BPsIeIchj ■ how TO USE IT H ■hi effectively TI 1|»_^ XANTHES UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNl AT LOS ANGELES SPEECH HOW TO USE IT EFFECTIVELY THE TEN TITLES IN THE MENTAL EFFICIENCY SERIES POISE: HOW TO ATTAIN IT CHAEACTER: HOW TO STRENGTHEN IT TIMIDITY: HOW TO OVERCOME IT Yoritomo-Tashi INFLUENCE: HOW TO EXERT IT Yoritomo-Tashi COMMON SENSE: HOW TO EXERCISE IT Yoritomo-Tashi PRACTICALITY: HOW TO ACQUIRE IT R. NiCOLLE OPPORTUNITIES: HOW TO MAKE THE MOST OF THEM L. Charley PERSEVERANCE: HOW TO DEVELOP IT H. Besser SPEECH: HOW TO USE IT EFFECTIVELY Xanthes PERSONALITY: HOW TO BUILD IT H. Laurent <::> FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY Puhlishers NEW YORK AND LONDON MENTAL EFFIC IENC Y SERIES SPEECH HOW TO USE IT EFFECT- IVELY By XANTHES Annotated by B. Dangennes Mv.v: AUTHORIZED EDITION Translated by Mme. Leon J. Beethelot de la Boileveeie FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY NEW YOEK LONDON 1916 • ". . » » • ^ ' • ■> 1 >• J • . o " '_ ,' » ' • > ', J • 1 > > 1 Copyright, 1915, bt FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY [Printed in the Utiitcd States of America] All rights reserved CO CO CN! ^ ?N ANNOUNCEMENT The purpose of IVIr. B. Dangennes, the au- thor of this book, is to present to those of his readers who need a guide to the effective use of words a treatise on the subject which may serve to teach them how to utilize their powers of O speech most impressively. It is his belief that the speaker who presents what he has to say in a clear, concise, and forceful manner is he who commands attention. In support of this be- lief, and for the purpose of aiding all who to wish to acquire the art of speaking incisively oi and convincingly, he expounds the teachings 00 of Xanthes — one whom he describes as em- ^ bodying the rare qualities of a keen thinker and close observer with those of a man of re- markable judgment. As he develops his subject the Author of this treatise bears constantly in mind that it is as much the duty of an orator to please his audience as it is the purpose of a business man to convince his. It lies in the power of both to satisfy — gaining attention by sublimity of thought and elegance of expres- iii UJ iv ANNOUNCEMENT sion, and carrying conviction by personal mag- netism and that effervescence of the heart which is the natural stimulus of the enthusiast. Fol- lowing the dictum of Seneca, we must feel what we speak before we can speak what we feel. , It was Dean Swift, the inimitable creator of the Land of Lilliput and the Travels of Gulliver, who told us that of all animals the chameleon, which is said to feed upon air — hot air, of course — has the nimblest tongue. But Franciscus Junius marveled at the truly astonishing activity of the human organ of speech. Said he, "The rapid flash of the eye can not be compared with it; the hand, the foot, the eye, and the ear become wearied by continual action, and require rest to recover their exhausted energies; but the tongue never falters or faints from the longest exertion." And it is in the use to which we put the tongue that we are distinguished from other living creatures. Plutarch reminds us that talkative people who wish to be loved are hated. When they desire to please, they bore; when they think they are admired, they are laughed at. They injure their friends, benefit their ene- mies, and do incalculable harm to themselves. These should remember the wisdom of Solo- ANNOUNCEMENT v MON — There is a time to speak and a time to be silent. ''Learn to hold thy tongue," said that famous old exhorter Bishop Fuller, and con- tinued, ' ' Five words cost Zacharias forty weeks of silence," In speech our aim should be to show more wit than words. "Such as thy words are so will thine affections be esteemed ; such as thine affections will thy deeds be also; and such as thy deeds so will be thy life," said Socrates. In the course of the twelve lectures of which this book is comprized the Author treats of words as the mosaics of language. He discusses the art of always using the right word in the right place, and urges the scientific study of words. Next he treats of the relation of speech to ideas, urges the classification of thought, and compares the dominant idea with the thread on which beautiful beads are strung into a neck- lace. To be effective they must be presented in logical order. Then follow chapters on the art of enriching one's vocabulary ; on eloquence ; on oratorical debates and conversation ; on how to master the art of speaking in public; on automatism and thought; on attitude and ges- ture; on speech as used in business and family life ; on the power of the voice over the feelings. Ti ANNOUNCEMENT and on many other allied subjects, such as the development of the voice, vocal changes, breath- ing exercises, gestures, and attitude, etc. Speech is considered as the determining ele- ment of every human act, and as such the Author aims to teach the Reader how to make the most of it. The Publishers. PREFACE It was long before the days when Aristotle taught his philosophy beneath the porch of the Lyceum — awakening thoughts which, called forth by the magic power -of words, were changed into living pictures — that oratory was the tie which bound souls together. Centuries have fallen into the vortex of eter- rdty, but the art of governing, either the State or the individual, has developed a necessity for eloquence, by creating the need for the exist- ence of conviction. It is also, with deep interest, that we have received the translation of the works of an eloquent speaker, whose name was as yet un- known to us, for he was a man who lived alone, and a thinker rather than a popular orator. The understanding which was inspired in him by the lessons that he received from all the con- stellation of great Greek orators, whose glory still illuminated his epoch, influenced him in the art of formulating his thoughts as well as in his expression of them. vii viii PREFACE Looking over his writings, one shall find valu- able information, new points of view, and above all an exactness of judgment most remarkable. He teaches us to win consideration by the prestige of speech, affording us at the same time the means of cultivating this priceless gift: eloquence. At present, the number of public speakers in- creases daily, for by this means they are able to defend their interests and justify their con- victions. The complex industrial organizations, the unions, becoming more and more important, the syndicates, and even the ordinary state deputa- tions, all are seeking orators whose eloquence