ that ex- hibited a neatness of edge trimming and resultant regularity of outline, whereas the greater part were characterized by an un- skilful trimming and irregular outline ; the low status of the Tas- manian implements can most correctly be described by the word Pre-Aurignacian, that is, of Mousterian or of an earher stage, but not by any means 'Eolithic' * The last of this very primitive race of the great island of Tasmania became extinct in iS77.'^-^ THE NEANDERTHAL RACE rso Fig. 1 1 8. The Neanderthaloid skull of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, with the right half re- moved to show the shape of the brain, as restored by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. The brain of Neanderthal man was known to be of large size even when estimated from the original skullcap of the Neander- thal t>pe. Darwin was com- pelled to admit that the fa- mous skull of Neanderthal was well developed and capa- cious, and Broca offered an ingenious explanation of the otherwise inexplicable fact that the mean capacity of the skull of the ancient cave- dweller is greater than that of many modern Frenchmen, namely, that the average capacity of the skull in civi- lized nations must be lowered by the preservation of a con- siderable number of individ- uals, weak in mind and body, who would have been promptly eliminated in the savage state, whereas among savages the __^ average includes only the more capable indi- viduals who have been able to survive under extremely hard condi- tions of life. The skulls of La Chapelle and of Spy afforded an oppor- tunity of determining this very interesting problem, and the re- sults entirely confirm the earher estimates of Schaaffhausen and of Broca as to the great cubic capacity of the Neanderthal brain. The estimates in descending order are as follows : [Q. Outline of the left side of the Neander- thaloid brain of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, compared with similar brain outlines of a chimpanzee and of a high t>T3e of modem man. One-third life size. 236 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Skull of Spy II (Fraipont) ? 1723 c.cm " La Chapelle (Boule, Verneau, and Rivet) 1626 " Spy I (Fraipont) ? 1562 " Neanderthal 1408 " La Quina, female (Boule approximation) 1367 " Gibraltar, female (Boule estimate) 1296 The size of the brain in the existing races of Homo sapiens varies from 950 c.cm. to 2020 ccm.*^"' Thus in respect to the ViUdc Neanderihal Comhc-Capelle Fig. 120. Brains of Lower and Upper Palaeolithic races compared (top and left side views). Piltdown (left), as restored by J. H. McGregor; Neanderthal (centre) brain, cast from the type skull; Combe-Capelle (right) from the base of the Upper Palaeolithic, after Klaatsch. The Combe-Capelle brain, though unnaturally compressed, shows a relatively broad frontal area. One-quarter life size. volume of cerebral matter the brain of the Neanderthal man is surely human, but in form the brain lacks the proportions char- acteristic of the superior organization of the brain in recent man. In another important respect it is human: in the larger size of the left hemisphere, indicating the development of the use of the right hand. In its general form the brain is more like that of the anthropoid apes in the relatively smaller size of the frontal portion, in the simplicity and length of the convolutions, and in THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 237 the position and direction of the great fissures at the side known as the 'fissures of Sylvius' and of 'Rolando.' As studied by Boule and Anthony*^' there are many primitive characteristics in the brain of the Neanderthals. The front of the forebrain, the so-called prefrontal area, which is the seat of the higher facul- ties, is not fully developed but has a protuberance as in the brain of the anthropoids. The left frontal lobe in particular, which is associated mth the power of speech, is not much de- A'eloped in the lower part, so that a limited development of the faculty of speech is inferred. The lateral fissure of SyKdus is relatively wide and open, and this and other features suggest the brain of the anthropoid. The brain of the skull of La Quina, which is beheved to be that of a female, also shows many primi- tive features. "^^ The absolute cubic capacity of the brain is less significant of intelligence than the relative development of those portions of the brain which are concerned in the higher processes of the mind. The stature of the various examples of the Neanderthal race is estimated somewhat differently by Boule and by Manouvrier, and also varies with the sex : Neanderthal (Boule) 1.55 m. " (Alanouvrier) 1-632 m. La Chapelle (Boule) 1.57 m. " (Manouvrier) 1.611 m. Spy (Manouvrier) 1-633 ^^^ La Ferrassie I (Manouvrier) 1-657 m. Average of Neanderthals supposed male 1-633 ^i''- La Ferrassie II (female) 1.482 m. The Neanderthal head is very large in proportion to the short, thick-set body, which we observe rarely exceeds 5 feet 5 inches in height in the male, and 4 feet 10 inches in the female. The proportions of the body and limbs of the Neanderthals throw a surprising light on their ancestral history as well as upon their defects as a race dependent upon the chase. In proportion to the length of the thigh, the lower leg is much shorter than in any existing human race. The tibia or shin-bone is only 76.6 per 5tt. I m 5 ft. 4 1/5 in 5 ft- I a/s in sft- 3 2/5 in 5 ft. 4 3/10 in 5 ft- 5 1/5 in 5tt. 4 3 '10 in 4tt. 10 3/ 10 m 238 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE cent of the length of the femur or thigh-bone, whereas in the ex- isting races with the shortest shin-bone, such as the Eskimos and the majority of the yellow races, it is never less than 80 per cent of the length of the thigh-bone. In this respect the Neanderthal man is not hke the anthro- poid apes but has a relatively shorter shin-bone, because the gorillas have an index of 80.6 per cent, the chimpanzees of 82 per cent, the orangs and gibbons of above 83 per cent; thus all the anthro- poid apes and the lower races of man have a relatively longer leg from the knee down than has the Neanderthal race. The shortness of the shin-bone as com- pared with the length of the thigh-bone is proof that the Neanderthals were very clumsy and slow of foot, because this proportion is characteristic of all slow- moving animals, whereas a long shin-bone and a short thigh-bone indicate that a race is naturally fleet of foot. Similarly the Neanderthal man has a very short forearm, only 73.8 per cent of the upper arm ; it approaches the propor- tions seen in the Eskimos, Lapps, and Bushmen. ^^ Here, again, the Neanderthal man differs from the anthropoid apes, among which the shortest forearm is that of the gorilla, having a ratio of 80 per cent. There are other features which would tend to show that the ancestors of the been ground dwellers rather than tree very remote period of geologic time ; the Fig. 121. Skeleton of the Xeanderthaloid man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints. About one - seventeenth life size. After Boule. Neanderthaloids had dwellers back into a arms are much shorter than the legs, whereas in tree dwellers THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 239 they are much longer. Thus, we have observed in the anthro- poid apes that the arm is very long in proportion to the leg ; in the chimpanzee, which has relatively the shortest arms among the anthropoid apes, the index is 104 per cent, that is, the arms are slightly longer than the legs. On the contrary, in the Ne- anderthals the arm length is only 68 per cent of the leg length ; thus it is very far removed from the anthropoid-ape type and comes nearest to the Austrahan and African negro types. Thus, to sum up the bodily proportions of the Neanderthals : Arm short in proportion to leg, average index 68 per cent. Forearm short in proportion to upper arm, average index 73.8 per cent. Shin-bone short in proportion to thigh-bone, average index 76.6 per cent. Stature extremely short in proportion to size of head. The structure of the shoulder and of the chest is full of in- terest. All the ribs are remarkably robust and of large volume, and, whereas in existing races they exhibit a flattened section, in the Neanderthals the section is distinctly triangular in form. This impKes a very muscular and robust torso in correlation with the gigantic head and stout limbs. The collar-bones are corre- spondingly long, presenting a ratio to the humerus exceeding 54 per cent, which is much higher than that among the average existing races ; this indicates a very broad shoulder. The shoul- der-blade is also very different in type from that of the higher races of men, and even from that of the higher Primates ; it is extremely short and broad. While, as noted above, the arm of the Neanderthals is rela- tively short and thus non-anthropoid, it presents a minghng of human and ape characters. The upper arm, or humerus, is truly of the human t>^e, the torsion angle upon its axis being 148°, whereas in the anthropoid apes the angle of torsion never passes 141°. Among the bones of the lower arm the most significant is the radius, with which the turning movement of the hand is correlated ; the structure of the head of the radius has more re- semblance to that of the anthropoid apes than to that of existing species of man. The structure of the other bone of the forearm. 2^0 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the ulna, is also very primitive, exhibiting certain monkey char- acteristics. The structure of the hand is a matter of the highest interest in connection with the implement-making powers of the Neander- thals. The hand is remarkably large and robust, comparable Fithecanihro Fig. 122. Thigh-bones, or femora, of the Trinil, Neanderthal, and Cro-Magnon races, compared with one of modern tj-pe. The Neanderthal femur seems to be short and stout, whereas that attributed to Pithecanthropus is relatively long, slender, and straight. Of the femora illustrated the Neanderthal and Trinil are those of the type. specimens, the Cro-Magnon is from the skeletal fragments of La Madeleine. After Dubois, Boule, Lartet, and Christy. One-eighth life size. in size with that of men of very large stature in existing races. With respect to the opposition power of the thumb against the lingers by means of the opponens muscle, a distinctively human characteristic, the stage of Neanderthal development is decidedly lower than that of existing races, because the joint of the meta- carpal bone which supports the thumb is of a peculiar form, con- vex, and presenting a veritable convex condyle, whereas in the existing human races the articular surface of the upper part of the thumb joint is saddle-shaped, that is, concave from within back- ward, and convex from without inward. Thus the highly per- THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 241 fected motions of the thumb in Homo sapiens were not attained in Homo ncandcrthaJensis. Two phalanges which are preserved in the Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton show that the fingers were relatively short and robust. In the structure of the hip-girdle our fossil man is altogether human ; nevertheless, some of its characters are very primitive and distinctive. Similarl}', the thigh-bone shows several primitive characters which are only rarely seen in existing races, such as the third trochanter and the strong, general forward curvature. The structure of the knee-joint in relation to the shin-bone is very peculiar, because it shows that the shin was always retro- verted or bent backward. Two other features of the shin-bone are its extreme abbreviation as compared with the femur, and the absence of flattening, or platycnemism. Where the shin- bone joins the ankle-bone (astragalus) are shown two facets, such as are preserved only in those races of existing men which have retained the habit of squatting or the folded position of the limbs ; these facets are not found in races which have the habit of sitting. They indicate that the resting position of the Nean- derthals while engaged in industrial work was squatting, as shown in our restoration of one of the Neanderthals at Le ]\Ioustier. Associated with these powerful and peculiarly shaped limbs is the particularly short and thick-set vertebral column, each bone of which is remarkable for its abbre\aation. The neck especially is entirely different in construction from that of existing races of men. It would appear that the concave curvature of the back in the Neanderthals was carried directly upward and continued into the concave curvature of the neck, as among the anthropoid apes, and especially in the chimpanzee. The vertebras of the neck, especially the fifth, sixth, and seventh, and the first dorsal, resemble those of the chimpanzee far more closely than those of the modern European ; the spinous processes are directed back- ward instead of downward. This caused the habitual stooping of Neanderthal man at the neck and shoulders and prevented 242 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE him from ever holding his head entirely erect. Whereas in the back-bone of existing races the erect position is maintained by four graceful curvatures, two toward the front, and two toward the back, in the Neanderthals, as in the newly-born members of the higher races, we observe only three curvatures, two concave ^. 4\ % Fig. 123. Restoration of the head of the Neanderthal man of La Chapelle- aux-Saints, in profile, after model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. toward the front, namely, the back and neck curvature, just de- scribed, and a sacral or pelvic curvature ; there is also a convex lumbar curvature in the lower part of the Neanderthal back-bone, which, however, is less pronounced than in existing species of man. Summing up the characters of the back-bone in the Neander- thals, certain of them are very primitive, such as the structure of the vertebrae of the neck and the robust development of the THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 243 spinous processes, the absence of marked curvature in the lower part of the back-bone and the very gentle curvature of the bones of the sacrum. The total aspect of Neanderthal man may be characterized in the following manner:*'" An enormous head placed upon a ^# iiiiniiMi'mi Fig. 124. Restoration of the head of the Neanderthal man of La Chapelle- aux-Saints, in front view, after model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. short and thick trunk, with limbs very short and thick-set, and very robust ; the shoulders broad and stooping, with the head and neck habitually bent forward into the same curvature as the back ; the arms relatively short as compared with the legs ; the lower leg, as compared with the upper leg, shorter than in any of the existing races of men ; the knee habitually bent for- ward without the power of straightening the joint or of standing fully erect ; the hands extremely large and without the delicate 244 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE play between the thumb and fingers characteristic of modern races ; the resort to a squatting position while occupied in flint- making and other industries. Thus the ordinary attitudes char- acteristic of Homo neanderthal ens is would be quite different from our own and most ungainly. The hea\y head, the enormous development of the face, and the backward position of the foramen magnum, through which the spinal cord connects with the brain, would tend to throw the upper part of the body for- ward, and this tendency, with the lesser curvature of the neck, the hea\y shoulders, and the flattened form of the head, would give this portion of the body a more or less anthropoid aspect. Geographic Distribution of Mousterian Stations The Neanderthal race of ]\Iousterian times established sta- tions all over western Europe, of which upward of fifty have already been discovered, as compared with the fifty-seven or more Acheulean stations known. At some points the old open camps of the Acheulean flint workers were still xdsited, as along the Thames, the Somme, and the Marne. Thus Abbeville, St. Acheul, jMontieres, and Chelles, in northern France, show a suc- cession of Mousterian industry following the Acheulean, the Chel- lean, and, at St. Acheul, even the Pre-Chellean. These ma}- well have been summer stations, \dsited at favorable seasons of the year because of their abundant supply of flint. About 125 miles to the east of St. Acheul, in Belgium, on a smaU tributary of the Meuse, is the grotto of Spy, which, together with IVIousterian implements, has yielded two human fossil skeletons of the Nean- derthal race. In southern Devonshire is the famous cavern of Kent's Hole, near Torquay, discovered as long ago as 1825 by MacEnery and described in 1840 by Godwin- Austen.*'^ It is interesting to note that teeth of the sabre-tooth tiger {Machcerodus latidens) have been found in this cavern, leading Boyd Dawkins to beheve that this animal survived to late geologic times: it will be recalled as a contemporary of the early Chellean flint workers at Abbe- MOl STERIAN INDUSTRY 245 ville. The animal life of Kent's Hole, as originally described by Godwin-x\usten, included remains of "elephant, rhinoceros, ox, deer, horse, bear, hyaena, and a feline animal of large size" — fauna now known to belong to the period of the fourth glaciation.* 10 15 X HUM a:; fossils \'tAL BURIALS Fig. 125. Geographic distribution of the principal Mousterian industrial stations in western Europe, attributed to the Neanderthal race. To the south are three stations, one of which, La Cotte de St. Brelade, on the present isle of Jersey, then part of the mainland, has yielded Mousterian flakes and thirteen human teeth of Neanderthal t^^De. Still farther to the south, in the Dordogne region, is found the type station described on a previous page, of Le Moustier, the * This cavern, like many of those discovered in the early days of anthropological research, was not carefully e.xplored in reference to the all-important horizontal bedding of the layers of flint flakes and of animal remains. 246 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE centre of a group of eight sites crowded along the north and south shores of the Vezere, which have become famous for the knowl- edge they yield of the successive stages in the development of the Mousterian implements, beginning with the primitive cul- ture station of La Micoque, and including La Ferrassie, Le Mous- tier, La Rochette, Pataud, La Mouthe, Laussel, and finally the Abri Audit, which marks the closing stage in the development of Fig. 126. The Mousterian cave of Homos de la Pena, in ths Cantabrian ^Mountains of northern Spain. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. the Mousterian industry and, in the opinion of many archae- ologists, its transition to the Aurignacian. At several of these places important discoveries have been made, both of human fos- sils and of noteworthy transitions in the progress of invention. Circling round this Vezere group are the stations of Petit-Puy- moyen. La Quina, where implements of the closing stage of Mous- terian industry have been found as well as a human fossil of the Neanderthal type, and La Chapelle-aux- Saints, which has yielded the only complete skeleton of a Neanderthal man so far dis- covered. In Spain is the station of San Isidro, near the headwaters of the Tagus, and the beautifully situated grottos of Castillo and Hornos de la Pena, on the northern slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains. MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 247 As contrasted with the very numerous Acheulean sites of Italy, it is surprising to note that only two Mousterian grottos have thus far been discovered in this region : the Grotte delle Fate in the mountains of Liguria, and the very important group of caves on the Riviera, near Alentone, known as the Grottes de Grimaldi, close to the seashore and at the very point where the Italian Alps abut upon the sea. Crossing to the north, we Fig. 127. Outlook from the cave of Homos de la Penas Photograph by N. C. Nelson. note the superb Swiss grotto of WildkirchH, on the headwaters of the Rhine, 5,000 feet above sea-level. In all Germany there are only about seven stations of unques- tioned Mousterian age. Of these six are grottos, and the seventh, Mommenheim, is a fluvial redeposit of loess along a small stream, where only one implement has been found. "^^ It is interesting to observe that in Germany these Mousterian sites occupy the great wedge of territory between the Scandina\dan ice-fields on the north, and the Alpine on the south, and that WildkirchH was actually within the area of glaciation ; while the caves of Rauber- hohle and Sipka were not far from the glaciers which clothed the Carpathian Mountains, and Baumannshohle was not so very remote from the great Scandinavian ice-field. In the region of the headwaters of the Rhine and Danube the industry of the 248 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Neanderthal race has thus far been traced only at the stations of Irpfelhohle, Rauberhohle, and Sirgenstein. The latter cav- ern is of especial importance because it comprises the entire PalaeoHthic history of this region, presenting a series of succes- sive culture layers from Mousterian times up to the arrival of the Neohthic race. Further to the east are the Gudenushohle, near Krems, in Lower Austria, and Ochos and Sipka, in Mora\da, while over the Russian border are WierschoWe and Aliskolcz. Well to the northwest of Wildkirchli are the stations of Mommen- heim and Kartstein, and to the north that of Baumannshohle. Workmanship of the Neanderthl^ls The dense conmiunal life of Mousterian times may have fa- vored a social evolution, the development of the imagination and of tribal lore, and the beginnings of the rehgious belief and cere- monial of which apparent indications are found to be wide-spread among the entirely different races of Upper Palaeolithic times. The life is not, however, marked by industrial progress or invention. The successive stages of the Mousterian industry have not as yet been so clearly defined as those of the Acheulean (Schmidt""). In the open Mousterian stations and caverns of Belgium and England Schmidt has observed the stages of early, middle, and late Mousterian. Breuil and Obermaier consider La Micoque as belonging to the close of the Acheulean but as marking the transition into the Alousterian. Breuil considers the industry of the Combe-Capelle station as representing the oldest true Mousterian culture. The researches which have been carried thus far would appear to justify the following sub- divisions of the Mousterian culture in southwestern France: 0. Abri Audit culture, marking the transition from late Mousterian to early Aurignacian industry. 5. Late true Mousterian industry. La Quina type of implements with scrapers and bone an\dls. 4. Middle Mousterian industry, with a predominance of handsome, large Mousterian points carefully ' retouched ' on the edge and sometimes on one side, a ' retouch ' at times approaching the superior Solutrean technicju?. MOUSTERIAX INDUSTRY 249 3. Primitive early Mousterian industry, with a limited inventory of im- plements. 2. Combe-Capelle stage, with heart-shaped coups de poing and typical Mousterian 'points.' (Arrival of reindeer.) I. La Micoque culture, transitional from Acheulean to Mousterian times. (No reindeer.) The flint industry, although very different in its outward appearance, is recognizable as a direct evolution from the Acheu- lean, with the suppression or dechne of certain implements and the improvements of others. It is the product of the same kind of mind at work with the same materials, but under different climatic conditions and with new demands, especially for cloth- ing as protection against the severe weather. We also cannot avoid the feeling that the abandonment of the free, open life of Chellean and early Acheulean times and the crowding of the Neanderthal tribesmen beneath the shelters and in the grottos had a dwarfing effect both upon the physique and upon the in- dustry itself. The Mousterian implements, as compared with the Acheulean, impress one as the work of a less muscular and vigorous race. In addition to the many fine transitions that one observes'^ between the Acheulean and Mousterian industries at St. Acheul, strong e\ddence is also furnished in favor of a close connection be- tween these cultures by the discoveries at Laussel, on the Vezere, near Les Eyzies. There, broad and deep before this shelter of Laussel, hes the Mousterian layer, and directly beneath it is a true Acheulean layer close to the waters of the valley of the Beune. This proves that in Acheulean times this valley was deepened to the same degree as to-day, and a close union of the Acheulean to the Mousterian is here again evident. In the valley of the Somme near St. Acheul Commont has also observed proofs of a similar close connection between these cultures. With such records in northern and southern France, the Nean- derthal race, which is known toward the end of Acheulean times and especially covers the entire period of Mousterian time, comes much nearer to us. If we assign the Mousterian industry to 250 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the last glacial period, we give it a duration of some 30,000 years, and this is about the reckoning which thoughtful anatomists have already assigned for the Neanderthal man. Special Mousterian Implements Two instruments are especially typical of the Mousterian in- dustry from beginning to end ; these are the ' pointe ' and the 'racloir.' The former, pointed and spear-shaped, is from i to 4 Fig. 128. Typical Mousterian 'points" from the type station of Le Moustier, made of a large flake of flint struck off from the nodule and retouched on only one side, leaving on the opposite side a smooth, conchoidal surface. After Dechelette, by permission of M. A. Picard, Librairie Alphonse Picard et Fils. inches in length ; the latter is a broad scraper, from i to 2 inches in width; and both have the distinctive pecuharity of being composed of a large flake of flint struck off from a larger bulb or nodule and of being retouched only on one side, leaving on the opposite side the smooth conchoidal surface of the flake.'- This point and scraper are highly characteristic not only of the early stages but of the Mousterian industry throughout its en- tire course, including even the late La Quina t}'pes, and their manner of making is obviously a modified usage of the late Acheulean discovery of the flakes of Levallois. A matter of the greatest interest in the industrial develop- ment of western Europe at this time is the fact that this dis- MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 251 covery of the utilization of the Jiakc, whether in the 'lames de Levallois' or in the Mousterian point and scrai)er, led to the decline of the coup de poing. The retouched flakes of various shapes were easier to make and to repair and served equally well the purposes of skinning and dismem- bering game which had been previously served b}' the ancient coup de poing. "^ In consequence, the coup de poing, fashioned from the core of the no- dule, begins to play a very secondary role and occurs but rarely in the Mous- terian le\Tls. Even at St. Acheul, the ^Try centre of kfiy^^^^ its former reign, we begin ''^^Si^ its lormer reign, to find decadent forms and poor workmanship, which make it difficult to recognize that these are the successors of the finely retouched Acheulean coups de poing. While the coups de poing at the type station of Le ]Mous- tier continue to retain the old Acheulean pat- FiG. i2g. Mousterian 'points' and scrapers from various parts of Europe, as interpreted by de Mortillet. In some cases both sides of the im- plement are shown; all are one-quarter actual size except loi, which is one-half actual size. IOC — De Mortillet's theory of the manner of using the Mousterian 'point,' which was held in the hand and not shafted. loi — Mousterian point from Suffolk, England. 102 — Mousterian point from Umbria, Italy. 103, 104 — A single flake point from the Crimea, in southern Russia. 105, 106 — A long, narrow Mousterian point from Oise, France. 107 — A curved-in scraper, or grattoir, from Dordogne, France; perhaps an im- plement for dressing a wooden spear or lance. 108 — Bone spHnter, broken for the marrow, but not shaped. terns — the oval, the heart- shaped, the sharp-pointed— they are all of smaller size and rather coarsely retouched. Thus, after thousands of years of 25^2 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE development and employment, the coup de poing falls into a period of degeneration and of final disuse. The history of this implement, which we have traced from its Pre-Chellean proto- types, presents a most interesting analogy with the course of evolution observed in so many animal and plant forms. It passes through many stages of improvement and reaches a climax of perfection and adaptation; it then comes into competition with another form evolving on a fundamentally different and superior plan and disappears in the struggle for existence through the greater usefulness of the replacing t\pe. Successive Stages in the Mousterian Industry The succession of industrial stages is best shown along the Vezere. The oldest Mousterian industry is that of Combe-Capelle with its heart-shaped, roughly fashioned coups de poing, entirely lacking, however, any evidence of a surface prepared for the grasp of the hand. In the valley of the Somme Commont'^ has observed the three following stages in the advance of the ^Mousterian industry : 3. A late Mousterian culture which lies on the upper layers near the top of the same gravel deposit and which shows entirely new technical elements. The old coup-de-poing culture is no longer valued, and all the implements found here are of flakes worked only on one side and with an extraordinarily fine retouch. 2. A middle Mousterian horizon which lies in the lower layers of a gravel deposit, belonging to the 'newer loess,' and which contains only one small coup de poing. I. An early Mousterian, with quite numerous lance-shaped coups de poing, lies at the base of the 'newer loess,' showing that the coup-de-poing tradition still lingers and the coup-de-poing type is still preserved. With these are associated the new types of implements and espe- cially the 'hand-points,' which are so typical of the Mousterian industry. The more recent levels (2, 3) contain longer flakes, which already exhibit a tendency toward the blades, or 'lames,' of the Upper Palaeolithic. In the shelters and caverns of Dordogne the same industrial sequence may be observed, although the chronological succession MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 253 of the strata is not always clearly defined. At the grotto of Combe-Capelle the heart-shaped coups de poing retain most strongly the old traditions, but even here these are outnumbered b\' the well-fashioned Mousterian 'points,' chipped only on one side. The further development of the Mousterian industry may be observed in the t}'pe station of Le Moustier, where the lower levels show a primitive Mousterian consisting mostly of very fine, irregularly fashioned flakes, made into small scrapers, tri- angular points, borers, and disks. The overlying layer includes very carefully worked Mousterian points which are frequently retouched on one side over the entire surface ; here the Mous- terian technique reaches its highest development, so that Schmidt designates it as 'high Mousterian.'"^ Above this layer, again, is a level of topical late Mousterian forms, quite unlike the small primitive flakes of the lower level and resembling the character- istic forms of La Quina, the dominant type being the finely shaped La Quina racloir. The few diminutive coups de poing which occur in this level at Le Moustier furnish the only distinc- tion between the industry here and that of La Quina, where no coups de poing are found. At Le Moustier also occur the t}pical bone anvils which were first recognized at La Quina. The ^Mousterian industry of the Neanderthals was thus de- voted mainly to the development of the smaller forms of imple- ments, for the most part retouched on one side only, and with a constant improvement of technique. Yet the chief types of ]\Iousterian implements remain the same as in Acheulean times, as shown in the accompanying table. The implement known as the pointe, or the 'hand-point,' is a principal and very characteristic Mousterian form further perfected from its Acheulean stage. It is spear-headed in shape and chipped on one side only, and continues into late Mous- terian times, being still found in the Mousterian levels of Spy, in Belgium. The pointe double, a double-pointed, spear-shaped form, at times almost attains the elongate shape of the Solutrean pointe 254 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE its slenderness, symmetry, and per- de laurier, though never fection of technique. There are five or six well-defined varieties of the racloir, or scraper, carefully fashioned out of flakes. The principal form is crescentic in shape, with outward-curved edge. Other forms are saw-like with straight edges or knife-edged. Another form with very neath^ and symmetrically incurved borders has its edges sharply retouched, as if for the smoothing down of bone or wooden shafts. The borer is also fashioned of an elongate flake and sometimes finished with a very fine point at one of its extremities. It is noteworthy that the grattoir, or planing tool, so well devel- oped in the Upper Palaeolithic industries, appears only spo- radicalh' in Mousterian times. For example, at La Quina, in the closing stages of the AIous- terian industry, out of 220 im- plements collected at hazard, there were 166 scrapers of six different forms, 45 'hand-points' of five different forms, and 5 double points, as compared with 5 grat- toirs, or planing tools. There are very few knife-shaped forms. It would appear that the racloir and the pergoir were the principal implements employed in the preparation of skins for clothing. In early Mousterian times the coup de poing may still have been used by the Neanderthals in the chase, and the fine, spear- headed 'point' and the rarer 'double point' may have been de- veloped in response to the needs of hunters, who now ventured the chase of the bison, the urus, the wild horse, and the reindeer. Industrial. Coup de poing hand-stone. (decadent), ovoid. heart-shaped. sharp-pointed Hachette, chopper. Grattoir, planing tool. Pergoir, drill, borer. Couteau, knife. Racloir, scraper. knife-edged. curved-out edge. saw-edged. double-edged. beak-shaped. many-edged. Pointe, 'hand-point.' Percuteur? hammer-stone ? War and Chase. Pointe, 'hand-point.' Pointe double, spear head ? Coup de poing. hand-stone. Pierre de jet. throwing stone. Couteau, knife. MOUSTERIAN INDUSTRY 255 The most striking features of all the implements which may have been used in the chase are : first, the absence of any definite proof of their attachment to a shaft or handle ; and second, the absence of any barbed or headed t>pe of point. The use of the barb, as we shall see, appears to be a rela- tively recent discovery of the later cultures of Upper Palaeolithic times. The transition from the Mousterian to the Aurignacian appears in the Abri Audit, which also lies in the valle}' of the Vezere. Here w^e still find irregularly fashioned coups de poing, decadent followers of the heart- shaped types of the earli- est Mousterian industry ; this is nearly the last phase in the decline of the old coup-de-poing manufacture. While the lance-shaped coup de poing of the late Acheu- lean never appears in any true Mousterian indus- try, the shorter, more heart-shaped t>pe of Combe-Capelle traverses the entire Mouste- rian and, after further stages of degeneration, passes into the Abri Audit culture and even lingers into the early Aurignacian. At this latter station the t>'pical Mousterian 'points' are almost wanting. Fig. 130. Late Mousterian implements, after de Mortillet, one-quarter actual size. 109, no — ■ Point, finely retouched at one end, from Seine-et- Marne, France. The reverse shows a retouch on the flaked surface which suggests the double-face Solutrean retouch, in, 112 — A very large racloir, or scraper, from La Quina, Charente, France; part of the bulb of percussion has been chipped off. 113 — Double-ended point from Le Moustier, retouched on both surfaces. 114, 115 — Combination point and scraper from Le Mous- tier, Dordogne, France. 116 — Double scraper, or racloir, with gratloir, or planing end. 256 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The Mousterian, observes Schmidt,"'^ which preserves the tra- ditions of the Lower PalaeoHthic coup-de-poing culture, is one of the most interesting phases in the development of Palaeohthic industry, in that its successive stages exhibit the very last phases of the great coup-de-poing industry, of which only the almond and oval scraper types appear, and that very rarely, in the early Aurignacian. On the other hand, in the late Mousterian we ob- serve a trend toward the blade {lame) industry of the Upper Palaeolithic. Careful study and observation of the subdivisions of Mousterian culture have thus far been hmited to central and southern France, and they have not yet been traced in Spain; but in the grottos of Belgium and England the early, middle, and late Mousterian t^pes are known to exist. Bone anvils, fashioned out of the hard surfaces of the fore- leg and foot bones of the bison and horse, were discovered at La Quina in 1906. They show a flattened surface with cross incisions too regular to be accidental and too far from the artic- ulation to be the result of an inexpert attempt to sever the joint. "^ This was not the only use of bone in Mousterian times, however, for primitive pointed implements of bone are occa- sionally found in Dordogne, mingled with JVIousterian flints. A variety of rudely fashioned bone implements also occurs at Wild- kirchli, in Switzerland. Disappearance of the Neanderthal Race We have seen that the Neanderthals dwelt in Europe for a very long time, many thousands of years, during which they doubtless underwent considerable evolution from lower to higher t}pes, and into varieties, under the modifying influences of climate, food, and racial habits. Consequently the known re- mains of Neanderthals exhibit a decided variation in head form, as well as in dentition : some are more primitive and ape-like ; others, such as Spy II, are more like the modern races. The Krapina variety is more broad-headed than the typical Neander- thal variety. The Gibraltar variety is in many respects of low DISAPPEARANC E OF THE NEANDERTHALS 257 tynpe. The individual known as Spy II is of higher type than the other Neanderthals. The variations in stature so far as known are slight. For these and other reasons Hrdlicka/^ who has recently made a broad comparative study of the chief Neanderthal re- mains of Europe, is of the opinion that the Neanderthals partly evolved into the lower races of Homo sapiens ; being not only in some measure ancestral to such very primitive forms as the Briinn or Predmost race of Upper Palaeohthic times, but even contributing to the higher race of the Cro-Magnons. He also holds that traces of Neanderthal blood and physiognomy are not lacking even among modern Europeans. A contrary view is set forth in the present volume ; namely, that the Neanderthals represent a side branch of the human race which became wholly extinct in w^estern Europe. This view the author shares with Boule and with Schwalbe. Cer- tainly the evidence afforded by the known Upper Palaeolithic burial sites does not support the theory that the Neanderthals persisted. It is possible, however, that the Upper Palaeolithic skeletons discovered at Predmost, and now awaiting descrip- tion by Maska, may modify this conclusion and demonstrate Hrdlicka's theory that the Neanderthals survived and left de- scendants or men of mixed Neanderthal and Homo sapiens race along the valley of the Danube. Whatever may have been their fate in other regions, cer- tainly the most sudden racial change which we know of in the whole prehistory of western Europe is the disappearance of the Neanderthal race at the close of the Mousterian culture stage, which was the latest industrial period of Lower Palaeolithic times, and their replacement by the Cro-Magnon race. From geologic evidence the date of this replacement is believed to have been between 20,000 and 25,000 years before our era. So far as we know at present, the Neanderthals were entirely ehminated ; no trace of the survival of the pure Neanderthal type has been found in any of the Upper Palaeohthic burial sites; nor have the alleged instances of the survival of the Neanderthal strain 258 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE or of people bearing the Neanderthal cranial characters been substantiated. We incline to agree with Boule and Schwalbe that the supposed cases among modern races of the transmis- sion of Neanderthal characters are simply low or reversional t\-pes, which, upon close analysis, are never found to present the highly distinctive and peculiar combination of Neanderthal characteristics. There is some reason to beheve that the Neanderthals were degenerating physically and industrially during the very severe conditions of Hfe of the fourth glaciation, but the consequent in- feriority and diminution in numbers w^ould not account for their total extinction, and we are inclined to attribute this to the entrance into the whole Neanderthal country of western Europe toward the close of Lower PalaeoHthic times of a new and highly superior race. Archaeologists find traces of a new culture and industry in certain Mousterian stations preceding the disappear- ance of the tx-pical Mousterian industry. Such a mingling is found in the valley of the Somme in northern France. From this scanty CAadence we may infer that the new race competed for a time with the Neanderthals before they dispos- sessed them of their principal stations and drove them out of the country or killed them in battle. The Neanderthals, no doubt, fought with wooden weapons and with the stone-headed dart and spear, but there is no exddence that they possessed the bow and arrow. There is, on the contrary, some possibility that the newly arriving Cro-Magnon race may have been famihar with the bow and arrow, for a barbed arrow or spear head appears in drawings of a later stage of Cro-Magnon history, the so-called Magdalenian. It is thus possible, though very far from being demonstrated, that when the Cro-Magnons entered western Eu- rope, at the dawn of the Upper Palaeolithic, they were armed with weapons which, with their superior intelligence and physique, would have given them a very great advantage in contests with the Neanderthals. BIBLIOGRAPHY 259 Commont, IQ12.1, p. 204. Smilh, \V., 1894. 1, chap. X\'. Dietrich; 1910.1, pp. 329, 330. Penck, 1909. 1. Leverett, 1910.1, pp. 306-314. Geikie, 1914.1. Op. cit., p. 272. Op. cit., pp. 265-266. Keith, 1911.1, p. 23, Fig. 5. Munro, 1912.1, pp. 46, 47. Lartet, 1861.1; 1875. i. De Vibraye, 1 864.1. Massenat, 1868. i. Smith, W., 1894.1, chap. XIV. Geikie, 1914.1, P- ii9- Smith, \V., op. cit., pp. 196, 197. Op. cit., p. 224. Geikie, 1914.1, p. 118. Bachler, 1912.1. Schmidt, I9i2.i,pp. 18-32, 165- 171. Op. cit., Table opposite p. 270. Osborn, 1910.1, pp. 419, 420. Niezabitowski, 191 i.i. Harle, 1908. i, p. 302. Obermaier, 191 2.1, p. 135. Keith, 1911.2. Boule, 1913.1, pp. 220, 221. Op. cit., p. 64. Fischer, 1913.1, pp. 336, 337. Schaaffhausen, 1875. i; 1858. i. Lyell, 1 863. 1, pp. 80-92. Schwalbe, 1897. i; 1901.1; 1901.2; 1904. 1. King, 1 864. 1. Cope, 1893. 1. Wilser, 1 898.1. Fraipont, 1 887.1. Schwalbe, 1914.2. Dupont, 1866. 1. Maska, 1886. i. Rzehak, 1 906.1. Fischer, 1913.1. P- 352. P- 544, Figs. (42) Klaatsch, 1909. i. (43) Bouyssonie, 1909. i. (44) Boule, 1908. 1 ; 1908.2; 1909. 1911.1; 1912.1. (45) Boule. I9I3-I. (46) Martin, H., 191 i.i. (47) Nicolle, 1910.1. (48) Keith, 1911.1. (49) Fischer, 19 13.1 (50) Schwalbe, 1914. 4 and 5. (51) Fischer, op. cit. (52) Boule, 191^3.1, p. 85. (53) Gorjanovic-Kramberger, 1909. i. (54) Boule, 1913.1, p. 104. (55) Tomes, 1914-1, PP- 588-598. (56) Schwalbe, 1901.2; i9i4.i,pp. 534, 535- (57) Schwalbe, 1901.1. (58) Boule, 1913.1. (59) Op. cit., pp. 66, 67, 72, 75. (60) Berry, 1914.1. (61) Johnson, 1913.1. (62) Quatrefages, 1884 (63) Martin, R., 1914. (64) Boule, 1910.1; 1911.1. (65) Anthony, 1912.1. (66) Boule, 1913.1, p. 119. (67) Op. cit., p. 120. (68) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 130; Godwin- Austen, 1 840. 1. (69) Schmidt, 191 2.1, pp. 75, 76, loi, 169. (70) Op. cit., p. 128. (71) Schuchhardt, 1913-1. (72) Dechelette, 1908. i 98-101. (73) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. (74) Commont, 1909. i. (75) Schmidt, 191 2.1, pp. 126-128. (76) Dechelette, 1908. i, vol. I, 104, 105. (77) Hrdlicka, 1914.1 , P- 3Q4- p. 645. 23. 32, 66, p. 144. vol. I, 130. pp. pp. CHAPTER IV OPENING OF THE UPPER PAL.EOLITHIC — THE GRIMALDI RACE — ARRIV.\L OF THE CRO-MAGXON R-\CE AND OF THE AURIG- NACIAN INDUSTRY — GEOGRAPHIC AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS — MAMM.ALIAN LIFE — CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITS OF THE CRO- MAGNONS — DISTRIBUTION OF THE AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY — THE BIRTH OF ART — ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE SOLU- TREAN INDUSTRY — BRUNN RACE — SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY AND ART. In the whole racial history of western Europe there has never occurred so profound a change as that involving the disappear- ance of the Neanderthal race and the appearance of the Cro- -Magnon race. It was the replacement of a race lower than any existing human t^pe by one which ranks high among the existing t>^es in capacity and intelligence. The Cro-Magnons belonged to Homo sapiens, the same species of man as our- selves, and appear to have been the chief race of the Upper Palaeolithic Period up to the very close of Magdalenian times, after which they apparently underwent a decline. Although there were one or more other races which influ- enced the industrial development of western Europe, the Cro- ]\Iagnons were certainly dominant, as shown both by the abun- dance of their skeletal remains and by the wide distribution of their industry and art; the Upper Palaeohthic may almost be said to be the period of the Cr6-]\Iagnons as the Lower Palae- ohthic is that of the Neanderthals and the Pre-Neanderthals. Their arrival toward the end of Mousterian times effected a so- cial and industrial change and a race replacement of so profound a nature that it would certainly be legitimate to separate the Upper Palaeolithic from the Lower by a break equal to that which separates the former from the Neolithic.^ The arrival of the Cro-Magnons and the introduction of the 260 OPENING OF THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC 261 Aurignacian industry are the first events of the prehistory of Europe to which we can assign a date with any degree of con- fidence ; they correspond geologically with the close of the fourth glaciation and the beginning of Postglacial time, the dura- tion of which has been estimated by geologists from evidence of many different kinds, but which brings us, nevertheless, to sub- stantially similar conclusions. It seems that 25,000 years is a conservative estimate for the duration of the Postglacial Period ; this is supported by the independent observations of Lyell, Taylor, Penck and Bruckner, and Coleman ; it is within the esti- mates made by Chamberlin and SaKsbury, Fairchild, Sardeson, and Spencer ; it is somewhat larger than the estimates of Gilbert and Upham.* Thus, with considerable confidence we may record man of the modern type of Homo sapiens as entering western Europe between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago. The Lower Palaeolithic industrial cycle, comprising the Chellean, Acheulean, and Mousterian, seems to have been similar in evolution both around the Mediterranean coasts and in the northern portions of Europe. From the fact that the Cro-Magnons arrived with the Aurignacian industry it would appear that they came through Phoenicia and along the south- ern coasts of the Mediterranean, through Tunis, into Spain; also perhaps along the northern coasts of the Mediterranean through Italy. Their evolution had probably taken place some- where on the continent of Asia, for their physical structure is entirely of Asiatic type, and not in the least of African or Ethio- pian t>pe ; that is, they exhibit no negroid characters what- ever. The reason that Breuil considers that the Aurignacian did not come in through central or eastern Europe is that there are no early Aurignacian stations in either region, whereas the Aurignacian is abundantly developed along the Mediterranean coasts, both of Europe and Africa. The passage of the Cro- Magnons along these coasts was, therefore, like the subsequent wave of the true Mediterranean race, dark-haired, long-headed, narrow-faced people, which followed this coast in early Neolithic * See Appendix, Note VI. 262 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE times, or, again, like the wave of the Arabian or Moslem ad- vance, which pressed forward along the northern coast of Africa and into southwestern Europe. Some support of this theory of migration along the north coast of Africa is given by the presence of the skeletons of two members of an entirely distinct race, which are commonly known Fig. 131. Entrance to the great Grotte dii Prince at the base of the limestone promontory known as the Baousse Rousse, with a view of ^Nlentone in the distance. After Davanne. as the 'negroids of Grimaldi' because of their discovery in the Grottes dc Grimaldi near Mentone, and because they alone among all the Upper Palaeolithic races thus far discovered in Europe display a number of resemblances to the African negroid race. Anatomically they are related neither to the Neanderthals nor to the Cro-Magnons. Their archaeologic age appears to be early Aurignacian because they are found immediately above the layer which marks the close of Mousterian time and the last chmate favorable to the warm fauna of mammals. OPENING OF THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC ^63 This sunny coast where modern France joins Italy has sup- plied some of the most valuable records of the racial and indus- trial transition from the Lower to the Uj)per Palaeolithic. Of the nine Grottes de Grimaldi three at least show evidences of occupation in closing Mousterian times, probabh' by men of the Neanderthal race, although no skeletal remains of Neanderthals have been found here. Four of the grottos, namely, the Grotle des Enfants, the Grotte de Cavillon, the Barma Grande, and the Baousso da Torre, have yielded altogether the skeletal remains of sixteen individuals, all associated with implements of Aurig- nacian culture and evidently representing a number of cere- monial burials. Fourteen of these skeletons are attributed by Verneau to the Cro-Magnon race ; the other two are the ' ne- groids of Grimaldi' above referred to. This is, therefore, a pre- historic record of the greatest significance, which we shall now examine more in detail. Racial Succession along the Ancient Rivier.\ Where the southern spurs of the x-Vlps descend into the Med- iterranean and separate France from Italy we find a limestone promontory, known as the Baousse Roussc, projecting in a long cliff, beneath which the rocky shore descends abruptly into the sea. Opening toward the south, and at intervals along the base of this cliff are the nine Grottes de Grimaldi. Doubtless the Neanderthals migrated along these shores at a time when the hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant (£. antiquiis), and Merck's rhinoceros {R. merckii) still abounded as the last representatives of the great African- Asiatic fauna. These hunters of ]Mousterian times entered the sea-swept floor of the great Grotte du Prince'^ (Fig. 131), with a ceiling height at that time perhaps of over 80 feet, carrying in their game to the fire-hearths, and lea\ang Mousterian implements in the accumulating de- posits. In the succeeding layers of this grotto the changing forms of animal life demonstrate the effect of the fourth gla- * Named in honor of the reigning Prince of Monaco, whose generous gifts and personal interest made the adequate exploration of these grottos possible. 264 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE elation and the cooling of the climate toward the close of JMous- terian times. The smaller Grotte des Enjants (Fig. 132), which lies to the west of the Prince's Grotto, was apparently occupied at a some- what more recent period, because the lowest fire-hearths con- tain, together with the Mousterian implements, remains of Merck's rhinoceros only — apparently the last survivor here, as well as in other parts of western Europe, of the warm African- Asiatic fauna. The hippopotamus and the straight-tusked ele- phant had either become extinct or had been driven farther south by the time the hunters first occupied this grotto. In the overlying layers of this and several other grottos the fire- hearths contain remains of a rich forest fauna which includes the wild boar, stag, roe-deer, wild horse, wolf, and bear. The first signs of increasing cold in the mountains to the north is the appearance of remains of the chamois and ibex driven from the Alpine heights. Then in still higher layers appears the reindeer, harbinger of the tundra climate. The Grimaldi Race Verneau is inclined to regard the Grimaldi as a very ancient race, antedating the Cro-JNIagnon.- He beheves that they be- long to a new ethnic t}^e which played an important role in Europe and enjo}'ed a wide geographic distribution. There does not, however, seem to be much support for this opinion, be- cause, unHke some other races, no traces of the Grimaldis have been found elsewhere, and it would appear more probable that they were, as their skeletal characters indicate, true negroids which perhaps found their way from Africa but never became estabhshed as a race in western Europe. The t>pe consists of two skeletons found in the Grotte des Enfants by Verneau in 1906. One skeleton is that of a middle- aged woman; the other is that of a youth of sixteen or seven- teen. Both are referred to the existing species of man. Homo sapiens. The layer which contained them is on a level two feet Fig. 132. Section of the Grotte dcs Enfanls, after Tschirret. In deposits which accumu- lated to a thickness of over 30 feet this grotto contains in its ascending strata a com- plete epitome of the vicissitudes of climate, together with four burials of members of the Cro-Magnon Race,' and, near the base, the burial of the two Grimaldi skeletons. The laj'ers in descending order are as follows : A. Burial of two infant skeletons. Remains of forest and alpine (Ibex) mammals. B. Burial of the skeleton of a Cro-Magnon woman. Remains of forest and alpine mammals. C. Fire-hearths containing forest mammals — the wild boar, also the reindeer. D. Fire-hearths with flints of Aurignacian type. Remains of forest fauna — the marten. E. Laj'er containing a cairn or artificial pile of stone. Remains of ibex, horse, wolf, cave-lion, and fox. Intermediate layer. Remains of the wild ass, perhaps of the steppe type, and of the reindeer; also of the ibex, the wild horse, and forest fauna — the wild boar. F. Large fragments fallen from the cave roof. No evidence of habitation. G. Fire-hearths. Remains of the moose, roe-deer, fallow deer, stag, wild cattle, ibex, fox, leopard, and rabbit. H. Burial of a very tall skeleton of the Cr6-M.\gnox Race (see Fig. 144, p. 297). Fire- hearths containing remains of the forest fauna, also the alpine chamois and mar- mot, the cave-hyeena, and the leopard. /. Burial of two skeletons of the Grimaldi R.\ce (see Fig. 133, p. 267). Flints of Aurig- nacian type and remains of a forest fauna which includes the deer, also of the wild horse, the alpine ibex, and the hyaena. A'. Traces of charcoal and disturbed fire-hearths. K-L. Remains of Merck's rhinoceros and of the hyama. .\lpine (//)('.v) and temperate forest fauna. L. Traces of fire-hearths with Mousterian implements, chiefly of quartzite, probably left by members of the Neanderthal R.ace on the ancient floor of the grotto, following the recession of the sea. Evidence of previous occupation by hya;nas. 265 266 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE lower than any which contained Cro-Magnons, and immediately above the culture layer of Mousterian times. The Grimaldi characters present a wide contrast to those of the Cro-Magnon. The two known skeletons, of a woman and a youth, are of inferior stature, not exceeding 5 feet 3 inches : Grimaldi female estimated at 1.57 m. 5 ft. 2 in. " youth " " 1.55 m. 5 ft. i in. These measurements, however, are only slightly inferior to those of the Cro-Magnon woman and youth, which rise to 5 feet 5 inches. There are many negroid characters in the skull, in the structure of the hip-girdle, and in the proportions of the limbs ; there are also some characters in common with the anthropoid apes, namely, the long forearm, the curved thigh-bone, and the marked prognathism, or projection of the tooth row ; the face is low and broad, and extremely prognathous ; the nose is platy- rhine, or broad and flat ; the jaw is heavy, with large teeth and without the chin prominence ; the head form, hke that of the Cro-Magnons, is dolichocephahc and somewhat disharmonic; that is, while the head is long, the face is short and relatively broad. Yet the cranial capacity is relatively high, being esti- mated at 1,580 c.cm. Unlike the Cro-Magnons, the Grimaldis have a relatively long forearm and a negroid type of pelvis. The proportions of the leg are, however, somewhat similar to those of the leg of the Cro-Magnon, the thigh-bone being short and the shin-bone long, the index being 83.8 per cent. In addi- tion to the long forearm, which approaches in form that of the living anthropoid apes, there is a curved femur, distinctly of anthropoid-ape character. "In its body and tooth characters," observes Verneau,'^ "this negroid race in many respects shows a greater resemblance to the anthropoid apes than does the Neanderthal race." He con- tinues : "The fact remains that at a very remote period of the Pleistocene there existed in Europe, beside the Neanderthal race, a type of man that in many of his cephalic characters, in the structure of his pelvis, and in his limb proportions showed strik- THE GRIMALDI RACE 267 ing analogies to the negro of to-day. In their remarkable pro- portions they exaggerate some of the peculiarities of the recent negroes; the teeth resemble those of the Australian types. Fig. 133. The Grimaldi skeletons found in the lower Aurignacian layer of the Groite des Enfanis— the youth to the right and the woman to the left. After Verneau. There is evidence of the establishment and spread of the Gri- maldi race throughout western Europe, namely, in cases of partial reversion to this type among the skeletal remains of the Neo- lithic Age, the Bronze x\ge, and the early Iron Age in Brittany, MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Switzerland, and northern Italy. Extreme prognathism is the characteristic that most frequently appears, and in some instances there is the broad nose, with the same osteological peculiarities that mark the Grimaldi type. In every instance these individuals show dolichocephaly, nearly always combined with a short, broad face. Until the discover}- of the Grimaldi t}pe we were at a loss to explain the existence of these individuals among a population from which they differed so radically." Fig. 134. Skull of the Grimaldi youth in front and in profile. After Verneau, one- quarter life size. Against this opinion of Verneau we should weigh the entire absence of any trace of this Grimaldi race in any part of western Europe among all the burials and other human remains of Upper Palaeohthic age known at the present time. Setting aside any such records which are of doubtful authenticity or difficult to diagnose on account of their fragmentary nature, there remains a number of human fossils representing at least ninety individuals discovered at over fifteen widely distributed locahties. None of these show-s any features of the Grimaldi race. In describing the Grimaldi skeletons, Keith^ agrees that they are of a mixed or negroid t>pe ; the shallow, projecting incisor part of the upper jaw and the characters of the chin are features of recent negroid races ; so are the wide opening of the nose, the prominent cheek-bones, the fiat and short face. Yet the bridge ARRIVAL OF TH?: ( RO-MAGNONS 269 of the nose is not flat as in negroes, but rather prominent as in Europeans, and the capacity of the skull in the woman (1,375 c.cm.) is ample. In the boy the teeth are large and of the negro t)-pe ; he bears a striking resemblance to the woman, and his cranial capacity (1,580 c.cm.) indicates a distinctly modern brain ; the prominences of the forehead do not meet across the median line as in certain negroids and in the Neanderthals. Keith concludes that the Grimaldi people represent an intermediate t}-pe in the evolution of the t}-pical white and black races. MAIN FEATURES OF THE ENTIRE UPPER PALEOLITHIC HISTORY Having now considered the opening of the Upper Palcco- lithic, also the single appearance of the Grimaldi race of which no further trace is known, it is desirable to briefly review the entire Upper Palaeolithic history before we attempt to foflow in detail its successive phases beginning with the appearance of the Aurignacian industry. There is evidence of various kinds that the Cro-Magnons arrived in western Europe, bringing in their Aurignacian indus- try, while the Neanderthals were still in possession of the country and practising their Mousterian industry. Thus in the valley of the Somme, Commont believes he has recognized a level of flints, exhibiting the primitive Aurignacian 'retouch' of Dor- dogne, but occurring beneath a late Mousterian level. Addi- tional evidence of a contact between the industries of these two races is found at the stations of La Ferrassie, of Les Bouffla, and especially of the Abri Audit, where there is a distinct transition period, in which the characteristic types of the late Mousterian are found intermixed with a number of flints suggesting the early Aurignacian ;^ here it would appear that the development of the Aurignacian is partly a local evolution, and not an inva- sion of wholly new types of implements. BreuiP suggests that these mixed layers may perhaps be explained by the supposition 270 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE that we have here degenerate or modified Mousterian tools, more or less influenced by contact with the Aurignacian industry of the Cro-Magnon race. the' stone implements characteristic of lower and upper p.al.^olithic times The Typical Stont: Implements Lower Palaeolithic Upper Pal.solithic w u i 5 z < g n < z < 1 1 z z < z I z z i z < 1 A.— WAR AND CHASE *I. MlCROLITHIQUE ? ArROW POINT? ETC. 2. PoiNTE Point 3. PoiNTE A SoiE Lance or Knife. 4. PoiNTE A Cran Lance-Head 5. PoiNTE de Laurier " " *6. Coup de Poing Hand-.