will be sufficiently persuasive to present advan- tageously their claims and to set forth the im- portance of their rights. Every day reunions are taking place in which each person interested is allowed to offer his opinion or to explain principles referring to the general welfare of the people or to an individual claim. Lectures are becoming more and more fre- quent. As in the olden days, those who cherish an idea are happy to have it appreciated by others and they understand that the most effi- PREFACE ix cacious way to accomplish their desire is to in- vite the public to listen to the development of the subject. But nothing is more disastrous than an idea which is inadequately defended, unless it be a rightful claim, inexactly stated. It has also seemed to us most interesting to expound the principles of Xanthes, which were inspired by the orations delivered by the ancient philosopher, on the banks of the Ilissus, and also by the teachings of those who made this period famous, for these principles initiate us into the exquisite delicacy of that art which was glorified and immortalized by the ancient Greeks. B. Dangennes. CONTENTS LESSON PAGE Announcement iii Preface vii I. "Words and Language 13 II. The Spoken Word and the Thought . 27 III. Sword or Shield 41 IV. "Wealth of Eloquence and Opulence of "Wit 57 V. Of Eloquence • . 71 "VI. Oratorical Rivalry and Conversa- tion 89 "VII. How to Acquire the Art of Speaking 107 "VIII. Automatism and Thought . . . 122 IX. Attitude and Gesture in Speech Delivery 138 X. Speech as Used in Business and Family Life 156 XI. Speech and Instruction .... 167 XII. The Power of the "Voice Over the Feelings 176 zi LESSON I WORDS AND LANGUAGE "Words are sounds, combined with divers vibrations of articulation, whose association pro- duces in our mind, by force of habit, the ap- pearance of the object which is designated by them or of the sentiment which they are intended to express. This representation is thus more or less exact, according to the nature of the word which re- calls it. Certain words only awaken a confused re- flection, little calculated to impress itself upon the mind. Others, on the contrary, are veritable torches, illuminating with a vivid light the subject which they are ordered to present to our imagination. "In the beginning of the world," says Xanthes, "primitive man was contented to imitate the language of the animals. "This observation furnished them with a considerable number of imitative words, which, in time, were changed into syllables. 13 14. SPEECH "The needs of existence, then very limited and always the same for every one, insured the repetition of these syllables, which very soon be- came for men of the same race the distinctive mark of their special affinities. ''These same sounds were used to designate the same objects, and this effort was the first manifestation of the union of mental and mate- rial life. "Later, the necessities of existence were in- creased and the field of imagination was en- larged ; man was no longer contented to imitate the sounds which the animals produced. "The sound of the waters, that of the wind, the murmur of the brooklets, the rumbling of the thunder, in a word, all the impressions which came to them from without were unconsciously received and imitated by them. "In time, these inarticulate cries, these dis- jointed syllables were either united or separated in various ways, so as to form a variety of syllables better adapted to the mentality just coming into existence, and rendered this union or separation absolutely necessary. "Words were thus created. "These primitive elements of language be- came little by little the gestures of sensibility. WORDS AND LANGUAGE 15 "Men who had at first found only cries to express needs essentially material came to realize the necessity of interpreting their sen- sations. * ' This interpretation confined itself at first to purely physical impressions. ' ' Suffering, well-being, were the first themes. "And then the day came when the need of sympathy, which reigns in the heart of all men, took possession of our far-away ancestors. "To experience joy or to suffer pain did not suffice them. * ' They wished that this grief might be attenu- ated or that this joy might be increased by the sorrow or the joy of others. "We must understand that this sensation was at first very vague, for the need of sympathy and of consolation can only be awakened in the soul of those who can think. "The instinct of primitive man, on the con- trary, was that which urges the wild animals to seek for the solitude, where they may die alone, and which incites them to hide their agony from the world. "But separating himself farther and farther from the animal, man conceived the desire for a sympathetic environment and he invented IX. 2 16 SPEECH words to express his grief, in order not to be alone in the realization of it. "An undefined need of sympathy and pro- tection was being born in his heart, "For similar reasons, he sought to have his companions share in the joy which he felt, and, little by little, the words multiplied under his tongue, became more agile, in proportion as it was better and more frequently exercised." This opinion, which Xanthes holds in common with the most celebrated sociologists, is con- firmed by many observations, which it is possible for each one of us to make at his pleasure. We are more inclined to believe that it was true that prehistoric man imitated animals when we analyze the violent emotions which are com- mon to both, and when we find an absolute simi- larity of manifestation. Fear calls forth a cry — nothing more. Violent pain makes us groan, without the sounds emitted being articulated in syllables. Impatience or anger impels us to allow un- conscious grumbling to escape from us. In a word, all expression of excessive emotion, even in the ultra-civilized, resembles the mani- festation of these same violent sensations among the animals. WORDS AND LANGUAGE 17 More than this, the spoken word is indeed the expression of a longing for sympathy, since we do not use it in solitude. It is well understood that it is not a question here of people with un- balanced minds who, in order to strengthen their thought, and to formulate it in words, ut- ter it aloud. Language is the association of these words, united in order to form a collection of pictures, whose cohesion, more or less perfect, strengthens or weakens the force of the representative figures. "One day," says Xanthes, "a man went to call on Plato and asked him what was the differ- ence existing between words and language. "The philosopher, without replying, pointed with his finger to a plaque hung on the wall representing a goddess with her attributes. "Then, rising, he went toward a large vase filled with colored stones and, picking them up in handfuls, let them fall through his fingers in iridescent cascades. " 'These,' said he, 'are the words or the mate- rials. ' " 'And here is the language,' added he, show- ing the plaque, which was nothing more than a mosaic of a most delicate workmanship. 18 SPEECH " 'These stones,' continued the philosopher, 'are only the elements indispensable to the com- pletion of a picture like the present one. " 'They are to the reproduction of a face what words are to the oration, " 'Taken separately, they present only a minor interest ; when the eye observes their color and their form, and this observation is allowed to be registered as thought, the part played by the stones is finished; one has scarcely time to enjoy their variegated scintillations for more than a moment. " 'If, however, they are combined by a skilled artist, they can produce a masterpiece. " 'Manipulated by an unskilful hand, they will form only a combination without meaning. " 'If placed side by side by a child they will represent a naive and confused picture. ' ' ' Distributed by an artist whose taste is ques- tionable, their colors will be mutually repellent, instead of blending in one harmonious whole. " 'The same is true of words. " ' If these scattered stones can become a work which will be passed down to posterity, words cleverly grouped and chosen by a talented ora- tor will produce orations which will be known and appreciated by future generations.' " WORDS AND LANGUAGE 19 And Xantlies adds: "There is still another point of comparison between the words eind these stones: "According to the fancy of the artist, these scintillations from the stone can produce forms which recall beauty or imperfection, flowers or monsters, a clear sky or a forest of trees bent over nearly to the ground by the ravages of a violent storm. "Words — they also are called upon to repre- sent different sentiments, according to the manner in which they are used, "These words are to language what the tiny minerals are to the artist's production, and oftentimes the whole success of an orator de- pends, not so much upon the words which he uses, as on the manner in which he employs them." It is an error to endeavor to find a natural relation between words and things. It is certain that each race of people has con- stituted a vocabulary according to its concep- tion of sound, which has some analogy with harmonious imitation, but, most of the time, there only exists an evanescent relation between the articulated sound and the idea which it re- presents. 20 SPEECH If it were otherwise, there would be only one language, which would be universal. The signification of words is, therefore, always arbitrary. "Similarity, indicated at first by general terms," said Xanthes, "little by little became defined by special terms, defining not only the species, but each individual of the species, "However, the fact of designating a thing by the term which characterizes a class of things, to which many individuals equally belong, al- ways indicates ignorance or great mental sim- plicity. "There are also many definitions for each species, as there are many words to express a sentiment. "There are also certain words which can be qualified as possessing the power of reinforce- ment, for they permit of employing different ex- pressions, whose enunciation renders more dis- tinct the picture that we wish to image. ' ' It does not suffice that an orator should have an exact conception of his subjects ; he must be able to make it tangible to his hearers. "To understand and to see distinctly is well, but it is not all ; we must present the subject of our observations by description in such a manner WORDS AND LANGUAGE 21 that those who listen to us participate in the in- spired revelation. * ' Too many orators are like a man who would gesticulate in absolute darkness and then be as- tonished that his gestures were not perceived. "Before attempting to call forth in others the contemplation of that which pleases us, we must surround with light that which we want to have them admire. ''And light, for an orator, consists first in the choice of words. * ' These words should be exactly adapted to the nature of the object in question. "The search for the expression is of para- mount importance for the quality of the speech. ' ' And now Xanthes gives us the following typical commentaries: "There are," he says, "pompous words, which seem to wear a mantle of royal purple. "Others, clanking metallic sounds, seem to us as marching warriors clad in full armor. "There are those which are furnished with a two-edged blade. ' ' A few form the drapery which poetry throws over the crudities of sentiment. "Certain words awaken visions of purity; others depict struggle and bitterness. 22 SPEECH "There are those which flash like lightning, diffusing the light of which they are made all around them. "But, in order that each one of these words should produce the intended effect on the minds of the hearers, it is indispensable that they should be placed where they belong, and should be given their full value by surrounding them with words less important, whose mission is to sustain and to strengthen them. "At times they should also be prepared. "At others, on the contrary, it is necessary that they should burst forth with a jet of flame, without the possibility of their having been foreseen. "It is also well to conceal them under the cover of other words less significant, as a sov- ereign might hide his brilliant robe under the humble toga of the philosopher, "Certain satirical words should give the im- pression of blows from a whip, while words of indulgence will flow as from a spring of benevo- lence. "All the science of language is found in this," concluded the philosopher; "words taken sep- arately have little significance, but the grouping of them makes a whole formidable or graceful, WORDS AND LANGUAGE 23 terrible or salutary, severe or tender, according to the mosaic of the oration." These precepts, which in our day, could serve as examples to orators and lecturers, Xanthes is going to develop for us in the following chap- ters. We have confined ourselves thus far to the grouping of the values which relate to words alone ; that is to say, to the elements constituting language. One is too much inclined to confound these two appellations. Thus, as Xanthes teaches us, they represent two things absolutely distinct. We are side