\xe, Poni.\rd, etc. . . 7. Pierre de Jet Throwing Stone. = + ? -i- n + tt ? + ? + + + n + . ? ? = n ? + B.— INDUSTRL\L AND DOMESTIC 9. Lampe Lamp 10. Lissoir Polisher 11. MoRTiER Mortar 12. H.A.CHETTE (Tranchette) Chopper *i3. Coup de Poing Hand-.\xe, etc... 14. Grattoir Planing Tool 15. Racloer Scraper 16. Per^oir Drill, Borer. . . . *i7. CouTEAu Knife 18. Enclume Anvil Stone 19. Percuteur Hammer-Stone... c— art, scltlpture, engr.wing *20. MlCROLITHIQUE DrILL, GrAVER, and Etcher 21. Ciseau Chisel 22. Gravette Etching Tool 23. Burin Graver (also Mort.\r, Hammer-Stone, and Polisher) " = twice mentioned (in different classifications). -r or Xt denotes an unusual or culminating development. Again, the burial customs of the Neanderthals were in many respects followed by the Cro-Magnons ; they chose, in fact, the same kind of burial sites, namely, at the entrances of grottos ARRIVAL OF THE ( RO MAGXOXS 271 or in proximity to the shelters. Some degree of ceremony must have marked these burials, for with the remains were interred implements of industry and warfare together with offerings of food. The Neanderthal burials were with the body fully ex- tended ; the two burials of the Grimaldi race were with the THE BOXE I:MPLEMENTS APPEARING AT THE CLOSE OF THE LOWER PALAEOLITHIC AND HIGHLY CHARACTERISTIC OF THE UPPER PAL.EOLITHIC Lower Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic 1 The Typical Bone Implements •z < 1 < n ►J D 1 1 i 'Z. < < z 1 z < l-l z < S < < z < i A.— WAR, CHASE, FISHING *I. L.\MES Bl.\des 2. PoiGNARD Dagger 3. Hamecon? Fish-Hook?.. 4. Propulseur Spear Throwf 5. Harpon H.arpoon 6. POINTE DE SaGAIE JAVELIN POINT 7. Pointe DE Lance Spear Point. B.— INDUSTRL\L AND DOMESTIC 8. Spatule Spatula 9. Navette Shuttle 10. Epingle Pin 11. Aiguille Needle *i2. Lames Blades 13. Compresseur Anvil 14. LissoiR Smoother.... 15. Coin Wedge 16. CiSEAU Chisel 17. PoiNfON Awl : . C— CEREMONIAL, SOCIAL 18. Baton de Com- M.A.NDEMENT CeREM0NI.A.L Si 19. B.aguette Wand R. . aff • ; : p p -f p XX XX XX XX =■ ■ * = twice mentioned (in different classifications). + or XX denotes an unusual or culminating development. limbs in a flexed position and tightly bound to the body, prob- abh' with skin garments or thongs. The Cro-Magnon burials are either with the body extended, as in the Grottes de Gri- maldi, or with the limbs flexed, as in the Aurignacian burial of Laugerie Haute. 272 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Whether the Neanderthals were exterminated entirely or whether they were driven out of the country is not known ; the encounter was certainly between a very superior people, both physically and mentally, who possibly had the use of the bow and arrow, and a very inferior and somewhat degenerate people that had been already reduced physically and perhaps numer- ically by the severe climatic conditions of the fourth glaciation. The Neanderthals were dispossessed of all their dwelling-places and industrial stations by this new and vigorous race, for at no less than eighteen points the Aurignacian immediately succeeds upon the Mousterian industry and in a few instances Cro- Magnon burials occur very near the Neanderthal burial sites. In the racial replacements of savage as well as of historic peoples the men are often killed and the women spared and taken into families of the warriors, but no evidence has thus far been found that even the Neanderthal women were spared or allowed to remain in the country, because in none of the burials of Aurignacian times is there any evidence of the cross- ing or admixture of the Cro-Magnons and the Neanderthals. Thp chief source of the change which swept over western Europe lay in the brain power of the Cro-Magnons, as seen not only in the large size of the brain as a whole but principally in the almost modern forehead and forebrain. It was a race which had evolved in Asia and which was in no way connected by any ancestral links with the Neanderthals; a race with a brain capable of ideas, of reasoning, of imagination, and more highly endowed with artistic sense and abiHty than any uncivilized race which has ever been discovered. No trace of artistic in- stinct whatever has been found among the Neanderthals ; we have seen developing among them only a sense of symmetry and proportion in the fashioning of their implements. After prolonged study of the works of the Cro-Magnons one cannot avoid the conclusions that their capacity was nearly if not quite as high as our own ; that they were capable of advanced educa- tion; that they had a strongly developed aesthetic as well as a religious sense ; that their society was quite highly differentiated Pl VI. The head of the Cro-Magnon tjT^e of Homo sapiens a race inhabiting southwestern Europe from Aurignacian to Magdalenian time... Anf.quity irv, western Europe estimated as at least 25,000 years. After the resto.atiou modelleu by J. H. McGregor. For the bodily proportions of this fin^ely dovdope^^.J^^e compare PI. VII. ^ -,"■>, ^ ,'■, ■. ',•>.',, UPPER PAL.EOLITHK^ CULTURES 275 along the lines of talent for work of different kinds. One de- rives this impression especially from the conditions surrounding the development of their art, which are still mysterious and an interjDretation of which we shall attempt to give in the follow- ing chapter. Cultural, Ka.cial, and Climatic Divisions The Upper Palaeolithic covers the greater part of the 'Rein- deer Epoch' as it was conceived by Lartet and Christy, who began their systematic study and exploration of the caves of Dordogne in 1863. They were soon joined by Massenat and the IMarquis de Vibraye, while Dupont took up the work in Belgium and Piette made the artistic development, especially in the Pyrenees, his chosen field. Lartet was the first to perceive that the culture of the grotto of Aurignac was quite distinct from that of the Lower Palaeo- lithic in northern France ; he also recognized in the shelter of Laugerie Haute, in Dordogne, that there was still another cul- ture, which is now known as the Solutrean ; also that in the shelter of Laugerie Basse, in Dordogne, there was yet another industr}', that which we now know as Magdalenian. M. de ]Mortillet was the first to recognize the superiority of the Solu- trean industry in stone, which in this period reached its height, and its succession by the Magdalenian period, in which the in- dustry in bone and horn reached a climax ; but he failed to recognize the very important preceding position of the Aurig- nacian, and it was not until 1906 that the clear presentation by Breuil of the entire distinctness of the Aurignacian industry led to the adoption by the Archaeological Congress at Geneva of three cultural divisions of the Upper Palaeolithic. In the mean- time Piette had discovered that in the Mas d'Azil there was a distinct cultural phase, the Azilian, following the Magdalenian, and thus a fourfold division of the Upper Palaeolithic (Breuil," Obermaier*) was established, as follows : AZILIAN. — Industry of the surviving Cro-Magnon and other resident races, and of newly arrived brachycephaHc and dolichocephalic races in 276 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE western Europe; decadent forms of flint and bone workmanship; entire absence of art. Daun stage of Postglacial retreat; Europe with a milder climate and forest and meadow fauna like that of early historic times. MAGDALEN I AN. — Closing stage of the industry and art of the Cro- Magnon race; bone implements highly developed; marked decline in the flint industry. Close of Postglacial Period; climate alternately cold and moist (corresponding with the Biihl and Gschnitz Postglacial advances of the ice in the Alpine region), or cold and arid; Europe covered with the tundra and steppe fauna; life chiefly in the shelters and grottos. SOLUTREAN. — Culminating stage of flint industry; apparent in- vasion in eastern Europe of the Briinn (Briix, Pfedmost, and [?1 Galley Hill) race. The highly developed flint industry of the Solutrean types; art development of the Cro-Magnon race partly suspended. Dry, cold climate; life largely in the open. AURIGNACIAN. — Appearance of the Cro-Magnon race in south- western Europe, succeeding the Mousterian industry; art of engraving and drawing and sculpture of human and animal forms developing. Animal life the same as during the fourth glaciation; climate cold and increasingly dry; life chiefly in the grottos and shelters. The successive phases of development of Upper Palaeolithic industry and art have been traced with extraordinary precision in Dordogne, in the Pyrenees, in northern Spain, and along the Danube and upper Rhine by a host of able workers — Cartailhac, Capitan, Peyrony, Bouyssonnie, Lalanne, and others. Breuil has made himself master especially of the Aurignacian and has succeeded Piette as the great historian of Upper Palaeolithic art. Obermaier's chief service has been the comparison of the Upper Palaeolithic of the Danubian region with that of Dordogne and northern Spain both in regard to the geologic age and the archas- ologic and racial succession. The labors of Schmidt along the upper Rhine and Danube have not only brought this region into definite prehistoric relation with the Dordogne and the Pyrenees but have given us by far the clearest evidence of the relation between the human and the industrial development and the suc- cession of climatic phases in northern Europe. Finally, the ex- plorations of Commont along the River Somme have proved that this region, too, was frequented throughout all Upper Palaeolithic times, during which it exhibits an industrial development hardly less important than that of the Lower Palaeolithic. 1 PPER PALEOIJTHIC CULTURES 277 There are two \'er\- distinct lines of thought among these archaeologists : the first is shown in the tendency to regard the industries as mainly autochlhonoits, or as following local lines of development; the exponents of this theory dwell most strongly on the transitions between the Mousterian, the Aurignacian, and the Solutrean industries. For example, the chief object of Schuchhardt's tour^ through the Palaeolithic stations of Dor- dogne was to observe the transitions from one period to another and the evidence afforded of successive changes of climate. This writer is impressed with the transitions ; he notes that the t}ioical curved knives of the Abri Audit furnish a transition from the Mousterian scrapers to the Aurignacian 'points' of La Gravette and La Font Robert; that the Solutrean takes up all the fine threads of the Aurignacian culture and spins them further into Magdalenian times. Thus we get an x\urig- nacian-Solutrean-Magdalenian industrial cycle which is compar- able to the Chellean-Acheulean-Mousterian cycle. Breuil, on the other hand, from the archaeologist's stand- point — because he is not especially interested in the matter of racial development — is a strong exponent of the idea of suc- cessive invasions of cultures, either from the south or Mediter- ranean region or from the central region of Europe, which he calls the ' Atlantic ' ; and he distinguishes sharply between these two great areas of Upper Palaeolithic evolution, namely, the southern and the central European, pointing out that it was only after the establishment of more genial chmatic conditions, like those of modern times, that there was an added element of northern or Baltic invasion. Certainly the archaeologic testi- mony strongly supports this culture-invasion hypothesis and it appears to be strengthened in a measure by the study of the human types, although this study has not progressed beyond the stage of hypothesis. When the Upper Palaeolithic races have been studied with as close attention as those of the Lower PalaeoUthic we may be able to establish positively the relation between these human t>^es and the advance of certain cultures and industries. 278 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Distribution of Upper Paleolithic Human Fossils Our present view, as drawn from a consideration of the facts before us, is that western Europe in Upper PalceoUthic times was entered by four or live distinct races, all belonging to Homo sapiens, only three of which became established : 5. The Furjooz (Ofnet, and [?J Crenelle) race, extremely broad-headed, entering central Europe possibly from central Asia, bringing an Azilian culture, without art or developed flint industry. (Alpine type.) 4. A dolichocephalic race with a narrow face, associated with the Fur- fooz race, either connected with the Briinn and Briix, or an advance wave of one of the dolichocephalic Neolithic races. (Mediterranean ij^e.) 3. The Briinn (Briix, Predmost, and [?] Galley Hill) race, long-headed, ^\^th a narrow, short face, probably entering central Europe directly from Asia through Hungary and along the Danube; bringing a perfected Solu- trean culture; inferior in brain development to the Cro-Magnons, in in- dustrial contact with them but not displacing them. 2. The Cro-Magnon race, long-headed with a very broad face, entering Europe in closing Mousterian or early Aurignacian times, probably from the south along the Mediterranean coast, and bringing in an Aurignacian flint industry and art spirit characteristic especially of Aurignacian and Magdalenian times ; greatly reduced in number in closing Magdalenian times, but leaving descendants in various colonies in western Europe. I. The Grimaldi race, in the transition between the Mousterian and the Aurignacian; negroid or African in character; apparently never established as a race of any influence in western Europe. The presence of these five races, and perhaps of a sixth if the 'Aurignacian man' of Klaatsch proves to be distinct from the Cro-Magnon, is lirmly established by anatomy. It is most important constantly to keep before our minds certain great prin- ciples of racial evolution : (i) that the development of a racial type, whether long-headed or broad-headed, narrow-faced or broad-faced, of tall or of short stature, must necessarily be very slow; (2) that this development of the races which invaded west- ern Europe took place for the most part to the eastward in the vast continent of Asia and eastern Europe ; (3) that, once estab- lished through a long process of isolation and separate evolution, these racial t}pes are extremely stable and persistent ; their head UPPER PALAEOLITHIC RACES 279 form, their bodily characters, and especially their psychic char- acters and tendencies are not readily modified or altered ; nor are they in any marked degree blended by crossing. Crosses do not produce merely blends; they chiefly produce a mosaic of distinct characters derived from one race or the other. 1 Laugme Basse Z Laugrru Haul: 3 UMadclciHc . 4 la ,\hull„ 5 Lis Eyzt'ti 6 Crd-Magno« Fig. Geographic distribution of Upper Palaeolithic human fossils in western Europe. We must therefore imagine western Europe in Upper Palae- olithic times again as a terminal region ; a great peninsula toward which the human migrants from the east and from the south came to mingle and superpose their cultures. These races took the great migration routes which had been followed by other waves of animal life before them ; the>^ were pressed upon from behind by the increasing populations of the east ; they were at- tracted to western Europe as a fresh and wonderful game coun- try, where food in the forests, in the meadows, and in the streams abounded in unparalleled profusion. The Cro-Magnons espe- 280 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE cially were a nomadic hunting people, perfectly fitted by their physical structure for the chase and developing an extraordinary appreciation of the beauty and majesty of the varied forms of animal life which existed in no other part of the world at the time. Between the retreating Alpine and Scandinavian glaciers Europe was freely open toward the eastern plains of the Danube, ^POSTGLACfAL y^^DAU0 ^ "Newer Loess" ^gschnij. IT. GLACIAL 2zi^ >: WURM. WISCONSIN ^LAuA HREHisrnt P/LTDOWN Fig. 136. Epitome of human history in western Europe during the Third Interglacial, Fourth Glacial, and Postglacial Stages; showing also the three Postglacial advances and retreats which succeeded the close of the Fourth Glacial Stage in the Alpine region, theoretically corresponding with the climatic vicissitudes of Postglacial time. From the data of Penck and Schmidt. Drawn by C. A. Reeds. (Compare Fig. 14.) extending to central and southern Asia ; on the north, however, along the Baltic, the climate was still too inclement for a wave of human migration, and there is no trace of man along these northern shores until the close of the Upper Palaeolithic, nor of any residence of man in the Scandinavian peninsula until the great wave of Neolithic migration established itself in that region. The climatic and cultural relations of Upper Palaeolithic times may be correlated* in descending order as follows : * This correlation agrees in the main with that of Schmidt in his DUuviale Vorzcit DcKtschlands.''' GEOGRAPHY AM) CLniAlE 281 6. The Daun or final Postglacial advance of the glaciers of the Alps, estimated at 7,000 B. C. Europe with its modern or prehistoric forest fauna, the lion lingering in the Pyrenees, the moose in Spain. Azilian- Tardenoisian, closing stage of the Upper Palaeolithic culture; western Europe peopled by the broad-headed race of Furfooz and Ofnet, also by a narrow-headed race. Baltic Migration, Maglemose culture. 5. The Gschnitz stage in the Alps or second Postglacial advance. Cli- mate still cold and moist but gradually moderating. Decline of the Mag- dalenian. Period of the retreat of the tundra and steppe animals; mam- moth, reindeer, and arctic rodents becoming more rare; Eurasiatic forest mammals becoming more abundant. Close of steppe period. Cro-Magnon race still dominant in western Europe in the Late Magdalenian stage of culture. 4. Interval between the Buhl and Gschnitz Postglacial advances in the Alps. A renewed steppe and 'loess' period. Climate cold and dry. Mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, full tundra and steppe fauna very abundant. Cro-Magnon race in the stage of Middle Magdalenian culture. 3. The Biihl stage of Postglacial advance in the Alps; renewal of severe conditions of cold moist climate, and spread all over western Europe of the arctic banded and Obi lemmings of the Upper Rodent Layer. Biihl moraines in Lake Lucerne estimated as having been deposited between 16,000 and 24,000 years B. C. Cro-Magnon race dominant in the Early Magdalenian stage of culture. 2. Period of the first Postglacial interval or Achen retreat of the glaciers in the Alpine region. A dry cold climate. Cro-Magnon and Briinn races in the stage of Solutrean culture. I. Close of fourth glaciation, between 24,000 and 40,000 years B. C. Cold and moist but increasingly dry climate succeeding the fourth glacia- tion and deposition of Lower Rodent Layer, or first invasion of the arctic tundra rodents. Cro-Magnon and possibly Aurignacian race in the stage of Aurignacian culture. BEGINNING OF THE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC The Aurignacian Industry We now glance at western Europe as it was between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago, at the opening of the Upper PalaeoHthic. During Aurignacian times France was still broadly con- nected with Great Britain. ^^ The British Islands were not 28^2 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE only united with each other but with the continent, while the elevation of the Scandinavian peninsula converted the Baltic Sea into a great fresh- water lake, the old shores of which are readily traced. Geikie also maintains that the rise of land in Scotland after the fourth glaciation was accompanied by an amelioration of climate and the advent of more genial conditions ; a strong forest growth covered the lowlands, hence this is termed the Lower Forestian stage of the physiographic history of north- ern Britain ; it corresponds to the temporary period of the retreat of the glaciers in the .\lpine region, which Penck has named the Achenschwankung. The latter author is not inclined to connect any marked rise of temperature in the Alpine region with this interval of time ; to our knowledge no fossil plant beds have been preserved which would give us such indications, and the animal life, as we shall see, certainly affords only a very slight indication of a rise in temperature in the retreat of certain of the snow-loving tundra and northern steppe lem- mings to the north ; the greater number of tundra forms re- mained. The continental elevation of the northern coast-line of Europe would explain the advent of a dry continental cli- mate and the renewal of high prevailing winds, at least during the warmer and drier summer seasons, for it is certain that at- mospheric conditions such as produced the great dust-storms and deposition of Toess' after the second and third glaciations prevailed again in western Europe after the fourth glaciation. This gave rise to deposits of what is known among geologists as the 'newer loess,' and we find these sheets of 'newer loess' spreading immediately above the Mousterian culture at a num- ber of different points in western Europe. WTien the Cro-Magnon race entered this part of Europe the climate was becoming more dry and stimulating ; the summers were warm or temperate, the winters very severe. Great ice- caps still spread over the Scandinavian peninsula and also over the .Alps, but the borders of the ice-fields no longer reached the plains; in a sense, the Glacial Epoch had not yet closed, for during the whole period of Postglacial time the glaciers of the GEOGRAI'lIV AM) CLIMATK 283 Alps, beginning in early Magdalenian limes, developed three re- newed advances, each somewhat less vigorous than the preced- ing one, with intervening stages of a drier climate. The greater number of the Aurignacian stations, like those of Mousterian times, were under the shelters or within the ^^ III '"^^ ►-.;»•"« 'h'Zi ll> ?;:. Fig. 1.37. 'Tectiforms' — schematic drawings in lines and dots believed to represent huts and larger shelters built of logs and covered with hides. From the walls of the cavern of Font-dc-Gaumc, Dordogne. After Breuil. entrances of the grottos and caverns ; all the stations in south- western France are of this character. There was, however, a great open camp at Solutre, which was a most famous hunting station for the wild horse in Aurignacian times. In northern France there are several open stations, such as those of Mon- tieres and St. Acheul, along the River Somme, and to the east, !284 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE along the middle Rhine, there are several open 'loess' stations, such as those of Achenheim, Volklinshofen, Rhens, and Metter- nich. It may very well be that these open stations were visited only during the mild summer season. The continued choice of sites which naturally afforded the greatest protection from the weather, in France, Britain, Belgium, and all along the Dan- ube, as well as in the genial region of the Riviera, is a sure in- dication of a prevailing severe climate. It is hardly possible, however, that the closed or protected stations were the only residences of these people; they merely indicate the points where the flint industry was continuously carried on and also the vast foyers and gathering places ; but there is little doubt from the evidence afforded by the signs on the walls of the cav- erns, known as 'tectiforms/ that huts and large shelters built of logs and covered with hides were grouped around most of these stations and scattered through the country at points favorable for hunting and fishing. These would be the only dwelling- places possible in such vast open camps, for example, as Solutre. CLIALA.TE AND LiFE OF AURIGNACIAN TiMES 3. First Postglacial Retreat, AchenscJvwdnkimg in the Alpine region. Period of Solutrean industry. A cold dry climate, with dust-storms and wide-spread deposition of 'loess' in western Europe. Flint workers seeking many open stations. Horses and wild asses numerous on the prairies ; rein- deer and wild cattle very abundant. 2. Recession of the Ice-Fields of the Fourth Glaciation. Period of Aurig- nacian industry. Climate cold and increasingly dry ; renewal of the dust- storms and deposits of the 'newxr loess.' FUnt industry in the caverns, grottos, shelters, and a few open stations. Opening of the Upper Palae- olithic period. Arrival of the Cro-Magnon race. I. Final Stage of Fourth Glaciation. Close of the Lower PalTolithic Mousterian culture. Gradual e.xtinction of the Neanderthal race. The arrival of the Cro-Magnon race and the beginning of the Aurignacian industry took place during the period of retreat of the ice-fields of the fourth glaciation. As we pass from the levels of the early Aurignacian industry into those of the middle and upper Aurignacian, we find that the mammal life of Mous- MAMMALIAN LIFE 285 terian times continued in its prime all over western Europe, with the addition, one b}' one, of some new forms from the tundras, such as the musk-ox, and the successive arrival from the moun- tains and steppes of western Asia of such characteristic forms as the argali sheep and the wild ass, or kiang. A i^'X f- '7 Fig. 138. Geographic distribution (horizontal lines) of the reindeer, mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros, the three chief mammals of the tundra fauna, with reference to the retiring ice-fields (dots) of the Fourth Glacial Stage. After Boule and Geikie. (Compare Figs. 95 and 96.) The extremely cold and moist climate of the fourth glacia- tion had passed, and a somewhat drier but still extremely cold climatic condition prevailed throughout western Europe. Dur- ing the early Aurignacian the two northern types of lemming, the banded lemming {My odes torquatus) and the Obi lemming (Myodes obensis), were still found along the upper Danube, as in the grottos of Sirgenstein, Ofnet, and Bockstein. From middle Aurignacian on through Solutrean times these denizens of the extreme north disappear from this region of Europe. Further 286 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE evidence of a dry, cold climate is found in the recurrence of dust-storms and in the great deposits of 'newer loess' begin- ning in certain parts of Europe at the very close of the Mous- terian industry and extending through both middle and late Aurignacian and Solutrean times in all the region of the upper Rhine, along both shores of the Danube, and westward in the valle}' of the Somme, in northern France. This period is there- fore believed to correspond with the Achen retreat of the great glaciers still covering the .Alpine region. Another striking proof of the amelioration of chmate is the return of the flint workers to many of the open stations, old and new, in various parts of western Europe, the climate being more endurable because less humid. In Mousterian times the open stations were very rare and were perhaps visited during the summer season only; in Aurignacian times they were more abundant, there being twelve open stations out of a total of about sixty stations thus far discovered ; in Aurignacian and Solutrean times the t\pe station of Solutre was much frequented, and many other open camps are found in various parts of west- ern Europe. This is still the Reindeer Period; in fact, it is the t>pical 'Reindeer Epoch' of Lartet, and the predominant forms of life are the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros ; but for a time the reindeer seems to have been less abundant, and Aurig- nacian times are marked apparently by a very greatly increased number of horses. The animal life throughout retains its northern or arctic character ; the tundra species predominate, the hardy forms of the forests and meadows of Eurasia are next in number, and then are found a few of the steppe forms, with here and there forms characteristic of the Alps. The entire fauna of the Aurignacian may be summed up as follows : The wild ass, or kiang, of the Asiatic deserts appears in late Aurignacian times in the region of the upper Rhine and upper Danube, as seen in the deposits of Wildscheuer, Thaingen, Kess- lerloch, and Schweizersbild, and also there probably arrived in Europe at this time the Elasmo there {E. sibericum), a gigan- :\IAMMALIAX LIFE ^287 TuxDRA Life. Reindeer, woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, musk- ox (rare), arctic fox, arctic hare, arctic wolverene, arc- tic ptarmigan. Banded and Obi lemmings in lower Aurignacian only. ibex, alpine tic rhinoceros, distinguished from all others that we have been considering by the entire absence of the anterior horn and by the possession of an enormous single horn situated on the forehead above the eyes, also by the elabo- rate foldings of the dental enamel, to which the name ' Elasmothere ' refers; its teeth were especially adapted to a grassy diet; it ap- . parently wandered into Europe from the arid grassy plains of central and western Asia, and its appearance is connected with the extensive de- forestation accompanying the tundra and steppe periods of mammahan hfe. These periodic arrivals from cen- tral Asia suggest the existence of migration routes which may also have been followed by tribes of Pa- laeolithic hunters. There is no evidence at this time of the presence of the more characteristic animals of the steppes^ such as the saiga antelope, the jer- boa, and the steppe hamster, which enter Europe during the later period of Magdalenian culture. As an in- dication, perhaps, of the dryness of the chmate we observe that the moose (Alces) is no longer recorded, although it reappears in western Europe in later Mag- dalenian times. The giant deer {Megaceros) appears in southern Germany with the early Aurignacian culture, but this would seem to be the time of its extinction, because it does not occur in association with any of the later industries. For a time the bison in Dordogne, in southern Germany, and in Austria appears Alpine Life. Argali sheep, ptarmigan. Steppe Life. Steppe horse, kiang, cen- tral Asiatic ass. Forest Life. Red deer, roe-deer, giant deer, brown bear, cave- bear, wildcat, wolf, fox, otter, lynx, weasel. ^Ieadow Life. Bison, wild cattle. Asiatic Life. Cave-hyaena, cave-lion, ? cave-leopard. 288 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE to be far more abundant than the wild cattle ; the latter animals are not recorded either by Schmidt or Dechelette in association with the Aurignacian culture, but they reappear in the moister period of Magdalenian times. The remains of similar late Pleistocene mammals lie scat- tered over a large area in Britain, and we must conclude from their presence, observes Dawkins,^'' that Britain was still broadly connected with the mainland of Europe. This is proved by the occurrence of the mammoth fauna in various places now covered by the sea, as in Holyhead Harbor, off the coasts of Devonshire and of Sussex, and in the North Sea. On the Dog- ger Bank the accumulation of bones, teeth, and antlers is so great that the fishermen of Yarmouth have collected in their nets and dredges more than three hundred specimens. They belong to the bear, wolf, cave-hyaena, giant deer, Irish elk, rein- deer, stag, bison, urus, horse, woolly rhinoceros, mammoth, and beaver, and are to be viewed as the remains of animals deposited by river currents, as in the case of similar accumulations on land. Had they been deposited by the sea they would have been sifted by the action of the waves, the smaller being heaped together in one place and the larger in another. The carcasses had evidently been collected in the eddies of a river that helped to form the Dogger Bank, which now rises to within eight fath- oms of the sea-level. One of the animals of the Aurignacian period which is best known is the 'horse of Solutre.' Around the great Aurignacian camp at Solutre there accumulated the remains of a vast number of horses, which are estimated at not less than 100,000; the bones are distributed in a wide circle around the ancient camp, consisting of broken or entire skeletons compacted into a veri- table magma, with which occur also remains of the reindeer, the urus, and the mammoth interbedded with all the types of Aurig- nacian implements. The majority of these horses belong to the stout-headed, short-hmbed forest or northern type, measuring 54 inches (13.2 hands) at the withers, and about the size of the existing pony.^^ The joints and hoofs were especially large, and THT, CRO-MAGNON RACE 289 the long teeth and powerful jaws were adapted to feeding on coarse grasses ; the greater part of the remains are those of horses from five to seven years of age. There is no evidence that the men of Aurignacian times either bred or reared these animals; they pursued them only for food. The discovery that the horse might be used as an animal of transport appears to have been made in the far East, and not in western Europe. The animal and plant life of the Aurignacian station near Krems, on the Danube, above Vienna, ^^ includes a strong ele- ment of the tundra forms — the arctic fox, wolverene, mammoth, rhinoceros, musk-ox, reindeer, hare, and ptarmigan. The steppe fauna, on the other hand, is rare, including only the suslik, but not the saiga antelope or any of the other characteristic steppe t}pes. The principal objects of the chase were not only the mammoth, which was extraordinarily abundant, but also the reindeer and wild horses ; the ibex is rare. Obermaier observes that the chart of the geographic distri- bution of the Aurignacian shows this culture to belong essentially to the provinces surrounding the entire Mediterranean, from Syria (the grottos of Lebanon) through north Africa (x\lgiers) to Spain. It also has a strong development throughout France, entering middle and southern Germany and passing along the Danube to Austria, Poland, and southern Russia (Mezine) north of Iviev. There is no doubt that the mammoth hunters of Krems belonged in this wide-spread distribution ; the shells used for ornaments, which unmistakably recall those of the Riviera, are only in part local from the neighborhood of Vienna; the larger part is from the Mediterranean, We may imagine that these shells passed through several hands among this race of nomadic hunters, and this is not surprising in view of the girdle which the Aurignacian stretched around the entire Mediterranean Sea. Discovery of the Cro-Magnon Race The earliest discovery of a member of this race was that by Buckland, in the cave of Paviland, which opens on the face of 290 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE a steep limestone cliff, about a mile east of Rhossilly, on the coast of Gower, Wales. ^^ As described by Sollas, a painted skeleton, long known as the 'Red Lady,' was found in the kitchen mid- den which forms the floor of this cave ; recent investigation has proved that this skeleton belongs to a man of the Cro-Magnon race ; the associated implements are of Aurignacian t}^e. Pavi- FiG. 139. Section of the sepulchral grotto of Aurignac, the tyqpe station of Aurignacian culture, as restored by Lartet from the description of the original condition of the grotto as it was in 1852. After Lyell. land cave is thus the first Aurignacian station discovered in Britain and marks the most westerly outpost of the Cro-Mag- non race. In 1852 the sepulchral grotto of Aurignac, on the nearest spur of the Pyrenees, in Haute-Garonne, was accidentally discovered by a laborer. It was almost filled with bones, among which were two entire skulls and many fragments, numbering altogether no less than seventeen skeletons of both sexes and of all ages. The mayor of Aurignac ordered all the bones to be taken out and re- interred in the parish cemetery. Thus, in i860, when Lartet visited this grotto and determined it as the type station of a distinct industry, all the human remains had been lost beyond THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 291 recovery, and with them all possibility of learning to what race, culture, and geologic age they belonged. On a sloping terrace in front of the grotto was the hearth containing one hundred flint implements, mingled with the remains of a tyj^ical reindeer fauna. In 1868 Lartet explored a grotto in the little hamlet of Cro- ^lagnon, near Les Eyzies, on the Vezere, where he found five Fig. 140. Section of the Grotto of Cro-Magnon, in which the fossilized skeleton of the 'Old Man of Cr6-]Magnon,' type of the Cro-Magnon race, was discovered in 1868, together with the remains of four other individuals. After Louis Lartet. Scale = i-i2v skeletons, which have become the type of the great Cro-Magnon race of Upper Palaeolithic times. The grotto was accidentally discovered by workmen building a road in the Vezere valley. Here Lartet found the skeleton of an old man, now known as the ' old man of Cro-Magnon ' ; then that of a woman, whose fore- head bore the mark of a wound from some heavy blow ; close to her lay the fragments of a child's skeleton and near by those of two young men. Flint implements and perforated shells were found with these skeletons. In May, 1868, the material was first described by Broca,^'"' his excellent account being later reprinted and amplified in the ReliquicE Aquitanicce of Lartet and Christy. ^^ Broca referred to 29- MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE these skeletons as incontestable proofs of the contemporaneous existence of man and the mammoth. The associated mammalian life was that of the reindeer and the industry is now known to be of the Aurignacian stage. In his classic original description of this t)npe Broca remarks upon the high stature, the face very Fig. 141. Head of the very tall skeleton of Cro-Magnon type discovered in the Grolte dcs Enjanls. After \'erneau. One-quarter life size. broad in relation to its height, with very long and very narrow orbits; the large and markedly dohchocephalic skull, with an unusually large brain capacity, noting that the brain capacity of the Cro-Magnon woman surpasses that of the average male of to-day; the forehead correspondingly broad, vertical, convex on the median line ; the bones of the limbs robust, and the shin- bones flattened transversely ; altogether a very high racial t}^e of skeleton belonging to the species Homo sapiens. THE ( RO-MAGNON RACK 293 Verneau/- in his description of the Cro-Magnon type, empha- sizes the disharmonic form of the head, for the doKchocephaUc form of the skull is combined with a face very broad for its height, and this, in fact, is the unique and most distinctive feature of the Cro-Magnon race. The cheek-bones are both broad and high. It is curious that in this face, so broad across the cheek- FiG. 142. Head of the 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' rejuvenated by the restoration of the teeth, showing the method of restoration of the features adopted in all the models by J. H. McGregor. The diameter of the head across the cheek-bones is seen to be greater than that across the cranium. (Compare Figs. 146 and 147,, also PI. VI.) bones and cheek arches, the space between the eyes is small, the nose is narrow and aquiline, and the upper jaw is noticeably narrow; it is no less remarkable that this upper jaw projects forward, while the upper part of the face is almost vertical, as in the highest types of Homo sapiens. The eye sockets, which are remarkably broad, are rather shallow, and their angles are but slightly rounded off, so that the form suggests a very long rec- tangle ; the mandible is thick and strong, and the chin massive. ^94 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE triangular, and very prominent ; the marks of muscular attach- ment denote great muscular development around the thick, strong jaws, in which the parts for the attachment of the vertical DISCOVERIES CHIEFLY OF THE CRO-MAGNON AND GRIMALDI RACES* Referred to Aorigxaciax Times Date of Discovery Locality Number of Individuals Culture Stage Cro-:Magnon .-iXD (?) Aurignaci.\n R.\ce 1823. Paviland cave, western Wales. One skeleton. Burial. Aurignacian. 1852. Aurignac, Haute-Garonne, Pyrenees, Seventeen skeletons. ? " France. Burial. 1868. Cro-Magnon, Dordogne, France. Three incomplete skeletons and fragments of two others. ? Burial. I872-ISS4. Grottes de Grimaldi, Baousse-Rousse, Italy. Burial. I. Grotte des Enfants Four skeletons. " (Grotte de Grimaldi). 2. Grotte de Cavillon. One " 3. Barma Grande. Six " 4. Baousso da Torre. Three " " 1909. Combe-Capelle, Dordogne. Type of Homo aurig- naccnsis, Klaatsch. Burial. 1909. Laugerie Haute, Dordogne. One skeleton. Burial. ? " Solutre. Fragments. ? " Camargo (Santander), Spain. Fragment of skull. " Willendorf, Austria. Fragments. Late Aurignacian. Cave of Antelias (Syria) . Scattered bones. Aurignacian. Grimaldi Race 1906. Grottes de Grimaldi, Baousse-Rousse, Italy. I. Grotte des Enfants Two skeletons. Aurignacian or (Grotte de Grimaldi). Late Mous- terian. * Obermaier/^ R. Martin.-'' muscles are unusually large. I would add, says Verneau, to these essential characteristics the surprising capacity of the cranium, which Broca estimated as at least 1,590 c.cm. The majority of these features are found in almost all of the skulls of the Cro-Magnon race in the Grottes de Grimaldi. The top THE CRO-MACJNON RA( K 295 vie^\' of the skull is unusual on account of the extreme prominence of the eminences of the parietals, which give the skull a pentag- onal effect when seen from above. The eyebrow ridges show decided prominences above the orbits but disappear completely in the median line and at the sides and thus differ totally from those in the Neanderthal head. Of the numerous skeletons found in the Grottes de Grimaldi, or Baousse-Rousse, near Mentone, the one first discovered is most widely known as the 'man of Mentone,' which was found in the Grotte de Cavillon, in 1872, by Riviere; hence tfiis is sometimes spoken of as the Mentone race ; but, as Verneau shows, while the measurements of the skulls of Baousse-Rousse show some variety, they do not exceed what might be expected in indi\'idual variation, ' and we conclude that all the men of tall stature found in the Grottes de Grimaldi belong to the Cro- -Magnon race, which is not to be confused with the very distinct dwarf Grimaldi race discovered in the Grottes de Grimaldi by Verneau, in 1906, in a lower level than any of the skeletons of the Cro-Magnon t\pe. In Aurignacian times, lofty stature seems to have been a gen- eral characteristic of this race, but there appears to have been a gradual decrease in height, so that in later industrial times the race in general is somewhat smaller in stature. The heights are as follows : Cro-Magnon type of Dordogne i.So m. 5 ft. 1034: in. woman slightly inferior in size. Baousse-Rousse, Grottes de Grimaldi. Adult males of Cavillon 1.79 m. 5 ft. 10 K in. Barma Grande II 1.82 m. 5 ft. 11 >^ in. Baousso da Torre II 1.85 m. 6 ft. }^ in. Barma Grande I 1.93 m. 6 ft. 4 in. Grotte des Enfants 1.94 m. 6 ft. 4 >2 in. Average 1.87 m. 6 ft. i 'i in. Woman of Barma Grande estimated at 1.65 m. 5 ft. 5 in. Youth of 15 years, Barma Grande, estimated at 1.65 m. 5 ft. 5 in. The woman had not reached complete development. As there is a variation of 6 inches in the height of the various male 296 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE skeletons, it is evident that we cannot reach a trustworthy con- clusion from a. single subject ; but there would seem to be cjuite a disparity in height between the sexes. The very large skeleton from the Grottc des Enjants, measur- ing 6 feet 4>< inches, was found associated with the remains of Fig. 143. The abri or shelter of Laugerie Haute, Dordogne, France, where the Auri^ nacian burial of a skeleton referred to the Cro-Magnon race, was discovered in 1909. Photograph by B elves. the reindeer, 15 feet below the surface, from which it would ap- pear probable that the skeleton antedates the Aurignacian skel- eton of Laugerie Haute, and even of Cro-Magnon. Thus the so-called man of Mentone may be an ancestor of the race which was found in Cr6-]\Iagnon and other regions of Dordogne. It is these men of great height, found in Barma Grande and the Grotte des Enfants, which Verneau selects for his description of the primitive members of the Cro-Magnon race, which at this time lived along the Riviera and in the valley of the Vezere and later spread over a vast area in western Europe. It is probable THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 297 that in the genial cKmate of the Riviera these men obtained their llnest development ; the country was admirabl}' protected Fig. 144. Comparative \'ie\v of the Neanderthal skeleton Cleft) from La ChapcUc-aux Saints, and of the skeleton of a very tall member of the Cro-Magnon race (right) dis- covered in the Grolte dcs Enfanls. After Boule and Vemeau. Both figures are ap- jiroximately one-seventeenth life size. from the cold winds of the north, refuges were abundant, and game by no means scarce, to judge from the quantity of animal bones found in the caves. Under such conditions of 298 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE life the race enjoyed a fine physical development and dispersed widely. With an average height of 6 feet i ^ 2 inches, these cave-dwellers may be said to demonstrate one of the most striking traits of the Cro-Magnon race. In the proportions of the limbs and in the great size of the upper part of the chest these men are re- moved from the modern European type and approach some of the African negroid t>^es, although there is not the least resem- blance to the negro t\pe in the skull or in the dentition. In contrast with the Neanderthals are three characters of the limbs : Fig. 145. Sections of the tibia or shin-bone, (ij the normal triangular type; and (2) the extremely platycnasmic flattened type characteristic of the Cro-Magnon race. After Broca. the leg was very long in comparison with the arm ; they show a remarkable lengthening of the forearm in proportion to the upper arm and a still more remarkable lengthening of the lower leg or shin-bone in proportion to the thigh-bone ; the tibia has an index of 81-86 per cent as compared with the femur, which is relatively greater than that of the average modern European, with a tibio- femoral index of 79.7 per cent. This long shin-bone indicates that these men were swift of foot, quite in keeping with their undoubted nomadic habits and wide distribution. The flatness of the tibia, which is strongly marked in 62 per cent of the skeletons, may well be due to the habit of squatting while en- gaged in fashioning flints and in other industrial occupations. The leg, long in comparison with the arm, and the thigh-bone, strongly developed, are both characters of a hunting race. The foot has a very protruding heel, but the sole and the toes are THE CRO-MAGNON RACE 290 of moderate length. The hip-girdle is of a t}pe which has noth- ing negroid about it, but is as fine as that of the most civilized whites; it is marked by its strength, the augmentation of all the vertical and transverse diameters, and the reduction of the anteroposterior diameters. The shoulders are exceptionally broad. The fact that the arms are relatively short as com- pared with the legs is also a high racial character. The upper arm is very robust, and in some cases the left arm is more largeh' developed, in others the right. In all the skulls from these grottos near Mentone, the face shows the essential features of the Cro-Magnon race, its breadth being due to the development of the cheek-bones and the zygo- matic arches, for the upper jaws are narrow, and the nose is thin or leptorhine. At the root the nose shows a marked depression, but it rises immediately to a considerable prominence ; it thus undoubtedly had an aquiline profile. The orbits always present the form of a long rectangle, so characteristic of the race along the Vezere. All these characters leave no doubt of the racial afiinity of the skeletons from the Grottes de Grimaldi with the original Cro-Magnon type. It must be concluded, therefore, that certain peculiar features noted in the tyipe of the 'old man of Cro-Magnon' are purely individual, and that we are not jus- tified in assuming the admixture of a foreign element to ac- count for the weakness of some characteristics which we notice in the majority of the Cro-Magnon subjects from the caves of Grimaldi. The highly evolved characters of the skeleton in this race are in keeping with the extraordinarily great cranial capacit)'. Broca estimated the 'old man of Cro-Magnon' as having a cranial capacity of 1,590 c.cm., and in the female the brain is estimated at 1550 c.cm. Verneau estimates the five large male skulls of Cro-Magnon type at Grimaldi as having an a\'erage capacity of 1,800 c.cm., the lowest being 1,715 c.cm., and the highest 1,880 c.cm. This race, observes Keith,-^ was one of the finest the world has ever seen. The wide, short face, the extremely prominent cheek-bones, the spread of the palate and 300 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE a tendency of the upper cutting teeth and incisors to project forward, and the narrow, pointed chin recall a facial type which is best seen to-day in tribes living in Asia to the north and to the south of the Himalayas. As regards their stature the Cro- FiG. 146. Restoration of the head of the 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' in pro- file, modelled after the tj'pe skull of Cro-Magnon, Dordogne, with the teeth restored and the head given a younger appearance. After the model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. Magnon race recalls the Sikhs living to the south of the Him- alayas. In the disharmonic proportions of the face, that is, the combination of broad cheek-bones and narrow skull, they resemble the Eskimo. The sum of the Cro-Magnon characters is certainly Asiatic rather than African, whereas in the Gri- maldis the sum of the characters is decidedly negroid or African. We shall trace this great race through the Solutrean and THE CR0-MA(;XON RACE 301 Magdalenian stages of the Upper Palaeolithic and consider its disappearance and possible distribution at the close of Mag- dalenian times. It will then be interesting to consider the evi- dence of the survival of the descendants of this race in various "\ Fig. 147. Restoration of the head of the 'Old Man of Cro-Magnon,' front view. .-Vfter the model by J. H. McGregor. One-quarter life size. parts of western Europe and possibly among the primitive in- habitants of the Canary Islands, known as the Guanches. Evidence of Other R.4ces It is a mooted question whether the Cro-AIagnons were the only people inhabiting Europe in early Aurignacian time or whether there were also two other races, the Grimaldi and the Aurignacian. As we have seen in the preceding pages, there is no evidence that the negroid Grimaldi race ever became es- 302 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE tablished in Europe ; the idea of the presence of a negroid race has taken the fancy of archaeologists Hke Breuil and Rutot, when seek- ing an African, Egyptian, or Bushman analogy in certain phases of early Aurignacian art ; but it rests merely on the slender evi- dence afTorded by the isolated skeletons of a woman and of a boy. The case of the Aurignacian race is different ; this is held by competent anatomists (Kdaatsch,-- Keith-^) to be distinct from the Cro-Magnon race and to bear some resemblance to the Briinn (Briix, Pfedmost, [?] Galley Hill) race which, we know, became established in central Europe certainly as early as So- lutrean times, if not before. The so-called Aurignacian race {Homo sapiens aurignacensis) , described as a subspecies of existing man, is based upon a type found in the shelter of Combe-Capelle near Montferrand, Peri- gord, in the summer of 1909 by O. Hauser.-^ It is commonly known as the 'Combe-Capelle' man from the scene of its dis- covery, or as the Aurignacian man {Homo aurignacensis) ; if a sub- species, it certainly belongs to Homo sapiens. The adult male skeleton was discovered lying undisturbed in the lowest stratum of an Aurignacian industry and was carefully disinterred by Klaatsch and Hauser. It was apparently a case of ceremonial burial; a great number of unusually fine flints of early Aurignacian type was found with it, also a necklace of perforated shells {Littorina, Nassa) ; the Hmbs were bent.-° Water saturated with lime had dripped upon the burial-place, resulting in the remarkable preser- vation of the skeleton. This skeleton is compared by Klaatsch with that of Briinn, Moravia, and of Galley Hill, near London, from which he concludes that it represents a distinct type, the Aurignacian race ; the stature is 5 feet 3 inches, as compared with 6 feet i>< inches, the average in the five Cro-Magnon males of Grimaldi; the brain case is well arched and falls within the variation limits of Homo sapiens. The skull is very long and narrow, the cephalic index being 65.7 per cent; in some points it shows a striking similarity to that of Briinn, in others it varies from it in the direction of the recent European form; the face is not narrow nor is it prognathous ; the lower jaw is small with a BURIAL CUSTOMS 303 well-developed chin. Klaatsch finds many characteristics re- sembling those of the Cro-Magnon race, including the Chancelade t^-pe which is a late Cro-Magnon. He suggests that the Cro- Magnon type may be considered a further development of the Aurignacian. It seems probable that the Aurignacian man is a member of the true Cro-Magnon race and that additional evidence is required to establish it as distinct. Schfiz-*^ considers that this Fig. 148. Brain outline of the man of the so-called Aurignacian race discovered at Combe-Capelle in 1909 (after Klaatsch), as compared with the brain outlines of a chimpanzee and of Ho7no sapiens. skull is an intermediate form between that of the Cro-Magnon and the Briinn race, an indication that these two races were undergoing a parallel development. Burial Customs Similar customs of burial prevailed widely in Aurignacian times, as we have' observed from the use of color in the Paviland interment of western Wales and in the Briinn interment of Moravia. This is a feature seldom found in the Neanderthal burials, although the latter are accompanied by signs of great reverence and by an abundance of ornaments and finely finished flints. Up to the present time the races of the Upper Palaeolithic have been studied with far less anatomical precision than those of the Lower, and the attribution of many of the burials to the Cto-Magnon race awaits verification. 304 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE We have little record of the Paviland burial except that the skeleton was that of a man of the Cro-Magnon race and col- ored red. Of the burial of Aurignac we have no record other than that seventeen skeletons were placed close together ; it would appear that this compound burial may have been the sequel of a battle or, less probably, that of an epidemic. The type skeletons of the Cro-Magnon race were simply lying on the surface of a deep shelter ; thus there has always been some doubt as to their exact archaeological age ; a large number of perforated shells was found among the bones, as well as pen- dants of ivory. The most remarkable Cro-Magnon burials of undoubted Au- rignacian age are those of the Grottes de Grimaldi; the infant skeletons found here are neither colored nor decorated, but oc- curred with a vast number of small perforated shells {Xassa)j evidently forming a sort of burial mantle. Similarly, the fe- male skeleton was enveloped in a bed of shells not perforated; the legs were extended, while the arms were stretched beside the body ; there were a few pierced shells and a few bits of silex. One of the large male skeletons of the same grotto had the lower limbs extended, the upper limbs folded, and was decorated with a gorget and crown of perforated shells ; the head rested on a block of red stone. In the 'man of Mentone,' found in 1872, the body rested on its left side, the hmbs were- slightly flexed, and the forearm was folded ; heavy stones pro- tected the body from disturbance ; the head was decorated with a circle of perforated shells colored in red, and implements of various t\pes were carefully placed on the forehead and chest. Similarly in the burial of Barma Grande three skeletons were found placed side by side in a layer of red earth containing a large quantity of peroxide of iron ; two of the skeletons rested on the left side, the limbs extended or slightly flexed ; the fore- head and chest and one of the limbs were encircled with shells. In the burial of the so-called Aurignac man of Combe-Ca- pelle, described above, the limbs were outstretched and the body was decorated with a necklace of perforated shells and sur- AURIGNACIAX INDUSTRY 305 rounded with a great number of fine Aurignacian flints. It appears that in all the numerous burials of these grottos of Au- rignacian age and industry of the Cro-Magnon race we have the burial standards which prevailed in western Europe at this time. We must infer that the conception of survival after death was among the primitive beliefs, attested by the placing with the dead of ornaments and of weapons and in many instances of objects of food. It is interesting to note that the grottos and shelters were so frequently sought as places of burial, also that the flexed limbs or extended position of the body prevailed throughout western Europe into Neolithic times, as well as the use of color through the Solutrean into Magdalenian times. It is probable from their love of color in parietal decorations, and from the appearance of coloring matter in so many of the burials, that decoration of the living body with color was widely prac- tised, and that color was freshly applied, either as pigment or in the form of powder, to the bodies of the dead in order to pre- pare them for a renewal of life. Aurignacian Flint and -Bone Industry As pointed out in the introduction of this chapter, the geo- graphical distribution of the early Aurignacian industry is espe- cially interesting in its bearing upon the routes by which the Cro- Magnon race entered Europe. "We can hardly contemplate an origin directly from the east," says Breuil,'-" "because these ear- Her phases of the Aurignacian industry have not as yet been met with in central or eastern Europe." A southerly origin seems more probable, because the Aurignacian colonies appear to sur- round the entire periphery of the ^Mediterranean, being found in northern Africa, Sicily, and the Italian and Iberian peninsulas, from which they extended over the larger part of southern France. In Tunis we find a very primitive Aurignacian like that of the Abri Audit of Dordogne, with implements undoubtedly similar to those of Chatelperron, in France. Even far to the 306 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE east, in the cave of Antelias, in Syria, as well as in certain stations of Phoenicia,"-^ culture deposits are found which are character- istically Aurignacian. Again, in southern Italy implements of t>pical Aurignacian form, tending toward the superior stage, are found in the grotto of Romanelh, Otranto. On the other hand, in favor of the theory of local or autoch- thonous evolution of this culture is the direct succession described below of Aurignacian prototypes and early Aurignacian imple- ments above the older Mousterian layers in the various stations of Dordogne. In fact, the relation of the Aurignacian industry to the preceding jMousterian is one of the most important in the history of Palaeolithic archaeology, be- cause of the change of race which occurred at this time. How far is it derivative and autochthonous, how far is it new and influenced by in\'a- sion and the handicraft of a new and superior race? First, as for transition from the older culture, it is impor- tant to note throughout that the 'Aurignacian retouch' is identical with the IMousterian ; this retouch is on one side of the flake only and gives it a short, abrupt, and blunt edge. As we shall see, it is essenti- ally different from that dis- covered by the Solutrean flint workers and employed in Solutrean times, a superior technique which produced a sharp, thin edge, many of the implements * Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form. Art. Microlithique, microlith. Burin, graver (first appearance). Industrial. Coup de poing, hand-stone (rare and degenerate). Pointe, point. * Chatelperron ( curved). double-pointed 1. Racloir, scraper. convex. concave. straight. double-edged. triple-edged. Grattoir, planing tool. Perfoir, drill, borer. Couteau, knife, blade. Enclume, anvil stone. Percuteur, hammer-stone. War and Chase. Pointe, point. Pierre de jet, throwing stone. Couteau, knife, blade. Pointe de lance, bone lance-heads. AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY 307 being dressed on both sides. On the other hand, Breuil con- cludes that the early Aurignacian industry can only in part be derived from the late Mousterian and that it is partly due to the invasion of a race which ranks much higher in the scale of intelligence than the Neanderthal. The pure early Aurignacian industry is seen in the regions of Dordogne and the Pyrenees in the layers of Chatelperron, Ger- molles, Roche au Loup, Haurets, and Gargas. The cave of Fig. 149. Implements designed for engraving and sculpture. Evolution of the angu- late graving- tool or burin, from the early Aurignacian of Chatelperron (left), to the late Solutrean of Placard (right). After Breuil. About one-third actual size. These . small implements, chiefly made from elongated flakes and distinguished by a sharp angulate edge at one end suitable for graving on bone or stone, are especially charac- . teristic of the Aurignacian stage of culture, in which they first appear, i, 2. Chatel- perron points. 