by side with people every day who cultivate purity of language, without for that reason possessing the science of speaking. It is a gift, say indolent people. And this statement seems to them sufficient to free them from the work of research which their indolence repels with horror. Sometimes it is really a gift, but most of the time it is a result, obtained after a series of studies rigorously reflective and analytical. As to those who possess the art of speaking and disdain delicacy of language, it is not pos- sible to criticize them severely enough, for their M SPEECH defect comes neither from voluntary ignorance nor from the insufficiency of means; it takes shelter in mental inertness, which becomes a lack of vital energy and, if one does not react, degenerates quickly into an habitual atrophy of the will. "Language," Xanthes says a little farther on, "may be compared to a beautiful tree, whose leaves are the spoken words which we have de- signated under the title of supports or aux- iliaries. "Its flowers are the words that we have des- cribed and which, luminous already of them- selves, will borrow a special beauty from their environment. "The branches of this tree personify senti- ments. "The trunk is the powerful thought, generator of interior movements. "Finally, the roots represent the idea, ex- tracting its substance from the depths of the soul, which in the form of a sap nourishes and strengthens all other parts." And the philosopher adds judiciously: ' ' If the flowers are not atrophied, and if they have not been allowed to become too numerous, they wiU produce magnificent fruits. WORDS AND LANGUAGE 25 "But the majority of orations are like this symbolical tree; the profusion of flowers often impairs the quality of its fruit, which can only ripen if care has been taken to prune the branches when half-dead and to remove the sterile flowers which otherwise would absorb a part of the sap, to the detriment of the vigorous living branches." In reading this understanding of the philoso- pher one can not help smiling, as one thinks of the flowery rhetoric with which many pedants like to overburden their orations, and, in spite of oneself, one admits that the recom- mendations of Xanthes could be the subject of much useful advice concerning our contem- poraries. Too much embellishment is always an obstacle to a proper estimate of the value of these acces- sories to a composition ; the repetition of meta- phors, by creating a great mental tension, causes instant weariness in the audience. In the midst of such rich flowering, the mind can hardly make a choice. Scarcely does it believe its choice definitely established, when it finds itself attracted by the appearance of another object none the less bril- liant. 26 SPEECH This opulence bewilders it, makes it hesitate, and its attention finds itself drifting in the direction of a medley of things, which repre- sents to it only a confused picture. Let us add, in order to follow the comparison of Xanthes to its ultimate conclusion, that, among these many flowers the majority are sterile and leave no trace of their blooming. We must conclude with the ancient orator : * ' The orations which bear no fruit only repre- sent, both for the orator and for his audience, a useless waste of the minutes, only too few, of which life is made up.'* LESSON II THE SPOKEN WORD AND THE THOUGHT In order to make others understand us, we must first understand ourselves. In the symbolical tree of which Xanthes has been speaking in the preceding chapter, we have seen that the idea was the origin of all develop- ment and that it alone fed the different parts of the tree of which the flowers were destined to produce the fruit of science. "At the base of all discourse," says the old orator, ''there is the idea, without which the spoken word would be only a useless noise. "The idea precedes the thought, which is the sequence consistent with its analysis." This includes many phases whose gradation we shall now follow with the philosopher. "The idea," he says, "is presented to us at first in the form of perception. "It acts upon the receptive faculties of our brain, before appealing to our understanding. "This first period is that of emission. 27 28 SPEECH "We emit an idea before thinking about what it is worth. "At times it is so worthless or so denuded of common sense that we unconsciously reject it before it has had time to impress itself on the mind. "At other times it is presented under a form which merits being fertilized. ""We ought, therefore, to oblige ourselves ta consider it from the angle from which it ap- peared to us at first, by isolating it from all the parasitic ideas which do not fail to graft them- selves on it. "If the idea, thus confusedly perceived, be- longs to the domain of things possible of realiza- tion, it will then be time to consider it from that point of view which will permit its perfect development. "In order to accomplish the productive con- templation of an idea, it is indispensable that we should be impregnated with many kinds of knowledge. "(1) That of its substance; "(2) Of its form; " (3) Of its essence; " (4) The cause for which it was created; "(5) The final cause. SPOKEN WORD AND THOUGHT 29 "By tlie word substance is to be understood the matter of which the idea is made. ''The idea can refer to an object, to a person, or to subjects belonging to the animal, vege- table, or mineral kingdom, etc., etc. "It is, therefore, necessary from the first to be well imbued with the substance of the idea, in order to eliminate all thoughts which may dis- tract our attention and cause it to diverge to- ward analogous subjects. "The substance once properly defined, it will be in order to think out the form of the object which has aroussd in our mind a feeling of perception. "An energetic appeal to our recollections will be necessary in order to define the group to which this sentiment belongs and to determine afterward the difference existing between it and perceptions of the same order. * ' A similar mental operation will be necessary for that which concerns the essence. "It may happen that two subjects of the same form are of dissimilar essence, or perhaps of the same essence, their form and their dimensions presenting a certain diversity. "It will afterward be necessary to establish the cause which has produced the idea. 30 SPEECH "Lastly, one should delay the unfolding of the final cause, that is to say, the purpose toward which the idea is directed." And, joining the example to the demonstra- tion, Xanthes continues: "We shall suppose for a moment that an orator undertakes to pronounce an oration to celebrate the virtues of a great man. "The idea is presented under the initial as- pect: ' ' Substance. ' ' The substance is that of a living being. ' ' The form : this living being is a man. "The essence: this man was a Sage, or a valorous captain, a remarkable legislator, or a celebrated orator. "The cause having produced the idea which has carried to the mind the present representa- tion is the renown that this man has known how to acquire. "The final cause is the desire to proclaim his virtues, by inciting his audience to imitate him. "The final cause is sometimes mistaken for the initial cause, as the initial cause is the one whose purpose produces the movements deter- mined by the mental operation. "It is in reality the desire which one ex- SPOKEN WORD AND THOUGHT 31 periences to cause others to share the admira- tion which we feel for the great man, which has produced the resolve to celebrate his virtues; but here ends the part to be played by the initial cause. ''This produces the movement which should lead to the desired end, but it stops before ac- complishment in order to make room for the final cause which is the resolution of the achieve- ment. "This mental operation can be attached to the study of that which is called: the simple idea. "Ideas are simple, when they are relative to one perception alone and when they do not awaken the necessary manifestation of corollary or divergent ideas. "One is apt to consider as simple ideas those which form a part of a group so bound together that there exists little difference between them. ' * We are now going to listen to Xanthes as he speaks to us of the manner in which we ought to use our intelligence in order to attain the object which all serious orators pursue — that of in- fluencing those who listen to them. "That we may find the words which move them, one must first," says he, "allow the JX.3 32 SPEECH thought to acquire absolute precision, which contemplation alone is able to give us. "It is a question, therefore, of forcing the projection of thoughts to illuminate the idea that we wish to consider. ''From every point of view, it is wise to, reject thoughts already enunciated and dis- cust many times; we can not sufficiently en- large the field of our observations. "To give birth to a new idea, if it be within the domain of common sense, and can endure discussion, should be the ambition of the ma- jority of orators. "However, we must not forget that this idea can only have its whole value when it is sepa- rated from the mass of divergent thoughts which will not fail to weaken its superiority." But Xanthes does not pretend to impose the idea upon us and consequently does not advise us to imbue ourselves with an atmosphere whose uniformity would not take long to produce the phenomenon known by the name of obsession. He only advises us to mistrust the chain of ideas which, by a transmission scarcely per- ceptible, leads us very far from the subject of our meditation. Again, he counsels us that, even while con- SPOKEN WORD AND THOUGHT 33 templating the initial idea, we should consider attentively all the corollary thoughts which, far from turning us away from the initial one, will act in a salutary way on our thought, which they will magnetize and direct in the most admirable way. He says that giving strict attention to the perfect analysis of the idea will determine far better than long study the all-powerful laws of persuasion. However, in order to avoid the danger of con- fusion which corollary ideas always present for him who does not know how to discipline them rigorously, it is well to divide them into groups. "The principle idea might be compared to the head of a large family. "All the members of this same family are the offspring of this patriarch and all of them have some of his distinctive traits. "However, in proportion as the generations multiply, the initial type grows fainter, and it will soon be necessary to stimulate the memory, in order to recognize some traces of it if numer- ous crossings have taken place in marriage. "But if each one of the children has chosen a partner among those of his race, and if he has kept strictly from all foreign contact, the type 34 SPEECH will be aeeentnated ; the defects will stand forth in bold relief, and the good qualities will become an instinctive need, rather than a result of reasoning. ** However, every member of this family, in- dividually considered, will have its own self- government, its own family, nearer to him than his brother's family and, altho living together, they form groups around the patriarch who gave them life. "Every orator who wishes to be imbued with the idea should remember this symbol. "Around the idea ('head of the family') other ideas group themselves, which are entirely its issue and owe their existence to it. "To maintain these supplementary ideas far from all injurious contact should be the absorb- ing thought of him who desires to impress every- one with his oratorical power. "The ideas presented by the orator are com- municated to the assemblage by a sympathetic exchange of thought, which inclines the hearers to appropriate the thought of him who knows how to present it to them with oratorical power. "The danger to be avoided is the diffusion of ideas which, starting from a single point, may diverge or be thrown into confusion." SPOKEN WORD AND THOUGHT 35 To avoid that eventuality which young speak- ers are rarely capable of eluding, the old Greek advises us to make use of the method of division : "In order," says he, ''to escape the confusion of similar ideas, which crowd in a disorderly way around the principal idea and have no other effect than to weaken it, if they are not severely disciplined, the orator should think tirst of a main division, which he can separate afterward into as many subdivisions as there are different groups. **In each one of these groups he will dis- tinguish ideas appropriate to the development of his argument, ''This choice effected, he will proceed to the coordination of ideas. "This signifies that he will remove all the derogatory ideas, and be contented to retain those which belong essentially to the theme that he wishes to develop, and that he will estimate their value according to the degree of relation- ship they bear to the initial idea. ' ' Then comes the time for classification, "He will establish among these ideas a chron- ological order, and an order of importance. "It is essential to know how to grade per- suasive words, or to reserve them as arguments 30 SPEECH admitting no answer, according to the nature of the