6. Prototype of the IMagdalenian 'parrot-beak.' Some oi these bun' ns, such as 7, are made into grattoirs or planing tools at the other end. Gudenushohle, near Krems, in Lower Austria, exhibits a very primitive phase of the early Aurignacian. Here numerous small flints were found, resembling those found at Brive by the Abbes Bardon and Bouyssonie; similar microliths are also found at Pair-non-Pair, Gironde, at various stations in Dordogne, and at the Grottes de Grimaldi, on the Riviera, in layers of corre- sponding age. The chief invention of this stage is the ' Chatelperron point' (Fig. 149), a direct development from the curved point of the Abri Audit (Fig. 151) and a dominant type of the early Aurig- nacian culture. Small almond-shaped 'coups de poing' are 308 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE still met with at Chatelperron and a few other localities, but Breuil suggests that these may not be real examples of Aurig- nacian industry but implements carried off from older sta- tions. The use of elongated flakes is another feature of this early industry, but the retouch of the edges cannot compare with the fine ' grooved retouch ' of the middle Aurignacian ; as yet the flakes are thick and large. Many of the scrapers are 'keeled' {grattoirs carenes). An entirely new implement appears in addition to the trian- gular and elongate flakes of flint shaped into points and scrapers of forms; this is the primitive graving-tool, or hurin, which at first is quite rare, but which we know was designed by the Cro-Magnon artists for their early engravings on stone (Fig. 149). A fourth highly distinctive feature of the early Aurigna- cian is the use of a variety of implements of bone and horn consisting chiefly of javelin points and drills and of coarse, spatula-like tools. In the middle Aurignacian the flake industry reaches its perfection of form and tech- nique; the edges of the flakes are shaped all around with the ' grooved retouch ' resulting in symmetrical forms such as the oval, double-ended 'points,' the leaf-shaped 'points,' and the double scrapers ; this, in the 'Aurignacian retouch,' which The retouch of the long flakes is Art Implements. Microlithique, microlith. * Burin, graver. Ciseau, chisel. * Gravette, etching tool (first appearance). New Industrial Implements. Pointe, point (leaf-shaped). * Grattoir carene, keeled scraper. Perqoir, drill, borer. * curved (first appearance). Couteau, knife, blade. * curved-in edges. Poinqon, awl (bone). Neiv Implements of War and Chase. Pointe a cran, shouldered point (stone). Pointe de sagaie, javelin point (bone). fact, is the culmination of afterward begins to decline. Denotes vtxy frequent occurrence of a typical form. AURIGNACIAX INDUSTRY 309 fine and parallel, but as yet the flakes themselves are generally- thick and heavy, so that their ends are, perforce, much broader than those of the Solutrean and Magdalenian fashion. One of the most distinctive forms of this middle Aurignacian industry is the ' keeled scraper ' {grattoir carme) with an abruptly grooved retouch (Fig. 150). Still more significant in connection with the rapid artistic development of these people is the remarkable increase in the Fig. 150. Implements suitable for the dressing of hides and for sculpture. The keeled scraper or planing tool — grattoir carene — characteristic of the Aurignacian culture. After Breuil. About two-fifth actual size, i, 2, 3. Short and broad types appearing in the middle Aurignacian. 4, 5. More elongated types of the advanced middle Au- rignacian from Cro-Magnon, Dordogne. 6. Elongated type {pic) of the close of the middle Aurignacian. 7, 8. Small grattoirs with handles, suitable for sculpture. number and variety of graving-tools, including numerous curved gravers. Almost all the chief types of gravers (burins) have now been invented, and tools of bone have become extremely numerous and varied. To engraving and linear design have been added the art of sculpture and the primitive use of color (Breuil,2^ Schmidf^o). In the Dordogne region this evolution of the middle Aurig- nacian is exemphfied at Le Ruth, Le Roc de Combe-Capelle, and the principal layers of the Abri Audit as well as at the shelter of Laussel. It is well developed also at Le Trilobite, on the head- waters of the Seine. 310 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Art. Microlithique, microlith. Burin, graver. Ciseau, chisel (of stone and bone). Gravette, etching tool. Pic, pick (triangular or quadrang ;ular, for sculpture). Ceremonial. Baton de commandement, ceremonial staff (first appearance). New Industrial Implements. Grattoir, planing tool * long but not thick. Aiguille, needle (bone, first appearance) In the late Aurignacian (Breuil;^^ Obermaier'^-) there is a no- table departure from the Mousterian fashion of chipping the flakes ; even the dis- tinctive blunt 'Aurig- nacian retouch' is somewhat weakened ; but at the same time the work on the elon- gated flakes becomes more facile and skilful. For delicate, artistic work there appear ex- tremely small imple- ments or 'microHths' of ^'arious shapes. The early and mid- dle A u r i g n a: c i a n 'point' and the 'grat- toir,' sharpened all around, as wtII as the incurved flake become less frequent. The grattoirs, or planing tools, are somewhat higher and narrower than those of the early Aurignacian but not very different in form ; two forms of grattoir are recognized, one long and not very thick, the other high and keel-shaped {grattoir carene). Among the pergoirs a curved form is very characteristic, and we also note a variety of small knives, or couteaux. The inventive genius of this people is displayed in the rapidly increasing variety of flint implements designed for fishing or for the chase. Toward the end of the Upper Aurignacian there appears the shouldered spear head {pointe a cran), and also a * Denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form. New Implements of War and Chase. Lance and spear head types, of stone : (a) Pointe a cran, shouldered point. (b) Pointe a sole, tongued point (Font Robert type). (c) Pointe de lau- laurel-leaf rier(?), point(?). Couteau, knife, blade (bone, first appearance). AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY 311 lance form of which the most perfect types have been found at Willendorf, in Austria, and at Grimaldi, on the Riviera. More or less sporadically there appear specimens of the tongued spear heads {pointes a soie), such as are found at Spy, Font Robert, and Laussel. This tj-pe of flint is constantly found associated with rudely formed prototypes of the Solutrean laurel-leaf point. Decorative art has now become a passion, and graving-tools of great variety of shape, curved, straight, convex, or concave. Fig. 151. Implements of industrial use, of the chase, and of fishing; also suitable for fine engraving and etching on stone or bone. Evolution of the Aurignacian pointe with abrupt retouch along one edge, from the base to the summit of the Aurignacian. After Breuil. About one-third actual size. 1-4. Primitive curved points from the Abri Audit. Dordogne. 5. More evolved curved point from Gargas. 6, 7. Points from Chatelperron, at the base of the middle Aurignacian. 11-28. Microhthic points from La Gravclte and Font Robert. The form of 28 suggests that of the pointe a cran or 'shouldered point' characteristic of the late Solutrean. diversified both in size and in style of technique, are very numer- ous. We may imagine that the long periods of cold and inclem- ent weather were employed in these occupations. The use of the reindeer horn is developing, and the decoration of the bone with very fine lines drawn by the microhthic tools is at times very remarkable. Here appear the earliest examples of the so- called baton de cotnmandetnent, which is supposed to have served as a ceremonial staff or wand ; it is made of the reindeer antler with a great hole bored at the point where the brow tine unites 312 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE with the main beam ; some of these batons are ornamented with rude engravings, but not as yet with sculpture. Strong and very sharp graving-tools were also needed for the sculpture out of ivory and soapstone of such human figures and figurines as the statuettes found in the Grottes de Grimaldi and at Willendorf and still more powerful tools for such work as the large stone bas-reliefs of Laussel. At this time the Cro-Mag- nons were also fashioning stronger tools for the engraving of Fig. 152. Prototypes of the Solutrean laurel-leaf point, probably an imple- ment of war or the chase. After Breuil. Large symmetrical flakes chipped over the entire surface, i, 2. Late Aurignacian tj-pes from Font Robert. 3, 4, 5. Points from the Proto-Solutrean layer of the Grottc du Trilobite. animals in stone, for shallow forms of bas-relief on the walls of the caves, and for other animal outlines. The most evolved animal figures of this period arouse the thought of ]\Iagdalenian art in its beginnings. As this industrial evolution widens it is apparent that we witness not the local evolution of a single people but rather the influence and collaboration of numerous colonies reacting more or less one upon the other and spreading their inventions and discoveries. These people were essentially nomadic and no doubt carried the latest types of implements from point to point or bartered them in trade. Thus there is not only a definite succession in such places as Dordogne, but in more remote re- gions the form of the implements may take on some important AURIGNACIAN INDUSTRY 313 differences.^^ There are also other locahties where the industry seems for a while to be suspended ; thus in the Cantabrian ]Moun- tains of Spain Ave find only the early and the late Aurignacian. Stations similar in culture to those of Dordogne extend northward into Germany and Belgium and eastward into Aus- tria and Poland. Thus the characteristic flint spear heads, known as the pointe a sole and point e a cran extend from Laussel along the Vezere to Willendorf, in Austria; and the female figures of Baousse-Rousse (Grimaldi) and of Willendorf represent the same stage of evolution as the large stone bas- rehef of Laussel. Again, we observe some relations between the Aurignacian cultures of Austria and of the Itahan penin- sula, such as the pointe a cran, derived from the gravette and found both in various stations of northern Italy and at Willendorf. In western Russia the Aurignacian station of Me- zine, Chernigov, shows clearly the types of the superior Aurig- nacian in the graving of bone and ivory, in the small batons recalling those of Spy, in Belgium, and of Brassempouy, in southwestern France, in the large bone piercers perforated at the head, suggesting the primitive needles from the shelter of Blanchard, and in the degenerate statuettes resembhng the type of Brassempouy. Distribution of the Aurignacian Industry When the general geographic distribution of the Aurignacian (Fig. 153) is compared with that of the Mousterian (Fig. 125) it is surprising to find how many of the stations are identical; it w^ould appear as if the Cro-Magnons had driven the Neander- thals from their principal stations over all of western Europe for the pursuit of their own industries and of the chase. We have already spoken of the invasion of the Mousterian stations along the Ri\iera, in the Pyrenees, in the Cantabrian Alps, and along the Dordogne and the Somme ; this occupation also extends along the Meuse, the Rhine, and the Danube ; but, whereas there are only six stations in all Germany of unquestioned Mousterian age, there are more than double that number in 314 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Aurignacian times. The Cro-Magnons entered the grottos of Sirgenstein and Rauberhohle, near the headwaters of the Dan- ube ; northwest of Sirgenstein they estabhshed the open ' loess ' station of Achenheim, wxst of Strasburg ; in the lower layers of 1- M,r,mM 9-Ain Aud„ TrUFtrrassir iO-U Mouflir ^Corgif E«]>r n-U Roctt Si. Chrisloph, 4,- iMugerit HauU lirfmeal S-U Jiull, 13- Lamul 6- La Roclullr lAr-FM^Gaum, 7- C rd-M(2gr=, Fig. 153. Geographic distribution of the principal Aurignacian industrial stations in western Europe. the ' newer loess ' was also the station of Volklinshofen, south of Achenheim; along the middle Rhine were the 'loess' stations of Rhens and Metternich, and to the far north, close to the borders of the Scandinavian glacier, was the somewhat doubtful Aurignacian station of Thiede. The Cro-Magnon men entered the Sirgenstein grotto and scattered the implements of their culture above the 'lower rodent layer,' composed of the Obi lemming, and also left remains of the woolly rhinoceros, the woolly mammoth, the stag, and the reindeer on the floor of THE lURTII OF ART 315 the cavern. The Upper Aurignacian also extends down the Danube as far as Willendorf, and possibly to Briinn, Moravia, which last, however, may be of Solutrean age. Altogether be- FiG. 154. Outlook over the Bay of Biscay from the entrance of the cavern of Pindal, in the province of Asturias, northern Spain. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. tween seventeen and twenty Aurignacian stations have been discovered in the region north of the Danube and along the Rhine. Aurignacian Art* The strongest proof of the unity of heredity as displayed in the dominant Cro-Magnon race in Europe from early Aurig- nacian until the close of Magdalenian times is the unity of their * Breuil 3" Schmidt.^^ 316 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE art impulse. This indicates a unity of mind and of spirit. It is something which could not pass to them from another race, like an industrial invention, but was inborn and creative. These people were the Palaeolithic Greeks; artistic observation and rep- resentation and a true sense of proportion and of beauty were instinct with them from the beginning. Their stone and bone industry may show vicissitudes and the influence of invasion and of trade and the bringing in of new inventions, but their art shows a continuous evolution and development from first to Fig. 155. Outline of a mammoth painted in red ochre in the cavern of Pindal, and attributed by Breuil to the Aurignacian. Only two limbs are represented. After Breuil. last, animated by a single motive, namely, the appreciation of the beauty of form and the realistic representation of it. This art, as first discovered by Lartet and further made known through the brilliant studies of Piette and Breuil, is industrial {Vart mobilier), consisting of the decoration of small personal be- longings, ornaments, and implements of stone, bone, and ivory. According to the later researches of Sautuola, Riviere, Cartai- Ihac, Capitan, and Breuil it is also mural or parietal {Fart parietal), consisting of drawings, engravings, paintings, and bas-reliefs on the walls of caverns and grottos. It remained for Breuil espe- cially to demonstrate that the mobile and the parietal art are identical, the work of the same artistic race, developing along THE BIRTH OF ART 317 closely similar lines, step by step. Thus the art becomes a new means not only of interj^reting the psycholog}- of the race but of establishing the prehistoric chronology. Dating of the Art One of the first questions which rises in our mind is this — how is this art dated ; how can these steps be positively deter- mined ? The age of these engraved or painted designs on the walls of the caverns is determined in a number of ways described by Breuil.'^'' The simplest method is where the wall designs of one period are covered by the archaeological layers of succeeding periods. This has been observed in four cases, as at Pair-non- Pair, Gironde, where primitive engravings of horses, caprids, and bovids are buried under flints characteristic of the late Aurig- nacian mingled with bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, lion, hyaena, bison, and reindeer. Again, the deeply engraved bison on the wall of the grotto of La Greze, Dordogne, is found beneath a talus of Solutrean flints associated with remains of the bison, reindeer, and rhinoceros. In the Grotte de la Mairie, Dordogne, are found several finely engraved middle Magdalenian figures of animals buried beneath late Magdalenian implements associated with the reindeer fauna. Very important, indeed, is the age of the sculpture and bas- reliefs found in Laussel. The human sculptures are determined to be of late Aurignacian age, because they are buried in an early Solutrean talus. The splendid wafl sculptures of the series of horses in the Cap-Blanc shelter, near the Laussel shelter, are shown to be of middle Magdalenian age, because of the upper Magdalenian strata which covered and partly concealed them. In other instances we can date a drawing in a cavern by the period at which the opening was closed ; for example, the cave of La Mouthe, Dordogne, was closed in by a Magdalenian layer of flints which touched the roof and firmly sealed up the entrance until recent times. Again, at Gargas, Hautes-Pyrenees, we 318 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE know that the last occupation by the Cro-Magnons was near the end of Aurignacian times, as indicated by a hearth filled Fig. 156. Primitive painted outlines of animals from the cavern walls of Font-de-Gatmie, Dordogne, attributed by Breuil to the early Aurignacian. The outHnes represent the horse, ibe.x, cave-bear, wild cattle,' and reindeer. After Breuil. ' with late Aurignacian flints and with the remains of the bear, hyaena, horse, and reindeer; the opening of the grotto was buried beneath these foyers, which obstructed the entrance until the cave was rediscovered at a comparatively recent date. Also THE lURTII OF xVKT 319 at ^Nlarsoulas, Hautc-Garonnc, there are two hearths, one late Aurigiiacian, the other late Magdalenian ; the grotto was then closed until recent times. The grotto of Niaux, on the Ariege, which contains fine examples of drawings of middle Magdale- nian times at a distance of i,8oo feet from the entrance, was protected for a long period by a lake 6 feet deep and several hundred feet long. At Altamira, near Santander, the superb frescoed ceiling was buried, long before Neohthic times, by the Fig. 157. The woolly rhinoceros, painted in red ochre with shading and partial rep- resentation of the hair, in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne. Attributed by Breuil to the late Aurignacian. Possibly Magdalenian. After Breuil. closing up of the entrance, which was rediscovered only about thirty years ago. A third method of dating the art is still more significant ; it is through a similarity in the engravings on bone, found in the old hearths associated with flints, to the mural decorations which are found upon the walls. Thus, at Altamira, engravings on bone associated with Solutrean and Magdalenian flints enabled Alcalde del Rio and Breuil to date the engravings on the lime- stone walls. Hence, in grottos which have never been closed up and which have been frequented at different times from the PalaeoHthic to the present epoch one observes that the mural designs in the caverns are invariably accompanied by Upper Palaeolithic implements with a similar style of decoration ; and this is the case at Font-de-Gaume, Combarelles, Portel, Mas d'Azil, Castillo, Pasiega, and Hornos de la Pena. The bone en- 320 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE gra\dngs of the female red deer found at .\ltaniira are identical in their artistic period with those found on the walls of the same grotto. The excavations at Castillo, where numerous shoulder- blades of the deer were found engraved in the same style as those of .\ltamira, prove that all these engravings and drawings are to be referred to ancient Magdalenian rather than to upper Solutrean times. The engravings upon the walls in the grotto of Hornos de la Pena, of Aurignacian times, are dated through the discovery at the base of the layer of Aurignacian flints of an engraved equine figure similar to the engravings at Altamira. A fourth method apphes to those not infrequent cases when two or three designs are superposed one upon the other, from which it necessarily follows that the underlying designs must antedate those above. Through the apphcation of these four methods Breuil has succeeded in dating all the steps in the advance of art from Aurignacian into Magdalenian times. Engraving, Painting, and Sculpture In the archaic drawings of the caverns of Pair-non-Pair, La Greze, and La Mouthe most of the animal figures are somewhat heavily and deeply engraved ; the proportions are not true ; the head is usually too small, with a large, short body which is often lightly modelled, resting on thin extremities. Quadrupeds are frequently represented ^vith but two legs, as in the case of the mammoth. That the powers of observation were only gradually trained is shown by the fact that details which in later drawings are well observed are here overlooked; the profile drawings of animals, with one fore leg and one hind leg represented, are quite Uke those of children. Progress toward a true representation of animal form in drawing begins very early; even in middle Aurignacian times primitive drawdng and engraving commences to replace sculp- ture. Both the fhnt 'burins' and the engravings on the walls of the grottos show that the beginnings of drawing may be THE BIRTH OF ART 321 traced back to early Aurignacian times. While the Palaeolithic artists early in the Aurignacian had obtained a certain facility in plastic work, their drawings, which are solely contours — somewhat imperfect and deeply engraved Hues — show a grad- ual development. The degree of skill attained in late Aurignacian times we know from the engravdng of a horse on a stone fragment from Gargas, and from a sketch of the hinder quarter of a horse found in the cave of Hornos de la Pefia, which is engraved on the frontal bone of one of the wild horses ; the latter is strikingly similar to one of the engravings found at the entrance to the same grotto. The engravings on a slab of slate of the heads of two woolly rhinoceroses" (Fig. i6i) probably belong to the late Aurignacian. Similar attempts are found in the Abri Lacoste. Ornamentation develops in the middle Aurignacian, but retains a simple geometric character. The parietal art on the walls of the caverns, mostly deep engravings, consists of stiff profiles in single lines and in red or black coloring. The animals represented are the ibex, the horse, the bison, and rarely the mammoth. The caves where these are found are Pair-non-Pair, La Greze, La Mouthe, Bernifal, Font-de-Gaume, Altamira, and Marsoulas. Crucibles for grind- ing the color are found in the grotto of Mar- soulas, the color being made by grinding up the red and yellow oxides of iron. The development of art during the whole Aurignacian is continuous and is undoubtedly the work of one race ; Breuil considers it the work certain!}' either of the tall Cro-iMagnons or of the small Grimaldis ; there is, however, no evidence of the survival of the Grimaldi race, and we may safely attribute this entire art development to the Cro-Magnons. Fig. 158. Female figurine carved in crystalline talc, discovered at the Grottes deGrimaldi, near Mentone. This figurine, pos- sibly modelled after one of the Grimaldi negroids, represents the en- ceinte condition common to many of these figures. It is peculiar in showing that ab- normal develop- ment behind the hips known as steatopygy. After Reinach. 322 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The creative spirit manifested itself along many different lines. In the fashioning of bone in early Aurignacian times there begins a new industry capable of great possibilities ; out of com- binations of lines there develop geometric figures ; in animal fig- ures there is an attempt at simple symmetric relations, but a full, free composition is not attained. With further experience in working with bone and ivory, we find V in the middle Aurignacian the first plastic f^ representations of the human figure in the "■ round. The Cro-Magnon artist undertook this plastic work, choosing cliiefly for his sub- ject the female figure. These small plastic models were probably designed as idols; the figures are often misshapen; in the face the eyes frequently are not indicated at all ; in some cases the ear is indicated ; they recall the style of the modern cubists. More care is given to the sculpture of the form of the body than of the face. The ivory statue known as the Venus of Bras- sempouy lies at the base of the middle Aurignacian; of the same epoch are the female statuettes of Sireuil, and the torso from Pair-non-Pair, whereas the soapstone figurine of IMentone and the ivory statu- ettes of Trou Magrite, Belgium, belong to the late Aurignacian. The spread of these idols, which are altogether characteristic of the earlier period of the Upper Palaeolithic, is traced eastward to Willendorf, Aus- tria, and to Briinn, Mora\da. Breuil's great contention is a certain similarity to north African art, which would seem to agree with his theory that the Cro-Magnon people followed the southern shores of the INIedi- terranean, bringing with them the Aurignacian industry and the gl}ptic art of the female statuettes similar to those of baked Fig. 159. Statuette in limestone from the grotto of Willendorf, Lower Aus- tria, attributed to the late Aurignacian. This fe- male figurine, possibly an idol and generally known as the 'Venus of Willen- dorf,' is about four and one-half inches in height. .A.fter Szombathi. THE BIRTH OF ART 32S clay which are found along the valley of the Nile. These figu- rines have in common the great development of all .the parts connected with maternity, and in some cases a coiffure or head- dress very much like that found in the most primitive Eg}^- tian work. The extreme corpulence of all the figurines has been compared with the 'steatopygy,' or development of what Fig. i6o. Female figurine in soapston,e, discovered at the Grottes dc Grimaldi, near Mentone, and attributed to the late Aurignacian. After Ober- maier. This seems to be a prototype of modern cubist art. are politely known as the 'posterior curves,' of the female in many African races. But only one of these Aurignacian figu- rines is truly ' steatopygous ' ; the others are simply corpulent, a condition due to eating large quantities of fat and marrow, and probably to a very sedentary life. It is noteworthy that none of the male figures in drawing and sculpture is corpulent. While the art of the statuettes appears to come to a close in late Au- rignacian times, it may extend into the Solutrean at Brunn, Mora\aa, and at Trou Magrite, Belgium. With due regard for analogies, it would rather appear probable that this archaic sculpture was autochthonous. 3^4 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The art of engraving and drawing was almost certainly autochthonous, because we trace it from its most rudimentary beginnings. This northern art developed from the beginning of Upper Palaeolithic times over the whole of southwestern France and in the northwest of Spain, being contemporaneous with the descent of the alpine fauna from the Pyrenees and the Alps and Fig. i6i. Superposed engravings of various mammals on a slab of slate found in the Grotte du Trilobite, Yonne, France. In detail are seen the profiles of two woolly rhi- noceroses superposed on the rump of a mammoth with tail upturned. After Breuil. the presence all over western Europe of the tundra fauna. It was, by preference, an animal art, begun by the Aurignacians but largely suspended in Solutrean times. Painting^ ^ also had its birth in the Aurignacian, in the simple contours of the hand pressed against a wall surface or outlined with color, accompanied by primitive attempts at linear drawing in color and painted groupings ; for example, the crude outlines of the bison in the grotto of Castillo are of Aurignacian age, also the THE BIRTH OF ART 325 black linear designs of the deer and of the ibex in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne, the striking red linear design of the mammoth in the grotto of Pindal, in northern Spain, represent- ing the animal as with two limbs, and the red outlines of wild ^'""' ' ^ mm] c» 0^, \ ^ Fig. 162. Silhouettes of complete and of partly mutilated hands from the walls of the grotto of Gargas in the Pyrenees. After Breuil. • cattle in Castillo. Breuil also attributes to Aurignacian times the spirited figure of the woolly rhinoceros in red ochre in the cave of Font-de-Gaume, as well as the outline of the stag in red color. .^Ve are impressed throughout with three qualities in this Aurignacian design : first, the very close observation of the animal form; second, the attempt at reaUstic effect produced with very few lines ; third, the element of motion or movement 326 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE in these animals. For example, the two heads of the woolly rhi- noceros in the slab engravings of the Trilobite grotto (Fig. i6i) are remarkably correct in proportion ; there is an attempt with fine lines to indicate the wool hanging along the lower surface of the head ; behind these two figures is the rump of an elephant P'iG. 163. The long, overhanging cHff of Laussel on the Beune is a t3pical rock shelter, first sought in Acheulean times, and also visited during the Mousterian, Aurig- nacian, and Solutrean stages. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. with the tail upturned, an adaptation of the artist to the form of the slate fragment ; the outlines of the feet both of the rhi- noceros and the mammoth are remarkably accurate representa- tions of these pachyderms. In the more advanced development of draftsmanship in late Aurignacian times the engravings of these animals not merely approach the truth, but characteristic features are strikingly represented ; and with a few sure lines the proportions of the body as a whole are better preserved, while the complicated curves of the hoofs and of the head show very close observation. THE BIRTH OF ART 327 In the grotto of La Greze overhanging the Beune, a small tributary of the Vezere, was found an archaic Aurignacian out- line of the bison deeply incised on the limestone walls. The grotto of Gargas,* Hautes-Pyrenees,''^ is one of the most fa- mous stations ; it w^as entered in closing Mousterian times and was occupied at intervals during the Aurignacian stage. Beneath the Mousterian layer is a deep deposit of entire skeletons of the cave-bear without any traces of hurnan industry. These layers lie beyond the grotto in the vast foyer which opens above into Fig. 164. Section of the rock shelter of Laussel, showing the superposed industrial layers from Acheulean to Solutrean times. After Lalanne. a great chimney, so that this is one of the true cavern habitations. The drawings along the walls of the cave include a large number of figures in a very unequal style, which belong chiefly to middle and upper Aurignacian times. Among these are two figures of birds, several mammals, a few primitive drawings of wild cattle, the bison, the ibex, and numerous representations of the horse. A long serpentine band of color meanders among some of these drawings. Most interesting are the silhouettes of the hand in black and red produced by pressing the hand against the lime- stone wall and covering the surrounding surface with color. It would appear that the fingers were mutilated or cut off at the middle joint, because one, two, three, and four of the fingers are wanting, but the thumb is never mutilated. This mutilation * The writer had the privilege of visiting all these caverns in the company either of Professor Emile Cartailhac, or of the Abbe Breuil. 328 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of the hand may be compared with similar practices prevaihng among some Austrahan tribes. In the cavern of ^Nlarsoulas, on the headwaters of the Garonne, the conditions are altogether different; the parietal art here represents two cultural stages, the late Aurignacian and the late Magdalenian. There is a small entrance grotto with two hearths, corresponding to these two industries. The entrance to the cave is well up on the side of the hill, and the drawings which belong mth the upper Aurignacian culture are some- what damaged. Again, we find designs extending along the wall below the drawings. There are numerous outlines of the bison in black, the entire side of the body being covered with splashes of red. The great abri of Laussel, on the Beune, was first visited by the Neanderthals, for there are two Mousterian layers and above them two Aurignacian layers, the lower belonging to the middle x\urignacian industry and the upper to the closing Aurignacian period. This long, overhanging cHff of Laussel is a t>pical shelter, first sought in Acheulean times, re\dsited in Mousterian times, then again in middle or late Aurignacian, in Solutrean, and finally in Magdalenian times. As these succes- sive layers rise they approach the shelter of the cHff, so that the ^Magdalenian flint workers were directly beneath the over- hanging rock shelter, which opened outward toward the sun. In the upper Aurignacian layer Lalanne discovered two bas- reliefs representing the figures of a man and of a woman. The Fig. 165. Bas-relief of a woman with a drinking horn, sculptured on the face of a boulder within the shelter of Laus- sel, and attributed to the late Aurig- nacian. After Lalanne. About one- eighth actual size. THE 15IRTH OF ART 329 bas-relief of the woman represents a nude figure holding the horn of a bison in the right hand; this is cut from a block of limestone with a relief of about two centhnetres, and it measures forty-six centimetres in height; with the exception of the head, the entire body is pohshed, and at certain points there remain traces of red coloring. A Httle farther on the artist had modelled the figure of a man in three- quarter view in the attitude of casting a spear or of an archer drawing the bow ; the top of the head and the extremities of the limbs have been broken away ; the figure measures forty centimetres in height. These bas-reliefs of Laussel are regarded as sincere rep- resentations, for the artist has pre- sented as accurately as possible the contemporary human figure ; both the man and the woman are rep- resented in motion. On the tech- nique employed in this primordial sculpture, Doctor Lalanne observes that we find at Laussel a series of tools perfectly adapted to attain this result, many of which would have been inexplicable unless found to occur in connection with the sculpture itself. It is curious to note how many analogies there are between the flint utensils of the primitive sculptor and those of the sculptors of our own day. First, we find tools designed to remove the rock, there are points, pickaxes, chopping tools for shaping the rock, saws, and coarse stone planers; all of these are perfectly adapted to the hand, from which we may conclude that our artist was right-handed. There is a great number of graving- tools, or burins, all forms being represented Fig. i66. Bas-relief of a spear thrower or hunter, sculptured on ■ the face of a boulder within the shelter of Laussel. After Lalanne. About one-si.xth actual size. 330 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE — plain, double, fine, coarse, and combinations of the burin and grattoir. Some of the burins show the sharp-angled point cen- tred at the extremity of a blade; these are the ^ordinary t>pes; but in many the blade ends with a terminal retouch, which may be transverse, oblique, concave, or convex with the point to one side. The grattoirs, or planers, are equally numerous, with examples of all the know^n forms. Many of these are formed at the end of a blade ; a few are circular, and others are at the opposite end of a pointed blade ; the latter are particu- larly fine and are retouched around the entire edge. But the artist did not merely carve his subjects; he also coated them with a paint made of ochre and manganese ; he crushed his coloring matter on a palette of schist, and we have found one of these unbroken and still bearing the red and ochre colors. This palette is lo J? inches long and 6 inches wide ; it is oblong in form. Distribution of the Solutrean Industry The period of the Solutrean industry is one of the most diffi- cult to interpret in the whole prehistory of western Europe. The remains of this industry in several localities lie directly be- tween those of the Aurignacian and the Magdalenian ; in others, as at Solutre, they directly follow the Aurignacian. There is no doubt that this represents a very long and a very important epoch in Upper Palaeolithic development. From the cultural standpoint it represents a climax in the flint industry, but a period of suspension or of arrested development in art. A glance at the maps of the Mousterian (Fig. 125), the Aurig- nacian (Fig. 153), and the Solutrean (Fig. 167) culture stations shows that the geographic distribution of the Solutrean is en- tirely unique ; whereas the Aurignacian culture may be said to girdle the Mediterranean, both on its southern and northern coasts, the Solutrean culture is absent in this entire region. The interpretation of this strange phenomenon offered by Breuil, that the Solutrean culture entered Europe directly from the east and not from the south, may be connected with the theory ORIGIN OF THE SOLUTREAN CULTURE 331 that toward the end of Aurignacian times a new race from the central east was working westward through Hungary and along the Danube — a race of inferior mental t}pe, but extremely ex- pert in fashioning the flint spears and lances with what is known as the Solutrean 'retouch,' This mav be the race of Briinn, JnR/A/.s\ Jc 1- Corg^ ifEti/tr 7- Les Ey:ui i- Laugiri, BaiK i- Liveyr, > LaugiHi Hmte 9- Rfy ■i-URuih 10- La Grhe 5- CrO-Magnm 1 1- Moulin ie Laussil )SS//S I Fig. Geographic distribution of the principal Solutrean industrial stations western Europe. Briix, and Pfedmost, the remains of which are found in two localities associated with these highly perfected flint spear heads. Either by the invasion of this race or, more probably, by the in- vasion of the highly perfected spear-head industry itself, the type station of Solutre, on the Saone, was established and the region of Dordogne reached, where this industry progressed at twelve different stations. There is no doubt whatever that the new and entirely dis- tinct Briinn race penetrated the Danubian region at this time, 332 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE but there is no evidence from skeletal remains that it reached France. It is quite possible that some of the flint workers adept in the Solutrean 'retouch' migrated into the far western sta- tions of Dordogne, bringing with them their beautiful technique, but without leaving traces of their skeletal remains through ceremonial burial. This unsettled problem affords one of the many reasons why the anatomy of all the Upper Palaeolithic men of western Europe should be most carefully studied and compared. Another myster>^ of Solutrean times is the arrest of the ar- tistic impulse which had animated the Cro-lNIagnons through- out the entire Aurignacian. Evidences of artistic work in Solu- trean times are very rare, and some drawings which have been attributed to the Solutrean, as at ^Altamira, have now been re- ferred to the Magdalenian. Is it possible that the Cro-Magnon race for a time suspended its artistic endeavor only to renew it under the different conditions of environment of Magdale- nian times? Unfortunately, the Solutrean burials afford very Httle evidence on this point. One interpretation which may be offered is that the Solutrean was evidently a period of open-air life, and that the new implements of the chase of Solutrean type absorbed the industrial energies of these people, for the weapons were fashioned in enormous numbers. Consistent with this theory of climatic influence is the fact that the return of the severe climate of Magdalenian times, which crowded the men again into the shelters and grottos, was accompanied by a renewal of the artistic development continuing from the point where it had been interrupted in closing Aurignacian times. That Aurignacian and Magdalenian art is the work of one race there can be no question whatever; that this race w^as the Cro-Magnon is now absolutely demonstrated. The climate of Solutrean times is generally believed to have been cold and dry. In the region of Dordogne throughout this period the reindeer was stiU far more numerous than any other animal; so we may safely conclude that this was the principal object of the chase and of food ; in fact, it would appear that the HUMAN FOSSILS 333 reindeer were resident forms in the valley of the Vezere, hunted and consumed throughout the year.^° Here we also occasionally find the northern steppe or Obi lemming, an animal which at the same time extends along th'e borders of the Volga River toward southern Russia. It would appear that in Solutrean times in southwestern France there prevailed a dry, cold continental subarctic climate like that of the Caspian, Volga, and Ural steppes of the present day. With the mammoth and the reindeer occur a great variety of northern European forest forms — the true fox, the hare, the stag, the bro\vn bear, the wolf, the bison, and the urus. Most interesting is the identification of the jackal belong- ing to the ancient species C. neschersensis. In the type indus- trial locality of Solutre the reindeer is very abundant in the fire-hearths associated with the lower Solutrean industry, but less abundant in the upper levels; an antelope, perhaps the saiga antelope, is said to be found among the crude engraxdngs on bone. Solutrean Races There were certainly two distinct races of men in Europe during Solutrean times, to the east the race of Briinn and to the west the race of Cro-Magnon. Remains attributed to the Cr6-]Magnons have been found in the Departments of Charente, Gironde, Lot, Haute-Garonne, Tarn, and Dordogne. But most of these remains are very fragmentary and cannot readily be determined racially. The fragments of ten skulls and a few other bones found in the Grotte du Placard, Charente, are attributed to late Solutrean and to early Magdalenian times and consti- tute one of the most exceptional discoveries which have thus far been made in France; the interments probably date from the early Magdalenian (p. 380), but are probably of a race surviving from the Solutrean. The section of the cave deposit is from 23 to 26 feet in thickness and is highly instructive ; it shows eight cultural layers, separated by layers of debris and succeeding each other in the following order : 334 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE 8. Neolithic layer. 7-4. Magdalenian layers; in the lowest layer is the ceremonial burial of four skulls. 3. Solutrean layer with shouldered points {pointes a cran) and a few laurel-leaf points {pointes de laurier). 2. Solutrean layer wdth laurel-leaf points but no shouldered points; knives, grattoirs, scrapers, borers, in great numbers, together with javelin points and awls in bone and ornamented with notches, and fragments of red chalk and black lead found embedded with the Solutrean points. I. Mousterian layer. Race of Brunn, Brux, Predmost, and (?) Galley Hill In 187 1 a skullcap, now in the Royal Museum of Vienna, was discovered in the course of coal mining at Briix, Bohemia. In 1891^^ a skeleton, apparently of the same race, was discovered at Briinn, Moravia, deeply embedded in loess along with bones of the woolly mammoth and other great Pleistocene mammals. In 1892 it was described by Makowsky,^- who a few years be- fore had excavated from the loess sand in the neighborhood of Briinn the fragmentary skull now known as Briinn II. Both these skuUs are of a somewhat low racial type, and for a long time they were regarded as transition forms between the Nean- derthals and Homo sapiens, but in 1906 Schwalbe^"^ showed the affinity between the skulls of Briix and Briinn and at the same time their entire distinctness from the Neanderthal skull and their approach to lower forms of Homo sapiens. The chief dis- tinction of these skulls is their extreme elongation or dolicho- cephaly, the ratio of width to length being 69 per cent in the Briix skull, and 68.2 per cent in the Briinn skuU. The latter ranks lower in racial t\pe than the Australian negroids. The chief distinction from the Neanderthal skull is in the index of the height of skull (51.22 per cent) and in the absence of the prominent ridges extending across the eyebrow region above the nose;* the forehead, in brief, is more modern, the frontal * Despite Schwalbe's statement, the supraorbital ridges in this skull appear to form a complete bridge. Doctor Hrdlicka regards the related Predmost skull as distinctly show- ing Neanderthaloid affinity. THE BRtNN RACE .335 angle being 74.7-75 per cent. The brain capacity in this race is estimated, according to Alakowsky," at 1,350 c.cm. Both the Briix and Briinn skulls are Jiannonic ; they do not present Fig. 168. The type skull known as Briinn I — supposed male — discovered at Briinn, Moravia, in 189 1. It was found deeply imbedded in loess along with bones of the woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, giant deer, reindeer, and other Pleistocene mammals, and is believed to be of Solutrean age. After Makowsky. One-third life size. the very broad, high cheek-bones characteristic of the Cro- IMagnon race, the face being of a narrow, modern t^pe, but not very long. There is evidence that the neck and shoulders 336 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE were powerful and muscular; the prominence of the chin is pronounced ; the dentition is macrodont, that is, the last lower molar is of exceptionally large size ; there was no prognathism or protrusion of the jaws. The second Briinn skull (Briinn II) may represent a female type of the Briinn race, the cephalic index being estimated at 72 per cent. DISCOVERIES CHIEFLY OF THE CRO-MAGNON AND BRUNN RACES* REFERliED TO SOLUTREAN TiMES Date of Discovery Locality Number of Individuals Culture Stage Cro-Magnon Race (?) Grotte du Placard, Fragments of ten skulls Late Solutrean and Charente, France. and a few other bones. early Magdale- nian. Pair-non-Pair, Skull fragments. Solutrean. Gironde, France. Lacave, " " Lot, France. Montconfort, " " " Haute-Garonne, France. Roset, " " Late Solutrean. Tarn, France. Badegoule, Bones. Solutrean. Dordogne, France. BRi^'>rN-BRU.\:-] Predmost Race 1S80. Predmost, Portions of twenty skel- Solutrean. Moravia, .\ustria. etons. 1891. Briinn, Male skeleton (Briinn I) . " Moravia, Austria. (?) Female skeleton (Brunn II). Ballahohle, Skeleton of infant. (?) " Miskolcz, Hungary. (?) Galley Hill. One skeleton. Unknown. * Obermaier,'*' R. Martin.""^ There is a possibility'^^ that the Brunn race was ancestral to several later dolichocephalic groups which are found in the region of the Danube and of middle and southern Germany. Schliz characterizes the Briinn skull as distinguished by the retreating forehead, by massive eminences above the orbits sep- arated by a cleft in the median line, by broad, low orbits, and prominent chin. These characters are met with again in one of the dolichocephalic skulls found in the interment at Ofnet, THE BRtJNN RACE 337 at the very close of Upper Palaeolithic times. It would thus appear that the Briinn race is distinct from the Cro-Magnon race, that it represents a long-headed t)pe which became estab- lished along the Danube as early as Solutrean times, and that it may possibly be connected with the introduction of some of the pecuUar features of the Solutrean culture. One of the skeletons of Briinn, found at a depth of 12 feet below the surface of the 'loess,' was lavishly adorned with tooth-shells, perforated stone discs, and bone ornaments made from the ribs of the rhinoceros or mammoth and from the teeth of the mammoth; associated with these was an ivory idol, ap- parently of a male figure, of which only the head, the torso, and the left arm remain. The skeleton and many of the objects found with the sepulture were partly tinted in red. An ivory figurine belongs to the Eburneen stage of Piette and appears to indicate that the burial was of i\urignacian rather than of Solutrean age. The Pfedmost 'mammoth hunters' also probably belonged to this race. They are represented by the remains of six indi- viduals excavated since 1880 at Pfedmost, Moraida, by Wankel, Kfiz, and Maska. The bones ^vere found in a very much shat- tered condition. Maska has since discovered a collective burial of fourteen human skeletons, with remains of six others ; the bodies were covered with stones, but no flints or objects of art were buried with them. The dimensions of the limbs indicate a race of large stature. The skeletons were deeply buried in 'loess,' and above and below the rich archaeological layer were abundant debris of the mammoth, representing between eight and nine hundred specimens, .\long \\'ith the numerous flints, including laurel-leaf spear heads of middle Solutrean t>^e, were found other objects and even primitive works of art in bone and ivory. There is no question that the human remains belong to the middle Solutrean stage. ^^ With this race is also associated by many authors (Schwalbe, Schhz, KJaatsch, Keith) the Gafley Hill skull, which was found in 1888, buried at a depth of 8 feet in the 'high terrace' gravels 338 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE 90 feet above the Thames. ^^ Sollas thinks it highly probable that the remains were in a natural position and of the same age as the high-level gravels and the Palaeolithic flints and remains of extinct animals which the\' contained, but Evans and Dawkins regard the Galle}' Hill man as belonging to a long-headed Neo- lithic race interred in a Palaeolithic stratum. The gravels of the 'high terrace' in which the Galley Hill skull was buried are by no means of the geologic antiquity of 200,000 years assigned to them by Keith ;^° they are probably of Fourth Glacial or of Postglacial age, and lie within the estimates of Postglacial time, namely, from 20,000 to 40,000 years. The antiquity of the Galley Hill cranial tx-pe has been main- tained with abiUty by Keith. The skull is extremely long or hyperdolichocephalic, the cephalic index being estimated by Keith at 69 per cent;-^^ the brain capacity is estimated at be- tween 1,350 c.cm. and 1,400 c.cm. ; the cheek-bones are not preserved, so that no judgment can be formed as to this most distinctive character of the Cro-Magnon race. With this Gal- ley Hill race Keith also compares the Combe-Capelle, or Aurig- nacian man of Klaatsch,'^- although he mistakenly considers the Combe-Capelle man of much less geologic antiquity. He con- tinues: "Thus, while the writer is inclined to agree in provi- sionally assigning the Combe-Capelle man to the Galley Hill race, he believes that further discoveries will show that the Combe-Capelle man belongs to a branch marked with certain negroid features." SoLUTREAX Flint Industry The 'Solutrean retouch' marks one of the most notable ad- vances in the technique of flint working ; it is altogether distinct from the 'Aurignacian retouch,' which is an heritage from the ^lousterian.^'^ The flint is chipped oft' by pressure in fine, thin flakes from the entire surface of the implement, to which in its perfected form the craftsman can give a thin, sharp edge and perfect symmetry. This is a great advance on the abrupt Aurig- SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY 330 nacian retouch, in which the flint is chipped back at a rather bkmt angle to make a sharp edge. According to de jVIortillet, Fig. 169. T>-pical Solutrean implements of war and chase. After de Mortillet. Pohilcs en feuillc dc laiiricr, or laurel-leaf points, artistically retouched on both surfaces, at both ends, and on both borders; regarded by de Mortillet rather as blades of poniards than as javelin heads. 120. Lozenge-shaped form from the type station of Solutre, Saone-et-Loire. 121. Elongate form found at Solutre. 122. The largest pointe dis- covered at Solutre. 123. One of the smallest points found at Solutre. 124. Solutrean point from Laugerie Haute, Dordogne. 127. Point from Gargas, Vaucluse. 128. Point of exceptionally fine workmanship. 130. One of eleven very large Solutrean laurel-leaf points found in a cache at Volgu; probably a votive offering, as the flints are too slender to be of any use and one at least shows traces of coloring. All the flints are shown one-quarter actual size, except 129, which is one-half actual size. the Solutrean method of pressure made possible the execution of much more delicate work. The question at once arises, did this industrial advance take place in France or was it an invention brought from the east? On this point Breuil observes'^ that in the highest Aurignacian. 340 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE levels in Belgium, in Dordogne, and at Solutre the Solutrean technique becomes faintly apparent either in the 'stem' points {pointes a sole) of Font Robert, La Ferrassie, and Spy or in the double-edged points tending toward the laurel-leaf type of the Solutrean, but that all the other implements remain purely Aurignacian. Relations and Subdivisions of Solutrean Culture Lower (Early) Magdalenian. Prototypes of bone harpoons. Beginnings of animal sculpture. Absence of any trace of the laurel-leaf spear heads of Solutrean times. Upper [Late] Solutrean. Typical shouldered points (pointes a cran) — elongate flakes worked on one or both sides and notched. Small laurel-leaf spear heads. Bone javelin points, awls, and needles, very finely worked. Placard. Lacave. Middle (High) Solutrean. Large 'laurel-leaf spear heads worked on both sides. Climax of Solu- trean flint industry. Placard. Lower (Proto-) Solutrean. Primitive 'laurel-leaf and 'willow-leaf spear heads, most of them worked on only one side. Grotte du Trilobite. Transition from Aurignacian. Pedunculate spear heads (pointes a sole) of primitive Font Robert type. Climax of human sculpture. As to the chief source of Solutrean influence, the same au- thor remarks that, since this culture is entirely wanting in cen- tral and southern Spain, in Italy, in Sicily, in Algeria, and in Phoenicia, we should certainly not look to the Mediterranean for its origin but rather to eastern Europe ; for in the grottos of Hungary we find a great development of the true Solutrean, while so far the Aurignacian has not been found here, although we do find traces of the earlier transitional stages below the levels of the true laurel-leaf points. We must admit, therefore, that in all probability the Solutrean culture reached Europe from the east and that its source is as mysterious as that of the Aurignacian, which, as we have seen, was of southern and probably of Mediterranean origin. It is not impossible that the SOLUTREAN INDUSIRY 341 evolution of the laurel-leaf })oint took place in Hungary, for it was certainly not evolved in central or western Europe. At Pfedmost, in Moravia, we observe an advanced Aurig- nacian industry which had adopted a Solutrean fashion in its spear heads. Here the laurel-leaf implements are few, while the implements of bone are abundant; but in the Solutrean stations of Hungary there are no bone implements. As the Solu- trean technique comes to perfection the laurel-leaf spear head, so characteristic of the full Solutrean industry, is created and is met with in Poland, in Hungary, in Bavaria, and then in France, where the industry extends southward to the west and east of the central plateau. In France it appears quite sud- denly in the Grotte du Trilobite (Yonne), and also in Dordogne and Ardeche, where the Proto-Solutrean t^pes show marked impoverishment, both in the variety and in the execution of most of the flint implements, the only exception being the flat- tened spear heads, pointes a face plane, which show a regular Solutrean retouch, beautiful but monotonous. Laurel-leaf points discovered at Crouzade, Gourdan, and Montfort denote the presence of the true Solutrean culture, but this culture does not approach the stations in the neighborhood of Brassempouy. Toward the north the grotto of Spy, in Belgium, affords ex- amples of Proto-Solutrean t}^es, which have also been traced in several British caverns, but it is not certain that true Solu- trean implements are found in Britain. In Picard a Proto-Solutrean layer has been found, but no laurel-leaf points. In the type station of Solutre in south- eastern France Breuil discovered two Solutrean layers, quite different from each other : one rich in bone implements and graving-tools, with small flint laurel leaves retouched on only one face ; the other poor in bone implements but with large laurel-leaf spear heads. The Solutrean culture never penetrated to the south of the great barrier of the Pyrenees, but, passing through the Vezere vaUey, in Dordogne, it spread along the western coast to the northern slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains into the province 342 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of Santander, Spain. Here the laurel-leaf points of the middle Solutrean are found at Castillo, while the shouldered points, pointes a cran, typical of the later Solutrean, are found at Al- tamira, together with bone implements. None the less, it should be noticed that in the southwest of Europe the earlier phases Fig. 170. The type station of Solutrean culture, near the present village of Solutre, in south central France, sheltered on the north by a steep rocky ridge and with a fine sunny exposure toward the south. of the Solutrean are characterized by a decrease in the use of bone, which, however, increases again in the upper levels. The type station of the Solutrean culture is the great open- air camp of Solutre, near the Saone, sheltered on the north by a steep ridge and with a fine, sunny exposure toward the south. The traces of this great camp, which is the largest thus far dis- covered in western Europe, cover an area 300 feet square and are situated within a short distance of a good spring of water. As explored, in 1866, by Arcelin,^^ Ferry, and Ducrost, this sta- tion had already been occupied in Aurignacian times ; and two SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY 343 sections, taken at two different points, showed the deposits of the old camp to be from 22 to 26 feet in thickness, representing superposed Aurignacian and Solutrean iire-hearths with thick layers of intermediate debris. In the Aurignacian level is found the vast accumulation of the bones of horses alreadv described. Fig. 171. Centre of the great open camp of Solutre, covering an area 300 feet square, with the village of Solutre in the distance. First occupied in Aurignacian times, and a favorite and densely inhabited camp throughout the Aurignacian and Solutrean stages. In Aurig- nacian times the remains of thousands of horses were accumulated around this station. In the middle Solutrean levels great fireplaces are found with flint utensils and the remains of abundant feasts among the charred debris. The fauna includes the wolf, the fox, the hy- aena, both the cave and the brown bear, the badger, the rab- bit, the stag, wild cattle, and two characteristic northern forms — the woolly mammoth and the reindeer ; the remains of the last are the most abundant in the ancient hearths. In all the Solutrean stations, beside the bone implements,''^'' we find two distinct classes of flints. The first belongs to the entire 'Reindeer Epoch' and consists of single and double 344 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE scrapers, drills, burins, retouched flakes, and plain ones of small dimensions. The second is composed of the 'leaf t}pes, which are solely characteristic of the Solutrean and which degenerate and entirely disappear at its close ; these latter are the arrow and lance head forms, many of which are fashioned with a rare degree of per- fection and exhibit the beautiful broad Solutrean retouch across the entire surface of both sides of the flake, together with per- fect symmetry, both lateral and bilateral; they are commonly known as the willow-leaf (narrow) and the laurel-leaf (broad) forms. The explorers of the type station of Solutre have dis- covered five principal shapes, as follows: (i) irregular lozenge; (2) oval, pointed at both ends; (3) oval, pointed at one end; (4) regular lozenge ; (5) arrow-head form with peduncle, doubt- less for attachment to a shaft. The perfected Solutrean laurel- leaf spear heads do not reappear in any other Upper Palaeolithic period, but their resemblance to Neolithic flints is very marked. The 'willow-leaf spear heads {pointes de saule), chipped on only one side, characteristic of the early Solutrean, may possibly be contemporary with the closing Aurignacian culture of Font Robert. At Solutre layers have also been discovered rich in bone implements and in graving-tools, as well as small 'laurel- leaf points worked on only one face. As regards the general tendencies of the early Solutrean culture in Dordogne, at the Grotte du Trilobite (Yonne), and in Ardeche, there is a marked decline in the work in bone and in the variety and workmanship of all the implements, excepting only that of the primitive flattened spear heads, made of flakes, retouched in Solutrean fashion, but on one side only. Typical deposits of early Solu- trean culture are found at Trou Magrite, in Belgium, at Font Robert, Correze, and in the third level of the Grotte du Trilo- bite, Yonne ; in the second level we find flints with the nascent Solutrean retouch. The distinctive implement of the ' high ' or middle Solutrean is the large ' laurel-leaf ' point, flaked and chipped on both sides and attaining a marvellous perfection in technique and symmetry. SOLUTREAN INDUSTRY 345 The finest examples of these spear heads are the famous pointcs de laurier, fourteen in number, discovered at Volgu, Saone-et- Loire, in 1873 : they were found together in a sort of cache and, it would seem probable, were intended as a votive offering, for one at least was colored red, and all were too fragile and delicate to be of any use in the chase. They are of unusual size, the smallest measuring 9 inches, and the largest over i^yi. In workmanship they are equalled only by the marvellous Neolithic specimens of Egypt and Scandinavia. At Solutre and other stations implements of bone are also found, although by no means of such frequent occurrence as in the later divisions of the Solutrean. While the most easterly Solutrean stations of Hungary exhibit no bone implements, these are abundant at Pfedmost, in Moravia, where the culture altogether is of an advanced Aurignacian type, with the Solu- trean retouch used in the shaping of its flint spear heads. The bone industry includes a number of awls and smoothers, as well as numerous 'batons de commandement.' On this level at Pfedmost a few works of art are found consisting of the rep- resentations of four animals sculptured on nodules of lime- stone, the subjects apparently being reindeer, and also of one single engraving on bone. The chief invention of the late Solutrean is the 'shouldered point' (pointe a cran), a single notched and very slender dart. These notches are the first indication of the value of the barb in holding a weapon in the flesh. Here also is a stem for the at- tachment of the shaft of the dart. In earlier stage's of the Solu- trean one finds flints where the unsymmetrical base of the 'point' shows a small obtuse tongue or stem. The elongate peduncle at the base of such spear heads {pointes a sole) is developed into the pointe a cran, or shouldered point, made of long, fine flakes, with a short retouch on one or both sides, and found in the late Solutrean at the grotto of Lacave, at Placard, and at many of the stations in Dordogne. No example of the pointe a cran has ever been found at the type station of Solutre, but it is of frequent occurrence at the stations between the Loire and the 346 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Cantabrian Pyrenees, being found at .\ltamira, at Laugerie Haute, at Monthaud (Indre), in Chalosse and Charente, while the great cave of Placard has yielded no less than 5,000 speci- mens, whole and broken. Fig. 172. Typical Solutrean implements of the chase, of fishing, and of industry. After de Mortillet. 131,132. A laurel-leaf point retouched on both sides. 133-138. Various forms of the pointc a cran, or 'shouldered point,' a type distinctive of the late Solutrean. It has an elongated peduncle or stem at one side adapted for the attachment of a wooden shaft, and was probably an implement of the chase, being suitable for fishing or for hunting small game. The examples figured show a great variety of finish and retouch. 137 is from Placard and 138 from the Grottes de Grimaldi. 139. PoinQon, or awl, beau- tifully shaped. 140. Percoir, drill or borer. 141. Flake retouched on one border, re- calling the style of the Aurignacian points. 