discourse and above all according to the character of the audience. "Certain ideas must be presented brutally in order to impress the assemblage; others, on the contrary, should be unfolded with great care that they may not offend any one's sentiments' and that they may carry conviction to the minds of others, in the same manner as one pours a cordial, drop by drop, into the water which it ought to color uniformly. "If the mixture be too suddenly made, the liquid having the least specific gravity will re- main on the surface, and the perfect blending will not be obtained, "When these different operations are finished, the orator's task will only have been sketched. * ' Unless he wants to be engulfed by monotony, the orator should avoid dwelling too long on ideas of the same group. "Without abandoning the main idea, he will call forth divergent ones which will be pre- sented in the form of ideas belonging to another branch of the same family. "And it will continue thus all through his dis- course. "Without abandoning the main idea, he will SPOKEN WORD AND THOUGHT 37 touch on others which will confirm and reinforce it, at the same time adding a variety in the types of ideas, which are fundamentally identical, altho they present some differences as to form. "But in order that these different groupings should not trouble the listener by their lack of conformity, it is necessary to create harmony between them. "Here we notice that what is called the lead- ing idea makes its appearance." And Xanthes, who loves to illustrate his de- monstrations by symbolic fables, relates to us the following story. "A philosopher, of those who prof est to be followers of Aristotle, was questioned one day by one of his disciples, who said to him : " 'Master, I have followed religiously your lesson on the art of speaking; tell me, I beg of you, what you understand by the words "lead- ing idea"? " 'Do you think it indispensable to a dis- course ? " 'What is the nature of it, what is its object?' "At this moment a little child was passing; on his bare neck a necklace of thin iridescent shells was clasped. "The philosopher by a sign called to the 2rA7Vy2 38 SPEECH young boy and offered to him a small piece of money. *' 'Give me this,' said he, pointing to the ornament. *' 'My necklace?' asked the child in surprize. " 'Yes, your necklace.' "The child passed it over his head and offered it with a questioning look. "Suddenly jerking the string of beads in op- posite directions the learned man broke the cord which held the pearly shells. "They slipt down all along the broken thread and were spread out over the ground in a dazzling disorder. "The child and the disciple beheld without understanding. "The philosopher allowed them to reflect for a moment, then turning toward the child: " 'Pick them up,' said he, 'I return them to you.' " 'Then, if I keep the piece of money, have I the right to take back my shells?' "Over the face of the old sage there passes a smile of success, and, turning toward the pupil : " 'This child,' said he, 'has just answered you: " 'Bound by the thread which held them to- SPOKEN WORD AND THOUGHT 39 gether these shells formed a necklace ; the thread once broken, they are only shells, whose useful- ness no longer exists, no matter how many they may number. " 'It is thanks to this thread that they be- come an ornament; it is thanks to it also that, saved from the chance movements of the crowds, they escape destruction. " 'The leading idea is this, invisible thread, binding together the ideas which, without it, would only present an ordinary interest, and would have no chance to instil conviction into the mind of those whom we wish to persuade. ' ' * And Xanthes adds : *'Too many orators construct their periods without paying attention to the idea which must connect them, so that they form a magnificent whole, which is a perfect dissertation. ' ' It happens also that the leading idea wrongly conceived and insufficiently considered, is des- troyed like the thread of a necklace ; under such conditions we witness the most lamentable spec- tacle of an orator seeking to find his ideas under the strain of excitement and uniting them with- out distinct purpose in view, without art and without method, without profit to his audience, and to the great detriment of his reputation. ' ' 40 SPEECH The idea is, therefore, essential to the art of speaking; without determining its position, lan- guage can not be exact, for it alone permits the search for expression and eliminates ambiguity, disastrous to all orations delivered by those who are not both thinkers and speakers. LESSON III SWORD OR SHIELD ** Speech/' says Xanthes, *.'is the most effec- tual instrument of those who do not ignore the power of its influence. "It can become at the same time an instru- ment of defense or a terrible weapon of attack. "The great Demosthenes has proved to us that, above all, when it is a question of self-de- fense, one should not scorn the shield protector in order to brandish the sword, whose sudden flashes intimidate the adversary. "From the shock of these imaginary swords, flames sometimes burst forth, destined to wound him who has advanced to the attack. "Speech may be likened to a weapon brand- ished by a chief, who starts out impetuously to show his soldiers the road which must lead them all to victory. "But to influence the heart as well as the body, the weapon of speech must be handled by a clever warrior. 41 42 SPEECH "Victory does not belong to the feeble, and such never have power over the masses. "Speech only becomes a real weapon when it is used by a man striking with a sure hand and not allowing his blows to be lost in useless osten- tation or in unjustifiable attacks. "When the phrases are the resume of a thought strongly conceived, they can wound deeply, on condition that the thought is con- densed in few words. "The most brilliant sword-thrnsts are those where one is the least hindered by useless feints. "Also, conciseness can not be too strongly re- commended to him who would be victorious in the oratorical combat. "One of his absorbing thoughts should be to attack the weak point and not to waste strength in sterile efforts. ' ' Otherwise, harassed, breathless, and troubled because of the lack of success in his attacks, it will not be long before he loses his confidence. "His blows, made without aim, will never reach his enemy with vital force, but, on the other hand, fatigue will compel him very soon to declare his thought, and he will fall under the steel of his adversary, if the latter be clever, strong, and exact." SWORD OR SHIELD 4-3 