142, 143. Finely retouched points, suit- able for engraving or etching. All the flints are shown one-half actual size. At Monthaud there are also found bone implements in- cluding a number of poinqons (awls) and a series of sagaies (javelin points). Solutrean sagaies, however, are very rare and very primitive as compared with the Magdalenian. SOLUTREAN ART 347 The successive phases of Solutrean industry are all shown in southern France. As to its stratigraphic relations, the type station of Solutre exhibits lower and middle Solutrean above Aurignacian hearths and deposits ; that of Placard, Charente, shows the middle and upper Solutrean overlaid by a Magdale- nian layer. In the Grotte du Trilobite the Solutrean layer lies between one of Aurignacian and one of primitive Magdalenian ; it is here that we iind the clearest transition from the Aurig- nacian culture in the appearance of prototypes of the laurel and willow-leaf points, made of flakes, retouched on only one side. At Brassempouy the Solutrean lies immediately beneath a Mag- dalenian layer, with engraved bones and Magdalenian flints. Needles, which are particularly abundant in the Magdalenian epoch, are also found in a number of the Solutrean stations. In the grotto of Lacave, Lot, in an upper Solutrean layer, Vire has found beautiful bone needles, pierced at one end and of fine workmanship, and engraved utensils of reindeer horn ; here also was found the head of an antelope engraved on a fragment of reindeer horn. The local fauna of this period included the horse, the ibex, and the reindeer. Solutrean Engraving and Animal Sculpture The artistic work of Solutrean times is not so rich as that of the x\urignacian. This, as w^e have suggested, may be partly attributable to the less wide-spread distribution of the Solu- trean culture, as well as to the great importance which was at- tached to the careful fashioning of the stone weapons. None the less we can trace indications of the development of both phases of art, the Hnear and the plastic, and especially the begin- nings of animal sculpture. From the full, round sculpture of Aurignacian times there follows in Solutrean times a develop- ment of carving in bone of the Rundstahfiguren (baton, or cere- monial stafT), and of high rehef. The lion" and the head of a horse at Isturitz, in the Pyrenees, which Breuil attributes to a late Solutrean period, are tyjiical examples of this work. 348 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Relatively rare are the parietal and mobile engravings as well as the schematic representations, such as are found at Placard and Champs Blancs. According to Alcalde del Rio, there are found at Altamira, in northern Spain, very simple, finely en- graved figures of the doe on the bone of the shoulder-blade ; the head and neck are covered with lines, and both the eye and the nostril as wtU as the form of the ear are very characteristic of the animal. Breuil, however, considers these as belonging rather to earlier Alagdalenian times. Decorative art certainly makes some advances over the Au- rignacian work, because the arrangement of the geometric figures is quite clear, and the execution shows marked progress in the technique of engraving. At Pfedmost, near the site of the human burial described above, there has been discovered a statuette of the mammoth sculptured in the round, in ivory, which proves that animal sculpture was well advanced in Solutrean times. The statuette was found six to nine feet beneath the surface of the 'loess,' in an undoubted Solutrean layer. The accompanying fauna is of a truly arctic character: the mammoth being extraordinarily abundant; the tundra forms including the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, musk-ox, reindeer, arctic fox, arctic hare, glutton, and banded lemming ; the Asiatic forms including the lion and leopard; the forest and meadow fauna embracing the wolf, fox, beaver, brown bear, bison, and wild cattle, moose, and horse, also the ibex. Among the remnants of 30,000 flints there are a dozen points {feuilles de laurier) and other pieces with the Solutrean 'retouch.' The industry in ivory, bone, and reindeer horn is also varied, including numerous poniards, poHshers, piercers, dart-throwers, and batons de commandement. This ivory sculpture of the mammoth indicates very accu- rately the characteristic contours of the top of the head, and of the back ; the striations on the side represent the falling masses of hair. Other sculptured figures representing the mammoth are believed to be of Magdalenian age, the best known being the figures found in the grottos of Bruniquel and Laugerie Basse, SOLUTREAN ART 349 a fragment from Raymonden, Dordognc, and a bas-relief in the grotto of Figuier, Gard. All these sculptures of the mammoth have in common the indication of a very small ear — similar to that in the Pfedmost model — feet shaped like inverted mush- rooms, bordered with short, coarse hairs, the tail terminating in Fig. 173. Mammoth sculptured on a fragment of ivory tusk from the Solutrean station of Pfedmost, Moravia. After ]Maska. This figure is covered with fine Hnes repre- senting the long, hairy coating, and measures about four and one-half inches. a long tuft of hairs. If the figure of Pfedmost is of Solutrean age, it is by far the earliest of all the sculptured or engraved animal representations in the mobile art, and is also the most complete of the animal figurines of this group. It is certainly of more recent date than the engraved designs of Aurignacian age in the grottos of Gargas and of Chabot or than the red or black tracings of the mammoth, also of Aurignacian age, at Castillo, Pindal, and Font-de-Gaume. It is probable that the mammoth figures of Combarelles are of later date than the Pfedmost sculpture and belong to the beginning of Magdalenian times, while those at Font-de-Gaume belong to the end of ^lag- 350 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE dalenian times and are the most recent of all the parietal designs. Despite the differences in age and technique, all the designs of the mammoth are undoubtedly the work of artists of a single race ; they agree in faithfully portraying the external form of this great proboscidian which wandered over the steppes and prairies of western Europe from the beginning of the fourth glaciation until near the close of Postglacial times. (i) Breuil, 1912.7. (2) Verneau, 1906. i, pp. 202-207. (3) Op. cit., p. 204. (4) Keith, iQii.i, p. 60. (5) Obermaier, 191 2.1, p. 178. (6) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 174. (7) Op. cit., pp. 165-168. (8) Obermaier, 1912.1, pp. 177, 178. (9) Wiegers, 1913.1. (10) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 266. (11) Geikie, 1914.1, p. 278. (12) Dawkins, 1 880.1, pp. 148, 149. (13) Ewart, 1904.1. (14) Obermaier, 1909.2, p. 145. (15) Sollas, 1913-1, P- 325- (16) Broca, 1868.1. (17) Lartet, 1875.1. (18) \'erneau, 1886.1; 1906.1, pp. 68, 69. _ (19) Obermaier, 191 2.2. (20) Martin, R., 1914-1, PP- i5> 16. (21) Keith, 1911.1, p. 71. (22) Klaatsch, 1909. i. (23) Keith, op. cit., p. 56. (24) Hauser, 1 909.1. (25) Fischer, 1913.1. (26) Schliz, 1912.1, p. 554. (27) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 175. (28) Op. cit., p. 183. (29) Op. cit., pp. 177-180. (30) Schmidt, 191 2.1, p. 266. (31) Breuil, op. cit., p. 178. (32) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 181. (33) Breuil, 191 2.7, p. 169. (34) Breuil, 1912.1, pp. 194-200. (35) Schmidt, 1912.1. (36) Breuil, op. cit. (37) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 142. (38) Breuil, 1912.1, p. 202. (39) Breuil, 1912.6. (40) Hilzheimer, 1913.1, p. 151. (41) Fischer, 1913.1. (42) Makowsky, 1902. i. (43) Schwalbe, 1906. i. (44) Makowsky, op. cit. (45) Obermaier, 191 2.1, pp. 342-355- (46) Martin, R., 1914.1, PP- 15, 16. (47) Schliz, 1912.1. (48) Dechelette, 1908. i, vol. I, p. 28. (49) Keane, 1901.1, p. 147. (50) Keith, 1911.1, p. 30. (51) Op. cit., pp. 28-45. (52) Op. cit., pp. 51-56. (53) Obermaier, 1912.1, p. 93. (54) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 188. (55) Arcelin, 1 869.1. (56) Dechelette, 1908. i, vol. I, pp. 137-141- (57) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 144, Tafel B. CHAPTER V ]MAGD.\LEXIAN TIMES — CLIMATE AND MAMIMALIAN LIFE OF EUROPE — CUST0:MS and life of the CRO-MAGNONS ; THEIR INDUSTRY IN FLINT AND BONE; THEIR DISTRIBUTION — DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR ART, ENGRAVING, PAINTING, SCULPTURE — ART IN THE CAVERNS — CLIM.VX OF THE MAGDALENIAN ART AND INDUSTRY OF ' THE Cr6-:MAGN0NS — APPARENT DECLINE OF THE RACE. The art and industrial epoch of Magdalenian times is by far the best known and most fascinating of the Old Stone Age. This period forms the culmination of Palasohthic civiKzation; it marks the highest development of the Cr6-]\Iagnon race pre- ceding their sudden decline and disappearance as the dominant t}pe of western Europe. The men of this time are commonh' known as the Magdalenians, taking their name from the tx-pe station of La Madeleine, as the Greeks in their highest stage took their name from Athens and were known as the Athenians. We would assign the minimum prehistoric date of 16,000 B. C. for the beginning of the Magdalenian culture, and since we have assigned to the beginning of the Aurignacian culture the date of 25,000 B. C, we should allow 9,000 years for the development of the Aurignacian and Solutrean industries in western Europe. Introduction. Industrial and Artistic Development Well as this culture is known, its origin is obscured b}' the fact that it shows Httle or no connection with the preceding Solutrean industry, which, as we have noted (p. 331), seems like a technical invasion in the history of western Europe and not an inherent part of the main hne of cultural development. Thus BreuiF observes that it appears as if the fundamental elements of the superior Aurignacian culture had contributed by some 351 352 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE unknown route to constitute the kernel of the Magdalenian civiHzation while the Solutrean episode was going on elsewhere. Again, early Magdalenian art bears striking resemblances to the superior Aurignacian art of the Pyrenees, especially the parietal art, as shown by comparing the Aurignacian engravings of Gar- gas with the early Magdalenian of Combarelles. Moreover, the same author observes that, if there is one certain prehistoric fact, it is that the first Magdalenian culture was not evolved from the Solutrean — that these Magdalenians were newcomers in western France, as unskilful in the art of shaping and retouch- ing flints as their predecessors were skilled. Ancient Magda- lenian hearths are found in many localities close to the levels of the upper Solutrean industries with their shouldered spear points {pointes a cran) and highly perfected flint work. Yet the Magdalenians show a radical departure from the Solutrean type of flint working ; both in Dordogne (Laugerie Haute and Laus- sel) and in Charente (Placard) the splinters of flint are massive, heavy, badly selected, often of poor quality, and poorly retouched, sometimes almost in an Eolithic manner ; at the same time, the chance flints, that is, the piercers and graving-tools made from splinters of any accidental shape, are abundant. To these peo- ple flint implements appear to be altogether of secondary im- portance ; although the flints are very numerous, they are not finished with any of the perfection of the Solutrean technique; the laurel-leaf spear head and shouldered dart head have disap- peared entirely, but a great variety of smaller graving and chas- ing forms are employed for fashioning the implements of bone and horn. What a contrast to the beautiful flints so finely re- touched and of such carefully selected materials, found in the very same stations in middle and upper Solutrean layers! Thus Breuil, always predisposed to believe in an invasion of culture rather than in an autochthonous development, favors the theory of eastern origin for the Magdalenian industry, be- cause this is not wanting either in Austria or in Poland ; two sites of ancient Magdalenian industry have been found by Ober- maier in the 'loess' stations of Austria, while in Russian Poland ORIGIN OF THE :MAGDALEXIAN CULTURE 3ofJ the grotto of Maszycka, near Ojcow, exhibits workings in bone resembUng those found at the grotto of Placard, Charente, in the layers directly succeeding the base of the Alagdalenian. The fact that near the Ural Mountains there has also been found a pecuhar Magdalenian culture, the origin of which is not western, inclines us to beheve that the Magdalenian culture extended from the east toward the west, and then, later, toward the Baltic. This theory of the eastern origin of the Magdalenian industry has, however, to face, first, the very strong counter-evidence of Fig. 174. One of the large bison dra\\'ings in the cavern of Xiaux, on the Ariege, showing the supposed spear or arrow heads with shafts on its side. The artist's technique consists of an outline incised with flint followed by a painted outline in black manganese giving high relief. After Cartailhac and Breuil. Greatly reduced. the close affinity between Aurignacian and ]Magdalenian art, which Breuil himself has done the most to demonstrate ; second, the physical, mental, and especially the artistic unity of the Cro- Magnon race in Aurignacian and Magdalenian times. The recent discovery of two Cro-Magnon skeletons together with two carved bone implements of Magdalenian type, at Obercassel, on the Rhine, links the art with this race and with no other, be- cause, as we remarked above, an artistic instinct and ability cannot be passed from one race to another like the technique of a handicraft. Breuil- himself has positively stated that the whole Upper Palaeolithic art development of Europe was the w^ork of one race : if so, this race can be no other than the Cro- Magnon. We must, therefore, revert to the explanation offered in a preceding chapter, that the Solutrean techniciue was an intrusion 354 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE or an invasion either brought in by another race or acquired from the craftsmen of some easterly race, perhaps that of Briinn, Briix, and Pfedmost. Why the art of fashioning these perfect Solutrean spear, dart, and arrow heads was lost is very difficult to explain, because they appear to be the most effective imple- ments of war and of the chase which were ever developed by Palaeo- Uthic workmen. It is possible, al- though not probable, that the bow was in- troduced at this time and that a less perfect flint point, fastened to a shaft Uke an arrow- head and projected with great velocity and ac- curacy, proved to be far more effective than the spear. The bison in the cav^ern of Niaux show several barbed points adhering to the sides, and the symbol of the feche appears on the sides of many of the bison, cattle, and other animals of the chase in Magdalenian drawings. From these drawings and symbols it would appear that barbed weapons of some kind were used in the chase, but no barbed ffints occur at any time in the Palaeolithic, nor has any trace been found of bone barbed arrow-heads or any direct evidence of the existence of the bow. In compensation for the decline of flint is the rapid de\'elop- ment of bone implements, the most distinctive feature of Mag- dalenian industry. In the late Solutrean we have noted the occasional appearance of the bone javelin points {sagaies) with Fig. 175. Decorated sagaies, or javelin points, of bone; pointed at one end and bevelled at the other for the attachment of a shaft. After Breuil. MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 355 their decorative motifs; these become much more frequent in Magdalenian times. They occur in the most ancient Alagda- lenian levels of the grotto of Placard, Charente, which are prior even to the appearance of protot}^es of the harpoon, the evolu- tion of which clearly marks off the early, middle, and late divi- sions of jMagdalenian times. These primitive javelins, decorated Fig. 176. Head of the forest or of the steppe horse engraved on a fragment of bone, from the Grotte du Pape, Brassempouy. After Piette. in a characteristic fashion, are found in Poland, at the grotto of Kesslerloch and other places in Switzerland, at many stations in Dordogne and the region of the Pyrenees in southern France, and in the Cantabrian Mountains of northern Spain. It is only above the levels where early t>pes of these javelin points occur that the rudimentary harpoons of the typical early Magdalenian are found. The discovery of the bone harpoon as a means of catching fish marks an important addition to the food supply, which was apparently followed by a decline in the chase. Later, to the javelin, lance, and harpoon is added the dart- thrower (propulseur), which gradually spreads all over western 356 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Europe, where also the evolution of these bone implements and of the decoration with which they are richly adorned enables the trained archaeologist to establish corresponding subdivisions of Magdalenian time. From the uniform character of Palaeohthic art in its highest forms of engraving, painting, and animal sculpture we may infer the probable unity of the Cro-Magnon race, especiahy throughout western Europe. During Magdalenian times various branches of art reached their highest point and were the culmination of Fig. 177. Polychrome wall-painting of a wolf from the cavern of Font-de-Gaume. After Breuil. a movement begun in the early Aurignacian. The artist, whose hfe brought him into close touch with nature and who evidently followed the movements both of the individual animals and of the herds for hours at a time, has rendered his observations in the most realistic manner. Among the animals represented are the bison, mammoth, wild horse, reindeer, wild cattle, deer, and rhinoceros; less frequent are representations of the ibex, wolf, and wild boar, and there are comparatively few representations of fishes or of any form of plant hfe ; the nobler beasts of prey, such as the hon and the bear, are often represented, but there are no figures of the skulking hyaena, which at that time was a rare if not almost extinct animal. While many figures are of real MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 357 artistic worth and reach a high level, others are more or less crude attempts ; the composition of figures or of groups of animals is rarely undertaken. The artistic sense of these people is also manifest in the deco- ration of their household utensils and weapons of the chase. Here the smaller animals of the chase, the saiga, the ibex, and Fig. 178. Crude sculpture of the ibex, from the Magdalenian deposit at ISIas d'Azil on the right bank of the Arize. After Piette. A Httle less than actual size. the chamois, are executed with a sure hand. Sculpture of animal forms in the large, which begins in Solutrean times, is continued and reaches its highest point in the early Magdalenian. At this period the use of sculpture as a means of decoration arises and extends into the middle and late Magdalenian. These latter divisions are also distinguished by the reappearance of human figurines, nude, like the Aurignacian, and occasionally somewhat more slender. Thus it would appear that the artistic spirit, more or less dormant in Solutrean times, was revived. 358 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE In the variety of industries we find evidences of a race en- dowed with closely observant and creative minds, in which the two chief motives of life seem to have been the chase and the pursuit of art. The Magdalenian flints are fashioned in a some- what different manner from the Solutrean : long, slender flakes or 'blades' with little or no retouch are frequent, and in other implements the work is apparently carried only to a point where the flint will serve its purpose. No attempt is made to attain perfect symmetry. Thus the old technical impulse of the flint industry seems to be far less than that among the makers of the Solutrean flints, while a new technical impulse manifests itself in several branches of art : arms and utensils are carved in ivory, reindeer horn and bone, and sculpture and engraving on bone and ivory are greatly developed. We find that these people are beginning to utilize the walls of dark, mysterious caverns for their drawings and paintings, which show deep appreciation for the perfection of the animal form, depicted by them in most life- like attitudes. We may infer that there was a tribal organization, and it has been suggested that certain unexplained implements of reindeer horn, often beautifully carved and known as 'batons de com- mandement,' were insignia of authority borne by the chieftains. There can be little doubt that such diversities of tempera- ment, of talent, and of predisposition as obtain to-day also pre- vailed then, and that they tended to differentiate society into chieftains, priests, and medicine-men, hunters of large game and fishermen, fashioners of flints and dressers of hides, makers of clothing and footwear, makers of ornaments, engravers, sculptors in wood, bone, ivory, and stone, and artists with color and brush. In their artistic work, at least, these people were animated with a compelling sense of truth, and we cannot deny them a strong appreciation of beauty. It is probable that a sense of wonder in the face of the powers of nature was connected with the development of a re- hgious sentiment. How far their artistic work in the caverns was an expression of such sentiment and how far it was the Pl. VII. Cr6-Magnon man in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne, restored in the act of drawing the outlines of one of the bisons on the wall of the Galerie des Fresqties. Drawn under the direction of the author by Charles R. Knight. MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 359 outcome of a purely artistic impulse are matters for very care- ful study. Undoubtedly the inquisitive sense which led them into the deep and dangerous recesses of the caverns was accom- panied by an increased sense of awe and possibly by a senti- ment which we ma}' regard as more or less religious. We may dwell for a moment on this very interesting problem of the Fig. jg. Decorated batons de commandement carved from reindeer horn with a large perforation opposite the brow tine. After Lartet and Christy. origin of religion during the Old Stone Age, so that the reader may judge for himself in connection with the ensuing accounts of ]\Iagdalenian art. "The rehgious phenomenon," observes James,'' "has shown itself to consist everywhere, and in all its stages, in the conscious- ness which individuals have of an intercourse between them- selves and higher powers with which they feel themselves to be related. This intercourse is reahzed at the time as being both active and mutual. . . . The gods believed in — whether b\' crude savages or by men disciplined intellectually — agree with each other in recognizing personal calls. ... To coerce the spiritual powers, or to square them and get them on our side, was, during enormous tracts of time, the one great object in our dealings with the natural world." 360 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The study of this race, in our opinion, would suggest a still earlier phase in the development of religious thought than that considered by James, namely, a phase in which the wonders of nature in their various manifestations begin to arouse in the primitive mind a desire for an explanation of these phenomena, and in which it is attempted to seek such cause in some vague supernatural power underlying these otherwise unaccountable occurrences, a cause to which the primitive human spirit com- mences to make its appeal. According to certain anthropolo- gists,* this wonder-working force may either be personal, like the gods of Homer, or impersonal, like the Mana of the Mel- anesian, or the Manitou of the North American Indian. It may impress an individual when he is in a proper frame of mind, and through magic or propitiation may be brought into relation with his individual ends. Magic and religion jointly belong to the supernatural as opposed to the every-day world of the savage. We have already seen evidence from the burials that these people apparently believed in the preparation of the bodies of the dead for a future existence. How far these beliefs and the votive sense of propitiation for protection and success in the chase are indicated by the art of the caverns is to be judged in connection with their entire life and productive effort, with their burials associated with offerings of implements and arti- cles of food, and with their art. The Three Climatic Cycles of Magdalenian Times The culture of the Cro-Magnons was doubtless influenced by the changing climatic conditions of Magdalenian times, which were quite varied, so that we may trace three parallel lines of development: that of environment, as indicated b}^ the climate and the forms of animal life, that of industry, and that of art. The entire climatic, life, and industrial cycle of which the * From notes b}' Doctor Robert H. Lowie (Nov. i6, 1914) of the American Museum of Natural History on the opinions of Marett {Anthropology) and of James. MAGDALENIAN CLIMATE 801 Magdalenian marks the conclusion has been presented in Chapter IV (p. 281). After a very long period of cold and somewhat arid chmate following the fourth glaciation, it would appear that west- ern Europe in early Magdalenian times again experienced a stage of increasing cold and moisture accompanied b}- the renewed advance of the glaciers in the Alpine region, in Scandinavia, and in Great Britain. This is known as the BiiJil stage in the Alps, in which the snow-line descended 2,700 feet below its present level and the great glaciers thrust down along the south- erly borders of Lake Lucerne a series of new moraines distinctly overlying those of the fourth glaciation. Another indication of the lowered temperature and increased moisture in the same geographic region is found in the return of the arctic lemmings from the northern tundras; these migrants have left their re- mains in several of the large grottos north of the Alps, espe- cially in Schweizersbild and Kesslerloch, composing what is known as the Upper Rodent Layer, with which are associated the implements and art objects of the early Magdalenian cul- ture stage. We have adopted the minimum estimate of 25,000 years since the fourth glaciation, but Heim^ has estimated that the much more recent prehistoric event of the advance of this minor Buhl glaciation began at least 24,000 years ago, that it extended over a very long period of time, and that the Buhl moraines in Lake Lucerne are at least 16,000 years of age. The three climatic changes of Magdalenian times are there- fore as follows : First, the Biihl Postglacial Stage in the x\lps, which corre- sponds with what Geikie has named the Fifth Glacial Epoch, or Lower Turbarian, in Scotland ; for he believes that a relapse to cold conditions in northern Britain was accompanied by a partial subsidence of the coast lands, that snow-fields again appeared, that considerable glaciers descended the mountain valleys, and even reached the sea. At this time the arctic alpine flora of Scotland also descended to wdthin 150 feet of the sea-level. The result of this renewed or fifth glaciation in 362 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE western Europe was the advent of the great wave of tundra life and the descent to the plains of all the forms of Alpine life. Second, it would appear that in middle Magdalenian times, after the Bilhl advance, there occurred a temporary retreat of the ice-fields, and that during this period the full tide of life from the steppes of western Asia and eastern Europe for the first time ^ POST GLACIAL -^^DAui^:^ i4 -;/■ "Newer Loess" yQ-scHHjjz IF. GLACIAL jr- ^ WORM, WISCONSIN ''^I-AUAl I PH£HISTOmc~ a /KZILIAN-TAFDENOISIf^N 7 MAGDALENIAN 6S0LUTREAN 5AURIGNACIAN 25p00~r£ARS 4 MOUSTERIAN SOpOO YEARS 3ACHEULEAN 75p00 YEARS 2CHELLEAN I OOP 00 YEARS I PRE-CHELLEAN 5\ I asp 00 YEARS isopoo „ 1 UPPER ) PALAEO- LOWER )^PALAEO- LITHIC CRO-MAG/^ON CRIMALDI NEANDERTHAL (KRAPINA) P/LTDOWN Fig. i8o. Correlation of the Postglacial climatic changes with the four stages of Upper Palaeolithic culture: the Aurignacian coincident with the final retreat of the fourth glaciation; the Solutrean coincident with the interval preceding the Biihl advance; the ]Magdalenian coincident with the Buhl and Gschnitz Postglacial advances; and the Azilian coincident with the Daiin or third Postglacial advance. (Compare Fig. 14.) spread over western Europe, including especially such animals as the jerboa and the saiga antelope, the dwarf pika and steppe hamster. Correlation is very hazardous, but this ice retreat may correspond with the Upper Forest ian, or Fifth Interglacial Stage in Scotland, described by Geikie, the stage which he men- tions as marked by the elevation of the Scottish coast with the retreat of the sea beyond the present coast-lines ; geographic changes which were accompanied by the disappearance of per- ennial snow and ice, and the return of more genial conditions. The tundra fauna still prevailed ; such a t>T3ical arctic animal as the musk-ox wandered as far south as Dordogne and the MAGDALENIAN CLI]VL\TE 363 Pyl-enees, and became one of the objects of the chase. During what is known as the middle or 'full Magdalenian ' the tundra, steppe, alpine, forest, and meadow faunae spread over the plains and valleys throughout western Europe. Third, the second Postglacial advance, known as the Gschnilz stage in the Alpine region, appe^-rs to have been contemporane- ous with the closing period of Magdalenian culture. This was the last great effort of the ice-fields to conquer western Europe, and in the .\lpine region the snow-Hne descended i,8oo feet below the present levels ; it marked the closing stage of the long cold climatic period that had favored the presence of the reindeer, the woolly mammoth, and the woolly rhinoceros in western Europe, as well as the close of the ' Reindeer Epoch ' of Lartet. Again, in the north of Britain Geikie observes an Upper Turbarian or Sixth Glacial Epoch, accompanied by a partial subsidence of the Scottish coast, and the return of a cold and wet climate ; there is evidence of the existence of snow glaciers upon the high mountains only. The Gschnilz stage marks the end of glacial conditions in Europe, the retreat of the tundra and steppe faunae, and the predominance of the forest and meadow environment and life. In the .Alps there was, however, still a final effort of the glaciers, known as the Daun stage, which, it is beheved, broadly corresponds with the period of the Azilian-Tardenoisian industry, and a climatic condition in Europe favorable to the spread of the Eurasiatic forest and meadow life. The key to this great prehistoric chronology is found in palaeontology. The arctic tundra rodents especially are the most invaluable timekeepers ; according to Schmidt^ there is no doubt whatever that the Upper Rodent Layer, composed of the animals of the second invasion from the arctic tundras, corresponds, on the one hand, with the beginning of the Mag- dalenian industry and, on the other, with the renewed glacial advance in the x\lpine region, known as the Biihl stage, and prob- ably also with that in the north. The Upper Rodent Layer of Magdalenian times is found in the remarkably complete succes- 364 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE sion of deposits at the stations of Schweizersbild and Kessler- loch, whicli are more recent in time than the 'low terraces' bordering the neighboring River Rhine. The fossil animals prove that after the extreme cold of early Magdalenian times the tundra fauna gradually gave way to a wide-spread steppe fauna. Along the Rhine and the Danube the banded lemmings become less frequent; the jerboas, hamsters, and susUks of the steppes become more abundant. Exactly similar changes are observed in Dordogne. In Longueroche, on the Vezere, there occur for the first time in western Europe great numbers of rabbits {Lepus cuniculus) ; numerous hares {Lepus timidus) are also observed at the t>pe station of La Madeleine, especially in the upper- most and lowermost culture layers. These small rabbits prob- ably came from the Mediterranean region and denote a slight elevation of temperature. But it is only in the very highest Magdalenian layers that the animal Hfe of western Europe begins to approach that of recent times, namely, that of the prehistoric forest and meadow faunae. Mammalian Life of Magdalenian Times ^ Thus it is very important to keep in mind that during Mag- dalenian times there were both cold and moist periods favor- able to tundra life and cold and arid periods favorable to steppe life. In the latter were deposited the sheets of 'upper loess.' The mammahan life of Magdalenian times is of interest not only in connection with the climate and environment of the Cro-Magnon race, but \dth the development of their industry and especially of their art. It is noteworthy that the imposing forms of animal life, the mammoth among the tundra fauna and the bison among the meadow fauna, made a very strong impression and were the favorite subjects of the draftsmen and colorists ; but the eye was also susceptible to the beauty of the reindeer, the stag, and the horse and to the grace of the chamois. The artists and sculptors have preserved the external appearance of more than thirty forms of this wonderful mamma- lian assemblage, which accord exactly with the fossil records pre- MAMMALIAN LIFE 365 served in the fire-hearths of the grottos and shelters, and with the deposits assembled by beasts and birds of jjrey in the unin- habited caverns. No artists have ever had before them at the same time and in the same country such a wonderful panorama of animal hfe as that observed by the Cr6-]Magnons. Their representations in drawing, engraving, painting, and sculpture afford us a view of a great part of the life of the period, including its contingent of Fig. i8i. Reindeer with outlines first engraved and then retraced with heavy lines of black manganese finely finished with a wash of gray tone, from the Galerie dcs Fresqucs at Font-de-Gaume. After Breuil. forms from the tundras, steppes, Alpine summits, and Eurasiatic forests and meadows, and the one surviving member of the Asiatic fauna, the lion. The paintings and drawings of Dordogne chiefly represent the mammoth, reindeer, rhinoceros, bison, horses, wild cattle, red deer, ibex, lion, and bear. The cav'erns of the Pyrenees of southern France present chiefly bison, horses, deer, wild cattle, ibex, and chamois ; the reindeer and mammoth are relatively rare, and in some cases entirely wanting in the parietal art ; this is singular because in the Pyrenees the reindeer constituted the principal food of the authors of the drawings and frescos. In 366 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the caves of the Cantabrian Mountains representations of the reindeer are entirely absent, while the doe and stag of the red deer are frequently pictured ; there are only a few representations of the mammoth and one of the cave-bear. In the drawings of eastern Spain deer and wild cattle are abundantly repre- sented, and there is undoubtedly a rep- resentation of the moose at Alpera. As regards the sources of this great fauna, we have observed that in late Aurignacian and Solutrean times, at Pfedmost, Moravia, and elsewhere, the steppe fauna was not richly represented in wTstern Europe, for it included only the steppe horse and the wild Asiatic ass or kiang; that the contemporary tundra fauna lacked two of the smaller but most characteristic forms, the banded and the Obi lemmings, although all of the large tundra forms were still wide- spread and freely intermingled with the forest and meadow life ; and that prey- ing upon these herbivorous mammals were the survi\dng Asiatic lions and hyaenas. The successive faunal phases of Magdalenian times, beginning with the early cold and moist or tundra period, have been determined with wonderful precision by Schmidt from the animal remains found associated with the lower, middle, and upper Magdalenian cultures in the grotto and cavern deposits of northern Switzerland, of the upper Rhine, and of the upper Danube. This region was lacking in some of the characteristic Favorite Art Subjects Tundra Life. Mammoth. Woolly rhinoceros. Reindeer. ]\Iusk-ox. Steppe Life. Steppe horse. Sa%a antelope. Wild ass, kiang. Asiatic Life. Lion. Desert horse. Alpine Life. Ibex. Chamois. Meadow Life. Bison. Wild cattle. Forest Life. Red deer, stag. Forest horse. Cave-bear. Wolf. Fox. Wild boar. Moose. Fallow deer. Sea Life. Seal. Reptiles, Birds, Fishes (Rarely depicted.) MAMMALIAN IJIE 367 animals seen in Dordogne, yet these invaluable records show that throughout the entire period of Magdalenian times, probably ex- tending over some thousands of years, the forests, meadows, and river borders of western Europe maintained the entire existing, or rather prehistoric, forest and meadow faunae. The royal stag, 182. Modem descendants of the four printipal 1\|jl^ dI the h(ii-,c familN- whii h . roamed over western Europe in Upper Paheolithic times: (.1) the plateau, desert, or Celtic horse, {B) the steppe or Przewalski horse, (C) the forest or Nordic horse, and {D) the kiang or wild ass of the Asiatic steppes. or red deer (Cervus elaphiis), was no longer accompanied by the giant deer (Megaceros), which apparently left this region of Europe in Aurignacian times, but the maral or Persian deer (Cervus maral) occasionally appears ; both the stag and the roe-deer (Capreolus) were especially abundant in southwestern Europe and the Can- tabrian ^Mountains of northern Spain, where the stag became the favorite subject of the Magdalenian artists at the same time that the reindeer was the favorite subject in the region of Dordogne. In the forests were also the brown bear, the lynx, the badger, the marten, and in the streams the beaver; tree squirrels (Sciiints 368 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE vulgaris) appear for the first time ; and in Dordogne rabbits and hares become numerous. Among birds we observe the grouse and the raven. The wild boar {Sus scrofa Jems) was occasion- ally found in the region of the Danube and the Rhine, but abounded in southwestern Europe and the Pyrenees. The two (K Fig. 183. The desert or Celtic horse, with dehcate head, long, slender limbs, and short back, from a painting on the ceiling of Altamira, in northern Spain. The horse is painted in red ochre with black manganese outlines. The eye, ear, mouth, nostrils, and chin are carefully engraved. After Breuil. dominant forms of meadow Hfe surviving from the earliest Pleistocene times, and widely distributed throughout the Mag- dalenian are the bison {B. priscus) and the wild cattle {Bos primigenius) ; of these animals the bison appears to have been the more hardy, and seeking a more northerly range, while the urus was extremely abundant in southwestern France and the Pyrenees. In connection with art, the majestic form of the bison seemed MAMMALIAN LIFE 369 to strike the fancy of the artist more than the less- imposing out- lines of the wild cattle ; there are perhaps fifty drawings of the bison to one of the Bos. Among the forest and meadow life, not recognized in the fossil remains, but clearly distinguished in the work of the artists, are two t)-pes of horses, the forest or Nordic horse, related to the northern or draught horse, and the dimin- utive plateau or desert horse [E. cahallus celticus) related to the Arab. With the forest life should also be numbered the cave bear {Ursus spelceus) of southwestern Europe and the moose ^•', / ^ Fig. 184. Heads of four chamois engraved on a fragment of reindeer horn, from th; grotto of Gourdan, Haute-Garonne. After Piette. {Alces), indicated by the artists of Aurignacian times as present in the Cantabrian Pyrenees. It is the above entire Eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna which survived all the climatic vicissitudes of Pleistocene time, and which alone remained in western Europe to the very close of the Upper Palaeolithic culture, and into the period of the arrival of the Neolithic race. The descent of the European and Asiatic alpine types of mam- mals to the lower hills and valleys is one of the most striking episodes of Magdalenian times. The argali sheep {Ovis arga- loides) of western Asia had already appeared in the upper Danu- bian region during the Aurignacian ; it is replaced in Magda- lenian times by the ibex {Ibex priscus), and by the chamois, which descended along the northern slopes of the Alps and of the Pyrenees, and became numbered among the most highly favored subjects of the Magdalenian artists, especially in the 370 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE mobile art of ivory and bone, and in the decoration of their spear throwers and batons dc commandcment. From the moun- tains also come the pikas or tailless hares {Lagomys pus ill us), the alpine marmot {Arctomys marmotta), the alpine vole {Arvi- cola nivalis), and the alpine ptarmigan {Lagopus alpinus). The Tl^dra Clim.\te of Early Magdalenian Times In the first cold moist period the full wave of arctic tundra life appeared in the whole region between the Alpine and Scan- dinavian glaciers during the renewed descent of the ice-fields ; this was the tundra stage of early Magdalenian times, accom- panying the BiUil advance. At the stations of Thaingen, Schwei- zersbild, Kastlhang, and Niedernau, appears the musk-ox, to- gether with the woolly mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, and the reindeer. The discovery of the grotto of Kastlhang, a reindeer hunting station in the Altmiihltale of Bavaria*^ fills out what has long been a gap in the geographic distribution of the early Magdalenian. The principal objects of the chase here were the reindeer, the wild horse, the arctic hare, and the ptarmi- gan; the royal stag is very rare, and the bison is wanting en- tirely; a strong arctic character is given to the fauna by the presence of the banded lemming, the arctic wolverene, and the arctic fox. From this region the musk-ox migrated far to the southwest, reaching the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. At the same time the arctic grouse, the whisthng swan, and other northern birds entered the region of the Rhine and the Dan- ube. But the surest indicators of a cold tundra climate pre- vaihng during the period of the Bilhl advance are the banded lemming {Myodes torquaius) and the Obi lemming {Myodes oben- sis), which are found in the same deposits with the arctic hare, the reindeer, and the woolly mammoth mixed with the imple- ments of the early Magdalenian industry at the stations of Sirgenstein, Wildscheuer, and Ofnet along the upper and mid- dle Danube. There also appear the ermine and the arctic wol- verene ; in fact, almost all the characteristic forms of tundra the ibe., the chamois the alpine mamUrthe '""ff "'" ""<» M»Sdale„ian limes.- an sho..„ „„e.u,e„,..,,, ,1 si^'SS; tr,lte1.X;,L^t ^^i llg™ ™-' 37-> MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE life except the polar bear, which only enters the northern tun- dras in the summer season. The regions of the northern Alps bordering the great gla- ciers of the Bilhl and Gschnitz advances, were barren stretches of rock, and the valleys and plateaus now free from ice became tundras, where the swamps alternated with patches of polar wil- lows and stunted fir-trees, while other areas were covered with low, scrubby birches, or reindeer moss and Hchens. The return of these hard conditions of hfe undoubtedly exerted a great in- fluence both upon the physical and mental development of the Cro-Magnon race ; it was at the very period when the life con- ditions in western Europe were most severe that the artistic de- velopment of these people began to re\ive. Forced to return to the shelters and grottos, which certainly were less frequented in Solutrean times, there was time for the development of the imagination and for its expression both in the mobile and parietal arts. There was a less vigorous development of the flint indus- try, and apparently a degeneration in physique and stature. In Germany and northern Switzerland, on the headwaters of the Rhine and the Danube, the entrance and departure of the northern waves of life are recorded, especially in the grottos of Sirgenstein, Schussenquelle, Andernach, Schmiechenfels, and Propstfels. It would appear that the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros were not hunted in this region, for their remains are not preserved in any of the grottos or stations mingled with the middle or late jNIagdalenian cultures. On the other hand, we find the steppe horse, the kiang, the stag, and the reindeer very abundant indeed. The bison is absent, and wild cattle are very rare ; so that this region is not typical of the mammalian life of Magdalenian times as found in Dordogne and in the Pyrenees. The migration of the woolly mammoth and woolh' rhinoceros along the Pyrenees and westward into the Cantabrian ]\Ioun- tains, and the crossing of the Pyrenees b}- the reindeer, have already been described. In the mural frescos of Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne, it is noteworthy that the very latest engravings are MAMMALIAN LIFE 373 those of the mammoth supeq:)osed on the fine polychromes which belong to the period of middle Magdalenian art. The Dry Steppe Climate of Middle Magdalenian Times The cold, dry period, when the full tide of steppe life reached western Europe, is of somewhat uncertain date ; it probably began during the stage of the middle Magdalenian industry and continued into the late or high Magdalenian. There was cer- tainly an environment attractive to these peculiar and very highly specialized mammals, which at the present time are neu- tral in color, swift of foot, inured to existence on very sparse vege- tation, and adapted to extremes of heat and cold. Among the smaller steppe forms were the sushk or pouched marmot of the steppes {S pernio philiis rufcscens) and the steppe hamster {Cricetus phcBus), also the Siberian vole {Arvicola gregalis) ; still more characteristic was the great jerboa {Alactaga jaculus), with long, springy hind legs, and the saiga antelope {Ant Hope saiga). With these mammals appeared the steppe grouse {Perdix cinerea), which is found along the Danube in late Magdalenian strata; another bird characteristic of the northern steppes and tundras is the 'woodcock owl' {Brachyotus palustris). Accompanying these mammals was undoubtedly the steppe horse {Equus przewal- ski), now restricted to the desert of Gobi; it is said to occur in the grottos of northern Switzerland. It would appear that the saiga antelope may have reached eastern Europe in late Solutrean times, for its outHne is said to be found in an engra\ing at Solutre. Widely spread over Europe was the giant Elasmothere ; it would seem very unlikely that this animal was present in Magdalenian times, for it certainly would have attracted the attention of the artists. Neither have we any positive artistic records of the wild ass, or kiang, although certain of the drawings in the grottos of Niaux and Marsoulas, of the middle Magdalenian, also of Albarracin, in Spain, may be interpreted as representing this animal. Thus the Asiatic steppe and desert fauna, which in the region of the upper Rhine and Fig. 186. Steppe mammals from the steppes and deserts of x\sia, which invaded western Europe in Upper Paleolithic times; the first arrivals appearing during the cold, dry period of late Acheulean times, becoming more numerous in the dry period of Aurig- nacian and Solutrean times, and completely represented in Magdalenian times. The saiga antelope, the (.4) steppe hamster, the (B) great jerboa, and the kiang, or Asiatic wild ass. are all shown one-twenty-fifth life size. The (A) steppe hamster is also shown one-fifth life size and the (B) great jerboa one-twelfth life size. Drawn by Erwin S. Christman. MAMMALIAN LIFE 375 Danube was restricted to two species of mammals in Aurignacian and Solutrean times, rises to nine or ten species in middle Mag- dalenian times, so that for the first time during the entire 'Rein- deer Epoch' the steppe and tundra faunae are equally balanced. There are also six or seven species of birds from the moors and uplands of central Asia. The bird life depicted in middle Magdalenian art includes the ptarmigan or grouse, the wild swan, geese, and ducks. • The present flora of the subarctic steppes in southeastern Russia and southwestern Siberia includes forests of pine, larch, birch, oak, alder, and willow, extending along the banks of the rivers and streams and inter- spersed with broad, low^, grassy plains. There are many gradations between the low and high steppes ;" the cli- mate in summer is relatively warm, the temperature rising to 70°, while the average temperature in mid-winter hardly exceeds 30° ; in general there is a strong contrast between the summer and winter seasons, the steppe lands in summer are practically rainless, so that the sand and dust rise with ever}' wind. Thus, both in summer and winter sand and dust storms play an important role. The great snow-storms of the subarctic steppes are as destructive as those of the more northerly tundras and often result in great loss of life. Numerous discoveries tend to prove that similar conditions prevailed in western Europe during Mag- dalenian times. Thus at Chateauneuf-sur-Charente, a mingled tundra and steppe fauna is found containing the bones of many young animals which must have perished during a bhzzard. It will be recalled that in this region is the station of Le Placard of late Solutrean and Magdalenian age. Near Wiirzburg, Ba- FiG. 187. Ptarmigan, or grouse, carved in reindeer liorn, from Mas d'Azil. After Piette. The restored portions (head and feet) are indicated by dotted hnes. 376 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE varia, there is a fauna buried in the 'loess' containing twenty species of mammals of the tundras and steppes, together with the bison and the urus.* Perhaps the strongest proof of the extension of cold, dry steppe conditions of climate is the migration of the saiga ante- lope {Saiga tartarica) into the Dordogne region, where it is rep- resented both in carvings and engravings, and into other parts of southwestern France, where its fossil remains have been found in thirteen locaHties in association with a cold steppe fauna. In the same region have been found the remains of the musk-ox (Ovibos), one of the most distinctive members of the arctic fauna. Human Races of Magdalenian Times It appears that the Cro-Magnon race continued to prevail, yet anthropologists have long been divided in opinion as to the racial afhnity of the men found in the Magdalenian industrial stage. The most famous burials are those of Laugerie Basse and Chancelade in Dordogne, each consisting of skeletons of in- ferior stature, not improbably belonging to women. They cer- tainly represent a race somewhat different from the typical Cro-Magnons of Aurignacian times, as found at Cro-Magnon and in Grimaldi. The archaeologist de Mortillet referred both these skeletons to a new race, the race de Laugerie. Schliz, who has most recently re\dewed this subject, has, however, rightly treated all these people as Cro-Magnons of a modified type. The Magdalenian skeleton of Laugerie Basse, found by Mas- senat in 1872, was resting on the back, with the limbs flexed, and with it was a necklace of pierced shells from the Mediter- ranean : the body apparently had been covered with a layer of Magdalenian implements. According to the length of the femur, the individual was 1.65 m., or 5 feet i inch in height; the bones were strong and compact; the skull was well arched, with a straight forehead and a cephahc index of 73.2 per cent. The so-called Chancelade skeleton was found in the shelter of Raymonden in 1888, at a depth of 5 feet, and was also in a HUMAN FOSSILS 377 folded position, resting directly on the rock and covered with several layers of artifacts of the later Magdalenian culture ; the limbs were so tighth' flexed as to prove that the\' had been en- veloped in bandages. This skeleton shows a well-arched skull, a high, wide forehead, and a dolichocephalic head form, but the Hmbs are comparatively small, the height not exceeding Fig. i88. The abrl of Laugerie Basse, Dordogne, a famous Magdalenian station and burial site of the skeleton of Laugerie Basse. This ancient rock shelter, like that of Cro-Magnon and many others, shows at the present day a cluster of peasants' dwell- ings around its base. Photograph by Belves. 1.50 m., or about 4 feet 7 inches; the upper arm and thigh are short, compact, and clumsy, and the femur is crooked with comparatively thick ends ; this skeleton is generally classed with the Cro-iMagnon race, but Klaatsch considers that it may be- long to a distinct type. We cannot disregard, says Breuil,^ the anatomical characters attributed by Testut to the man of Chance- lade and its resemblances to the actual Eskimo t\pe ; this indi- cation is in favor of a new element, arriving perhaps from Asiatic Siberia, but acquiring in western Europe the artistic culture 378 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE realized and conserved in certain districts by the Aurignacian tribes and their derivatives. All of the Aurignacian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian races, however, recall very forcibly the race of Cro-Magnon, which tends to prove that these transformations in culture were not made without a notable element of human continuity. DISCOVERIES OF MAGDALENIAN AGE CHIEFLY ATTRIBUTED TO THE CRO-MAGNON RACE* Date of Locality Nature of Remains Discovery 1S63. Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne, France). Skeletal fragments. Burial. 1864. La Madeleine (Dordogne, France). Skeletal fragments. 1860. Laugerie Basse I (Dordogne. France). Skeletal fragments. 1871. Gourdan (Haute-Garonne, France). Skeletal fragments. 1872. Laugerie Basse II (Dordogne, France). I skeleton. Burial. 1872-1873- Sorde (Duruthy) (Landes, France). I skeleton. Burial. 1874. Freudenthal (near Schaffhausen, Swit- zerland). Fragments of skulls and of pelvis. 1874- Kesslerloch (near Thaingen, Switzer- land). Collar-bone. 1883. Le Placard (Charente, France). 8 skulls, chiefly fragmentary. 1.8S8. Chancelade (Raymonden) (Dordogne, France). 1 skeleton, almost complete. Burial. 1894. Les Hoteaux (Ain, France). I skeleton, almost complete. Burial. 1914. Obercassel (near Bonn, Germany). 2 skeletons, male and female, almost complete. Burial. Early Magda- lenian. Les Eyzies (Dordogne, France). Skeletal fragments. La Moiithe (Dordogne, France). I tooth, I vertebra. Limeuil (Dordogne, France). Skull fragments. Grotte des Hommes (Yonne, France). 3 skulls and other skeletal fragments. Brassempouy (Landes, France). 2 teeth. Grotte des Fees (Gironde, France). Fragments of upper and lower jaw. Lussac (Vienne, France). Fragment of lower jaw. Mas d'Azil (Ariege, France). I skull top. Early Magdalenian. Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrenees, France). Skull fragments. Castillo (Santander, Spain). Skull fragment. Early Magdalenian. GudenushoWe (.\ustria). I infant's tooth. Andernach (north of Koblenz, Ger- 2 child's incisors and 7 rib fragments. many). .\fter Obermaier, 1° R. Martin," and others. Another Magdalenian burial is that at Sorde, Landes, in the grotto of Duruthy ; this skeleton was discovered in 1872, buried at a depth of 7 feet, the body being ornamented with a neck- lace and a girdle of the teeth of the lion and of the bear, pierced and engraved. Seven skulls found in 1883 in the grotto of Placard, Charente, also belong to the Magdalenian. The HUMAN FOSSILS 37!) skeleton discovered in 1894 in the grotto of Les Hoteaux, Ain, was buried at a depth of 6 feet beneath Alagdalenian imple- ments ; the body, resting on the back, was covered with red ochre ; the thigh-bones were inverted, indicating that the limbs had been dismembered before burial — a custom observed among certain savages. These are the best preserved Alagdalenian remains which have been discovered in France up to the present time. The Fig. iSg. Human skull-tops cut into ceremonial or drinking bowls, from the Magdalenian layer of Placard, Charente. After Breuil and Obermaicr. matter of chief significance is the survival of modes of burial characteristic of the Cro-Magnons in Aurignacian times, with the use of color and of ornaments and with the body in some instances folded and bandaged. In the great grotto of Placard, near Rochebertier, Charente, a new feature in the mode of interment has been discovered — the separation of the head from the body.* The previous ceremonial burials, which began certainly among the Neanderthals in Mous- terian times, always show the custom of burying the entire body ; in the Upper Palaeolithic there commences the new custom of imbedding the body in ochre or red coloring matter, and this *Thi3 custom is observed again in Azilian times in the burials at Ofnet on the Danube (see page 475). 380 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE obtains from the Aurignacian burials of Grimaldi to the AziHan burial of Mas d'Azil. The flexing of the limbs is probably also an Upper Palaeolithic custom. It would appear as if the new ceremonial of Placard had been introduced in the earhest Mag- dalenian times, for in the lowest Magdalenian layers four skulls were found closely crowded together, with the top of the cranium turned downward ; of other portions of the skeleton only a humerus and a femur were found. In an upper layer of the same industrial stage a woman's skull and jaw were found, surrounded by snail shells, many of them perforated. Still more singular is the occurrence in Magdalenian strata of this grotto of two sep- arate skull-tops, fashioned by some sharp flint implement into bowls (Fig. 189). Again, at Arcy-sur-Cure three skulls have been discovered placed closely together, and with them a flint knife in a layer superposed upon an Aurignacian industry. The Placard t>pe of burial of the head only is shown again in the Azilian stage at Ofnet, Bavaria. The uncertainty regarding the racial affinity of the men of Magdalenian culture has now been entirely removed by the dis- covery, in February, 191 4, of two skeletons at Obercassel, near Bonn, the first instance of complete human skeletons of Quater- nary age being found in Germany.^'- As reported by Verworn,^^ the skeletons lay little more than a yard apart ; they were cov- ered by great slabs of basalt, and lay in a deposit of loam deeply tinged with red. This red coloring matter, which extended com- pletely over the skeletons and surrounding stones, indicates that it was a ceremonial burial similar to that practised by the Aurignacian Cro-Magnons. Along with the skeletons were found bones of animals and several specimens of finely carved bone, but no flint implements of any kind. The bone implements include a finely polished 'lissoir' of beautiful workmanship, placed beneath the head of one of the skeletons ; the handle is carved into a small head of some animal resembling a marten ; the sides show the notched decoration so typical of the French Magdalenian. The second specimen of carved bone is one of HUMAN FOSSILS 381 the small, flat, narrow horse-heads, engraved on both sides, such as are found at Laugerie Basse and in the Pyrenees. One of the skeletons is of a woman about twenty years of age, and, as is usual in young female skeletons, it exhibits the racial char- acters in a much less marked degree than the male skeleton, which belongs to a man of between forty and fifty years; the cephalic index is 70 per cent ; the supraorbital ridges are well developed, and the orbits are distinctly rectangular; the hmb bones indicate a body about 155 cm., or 5 feet i inch, in height. Fig. 190. The skulls of two skeletons of the Cro-Magnon race, one male (right) the other female (left), recently discovered at Obercassel near Bonn, associated with Magdalenian implements. After Bonnet. In contrast to tMs more refined skull, the extremely broad and low face of the man is entirely disproportionate to the mod- erately broad forehead and well rounded skullcap ; the breadth of the face is 153 mm. and exceeds the greatest width of the skull, which is only 144 mm. This is a markedly disharmonic t^pe, the width of the face being due not only to the broad upper jaw but to the exceptional size and breadth of the cheek-bones. The skull is decidedly dolichocephalic, the cephalic index being 74 per cent ; the brain capacity is about 1,500 c.cm. ; the orbits are rectangular, and above them extends an unbroken supraor- bital ridge, with a slight median frontal eminence ; the nasal opening is relatively small ; the lower jaw has a strongly marked chin ; the crowns of the teeth have been worn down until the 382 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE enamel has almost disappeared. While the muscular attachments indicate great bodily strength, the height does not exceed 5 feet 3 inches. As pronounced Cro-Magnon features, both of the Obercassel skulls show an unusually wide face ; in both the pro- files are straight and the root of the nose depressed, the nose is narrow, and the orbits are rectangular. But, observes Bonnet, the greatest width of these skulls is not found across the parietals, as in the topical Cro-Magnons, but just above the ear region, a much lower position; in this respect the Obercassel skulls re- semble the skull of the Chancelade skeleton. This very important discovery of two undoubted descendants of the Cro-Magnon race associated with bone implements of lower Magdalenian workmanship appears to prove conclusively that the Cro-Magnons were the art-loving race. The Obercassel skeletons confirm the evidence afforded by the burials in France that these people wTre of low stature ; perhaps because of the se\'ere climatic conditions of Magdalenian times they had lost the splendid ph}'sical proportions of the Cro-Magnons living along the Riviera in Aurignacian times. The skull also, while retaining all the pronounced Cr6-j\Iagnon characters, had under- gone a modification in the point of greatest width. In the reduction of the stature of the woman to 5 feet i inch and of the man to 5 feet 3 inches, and in the reduction of the brain capacity to 1,500 c.cm., we may be witnessing the result of exposure to very severe climatic conditions in a race which retained its fine physical and mental characteristics only under the more genial cUmatic conditions of the south. The Four Industrial Phases of Magdalenian Cultltie The industrial development belongs throughout to central and western Europe rather than to the ]Mediterranean. It is remarkable that it does not extend along the African coast, or even into Italy or southern Spain. It has been found to present four great steps or phases as follows : The earliest types ^^ of the incipient IMagdalenian culture, or MAGDALENIAN INDUSTRY 88;5 Proto-]\Iagdalenian, are nowhere better represented than under the great shelter of Placard, in Charente, where the deep succes- sive deposits compel a realization of the long period of time re- quired for the evolution of the Magdalenian with its wonderful artistic culmination. Even prior to an}' discovery of the harpoon or of any example of the art of engraving comparable to the Fig. 191. The great abri, or rock shelter, of La Madeleine, type station of the Magda- lenian industry. Ruins of the abbey beyond. Photograph by Belves. classic series of higher levels we find three levels of incipient ^Magdalenian industry at Placard. Similar local horizons, recog- nizable from the type of their javelin points {sagaics) and from their decorative motifs, are also found at Kesslerloch, Switzer- land, and as far east as Poland. From Dordogne they extend into the Pyrenees and into the Cantabrian Mountains of northern Spain, but not farther south. There is thus a very primitive Magdalenian industry wide-spread over central and western Europe, either autochthonous or influenced from the east, but certainh- not from the Mediterranean. It is only above these 384 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE primitive horizons that layers are discovered with the rudimentary harpoons, and then with the perfected harpoons with single and double rows of barbs. It would appear as if the basins drained b}' the Dordogne and the Garonne were at once the most densely populated and also the centres from which industry, culture, and art spread to the east and to the west. In the heart of the Dordogne region is the great rock shelter of La Madeleine, the type station of Magdalenian culture, and around it are no less than fifteen stations. This station, in which the lowest industrial layer {niveau infericur) is subsequent to the Proto-Magdalenian phase and belongs to the early Magdalen- ian, was extensively excavated by Lartet and Christy ^^ dur- ing the decade following its discovery, in 1865, and more recently by Peyrony and others. The industrial deposit is situated at the base of an overhanging limestone escarpment on the right bank of the Vezere River ; it extends for a distance of 50 feet with an average thickness of 9 feet, the lowest or early Mag- dalenian levels reaching down below the present level of the Vezere. It is a significant fact that the river floods which from time to time occur here also occasionally drove out the flint workers in Magdalenian times. It indicates an unchanged topog- raphy and similar conditions of rainfall. We must picture this cliff fringed with a northern flora, these river banks as the haunt of bison and reindeer, and the site of a long, narrow camp of skin-covered shelters. Among the numerous specimens of typical Magdalenian in- dustry and art which have been found here may be mentioned a geode of quartzite, apparently used to contain water, and stone crucibles, usually of rounded form, adapted to the grinding up of mineral colors for tattooing or artistic purposes ; one of these crucibles, showing traces of color, still remains. The finest among the art objects is the spirited engraving, on a section of ivory tusk, of the woolly mammoth charging ; this is one of the most realistic pieces of Palaeolithic engraving which has ever been found ; there are indications that the artist used this relatively small piece of ivory for the representation of three mammoths; MAGDALENIAN INDISTRY 385 but in the reproduction (Fig. 199) all the lines are eliminated except those belonging to the single charging mammoth ; we observe especiall}' the elevation of the head and the tail, also the remarkably lifelike action of the limbs and body. Very numerous industrial levels are discovered in eight or ten overlying hearths, which are, however, divided into three main levels, as follows : Xhcau super ieur (late Magdalenian culture). Harpoons with a double row of barbs. Indications that the climate was colder and drier, resembling that of the steppes. Bison, horses, and reindeer abundant. Niveau moyen (middle Magdalenian culture). Harpoons with barbs on one side only; also batons de commandement. Indications that the climate was more moist, with frequent inunda- tions from the river. Bison, reindeer, and horses less abundant. Niveau inferieur (early Magdalenian culture). Harpoons wdth a single row of barbs. Indications of animal sculpture. Remains of bison and of reindeer, but those of horses especially nu- In the Early Magdalenian we note the invention of the harpoon ; its first crude form is that of a short, straight point of bone, deeply grooved on one face, the ridges and notches along one edge being the only indications of what later develop into the recurved barbed points of the t}^ical harpoon. As noted above, this invention was destined to exert a very strong influ- ence on the habits of these people. Large fish undoubtedly were very abundant in all the rivers at that time, and this new means of obtaining an abundant food supply probably diverted the Cr6-]\Iagnons in part from the more ardent and dangerous pur- suit of the larger kinds of game. The discovery soon spread, and among a number of localities where prototypes of the harpoon are found may be mentioned Placard, in Charente ; Laugerie Basse, in Dordogne ; Alas d'.\zil, on the Arize ; and Altamira, in northern Spain. In the early Magdalenian also a great va- riety of flint drills or borers are developed in connection with the fashioning of bone, including the 'parrot-beak' t\pe, or 386 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE recurved flint. The microlithic flints, exclusivel}' designed for flne and delicate artistic work, are more abundant than in anv Fig. 192. Industrial and art implements of Magdalenian times, chiefly elongate flakes retouched at one or at both ends for various uses. After de Mortillet. 160. Long, narrow flint blade from the type station of La Madeleine. 161. A similar implement from the grotto of Mursens, Lot. 162. A 'knife' flake from Laugerie Basse, Dordogne. 163. A flint blade, very characteristic of the period, from La Madeleine. 164. A minute flake with cutting border and short, curved point. 165. An elongate flake shaped into a grattoir, or planing tool, at one end, from La Madeleine. 166. An elongate, pointed graving-tool, retouched at the end and at one side. 167. A pointed tool of chalcedony. 168. A minute pointed flake. 169. A 'parrot-beak' graving-tool of flint. 170. A straight flint graver, from Les Eyzies, Dordogne. 171. A similar graver, from Lau- gerie Basse. 172. A similar graver, from La Madeleine. 173. Flint graver with base retouched, from the Gorge d'Enfer. 174. A double-ended implement, burin and grat- toir, from Laugerie Basse. 175. Fhnt burin, or graver, approaching the 'parrot-beak" t^-pe of 169, from Les Eyzies. 176. Double hurin, or graver, of flint, from the Grotte du Chaffaud, Vienne. All figures are one-third actual size. previous stage, and were used to shape and finish the bone im- plements which chiefly distinguish the Magdalenian culture. Other implements which enable us to recognize the early Mag- MAGDALENIAN INDUSTRY 387 dalenian culture layers are javelin points of bone or reindeer- horn with oblique bases, small staves of reindeer-horn or ivor}', oval plates of bone frequently decorated with engraved designs, and slender, finely finished needles. The Middle Magdalenian implements were more widely distributed than the early t^-pes, the most characteristic weapon being the harpoon with a well-defined single row of barbs (Breuil,^^ Schmidt'"). According to Breuil, this single-rowed harpoon is Fig. IQ3. Typical forms of Magdalenian bone harpoons. After Ereuil. (.1) i to 9, single-rowed harpoons, characteristic of the early and middle Magdalenian; i, 4, 8, from Bruniquel; 2, 5, from Laugerie Basse; 6, from Mas d'Azil; 7, from La Mairie; 3 and 9, from Valle and Castillo. About one-quarter actual size. (B) 10 to 15, double- rowed harpoons, characteristic of the late Magdalenian; 10, 12, from Bruniquel; 11, from Massat; 13, from Mouthier; 14, from La Madeleine; 15, from Kesslerloch, Switzerland. About one-third actual size. rare in the lower layers but abundant in the upper layers of middle Magdalenian times ; with it occur examples of the single- rowed harpoon with swallow-tail base. Other implements of this stage are the bone javelin points with cleft base, small bone staves richly decorated, also numerous needles, finer and more slender than those of the early Magdalenian. It is very interesting to note that there are no distinctive inventions in the flint industry, which shows no important advances, although microlithic flints are still more abundant than before. For in- dustrial purposes scrapers continue to be very abundant, as weU as borers for the perforation of bone implements. The 388 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE middle Magdalenian industry is best represented in the deposits of central and southern France, at Raymonden, Bruniquel, Laugerie Basse, Gourdan, Mas d'Azil, and Teyjat. The chief weapon of Late Magdalenian times is the harpoon with the double row of barbs, which is found at all the principal discovery sites extending from stations in southwestern and southern France far to the east. Besides the double-rowed harpoon, the cylindrical chisel of reindeer-horn frequently occurs, often pointed at the end and with a small curve at the side ; this, like other bone implements, was richly decorated with engraving. This late Magdalenian level is distinguished ever>^where by the rich decoration of all the bone implements and weapons, as well as of the 'batons de commandement.' The quantity of bone needles, more numerous in this stage than ever before, attests the greater refinement of finish in the preparation of clothing. This was the culminating point both in Magdalenian indus- try and art, and probably also in the morale and modes of living. Characteristic types of this late Magdalenian culture are found at La Madeleine, Les Eyzies, and Teyjat, and extend into the northern Pyrenees, at Lourdes, Gourdan, and Mas d'Azil. Their easterly geographical distribution wdll be described on a later page. The microHthic flints now reach their culminating point; to the small bladed flakes with blunted backs are added little feather-shaped flint blades, and still others with oblique ends, which begin to suggest the geometric forms of the succeeding Tardenoisian industry. Among the flint borers we notice a prevalent t>'pe with a stout central point, also the so-called ' parrot-beak ' borer ; for the preparation of skins, scrapers are made, as before, of thin flakes, slightly retouched at both ends to give a rounded or rectangular form. Following the late or high Magdalenian stage is a period of decline in industry. In southern France ^^ both fhnt and bone implements show unmistakable indications of the approach either of the succeeding Tardenoisian or Azilian stage. In the Pyrenees both the flints and the great polishers of deer-horn begin to resemble those which occur in the post-Magdalenian levels. MAGDALEXIAX INDUSTRY 389 This industrial stage corresponds broadly with the period of dechne in art, and with the change both in the industrial habits and in the artistic spirit of the Cr6-]Magnons. The divisions of the Magdalenian are, therefore, as follows : 5. Decline of the Magdalenian art and industry. 4. Late INIagdalenian typified at La Madeleine, Dordogne. 3. Middle Magdalenian typified at La Madeleine, Dordogne. 2. Early Magdalenian typified at La Madeleine, Dordogne. I. Proto-Magdalenian typified at Placard, Charente. Flint and Bone Industry Through the four successive stages of development which we have already traced (p. 382) there are perceived certain general tendencies and characteristics which clearly separate the Mag- dalenian from the preceding Solutrean culture. Compared with Solutrean times, when the art of flint work- ing reached its high-water mark, the Magdalenian palaeohths show a marked degeneracy in technique, having neither the sym- metry of form nor the finely chipped surfaces which distinguish the Solutrean types ; indeed, they do not even equal the grooved marginal retouch of the best Aurignacian work. The Magdalenian retouch shows no influence of the Solutrean; it is even more blunt and marginal than the late x'Yurignacian. In compensation for this decadence in the art of retouch, the Cro-Magnons now show extraordinary skill in producing long, narrow, thin flakes of flint, struck off the nucleus with a single blow ; these ' blades, ' which are very numerous, are often not retouched at aU ; occasionally a few hasty touches are used to attain a rounded or obhque end ; in other cases a very limited marginal chipping along the sides or the development of an elongated pedicle (soie) produces very effective implements for graving and sculptural work. For the art of engraving perfect burins, hurin-grattoirs, and burins doubles were rapidly made from these thin flakes ; also burins with oblique terminal edge and with the 'parrot-beak' end. For industrial purposes some of the flints were denticu- lated around the border, doubtless for the preparation of fibres 390 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE and of thin strips of leather for the attachment of clothing to the body and for binding of the flint and bone lance-heads to wooden shafts. Extremely fine pergoirs have been found adapted to perforating the bone needles ; the grattoir, single or double, was also fashioned out of these flakes, and the nu- cleus of the flint was used as a hammer. Hammers of simple rounded stones are also found. But the notable feature of Magdalenian industry is the ex- tensive and unprecedented use of bone, horn, and ivory. From the antlers of the reindeer are early developed the sagaics or Fig. 194. Types of the flint blade with denticulated edge, a characteristic industrial tool of Magdalenian times, from Bruniquel, Les Eyzies, and Laugerie Basse. After Dechelette, by permission of M. A. Picard, Librai- - rie Alphonse Picard et Fils. javelin points of varying size, usually ornamented along the sides and with several forms of attachment to the wooden shaft, either forked, bevelled, or rounded. The ornamentation consists of engraved elongate lines or beaded lines, and of deep grooves perhaps intended for the insertion of poisonous fluids or the out- let of blood. Of all the Magdalenian weapons the most characteristic is the harpoon, the chief fishing implement, which now appears for the first time marked by the invention of the barb or point retro- verted in such a manner as to hold its place in the flesh. The barb does not suddenly appear like an inventive mutation, but it very slowly evolves as its usefulness is demonstrated in prac- tice. The shaft is very rarely perforated at the base for the attachment of a Hne ; it is cylindrical in form, adapted to the MAGDALENIAN INDUSTRY 391 capture of the large fish of the streams. That a barbed weapon was also used in the chase seems to be indicated b}- drawings in the grotto of Niaux and lines engraved on the teeth of the bear, but these drawings indicate the form of an arrow rather than of a harpoon. The length varies from two to fifteen inches. The harpoons may have been projected by means of the so-called propulseiirs or dart-throwers, which resemble implements so /O cm Fig. 195. Bone needles from the grotto of Lacave, Lot. .^fter \'ire. employed b}' the Eskimo and xAustralians of to-day. These dart-throwTrs are often beautifully carved, as in the case o£. one found at Mas d'Azil, ornamented with a fine relief of the ibex. Then there were batons de comniandcment , carved with scenes of the chase and with spirited heads of the horse and "other animals, which quite probably were insignia of ofhce. Reinach has suggested that batons were trophies of the chase, and accord- ing to Schoetensack they may have been used as ornaments to fasten the clothing. The discovery of mural painting and en- graving suggests the possibiHty that these batons were believed to have some magical influence, and were connected with mys- terious rites in the caverns, for a great variety of such ceremonial 392 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE staffs is found among primitive peoples. Geographically, the batons spread from the Pyrenees into Belgium and eastward into Moravia and Russia. Slender bone needles brought to a fine point on stone polish- ers indicate great care in the preparation of clothing. Associated with the borers are many other bone implements : awls, hammers, chisels, stilettos, pins with and without a head, spatulas, and pol- ishers; the latter may have been employed in the preparation of leather. The borers, pins, and polishers appear from the very beginning of the period of sculpture. The name of poniard (poignard) is given to long points of reindeer-horn ; one of these was found at Laugerie Basse. History of Upper Paleolithic Art FoUomng the pioneer studies of Lartet, the history of the art of the Reindeer Period, as manifested in bone, ivory, and the engraved and sculptured horns of the deer, occupied the last thirty-five years of the life of Edouard Piette,^^ a magistrate of Craonne who pursued this delightful subject as an avoca- tion. He was a pioneer in the interpretation of Fart mobilier, the mobile art. It must be remembered that in Piette's time the fourfold divisions of Upper Palaeolithic culture so familiar to us were only partly perceived ; his studies, in fact, related chiefly to the mobile art of Magdalenian times, and he undertook to fol- low its modifications in every successive grotto, beginning with his brochure La Grotte de Gourdan, in 1873, in which he first an- nounced the idea which underlay all his later conclusions, that sculpture preceded line engra\'ing and etching. He divided the art into a series of phases ; that of the red deer {Cervus elaphus) he termed Elaphierme, that of the reindeer Tarandienne, that of the horse Hippiquiennc, and that of the wild cattle Bovidienne. In concluding this early work of 1873, he remarked: "To write the history of Magdalenian art is to give the history of primi- tive art itself." He observed that in sculpturing the horn of the reindeer the artist was obliged to work in the hard exterior bone and to avoid the spongy interior ; this defect in material suggested UPPER PAL.EOLITHIC ART 393 the invention of the bas-rehef. The statuette he regarded as the assemblage of two bas-rehefs, one on either side of the bone. Thus he described the ivory head of the woman of Brassempouy, the only human face of Upper Palaeolithic times which is even fairly well represented ; also the two imperfect feminine torsos in ivory. In 1897, at the age of seventy, Piette undertook his last excavations, and the sum of his labors is preserved for us in the magnificent volume entitled I'Art pendant Vdge du Rennej published in 1907. The pupil and biographer of Piette, I'Abbe Henri Breuil, ob- serves that his scheme of art evolution is exact along its main lines.-" It is true that human sculpture appears for the first time in the lower Aurignacian, that it survives the Solutrean, and even extends into middle Magdalenian times, but this enormous period cannot be placed in one archaeological division as Piette supposed ; in truth, he did not suspect the prolonged gestation of Quaternary art, but contracted into one small division the documents of numerous phases. At the same time, Piette was right in attributing the flower of the art of engraving accom- panied by contours of animal forms in relief to the second and third levels of the Magdalenian industry, but he had no idea that this development had been preceded by a long period in which engraving had been practised in a timid and more or less sporadic manner as a parietal art on the walls of the cav- erns as well as on bone and stone. It is also true that a con- siderable facility in sculpture preceded the art of engraving, but it was arrested in its progress while engraving slowly developed ; in the early choice of subjects the sculptors of middle and late Aurignacian times showed a preference for the human form, while later, in Solutrean and early Magdalenian times, they in- clined principally toward animal figures, so that sculpture was not suddenly eclipsed. The first engravings made with fine points of flint on stone are hardly less ancient than the first sculp- tures, and modestly co-exist beside them up to the moment where engraving, greatly multiplied, largely supplants sculpture. Finally, observes Breuil, it is one of the glories of Edouard Piette 394 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE to ha\-e understood that the painted pebbles of Mas d'Azil rep- resented the last prolongation of the dying Quaternary art. It is fortunate that the mantle of Piette fell upon a man of the artistic genius and appreciation of Breuil, to whom chiefly we owe our clear understanding of the chronological development of Upper Palaeolithic art. In the accompanying table (p. 395) are assembled the results of the observations of Piette, Sautuola, Riviere, Cartailhac, Capitan, Breuil, and many others, largely in the order of sequence determined through the labors of Breuil. Fig. ig(). Geographic distribution of the more important Palceohthic art stations of Dordogne, the Pyrenees, and the Cantabrian Mountains. After Ereuil and Obermaier. We are far from 18S0, observes Cartailhac,-^ when the dis- cover}- b}' Sautuola of the paintings on the roof of the cavern of .\ltamira was met with such scepticism and indifference. Know- ing the artistic instincts of the Upper PalaeoHthic people from their engraving and carving in bone and ivory, we should have been prepared for the discovery of a parietal art. The publica- tion of the engravings in the grotto of La Mouthe by Riviere- in April, 1895, was the first warning of our oversight, and imme- diately Edouard Piette recalled Altamira to the memory of the workers on prehistoric art. The discovery of Sautuola ceased to be isolated. Led by the engravings found in La Mouthe, Sculpture Incised Figures Painted Figures .\ZILIAN VL No animal draw- ings. VI. Conventional Azilian decoration. Flat pebbles (galets) colored in red and black. Mas d'Azil, Mar- soulas, Pindal. Late Magdalenian. .Middle .Magualekian. Early Magdalexl\n". Slender human figurines in ivory and bone. Animal forms in reindeer and stag horn on implements of the chase and ceremonial insignia. Animal sculpture. Bisons of Tucd'Au- doubert; high re- liefs of horses, Cap- Blanc. X. Entirely wanting. IV. Ciraffites feebly traced; fine fines indi- cating hair predominate in the drawings, as at Font-de-Gaume and .Marsoulas. Perfected animal outUnes and de- tails. Fine animal outlines, Grotte de la Mairie, Marsoulas. Perfected engraving on bone and ivory. in. Deeply incised fines followed by fight graffite contour fines. Incised outUnes and hair, e. ?., mammoths of Combarelles. Stri- ated drawings, Castillo, .\ltamira, Pasiega. V. No animal art. Vari- ous schematic and conven- tional figures and signs (bands, branches, lines, punctuated surfaces sug- gesting the Azilian galets). IV. Polychrome animal figures with the contour in black and interior modelfing obtained through a mingfing of yellow, red, and black color. Constant association of raclage and of inci- sions with painting. Mains stylisees. Great, brilliant polychrome frescos of Marsoulas, Font-de-Gaume, Altamira. Animal outfines in black, Niaux. III. Figures of a flat tint and Chinese shading with- out modelling, also dotted animal figures as at Font- de-Gaume, Marsoulas, .Al- tamira, Pasiega. SOLUTREAN. Bone sculpture in highrehef;Isturitz, Pyrenees. Animal sculpture in the round, Pfedmost. Engravings. Late Aurignacian. Early Altugnaciant. Heavy human statuettes (idols) of Mentone, Brassem- pouy, Willendorf, Briinn. Human bas- reliefs of Laussel. Heavy human fig- urines of Sireuil, Pair-non-Pair. Animals in low relief. II. Animal and hu- man figures, at first very deeply incised, then less so; four fimbs generally figured. Designs vigor- ous, somewhat awk- ward, as at La Mouthe, then more characteristic as at CombareUes. I. Figures deeply in- cised, heavy, in abso- lute profile; stiff in form as at Pair-non-Pair, La Greze, La Mouthe, Gar- gas. Bernifal, Hornos de la Pena, Marsoulas, Al- tamira. Archaic animal out- fines of Castillo. II. Filfing in fines at first feeble, then more and more strong, finally associated with contour modelling which ultimately covers the entire silhouette. Incised fines associated with paint- ing as at Combarelles, Font- de-Gaume, La Mouthe, Mar- soulas, .Mtamira. I. Linear tracings in mono- chrome, single black or red fines, indicating only a sil- houette. Two fimbs out of four are ordinarily figured. The most ancient paintings of Castillo, Altamira, Pindal, Font-de-Gaume, Marsoulas, La Mouthe, Combarelles, Bernifal. Statuary and bas- relief. Mobile and parietal art in line. Parietal and mobile art in color. STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF UPPER PALEOLITHIC ART 396 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Daleau discovered the engravings in the grotto of Pair-non-Pair, Gironde. In 1902 there was the double discovery of the en- gravings in the grotto of Combarelles, and of the paintings in the grotto of Font-de-Gaume, communicated by Capitan and Breuil. Discoveries at Marsoulas, Mas d'Azil, La Greze, Bernifal, and Teyjat soon followed.* In 1908 Dechelette hsted eight caverns in Dordogne, six in the Pyrenees, and seven along the Cantabrian Pyrenees of northern Spain, but there are now upward of thirty caverns in which traces of parietal art have been found, and doubtless the number will be greatly enlarged by future exploration, because the entrances of many of the grottos have been closed, and the remote recesses in which drawings are placed, as in the recent discovery of Tuc d'Audoubert, are very difficult to explore. The chief divisions of Upper Palaeolithic art are as follows : 1. Drawing, engra\nng, and etching \\ath line flint points on surfaces of stone, bone, ivory, and the limestone walls of the caverns. 2. Sculpture in low or high relief, chiefly in stone, bone, and clay. 3. Sculpture in the round in stone, ivory, reindeer and stag horn. 4. Painting in line, in monochrome tone, and in polychromes of three or four colors, usually accompanied or preceded by line engraving, with flint points or low contour reliefs. 5. Conventional ornaments drawn from the repetition of animal or plant forms or the repetition of geometric lines. Drawings and Engravings of the Early Magdalenian We have already traced the art of engraving, as it first ap- pears in late Aurignacian times, into the Solutrean ; in the latter it is but feebly represented. Its further development in early Magdalenian times is found in the engravings made with more delicate or more sharply pointed flint implements, capable of drawing an excessively fine line ; these were doubtless the early Magdalenian microliths. The animal outlines, with an indication * The whole history of these successive discoveries, beginning with the finding of an engraved bone, in 1834, in the grotto of Chaffaud, and concluding with the discoveries of Lalanne, and of Begouen, in 191 2, is summarized in the admirable httle handbook by Salomon Reinach.-' This convenient volume also includes outline tracings of the more important drawings and sculptures found in western Europe up to the present time. MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 397 of hair, are frequently sketched with such exceedingly fine lines as to resemble etchings; the figures are often of very small dimensions and marked by much closer attention to details, such as the e}'es, the ears, the hair both of the head and the Fig. 197. Primiti've outline engravings of woolly mammoths of Aurignacian or early IMagdalenian times, from the walls of the cavern of Combarelles. After Breuil. K^ Fig. igS. Engraved outlines and hair underlying the painting of one of the mammoths, from the wall of the Galerie dcs Frcsqiies, Font-de-Gaume. After Breuil. mane, and the hoofs ; the proportions are also much more exact, so that these engravings become very realistic. Breuil ascribes to the early IVIagdalenian the engraved mammoth tracings of Combarelles. Engravings of this period are also found in the grottos of Altamira in Spain, and of Font-de-Gaume in Dor- 398 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE dogne, and to this stage belongs the group of does at Altamira, distinguished by the pecuHar hnes of the hair covering the face. The subjects chosen are chiefly the red deer, reindeer, mammoth, horse, chamois, and bison. The striated drawings of Castillo and Altamira, which partly represent hair and are partly indica- tions of shading, belong to this period. Fig. igg. Charging mammoth engraved on a piece of ivory tusk, from the station of La Madeleine. After E. Lartet. For the sake of showing this figure clearly, other outhnes in this drawing, which were probably designed to indicate a herd of charging mammoths, are omitted or represented by dotted hnes. This classic engraving, de- scribed on pages 384 and 385, is one of the most lifelike Palaeolithic representations known of an animal in action. The engravings in the grotto of La Mouthe were discovered by Riviere, in 1895, and were the means of directing attention afresh to the long-forgotten parietal art found in Altamira by Sautuola in 1880. The drawings at La Mouthe begin about 270 feet from the entrance and may be traced for a distance of 100 feet, scattered in various groups ; they manifestly belong to a very primitive stage, probably early Magdalenian, the point of chief interest being that, while the greater part of the engrav- ings are in simple incised lines, here and there the contour is enforced by a Hne of red or black paint ; this is the beginning of MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 899 a method pursued throughout the Magdalenian parietal art, in which the artist carefully sketches his contours with sharp- pointed flints before he applies any color. This treatment, at first limited to the simple outlines, led to tracing in many of the details with engraved lines, the eyes, the ears, the hair; thus Breuil has shown that in its final development a carefully worked-out engraving under- lies the painting. In the La Mouthe drawings the propor- tions are very bad ; they repre- sent the reindeer, bison, mam- moth, horse, ibex, and urus; spots of red are sometimes splashed on the sides of the animals ; here and there is a bit of superior work, such as the reindeer in motion. The cavern of Combarelles, discovered in 1901, in Dor- dogne, near Les Eyzies, con- tains by far the most remark- able record of early jMagdale- nian art; there are upward of four hundred drawings and en- gravings representing almost every animal of early Magdalenian times, among them the horse, rhinoceros, mammoth, reindeer, bison, stag, ibex, lion, and wolf ; there are also between five and six representations of the men of the time, both masked and unmasked ; the style is more recent than that of the oldest drawings in Font-de-Gaume, but much more ancient than the period of polychrome art.* The gallery is 720 feet long, and barely 6 feet broad; the drawings begin about 350 feet from the entrance, and are scattered at irregular Fig. 200. Engraved outlines believed to represent human grotesques or masked figures found on the cavern walls of Marsoulas, Altamira, and Combarelles. After Obermaier. * Only a few drawings from this cavern have as yet been published, such as the famous mammoth of Combarelles ; the entire work is in the hands of Breuil. 400 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE intervals to the very end. In general the art is very fine and evidently largely the work of one artist ; representations of the woolly rhinoceros and of the mammoth are very true to life; there is a pair of splendid lions, male and female ; the drawings of the horse are abundant, and side by side we have a represen- FiG. 20I. Entrance to the cavern of Combarelles near Les Eyzies, Dordogne, where upward of four hundred wall engravings have been discovered. Photograph by Belves. tation of several types of horses, the pure forest type with the arched forehead, the small, fine-headed Celtic type, and a larger type reminding us of the kiang, or wild ass. Here the greater part of the work is engraving, as contrasted with the painted outlines in the cavern of Niaux and with the etched outlines of the Grotte de la Mairie. Even a large cavern like Combarelles offers comparatively few surfaces favorable to these engraved lines ; but, small or large, such surfaces were eagerly sought, sometimes near the floor, sometimes on the walls, and again on the ceilings; even with INIAGDALENIAX ENGRAVINGS 401 the brilliant light of an acetylene lamp it is now difficult to dis- cover all these outlines, some of which are drawn in the most unlooked-for places. If the extremely fine incisions, such as those representing the hair of the mammoth, are so diffi- cult to detect with a powerful illuminant, one may imagine the task of the Cro-AIagnon artists with their small stone lamps and wick fed by the melting grease. One such lamp has been found in the grotto of La Mouthe, about 50 feet from the entrance ; the workman's pick broke it into four pieces, only three of w^hich were re- covered. The shallow bowl contained some carbonized matter, Fig. 202. Cave-bear engraved in outline, from the cavern of Combarelles. After Breuil. Fig. 203. Stone lamp of Magdalenian age discovered in the grotto of La Mouthe by E. Riviere. It is cut in sandstone and ornamented on the lower surface with the head and horns of the ibex. Such lamps were doubtless used by the artists to light the deep recesses of the caverns. After Riviere, redrawTi by Erwin S. Christman. One- third actual size. (Compare PI. VII.) an analysis of which led Berthelot, the chemist, to conclude that an animal fat was used for lighting purposes. Like most other implements, this lamp is decorated — in this instance b)' an en- 40^2 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE graving of the head and horns of the ibex. Three of these lamps have been found in Charente and Lot, and it is noteworthy that lamps similar to those of the Magdalenian period are used in Dordogne at the present day. Fig. 204. Entrance to the cavern of La Pasiega, not far from Castillo. The seated figure with the staff is M. I'Abbe Henri Breuil, the present leader in the study of Upper Palaeolithic art. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. In the great cavern of Castillo,* at Puente-Viesgo, discovered in 1903 by Alcalde del Rio, which is entered by the majestic grotto already described on p. 162, the animal drawings are mostly of an archaic character, belonging to the very beginnings * The stations of Castillo, of Pasiega, and of Altamira were visited by the writer, under the guidance of Doctor Hugo Obermaier, in August, 1912. MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 403 of early Aurignacian parietal art. The most abundant subjects are horses and deer, which entirely replace the reindeer drawings so abundant in central France, outhnes of the stag and of the doe being very numerous; on the other hand, the bison and the ox are rarely drawn. Belonging to the category of most primi- tive painting are the simple ^ /////// outhnes in black of a horse and of a mammoth, the two limbs of one side being represented as inverted triangles, terminating in a sharp point, like the draw- ings of children. Of more re- cent style are the rather crude polychrome bisons, numerous hands outUned in red, and a vast number of tectiform signs and symbols which represent inferior work of the middle Magdalenian period. On the other side of the same mountain is the grotto of Pasiega, discovered in 191 2 by Doctor Hugo Obermaier. This small grotto, about 500 feet above the river, receives its name as a retreat of the shepherds, opening through which one rapidly descends by means of a tube of Hmestone barely large enough to admit the passage of the body. The interior is very labyrinthine. After passing through the Galerie des Animaux and the Galerie des Inscriptions, one reaches, after a most difficult detour, the terminal chamber, which Obermaier has called the Salle du Trone, the throne- room ; here there is a natural seat of hmestone, with supports at the sides for the arms, and one can still see the discolora- tion of the rock by the soiled hands of the magicians or of the artists. In this salle there are a few drawings and engra\'ings Fig Carefully, engraved half-figure of a bison, from the cavern of Alarsoulas; an example of the engraver's work pre- ceding the application of color. After Breuil. One-eighth actual size. In the floor is a very narrow 404 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE on the walls, and a few pieces of flint have been discovered. In no other cavern, perhaps, is there a greater sense of mystery as to the influence, whether religious, magical, or artistic, which impelled men to seek out and enter these dangerous passages, the slippery rocks illumined at best by a very imperfect light, leading to the deep and dangerous recesses below, where a mis- step would be fatal. The impulse, whatever it may have been, was doubtless very strong, and in this, as in other caverns. Fig. 206. Herd of horses engraved on a small slab of stone, found in the grotto of Chaf- faud, Vienne, France. After Cartailhac. This impressionistic grouping and perspec- tive is very exceptional in Palaeolithic design. About nine-tenths actual size. almost every surface favorably prepared by the processes of nature has received a drawing. No industrial flints have been found at the entrance to this cavern, but some have been traced into the interior. The art is considered partly of late Aurigna- cian, perhaps of Solutrean, and certainly in part of early Mag- dalenian times ; in general it is much more recent than that of Castillo. It consists both of engravings and painted outhnes, with proportions usually excellent and sometimes admirable. The paintings of deer are in }'ellow ochre, of the chamois in red. There are altogether 226 paintings and 36 engravings, in which are represented 50 roe-deer, 51 horses, 47 tectiforms, 16 MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 405 Bos, 15 bison, 12 stags, 9 ibexes, i chamois, and 16 other forms, distributed in all parts of the cave. The outhnes are in solid red color or in stripes of red or black, or there is a series of spots ; the subjects are chiefly the stag, the doe, the wild cattle (which are rather common), the bison (which are less common), the ibex, and the chamois. Among the numerous representations of the horse there are two small engravings of a type with erect mane, both the feet and the hair being indicated with great care, the limbs well designed and of excellent proportions, clearly in early Magdalenian style. Of the utmost interest is the dis- covery here of two horses drawn with rounded forehead and drooping mane, the only instance in which the drooping mane Fig. 207. Impressionistic design of a herd of reindeer engraved on the radius of an eagle nearly eight inches in length, found in the upper Magdalenian layers of the Grotte de la Mairie. After Capitan and Breuil. of the modern type of horse {Equus cahallus) has been observed in the cavern drawings. In the advanced development of middle or high Magdalenian art, parietal engraving with finely pointed flint implements pre- sents a nearer approach to the truth both of proportion and of detail than do the earlier stages. In this stage the engravings seem to consist chiefly of independent animal figures and to furnish a prelude to the application of color. A simple but striking example of approaching perfection of technique is seen in the bison (Fig. 205) engraved in the cavern of Marsoulas, where the profile is outlined and great shaggy masses of hair beneath the neck are admirably indicated. In these drawings the com- plicated details of the feet, with their characteristic tufts of hair, and of the head show far more careful observation. In the 406 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE great series of bison at Font-de-Gaume the entire animal is sketched in with these finely engraved lines, as brought out through the wonderfully close observation and studies of Breuil. This is quite similar to the practice of the modern artist who sketches his figure in crayon or charcoal before apph'ing the color. There are two quite different styles in this engraving, one seen in the deep incised hnes of the reindeer head in the cavern Fig. 208. Reindeer and salmon engraved on an antler, from Lorthet, Hautes-Pyrenees. After Piette. This design is believed to represent a herd of reindeer crossing a stream, one of the very rare PaljeoHthic at- tempts at composition. of Tuc d'Audoubert (Fig. 232), a complete design in itself, an- other seen in the deep incisions in the limestone outlining the horses and the bison as observed in the cavern of Niaux (Fig. 174). Here the engraved line is followed by the apph- cation of a black painted line, the effect being to bring out the body in the surrounding rock so as to give the silhouette a high relief. In the drawings in the large on these curved wall surfaces, only part of which could be seen by the eye at one time, the difficulties of maintaining the proportions were extreme, and one is ever impressed by the boldness and confidence with which the long sweeping strokes of the flint were made, for one rarely if ever sees any evidences of corrected outline. Only a lifelong MAGDALENIAN ENGRAVINGS 407 observer of the fine points which distinguish the different pre- historic breeds of the horse could appreciate the extraordinary skill with which the spirited, aristocratic lines of the Celtic are executed, on the one hand, and, on the other, the plebeian and heavy outlines of the steppe horse. In the best examples of Magdalenian engraving, both parietal and on bone or ivory, one can almost immediately detect the specific type of horse which the artist had before him or in mind, also the season of the year, Fig. 209. Outlines of a lioness and a small group of horses of the Celtic or Arab type, a delicate wall engraving in the Divcrticulc final of the cavern of Font- de-Gaume. After Breuil. as indicated by the representation of a summer or winter coat of hair. The reahsm of most of the parietal art passes into the im- pressionism of the excessively fine engravings on bone or reindeer horn, executed with a few strokes, of a herd of horses or of rein- deer (Fig. 207), or where a herd of deer is seen (Fig. 208) cross- ing a stream full of fishes, as in the well-known engra\dngs on reindeer horn found in the grotto of Lorthet, in the Pyrenees. This is one of the very rare instances in PalaeoHthic art, either engraving or painting, which shows a sense of composition or the treatment of a subject or incident involving more than one figure. Others are the herd of passing reindeer found engraved on a bit of schist in the grotto of Laugerie Basse, the Hon facing a group of horses engraved on a stalagmite at Font-de-Gaume, and the procession of mammoths engraved upon a procession of bison in the same cavern. 408 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Beginnings of Painting The beginnings of painting in Aurignacian times, consisting of simple contours and crude outlines in red or black, with little or no attempt at shading, pass in early Magdalenian time'-^ into a long phase of mono- chromes, either in black or red, in which the tech- nique pursues a number of variations, from simple linear treatment, contin- uous or dotted, to half tints or full tints, grad- ually encroaching on the sides of the body from the linear contour. Of this order are the figures in flat tints and shading, resembling those of the Chinese, without modelling; also the figures entirely covered with dots, such as are seen at Marsoulas, Fig. 2IO. Early painting. A small horse of the Celtic or Arab type, with painted outline and body colored in black, from a wall of the cavern of Castillo, Spain. After Breuil. Fig. 211. Early painting Galloping horse of the Celtic or of the steppe type painted in black and white, from a wall of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume. After Breuil. Font-de-Gaume, and Altamira. The tints, as in the drawing of the galloping steppe horse, pass inward from the black outline MAGDALENIAN PAINTING 409 to enhance the effect of roundness or relief. In the splendid series of paintings in the cavern of Niaux there is Uttle more than the black outline of the body, but the covering of the sides with Hnes, indicating the hair, lends itself to the rounded presentation of form. A somewhat similar effect is sought in the hnes of the woolly rhinoceros painted in red in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, which Breuil attributes to the Aurignacian stage, but which also suggests the early Magdalenian. Fig. Opening (cross) of the cavern of Niaux, in the Pyrenees, near Tarascon. Drawings in V.ajiious Caverns or the E.arly and Middle Magdalene\n The grandest cavern thus far discovered in France is that of Niaux (1906), which from a small opening on the side of a Hme- stone mountain and 300 feet above the River Vic de Sos extends almost horizontally 4,200 feet into the heart of the mountain.-^ Not far from Tarascon on the Ariege it lay near one of the most accessible routes between France and Spain. Passing through the long gallery beyond the borders of the subterranean lake which bars the entrance, at a distance of half a mile we reach a 410 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE great chamber where the overhanging walls of limestone have been finely poUshed by the sands and gravels transported b}' the subglacial streams; on these broad, slightly concave panels of a very light ochre color are drawings of a large number of bison and of horses, as fresh and brilliant as if they were the work of yesterday ; the outlines drawn with black oxide of man- ganese and grease on the smooth stone resemble coarse lithog- raphy. The animals are drawn in splendid, bold contours, with no cross-hatching, but with solid masses of bright color here and there ; the bison, as the most admired animal of the chase, is Fig. 213. Engraved and painted horse, apparently of the Celtic type and with heavy winter coat, from the cavern of Niaux. There is a mark behind the right shoulder which has been interpreted as the sign of an arrow or spear head. After Cartailhac and Breuil. (Compare Fig. 174.) drawn majestically with a superb crest, the muzzle most per- fectly outlined, the horns indicated by single Unes only, the eyes with the defiant expression highly distinctive of the animal when wounded or enraged. Here for the first time are re- vealed the early Magdalenian methods of hunting the bison, for upon their flanks are clearly traced one or more arrow or spear heads with the shafts still attached ; the most positive proof of the use of the arrow is the apparent termination of the wooden shaft in the feathers which are rudely represented in three of the drawings. There are also many silhouettes of horses which strongly resemble the pure Asiatic steppe type now living in the desert of Gobi, the Przewalski horse, with erect mane and with no drooping forelock ; in contrast to the bison, the eyes are rather dull and stupid in expression. There are also drawings THE ART OF THE CAVERNS 411 of other t^-pes of horses, a very tine ibex, .a chamois, a few out- lines of wild cattle, and a very line one of the royal stag ; we find no reindeer or mammoth represented. In some of the narrower passages the rock has been beautifully sculptured by water, and Fig. 214. Professor Emile Carlailhac at, the entrance of the cavern of Le Portal, Ariege. Photograph by H. F. Osborn. the artists have been quick to take advantage of any natural lines to add a bit of color here or there and thus bring out the outline of a bison. Presenting the widest possible contrast to Niaux is the cavern of Le Portel, west of Tarascon, with its contracted entrance and a very rapidly descending passage hardly broad enough to admit the body. This narrow and tortuous cave terminates in an ex- 412 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE tremely small passage, so narrow as barely to admit the athletic and determined artist explorer, the Abbe Breuil, Here, as in Font-de-Gaume and other caverns, is one of the greatest myster- ies of the cave art, namely, that these terminal and dangerous diverticules finals were wrought wdth some of the most careful and artistic designs. Le Portel, like Niaux, reveals a single style, but one altogether different. Very numerous bison are drawn in outHne both in red and black ; the sides of the body are often Fig. Finely engraved outlines of the Celtic horse and of the reindeer, in the Grotte de la Mairie, near Teyjat, Dordogne. After Capitan and Breuil. dotted with red or hatched in close parallel hues. On a long horizontal panel are seen many bison in red, and one observes here a finely drawn pair of bison feet in the best Magdalenian style. The horse as represented here is of a quite different type with thin upper tail and a tail-tuft resembling that of the wild ass, so that one is almost tempted to beheve that the kiang is intended, but the ears are too short ; it has a high rump and a high, splendidly arched neck, like that of the stallion, and the eye is better drawn ; the body is covered with long vertical or oblique lines which might be mistaken for stripes, but this hatching is a matter of technique only. Again, the mane is erect, and there is no forelock ; in fact, none of these Magdalenian artists has rep- resented the horse with the forelock, indicating that this char- THE Airr OF THE CAVERNS 413 acter of the modern horse was unknown in western Europe and probably came in during Neolithic times. Of an entirely different type are the beautifully engraved miniature figures of animals discovered in 1903 in the Grotte de Fig. 216. Reindeer, cave-bear, and two horses of the large-headed forest type with arched forehead, engraved on a panel about twenty inches in length in the Grotte de la Mairie. After Capitan and Breuil. la ]\Iairie.-'^ The outlines, from 18 to 20 inches in length, are sharply engraved on the limestone stalagmites; they are all in the middle ]\Iagdalenian style and include the stag, reindeer, Fig. 217. Wild cattle, bull and cow (Bos primigoiius), engraved in the Grotte dc la Mairie, each figure being about twenty inches in length. After Capitan and Breuil. bison, cave-bear, lion, wild cattle, and two very distinct t\pes of horses: one of these t}pes is large-headed with an arched forehead ; this is probably the forest t\pe and perhaps represents 4U MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the horse most abundant at the Solutre encampment (see p. 288) ; the other horse is small-headed, with a perfectly flat, straight forehead, corresponding with the Arab or Celtic pony type. Drawings and Paintings of the End of the Middle Magdalenian The fourth and final developmental phase of painting flowers out toward the end of middle Magdalenian times in the grand period of polychromes. These are first etched with underlying Fig. 218. Outline of one of the bison in the Gqlcrir dcs Fresqnes at Font- de-Gaume, showing the preliminary etching or engraving preparatory to the polychrome fresco painting. After Breuil. lines engraved with flint, the surface of the limestone having been previously prepared by the thinning or scraping of the borders {raclagc) to heighten the relief of the drawing ; then a very strong contour is laid down in black, and this may be fol- lowed by a further contour line in red (the use of black and red is very ancient) ; an ochreous brown color is mixed in, conform- ing well with what we know to be the tints of the hairy portions of the bison. Thus gradually a complete polychrome fresco art develops. The final stage of this art follows, in which the fiUing out of various tones of color requires the use of black, brown, red, and yellowish shades. The underlying or prehminary engraidng now begins to recede, being retained only for the tracing in of the final details of the hair, the eyes, the horns, and the hoofs. C 3 < "o -2 POLYCHROME PAINTING 415 The early stages of this art are seen in the cavern of Marsoulas, and its height is reached in the mural frescos of Font-de-Gaume and in the ceiling of Altamira, the latter still in a perfect and brilliant state of preservation. To prepare the colors, ochre and oxide of manganese were ground down to a fine powder in stone mortars ; raw pigment 2iq. Entrance on the right to the grotto leading to the great cavern of Font-de- Gaume on the Beune. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. was carried in ornamented cases made from the lower-hmb bones of the reindeer, and such tubes still containing the ochre have been found in the Magdalenian hearths; the mingling of the finely ground powder with the animal oils or fats that were used was probably done on the flat side of the shoulder-blade of the reindeer or on some other palette. The pigment was quite per- manent, and in the darkness of the Altamira grotto it has been so perfectly preserved that the colors are still as brilliant as if they had been applied yesterday. The art of the grotto of Marsoulas, in the Pyrenees, is both 416 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of an earlier and of a later period ; the engraved lines, as of the head and front of a bison, are beautifully done in advanced Magdalenian style, deep incisions representing the larger out- lines and liner incisions representing the hair ; here the outlines are also traced in color, and there are several masks or grotesques of the human face ; these last are treated with a total disregard of the truth which characterizes the animal work. Among the few bison represented here, some are covered with dots or splashes of color, others show the painted outline which begins Rubicon Grande Galen's / des Fresques PLAN Dt LA GROTTE OE FONTDEGAUME re/eve par leD':CAPITAN. Fig. 220. Map of the cavern of Font-de-Gaume. showing the 'Rubicon,' the Grande Galerie des Fresques, in which the chief polychrome paintings are found, and the Diveriicule final. After Capitan. to extend over the surface with gradations of tint, anticipating the color effects attained in the finished paintings of Altamira and of Font-de-Gaume. All the details of the early technique are found here : the artist outlines the form with an engraved line ; he traces in black color the contours of the head and of the body; he begins to apply masses of red over the figure. This beginning of polychrome art at Marsoulas is a step toward coloring the en- tire surface with red ochre and black, as in the finished paintings of a later period. The grand cavern of Font-de-Gaume,-" on the Beune, not far from Les Eyzies, contains the most complete record of Upper Palaeolithic art, especially from the close of Aurignacian to the Fig. 221. Narrow passage in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, known as the 'Rubicon.' On the left wall at this point are two painted bison, and on both walls are marks left by the claws of the cave-bear. After Lassalle. P()LY( HROME PAINTING 419 close of Magdalenian times. There are crude Aurignacian drawings, simple outlines painted in black, outlines supplemented by the indication of hair (examples of the early stages in the de- velopment of polychrome work as well as of the very highest stages), compositions like the lion and the group of horses, and the murals in the Galcric des Frcsqucs, which show a general com- position in the processions of animals, as well as some special compositions such as the reindeer and bison facing each other. The life depicted is largely that of the tundras, mammoths, rhinoceroses, and reindeer, but it also includes the steppe or Celtic type of horse, represented galloping (Fig. 211), and a :Tr riz 1,- \r~ \ Fig. 222. Plan of a portion of the left wall decoration in the Galcric des Frcsqucs at Font-de-Gaume, showing reindeer and the procession of bison. After Breuil. small group of horses of the Arab or Celtic type. Of the meadow fauna the bison is generally represented in preference to the wild ox or urus. Throughout the cavern the favorable surfaces of the walls are crowded with engravings, and in the Galerie des Fresques, beyond the narrow passage known as the 'Rubicon' (Fig. 221), we see altogether the finest examples of Upper Palaeolithic art. On each side of this gallery is a peculiarly advantageous mural surface, broad, relatively smooth, and gently concave (PL VII), probably the best which any cavern afforded, and here we ob- serve great processions of mammals superposed upon each other, like the records of a pahmpsest, as if such a surface was so rare that it was visited again and again. The most imposing series is that of the bison, done in the finest polychrome style, mostly 4^20 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE headed in one direction. The reindeer form another series and in some instances face each other, although mainly arranged in a long procession facing to the left. This superposition of draw- ing upon drawing ends with the latest superposition in finely incised lines of a great procession of mammoths upon that of the polychrome bisons. It is somewhat difficult to reconcile a religious or votive interpretation with the multipHcation of these Fig. 223. Another portion of the left wall decoration of the Galerie des Fresques, show- ing the preliminary engraving (above), and the painting (below) of the great proces- sion of mammoths, superposed upon drawings of the bison, reindeer, and horse. This section is about fourteen feet in length. After Breuil. drawings upon each other. Moreover, it appears to be incon- sistent with the reverent spirit which pervades the work in this and in all other caverns, for what impresses one most is the ab- sence of trivial work or meaningless drawings. It seems as if at every stage in their artistic development these people were intensely serious about their work, each draw- ing being executed with the utmost possible care, according to the degree of artistic development and appreciation. In the great gallery of frescos we find not less than eighty POLYCHROME PAINTIXC; 421 figures, in some cases partly covered by a fine sheen of stalag- mitic limestone ; these include 49 bison, 4 reindeer, 4 horses, and 15 mammoths. The bison polychromes have suffered somewhat in color and are far less brilliant than those at Altamira. In the polychromes the color is applied either in long Hnes of red or black surrounding the contours of the animal or in flat tints placed side by side, or again the two colors are mingled and give Fic. 224. Detail of the engraving of the central group of figures on the left wall decora- tion of the Galerie des Fresques (see Fig. 223), showing the etching of a mammoth superposed upon that of a bison, superposed in turn upon those of a reindeer and of a wild boar. These figures are on different scales, and in the present faded condition of the frescoes are difficult to detect. After Breuil. intermediate tints with striking effect. On one of the finest of these bison is the underlying drawing of a reindeer, a wild boar, and the superposition of an excellent engraving of a mammoth, which is represented on an altogether different scale, so that it falls well within the body Hnes of the bison (Fig. 224). In each of these mammoths the grotesque but truthful contour is pre- served in the drapery of hair which almost completely envelops the Umbs; the emphasizing of the sudden depression of the dorsal line behind the head is everywhere the same and un- doubtedh' conforms very closely to nature. 422 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE After passing the Galerie dcs Fresques we penetrate to the final recess called the Diverticidc final, through excessively nar- FiG. 225. Entrance to the cavern of Altamira, showing the proximity of the roof of the cavern to the present surface of the earth. Photograph by N. C. Nelson. row tubular openings barely admitting the body, and we are again overcome with the mystery as to what impulse carried this art into the dark, deep portions of the caverns. If it were due POLYCHROME PAINTING 423 to a feeling parth' religious which regarded the caverns with special awe, why do we find equally skilful and conscientious work on all the mobile utensils of daily life and of the chase, apart from the caverns ? The superposition of one drawing upon another, w'hich is especially characteristic of this cavern, does not seem to strengthen the religious interj3retation. It would appear that the love of art for art's sake, akin in a very rudimentary form to that which inspired the early Greeks, together wath the fine spaces which these caverns alone afforded for larger representations, may be an alternative explanation. Fig. 226. Plan showing the grouping of bison, horses, red deer, and wild boar, in the polychrome paintings on the ceiling of Altamira. After Breuil. There is no evidence that numbers of people entered these cav- erns. If this had been the case there would be many more ex- amples of inartistic work upon the walls. It is possible that the Cro-Magnon artists constituted a recognized class especially gifted by nature, quite distinct from the magician class or the artisan class. The dark recesses of the caverns opening back of the grottos may have been held in awe as mysterious abodes. In line w4th this theory is the suggestion that the artists may have been invited into the caverns by the priests or medicine- men to decorate the walls with all the animals of the chase. The polychromes of the ceiling of .\ltamira in northern Spain, w^hich rank in the crude art of Palaeolithic times much as the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel does in modern art, are somewhat 424 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE more conventional in technique than those of Font-de-Gaume, but they are manifestly the work of the same school, and prove that the technique of art spread like that of engraving, of sculpture, and of the preparation of flint and bone implements all over southwestern Europe. One could not have more striking proof of the unity of race, of a community of life, and of an inter- ■■■■"^ M ■■^*l^' - .- ■ ^- ■ -sfiBBBW^ W Fig. . The ceiling of Altamira, showing the round projecting bosses of limestone on which the recumbent figures of the bison are painted. After Lassalle. change of ideas among these nomadic people than the close re- semblance which is observed in the art of Altamira, Spain, and that of Font-de-Gaume, 290 miles distant, in Dordogne. Very picturesque is the account of the discovery of this wonderful ceiUng, made not by the Spanish archaeologist Sautuola himself, but by his little daughter, who, while he was searching for flints on the floor of the cavern, was the first to perceive the paintings on the ceiling and to insist upon his raising his lamp aloft. This was in 1879, long before the discovery of parietal art in France. The ceiling is broad and low, within easy reach of the hand, and the oval bosses of limestone (Fig. 227), from POLYCHROME PAINTING 425 4 to 5 feet in length and from 3 to 4 in width, led to the develop- ment here of one of the most striking characteristics of all Pake- olithic art, namely, the artist's adaptation of the subject to his medium and to the character of the surface upon which he was working. It seems to show a high order of creative genius that each of these projecting bosses was chosen for the representation of a bison lying down, with the Hmbs drawn up in different posi- tions beneath the body (Fig. 228) and very carefully designed, Fig. 228. Female bison lying dowTi with the limbs drawn beneath the body, so that only the horns and tail project beyond the convex surface of the limestone boss on the ceiling of .