From this interesting comparison we should draw, above all, the following lesson: "Conciseness is a force of which we should know how to take advantage, if we can attain it, and which we must acquire if we do not possess it." Who has not suffered from being obliged to listen to long discourses, whose purpose dis- appeared each time we thought we saw it out- lined? To sum up debates by an argument which re- solves suddenly the difficulty, as by a saber stroke, is the province of orators, whose mission is to propagate the ideas of defense ; this is also the right of those who desire to apply the prin- ciples of a doctrine based on energy and the undaunted courage of conception. "This use of the symbolic sword," says Xanthes, "recalls irresistibly the action of Alex- ander, who, instead of making a vain attempt to undo the knot which held the yoke to the shaft of the chariot consecrated to Jupiter by the son of Gordian severed it with one blow of his heavy sword. "This act was mainly intended to create in the minds of others a favorable impression, for it increased the confidence of the superstitious 44 SPEECH soldiers, who all believed in the oracle promising the empire of Asia to him who would separate the yoke from the shaft." And he adds : "How many clever orators have extricated themselves from a position not less complicated than was this knot of legendary fame, by using a decisive and definite phrase to disentangle the skein of sophisms and ambiguities. "This was the principle talent of the cele- brated warrior Phocion, whom our common master, Demosthenes, called 'the hatchet of his discourse. ' "This talent was so natural to him that he could not understand why it called forth such admiration. "One day, during an extemporary speech, he had unfolded this special talent in such a wonderful manner that applause burst forth from the audience. "Phocion then, turning toward his friends, simply asked them: " 'Have I said some stupid thing?' " How many speakers of modern times ought to be modeled after the Athenian general ! To the former applause seems like delicious honey, the distribution of which is their due. SWORD OR SHIELD 45 Those speakers are rare who would think of asking their friends what is the cause of noisy- approbation. We should, however, render justice to orators whose talent is recognized and agree that by these the beverage of praise is rarely tasted without discretion. Generally they are very critical of themselves, finding the reward for their efforts in attaining their own personal standard of excellence. Is it with them, as with the Athenian general, that such applause astonishes them and that they can not accurately appreciate its sincerity? Modern intellectual culture does not permit of doubts such as dwelt in the sterner souls of Xanthes' ancestors. But he who wishes to perfect himself in this art should not rely on the praise, more or less sincere, of his audience ; it is within himself that he must search for the principles of approbation which will be to him most precious to receive; and it is in himself again that he should find the wisest and most honest criticism. "But," continues the philosopher, "it is not given to all who cultivate the art of oratory to find these trenchant and decisive words. "There are very few among public speakers 46 SPEECH who know them, in the first place, and far fewer who recognize that they should be uttered at the psychological moment, "Must we then conclude that the use of these categorical phrases is a gift reserved for the privileged few and that the mass of other speak- ers will never know the triumph of a cause achieved by virtue of the word-sword, as a battle is won by some heroic deed ? "We should err if we thought that these men became leaders of the masses all at once. "As it is with the majority of all our talents, eloquence is acquired when one has decided to win. "It is by slow and rational study that we succeed in uttering those phrases which decide the situation or dangerously wound the adver- sary. "Ideas should first be analyzed, as has been said in the preceding chapter. "They must be studied most attentively, and we must be imbued with them in a definite manner. "Then we must try to form an opinion from which there is no appeal. "The moment will then have arrived to for- mulate it in phrases. SWORD OR SHIELD 47 ** These phrases must be carefully arranged, taking care to remember the events which they will depict with scrupulous accuracy. ''This done, we must take care to concentrate our thought upon all which is worthy of con- sideration and make the expression of such con- centration as concise as possible. "Above all, we should make our phrases short, resonant, and comprehensive as to the idea which they wish to convey. "By the aid of the leading idea we should fit them well together that they may be coordinated without, however, overlapping, for phrases which encroach on each other always exert an unfavor- able influence on clearness of speech. "And now a special work begins. "Like an essence which is reduced to that point where the strongest perfume is exhaled from the most concentrated mass of liquid, just so all the parts of a discourse must be so con- structed that all useless words will disappear, to give place to that which we may term the quintessence of thought. "Only from this oft-repeated study have sprung these phrases, clear and sharp as an ax, which have decided in a manner the fate of peoples." IX. 4 48 SPEECH By reducing the theory of Xanthes to more modern and utilitarian proportions, we shall find a daily application of the advice which he gives us. Yes, the decisive word is often necessary to resolve situations which the most enduring pa- tience could not elucidate. What family, what institution, what associa- tion has not its Gordian knot around which the weak ones strive in vain? All of a sudden a man of energy appears; he judges of the situation at a glance ; it is not his way to ruin his nails by untying this inextric- able knot; his time is too valuable to be lost in vain attempts. As with all the others who have preceded him, he leans over the obstacle, looks upon the tangle, tries to unfasten it, then reflects. Long discourses and discussions take place around him and seem to be unending ; he allows the prolix orators to become involved in their own arguments, and, before any one of them is able to anticipate his intention, he rises and with a telling phrase annihilates the useless con- jectures by eradicating the difficulty, which he suppresses, at least in the form which it assumes at present. SWORD OR SHIELD 49 Shall