\ltamira. After Breuil. and ^^^th the tail or the horns alone projecting beyond the con- vex surface to the surrounding plane surface. This is the only instance known where the bison are represented as lying down, in most hfeHke attitudes, showing the soles of the hoof, observed with the greatest care and represented by a few strong and sig- nificant Hues. Thus while the .\ltamira coloring inclines to con- ventionaUty, the pose of these animals indicates the greatest freedom of style and mastery of perspective an>^here observed. In this wonderful group there is also a bison bellowing, with his back arched and his limbs drawn under him as if to expel the air. One striking feature in all these paintings is the vivid rep- 426 MEN OP^ THE OLD STONE AGE resentation of the eye, which in every case is given a fierce and defiant character, so distinctive of the bison bull when enraged. We also ol)serve a wild boar in a running attitude and several spirited representations of the horse and of the female deer. The cavern of Altamira, besides this chef-d'oeuvre, contains work of a very advanced character, as indicated in the imposing en- FiG. 229. The royal stag {Cervus elaphiis) engraved on the ceiling of the cavern of Altamira. About twenty-six inches in length. After Breuil. One-eighth actual size. graving of the royal stag (Fig. 229), which is altogether the finest representation of this animal which has thus far been discovered in any cavern. Altamira, like Font-de-Gaume, presents many phases of the development of art in Magdalenian times. There is a Solutrean layer in the foyer of this great cavern, but Breuil is not inclined to attribute any of the art to this period. The first entrance of Altamira by the Cro-Magnon artists is dated by the discovery of engravings on bone of the female red deer, which are identical MAC.DALENIAN SCULPTURE 427 with those on the walls and which belong to very ancient Magda- lenian times, the period at which the caverns of Castillo and La Pasiega were also entered.'-^ Sculpture Animal sculpture in the round, which is indicated by the few statuettes found with the burial at Briinn, Mora\^ia, and by Fig. 230. Statuette of a mammoth in reindeer horn from the Abri de Plantade at Bruni- quel. After Piette. "A statuette presenting the general form of the mammoth with some fantastic features. It formed part of a pendant of which the shank, terminating with a perforation, has been broken. The tusks were laid against this shank and strengthened it. The incisions bordered by notches suggest the nostrils of some im- aginary monster. The trunk seems to grow out of the neck, not the head. The tail having been broken off in Paleolithic times, the owner made a hole in the back and inserted one there. The material was too thin to admit of representing the proper thickness of the animal. It was made to be viewed from the side." the ivory mammoth statuette found at Pfedmost, continued into early Magdalenian times and certainly constitutes one of the most distinctive features of the art of that period, because in the later Magdalenian it took a different trend in the direction of decorative sculpture. Only two fine examples of early Mag- dalenian animal sculpture have been found, but these are of such a remarkable character as to indicate that modeUing in the round was widely pursued at this time. These are the bisons discovered in 191 2 in the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert near Mon- 428 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE tesquieu, in the Pyrenees, and the fine bas-reUefs of horses at the shelter of Cap-Blanc, on the Beune, in Dordogne. In company with Professor Cartailhac the writer had the good fortune to enter the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert a few days after its discovery by the Comte de Begouen and his sons ; it is still in the making, for out from the entrance flows a stream of Fig. 231. Entrance to the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert, near IMontesquieu-Avantes in the Pyrenees. This is one of the rare instances in which the stream that formed the cavern is still flowing from the entrance. Photograph b}' N. C. Nelson. water large enough to float a small boat, by which the first of a series of superbly crystallized galleries is reached. After pass- ing through a labyrinth of passageways and chambers a favorable surface was found where the Begouen party showed us a whole wall covered with low-engraving reliefs, very simply done, fine in execution, with sure and firm outlines of the bison, the favorite subject as in all other caverns ; horses fairly well executed and of the same steppe t\pe as those in the near-by cavern of MAGDALENIAN SCULPTURE 429 Xiaux ; one superbly engraved contour of the reindeer, with its long, curved horns; the head of a stag with its horns still in the velvet ; and a mammoth. All this work is engraved ; there are no drawn outlines, but here and there are splashes of red Fig. 232. Head 1 ii.iUir deeply iinised or engrav^ed in the liniestoni .ern (it iuc d'Auduubert. After Begouen. and black color. Shortly afterward a great discovery was made in this cavern; it is described as follows by the Comte de Be- gouen:* "To-day I am happy to give you excellent news from the cavern Tuc d'Audoubert. As you were the first to visit * Letter of October 23, 1912. 430 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE this cavern, you will also be the first to learn that in an upper gallery, very difficult of access, at the summit of a very narrow ascending passage, and after having been obliged to break a number of stalactites which completely closed the entrance, my son and myself have found two superb statuettes in clay, about 60 cm. in length, absolutely unbroken, and representing bison. M ■1 — .' ^-^-- >^-£=' mm^m^m m , ^0^^ ' ■J n- m 1 i -. ;;:/.,\i'^.i^ i«f A HM|B|BPB|g|Pi[^sw ■ y^ Fig. 25^. Two bison, male and female, modelled in clay, discovered in the cavern of Tuc d'Audoubert. The length of each of these models is about two feet. After Begouen. Cartailhac and Breuil, who have come to see them, were filled with enthusiasm. The ground of these chambers was covered with imprints of the claws of the bear, skeletons of which were buried here and there. The Magdalenians have passed through this ossuary and have drawn out all the canine teeth to make ornaments of them. Their steps left their fine impressions on the humid and soft clay, and we still see the outlines of several bare human feet. They had also lost several flakes of flint and the tooth of an ox pierced at the neck ; we have collected them, MA(il)AT>ENIAN SCULPTURE 431 and it seems as if the}- had only dropped \-esterday ; the Mag- dalenians also left an incomplete model of a bison and some lumps of kneaded clay which still carry the impression of their fingers. We produce the proof that in this period all branches of art were cultivated." This model of the male and female bison in clay has been described by Cartailhac as of perfect workmanship and of ideal art. The procession of six horses cut in limestone under the shel- tering cliff of Cap-Blanc is by far the most imposing work of Fig. 234. One of a series of horses of the high-bred Celtic type, sculptured in high relief on the wall of the cliff shelter known as Cap-Blanc. The actual length of each of these sculptures is about seven feet. After Lalanne and Breuil. ]\Iagdalenian art that has been discovered. The sculptures are in high relief and of large size and are in excellent proportion ; they appear to represent the high-bred type of desert or Celtic horse, related to the Arabian, so far as we can judge from the long, straight face, the slender nose, the small nostrils, and the massive angle of the lower jaw; the ears are rather long and pointed, and the tail is represented as thin- and without hair ; they were found partly buried by layers containing implements of middle Magdalenian industry, and they are therefore assigned to an early ]\Iagdalenian date in which animal sculpture in the round reached its climax. 432 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE From the early to the middle ]Magdalenian period animal sculp- ture in bone, horn, and ivory was followed as decorative art in a bold and highly naturalistic manner. Adaptation of the animal Fig. 235. Head of a horse sculptured on a reindeer antler, from the Magdalenian layer of Mas d'Azil on the right bank of the Arize. After Piette. Actual size. figure to the surface and to the material employed is nowhere shown in a more remarkable way than in the batons, the dart- throwers, and the poniards. Of all the work of the Upper Palaeolithic, these decorative heads and bodies are, perhaps, the Fig. 236. Statuette carved on a fragment of mammoth tusk, representing a horse of Celtic type with mane erect, from the grotto of Les Espelugues, Lourdes. .\fter Piette. About one and one-third actual size. MAGDALENIAN SCULPTURE 433 most highly artistic creations in the modern sense. The famous horse found in the late ]Magdalenian levels of Mas d'Azil (Fig. 235) and the small horses from the grotto of Espelugues, of the middle Magdalenian, are full of movement and Hfe and show such certainty and breadth of treatment that they must be re- garded as the masterpieces of Upper Palaeolithic ghptic art. The ibex carved on the dart-thrower from the grotto of Mas d'Azil (Fig. 178) indicates observation and a striking power of Fig. 237. Head of a woman with head-dress sculptured in ivory, from the Magdalenian levels of Brassempouy. After Piette. One and one-fifth actual size. expression ; while all the details are noted, the treatment is very broad. The continuation of animal sculpture in the round is seen in the well-known horse statuette from the grotto of Lourdes ; the partly decorative striping is a step in the direction of conventional treatment. The sculptured reindeer discovered by Begouen in the grotto of Enlene is treated in a somewhat similar style. Small human figurines again appear in the form of statuettes in bone or ivory, representing the renaissance of the spirit of human sculpture. Some of this work is apparently in search of beauty and with altogether different motives from the repellent feminine statuettes of middle and late Aurignacian times, for 434 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the subjects are slender and the Kmbs are modelled with relative skill. As in the earlier works, there is a partial failure to portray the features, which is in striking contrast to the hfelike treat- ment of animal heads. Very few examples of this work have been found, and most of them have been broken. To this period belong the Venus statuette of Laugerie Basse and the head of a girl carved in ivory found at Brassempouy (Fig. 237) with the features fairly suggested and an elaborate head-dress. Geographic Distribution of the Magdalenian Culture In Magdalenian times the Cro-Magnon race undoubtedly reached its highest development and its widest geographic dis- tribution, but it would be a mistake to infer that the boundaries of the Magdalenian culture also mark the extreme migration points of this nomadic people, because the industries and inven- tions may well have spread far be}'ond the areas actually inhabited by the race itself. Absence of Magdalenian influence around the northerly coasts of the Mediterranean is certainly one of the most surpris- ing facts. Breuil has suggested that Italy remained in an Aurig- nacian stage of development throughout Magdalenian times and indicates that there is much evidence that Magdalenian culture never penetrated into this peninsula, for in Italy the Aurignacian industrial stage is succeeded by traces of the Azilian. This geo- graphic gap, however, may be filled at any time by a fresh dis- covery. In Spain, also, the Magdalenian culture is known only in the Cantabrian Mountains, but never farther south, one of the earliest sites found in this region being the grotto of Pefia la Miel, visited by Lartet in 1865, and one of the most famous the cavern of Altamira, discovered by Sautuola in 1875 ; to the north- east is the station of Banyolas. So far the eastern provinces of Spain have not yielded any implements of engraved or sculptured bone. In contrast to this failure to reach southward, the Magdalenian culture is widely extended through France, Belgium, England, EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 485 Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and as far east as Russia. It would appear either that the men of Magdalenian times wan- dered far and wide or that there was an extensive system of barter, because the discovery of shells brought for personal adornment from the Mediterranean seashores to various Mag- FiG. 238. Geographic distribution of the principal Magdalenian industrial stations in western Europe. dalenian sites in France and in central Europe seems to indicate a wide-spread intercourse among these nomadic hunters and a system of trade reaching from the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic to the valley of the Neckar in Germany and along the Danube in Lower Austria. Another proof of this inter- course is the wide distribution not only of similar forms of im- plements but of very similar decorations ; as an instance, Breuil notes the hkeness of schematic engravings on reindeer horn in 436 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE the two primitive Magdalenian layers of Placard, Charente, to those found in the Polish cavern of Maszycka, near Ojcow, and to others in the corresponding layers of Castillo, near Santander, of Solutre on the Saone, and of various sites in Dordogne. A very distinctive geometric decoration on bone is that of broken zigzag lines with little intercalated transverse lines, which we notice at Altamira, in northern Spain, and which also occurs here and there in Dordogne and in Charente and extends to the grottos of d'Arlay in the Jura. .Another style of ornament, with deep pectinate and punctuate lines, found in the very ancient Mag- dalenian of Placard, also occurs in the most ancient layers of Kesslerloch, Switzerland. Spiral ornaments like those on the bone weapons of Dordogne, of Arudy, and of Lourdes are found at Hornos de la Pefia, in the Cantabrian Mountains. The spread of analogous decoration is still more striking w^hen we find it occurring in the details of sculpture or in a certain t}^e of dart- thrower (propulseur) , which extended from the Pyrenees east- ward to the Lake of Constance. Inventions like that of the harpoon and fashions like those of the decorative motifs were carried from point to point. This influence does not lead to identity. Some of the phases of art and of decoration are confined to certain localities; for example, the engravings of deer on the bone shoulder-blades in the caverns near Santander, Spain, are not duplicated in France ; also there are numerous local styles witnessed in the forms and decorations of the javelin, the lance, and the harpoon ; these vari- ations, however, do not conceal the element of community of culture and of similar fluctuations of industry and art between widely distant stations. Many Magdalenian stations were crowded around the shel- tered cHflfs of Dordogne (Fig. 238). Besides these, we observe the ]VIagdalenian sites of Champs, Ressaulier, and the grotto of Combo-Negro in Correze ; south of Dordogne and Correze are other stations along the Garonne and the Adour. Some of the finest examples of Magdalenian art have come from Bruniquel, on the Aveyron, near the boundary between Tarn-et-Garonne EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 437 and Tarn, where no less than four important sites have been excavated. The culture map of France in Magdalenian times is covered from north to south with these ancient camp sites, either clus- tered along the river borders, where erosion has created shelters, or in the great outcrops of limestone along the northern slopes of Fig. 239. Necklace of marine shells, from the cave of Cro-Magnon, mostly periwinkles, some related to species now living in the North Sea, Purpura, Turitella, and Fusus. After E. Lartet. The Cro-Magnon grotto dwellers used shells belonging to existing species, while in the deposits at La Madeleine and Laugerie Basse fossil shells are found. The use of seashore shells as ornaments in various parts of the interior of Europe indi- cates that they were brought long distances in trade. The remains of such ornaments were found with the skeleton of Aurignacian age from Paviland, Wales. Necklaces were also made of small plates of ivory and the perforated teeth of the cave-bear. One-third actual size. the Pyrenees, where the exposure of the hmestone has led to the formation of grottos and caverns, or on the plateaus where game aboimded or flint could be found for the rapidly declining flint industry. Near the Gulf of Lyons are the stations of Bise, Tournal, Narbonne, and Crouzade ; extending westward toward the headwaters of the Ariege are La Vache, Massat, and the great tunnel station of Mas d'Azil, formed by the River Arize; here the Magdalenian levels discovered by Piette have yielded some 438 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of the most notable Magdalenian works of art, including animal statuettes, bas-reliefs, and engravings with incised contours. Farther west, on the headwaters of the Garonne, is Gourdan, where Piette began his remarkable excavations in 187 1 and dis- covered two of the ancient Magdalenian phases of sculpture ; then comes the more westerly group of Aurensan, Lorthet, and Lourdes, the latter a grotto which has yielded one of the finest examples of the horse sculptured in ivory, and which has since become famous as the site of a miracle and of modern pilgrimage. Between the Garonne and the Bay of Biscay he the stations of Duruthy and the Grotte du Pape of Brassempouy, the latter occupied in Magdalenian times, but best known as a centre of late Aurignacian sculpture of statuettes. To the northeast, in the very heart of the mountainous region of Auvergne, is the station of Neschers, where a flow of lava from Mount Tartaret descended over the slopes of Mont-Dore and covered a Mousterian industrial deposit with its mammoth fauna and then, after a lapse of time, became the site of a Mag- dalenian industrial camp, so that Boule has been able to deter- mine the geologic age of the most recent volcanic eruptions in France, those of the Monts d'Auvergne, as having occurred be- tween the periods of Mousterian and Magdalenian industry. In view of the frequent occurrence of Aurignacian and Solu- trean camps as well as of Neolithic stations in southeastern France, we are surprised at the extreme rarity there of Magda- lenian flint implements. However, Capitan has recognized a Magdalenian station at Solutre, near the headwaters of the Saone, and not far from this site is the station of Goulaine, which has yielded an enormous flint scraper or anvil, the largest Upper Palaeohthic implement ever found ; it is carefully chipped around the entire curved edge and weighs over 4J4 pounds. To the north of the Dordogne is the celebrated grotto of Placard, in Charente, where the dawn of the Magdalenian industry has been discovered, and again directly north of this is the grotto of Chaf- faud, at Sa\'igne, where the first engraved bone of the 'Rein- deer Age' was discovered in 1834 ; not far from this is the shelter 6- 7 S if lu u u • PALEOLITHIC STAT/O.WS O CITIES OF MODERN GERMANY Tig. 240. Geographic distribution of the Magdalenian and other Palaeolithic stations on the upper waters of the Rhine and of the Danube. The chief Magdalenian stations are: Andcrnach, Bockstein, Buchenloch, Ganscrsfelsen, Hohlefels bci Hiitlen, Ilohlefels bei Scliclklingen, Hohlcsicin, Karistein, KastlhdnghohJc, Kesslcrloch, Marlinslwhle, Mun- zingcn, Niedcrnau, Obcrlarg, Ofnd, Propslfcls, Schmicchcnfels, SchusscnqiicUe, Schweizers- bild, Sirgenstcin, Strassberg, Wildhaits, Wildscheucr, and Winterlingcn. After R. R. Schmidt, modified and redrawn. 440 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of Garenne, near St. Marcel (Indre), which has afforded a fine figure of a galloping reindeer. These geographic and artistic records are of intense interest as carrying the Perigord or Dordogne culture northward. Some- what to the east, on the headwaters of the Cure, a tributary of the Yonne, there is an important group including over sixty open shelters formed in the Jurassic hmestone, in which characteristic Magdalenian bone implements have been found. Of these the most famous are the Grotte des Fees, and the Grotte du Tri- lobite, both of which were first entered by the Neanderthals in Mousterian times and wxre again sought by the Cro-Magnons in Magdalenian times. Passing still farther north, the Cro- Magnons visited the borders of the Somme and sought the his- toric flint station of St. Acheul, which had been frequented by races of men for thousands of years previous, back to Pre- Chellean times. To the northeast are the stations of Belgium, chiefly made knowTi through the labors of Dupont, distributed along the val- leys of the Lesse and of the Meuse and yielding characteristic Magdalenian flints as well as a number of engravings on bone. We may be sure that this region was under Cro-Magnon rule and that their control extended over into Britain, where, it will be recalled, a Cro-Magnon skeleton was found at Paviland, in western Wales. Here, again, in Magdalenian times the Cro- Magnon race was probably wide-spread over southern Britain. At Bacon's Hole, near Swansea, Wales, there is a wall decoration consisting of ten red bands, which, according to Breuil and Sollas, may possibly be of Palaeolithic age. More definite is the Magda- lenian industry observed at the Cresswell Crags, in Derbyshire ; while near Torquay, Devonshire, is the famous station of Kent's Hole, discovered in 1824, in which a bone needle has been found and several harpoons with double rows of barbs belonging to the late Magdalenian industry. In Germany, whereas only three Solutrean stations have been discovered,^^ there are no less than fourteen Magdalenian stations to attest the wide spread of that culture. Thus the EXTENT OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 441 favorite grotto of Sirgenstein, near the centre of the Magda- lenian stations on the upper waters of the Danube, although abandoned in Solutrean times, was again entered by man during the early Magdalenian culture stage. Coincident with the return of man to this great grotto was the arrival of the banded lem- ming {My odes torquatiis), the herald of the cold tundra wave of life in the far north. Kt the very same time man with the banded lemming arrived at Schweizersbild, near the Lake of Constance ; ''^ffi.rTf^~i y}iL,jj. Fig. 241. Reindeer engraved around a piece of reindeer antler, from Kesslerloch, Switz- erland. This is a unique instance of the portrayal of landscape in Palaeolithic art. After Heim. Slightly more than three-quarters actual size. at a slightly earher period, with the da^\Tl of Magdalenian cul- ture, man entered the sister station of Kesslerloch, It certainly appears that a cold moist climate accompanying the Biihl ad- vance influenced all the Cro-Magnon peoples of this region just north of the Alpine glaciers and compelled them to seek the grottos and shelters. There are, however, some open stations in this general region, for example, at Schussenried, Wiirttem- berg; the Magdalenian culture layer is not found in a grotto, but lies under a deposit of peat mingled with the remains of the reindeer, horse, brown bear, and wolf. Again, among the best- 442 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE known sites along the middle Rhine is the open-air station of Andernach. Demonstrating the eastward distribution of the art of engraving on ivory and bone is the presence in An- dernach and in the grotto of Wildscheuer, near Steeten, on the Lahn, of engravings of this character. Thus far these are the only German stations in which such engravings have been found. Of especial interest also is the open Magdalenian 'loess' sta- tion of Munzingen, on the upper Rhine, because it proves that the highest layers of the 'upper loess,' corresponding with the dry or steppe period of climate, were contemporaneous with the advanced or late Magdalenian industry, also because this final 'upper loess' stage about corresponds with the period when the last of the arctic tundra mammals began to abandon central Europe. It was at this critical geologic time that the late Mag- dalenian culture began to draw to a close. Kesslerloch, Switzer- land, has yielded a considerable number of engravings on bone, including one of the finest examples of a browsing reindeer (Fig. 241), and Schweizersbild also has yielded a considerable number of rather crude engravings. Frequented in Magdalenian times was that part of the Swabian Jura lying between the headwaters of the Neckar and of the Danube ; along the course of the Danube, from Propstfels, near Beuron, in the southwest, to Ofnet, in the northeast, extend the other stations of Hohlefels bei Hiitten, Schmiechenfels, and Bocksteinhohle. West of the Danube the industry was carried into the present region of Bavaria, as indicated by the recent discovery of Kastl- hang.^° Here, beginning with the early Magdalenian {Gourdanieii infer ieur of the French school) and extending to the middle or high Magdalenian {Gourdanien superieur), we find a complete series of Magdalenian stations; the middle Magdalenian layer is of exactly the same t}pe as that found in the Abri Mege of Dordogne and in the lower levels of the Grotte de la Mairie ; the same culture stage is again observed in southern Germany in the stations of Schussenquelle and of Hohlefels, and it extends EXTENT OF THE MAdDALEXIAX ( II/HRF. 443 eastward into Austria in the station of Gudenushohle as well as into several Moravian stations, for example, that of Kostelik. These facts are of extraordinary interest, for they show that the civilization, such as it was, of the Upper Palaeolithic was \'ery widely extended. T?iis marks an important social charac- teristic, namely, the readiness and willingness to take advantage of every step in human progress, wherever it ma}' have originated. At this point, therefore, it is interesting to compare the Mag- dalenian industry of Germany with that of France.^' Germany shows the same technical and stylistic tendencies and the same evolutionary direction as France. The mammalian life was, of course, the same in both countries, for in each region the giant t}pes of mammals still survived, and the banded lemming of the arctic appears in the sheltered valleys of the Dordogne as well as in Belgium and in Germany. The vicissitudes of climate were undoubtedly the same ; we observe the alternation of cold moist climate in the early Magdalenian along the upper Danube as well as in the early Magdalenian of the type station of La Made- leine, Dordogne. Again, we observe the transition into the dry cold climate in the steppe character of the fauna both along the upper Rhine, at Munzingen, and also beneath the shelter station of La ]\Iadeleine, as recorded by Peyrony. More \dtal still for this community of industrial culture was the community of race, for at Obercassel we find the same Cro- jVIagnon t}-pe as that discovered beneath the sheltering cliffs of Dordogne. It appears probable that the inventions of the cen- tral region of Dordogne travelled eastward when we note the fact that none of the protot^-pes of early forms of the harpoon which were common in southern France occur in an}' of the stations of central Europe, but the single-rowed harjioon is characteristic of the middle ^Magdalenian all over Germany. Other primitive ]\Iagdalenian bone implements, such as the bone spear point with the cleft base, the batons, and the needles, are also of rare occurrence in the German stations. In late Magdalenian times, however, a complete community of culture is established, for the industry of both countries in flint and bone appears to be very 444 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE similar : flint microliths appear in increasing number and variety ; beside the small flint flakes with blunted backs, numerous feather- shaped flakes of Pre-Tardenoisian type are found, as well as the types of graving flints. Some specialties of French Magdalenian culture did not find their way into Germany; for example, the graver of the 'parrot-beak' t>pe has been found in France but has not been traced far eastward. In both countries, however, Fig. 242. Entrance to the grotto of Kesslerloch, near Lake Constance. Photograph by X. C. Nelson. are found upper Magdalenian chisels of reindeer horn and per- fected bone needles, batons, and harpoons with double rows of barbs. On the other hand, works of art and decorative designs in horn and bone are almost entirely wanting in German locali- ties, with the exception of the stations of Andernach and Wild- scheuer previously mentioned. In late Magdalenian times, both in Germany and France, we find the Eurasiatic forest fauna be- coming more abundant. The two famous Swiss stations of Kesslerloch and Schweizers- EXTENT OF THE MACiDALENIAN CULTURE 445 bild, near Lake Constance, appear throughout Magdalcnian times to have been in very close touch with the cultural advances of Dordogne. Kesslerloch''- has yielded 12,000 flints of small dimensions, resembling in their succession those of the type Fig. 243. The famous shelter station of Schweizersbild, under a protecting cliff of limestone, near Lake Constance, Switzerland. On the right stands Dr. Jakob Nuesch, who has devoted three years to the excavation and study of this site. Pho- tograph by N. C. Nelson. station of La Madeleine ; also needles, single and double har- poons, dart-throwers, batons, as well as the fine engravings men- tioned above ; bone sculpture is represented here in the unique head of a musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) , in carvings of the reindeer and of other animals on the batons and weapons of the chase. Kesslerloch lies on the edge of a moderately wide valley, trav- ersed by a brook ; in this sheltered, well-watered, hifly region, the trees flourished and harbored the forest animals, while the gla- ciers, retreating and leaving damp and stony areas, were closely 446 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE followed by the tundra fauna ; the \Yoolly rhinoceros and mam- moth persisted here longer than in other parts of Europe; the horse of Kesslerloch is said to show resemblances to the Przewal- ski horse of the desert of Gobi, in central Asia, and is consequently referred to the steppe t>^e. The development of the flints takes place step by step with that of the sister cavern of Schweizersbild, and in early Magdalenian times these flints are found associated with the arrival of the great migration of the arctic tundra rodents, the banded lemmings {My odes torquatus). A hearth with ashes and coals and many charred bones of old and young mammals, including the woolly rhinoceros, has been found here ; the animal life altogether includes twenty-five species of mammals, among them the woolly mammoth, woolh- rhinoceros, reindeer, and lion. Less than four miles distant from Kesslerloch, in a small valley about two miles north of Schaffhausen, is the other famous Swiss station of Schweizersbild. The Cro-Magnons were at- tracted to this spot by the protecting cliff of isolated limestone rock rising sheer from the meadow-land, at the base of which is a shelter facing southwest, with an entrance of about 30 feet in height, commanding a wide xdew of the distant valley. In the accumulations at the base of this shelter we find a complete prehistory of the human, industrial, faunal, and climatic changes of this region of Switzerland from early Magdalenian into Neo- lithic times. It was not until the true early Alagdalenian, after both the Aurignacian and Solutrean stages had closed, that man first found his way here during the Biihl advance, the period of the deposition of the Upper Rodent Layer with its cold arctic and steppe fauna f^ but from this time the grotto was occupied at intervals until full NeoHthic times. The beginning of these industrial deposits is estimated by Niiesch as having occurred between 24,000 and 29,000 years ago, but we have adopted a somewhat lower and more conservative estimate. In descending order the various layers of this shelter, as studied by Niiesch, are as follows : EXTENT OF THE .MA(;1)AM:MAN CULTURE 447 Section of the Schweizersbild Deposits XcoUtliic 6. Layer of humous earth, between 15 and 19 inches in thickness, con- taining NeoUthic implements. 5. Gray culture layer, about 15 inches in thickness, including many fire- hearths, ornaments of shell, pohshed Neolithic flints, and unglazed pottery. The true forest fauna includes the brown bear, badger, marten, wolf, fox, beaver, hare, squirrel, short-horned wild ox {Bos taunis brachyceros), and reindeer, also the domesticated goat and sheep. Upper PahcoUthic 4. Thin layer of forest-living rodents, principally squirrels. Split bones and worked flints ; no carvings in bone or horn ; industry of late Magdalenian or close of Magdalenian Upper Palaeolithic age ; evidences that climate was changing, steppe conditions passing away, and forests be- coming more dominant ; only a few steppe species ; the forest species in- clude the reindeer, hare, pika, squirrel, ermine, and marten. 3. Yellow culture layer, steppe period, rich in fire-hearths and yielding 14,000 flints of middle [? and late] Magdalenian age; engravings on rein- deer antlers, ornaments of shells and teeth. Mixed fauna with steppe and forest types predominant; of the few tundra' forms, reindeer very abundant and also arctic fox, but banded lemming and other tundra types entirely lacking ; steppe and desert fauna includes the kiang, Persian maral deer, Pallas's cat {Felis manul), steppe horse, and steppe suslik; of alpine type, the ibex; numerous forest species, pine marten, beaver, squirrel, red deer, roe-deer, and wild boar. 2. Arctic tundra rodent layer, 20 inches in thickness ; period of the Biihl Postglacial advance ; the banded lemming (Myodes torquatus) most abundant, mingled with early Magdalenian flint and bone implements ; one fire-hearth ; abundant tundra fauna, including all tundra types except the Obi lemming, and the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) which is found in Kess- lerloch ; indications of a very cold, moist climate ; the banded lemming, arctic fox, arctic hare, reindeer, wolverene, ermine, also such forest forms as the wolf, fox, bear, weasel, and a number of northern birds. I. Gravel bed and old river deposit, recognized by Boule as belonging to the moraines of the fourth glaciation. This wonderful deposit of human artifacts and animal re- mains gives us a complete registration of the changes of climate in this region accompanying the changes of culture and the de- velopment of the Magdalenian race. 448 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Turning our survey to the course of the Danube, we note that several Magdalenian stations extend into the provinces of Lower Austria, chief among them being both the open 'loess' station of Aggsbach, and that of Gobelsburg ; there is also the Hundssteig near Krems, better known as the station of Krems, and the cavern known as the Gudenushohle ; in the latter sta- FiG. 244. The open loess station of Aggsbach, on the Danube, near Krems. After Obermaier. tion the characteristic batons, javelins, and bone needles have been found.* The cavern district of Moravia attracted a relatively large population, and among the numerous stations are the grottos of Kfiz, Zitny, Kostelik, Byciskala, Schoschuwka, Balcarovaskala, Kulna, and Lautsch. Near the Russian border bone imple- ments like those of Gudenushohle on the Danube have been found at the station of Kulna, and the industrial stratification of * J. Bayer'* has lately expressed the opinion that the industry of the open ' loess ' stations of Munzingen, Aggsbach, and Gobelsburg is not really of Magdalenian age, but represents an atypical Aurignacian. DECLINE OF THE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 449 Sipka is very clear. Not far from Cracow, across the Russian border, the caverns in the region of Ojcow were entered by men carrying the Magdalenian culture. Another site in Russia is the grotto of Maszycka, and characteristic Magdalenian harpoons, needles, and batons de commandement with other im- plements have also been found to the eastward, in the neighborhood of Kiev, in the Ukraine. Decline of the Magdalenian Culture The highest point touched by the Cro- Magnon race in the middle or high Magda- lenian appears to correspond broadly with the cold arid period of climate in the interval be- tween the Buhl and Gschnitz advances in the Alpine region, during which the steppe mam- mals spread widely over southwestern Europe, The saiga antelope, for example, a highly characteristic steppe type, is represented in one of the most skilful bone carvings found in the late Magdalenian layers of Mas d'Azil ; also the steppe type of horse is frequently re- presented in the most advanced engravings of late Magdalenian times. How far this cold, relatively dry climate influenced the artistic and creative energy of the Cro-Magnons is largely a matter of conjecture. The entirely independent records of La Madeleine, of Schweizersbild, and of Kesslerloch concur in associating the highest stage of Magda- lenian history of art with the predominance of the steppe fauna and evidences of a cold dry climate. That the mammoth still abounded is seen in the mammoth engravings which are superposed on those of the bison in Font-de-Gaume. The succeeding life period is that of the retreat of the tundra Fig. 245. Front and side views of a saiga antelope carved upon a bone dart-thrower from the Magdale- nian deposits of Mas d'Azil. After Piette. 450 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE and steppe mammals and of the increasing rarity of the reindeer and of the mammoth in southwestern Europe; it corresponds broadly with the returning cold and moist chmate of the second Postglacial advance known in the Alps as the Gschnitz stage. With the spread of the forests and the retreat to the north of the reindeer, the principal source both of the supply of food and clothing and of all the bone implements of industry and of the chase, a new set of life conditions may have gradually become established. If it is true, as most students of geographical con- ditions and of the chmate maintain, that Europe at the same time became more densely forested, the chase may have become more difficult, and the Cro-Magnons may have begun to depend more and more upon the life of the streams and the art of fishing. It is generally agreed that the harpoons were chiefly used for fish- ing and that many of the microhthic flints, which now begin to appear more abundantly, may have been attached to a shaft for the same purpose. We know that similar microliths were used as arrow points in pred}Tiastic Eg}pt. BreuiP^ observes very significant industrial changes in clos- ing Magdalenian times : first, the beginning of small geometric forms of flints suggesting the Tardenoisian t^-pes ; second, the occasional use of stag horn in place of reindeer horn ; tViird, a modification in the form of bone implements toward the pat- terns of Azilian times ; fourth, the rapid decline — one may almost say sudden disappearance — of the artistic spirit. Schematic and conventional designs begin to take the place of the free realistic art of the middle Magdalenian. Thus the decline of the Cro-Magnons as a powerful race may have been due partly to environmental causes and the aban- donment of their vigorous nomadic mode of life, or it may be that they had reached the end of a long cycle of psychic develop- ment, which we have traced from the beginning of Aurignacian times. We know as a parallel that in the history of many ci\i- lized races a period of great artistic and industrial development may be followed by a period of stagnation and decline without any apparent environmental causes. CRO-MAGNON DESCENDANTS 451 Cro-Magnon Descendants in Modern Europe We might attribute this great change, which affected all of western Europe, to the extinction of the Cro-Magnon race were it not for the existing e\ddence that the race survived throughout the AziHan-Tardenoisian or close of the Upper Palaeolithic. On the close of the PalaeoHthic the race broke up throughout western Europe into many colonies, which can perhaps be traced into Neolithic and even into recent times. The anatomical evidence for this survival theory chiefly consists of the highly character- istic form of the head. In Europe a very broad face and a long, narrow cranium is such an infrequent combination that anthropologists maintain that it affords a means of identifying the descendants of the pre- historic Cro-Magnon race wherever they persist to-day. Since Dordogne was the geographic centre of the race in Upper Palae- oUthic times, is it merely a coincidence that Dordogne is still the centre of a similar type ? Ripley^" has given us a valuable resume of our present knowledge of this subject. The most significant trait of the long-headed people of Dordogne is that in many cases the face is almost as broad as in the normal Alpine round-headed type ; in other words, it is strongly disharmonic ; in profile the back part of the head rises and in front view the head is narrowed at the top ; the skull is very low- vaulted ; the brow ridges are prominent ; the nose is well formed ; the cheek- bones are prominent, and the powerful cheek muscles give a peculiarly rugged cast to the countenance. The appearance, however, is not repellent, but more often open and kindly. The men are of medium height, but \'ery susceptible to en\dronment as regards stature ; they are tall in fertile places, and stunted in less prosperous districts. They are not degenerate at all, but keen and alert of mind. The present people of Dordogne agree with but one other t^^De of men kno\\Ti to anthropologists, namely, the ancient Cr6-]Magnon race. The geographical evidence that here in Dordogne we have to do with the survivors of the real Cro-AIagnon race seems to be sustained by a comparison of the 452 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE characteristics of the prehistoric skulls found at Cro-Magnon, Laugerie Basse, and elsewhere in Dordogne, with the heads of the types of to-day. The cranial indices of the prehistoric skulls, varying from 70 per cent to 73 per cent, correspond with indices of the living head of 72 per cent to 75 per cent. None of the people of Dordogne are quite so long-headed as this, the aver- age index of the living head in an extreme district being 76 per cent ; but within the whole population there are much lower indices. The probability of direct descent becomes stronger when we consider the disharmonic low-skulled shape of the Cro-Magnon head and the remarkable elongation of the skull at the back. In the prehistoric Cro-Magnons the brows were strongly devel- oped, the eye orbits low, the chin prominent. The facial type has been characterized by de Quatrefages^'^ as follows: "The eye depressed beneath the orbital vault ; the nose straight rather than arched ; the lips somewhat thick, the jaw and the cheek- bones strongly developed, the complexion very brown, the hair very dark and growing low on the forehead — a whole which, without being attractive, was in no way repulsive." In southern France we observe a continuity not only of the head form but of the prevalence of black hair and eyes. Why should this Cro-Magnon type have survived at this point and have disappeared elsewhere ? In order to consider the particular cause of this persistence of a Palaeolithic race, we must, with Ripley, broaden our horizon, and consider the whole southwest from the Mediterranean to Brittany as a unit. The survival is partly attributed to favorable geographical environment and partly to geological and racial barriers. On the north the intrusion of the Teutonic race was shut off and competition was narrowed down to the Cro-Magnon and Alpine t>pes. If the people of Dordogne are veritable survivors of the Cro- Magnons of the Upper Palaeolithic, they certainly represent the oldest living race in western Europe, and is it not extremely significant that the most primitive language in Europe, that of CRO-MAGNON DESCENDANTS 453 the Basques of the northern Pyrenees, is spoken near by, only 200 miles to the southwest? Is there possibly a connection between the original language of the Cro-Magnons, a race which once crowded the region of the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees, and the existing agglutinative language of the Basques, which is totally different from all the European tongues? This hypothesis, suggested by Ripley,''^ is very well worth considering, for it is not inconceivable that the ancestors of the Basques con- quered the Cro-Magnons and subsequently acquired their lan- guage. The prehistoric Cro-Magnon men would seem, therefore, to have remained in or near their early settlements through all the changes of time and the vicissitudes of history. "It is, per- haps," observes Ripley, "the most striking instance known of a persistency of population unchanged through thousands of years," The geographic extension of this race was once very much wider than it is to-day. The classical skull of Engis, Belgium, belongs to this type. It has been traced from Msace in the east to the Atlantic in the west. Ranke asserts that it is to be found to-day in the hills of Thuringia, and that it was a prevalent t\pe there in the past. Verneau considers that it was the type prevailing among the extinct Guanches of the Canary Islands. Collignon^^ has identified it in northern Africa, and regards the Cro-Magnons as a subvariety of the Mediterranean race, an opinion consistent at least with the archaeological evidence that this race came into Europe with the Aurignacian culture, which was circum-Mediterranean in distribution. Traces of Cro- Magnon head formation are found among the living Berbers. At present, however, this race is believed to survive only in a few isolated localities, namely, in Dordogne, at a small spot in Landes, near the Garonne in southern France, and at Lan- nion in Brittany, where nearly one- third of the population is of the Cro-Magnon t>pe. It is said to survive on the island of Oleron ofif the west coast of France, and there is evidence of similar descent to be found among the people of the islands 454 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE of northern Holland. The people of Trysil, on the Scandina- vian peninsula, are characterized as having disharmonic fea- tures, possibly representing an outcrop of the Cro-Magnon type. Our interest in the fate of the Cro-Magnons is so great that the Guanche theory may also be considered ; it is known to be favored by many anthropologists: von Behr, von Luschan, Mehlis, and especially by Verneau. The Guanches were a race of people who formerly spread all over the Canary Islands and who preserved their primitive characteristics even after their conquest by Spain in the fifteenth century. The differences from the supposed modern Cro-Magnon t\^e may be mentioned first. The skin of the Guanches is described by the poet Viana as Hght-colored, and Verneau considers that the hair was blond or light chestnut and the eyes blue ; the coloring, however, is somewhat conjectural. The features of resemblance to the an- cient Cro-Magnons are numerous. The minimum stature of the men was 5 feet 7 inches, and the maximum 6 feet 7 inches; in one locality the average male stature was over 6 feet. The women were comparatively small. The most striking char- acters of the head were the fine forehead, the extremel}^ long skull, and the pentagonal form of the cranium, when seen from above, caused by the prominence of the parietals — a Cro-Mag- non characteristic. Among the insignia of the chiefs was the arm-bone of an ancestor ; the skull also was carefully preserved. The offensive weapons in warfare consisted of three stones, a club, and several knives of obsidian ; the defensive weapon was a simple lance. The Guanches used wooden swords with great skill. The habitation of all the people was in large, well-shel- tered caverns, which honeycombed the sides of the mountains; all the walls of these caverns were decorated ; the ceihngs were covered with a uniform coat of red ochre, while the walls were decorated with various geometric designs in red, black, gray, and white. HoUowed-out stones served as lamps. We may conclude with Verneau that there is evidence, although not of a very convincing kind, that the Guanches were related to the CRO-MACiXOX DKSC END ANTS 455 Cro-Magnons.''" His obserxations on these supposed Cro-Mag- nons of the Canar}' Islands are cited in the Appendix, Note Y. We regret that Verneau in his memoir'^ does not present his more recent views in regard to the prehistoric distribution of this great race. (l) Brcuil, 1Q12.7, p. 203. (2) op. Cit. , p. 205. (3) James, 1902. 1. u) Hcim, 1894.1, p. 184. (5) Schmidt, 1012.1, p. 262 (6) Fraunholz, iqii.i (7) Geikie, IQ14.1, pp. 25, : 26. (8) Boule, 1 899. 1. (9) Breuil, 1912.7. PF 1. 203- 205. (lO) Obermaier, 1Q12. I, pp. 341. 342. (ii) Martin , R., 1914- I, pp. 15, 16. (12) Verworn, 1914.1. (13) op. cit. , p. 646. (14) Breuil 1912.7, p. 201. (15) Lartet, 1875. 1. (16) Breuil, 1912.7. P- 213. (17) Schmidt, 1Q12.1, p. 136 (18) Breui!, op. cit.. pp. 216, 217. {19) Breuil, 1909. ^ (20) Op. cit. , p. 410. (21) Cartailhac. iqo6. I, pp. 227, 228. (22) Riviere , 1897. i; : 1897.2 (23) Reinach, 1913.1. (24) Breuil, 1912.1, p. 202. (25) Cartailhac, 1 908.1. (26) Capitan, 1908. i, pp. 501-514. (27) Ibid., 1910.1, pp. 59-132. (28) Breuil, 1912.1, pp. 196, 197. (29) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 116. (30) Fraunholz, 191 i.i. (31) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 154. (32) Dechelette, 1908. i, vol. I, 191-194- (33) Nehring, 1880.1: 1 896.1. (34) Bayer, 1912.1, pp. 13-21. (35) Breuil, 1912.7, pp. 212, 216. (36) Ripley, 1899-1, PP- 30, 165, i 174-179, 211, 406. (37) Op. cit., p. 176. (38) Op. cit., p. 181. (39) Collignon, 1890. i. (40) Verneau, 1891.1. (41) Ibid., 1906. 1. pp. CHAPTER VI CLOSE OF THE OLD STONE AGE — IN\'ASION OF NEW IL\CES — HISTORY OF THE MAS D'.\ZIL, OF FERE-EN-TARDENOIS — FOREST ENVIRONMENT AND LIFE — ORIGIN OF THE .\ZILIAN-TARDENOI- SIAN CULTURE — CHARACTERS AND CUST0:MS OF THE NEW IL\CES — TRANSITION TO THE NEOLITHIC AND RELATIONS OF THE OLD AND NEW RACES — APPARENT CHIEF LINES OF HUAIAN DESCENT AND OF HUMAN MIGRATION INTO WESTERN EUROPE. We have now reached the ver}- close of the Old Stone Age, a period which is beheved to extend between 10,000 and 7,000 years before the present era. The entrance to the final cultures of the Upper PalaeoHthic, known as the Azilian-Tardenoisian, marks a transition even more abrupt than that witnessed in any preceding stage. It is not a development; it is a revolution. The artistic spirit entirely disappears ; there is no trace of animal engraving or sculpture ; painting is found only on flattened pebbles or in schematic or geometric designs on wall surfaces. Of bone implements only harpoons and pohshers remain, and even these are of inferior workmanship and without any trace of art. The flint industry continues the degeneration begun in the Magdalenian and exhibits a new life and impulse only in the fashioning of the extremely small or microlithic tools and weapons known as 'Tardenoisian.' Both bone and flint weapons of the chase disappear, yet the stag is hunted and its horns are used in the manufacture of harpoons. This is the 'Age of the Stag,' the final stage of the 'Cave Period' in western Europe, and is subsequent to the 'Age of the Reindeer' in the south. It would appear as if the very same regions formerly occu- pied by the great hunting Cro-Magnon race from Aurignacian to Magdalenian times were now inhabited by a race or races largely employed in fishing. The country is thickly forested. 456 INVASION OF NEW RACES 457 The climate is still cold and extremely moist, and human hfe everywhere is in the grottos or entrances to the caverns. Invasion of Four New Races in Closing Upper Paleolithic Times How far this revolution is due to the decline of the Cro- Magnon race and how far to the invasion of one or more new races is very difficult to determine in the absence of the anatom- ical evidence derived from skeletal remains. Two new races had certainly found their way along the Danube as shown in the burials of Ofnet, in eastern Bavaria ; one is extremely broad- headed and perhaps of central Asiatic origin, while the other is extremely long-headed and perhaps of southerly or Mediter- ranean origin. It is possible that these two races correspond respectively with the easterly and southerly industrial influences which are observed in the AziHan-Tardenoisian stage. The former is the first brachycephalic race to enter western Europe, for it will be recalled that all the previous races, the Cro-Magnons, the Briinns, and the Neanderthals, are dolichocephalic. The long-headed race found at Ofnet is very clearly distinguished from the disharmonic long-headed Cro-Magnon race by the nar- rowness of the face ; in other words, it is an harmonic type of head and face, which may have been Mediterranean in origin, like the so-called 'Mediterranean race' of Sergi. This fresh invasion of western Europe by two races arriving by one or more of the great migration routes from the vast Eurasiatic mainland to the east, races with a relatively high brain development, is certainly one of the most surprising features of the close of the Palaeolithic Period, for we have long been accus- tomed to think that these fresh easterly and southerly invasions began only in Neolithic times. As the Upper Palaeohthic draws to an end, there is, according to Breuil, still another industrial influence making itself felt: it comes from the northeast along the shores of the Baltic. Putting together all the fragmentary evidence which we possess, we may regard western Europe at the close of the Old 458 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Stone Age as peopled by four and possibly by five distinct races, as follows : 5. Arriving late in Palaeolithic times, a race along the shores of the Baltic, known only by its Maglemose industry; possibly a Teutonic race. 4. A south Mediterranean race, known only by its Tardenoisian in- dustry, migrating along the northern shores of Africa and spreading over Spain; with a conventional and schematic art; probably an advance wave of the true 'Mediterranean' race of Sergi; possibly identical with race 3 below. (The same as Race 4, p. 278.) 3. A long-headed race found at Of net, in eastern Bavaria; possibly a branch of the true 'Mediterranean' race 4 above, but not related to the Briinn. (Possibly the same as Race 4.) 2. The newly arriving Furfooz-Grenelle race, broad-headed; known along the Danube at Ofnet, in eastern Bavaria, and northward in Belgium; possibly a branch of the 'Alpine' race. (The same as Race 5, p. 278.) I. The surviving Cro-Magnons, in a stage of industrial decUne, pur- suing the Azilian industry, probably inhabiting France and northern Spain. The broad-headed Ofnet race mentioned above is apparently the same as the Furfooz-Grenelle race, and may also correspond with the existing Alpine-Celtic race of western Europe. The long-headed race of Ofnet may correspond with the existing 'Mediterranean' race of Sergi. The presence of the Cro-Magnon race in western Europe during Azilian-Tardenoisian times is not sustained, so far as we know, by any anatomical evidence, but is suggested by the mode of burial of two skeletons found by Piette in the Azilian deposits of the station of Mas d'Azil. This burial, like that of Ofnet, is typical of Upper Palaeohthic and not of Neohthic times. These skeletons lay in the 'Azilian' layer (VI) described below. As the smaller bones were missing, Piette concluded that the re- mains had been for some time exposed to the weather before burial, and that the larger bones had been scraped and cleaned with flint knives, and then colored red with oxide of iron before interment. According to other authorities, the traces of scrap- ing and cleaning are doubtful; there can be no question, how- ever, that the separation of the bones of the skeleton and the use of coloring matter constitute strong evidence that this Azilian burial was the work of members of the Cro-Magnon race. MAS D'AZIL 459 In addition to what we have said as to the survival of the Crd-]Magnon race in the preceding chapter, the opinion of Car- tailhac^ may be cited: "The race of Cro-^NIagnon is well de- termined. There is no doubt about their high stature, and To- pinard is not the only one who believes that they were blonds. We have traced them through the 'Reindeer Period' into the NeoUthic Epoch, where they were widely distributed and posi- tively related either to the ancient or actual populations of mod- ern France, being especially characteristic of our region [France] and of the western Mediterranean. While the race of Cro-Mag- non predominated in the south and in the west, that of Furfooz predominated in the northeast of France and in Belgium. These brachycephals were probably brown-haired or of dark coloring." But before observing further the characters of these four or five races, let us examine their industries. Discovery of the Azilian Type Station As remarked above, it is believed that these industries pre- vailed between 7,000 and 10,000 years before our era, that is, between the close of Magdalenian times and the beginning of the Neolithic or New Stone Age. This transition period corresponds with the interval in which the Azilian-Tardenoisian culture swept all over western Europe and completely replaced the Magda- lenian. From Castillo in the Cantabrian Mountains of northern Spain to Of net on the upper Danube there is a complete replace- ment by this new culture. The Magdalenian culture does not linger anywhere ; it is totally eliminated ; the suddenness of the change both in the animal hfe and in the industry is nowhere more clearly indicated than at the t^-pe station of Mas d'.Azil in southern France, which may now be described. In 1887 Edouard Piette commenced his exploration of the deposits in the great cavern of Mas d'Azil. This station takes its name from the little hamlet of Mas d'Azil in the foot-hills of the Pyrenees about forty miles southwest from Toulouse. Here the River Arize winds for a quarter of a mile through a lofty natural tunnel traversed by the highway from St. Girons to 460 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Carcassonne. A rich layer of Magdalenian deposits first at- tracted Piette's attention, and he found here some of the finest examples of late Magdalenian art, but above these deposits he discovered a hitherto unrecognized industrial stage, to which he gave the name Azilian. The Azilian layers yielded over one thousand specimens of flattened and double-barbed harpoons Fig. 246. Western entrance to the great station of Mas d'Azil. "Here the River Arize winds for a quarter of a mile through a lofty natural tunnel traversed by the high- way from St. Girons to Carcassonne." Photograph by N. C. Nelson. made of the horns of the stag, thus widely differing from the late Magdalenian harpoons which are rounded and made of the horns of the reindeer. The entire succession of deposits, as explored by Piette, is an epitome of the prehistory of Europe from early Magdalenian times to the Age of Bronze, and should be compared with the successive deposits of Castillo (p. 164), Sirgenstein (p. 202), Ofnet (p. 476), and Schweizersbild (p. 447). The Mas d'Azil section is as follows : MAS D'AZIL 461 Prehistoric and Neolithic IX. Iron implements, pottery of the Gauls. At the top Gallo-Roman remains, glass and glazed pottery. VIII. Middle Neolithic and Age of Bronze; layer of pottery, polished stone implements, traces of copper and of bronze. VII. Dawn of the Neolithic. Fauna includes the horse, urus, stag, and wild boar. Chipped and polished flints, awls and polishers in bone; harpoons rare. Beginnings of pottery. Upper Paleolithic VI. AziLiAN, red archaeological layer, masses of peroxide of iron. Ex- tremely moist climate. Broad flat harpoons of stag horn perforated at the base, numerous flattened and painted pebbles (galets), flints of degenerate Magdalenian form, especially small rounded planers and knife flakes, awls and polishers in bone. No trace of reindeer in the fire-hearths ; stag abun- dant, also roe-deer and brown bear; wild boar, wild cattle, beaver, a variety of birds. No trace of polished stone implements. Interred in this layer, beneath the deposits of streaked cinders and quite undisturbed, two human skeletons were found, which Piette believed had been macerated wdth flints and then colored red with peroxide of iron. V. Sterile finely stratified loam layer, a flood deposit of the River Arize. IV. Late Magdalenian culture layer; twelve double-rowed harpoons made of reindeer horn, a few fashioned from stag horn; numerous engrav- ings and sculptures in bone. Remains of the reindeer rare in the hearths; those of the royal stag (Cervus elaphus) abundant. III. A sterile flood deposit of the River Arize. II. Middle and Early Magdalenian culture layers, with barbed harpoons of reindeer horn; flint implements of early Magdalenian type, bone needles. Bones of the reindeer abundant. I. Gravel deposits. Interspersed fire-hearths. The total thickness of these culture deposits is 8.03 m., or 26 feet 4 inches. The .\zilian t>'pe layer (VI) containing flat harpoons of stag horn and painted pebbles, intercalated between the deposits of the Reindeer Age and the Neolithic layers, is, on account of its stratigraphic position, the most interesting and instructive of all the sites representing this phase of transition ; and Piette was fully justified in giving to the corresponding cul- ture period the name of Azilianr The transformation of art and industry, indicated in the Azilian culture layer, is as decided as that in the animal life. 462 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE We observe in this layer no trace of the animal engravings or sculptures which occur so abundantly in the late Magdalenian layer below ; the use of pigments is confined to the paintings of schematic or geometric figures on the flattened pebbles. There is no suggestion of art in any of the bone implements, and the harpoons of stag horn are rudely fashioned ; this t}^e of harpoon appears to be the chief survivor of the rich variety of imple- FiG. 247. Typical Azilian harpoons of stag hom. After de Mortillet. 287. A single- rowed harpoon from Mas d'Azil. 288. Harpoon with perforated base from the shelter of La Tourasse, Haute-Garonne. 289. Double-rowed harpoon from the same shelter. 290. A similar harpoon with the barbs alternate instead of opposite, from Mas d'Azil. 291. Harpoon with triangular base and round perforation from the Grotte de la Vache, near Tarascon. All one-third actual size, except 291, which is four-ninths actual size. ments noted in the Magdalenian layer below. The stag horn harpoon, moreover, is fashioned with far less skill than the beautiful Magdalenian harpoons ; like them it has two rows of barbs, but they are not cut with the same delicacy and exactness. As to the form of the new model, it is explained by the nature of the new material ; the interior of the stag horn being composed of a spongy tissue, could not be utilized as could the harder and more compact interior of the reindeer horn; the craftsman, therefore, was obliged to fashion his harpoon out of the exterior of one side of the stag horn, and in consequence to make it flat. There are no bone needles, no javelins or sagaies; nor are there any of the beautifully carved weapons of bone. There is also a MAS D'AZIL 463 reduction in the uses to which the spHt bones are put, such as the large lissoirs or poHshers. The bone implements appear to be derived from an impoverished late Aurignacian stage ; the same is true of the flint implements, for we observe a return of the keeled scraper {grattoir carene). There is also a return of certain types of graving tools and of the knife-like form of the flake ; even some of the smaU geometric t\'pes of flints resemble those of the Aurignacian levels. The many shells of the moisture-loving snail Helix nemoralis, found in the fire-hearths of Mas d'Azil are proofs of the humidity of the climate, a fact confirmed by the contemporary flood de- posits of the Arize. The frequent and heavy rains drove the last few representatives of the steppe fauna away to the north. These chmatic conditions favored the formation of peat-bogs, so frequent to-day in the north of France, and also the growth of vast forests, inhabited by the stag, which extended over the whole country. The pebbles of Mas d'Azil are painted on one side with per- oxide of iron, a deposit of which is found in the neighborhood of the cave. The color, mLxed in shells of Pecten, or in hollowed pebbles or on flat stones, was applied either with the finger or with a brush. The many enigmatic designs consist chiefly of parallel bands, rows of discs or points, bands with scalloped edges, cruciform designs, ladder-like patterns (scalariform) such as are found in the ^\zilian' engravings and paintings of the caverns, and undulating lines. These graphic combinations re- semble certain syllabic and alphabetic characters of the ^F^gean, Cypriote, Phoenician, and Greco-Latin inscriptions. However curious these resemblances may be, they are not sufficient to warrant any theory connecting the signs on the painted pebbles of the Azilians with the alphabetic characters of the oldest known systems of writing.^ Piette attempted to explain some of the exceedingly crude designs on these pebbles as a system of nota- tion, others as pictographs and religious symbols, and some few as genuine alphabetical signs, and suggested that the cavern of Mas d'.\zil was an Upper Palaeolithic school where reading, reck- ® (J) IP fll' ■nnHK 8ii©0 Fig. 248. Azilian galets calories, flat, painted pebbles, from the type station of Mas d'Azil. After Piette. FERE-EN-TARDENOIS 465 oning, writing, and the s\'mbols of the sun were learned and taught. The very wide distribution of these symboHc pebbles and the painting of similar designs on the walls of the caverns certainly prove that they had some religious or economic signif- icance, which may be revealed by subsequent research. The Tardenoisian Type Station Turning from the region of the Pyrenees in Azilian times, we observe the region hing between the Seine and the Meuse in northern France as the scene of a contemporary industry. At the station of Fere-en-Tardenois, in the Department of the Aisne, is found an especially large number of the pygmy flints f these present various geometric forms, including the primitive triangular, as well as the rhomboidal, trapezoidal, and semicir- cular; together, they were designated by de Mortillet as Tar- denoisian flints, and in 1896, in monographing this microhthic flint industry, he traced them throughout France, Belgium, Eng- land, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Germany, and Russia, also along the southern Mediterranean through Algiers, Tunis, Eg^qot, and eastward into Syria and even India. These geometric flints were at first attributed to a primitive invasion which was supposed to have occurred at the beginning of NeoHthic times ; thus the Tardenoisian industry was con- sidered as contemporaneous with that of the Campignian, which is early NeoHthic. It was further observed that the topograph- ical location of the stations closely followed the borders of ocean inlets, or of river courses, and when the food materials found in the hearths were compared, it appeared that these flints were used principally b}' fishermen or tribes subsisting upon fish. From an examination of the flints, it would appear that a very large number of them were adapted for insertion in small harpoons, or that those of grooved form might even have been used as fish-hooks. Thus the picture was drawn of a popu- lation of fishermen. The Tardenoisian, therefore, was for a long time regarded as contemporaneous with the early Neolithic 466 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE rather than with the close of Palaeohthic times, but as explora- tion proceeded it was found that neither the remains of domestic animals nor any traces of pottery occur in any of these Tarde- noisian deposits, which consequently have nothing in common with the true Neolithic culture. The problem was finaUy solved in 1909, when the grotto of Valle near Gibaja, Santander, in northern Spain, was discovered by Breuil and Obermaier.^ Here was a classic Azihan deposit containing all the well-known Azilian types of bone implements, such as fine harpoons, carvings in deer horn, bone javehns, polish- ers of deer bone, flint flakes resembling those of the late Magda- lenian, also microlithic flints of t>'pical geometric Tardenoisian form. This discovery established the fact that the lower levels of the Tardenoisian industry were not reaUy to be distinguished from the x\zihan, for here beneath layers with painted pebbles and harpoons of .\zilian style were harpoons with single and double rows of barbs of Magdalenian pattern, but cut in stag horn instead of reindeer horn. The mammalian hfe in this true ^\zilian-Tardenoisian layer includes the chamois, roe-deer, wild boar, and urus, or wild cattle. In a layer just below, which represents the close of the Magda- lenian industrial period, there are found, although rarely, remains of the reindeer, an animal hitherto unknown in this part of Spain, also the wild boar, the bison, the ibex, and the lynx. After this discovery it could no longer be questioned that the Azilian and Tardenoisian were contemporary. As to the relation of these two industries, Breuil remarks'^ that the prolongation of the Tardenoisian types of flints is ob- served in Italy and in Belgium, but neither the term 'Tarde- noisian' nor the term 'Azflian' is sufficiently comprehensive to embrace the totality of these little industries, which will finally be distinguished clearly from each other. Of the two the Azilian represents the prolongation of an ancient period of industry, the progress of which was apparently from south to north, as we can trace the distribution of the characteristic flat harpoons of deer horn from the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees, through AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN CULTURE 4G7 southern and central France, to Belgium, England, and the western coast of Scotland. The later industrial phase, the Tar- denoisian, with its geometric trapeziform flints, originally ap- pears along the southern Mediterranean in Tunis and to the 295 296 Fig. 249. Small geometric flints characteristic of the Tardenoisian industry. After de Mortillet. 295 to 303, 321, 322, 326. From various sites in northern France. 311. Uchaux, Vaucluse, France. 305, 315, 320. Valley of the Meuse, Belgium. 312, 313. Cabefo da Arruda, Portugal. 304, 314. Italy. 317, 318, 329. Tunis. 325. Egypt. 306, 310, 324, 328. Kizil-Koba, Crimea. 307 to 309, 316, 319, 323, 327. India. All one-half actual size. eastward in the Crimea, while in France it represents a final phase of the Palaeolithic, closely approaching the period of the earliest Neolithic or pre-Campignian hearths common along the Danube and observed in the vicinity of Liege. Thus the most comprehensive term by which to designate the ensemble of these implements, in Europe at least, would be Azilian- Tardenoisian. 468 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Environment and Mammalian Life It appears that the chief geographic change during this period was a subsidence of the northern coasts of Europe and an ad- vance of the sea causing the circulation of warm oceanic currents and a more humid climate favorable to reforestation. To the north, in Belgium, the tundra fauna lingered during the extension of the early Tardenoisian industry, for here we still find remains of the reindeer, the arctic fox, and the arctic hare mingled in the fire-hearths with flints of Tardenoisian type. This, observes Obermaier, constitutes proof that the Tarde- noisian, with the Azihan, must be placed at the very close of Postglacial time and with the final stage of Upper Palaeolithic industry. To the south, in the region of Dordogne and the Pyrenees, the tundra fauna had entirely disappeared, as well as that of the steppes and of the alpine heights ; the prevailing animal in the forests is the royal stag, adapted to forests of temperate type and associated with the Eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna which now dominated western Europe. The only survivor of the great African-Asiatic fauna is the lion, which appears in the late Palaeolithic stations in the region of the Pyrenees ; the arctic wolverene also gives the fauna a Postglacial aspect, for, like the lion, it is never found in central or western Europe after the close of Upper Palaeolithic times. Other enemies of the herbivorous fauna were the wolf and the brown bear. Besides the red deer, or stag, the forests at this time were filled with roe-deer. To the south in the Pyrenees the moose still sur- vived, and to the north there were still found herds of reindeer which survived in central Europe as late as the twelfth century. Wild boars were numerous, and in the streams were found the beaver and the otter. In the forest borders and in the meadows hares and rabbits were abundant. Through the forests and meadows of southern France and along the borders of the Danube ranged the wild cattle {Bos pr imi genius) . It would appear from MAMMALIAN LIFE 469 our limited knowledge of the life of Azilian-Tardenoisian times that bison were found chiefly in the northern parts of Europe. There is little direct evidence in regard to the wild horse, the re- mains of which do not occur in the hearths of .\zilian times. Our knowledge of the life of the Spanish peninsula at a period closely succeeding this is indirectly derived from the animal frescos in certain caverns of northern Spain, which were for- merly attributed to the Upper PalaeoHthic but are now referred rather to the early Neolithic. Here are found representations of the ibex, the stag, the fallow deer, the wild cattle, and also of the wild horses. This would indicate that wild horses were still roaming all over western Europe at the close of Upper Palae- olithic times. The presence of the moose in late Palaeolithic times at Alpera, on the high plateaus of Spain, has been deter- mined ; this animal has also been found in the Pyrenees during the Azilian stage." The great contrast between the mammalian life of Magda- lenian and that of .\zilian-Tardenoisian times is witnessed in the stations along the upper Danube, as described by Koken.^ In Hohlefels, Schmiechenfels, and Propstfels, associated with implements of the late Magdalenian industry, are found ten types of animals belonging to the forests and four characteristic of the forests and meadows, or fourteen species altogether. With these are mingled two alpine forms, the ibex and the alpine shrew ; also two t)pes of mammals belonging to the steppes, and no less than six mammals and birds from the tundras, namely, the reindeer, the arctic fox, the ermine, the arctic hare, the banded lemming, and the arctic ptarmigan. In wide contrast to this assemblage of late Magdalenian life on the upper Danube, there appear in AziHan times along the shores of the middle Danube in the stations of Ofnet and of Istein the following characteristic forest forms : Sus scroja ferus (wild boar), Cervus elaphus (stag), Capreolus capreolus (roe-deer). Bos (?) primigenius (urus), Lepus (rabbit or hare), Ursus arctos (b^o^\^l bear), Felis leo (lion), Gulo liisciis (common wolverene), Lynchus lynx (lynx), Vidpes (fox), Mustela martes (marten), 470 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Castor fiber (European beaver), Mus (field-mouse), Turd us (thrush). It thus appears that the alpine, the steppe, and the tundra faunae had entirely disappeared from this region. Origin and Distribution of the Azilian-Tardenoisian Industry This industry represents the last stage of the Old Stone x\ge. The decline in the art of fashioning flints, begun in Magdalenian times, appears to continue in the Azilian-Tardenoisian. As to the tiny symmetrical flints which are characteristic of this period, among the microliths of almost all the late Magdalenian stations pre-Tardenoisian forms are found which may be regarded as prototypes of the geometric Tardenoisian flints ; ^ this represents a new fashion established in flint-making under influences com- ing from the south. There was also a natural or local Azilian evolution from the Magdalenian types and technique. In general the flint imple- ments which had so long prevailed in western Europe become smaller in diameter and more carelessly retouched, showing marked deterioration even from the late Magdalenian stages. For the preparation of hides and the fashioning of bone we dis- cover unsymmetrical planing tools (grattoirs), also small, well- formed oval scrapers {racloirs), and microlithic scrapers. Borers {perqoirs) with oblique ends and gravers {burins) made of small flakes are the tx^Des of implements which most frequently occur, but the great variety of borers, so characteristic of the Aurig- nacian and the Magdalenian industries, had entirely disappeared in Azilian times. The marks of industrial degeneration are also conspicuous in the bone implements, which show a very great deterioration in number and quality as compared with the Magdalenian, and which are principally confined to three types — the harpoons, the awls {poingons), and the smoothers (lissoirs), together with very small bone borers {perqoirs). The distinctive feature of the Azilian bone industry is the flat harpoon of stag horn ; it is known that the use of stags' antlers for fashioning harpoons began in AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN INDUSTRY 471 the late Magdalenian, when most of them were still being fash- ioned from reindeer horn. These flat Azilian harpoons succeed the type of the double-rowed, cylindrical harpoons of the late Magdalenian, and are found mainly where the rivers, lakes, or pools offered favorable conditions for fishing. Thus the Azilian Fig. Geographic distribution of the principal Azilian and Tardenoisian industrial stations in western Europe, also Campigny and Robenhausen. bone-harpoon industry, like the Tardenoisian microHthic flint in- dustry, was largely pursued by fisherfolk. We may imagine that the gradual disappearance of the rein- deer, an animal much more easily pursued and killed than the stag, was one of the causes of the substitution of the various arts of fishing for those of hunting. It is to the excessively small or microlithic flints that the name Tardenoisian especially applies, and it is the vast multi- plication of these microliths and their wide distribution over the 472 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE whole area of the Mediterranean and of western Europe which constitutes the most distinctive feature of this industrial stage. ^° The triangular flint (Fig. 249) is certainly the most ancient Tardenoisian t>pe. It occurs in the Azilian stations of the Cantabrian Mountains and of the Pyrenees, accompanied by the painted pebbles and with other flints of ^Azilian t}pe, but without the graving-tools ; to the east it is found in the stations of Savoy; and along the Danube it occurs at Ofnet, associated with remains of the lion and the moose, also with ornamental necklaces composed of the perforated teeth of the deer, identical with those found in the t\pe station of Mas d'Azil in the Pyrenees. To the north this tx-pical early Azilian culture extends to Istein, in Baden, where it includes the microlithic flint flakes, the grav- ers, and the little round scrapers associated here also with the stag and the prehistoric forest and meadow fauna of western Europe. Exactly the same stage of industrial development occurs in the grotto of Hohlefels, near Nuremberg, and in the shelter station of Sous Sac, Ain. We invariably find proofs of the variety of these pygmy flints as well as of their continuity from one station to another. All these facts compel us to assign a very long period of time to the spread of these industrial types. The question which arises as to the sources of this special Tardenoisian industry again finds archaeologists divided. Schmidt inclines to the autochthonous theor}- and regards the microlithic flint industry as an outgrowth of tendencies already well developed in the Magdalenian. Breuil, on the other hand,^^ dwells strongly on the evidence for circum-Mediterranean sources. In putting the questions, Who were the Azilians? Whence did they come? What were their ancestors? he is disposed to give the answer already quoted, that, whichever industry is exam- ined, we are always obliged to look toward the south, toward some point along the ^Mediterranean, for the origin of these microlithic flints. In Italy, which he believes to have remained in an Aurignacian industrial stage throughout all the long period of Magdalenian time, he finds at Mentone a layer overlying the Aurignacian and containing small flints recalling the geometric AZILIAN-TARDENOISIAN INDUSTRY 473 forms of the Azilian, as well as a multitude of the small round scrapers (racloirs) characteristic of Azilian times. The upper layers at Mentone on the Riviera are paralleled by those ob- served near Otranto, in Sicily. It is certain, he continues, that ^e of Sergi. Beside these pure tjqDcs there are several blended forms which are intermediate or mesaticephalic. Of the eight brachycephalic heads, six are those of children ; the two adult brachycephalic crania belong to young women and are, therefore, not quite so characteristic as male skulls would be, for in general racial type is more strongly marked in 480 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE men than in women ; the remaining skulls are either of a blended form or purely dolichocephalic. The relationship of the broad-headed race to other prehis- toric and existing broad-headed races of western Europe is also a matter of very great interest. The Ofnet brachycephals are regarded by Schliz^'^ as closely similar to the t\pe skull of the so-called Grenelle race, which, in turn, is closely similar to the Furfooz type. Thus the cephaHc index of one (Fig. 255) of these broad, flattened skulls of Ofnet is 83.33 per cent ; the face is relatively narrow, the zygomatic index being low — 76.34 per cent ; the brain capacity of the female skulls does not exceed 1,320 c.cm. The skull is further described as small, smooth, and delicately modelled, w^ith a correspondingly feeble dentition, the teeth being small ; the processes of muscular attachment are slightly developed, all of which characters indicate that the skull belonged to a woman about twenty-five years of age. The forehead is low, broad, and prominent. It is altogether typically parallel to the 'skull of Crenelle,' as well as to the female 'skull of Au vernier' described by Kollmann. The peculiarity of this broad-headed race, like that of Grenelle and of Furfooz, is that, while the forehead is of only moderate breadth, the posterior part of the skull is extremely broad. The broad-headed people of Ofnet are thus definitely considered by Schliz^^ as members of the Furfooz- Grenelle race. The narrow-headed race of the Ofnet burials is distinct in every respect and presents resemblances to the branch of the 'Mediterranean' race found in the foreground of the lAJpine re- gions to-day, in which the head is of a pear-shaped type. The best preserved of these dolichocephahc skulls (Fig. 255) presents an index of 70.50 per cent, with a brain capacity in the male of 1,500 c.cm., while the smallest brain capacity is that found in one of the female skulls with 1,100 c.cm. Among the five adult purely doUchocephalic skulls the face is not in the least of the broad or disharmonic Cro-Magnon type, but is in proportion with the cranium, and is thus truly harmonic. The resemblance of this narrow-headed Ofnet skull to that of the Briinn race, THE NEW RACES 481 which we have described as occurring in Moravia in Solutrean times, is only partial, and Schliz concludes that among the narrow- headed people of Ofnet we have a form of dolichocephaly which is not identical with any of the known early dolichocephalic forms of western Europe, but which pursues an independent line of development similar to the narrow-headed races in the borders of the Alpine region of the present day. Thus this head type, of a uniform elliptic contour, seems to have become a stable racial element of the Alpine population, since we meet it again in later prehistoric times in the region of the southern and west- ern foreground of the Alps. Among the children's skulls, two are of the narrow-headed, pear-shaped type similar to the Alpine dolichocephals of to-day, that is, with a narrow forehead and very broad posterior portions of the skull. CENTR.A.L Origin of the Bro.ad-Headed (Alpine?) Races The affinity of the broad-headed .Azihan-Tardenoisian tribes of the Danube to those found in the Upper PalaeoHthic of north- western Europe seems to be clearly established. The latter are sometimes known as the GreneUe race and sometimes as the Fur- fooz race. Boule^^ observes in regard to the skeletal remains of Grenelle which were found in the alluvium near Paris, in 1870, that it is quite impossible now, forty years after their discovery, to demonstrate their geologic antiquity. This is not the case with the Furfooz broad-heads, the age of which we regard as well estabUshed, but since the head type appears to be the same in both cases, we may speak of this race as the Furfooz- Grenelle. In a cave near Furfooz, in the valley of the Lesse, Belgium, sixteen skeletons were discovered by Dupont in 1867. With the bones were found implements of reindeer horn and remains of the late Pleistocene fauna of northern Europe. ^^ The reindeer and the tundra fauna of Belgium were contemporaneous with the early Tardenoisian culture and with the stag and forest fauna 482 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Fig. 256. Broad-headed skull of uncertain archKologic age, either Palaeolithic or Neo- lithic, discovered at Crenelle, near Paris, in 1870. After de Quatrefages and Hamy. One-quarter hfe size. of southern France, so that the skeletons of Furfooz may safely be referred to Azilian-Tardenoisian times. Only two of the Furfooz skulls were preserved in good shape ; they are of brachycephalic or sub-brachycephalic form, and, fol- FiG. 257. Opening of the grotto of Furfooz on the Lesse, a tributary of the Meuse, near Namur, Belgium, where the skeletal remains of 16 Individuals and the type skulls of the broad-headed Furfooz race were discovered in 1867. After Dupont. THE NEW RACES 483 Fig. 258. Section of the grotto of Furfooz, showing the burial of 16 skeletons of the Furfooz race and the entrance of the grotto blocked by a mass of stone. After Dupont. lowing the suggestion of de Quatrefages and Hamy, these skulls have been spoken of as belonging to the ' brachycephalic Furfooz race.' The men of this race may certainly be regarded as be- longing to Upper Palaeolithic times, whereas the brachycephalic Fig. 259. One of the t>'pe skulls of the broad-headed Furfooz race, trom the burial grotto of Furfooz, Belgium. After de Quatrefages and Hamy. One- quarter life size. 484 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE race found at Crenelle, near Paris, is probably Neolithic. This by no means prevents the Furfooz and the Grenelle types belong- ing to the same general brachy cephalic race ; it is altogether probable that they do, and that with them may be included the Ofnet broad-heads. There are several opinions regarding the geographic centres from which these broad-heads entered Europe ; it is generally Fig. 260. Restoration of the broad-headed man of Grenelle, modelled by Mascre, under the direction of A. Rutot. This type of head is similar to that of Ofnet. believed that they came from the high plateaus of central Asia. By Giuffrida-Ruggeri the Furfooz race is identified with the existing broad-headed Alpine race {Homo sapiens alpinus), and is mistakenly adduced as proof that the Alpine race originated in Europe and is not in any way related to the Mongolian races of central Asia. A more conservative view^^ is that the recent European broad-headed types commonly included under the Alpine race cannot yet be traced back to the Furfooz- Grenelle ancestors, because their connection is too problematical. Schliz, THE NEW RACES 485 on the other hand, considers that the Furfooz-Grenelle race sur- vived in northwestern Europe and corresponds with that which became the builders of the megahthic dolmens of Neolithic times, the latter being but slightly modified descendants of the original Furfooz race ; he believes, moreover, that these broad-headed peoples first occupied central Europe and then extended to west- ern Europe, where they correspond to the Alpine race, at least in part ; that they also migrated to the north and were the basis of the broad-headed races now found in Holland and Denmark. Southern Origin of the Narrow-Headed (Mediterranean?) Races While it seems probable that the broad-heads represent a cen- tral migration from Eurasia, evidence of an industrial and cul- tural character indicates that the narrow-heads came from the south; this is seen both in the south Mediterranean origin of the Tardenoisian flint industry and in the new schematic influ- ences on the decadent art of Upper Palaeolithic times. It seems, observes Breuil, as if the schematic influences in art during Upper Palaeolithic times always extend from the south toward the north; they predominate entirely in the painted rocks of Andalusia, in the Pyrenees, and in Dordogne. In the grotto of Marsoulas, Haute-Garonne, the Azihan motifs are clearly superposed upon the Magdalenian polychromes. This purely schematic phase, which abruptly follows the figure art of middle Magdalenian times, first made itself felt in the late Magdalenian. There was a sudden loss of realism which does not indicate affiliation but rather the infiltration of strange ele- ments from the south ; the precursors of the destructive invasion of the Azilian-Tardenoisian tribes w^ho were driven from their Mediterranean homes by the westward advance of the conquer- ing Neolithic races. We imagine ^^ that in southern Spain there dwelt in Upper Palaeolithic times a population differing from the Magdalenians of France and of the Cantabrian Mountains in their lower artistic tastes. It would therefore appear that the 486 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE schematic art had its home toward the south of the peninsula of Spain about the time of the invasion of the .Izihan culture in France. Northern Origin of the Baltic (Teutonic?) Races For the first time the retreat of the Scandinavian ice-fields and the less severe cUmate permitted a northern migration route along the shores of the Baltic. This is the first known migra- tion of any tribes along this route, which throughout all glacial times had been blocked by the \acinity of the Scandinavian and Baltic ice-fields, but which was now opened by the approach of the more genial climate which succeeded the long Postglacial Stage. Whether this Baltic invasion was the advance wave of a northern long-headed Teutonic race is wholly a matter of conjecture. "Other peoples," observes Breuil,^^ "kno\\Ti at present only from their industries, were advancing toward the close of the Upper Palaeolithic along the northern and southern shores of the Baltic and persisted for an appreciable time before the arrival of the tribes introducing the early NeoUthic Campignian culture which accumulated in the kitchen-middens along the same shores. Like the southern races of Azilian-Tardenoisian times, these northerl}^ tribes were truly Pre-Neohthic, ignorant both of agri- culture and of pottery ; they brought with them no domesti- cated animals excepting the dog, which is known at Mugem, at Tourasse, and at Oban, in northwestern Scotland. In the use of bone harpoons of elegant form and in the taste displayed in fine decorations engraved upon bone, these tribes suggest the culture of the Magdalenians, but a close examination shows that it could not have been derived from the Magdalenian type. The community of style with the painted and engraved figures found in western Siberia and in the central Ural region and north of the Altai Mountains denotes rather an Asiatic and Siberian origin. "The decorative designs of these Baltic peoples were very different from those of the Cro-Magnons in Magdalenian times, THE NEW RACES 487 and are not schematic ; the conception of the animal figures, al- though naturalistic, is as crude as that of the early Aurignacian figures, and is far inferior to that of the Magdalenian stage." " It is probable," continues Breuil, " that in these northerly regions the closing cultures of the Upper Palaeolithic developed along Fig. 261. Implements and decorations showing the conventional and crude animal designs of the art of the Baltic, from Maglemose, Denmark. After Reinecke and Obermaier. The implements include bone harpoons, fish-hooks, horn chisels, awls, spear points, and smoothers. About one-fifth actual size. more or less parallel fines with those observed in the south in giving rise to ethnographic elements which travelled along the littoral regions of the northern seas." This race and culture is described by Obermaier^° as follows: WTien primitive man took possession of Denmark the sea- coast was so remote that he could also reach southern Scandi- navia. The station of Maglemose in the 'Great Moor,' discov- ered and described by F. L. Sarauw, of Copenhagen, in 1900, is 488 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE near the harbor of Mullerup on the western coast of Zealand and not far from the shore of an ancient freshwater lake forma- tion. These people were lake-dwellers, living perhaps on rafts but not on dwellings supported by piles. From these rafts it is supposed the implements dropped into the lake. The 88 1 flint implements found here include scrapers, borers, cleavers, and knives, as well as microlithic flints. They show no trace of the Neolithic art of poUshing, merely suggesting certain chipped styles observed in the 'kjoddenmoddings.' (See Figs. 263, 264, and 265.) The influence of the PalaeoHthic is much stronger, especially in the case of the microHthic Tardenoisian types. In the industrial culture of Maglemose, however, far more impor- tant than stone are implements of horn and bone. These the Maglemose folk obtained from the wild ox, moose, stag, and roe- deer, fashioning them into tools of various t>q)es, some of which are shown in Fig. 261. Many of these tools are ornamented with conventional designs or very crude animal outlines on one or both surfaces. The forests of this time consisted of the characteristic north- ern flora including numerous evergreens, the birch, aspen, hazel, and elm, but without any trace of the oak. There is absolutely no trace of pottery in the Maglemose deposits. Of great inter- est is the fact that skeletal remains of the domestic dog are found here. The Maglemose culture of the Baltic region is regarded as contemporary with the Azilian and Tardenoisian in the south. It contains types, not of flint but of bone, which are prophetic of the Neolithic. Traces of this culture have been found through- out northern Germany, in Denmark, and in southern Sweden, as well as to the east and in the Baltic provinces. Although no human remains have as yet been discovered, it is highly prob- able that these people belonged to the northern Teutonic races. ANCESTRY OF EUROPEAN RACES 489 Conclusion as to the Relationships of the Paleolithic R.A.CES Thus in southern, central, and northern Europe the close of Upper Pakcolithic times is marked by the invasion of new Eura- siatic races, all in a Pre-NeoHthic stage of industry and art. It is not improbable that these races were advance waves from the same geographic regions as the Neolithic tribes which followed them. From the earliest Palaeohthic to NeoHthic times it does not appear that western Europe was ever a centre of human evolu- tion in the sense that it gave rise to a single new species of man. The main racial evolution and the earlier and later branches of the human family were established in the east and successively found their way westward ; nor is there at present any ground for beheving that any very prolonged evolution or transforma- tion of human t}pes occurred in western Europe. We should regard as wholly unproved the notion that either of these Palaeolithic races of western Europe gave rise to others which succeeded them in geologic time ; the only sequence of this sort to w^hich some degree of probability may be attached is that the Heidelberg race was ancestral to the Neanderthal race. In most instances, such races as the Piltdown, the Cro-Magnon, the Briinn, the Furfooz- Crenelle, and the Mediterranean arrived fully formed, with all their mental and physical attributes and tendencies very distinctly developed. There is some evidence, but not of a very conclusive kind, that the modification of cer- tain of these races in western Europe was partly in the nature of a decline ; this was apparently the case both with the Neander- thals and with the Cro-Magnons. We may therefore imagine that the family tree or lines of descent of the races of the Old Stone Age consisted of a number of entirely separate branches, which had been completely formed in the great Eurasiatic continent, a land mass infinitely larger and more capable of producing a variety of races than the dimin- utive peninsular area of western Europe. 490 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE A review of these races in descending order, in respect to stature, the cephahc index, and brain capacity, is presented in the following table : Frontal Angle Height of Skull Cephalic Index sg 86.21 70.50 Z{ ' 73-76 .^63- ?76.27 72.02 65.7 69.27 51.22 65 . 7 or 68.2 40. 5 44-3 40.9 75 75-7 70 42.2 40.4 40 ?83.7 73-9 77-9 ?78or ?79 34-2 73 -4 or 70 37-7 Brain Capacity Height Comparative Length of Arm and Leg Recent. (H. sapiens). European (average). Upper Paleolithic. Ofnet Race (brachyce- phalic) Ofnet Race (dolichoce- phalic) Cro-Magnon Race (old man of Cro-Magnon type) Grimaldi (Cro-Ma- gnons) Chancelade Aiirignac Grimaldi Rare. Grimaldi type (ne- groid) Briinn Race. Briinn I Lower Paleolithic. Neanderthal Race {H. Neatiderthalensis) . La Chapelle Spy II Spy I La Ferrassie I La Ferrassie II La Quina Krapina D . . Neanderthal . Gibraltar Pre-Neanderthaloids Piltdown Race. Piltdown Trinil Race (Pithecan- Ihropus) .Anthropoid Apes. .\pes (maximum). 6S 67 575 66 62 66 or 73-74 1400 1500 1590 [775-1880 1580 1350 1626 1723 1562 1367 (approx.) 1408 1250 or 1296 850-1000 900 ft. in. 5 7 5 10J4- 6 4'^ 4 II 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 4 5 5 4 io>^ 6973' 66.05?^ 69% 63-12% '68% 68% 104% (chimpanzee minimum.) The chief authorities for these measurements are Schwalbe, Dubois, Keith, Smith Wood- ward, Boule, Sollas, Sera, Klaatsch, Fraipont, Makowsky, Verneau, Testut, and Broca. C&mmorv AncestcirS \a Species Fig. 262. Tree showing the main theoretic hnes of descent of the chief Pre-NeoHthic races discovered in western Europe. (The Grimaldi race is omitted on account of its aberrant character. The northern Teutonic long-heads are also omitted.) The Trinil, Heidelberg, and Neanderthal races are represented as offshoots of one great branch. The Piltdown race is represented as an independent branch of cjuite unknown relations to the other races. It is probable that the five or six branches of HotfW sapiens discovered in the Upper PaL-eoiithic separated from each other in Lower Palaeolithic times in Asia. Of these the Briinn race is by far the most primitive. 492 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE The migration routes of invasion of the successive Lower PalaeoHthic races — the Piltdown, the Heidelberg, and the Nean- derthal — are entirely unknown ; we can only infer from the wide distribution of the Chellean and Acheulean cultures to the south, along the northern African coast, as well as to the east, that these races may have had a southerly or circum-Mediterranean origin. This does not mean that either of these Lower Palaeolithic races were of negroid or Ethiopian affinity, because the Neander- thals show absolutely no negroid characters. In fact, through- out all Palaeolithic time the solitary instance of the two Grimaldi skeletons furnishes the sole anatomical evidence we possess of the entrance of a negroid people into Europe, which contrasts widely with the overwhelming evidence of the dominance in western Europe first of the non-negroid Neanderthals, and then of the Cro-Magnons who probably belonged to the Caucasian stock. The evidence as to the sources and migrations of the Upper Palaeolithic races is also indirect. The theory of the Cro-Magnons entering Europe by the southerly or Mediterranean route we have seen to rest upon purely cultural or industrial grounds, namely, the spread of the Aurignacian industry around the Mediterranean shores. On the other hand, the succeeding cul- ture, the Solutrean, and the succeeding race to enter Europe, the Briinn, both appear to be of central or of direct easterly origin. It is only toward the close of the Upper Palaeolithic that an- other southerly or Mediterranean invasion occurs, bringing in the microlithic Tardenoisian culture, which, although anatomical evidence is wanting, would appear to be an advance wave of the great invasion of the true 'Mediterranean' race. During the Upper PalsoUthic Epoch another invasion apparently occurs from the east along the central migration route, namely, that of the broad-headed Furfooz- Crenelle races. Thus in surveying the whole period of the Old Stone Age we find that there is some evidence for the theory of an alterna- tion of southerly, of easterly, and finally of northeasterly inva- sions of races bringing in new industries and ideas. TRANSITION TO THE NEOLITHIC 493 Transition to the Neolithic. The Campignian. The Robenhausian Apart from the special and somewhat debated question of the place of the Campignian culture in the prehistory of Europe we may close our survey of the Upper Palaeolithic by pointing out some of its contrasts with the Neolithic. The arrival of the Neolithic cultures and industries in western Europe marks one of the most profound changes in all Fig. 263. Stages in the manufacture of the Neolithic stone ax, or hachc. After de Mor- tiUet. 534. Hache of flint, roughly flaked into shape, from Olendon, Calvados. 535. Hache of flint from Oise, readj^ for pohshing. It has been finely chipped to a shape of perfect symmetry, with especial care to smooth out and reduce the large facets made by the pre!iminar\' flaking. 536. Hache of flint after the first polishing, from Abbeville, on the Somme. The cutting edge has been completely polished, but along the sides the facets made by flaking are plainly visible. 537. Hache of flint completely polished, from Le Vesinet, Seine-et-Oise. In this last stage one scarcely notices the faint traces of facets which show that this hache has passed through aU the preceding stages. Two-ninths actual size. prehistory and introduces us to a new period which must be treated in an entirel}' different historic spirit. This new era began between 7,000 to 10,000 years ago, or wdth the close of the Daun stage, the last geologic feature of Postglacial times. There are two theories regarding the close of Upper Palaeo- lithic and the beginning of Neolithic times. The older theory^ which still has some adherents, is that the Upper Palaeolithic races and industries suddenly gave way before the arrival of new and superior races bringing in the Neolithic culture. The new^r theory is that there are evidences of gradual transfusions 494 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Fig. 264. Stone hatchet, or tranchd, from the type station of Campigny, after Salmon, d'Auh du Mesnil, and Capitan. One-half actual size. from the Upper Palaeolithic into the NeoUthic cultures and that these are found in some of the oldest NeoHthic sites. In 1898 there appeared an ar- ticle^^ by Philippe Salmon, d'Ault du Mesnil, and Capitan, entitled, "Le Campignien," defending the theory of an early and transitional Neolithic stage, the Campignian}^ The t}-pe station of this early cul- ture was pointed out by Salmon in 1886 ; it lies a little more than a mile northwest of the village of Blangy, on the River Bresle, on a site well placed for natural defense. The remains of the hut-dw^ellings of this camp and of various indus- trial objects appear to indicate that this station belongs to the earliest phase of the Neohthic Period. These Campignians owe little to the culture or industry of the races which previously occupied this region of western Europe ; they are entire strangers, purely Neolithic in t^pe. While this is the age of polished, as dis- tinguished from chipped, stone, the axe {hache) of polished stone is still very rare in the Cam- pignian. There prevail flaked flint t>pes com- mon to all the previous stages of the Stone Age, such as the knives {coiiteaux), planers (grattoirs), and spear or dart heads {pointes de sagaie), but we notice the appearance of two entirely new flint implements: first, the triangular knife or stone hatchet (tranchet), of the type (Fig. 264) common in the Danish kitchen-middens ; this knife has a broad, sharp cuttuig edge flaked on one side; second (Fig. 265), there is a sort of elongated axe or pick (pic) with chipped sides and an end more or less conical in shape.-'^ These people also made use of large Fig. 265. Stone pick, or pic, from the type station of Campigny, after Salmon, d'Ault du Mesnil, and Capi- tan. About one- half actual size. TRANSITION TO THE NEOLITHIC 495 flakes of flint. If wc regard the Campignian as a prolonged industrial stage in northern Europe, it certainly precedes the appearance of abundant axe heads of polished flint. In France it seems to appear occasionally as a local phase of the NeoHthic. Fig. 266. Restoration of the Neolithic man of Spiennes, Belgium, modelled by Mascre under the direction of A. Rutot. The prevailing opinion at present is that the Campignian distinctly precedes the typical Neolithic of the Swiss lake- dweUings, a stage known as the Rohenhausian. Thus the Neo- lithic culture becomes fully established in the period of the Swiss Lake Dwellings, remains of which are found at Moossee- dorf, Wam\yl, Concise on Lake Neufchatel, and Robenhausen on Lake Pfaeflikon. The latter is the Rohenhausian t^pe station. 496 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Distinctive Features of the Neolithic Epoch The first of these is the presence of implements of poUshed stone which find their way gradually into western Europe. The neoliths at first are greatly outnumbered by chipped and flaked implements, and some of the latter show a survival of the familiar t\pes of the Old Stone Age, while others belong to entirely distinct t}^es which had an independent development in the far East. The chief economic change is seen in the rudimentary knowl- edge of agriculture and in the use of a variety of plants and seeds, accompanied by the gradual appearance of implements for the preparation of the soil and for harvesting the crops. This new source of food supply leads to the establishment of permanent stations and camps and more or less to the abandonment of nomadic modes of life. Near the ancient camp sites and villages, therefore, are found implements for the preparation of skins and hides, because the chase was still maintained for purposes of clothing as well as for food. StiU more distinctive of the Neolithic is the introduction of pottery, which is at first used in the preparation of food. In the hearths or kitchen-middens and in the refuse heaps of the camps we no longer find evidence of the splitting of the jaws of mammals and of the long and short bones of the limbs, or even of the larger foot bones, in search of marrow, which is such a universal feature of the Upper Palaeolithic deposits. The artistic impulse of the north is very crude and natural- istic. In the Spanish peninsula, accompanying and following the schematic period described in the early part of this chapter, there was a long stage of development in which men were painting on rocks, mostly in the form of silhouettes, naturalistic figures of animals and of people.'-^ The presence of the moose in these drawings concurs with that of the two bison represented in the ca\'ern of Cogul and would tend to indicate that these paintings belong to Upper Palaeolithic times, although it is now considered that they are NEOLITHIC CULTURE 497 of early Neolithic age. The character of these animal designs is totally different from that of the Magdalenian period in the north and is analogous rather to that of the Bushmen of South Africa. The authors of these frescos represent not only the ibex, stag, and wild cattle but also the horse, moose, fallow deer, wolf, and occasionally the birds. There are many features in this art which show its absolute independence of origin from Fig. 267. Fresco from the rock shelter of Alpera, Albacete, Spain, painted in daric red and representing a stag hunt, the hunters being armed with bows and arrows. Attri- buted to the southern races arriving in NeoHthic times. After Bre^uil and Obermaier. that of the Magdalenian of the north, among them the fre- quent presence of composition and the almost invariable pres- ence of human figures. The frescos in the Spanish caverns of Alpera and of Cogul recall those of southern France but are almost always grouped in series of the chase, of encampmeht, and perhaps of war. This frequency of human figures, the representations of the bow and arrow, and the presence of a small animal which may be recog- nized as the domesticated dog are indications of an entirely dis- tinct race coming from the south and bringing in a new spirit in art which has no relation whatever to that of the Magdalenian. 498 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE Neolithic Mammalian Life Even in the oldest Neolithic deposits no trace of the horse as an object of food appears. The domestication of this animal was introduced from the east, and thus it ceased to be an object of the chase. The newly arriving tribes were undoubtedly at- tracted by the abundance of horses, both of the forest and Celtic types, which had survived from Upper Palaeolithic times. A very distinctive feature of the modern horses, however, should be mentioned, that is, the presence of a forelock covering the face, no trace of which is indicated in any of the Upper Palaeo- Hthic carvings or engravings. The wild animal life of western Europe at this time is a direct survival of the great Eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna which we have traced from the earliest Palaeolithic times. It includes the bison, the long-horned urus, the stag, the roe-deer, the moose, the wild boar, the forest horse, the Celtic horse, the beaver, the hare, and the squirrel. The fallow deer {Cervus dama) also appears more abundantly. Among the carnivora are the brown bear, the badger, the marten, the otter, the wolf, the fox, the wildcat, and the wolverene. The lion has disappeared entirely from western Europe. The reindeer survives only in the north. As observed above, two of these wild animals were early chosen by the invaders for domestication, namely, the plateau or Celtic horse and the forest horse. The former type is found in the Neolithic deposits of Essex, England. The wild urus (Bos primigenius) was hunted but was not domesticated. Two new varieties of domestic cattle appear, neither of which has been previously observed in western Europe. The first of these is the 'Celtic shorthorn' {Bos longifrons), the probable ancestor of the small breeds of British short-horned and horn- less cattle. The second is the 'longhorn' {Bos taurus), which shows some points of resemblance to the 'urus' {Bos primigenius) but is not directly related to it. Direct wild ancestors of this latter animal are said to occur in the Pleistocene of Itah'. A NEOI.rrillC lAlNA 499 new t}pe of pig also appears, the so-called turf pig {Siis scroja palustris) . The Neolithic invaders, or men of the New Stone Age, thus brought with them, or domesticated from among the animals which they found in the forests of western Europe, a great variety of the same types of animals as those domesticated to-day, namely, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and dogs. Fig. 26S. Map showing the geographic distribution of the three principal cranial types of man inhabiting western Europe at the present time. Prepared after Ripley's maps in his Races of Europe. Also the restricted area neighboring the \'ezere valley, where the supposed descendants of the disharmonic type of the Cro-Magnons are still to be found. Other small Cro-Magnon colonies are not represented. The heavy-faced lines show those districts where the race indicated is most numerous and found in the greatest perfection of tj'pe. The Prehistoric axd Historic Races of Europe Before the close of Neolithic times all the direct ancestors of the modem races of Europe had not only established them- 500 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE selves, but had begun to separate into those larger and smaller colonies which now mark out the great anthropological divisions of western Europe. It is therefore interesting to glance at the cranial distinctions of the men who successively entered western Europe in Upper Palaeolithic and Neolithic times. The upper part of the table corresponds with that of Ripley.-'' Type Head Face Hair Eyes Stature Nose Cephalic Index Average per cent VI. Teutonic (? Baltic). Long, narrow. High, narrow. Very light. Blue. Tall. Narrow, aquiline. 75 V. Mediter- ranean (POfnet). Long, narrow. High, narrow. Dark brown or black. Dark. Medium, slender. Rather broad. 75 IV. Alpine, Celtic (POfnet). Round. Broad. Light chestnut. Hazel- gray. Medium, stocky. Varia- ble; rather broad; heavy. 87 III. FURFOOZ- Grenelle (POfnet). Broad. Medium. p p ? ? 79-85 II. BrtJnn- Predmost (Moravia). Long. Low, medium. ? ? ? ■' 68.2 or 65.7 I. Cr6- Magnon. Long. Low and broad. P P Tall to medium. Narrow, aquiline. P63- ? 76.27 MODERN, NEOLITHIC, AND UPPER PALAEOLITHIC EUROPEAN RACES OF THE EXISTING SPECIES OF MAN {HOMO SAPIENS) It would appear that five out of these six great racial types had entered Europe before the close of Upper Palaeolithic times, namely, I to V in the above table. How about the sixth tjpe ; the narrow-headed, light-haired people of the north, the modern Teutonic type? This question cannot be answered at present We have, however, high au- CONCLUSIONS 501 thority for the in\^asion of a new northern race, which may have been of the Teutonic t}pe, as occurring before the close of PalaeoHthic times. These were the people described above, migrating along the shores of the Baltic with a new northern Maglemose culture and crude naturahstic art. Conclusions as to the Old Stone Age The above outline of the beginnings of the Neolithic Age shows that the Palaeolithic represents a complete cycle of human development ; we have traced its rise, its perfection, its decline. During this dawning period of the long prehistory of Europe the dominant features are the very great antiquity of the spirit of man and the fundamental similarity between the great steps of prehistory and of histor}-. The rise of the spirit of man through the Old Stone Age can- not be traced continuousl}' in a single race because the races were changing ; as at the present time, one race replaced another, or two races dwelt side by side. The sudden appearance in Eu- rope at least 25,000 years ago of a human race with a high order of brain power and abilit}- was not a leap forward but the effect of a long process of evolution elsewhere. When the prehistoric archaeology of eastern Europe and of Asia has been investigated we may obtain some light on this antecedent de- velopment. During this age the rudiments of all the modern economic powers of man were developed : the guidance of the hand by the mind, manifested in his creative industry ; his inventive faculty ; the currency or spread of his inventions; the adaptation of means to ends in utensils, in weapons, and in clothing. The same is true of the aesthetic powers, of close observation, of the sense of form, of proportion, of symmetry, the appreciation of beauty of animal form and the beauty of line, color, and form in modelling and sculpture. Finally, the schematic representa- tion and notation of ideas so far as we can perceive was alpha- betic rather than pictographic. Of the musical sense we have at present no evidence. The religious sense, the appreciation of 502 MEN OF THE OLD STONE AGE some power or powers behind the great phenomena of nature, is evidenced in the reverence for the dead, in burials apparently related to notions of a future existence of the dead, and espe- cially in the mysteries of the art of the caverns. All these steps indicate the possession of certain generic facul- ties of mind similar to our own. That this mind of the Upper PalaeoUthic races was of a kind capable of a high degree of edu- cation we entertain no doubt whatever because of the very ad- vanced order of brain which is developed in the higher members of these ancient races; in fact, it may be fairly assumed from experiences in the education of existing races of much lower brain capacity, such as the Eskimo or Fuegian. The emer- gence of such a mind from the mode of life of the Old Stone Age is one of the greatest mysteries of psychology and of history. The rise and fall of cultures and of industries, which is at this very day the outstanding feature of the history of western Europe, was fully tjpified in the very ancient contests with stone weapons which were waged along the borders of the Somme, the Marne, the Seine, and the Danube. No doubt, each inva- sion, each conquest, each substitution of an industry or a cul- ture had within it the impelling contest of the spirit and will of man, the intelligence directing various industrial and warlike implements, the superiority either of force or of mind. (i) Cartailhac, 1903.1, pp. 330, 331. (13) Schliz, 1912.1, pp. 242-244. (2) Dechelette, 1908. i, vol. I, pp. (14) Op. cit., p. 252. 314-320. (15) Boule, 1913-1, P- 210. (3) Op. cit., p. 320. (16) Dupont, 1871.1. (4) Op. cit., pp. 505-510. (17) Fischer, 1913-1, P- 356- (5) BreuU, 1912.6, pp. 2-6. (18) Breuil, 1912.5. (6) Ibid., 1912.7, pp. 232, 233. (19) Ibid., 1912.7, pp. 235, 236. (7) Ibid., 1912.6, p. 20. (20) Obermaier, 1912.1, pp. 467-469. (8) Koken, 1912.1, pp. 172, 173, 176- (21) Salmon, iSgS.i. 178, 180, 181, 201. (22) Munro, 1912.1, pp. 275-277. (9) Schmidt, 1912.1, p. 40. (23) Dechelette, 1908. i, vol. I, p. 326. (10) Breuil, 1912.7, p. 225. (24) Breuil, 1912.5, P- 560. (11) Op. cit., p. 233. (25) Ripley, 1899. i, p. 121. (12) Schmidt, 1912.1. p. 41. APPENDIX NOTE I LUCRETIUS AND BOSSUET ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN Lucretius's conception* of the gradual development of human culture undoubtedly came from Greek sources beginning with Empedocles. His indebtedness is beautifully expressed in the opening lines of Book III of his De Rerum Natnra : "0 Glory of the Greeks! who first didst chase The mind's dread darkness with celestial day, The worth illustrating of human life — Thee, glad, I follow — with firm foot resolved To tread the path imprinted by thy steps; Not urged by competition, but, alone. Studious thy toils to copy; for, in powers, How can the swallow with the swan contend? Or the young kid, all tremulous of Hmb, Strive with the strength, the fleetness of the horse; Thou, sire of science ! with paternal truths Thy sons enrichest: from thy peerless page, Illustrious chief ! as from the flowery field Th' industrious bee culls honey, we ahke Cull many a golden precept — golden each — And each most worthy everlasting life. For as the doctrines of thy godlike mind Prove into birth how nature first uprose, All terrors vanish; the blue walls of heaven Fly instant — and the boundless void throughout Teems with created things." The same conceptionf of the early periods in the development of human- ity is found in the Histoire universelle of Bossuet, in a curious passage un- doubtedly suggested by Lucretius: "Tout commence: il n'y a point d'histoire ancienne ou il ne paraisse, non seuJement dans ces premiers temps, mais encore longtemps apres, des vestiges manifestes de la nouveaute du monde. On voit les lois s'etablir, * Lucretius, Ow the Nature of Things, metrical version by J. M. Good. Bohn's Classical Library, London, 1890. t Bossuet, Jacques Benigne, Discours stir VHistoire universelle (first published in 1681), pp. Q, 10. Edition conforme a celle de 1700, troisieme et derniere edition revue par I'au- teur. Paris, Librairie de Firmin Didot Freres, 1845. 503 504 APPENDIX les moeurs se polir, et les empires se former: le genre humain sort peu a peu de I'ignorance; I'experience I'mstruit, et les arts sont inventes ou per- fectionnes. A mesure que les hommes se multiplient, la terre se peupie de proche en proche: on passe les montagnes et les precipices; on traverse les fleuves et enfin les mers, et on etablit de nouvelles habitations. La terre. qui n'etait au commencement qu'une foret immense, prend une autre forme; les bois abattus font place aux champs, aux paturages, aux hameaux, aux bourgades, et enfin aux villes. On s'instruit a prendre certains animaux. a apprivoiser les autres, et a les accoutumer au service. On eut d'abord a combattre les betes farouches: les premiers heros se signalerent dans ces guerres; elles firent inventer les armes, que les hommes tournerent apres contre leurs semblables. Nemrod, le premier guerrier et le premier con- querant, est appele dans I'ecriture un fort chasseur. Avec les animaux, I'homme sut encore adoucir les fruits et les plantes; il plia jusqu'aux metaux a son usage, et peu a peu il y fit ser\ar toute la nature." NOTE II HORACE ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN Horace* also adopted the Greek conception of the natural evolution of human culture: "Your men of words, who rate all crimes alike, Collapse and founder, when on fact they strike: Sense, custom, all, cry out against the thing. And high expedience, right's perennial spring. When men first crept from out earth's womb, like worms. Dumb speechless creatures, with scarce human forms, With nails or doubled fists they used to fight For acorns or for sleeping-holes at night; Clubs followed next; at last to arms they came. Which growing practice taught them how to frame, Till words and names were found, wherewith to mould The sounds they uttered, and their thoughts unfold; Thenceforth they left off fighting, and began To build them cities, guarding man from man, And set up laws as barriers against strife That threatened person, property, or wife. 'Twas fear of wrong gave birth to right, you'll find, If you but search the records of mankind. Nature knows good and evil, joy and grief, But just and unjust are beyond her brief: Nor can philosophy, though finely spun, By stress of logic prove the two things one. To strip your neighbor's garden of a flower And rob a shrine at midnight's solemn hour." *The Satires, Epistles and Ars Poetica of Horace, the Latin Text with Conington's Translation, pp. 29, 31. George Bell & Sons, London, 1904. APPENDIX 505 NOTE III iESCHYLUS ON THE EARLY EVOLUTION OF MAN ^schylus, in Pro?netheus Bound * presents one of the earliest known as well as one of the noblest conceptions of the natural development of the human faculties: "And let me tell you — not as taunting men, But teaching you the intention of my gifts, How, first beholding, they beheld in vain. And hearing, heard not, but, like shapes in dreams, Mixed all things wildly down the tedious time. Nor knew to build a house against the sun With wicketed sides, nor any woodwork knew. But Hved, like silly ants, beneath the ground In hoUow caves unsunned. There came to them No steadfast sign of winter, nor of spring Flower-perfumed, nor of summer full of fruit. But blindly and lawlessly they did all things, Until I taught them how the stars do rise And set in mystery, and devised for them Number, the inducer of philosophies. The synthesis of Letters, and, beside, The artificer of all things. Memory That sweet Muse-mother." NOTE IV 'UROCHS,' OR 'aUEROCHS,' AND SmSENT' Kobeltf discusses the habits of the wild cattle and of the bison as fol- lows : " One is inclined to consider the ancient wild cattle of Europe, the Urochs, or Auerochs, as the inhabitants of boggy forests. The Auerochs survived to the seventeenth century in the forests of Poland and then be- came extinct. It is described as of a black color with a light stripe along the back. "The bison, or Wisent, is generally regarded as the inhabitant of the open steppe, or at least of dryer, opener woods; it differs so little from the American bison that both can be considered only as races of one species, the Bison priscus of Pleistocene times, which spread over the temperate zone of both hemispheres. The American bison has always avoided the woods and roamed the prairies in countless herds. But all reliable historic records describe the Wisent as a forest animal, and its few remaining survivors are * yEschylus, Prometheus Bound. Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Poetical Works of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, pp. 148, 149. Oxford edition, 1906. Henry Frowde, London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, New York, and Toronto. t Kobelt, W., Die Verbreitung der Tierwelt, pp. 403-7. C. H. Tauchnitz, Leipsic, 1902. 506 APPENDIX entirely limited to the forests. Apparently it was never so widely and gen- erally distributed as the Auerochs and reached western Europe later, for it is not found in the north, and never in conjunction with the mammoth and rhinoceros. Remains of the bison have also been found in Asia Minor. In Lithuania the bison lives together in herds, resenting the approach of all strangers. In the Caucasus it lives wild in certain high valleys and here it is a true mountain animal, its favorite haunts being the forests of beech, hornbeam, and evergreens from 4,000 to 8,000' feet above sea-level. Only in winter does it descend to lower levels. It is uncertain whether the Wisent does not also occur in Siberia. Kohn and Andree assert positively that it is found in large numbers in the wooded mountains of Sajan, in Siberia (1895)." According to Kobelt, much confusion in the nomenclature of these animals has resulted from the fact that, after the extinction of the 'Urochs,' or 'Auerochs,' in the seventeenth century, the term 'Auerochs' was frequently used by writers as synonymous with ' Wisent,' or bison, an entirely different animal. NOTE V THE CRO-MAGNONS OF THE CANARY ISLANDS* "In the museums of the Grand Canary, Teneriffe, and Palma a con- siderable number of prehistoric vessels are preserved. Anthropologists are agreed that the natives of the archipelago at the time of its conquest, in the fifteenth century, were a composite people made up of at least three stocks: a Cro-Magnon type, a Hamitic or Berber type, and a brachyce- phalic type. These natives were in a NeoHthic stage of civilization. Their arms were slings, clubs, and spears. Most of the people went naked, ex- cept for a girdle round the loins, and there was no intercommunication be- tween the islands. Their stone implements were of obsidian or of basalt. Only four polished axes are known from the Grand Canary and one from Gomera. The axes are of chloromelanite, and of a type contemporary with megalithic structures in France. The first colonists probably brought the knowledge of making pottery with them, but each island developed an individuality of its own. Even the painted ware of the Grand Canary appears to be of local origin and not due to external influence. Although undoubted Lybian inscriptions in the Grand Canary and lava querns of Iron Age type prove that the archipelago was visited before its conquest by the Spaniards without affecting the general civilization of its inhabitants." * Abercromby, Hon. John, The. Prehistoric Pottery of the Canary Islands and Its Makers. Royal Anthropological Institute, November 17, 1914. Nature, December 3, 1914, p. 383. APPENDIX 507 GUANCHE CHARACTERISTICS RESEMBLING CRO-MAGNON^ The foUcwing excerpts are quoted from the account given by the dis- tinguished anthropologist, Dr. Rene Verneau, of his observations during a five years' residence in the Canary Islands. Page 22. "Without doubt the race that has played the most important role in the Canaries is the Guanche. They were settled in all the islands, and in Teneriffe they preserved their distinctive characteristics and customs until the conquest by Spain in the fifteenth century. "The Guanches, who at that time were described as giants, were of great stature. The minimum measure of the men was 1.70 m. (5 ft. 7 in.). "I myself met a number of men in the various islands who measured over 1.80 m. (5 ft. 11 in.). Some attained a height of 2 m. (6 ft. 62 in.). At Fortaventure the average height of the men was 1.84 m. (6 ft. A in.), perhaps the greatest known in any people. "It is a curious fact that the women who gave birth to such men were comparatively small — I observed a difference of about 20 cm. (8 in.) in the heights of the two sexes. "Their skin was light colored — if we may believe the poet Viana — • and sometimes even absolutely white. Dacil, the daughter of the last Guanche chief of Teneriffe, the valiant Bencomo, who struggled so heroi- cally for the independence of his country, had a very white complexion and her face was quite freckled. The hair of the true Guanche should be blond or light chestnut, and the eyes blue. "The most striking characteristic of the Guanche race was the shape of the head and the features of the face. The long skull gave shape to a beautiful forehead, well developed in every way. Behind, above the occipital, one notices a large plane contrasting strongly with the marked prominence of the occipital itself. In addition, the parietal eminences, placed very high and very distinct from each other, combined to give the head a pentagonal form." Page 29. "The Guanche chiefs were much respected. At Teneriffe the corona- tion of the chief took place in an enclosure surrounded with stones (the Togaror), in the presence of nobles and people. One of his nearest kins- men brought him the insignia of power. According to Viera y Clavijo, this was the humerus of one of his ancestors, carefully preserved in a case of leather; according to Viana, it was the skull of one of his predecessors. "The chief (Menceg) placed the relic on his head, pronouncing the sacramental formula: '^I swear upon the bone of him who has borne this royal crown, that I will imitate his acts and work for the happiness of my * Verneau, Dr. R., Cinq annees de sejour aiix lies Canaries. (Ouvrage couronne par I'Academie des sciences, 1891.) 508 APPENDIX subjects.' Each noble, in turn, then received the bone from the hands of the chief, placed it upon his shoulder and swore fidelity to his sovereign. . . . These chiefs led a very simple life: their food was like that of the people, their apparel but Httle more elaborate, and their dwellings — like those of their subjects — consisted of caves, only theirs were a little larger than those of the common people. They did not disdain to inspect their flocks or their harvests in person, and were, indeed, no richer than the average mortal." Page 31. "Above all, the ancient Canarians sought to develop strength and agility in their children. From an early age the boys devoted themselves to games of skill in order to fit them to become redoubtable warriors. The men delighted in all bodily exercises and, above all, in wrestling. At Gran Canaria (Grande Canarie) they often held veritable tourneys, which were attended by an immense number of people. These could not take place without the consent of the nobles and of the high priest. "Permission obtained, the combatants presented themselves at the place of meeting. This was a circular or rectangular enclosure, surrounded by a very low wall, allowing free view of the details of the combat. Each warrior took his place upon a stone of about 40 cm. diameter (15! in.). His offensive weapons consisted of three stones, a club, and several knives of obsidian: his defensive weapon was a simple lance. The skill of de- fense consisted in evading the stones by movements of the body, or parry- ing the blows with the lance, without moving from .the stone on which stand had been taken. These combats often resulted fatally for one of the combatants." Page 34. "The Guanche understood the use of the sword, and although it was of wood (pine), it could cut, they say, as if it were of steel. "To parry blows, they used a lance, as mentioned above, but they also had shields made of a round of the dragon-tree {Draccena draco). "The Guanches were essentially shepherds. While their flocks pas- tured they played the flute, singing songs of love or of the prowess of their ancestors. Those songs which have come down to us show them to have been by no means devoid of poetic inspiration. "When the care of their stock permitted, they employed their leisure in fishing. For this they employed various means — sometimes nets, sometimes fish-hooks, sometimes a simple stick." Page 47. "The Guanches were above all troglodytes — that is to say, they lived in caves. There is no lack of large, well-sheltered caves in the Canary Islands. The slopes of the mountains and the walls of their ravines are honeycombed with them. The islanders may have their choice. APPENDIX 509 "The caves are almost never further excavated. They are used just as they are. "Here is a description of one of these caves, the Grotto of Gaidar: "The interior is ahnost square — 5 m. (16 ft. 4 in.) along the left side, 5.50 m. (18 ft.) along the right. The width at the back is 4.80 m. (15 ft. 6 in.). A second cave, much smaller, opens from the right wall. All these walls are decorated with paintings. The ceiling is covered with a uniform coat of red ochre, while the walls are decorated with various geometric designs in red, black, gray, or white. High up runs a sort of cornice painted red, and on this background, in white, are groups of two concentric circles, whose centre is also indicated by a white spot. On the rear wall the cornice is interrupted by triangles and stripes of red." Page 61. "The Guanches never polished their stone weapons." Page 168. "Inhabited caves are very numerous at Fortaventure. The popula- tion in certain parts — Mascona, for example — must be quite numerous to judge by the number of these caves. At a little distance, in the place known as Hoya de Corralejo, one may still see the Togaror, or tribal meet- ing place. It is an almost circular enclosure about 40 m. (131 ft. 2 in.) in diameter, surrounded by a low wall of stones. Six huts, from 2.50 to 4 m. (8 ft. 2i in. — 13 ft. 1 2 in.) in diameter, designed no doubt for the sacred animals, stood near the Togaror." Page 245. "A great number of Canarians still live in caves. Near Caldera de Bandama (Gran Canaria) there is a whole village of cave dwellers." Page 264. At Teneriffe Dr. Verneau received hospitality in a cabin worthy of the Palaeolithic Age. "I had no need to make any great effort to imagine myself with a descendant of those brave shepherds of earlier times. My host was an example of the type^even though the costume was lacking — and his dwelling completed the illusion. The walls, which gave free access to the wind, supported a roof composed of unstripped tree trunks covered with branches. Stones piled on top prevented the wind from tearing it off. "Hung up on poles to dry were goatskins, destined to serve as sacks for the gofiio (a kind of millet), bottles for water, and shoes for the family. A reed partition shut off a small corner where the children lay stretched out pell mell on skins of animals. For furniture, a chest, a hollo-wed-out stone which served as a lamp, shells which served the same purpose, a water jar, three stones forming a hearth in one corner, and that was all." (And this host was the most important personage in the place.) 510 APPENDIX Page 289. Another time, also at Teneriffe, Dr. Verneau had a similar experience. "An old shepherd invited me to his house and offered me some milk. What was my surprise on seeing the furnishing of his hut I In one corner was a bed of fern, near by a Guanche mill and a large jar, in all points similar to those used by the ancient islanders. A reed flute, a wooden bowl and a goatskin sack full of goiio completed the appointments of his home. I could scarcely believe my eyes on examining the jar and the mill. See- ing my astonishment, the old man explained that he had found them in a cave where 'the Guanches' lived, and that he had used them for many years. I could not persuade him to part with these curiosities. To my offers of money he answered that he needed none for the short time he had still to live." NOTE VI THE LENGTH OF POSTGLACIAL TIME AND THE ANTIQUITY OF THE AURIGKA- CIAN CULTURE The most recent discussion on the length of Postglacial time was that held at the Twelfth International Congress of Geology, in Ottawa, in 1913 {Congres Geologique International, Compte-rendn de la XII Session, Canada, 1913, pp. 426-537). The notes abstracted by Dr. Chester A. Reeds from the various papers are as follows: '"American estimates of Postglacial time have been made chiefly from the recession of waterfalls since the final retreat of the great ice-fields in North America. The retreat of the Falls of St. Anthony, Minnesota, has been estijnated by Winchell at 8,000 years and by Sardeson at 30,000 years. The retreat of the Falls of Niagara has been estimated as requiring from 7,000 to 40,000 years; it has proved a very uncertain chronometer, because of the great variation in the volume of water at different stages in its his- tory. The recession of Scarboro Heights and other changes due to wave action on Lake Ontario have been estimated by Coleman as requiring from 24,000 to 27,000 years. Fairchild has estimated that 30,000 years have elapsed since the ice left the Lake Ontario region of New York. "In Europe the most accurate chronology is that of Baron de Geer on the terminal moraines and related marine clays of northern Sweden. For the retreat of the ice northward over a distance of 370 miles in Sweden 5,000 years were allowed; for the time since the disappearance of the ice in Sweden, 7,000 years; for the retreat of the ice from Germany across the Baltic, 12,000 years; giving a total of 24,000 years as compared with a total of between 30,000 and 50,000 years allowed by Penck for the retreat of the ice-fields of the Alps." APPENDIX 511 NOTE VII THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES OF ANTHROPOID APES AND SUPPOSED ANCESTORS OF MAN IN INDIA It is possible that within the next decade one or more of the Tertiary ancestors of man may be discovered in northern India among the foot-hills known as the Siwaliks. Such discoveries have been heralded, but none have thus far been actually made. Yet Asia will probably prove to be the centre of the human race. We have now discovered in southern Asia prim- itive representatives or relatives of the four existing types of anthropoid apes, namely, the gibbon, the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla, and since the extinct Indian apes are related to those of Africa and of Europe, it appears probable that southern Asia is near the centre of the evolution of the higher primates and that we may look there for the ances- tors not only of prehuman stages Uke the Trinil race but of the higher and truly human types. As early as 1886 several kinds of extinct Old World primates, including two anthropoid apes related to the orang and to the chimpanzee, were re- ported from the Siwalik hills in northern India, and recently Dr. Pilgrim, of the Geological Survey, has described three new species of Siwalik apes resembling Dryopithecus of the Upper Miocene of Europe, also an anthro- poid which he has named Sivapithecus and regards as actually related to the direct ancestors of man, a conclusion which may or may not prove to be correct. Another extinct Indian ape, Palceopithecus, is of very general- ized type and is related to all the anthropoid apes. NOTE VIII ANTHROPOID APES DISCOVERED BY CARTHAGINIAN NAVIGATORS* The Periplus of Hanno purports to be a Greek translation of a Cartha- ginian inscription on a tablet in the "temple of Chronos" (Moloch) at Carthage, dedicated by Hanno, a Carthaginian navigator, in commemora- tion of a voyage which he made southward from the Strait of Gibraltar along the western coast of Africa as far as the inlet now known as Sherboro Sound, the next opening beyond Sierra Leone. Hanno is a very common Carthaginian name, but recent writers think it not improbable that this Hanno was either the father or the son of that Hamilcar who led the great Carthaginian expedition to Sicily in 480 B. C. In the former case the Periplus might be assigned to a date about 520 B. C; in the latter, some fifty years later. The narrative was certainly extant at an early period, for it is cited in the work on Marvellous Narratives ascribed to Aristotle, which belongs to *Bunbury, E. H. History of Ancient Geography, vol. I, pp. 318-333. John Murray, London, 1879. 512 APPENDIX the third century B. C, and Phny also expressly refers to it. The authen- ticity of the work is now generally conceded. According to the narrative the farthest limit of Hanno's voyage, which was undertaken for purposes of colonization, brought him and his com- panions to an island containing a lake with another island in it which was full of wild men and women with hairy bodies, called by the interpreters gorillas. The Carthaginians were unable to catch any of the men but they caught three of the women, whom they killed, and brought their skins back with them to Carthage. "Pliny, indeed, adds that the skins in question were dedicated by Hanno in the temple of Juno at Carthage, and continued to be visible there till the destruction of the city. There can be no diflS- culty in supposing these 'wild men and women' to have been really large apes of the family of the chimpanzee, or pongo, several species of which are in fact found wild in western Africa, and some of them, as is now well known, attain a stature fully equal to that of man." BIBLIOGRAPHY Agassiz, L. 1 83 7. 1 Discours prononce a I'ouverture des seances de la Societe Helvetique des Sciences Naturelles a Neuchatel le 24 Juillet, 1837, par L. Agassiz, President. Actes, Soc. Helvetique, Sci. nat., 22c Sess., 1837, pp. v-xxxii. 1840. 1 Etudes sur les glaciers. Ouvrage accompagne d'un atlas de 32 planches. 8vo. Neuchatel, 1840. 1840.2 On Glaciers and Boulders in Switzerland. Rcpt. lotli Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Glasgow, 1840, pp. 113, 114 (Trans. Sections). Alcalde del Rio, H. iqi2.i Les cavernes de la region cantabrique (Espagne). (With Breuil and Sierra.) See Breuil, H., 1912.2. 1913.1 La Pasiega. (With Breuil and Obermaier.) See Breuil, H., 1913.1. 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Schlosser, M. 191 I.I Die Kastlhang-Hohle, eine Renntierjagerstation im bayerischen Alt- miihltale. (With Fraunholz und Obermaier.) See Fraunholz, 1911.1. Schmerling, P.-C. 1833. 1 Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles decouvertes dans les cavernes de la province de Liege. Liege, 410, 1833. Schmidt, R. R. 1912.1 Die diluviale Vorzeit Deutschlands. I — Archaologischer Teil: Die diluvialen Kulturen Deutschlands, R. R. Schmidt. II — Geologi- scher Teil: Die Geologic und Tierwelt der palaolithischen Kultur- statten Deutschlands, Ernst Koken. Ill — Anthropologischer Teil: Die diluvialen Menschenreste Deutschlands, A. Schliz. Stuttgart, 4to, 191 2. Schoetensack, O. 1908. 1 Der Unterkiefer des Homo heiddhergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg. Ein Beitrag zur Palaontologie des Menschen. Leipzig, %io, 1908. Schuchert, C. 1913.1 Climates of Geologic Time. Reprint, Carnegie Inst, of Washington, Publication No. 192, pp.' 263-298. Schuchhardt, C. 1913.1 Palaolithische Fundstellen der Dordogne. (With Wiegers und Hilz- heimer.) See Wiegers, 1913.1. Schwalbe, G. 1 897. 1 Ueber die Schadelformen der altesten Menschenrassen mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung des Schiidels von Egisheim. Mitt. Philomat. Gesell. Elsass-Lothringen, Jahrg. 5 (1897), Heft III, pp. 72-85. 1899. 1 Studien iiber Pithecanthropus erectus Dubois. Zeitschr. f. Morph. u. AnthropoL, Bd. I, Heft I, pp. 16-22, Pis. I-III. 1901. 1 Der Neanderthalschadel. Bonner Jahrb., no. 106, Bonn, pp. 1-72. 1901.2 tjber die specifischen Merkmale des Neanderthalschadels. Verh. Anat. Gesell., Bonn, 1901, pp. 44-61. 1904.1 Die Vorgeschichte des Menschen. Braunschweig, 8vo, 1904. 530 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1906. 1 Das Schadelfragment von Briix und verwandte Schadelformen. Zeitschr. fiir Morphol. imd Anthropol., Sonderheft, 1906. pp. 81-182, Pis. I-IL 1914.1 Kritische Besprechung von Boule's Werk: "L'homme fossile de La Chapelle-aux-Saints" mit eigenen Untersuchungen. Zeitschr. Morph. u. Anthropol., Bd. XVI, Heft 3, pp. 527-610. 1914.2 tjber einen bei Ehringsdorf in der Nahe von Weimar gefundenen Unterkiefer des Homo primigenius. Anat. Anzeiger, Band 47, nos. 13-17. Oktober, 1914, pp. 337-345. Selenka, L. 191 I.I Die Pithecanthropus-Schichten auf Java. (With Blanckenhorn.) Geologische und paliiontologische Ergebnisse der Trinil-Expedition (1907-1908). Herausgegeben von M. Lenore Selenka und Prof. Max Blanckenhorn, Leipzig, 4to, 1911. Serrano Gomez, P. iqi2.i Les peintures rupestres d'Espagne. (With Breuil and Cabre Aguilo.) See Breuil, 1912.5. Sierra, R. P. L. 191 2.1 Les cavernes de la region cantabrique (Espagne). (With Alcalde del Rio and Breuil.) See Alcalde del Rio, 191 2.1. Smith, G. E. 191 2. 1 Presidential Address to the Anthropological Section (B. A. A. S.). Rpt. 82d Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Dundee, 1912, pp. 575-598. 1913.1 The Controversies concerning the Interpretation and Meaning of the Remains of the Dawn-Man Found near Piltdown. [Abstract.] Meet. Manchester Lit. and Philosoph. Soc, November 18, 1913. 1913.2 On the Discovery of a Palaeolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a FUnt-Bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex). With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton EUiot Smith. See Dawson, C, 1913.1. 1913.3 The Piltdown Skull. Nature, vol. 92, no. 2292, October 2, 1913, p. 131. 1913.4 The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. Nature, vol. 92, no. 2296, October 30, 1913, pp. 267, 268. 1914.1 Supplementary Note on the Discovery of a Palaeolithic Human Skull and Mandible at Piltdown (Sussex). (With Dawson and Wood- ward.) With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, C, 1914.1. Smith, W. 1 894. 1 Man the Primeval Savage. His Haunts and Relics from the HiE- Tops of Bedfordshire to Blackwall. London, 8vo, 1894. SoUas, W. J. 1900. 1 Evolutional Geology. Presidential Address to the Geological Sec- tion (B. A. A. S.). Rpt. Toth Meeting, Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Brad- ford, 1900, pp. 711-730. BIBLIOGRAPHY 531 iQTi.i Ancient Hunters and Their Modern Representatives. London, 8vo. 1911. 1913.1 Paviland Cave: An Aurignacian Station in Wales. (The Hu.xley Memorial Lecture for 1Q13.) Joiirn. R. Anthropol. Inst, of Gr. Brit. &° Ireland, vol. XLIII, 1913, pp. 325-373. Steinmann, C. 1914.1 Diluviale Menschenfunde in Obercassel bei Bonn. (With Verworn and Bonnet.) IV — Uber das geologische Alter der Fundstelle. See Verworn, M., 1914.1. Strobel, J. 1909. 1 Die Aurignacienstation von Krems (N.-O.). (With Obermaier, H.) Mit einem Anhang von Oskar von Troll. Jahrb. A Iter turns kunde, Bd. Ill, 1909, pp. 129-148, Pis. XI-XXL T Tomes, C. S. T914.1 A Manual of Dental Anatomy, Human and Comparative. Edited by H. W. Marett Tims and A. Hopewell-Smith. Seventh edition. (J. and A. Churchill.) London, 8vo, 1914, 616 pp. von Troll, O. 1909. 1 Die Aurignacienstation von Krems (N.-O.). (With Strobel and Obermaier.) Mit einem Anhang von Oskar von Troll. See Strobel, J., 1909. i. u TJpham, W. 1893. 1 Estimates of Geologic Time. Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. XLV, 1893, pp. 209-220. V Verneau, R. 1886. 1 La race de Cro-Magnon. Rev. Anthropol., ser. 3, tome I, 1886, pp. 10-24. 1891.1 Cinq annees de sejour aux iles Canaries. Paris, 1891. 1906. 1 Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baousse-Rousse). Tome II, fasc. I — Anthropologic. ^Monaco, 4to, 1906 Verworn, M. 1914.1 Diluviale Menschenfunde in Obercassel bei Bonn. (With Bonnet and Steinmann.) I — -Fundbericht, Verworn. II — Die Kulturstufe des Fundes, Verworn. Ill — Die Skelete, Bonnet. IV— Uber das geologische Alter der Fundstelle, Steinmann. Die Naturwissen- schaften, Heft 27, Jahrg. 2, 3 Juli 1914, pp. 645-650. 532 BIBLIOGRAPHY de Vibraye. 1864. 1 Note sur des nouvelles preuves de I'existence de Fhomme dans le centre de la France a une epoque ou s'y trouvaient aussi divers animauxqui de nos jours n'habitent pas cette contree. C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris, tome 58, 1864, pp. 409-416. Villeneuve, L. 1906. 1 Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baousse-Rousse). Tome I, fasc. I — His- torique et Description. Monaco, 4to, 1906. Volz, W. 1907. 1 Das geologische Alter der Pithecanthropus-Schichten bei Trinil, Ost-Java. N. Jahrb. Miner., Geol. u. Paldontol., Festbaud, 1907, pp. 256-271. w Walcott, C. D. 1893. 1 Geologic Time as Indicated by the Sedimentary Rocks of North America. Amer. Geol., vol. XII, no. 6, 1893, pp. 343-368, Pi. XV. Wiegers, F. 1913.1 Eine Studienreise zu den palaolithischen Fundstellen der Dordogne. (With Schuchhardt and Hilzheimer.) Zeitschr. /. Ethnol., Jahrg. 45, Heft I, 1913, pp. 126-160. Wilser, L. 1898. 1 Menschenrassen und Weltgeschichte. Naturwiss. Wochenschr., Band XIII, Heft I, 1898. Woodward, A. S. 19 13. 1 On the Discovery of a Palaeolithic Human Skull and IMandible in a Flint-Bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching, Sussex. (With Dawson, C.) W^ith an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, C, 1913.1. 1914.1 Supplementary Note on the Discovery of a Palaeolithic Human Skull and ^Mandible at Piltdown (Sussex). (With Charles Dawson.) With an Appendix by Prof. Grafton Elliot Smith. See Dawson, C, 1914.1. 1914.2 On fhe Lower Jaw of an Anthropoid Ape (Dryopithecus) from the Upper Miocene of Lerida (Spain). Quart. Journ. Geol. Sac, London, vol. LXX, pp. 316-320, PI. XLIV. 1915.1 A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man in the Department of Geology and Palaeontology in the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London, S. W. With 4 plates and 12 text-figures. Printed by order of the trustees of the British Museum. Svo, 1915, iZ PP- INDEX INDEX* Abbeville, 109, 116, 124, 125, 127, 149, 152, 156, 166, 167, 244, 331 Abri Audit, 245, 246, 248, 255, 269, 277, 305, 307. 309,311, 314 Abri Dufaure, 471 Abri Mege, 435, 442 Abris, see Rock Shelters Achenheim, 30, 160, 161, 167, 176, 195, 284, 314 Achenschivankimg, see Postglacial Stage Acheulean, 14-16, 18, 30; chronology, t,2„ 41, 89; climate, 112, 117, 118, 165, 166, 173, 174, 175-177, 186; fauna, 144-148, 165; geography (physical), 166; human fossils, 24, 181-185; industry, 14, 16, 18,41, 108, 113, 122-124, 169-173, 177- 180, 270, 280, 362; stations, 151, 158- 162, 166-169; see Origin ^schylus, on the prehistory of man, 3, 505 Aggsbach, 29, 435, 448 Agriculture, 2, 486, 496 Aiguille, needle, 271, 310, 313, 387, 388, 391, 392, 440, 443-445, 449, 461, 462 Alactaga jaculus, ^73, 374; see Jerboa Alces, 187, 287, 369; latifrons, 70, see Moose .Alento, 167 Alpera, 469, 497 Alpine fauna, see Fauna Alpine race, 278, 458, 479, 480, 481, 484, 485, 491, 499, 500 .\lpine vole, 371, see Arvicola nivalis .\ltamira, 17, 319, 321, 331, 332, 346, 368, 385, 394, 395, 399, 408, 415, 416, 422-427, 434, 435, PI- ^^^ Ancestr>^ of Man, see ]Man Ancona, 167 Andemach, 160, 195, 279, 372, 378, 435 Anthropoid Apes, 3, 21; ancestry, 49-61; brain, 52-60; compared \\4th Grimaldi, 266, ^\•^th Neanderthal, 9, 217, 230-233, 237-240, with Piltdo\vn, 140, 141, with Pithecanthropus, 9, 77-79; known to Carthaginians, 511, 5x2; recent dis- coveries, ?ii Anthropology, rise of, 3-10 Antilopc saiga, see Saiga antelope .\nvils, bone, 211, 253, 256, 271; see Com- prcsseur Apes, see Anthropoid Arboreal hfe, effects of, 56, 57 Archaeology, rise of, 10-18 Archer, 329 Arctomys marmotta, 182, 370; see Marmot Arcy-sur-Cure, 214, 219, 435 ArgaU sheep, 46, 285, 287, 371; see Ovis argaloides Arrow, 214, 258, 270, 272,344, 353,354, 410, 450, 497 Art, 17,, 14, 17, 21, 315-330, 332, 347-350, 392-434, 449, see Aurignacian, Magda- lenian, Solutrean, Engraving, Painting, Sculpture, Industry; implements used in, 270, 309-312, 321, 329, 330, 385, 396, 415, 463; means of dating, 317-320 Arudy, 435, 436 Arvicola, amphibius, 147; gregalis, 373; nivalis, 370, 371 Ascoh Piceno, 167 Ass, wild (kiang), see Horse Aurensan, 435, 438, 471 Aurignac, 5, 13, 14, 16, 275, 279, 290, 294, 314 Aurignacian, 14-16, 18, 275, 276; art, 315- 330, 403, 404, 408; burial customs, 302- 305; chronology, 33, 41, 35i ; chmatc, 123, 281-286; fauna, 285-289; human fossils, 289-305; industry, 16, 18, 41, 108, 269- 271, 275-277, 280, 305-313, 329, 330, 362; stations, 275, 283, 284, 289, 307, 313-315; see Origin Aurignacian race, see Cpmbe-Capelle man Aurochs, see Bos primigcnius and Cattle Australian head type, 136, 228, 232, 234 Awl, see Poinqon Axe, 493, 494 _ Azilian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian Azilian-Tardenoisian, 16, 275, 451, 456; art, 456; burial customs, 475-479; chro- nology, 275, 456, 459; climate, 463, 468; fauna, 463, 466, 468-470, 471, 472, 474; •Authors' names are given in the bibliography and in the reference lists at the end of each chapter. 535 536 INDEX human fossils, 461, 475-485; industry (Azilian), 15, 16, 18, 270, 271, 275, 276, 456, 459-465, 466, 470-475, (Tardenoi- sian) 16, 18, 270, 271, 450, 456, 465-468, 470-472, (painted pebbles) 394,456,461, 463-465; stations, 459, 463, 466, 467, 472-475; see Origin Badegoule, 279, 331, 336, 435 Badger, 165, 201, 343, 367, 447, 498; see Meles taxus Ballahohle, 279, 331, 336 Baltic race, 458, 486, 500; see Maglemose Balverhohle, 471 Baousse Rousse, see Grimaldi, Grottes de Baousso da Torre, see Grimaldi, Grottes de Barma Grande, see Grimaldi, Grottes de Baton dc commandement, 271, 311, 312, 345, 358, 359, 388, 391, 432, 443-445, 449 Baumannshohle, 160, 195, 245, 247, 248, 439 Bear, 43, 44, 62, 95, 96, 165, 213, 245, 264, 287, 288, 2,33, 343, 348, 367, 378, 430, 441, 447, 461, 468, 498; see Cave-bear and Ursus Beaver, 63, 95, 134, 165, 182, 288, 348, 367, 447, 461, 46S, 498, see Castor ; giant, in, 155, see Trogontherium Bemifal, 321, 395, 396, 435 Billancourt, 109, 149, 152 Bison, Wisent, 13, 43, 44, 69, 71, 95, 98, 106, 125, 147, 165, 192, 194, 196, 202, 206, 211, 223, 287, 288, 317, 321, 333, 348, 353, 356, 364, 368, 372, 385, 403, 405, 406, 410, 414, 420, 421, 423-428, 430, 431, 449, 466, 469, 496, 498, 505, 506, Pis. Wl and \1II; see Bison Bison, antiquus, 6g; priscus, 71, 95, 148, 368, see Bison Blade, see Couteau and Lame Bleville, 167 Boar, wild, 2, 3, 43, 44, 76, 95, 264, 265, 421, 426, 447, 461, 466, 468, 498; see Siis Bockstein, 285, 314, 435, 442 Bois Colombes, 109, 149, 152 Borer, drill, see Perqoir Bos, 71, 369, 405; longifrons, 498; primi- geniiis, 71, 94, 222, 368, 413, 468, 469, 49S; taiinis, 447, 498; see Cattle Bossuet, on the prehistory of man, 503, 504 Brachycephaly, 7, 8, 78, 183, 457, 458, 478- 485 Brain, anthropoid, 51, 52, 56, 59; Brlinn, 334, 490; Combe-Capelle, 236, 302, 490; Cro-Magnon, 272, 292, 294, 299, 490; evolution of, 8, 9, 56-60; Grimaldi, 269, 490; Modem, 56-59, 83, 84, 140, 235, 303, 490; Neanderthal, 9, 58, 59, 235- 237, 490; Ofnet, 480, 490; Piltdown, 58, 59, 139-141, 236, 490; Pithecanthropus 9, 58, 59, 83, 84, 490 Brassempouy, 14, 279, 314, 322, 331, 347, 355, 393, 395, 433-435, 438 Brive, 307, 314 Bronze Age, 12, 18, 21, 202, 267, 460, 461, 476 Bruniquel, 279, 348, 388, 427, 435, 436 Briinn, 279, 315, 322, 331, 334-337, 395, PI- II; race, 23, 257, 276, 2:78, 302, 331, 333, 334-338, 4S0, 489-491, 500; see Brux, Galley Hill, Pfedmost, Human fossils, and Origin BriLx, 334; see Briinn race Buchenloch, 245, 314, 435 Buffon, G. L. L., 3 Buhl, see Postglacial Stage Burial customs, 24, 215, 221-223, 270, 271, 302, 303-305. 337. 376-380, 475-479 Burin, graver, 270, 306-308, 310, 386, 389, 470 Cabego da Arruda, 467, 471, 474 Camargo, 279, 294, 314, 331, 435 Campignian, 493-495 Campigny, 471; see Campignian Camps, open, 29, 30, 176, 283, 284, 314, 334, 337, 341-343, 442, 448 Canary Islands, 453, 454, 506-510 Canis, lagopus, 193, 206, see Fox, arctic; nescherscnsis, 333; suessi, 147; see Dog, Jackal, and Wolf Cannibalism, 184, 477 Cannstatt, 10, 105, 218, 220, 331 Cap-Blanc, 317, 395, 428, 431, 435 Capreolus. 70, 147, 367, 469; see Deer, roe- Capri, 167, 168 Caramanico, 167 Castillo, 2,2>, 15°, 162-165, 167, 245, 246, 279, 314, 319, 320, 324, 325, 331, 342, 349, 395. 402, 408, 435, 436, 459, 460, 471 Castor, 6q; fiber, 147, 183, 470; see Beaver Cattle, wld (Aurochs, Urochs, urus), 43, 44, 62, 66, 76, 95, 98, 106, 119, 125, 148, 165, 182, 192, 206, 211, 214, 245, 265, 284, 288, 325, 333, 348, 356, 368, 372, 392, 405, 413, 461, 466, 468. 469, 497, 498, 505, 506; see Bos and Leptobos INDEX 537 Cave-bear, lo, ii, 13, 1S2, 194, 197, 201, 202, 206, 210, 211, 212, 213, 218, 287, 401, 413; see Urstis spelceus Cave-hyajna, 11, 212, 218, 265, 287, 288; see Hycena crocuta spelaa Cave-leopard, 206, 287; see Felis pardtts spelcBa Cave-lion, 201, 206, 265, 287; see Fdis Ico spelaa Caverns, 24; formation of, 30-33, 212; life in, 2, 30, 32, 211-213, 457 Cavillon, Grotte de, see Grimaldi, Grottes de Gazelle, 435 Cephalic index, 8, 4S0, 490 Ceppagna, 167 Cergy, 109, 149, 152 CerouSjCarniitoriim, ']i',dama,^()2>;dicranius, 71; claphus, 70, 94, 147, 367, 392, 426, 461, 469; moral, 367, 447; sedgwickl, 69, 71; see Deer and Stag Chaffaud, Grotte du, 396, 404, 435, 438 Chaleux, Trou de, 435 Chamois, Rupicapra, 44, 46, 201, 264, 265, 357, 365, 366, 369, 371, 466 Champs, 435, 436 Champs Blancs, 331, 348, 435 Chancelade, 279. 376-378, 382, 435 Chapelle-aiLx-Saints, La, 7, 9, 203, 214, 222- 224, 226-232, 235-238, 241-243, 245, 246 Chatelperron, 305, 307, 314; see Pointe Chellean, 14-16, 18; chronology, 33, 34, 113-115, 120; chmate, 117, 118; fauna, 144-148; geography (physical), 115, 116, 154-157; industry, 12, 14, 16, 18,41, 108, 114, 148-154, 270, 280, 362; stations, 149, 152, 154-158; see Origin Chelles, 16, 109, iii, 116, 149, 152, 154, 167, 244 Chimpanzee, 3, 8, 49, 52-56, 58, 59, 78, 140, 227, 231, 235, 490, 511, 512 Chipping, see Flint Chisel, see Cisean Chronology, 10, 12-14, 16, 18-24, 41, 510; tables, 18, 21, 22, 23, 33, 41, 43, 54, 108, 280, 362, 395, 491; means of estimating, 19, 20, 22-24, 317-320 Cisean, chisel, 270, 271, 388, 392, 444 Climate, effect on fauna, 46, 47, 192, 194, 205, 284-287; effect on man, t,t,, 297, 332, 372, 382; glacial, 20, 29, 34, 37-43, 64-66, 89, 104, 105, 114, 117, 188-194, 202, 205, 281, 285; interglacial, 20, 29, 30, 33, 34, 37-41, 43, 67, 90, 91, 95, 103, 112, 117, 118, 186-188; Pliocene, 63; Postglacial, 23, 41, 43, 276, 281-284; 361-363 Clothing, 2, 178, 186, 213, 388, 392, 496 Cogul, 394, 497 Colombes, 109, 149, 152 Combarelies, 319, 395-397, 399-401, 435 Combc-c\- Roland, 331 Combe-CapeUe, 167, 192, 196, 197, 199, 211, 245, 248, 249, 252, 253, 255, 279, 314; man {Homo aurignacensis) , 302, 303, 338 Combo-Negro, 435, 436 Compresseur, 271; see Anvils Continental outline, 19, 34-37, 64, 65, 71, 86, 92, 105, 115, 116, 155, 156, 166, 189, 190, 281, 282, 288, 362 Cotte de St. Brelade, La, 214, 225, 245 Cottes, Les, 213, 314 Coup de poing, 113, 114, 121, 129, 130, 152- 154, 169-173, 177-180, 222, 251-254, 256, 270 Couteaii (knife, blade), 130, 172, 177, 180, 270, 306, 308, 310, 386, 389, 488, 494 Crayford, 198, 245 Creteil, 109, 149, 152 Cricctus phmis, 373, 374; see Hamster Cro-Magnon, 279, 291, 314, 331, 437, PI. II; man, 7, 273, 279, 291-294, 300, 301; race, 7, 23, 54, 240, 257, 258, 260, 261, 263, 265-276, 278, 280-282, 284, 289- 30s, 336, 351, 358, 376-382, 434, 440, 443, 449-454, 457-459, 489-492, 499, 500, 506-510, PI. VII Cromer, Forest Bed of, 64, 67, 68, 71 Crosle Biscot, 435 Crouzade, 331, 341, 435, 437 Culture, see Industry Cyon alpintis fossilis, 201 Dart-thrower, see Propulseiir Daiin, see Postglacial Stage Deer, 44, 125, 134, 245, 265, 356, 426, see Cervus; Axis, 62, 71, 76, 102; fallow, 265, 469, 497, see Cervus dama; giant, 43, 94, 96, 165, 187, 206, 211, 213, 288, 335, see Megaceros; polycladine, 63, 102, see Cervus dicranius and sedgwicki; red, 44, 287, 426, 447, see Cervus claphus and Stag; roe-, 44, 94, 95, 165, 264, 265, 287, 404, 447, 466, 468, 488, 498, see Capre- olus; rusa, 76 Dicerorhinus (R.), antiquitatis, 46, 106, 285, see Rhinoceros, woolly; etruscus, 41, 63, 69, see Rhinoceros, Etruscan; merckii, 41, 92-94, 117, 148, 263, see Rhinoceros, Merck's Dog, domestic, 474, 486, 488, 497, 499 538 INDEX Dolichocephaly, 7, 8, 78, 220, 230, 231, 266, 268, 334, 336, 338, 457, 478-481 Domestic i.\nimals, 447, 466, 474, 486, 488, 497-499 Drill, see Perqoir Dryopilhccus, 6, 49, 50, 511 Diimten, 20, 117, 119 Diimtenian, 107, 119 Duruthy, see Sorde E Ehringsdorf, 167, 181, 214 Elasmothere, E. sibiricum, 46, 286, 373 Elephant, 38, 43, 44, 47, 72, 76, 86, 91-95, 102, 117, 119, 123, 124, 147, 148, 15s, 157, 161, 174, 177, 186, 187, 192, 205, 245, 264; see Elcphas Elephas, antiquus, 27, 41, 47, 72, 76, 92-94, 96, 117, 123, 125, 148, 165, 263; hysiidri- cus, 76; meridionalis, 26, 27, 41, 62, 69, 72, 92, 125; planifrons, 62; primigeniiis, 26, 46, 106, 2Ss;trogontherii, 41, 93, 102, 117; see Elephant and Mammoth Elevation, see Continental outUne Enfants, Grotte des, see Grimaldi, Grottes de, and Grimaldi race Engis, 435, 453 Engraving, 317, 319-324, 326, 348, 349, 353, 355, 356, 35S, 392-407 Eoanthropus dawsoni, 138, see Piltdo\\Ti Eolith, II, 68, 84-86, 135 Eohthic, Era, 17, 18; industry, 17 Eqims, caballus cdticus, 367-369, 400, 408, 412, 419, 431, 432, 498; przewalski, 194, 367, 373, 408, 410, 419; stcnonis, 27, 62, 63, 69, 72; see Horse Erect attitude, 4, 57-60, 73, 74, 82, 241-244 Ermine, Mustela crminia, 46, 207, 370, 447, 469 Etruscan rhinoceros, see Rhinoceros Eyzies, Les, 13, 249, 279, 331, 378, 388, 394, 435 Fate, Grotte delle, .245, 247 Fauna, 19-21, 38-47, 61-64, 66, 69, 108; Acheulean, 117, 147, 148, 165, 177, 182; African- Asiatic, 43, 44, 47, 62, 63, 71, 72, 86, 91-94, 205, 206, 287; alpine, 44, 46, 206, 287; Aurignacian, 284-289; Azihan- Tardenoisian, 466, 468-470, 472; Chel- lean, 117, 125, 144-148; forest, 44, 71, 206, 287; glacial, 105, 106, 117, 190-194, 196, 197, 205-214, 265; interglacial, 69- 72, 91-98, 101-103, 108-112, 117, 119, 123-125, 186-188, 265; Magdalenian, 364-376, 385, 397-434, 449, 466, 469; meadow, 44, 71, 206, 287; Mousterian, 117, 186-188, 190-194, 196, 197, 199- 214, 218, 221-223, 225, 263, 264; PUo- cene, 54, 61-64, 144; Postglacial, 281, 364, 468, 469, 498, 499; Pre-Chellean, 108-112, 117, 125; SiwaUk, 76; Solu- trean, 332, 333, 343, 348; steppe, 44, 46, 194, 206, 281, 287, 362-366, 373-376, 449, 450; tundra, 44, 46, 190-194, 206- 211, 281, 285, 287, 348, 361, 362-366, 370-373; migrations of, 19, 34-37, 62- 64, 71, 72, 202, 205-210, 287; represented in PalaeoUthic art (Ust), 366; see Climate, for effect of, and Faunal lists Faunal hsts, 95, 125, 147, 206, 207, 287, 366 Faime chaiide, 39, 91, 192; see Mousterian fauna Faunc froide, see Mousterian fauna Faustkeil, see Coup de poing Fees, Grotte des, 279, 435 Fclis, leo, 72, 92, 469; leo antiqita, 147; leo spdcea, 47, 188; manul, 447; pardiis spelcea, 201; see Cave-leopard, Cave- lion, Leopard, Lion, and Wildcat Femur (thigh-bone), 73, 74, 77,80, 237-241, 266, 298, 376, 380 Fere-en-Tardenois, 16, 465, 471 Ferrassie, La, 7, 214, 216, 219, 224, 232, 237, 245, 246, 269 Fire, use of, 2, 165, 212, 213 First Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch First Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Fishing, 355, 385, 390, 450, 465, 471 Flake, see Levallois Flaking, see Flint Flint, chipping, 170; cleavage, 171; flaking, 169 Floors, Mousterian, 198, 199 Flora, 20; Acheulean, 117, 118, 174, 175; Chellean, 117, 118; glacial, 65, 108, 117- 119, 191, 192, 202, 208; interglacial, 20, 67, 90, 91, 117-119; Mousterian, 199; Phocene, 61, 63; Postglacial, 361, 372, 375, 463, 488; Pre-Chellean, 117, 118; Pre-Neohthic, 488 Font-de-Gaume, 283, 314, 318, 319, 321, 325, 331, 349, 356, 358, 365, 372, 395- 397, 399, 406-409, 412, 414-424, 435, 449 Font Robert, 277, 311, 314, 331, 340, 344 Forestian, Upper, 362; Lower, 282 Forests, see Flora INDEX 539 Foro, 167 Fourth Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Fox, 43, 63, 71, 206, 265, 287, sss, 343, 348, 366, 447, 498, see Vulpcs; arctic, 44, 46, 193, 207, 287, 289, 348, 370, 447, 468, 469, see Canis lagopiis. Freudenthal, 279, 435 Frileuse, 167 Frontal, Trou de, 435 Fucnte del Frances, 435 Furfooz, 7, 279, 481-483, PI. II; race, 278, 458, 480, 482- 4S5, 489, 491, 492, 500; see Crenelle, Of net, and Origin Fumiijha, 167, 168 Galley Hill, 28, 302, 337, 338; see Brunn race Gansersfelsen, 435 Garenne, 435, 440 Gargano, 167 Gargas, 31, 307, 314, 317, 325, 327, 349, 394, 395 Germolles, 307, 314 Gibbon, 49-54, 58, 61,63,77, 511; see Ilyhb- ates Gibraltar skull, 7, 9, 140, 214, 215, 216, 219, 226, 228, 232, 233, 236 Glacial Epoch, 18-23, ^3, 4°, 41, 43, 54) chronology, 18-23, 40, 41, 108, 188, 280, 362; see Chmate, Continental outUne, Fauna, Glaciers; First Glacial Stage (Giinz), 23, 25, 26, 37, 38, 41, 43, 64-66; Second Glacial Stage (Mindel), 23, 25, 26, 33, 37, 38, 41, 43, 65, 86-90; Third Glacial Stage (Riss), 23, 25, 26, 33, 37- 39, 41, 43, 94, 104-106, 115; Fourth Glacial Stage (Wtirm), 18, 22, 23, 25, 26, 30, 32, 33, 36-38, 41, 43, 107, 108, 117, 160, 188-19S, 205, 206, 280, 281, 284, 285, 362, Laufenschwankung, 41, 108, 280, 362; First Interglacial Stage (Giinz-Mindel or Norfolkian), 23, 26, 29, 33-35, 38, 41, 43, 66-72, 84, 95, 115; Second Interglacial Stage (Mindel-Riss), 23, 25, 29, 2,3, 38, 40, 41, 43, 69, 90-95, 109-111, 114, 115; Third Interglacial Stage (Riss-Wiirm), 23, 25, 29, 2,3, 34. 36, 38-41, 43, 69, 94. 107, 108, 112, 113, 115-119, 186-188, 280, 362; Postglacial Stage, 18-23, 29, 32, 33, 36, 41, 43, 108, 280-284, 362, 468, 510, Buhl, 23, 25, 26, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 361, 362, 370, 372, 446, 447, 449, Gschnitz, 23, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 362, 363,372, 449, 450, Dauti, 23, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 362, 363, Acltenschwankung, 25, 26, 281, 282, 284 Glaciers, 64-66, 89, 90, 94, 104-106, 118, 189, 190, 361-363 Glutton, see Gulo luscus and Wolverene Gobelsburg, 435, 448 GoccianeLlo, 167, 168 Gorge d'Enfer, 331, 435 Gorilla, 49, 52, 54-56, 511, 512 Goulaine, 435, 438 Gourdan, 214, 279, 331, 341, 369, 388, 392, 435, 438 Goyet, 435 Graltoir, 129, 130, 177, 254, 270, 306-310, 386, 390, 470, 473, 494; carene, 308, 309, 463 Graver, see Burin GravcUe, etching tool, 270 Gravette, La, 277, 311, 314 Gray's Thurrock, 28, 109, 116, 128, 149, 152, 156, 157 Greek conception of nature and of the pre- history of man, 1-3 Crenelle, 279, 481, 482, 484; race, see Furfooz Greze, La, 314, 317, 327, 331, 395, 396 Crimaldi, Crottes de (Baousse Rousse), 245, 247, 262-265, 279, 294, 295, 312-314, 321, 323, 380; Baousso da Torre, 263, 294; Barma Grande, 263, 294; Cavillon, Grotte de, 263, 294; Enfants, Crotte des, 263-265, 292, 294-297, see Crimaldi race; Prince, Grotte du, 262, 263 Crimaldi race, 7, 19, 245, 260, 262-269, 278, 279, 294, 301, 314, 490-492 Gschnitz, see Postglacial Stage Cuanches, 453-455, 507-510 Gudenushohle, 245, 248, 279, 307, 314, 435, 448 Gulo luscus, 469; boreal is, 193; see Wol- verene Giinz, see Glacial Epoch Hachette (tranchcUe, chopper, cleaver), 270, 488, 494 Hammer-stone, see Perculeur Hamster, 46, 63, 147, 165, 287, 362, 364, 374 Hand-axe, see Coup de poing Hand-stone, see Coup de poing Hare, 289, 333, 368, 447, 468, 498, see Lepus {timidus); arctic, 46, 207, 287, 348, 370, 447, 468, 469, see Lepus vari- abilis; tailless, sec Lagomys and Pika 540 INDEX Harpoons, 355, 383-385, 387, 388, 39°, 39i, 440, 443-445, 449, 45o, 456, 46(^462, 465, 466, 470, 474, 486, 487 Hastings, 471, 475 Heidelberg man, Mauer, 7, 23, 24, 40, 41, 53, 54, 90, 95-101, 114, 138, 143, 144, 214, 228, 229, 489, 491, 492, PI- II Heidelberg race, see Heidelberg man and Origin Helin, 109, "6, 127, 128, 149, 152, 166, 167 Helvetian, see Diimtenian Hermida, La, 435 Hippopotamus, H. major, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44, 47, 69, 71, 86, 91, 92-94, 102, 117, 123- 125, 134, 147, 148, 155, 157, 165, 174, 177, 186, 192, 199, 263, 264 Hohlefels bei Hiitten, 435, 442 Hohlefels bei Schelklingen, 435, 442 Hohlestein, 314, 435 Hommes, Grotte des, 279, 435 Homo, aurignacensis, see Combe-Capelle man; heidelbcrgensis, see Heidelberg man; mouskriensis, see Neanderthal race; neanderthalensis, see Neanderthal race; sapiens, 7, 9, 1°, 54, 230-234, 257, 260, 261, 278, 334, 484, 490, 491, 500 Horace, on the prehistory of man, 3, 504 Homos de la Pena, 245-247, 3^4, 33 1, 395, 435, 436 Horse, 45, 165, 182, 192, 225, 284, 355, 385, 392, 404, 405, 407, 408, 410, 412-414, 431, 432, 469, 498; Desert, Plateau or Celtic, see Equus caballus celticiis; Forest or Nor- dic, 95, 147, 288, 289, 367, 369, 400, 498; Hipparion, 63; kiang or wild ass, 194, 285-287, 366, 367, 372-374, 400, 447; Solutre, 288, 289, 414; Steno's, 34, 96, no, III, 125, see Eqiiiis stcnonis; Steppe, see Equus przewalski Hoteaux, Les, 279, 378, 379, 435 Hoxne, 158 Human figures, 317, 321-323, 328, 329, 337, 357, 393, 395, 399, 433, 434, 497 Hiunan fossils, 4, n; distribution of, 214, 279; tables of, 7, 219, 294, 336, 378, 49°-, see Lists Human races, see Lists and Origin Hunting, 2, 11, 166, 202, 211-214, 283, 372, 456, 471, 496, 497 Hyajna, 43, 62, 76, no, 147, 14S, i55, 165, 188, 214, 245,265,317, 356, 476; see Cave- hysena and Hycena Hyana, brevirostris, 125; crocuta, 102, 147; crocuta spelaa, 47, 102, 188; striata, 92, 102; see Hyaena Hylobates, 6; see Gibbon Ibex, Ibex priscus, 44, 46, 201, 206, 264, 265, 287, 289, 321, 348, 357, 369, 371, 391, 401, 405, 433, 447, 466, 469, 497 Ice Age, see Glacial Epoch Ice-fields, 19, 22; see Glaciers Implements, n, 27-30, 130, 270, 271; art, 270, 329, 330; see EoUth, Flint, Industry, Lists, NeoHth, Palaeolith Industry, 4, n, 12-14, 19, 33, see Acheulean, Aurignacian, AziUan-Tardenoisian, Chel- lean, Campignian, Magdalenian, Mous- terian. Neolithic, Pre-Chellean, Solu- trean; see Lists and Implements Interglacial Stages, see Glacial Epoch Iron Age, 12, 18, 21, 202, 267 Irpfelhohle, 245, 248 Istein, 469, 471-473 Isturitz, 347, 395 J Jackal, 43, 44; see Canis nescherscnsis JaveUn point, see Sagaie Jerboa, 46, 194, 287, 364; see Alactaga ja- culus K Karhch, 314 Kartstein, 245, 248, 314, 435 Kastlhang, 370, 435, 442 Kent's Hole, 10, 152, 244, 24S, 435, 44° Kesslerloch, 279, 286, 355, 361, 364, 378, 383, 435, 436, 441, 442, 444-446, 449 Kiang, wild ass, see Horse Kleinkems, 471 Knife, blade, see Coutcau and Lame Knight, Charles R., see Restorations Kostelik, 435, 448 Krapina, 7, 162, 167, 181-185, 214, 219, 220, 228, 229, 256 Krems, 119, 248, 289, 307, 3i4, 435, 448 Lacave, 279, 331, 34o, 345, 347, 39i Lagomys, 63; pusillus, 202, 370, see Pika Lagopus, see Ptarmigan Lamarck, on man, 4 Lame, blade, 271 Lampe, lamp, 270, 401, 402 Laiifcnschwankung, see Glacial Epoch Laugerie Basse, 13, 14, 27S, 279, 33i, 348, 376-378, 385, 388, 392, 407, 434, 435, 471 Laugerie Haute, 13, i4, 279- 294, 296, 314, 32,^, 346, 352, 435 Laussel, 245, 246, 249, 275, 3^3, 3^4, 3i7, 326-329, 331, 352, 395, 435 INDEX 541 Lauterach, 314 Lemming, 46, 191, 193, 194, 202, 207, 281, 287, 333, 348, 361, 364, 370, 469, 476; see Myodcs Leopard, 265, 348; sec Cave-leopard and Fclis pardus spelcea Leptobos, 71; elatiis, 62; elruscus, 63; see Cattle Lepiis, 469; cunicuJus, 364, see Rabbit; timidiis, 364, see Hare ; variabilis, 206, see Hare, arctic Levallois, 167, 179 Levallois flake, 167, 168, 179, 180, 199, 250, 251 Limeuil, 279, 435 Lion, 43, 86, 94-96, 98, 148, 165, 1S8, 281, 317, 348, 356, 365, 378, 400, 407, 446, 468, 472, 498; see Cave-lion and Felis ho Lissoir, polisher, smoother, 270, 271, 380, 388, 392, 456, 463, 466, 470 Lists and Tables, chronology, 18, 21, 22, 23, 33, 41,54, 108, 280, 362; climatic changes, 38, 39, 41, 43, 117, 191, 192, 275, 281, 284, 361-364; fauna, 21, 41, 43, 54, 62, 95, 125, 147, 206, 207, 287; human fossils, 7, 9, 219, 236, 237, 239, 266, 294, 295, 336, 378, 490; human races, 41, 54, 108, 278, 280, 362, 458, 490, 491, 499, 500; indus- tries, divisions of, 18, 113, 114, 248, 249, 252, 340, 389, succession of, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 33. 41, 108, 280, 362; implements, 130, 172, 254, 270, 271, 306, 308, 310 Liveyre, 331, 435 Loam, 5, 24, 27, 28 Loess, 5, 23-25, 29, 30, 36, 38, 46, 97, 103, 112, 115, 117-119, 122-124, 151, 159, 161, 162, 174, 176, 181, 252, 281, 282, 284, 286, 314- 334, 337, 364, 376, 442,448; stations, see Camps, open Longueroche, 435, 471 Lorthet, 406, 407, 435, 438, 471 Lourdes, 279, 388, 432, 435, 436, 438, 471 Lower Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers Lucretius on the prehistory of man, 1,2, 503 Lussac, 279, 435 Lutra vulgaris, 147; see Otter Lynchiis lynx, 469; see Ljmx Lynx, 43, 63, 206, 287, 367, 466; see Lyn- chus lynx Macaque, 54, 61, 63, 69, 76 Macerata, 167 Machcerodus, 41, 69, 244; see Sabre-tooth tiger Madeleine, La, 13, 16, 279, 351, 383-389, 398, 435, 443, 445, 449, 47i Magdalenian, 14-16, 18, 276, 277, 351-360; art, 351-357, 365, 366, 393, 395-434; bur- ial customs, 376-380; chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281,351,361-364; cH- mate, 276, 360-364, 370-376, 443, 447, 449, 450; fauna, 361-376, 443, 445-447, 449, 450; human fossils, 376-382; indus- try, 14-16, 270, 271, 275, 276, 351-356, 358, 382-392, 436, 440, 443-450; stations, 351, 434-449; see Origin and Rodent Layers Maglemose, 458, 471, 487,488, 501 Magrite, Trou, 314, 331, 344, 435 Mairie, Grottedela, 317, 395,400,405,412, 413, 435, 442 Malamaud, 214, 219 Mammoth, 10, 43, 102, 109, 117, 134, 147, 148, 177, 187, 194, 200, 202, 205, 206, 213, 218, 281, 288, 289, 316, 317, 321, 324-326, 333, 337, 348-350, 356, 364, 372, 385, 401, 403, 420, 421, 427, 429, 449, 450, 476, see Elephas; woolly, 13, 40, 41, 43, 106, 117, 174, 187, 190-192, 196, 205, 207, 208, 210, 218, 221, 285-289, 334, 335, 363, 370, 372, 384, 397, 398, 420, 427, 446, see Elephas primigcniits Man, ancestry of, 3-7, 49-64, 491, 511 Mantes-la-Ville, 167 Marcilly-sur-Eure, 214 Mare-au-Clercs, La, 167 Marignac, 109, 126, 149, 152 Markkleeberg, 167 Marmot, Arctomys marmoUa, 182, 201, 206, 265, 370 Marsoulas, 314, 3^9, 321, 328, 373, 394, 395, 396, 399, 403, 405, 415, 416, 435, 471, 485 Marten, 71, 165, 201, 265, 367, 380, 447, 498; see Mustela martes Martinshohle, 435, 471 Mas d'.\zil, 15, 16, 279, 319, 357, 375, 380, 385, 388, 391-396, 432, 433, 435, 437, 449, 458-465, 471, 472, 474 Massat, 437, 471 Mastodon, 62, 70, 134 Maszycka, 435, 436, 449 Mauer, see Heidelberg man McGregor, J. Howard, see Restorations Mediterranean race, 261, 278, 457, 458, 479, 480, 485, 489, 491, 492, 499, 500 Mcgaceros, 45, 68, 70, 106, 147, 182, 196, 287, 367; see Deer, giant Meles taxiis, 147; see Badger Mentone, 247, 322, 395, 472, 473; see Gri- maldi, Grottes de 542 INDEX Merck's Rhinoceros, see Dicerorhinus and Rhinoceros Mesaticephaly, 8, 479 Metternich, 284, 314 Micoque, La, 113, 167, 168, 179, 192, 196, 245, 246, 248, 249 Microhth, see MicroUthiqiie Microlithiqm, microhth, 270, 306, 308, 310, 388, 396, 450, 470-472 Migration, of fauna, see Fauna; of human races and industries, see Origin Mindel, see Glacial Epoch Miskolcz, 245, 248, 331 Mommenheim, 245, 247, 248 Monkeys, 54, 61-63 Montconfort, 279, 331, 435 Montfort, 341, 471 Monthaud, 331, 346 Montieres, 109, 127, 149, 152, 186, 244, 245, 283, 314, 331 Moose, 44, 94, 96, 265, 2S1, 348, 366, 468, 469, 472, 488, 496-498; see Alces Mouhnde-Laussel, 331 Mousterian, 14-16, iS, 30, 186-188, 248- 250; burial customs, 222, 223, 271; chronology, 18, 33, 41, 108, 280, 362; climate, 117, 123, 188-199, 202, 205, 207; fauna, 117. 190-194, 196, 199-214; flora, 199; human fjssils, 218-226; industry', 14-16, 113, 24.8-256, 270, 271; stations, 194-202, 244-248; see Caverns, hfe in, Floors, and Origin Moustier, Le. 13, 16, 196-199, 214, 245, 246, 251, 253, 25s; man, 7, 196, 214, 221-223, 226, 228, frontispiece Mouthe, La, 17, 246, 279, 314, 317, 320, 321, 394, 395, 398, 399, 401 Mugem, 471, 474, 486 Munzingen, 160, 195, 435, 439, 442, 443 Murals, see Painting Musk-ox, 42-44, 46, 65, 66, 187, 191, 193, ■207, 285, 287, 289, 348, 362, 366, 370; see Ovibos moschatiis Mustela, erminea, see Ermine; marks, 147, 469, see Marten. Myodes, leninms, 210; obensis, 206,285,370; torqtmtus, 193, 202, 206, 285, 370, 441, 446, 447; see Lemming Narbonne, 435, 437 Naulette, La, 7, 214, 221, 228 Neanderthal, cave, 31, 214, 216, 217, PI. II; burial customs, see Mousterian; man, 5, 7, 9, 56, 181, 216-219, 490; race, fron- tispiece, 5-7, 9, 23, 40, 41, S4, 136, 182, 191, 196, 211-244, 256, 258, 263, 272, 491, 492, anatomical features, 53-56, 183, 184, 203, 219-223, 226-244, 490, chronology, 41, 108, 257, 262, 280, 491, compared with Cro-Magnon, 297, 298, discoveries, 181-185, 215-226, distribution of, 214, 219; see Origin Necklace, 302, 304, 376, 378, 437, 472 Needle, see Aiguille Negroid race, 261, 262, 266-269, 278, 301, 302, 321, 492 Neolith, II, 496 Neohthic, New Stone Age, 10, 13, 18, 19, 21, 41, 108, 280, 362, 447, 482, 484-486, 488, 493-501 Neopithccus, 49 Neschers, 245, 435, 438 Niaux, 314, 319, 353, 373, 391, 394, 395, 400, 406, 409-411, 412, 429, 435 Niedernau, 370, 435 Norfolkian, see First Interglacial Stage and Forest Bed of Cromer Nutons, Trou des, 435 Oban, 474, 475, 486 Obercassel, man, 7, 279, 353, 378, 380-382, 435. 443 Oberiarg, /j3S Ochos, 214, 219, 221, 228, 245, 248 Ofnet, 279, 285, 314, 331, 370, 435, 469, 471, 473> 475-481; races, 442, 457-460, 480, 481, 490, 491, 500; see Furfooz race and Origin Ojcow, 331, 436, 449 Ondratitz, 331 Orang, 3, 49, 52-54, 56, 77, S" Origin, of industries, Acheulean, 261, 492, Aurignacian, 261, 289, 305-307, 322, 492, Azilian-Tardenoisian, 457, 470-472, 492, Chellean, 126, 261, 492, Magdalenian, 351-353, i^2>, Mousterian, 261, Pre- Chellean, 126, Solutrean, 330, 331, 340, 353, 492; of human races, Alpine, 458, 484, 485, Briinn, 331, 492, Cro-Magnon, 261, 322, 492, Furfooz, 492, Grimaldi, 262, Heidelberg, 492, Mediterranean, 492, Neanderthal, 492, Ofnet, 457, 484, 485, Piltdown, 492, Teutonic, 486 Otter, 63, 71, 76, 165, 201, 287, 468, 498; see Lutra vulgaris Ovibos, 376; moschatus, 193, 445, 447, see Musk-ox Ovis argaloides, 369; see Argah sheep INDEX 543 Painted Pebbles, see Azilian-Tardenoisian industry Painting, 305, 316-318, 320, 321, 324, 325, 327, 32S, 330, 358, 365, 394-396, 404-406, 40S-429. 464, 465, 474, 496, 497 Pair-non-Pair, 279, 307, 314, 317, 320-322, 331- 336, 394-396 PaloKjlitii, II, 24, 84, 85, 109, III, 158, 389 Palaeolithic, Old Stone Age, 13, 16, 18, 19, 21, 28, ^^, 41, 108, 160, 280, 362; Lower Palaeolithic, 14, 41, 108, 113, 114, 214, 280, 362, 490, 491; Upper Palaeolithic, 14, 41, 108, 214, 275, 276, 278, 280, 362, 395, 396, 490, 491, 500; chronolog>% 18, 41, 108, 280, 362, 456 Pdlceopitliecus, 49, 511 Parietal Art, see Painting Pasiega, La, 319, 395, 402-405 Pataud, 245, 246, 331 Paviland, 279, 289, 290, 294, 314, 440 Pech de I'Aze, 214, 219, 245 Perqoir, drill, borer, 130, 135, 153, 172, 179, 253, 254, 270, 306, 308, 310, 311, 344, 346, 385, 386, 388, 390, 392, 470, 473, 488 Percutcur, hammer-stone, 130, 254, 270, 306 Pescara, 167 Petit Pu^-moyen, 214, 245, 246 Pic, pick, 494 Pierre de jet, throw-ing stone, 130, 172, 213, 254, 270, 306 Pika, 46, 362, 447; see Lagomys {pusiUiis) PiltdowTi. 109, 116, 128, 130-135, 149, 152, 214, PI. II; industn,', 127, 128, 133-135; man (Eoanthropiis), 7, 23, 24, 40, 50, 53, 54, 56, 130-145, 214, 489-491; race, see Piltdown man and Origin Pindal 314-316, 325, 349, 394, 395 Pitlwcauthropus, Trinil race, 7, 23, 24, 40, 53, 54, 86, 491, 511, PI. II; anatomical features, 9, 10, 53, 56, 74, 77-84, 233, 234, 240, 490; discover}-, 73-77 Placard, 279, 331, 333. 334, 340, 345-348, 352, 353, 355, 378-380, 383, 385, 389, 435, 436, 438 Planing tool, see Grattoir Pleistocene, see Glacial Epoch Plioliylobates, 49, 54 Pliopilh-ccus, 49, 54 Poignard, dagger, poniard, 271, 392, 432 Poinqon, awl, 271, 308, 346, 392, 470 Pointe, point, knife, lance head, spear head, 15, 113, 153, 172, 177, 179, 248-255, 270, 306,308,310, 311, 473; Chatelperron, 306, 307, 311; pointe d cran, shouldered, 270, 308, 310, 313, 334, 340, 342, 345, 346, 352; pointe a face plane, 341; pointe de lance, 271, 306; pointe dc lauricr, laurel leaf, 15, 270, 310-312, 334, 337, 339-341, 344, 345, 347, 34S, 352; pointe dc sagaic, javelin point, 271, 308, 340, 346, 354, 355, 361, 364, 370, 383, 387, 390, 442, 449, 462, 494; pointe de saule, wiUow leaf, 340, 344, 347; pointe a sole, 270, 310, 311, 313, 340, 345 Polisher, see Lissoir Portel, Le, 319, 394, 411, 412 Postglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Potter}-, 461, 466, 474, 486, 488, 496 Praule, Trou de, 435 Pre-Chellean, 16, 18, 36, 41; chronology, 18, 2>Zy 40, 41, 90, 107-115, 280, 362; climate, 108, 112, 114, 117, 118, 123; fauna, 108-112, 117, 124, 125; industry, 40, 114, 120-130, 270; stations, 109, 116, 122-128, 149, 150-152, 158, see Conti- nental outline and Origin Pfedmost, 257, 279, 331, 341, 345, 348, 349, 366, 395, 427; see Briinn race; mam- moth hunters, 279, 337 Primates, 3-10, 40, 49-64, 73-84, 86, 140, 141, 217, 219, 227, 231, 233-235, 237-240, 490, 491 Prince, Grotte du, see Grimaldi, Grottes de PropUopithcciis, 49, 54 Propstfels, 372, 435, 442, 469 Propidseur, spear thrower, dart thrower, 271, 355, 391, 432, 433, 436, 445, 449 Ptarmigan, Lagopits, 44, 206, 207, 287, 289, 370, 371, 375, 469 Quartz, 166 Quartzite, 163, 164, 265 Quina, La, 9, 113, 211, 213, 214, 245, 246, 248, 253-256; man, 7, 9, 214, 216, 217, 219, 221, 225, 236, 237, 248 R Rabbit, 265, 343, 368, 468; see Lepus cnniculus Racloir, scraper, 113, 114, 130, 135, 172, 178, 209, 248, 250, 251, 253-255, 270, 306, 387, 388, 470, 472, 473, 488 Rangifer tarandus, 193, 209, 210, 285; see Reindeer Rauberhohle, 245, 247, 248, 314 544 INDEX Raymonden, 349, 376, 388, 435 Reilhac, 331, 471 Reindeer, 13, 41, 43, 44, 46, 102, 103, 187, 191-194, 196, 197, 202, 205, 206, 209, 210-212, 214, 221, 223, 225, 284, 285, 286-289, 314, 317, 332, 333, 36s, 366, 370, 372, 385, 392, 399, 405, 407, 411- 413, 415, 419-421, 429, 433, 440, 441, 445, 447, 461, 462, 468, 469, 471, 474, 481, 498; see Rangifer Reindeer Epoch, Period, 13, 14, 102, 192, 275, 286, 363, 375, 392, 438, 456, 459 Religion, 272, 358-360, 463, 465, 501 Remouchamp, 471, 474 Ressaulier, 435, 436 Restorations, Knight, Charles R., frontis- piece, 358; McGregor, J. Howard, 9, 79-82, 87, 137, 140, 142, 143, 145, 203, 242, 243, 273, 293, 300, 301; Rutot- Mascre, 73, loi, 484, 495 Retouch, 169-172, 248, 269, 306, 308, 310, 331, 332, 33^, 339, 358, 389 Rey, 331 Rhens, 284, 314 Rhinoceros, 38, 39, 43, 44, 62, 76, 123, 221, 245, 289, 337, 356, 365, see Dicerorhinus ; Etruscan, 34, 95-97, loi, 109, 110-112, 117, 125, 134, 144, see D. ctrusciis; Merck's (broad-nosed), 27, 43, 47, 93, 94, 97, 102, 109, 119, 124, 125, 134, 147, 148, 151, 155, 157, 161, 164, 165, 177, 182, 186, 187, 192, 205, 263-265, see D. merckii; woolly, 11, 13, 40, 41, 117, 148, 174, 187, 190, 191, 196, 199, 205, 206, 208-210, 213, 218, 223, 225, 281, 285-288, 314, 319, 324-326, 348, 363, 366, 372, 400, 409, see D. antiqiiitatis Riss, see Glacial Epoch River-drifts, 5, 11, 12, 23; formation, 24- 27, 90, 119, 154-157, 186; stations, 114- 116, 119-124, 154-156; terraces, 20, 23, 24-28, 34, 85, 90, 104, 154-157, 162 Robenhausen, 471, 495 Roccamorice, 167 Roche au Loup, 307, 314 Rochette, La, 245, 246 Rock Shelters, 32, 33 Rodent Layers, 447; Lower, 206, 207, 211, 281, 314; Upper, 281, 361, 363, 446 Romanelli, 306, 314 Riiderbach, 167 Riidersheim, 167 Rupicapra, see Chamois Ruth, Le, 314, 331, 435 Rutot-Mascre, see Restorations Sablon, 162, 167 Sabre-tooth tiger, 34, 43, 62, 69, 70, 72, 94, 102, 110-112, 117, 125, 144, 147; see MachcBrodus Sagaie, javelin point, see Pointe de sagaic Saiga antelope, 44, 46, 194, 287, 289, 333, 357, 362, 366, 373, 374, 376, 449 Saiga tartar ica, see Saiga antelope Salitre, 435 Saint Acheul, 5, 14, 16, 109, 116, 119-124, 127-129, 149-152, 155, 162, 163, 166, 167, 170, 244, 24s, 249, 283, 314, 331, 435, 440 Saint Lizier, 435 Saint Martin d'Excideuil, 331 Saint Prest, 17, 67-69 San Isidro, 109, 126, 149, 152, 167, 245, 246 Sciiirus vulgaris, 367; see Squirrel Schmiechcnfels, 372, 435, 469 Schussenquelle, 372, 435, 442 Schussenried, 435, 441; see Schussenquelle Schweizersbild, 286, 361, 364, 370, 435, 441, 442, 444-447, 449, 460 Scraper, see Racloir Sculpture, 317, 320-323, 328, 329, 347-349, 356-35S, 392, 393, 395, 396, 427-434 Second Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Second Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Seven Oaks, 471, 475 Shelters, abris, see Rock Shelters Sipka, 214, 219, 221, 228, 245, 247, 248, 435, 449 Sireuil, 314, 322, 395 Sirgenstein, 201, 202, 245, 248, 285, 314, 331, 370, 372, 435, 441, 460 Sivapithccus, 511 Siwahk, see Fauna Solutre, 16, 279, 283, 286, 288, 294, 314, 330, 331, 341-345- 373, 435, 436, 438 Solutrean, 14-16, iS, 41, 270, 271, 276, 278, 280; art, 347-350, 357; burial customs, 332; chronology, 18,33,41, 108, 280,362; cHmate, 41, 108, 276, 280, 281, 332, 333; fauna, 332-334, 343, 348, 366; human fossils, 279, 334-337; industry, 275-278, 330-332, 334, 338-348, 351, 352, 354, 358; stations, 326-328, 331, 337, 340-348, see Origin Somme River, 12, no, 112, 114-117, 119, 120, I22-I2S, 127, 162, 252, 276 Sorde, 279, 378, 435, 438 Souzy, 435 Spermophilus nifescens, 194, 373; see Sus- Hk Spear-point, see Pointe INDEX 545 Speech, power of, 4, 58, 60, 139, 140 Spiennes, 127, 128, 495 Spy, 162, 214, 244, 245, 311, 314, 331 ; man, 7, 181, 214, 218-220, 226, 228, 229, 231- 233, 235-237, 244, 256, 257, 490 Squirrel, 447, 498; see Sciiirus vulgaris Stag, 43, 44, 95, 106, 119, 187, 201, 202, 264, 265, 288, 333, 364, 367, 370, 372, 405, 426, 429, 456, 461, 463, 468, 469, 481, 488, 497, 498; see Ccrvits claphits and Deer, red Stegodon, 76, 134 Strassberg, 435 Stratification of Castillo, 164; Enfants, Grotte des, 265; Heidelberg, 97; Made- leine, La, 385; Mas d'Azil, 461; Ofnet, 476; Piltdown, 133; Placard, 333-334; Saint Acheul, 122, 123, 150; Schweizers- ' bild, 447; Sirgenstein, 202 Subsidence, see Continental outline Sureau, Trou du, 435 Sus, arvernensis, 63; scrofa, 71; scrofa ferns, 147, 165, 368, 469; scrofa pahistris, 499; see Boar Suslik, 206, 289, 447; see Spermophilus rufescens Tables, see Lists Tardenoisian, see Azilian-Tardenoisian Tasmanian compared with Neanderthal, 232, 233; see Neanderthal Taubach, 119, 167, 214 Tectiforms, 283, 284, 403, 404 Terraces, see River-drifts Teutonic race, 458, 486, 488, 499-501 Teyjat, 388, 394, 396, 435; see Mairie, Grotte de la, and Abri Mege Thiede, 314 Third Glacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Third Interglacial Stage, see Glacial Epoch Throwing stone, see Pierre de jet Thumb, opposable, 55, 58, 60, 240 Tibia, shin-bone 237-239, 241, 266, 298 Tilloux, 109, 149, 152, 167 Torralba, 109, 126, 149, 152 Tourasse, La, 471, 486 Trilobite, Grotte du, 314, 324, 326, 331, 340, 341, 344, 347, 440 Trinil race, see Pithecanthropus Trogontherium, 45, 69, 94; see Beaver, giant Tuc d'Audoubert, 32, 395, 396, 406, 427- 431, 435 Tundra, see Climate, glacial; see Fauna Turbarian, Lower, 361; Upper, 363 Upper drift, 191 Upper Rodent Layer, see Rodent Layers Urochs, Aurochs, see Bos primigenius and Cattle UrsHs, arctos, 102, 147, 211, 469; arvernen- sis, 6;},g4, 102; deningcri, 102; spel(eus,4$, 183, 210, 211, 369; see Bear and Cave- bear Vache, Grotte de la, 435, 437, 471 Valle, 435, 466, 471, 474 Venosa, 167 Villejuif, 30, 167, 176 Volgu, 331, 339, 345 Volklinshofen, 284, 314 V id pes, 469; see Fox W Warm faima, see Faunc chat4de Weimar, 167 Wierschowie, 245, 248, 331 Wildcat, Felis catiis, 43, 63, 95, 287, 498 Wildhaus, 314, 435 Wildkirchli, 200, 201, 245, 247, 256 Wildscheuer, 286, 314, 370, 435, 442, 444 Willendorf, 30, 279, 311-315, 322, 395 Winter] ingen, 435 Wisent, see Bison Wolf, 43, 44, 71, 95, 147, 165, 187, 206, 264, 265, 287, 288, 2,2>d„ 343, 348, 356, 366, 441, 447, 468, 498; see Canis suessi and Cyon alpinus fossilis Wolvercote, 167 Wolverene, glutton, 44, 46, 71, 193, 287, 289, 348, 370, 447, 468, 498; see Gulo hiscus Wiirm, see Glacial Epoch Wiiste Scheuer, 471 Zonhoven, 471, 474 Zuffenhausen, 314 PERPK ^ipo^>erns of Italy, Franc* INCL' ING THE CAVERNS MT CONTAIN PALEOLr' C MURAL DECORATIONS ai««ff^ff/ffa«£-»B( Region traversed In the author' through the Paljeolithic caverns of Italy, France, and i EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY! 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED PAtr This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Rm9(^l¥d>b0okq^'^ subject to immediate recall. APR 10 1957 NOV 2 7^1257 APR 2 3 1 .|tfAYQ1 ic|pn i;j5 1 3 1302 ^ Ri^- INTERLIBRAR^^ l-OAN AUG 1 ^ ^^^B8 yiiMlV. O^ ^A)m{^%% BERK LD 21-100w-6,'56 (B9311sl0)476 General Library University of California Berkeley ^^