we say that he has annihilated it? No, certainly not; but he compels it to be presented in a very different way, thus regener- ating the field of thought and the results which are therein produced. It is Xanthes who tells us : ' ' Conciseness is an element of success in every discourse. "By conciseness, one must not understand shortness of duration ; a discourse can be very long and at the same time very concise, if it contains many ideas, each one exprest in the fewest possible words, * ' Those who do not observe this rule will never be anything but babblers, and in their hands the sword of speech will have the appearance of a jagged knife." Passing on to the interpretation of the picture which composes the second title of this chapter, the old Athenian continues: "Speech, in certain cases, is distinctively a shield. "We have just said that the greatest orator of Greece did not consider it from this point of view in cases of defense. "One can but admire the depth of this prin- ciple. 50 SPEECH "The shield is a defensive weapon, above all; the blows ought to fall upon the shield. "And to use only this means, when it is a question of attack, is to be willing to endure them all. "The shield ought, therefore, to be used less to weaken the force of the blows than to in- timidate the adversary by the invulnerability which it confers. "One would hesitate to attack him who seems covered with scales which can not be pierced by a sword. "And, as the bearing of a shield does not ex- clude the use of the sword, one might fear, in approaching the enemy sufficiently near to force him to show himself, that one was within reach of his sword. "Every prudent orator ought therefore to wear a shield alongside of his sword-word com- posed of ideal thoughts that the adversary may consider as disturbing to his serenity. "It is unwise to expose oneself and to allow the adversary to perceive the defect to be found in some part of the finest tempered-steel cuirass. * ' The use then of the shield is valuable in this sense, that it defeats attacks and puts prudence on guard." SWORD OR SHIELD 61 In less symbolical language, we shall agree with Xanthes that the orator who knows how to influence people by his reserve and his self- possession will produce an impression all the more that, under his apparent coolness, each one of his adversaries will desire to discover his plans, which each one will formulate according to the interpretation of his own fears. Then it is always clever to pass oneself off as an invulnerable man. This is one way of putting to flight intriguers and evil-minded people, who, fearing to break their arrows against a solid shield, will spare them, or at least will think it best only to employ them knowingly in attacking some one who ap- pears easy to fight. Let us add that great reserve always baffles an adversary, because it does not allow him to perceive any of our cherished projects or the sentiment which we conceal. It is above all valuable in dialog, for it dissembles the ardent desire of realization, which enthusiasts allow to be apparent without calcu- lating the consequences. Strong in his apparent apathy, he who hides himself behind the shield of reserve knows how to present his objections or his projects with 52 SPEECH such an impenetrable air that, not only his ad- versaries are unable to divine what importance he attaches to them, but he deceives them by leading them to think that he is completely un- interested in them. Truth in the expression of indifference is at times so marked that, instead of obtaining con- cessions which they had hoped to secure, they reach the point where they formulate propo- sitions tending to compel their relinquishment. of the privileges which they had already ac- quired. The shield, when used in public speaking or in parliamentary discussion, if we may believe the Athenian philosopher, can adopt a thousand forms and appropriate to itself many different names. "For many," says he, *'the shield may be re- presented by a general idea, behind which this class of people may take refuge in order to elude too pressing resolutions. "Other orators proclaim principles whose sum total constitutes a magnificent series of tedious arguments. "Still a few more invoke the ideas under, whose influence reasoning is established. "The majority take shelter behind high- SWORD OR SHIELD 63 sounding words, such as: abnegation, virtue, patriotism. "We do not wish to insinuate that they lack sincerity, for a large number among them are absolutely convinced of the solid foundation of their arguments, under the shadow of which they are entrenched; but the skill of the orator con- sists in compelling respect for this conviction from his audience and to make them share this conviction," Xanthes insists still further on that which he calls the ''shield ideas" and develops his theme as follows : "There are some orators whose line of argu- ment presents no brilliant side; these are not always the least admired, if they know how to insert the defensive idea into their orations, which will aid them in obtaining results, by em- ploying the words which permit them to in- struct inquirers, to confute opponents, or to es- tablish clearly the truth, in other words, to strengthen their mental attitude by introducing the element of reasoning into all their dis- cussions." It seems to us that this last phrase recapitu- lates the signification of that which the Athenian means when he uses the word-shield. 54 SPEECH It is in reality not only the means of resisting the adversary's attacks, but it is also the ability to protect oneself, while we assume an attitude of wise expectancy. The surest way to create confusion among one's opponents, is to dissemble one's thought. This is, in a word, an artifice which permits time for reflection to exert its influence without the mental tension being perceptible to those whom it should escape. It is also a method of allowing the power of reason to triumph, because the defensive in debate permits the orator to unfold his argu- ments with understanding, that is to say, when the adversary, disconcerted by his attitude, has exhausted the reserve force of the arguments which he has successively employed, in the hope of destroying this bulwark of defense which con- ceals from him the thought and the intentions of the one whom he is combating. "Finally," says Xanthes, ''a clever orator will know how to wield to his own advantage these two weapons, so different and yet both so indispensable. "He will understand how to watch for the moment when his opponent, tired out, will get back his breath, to detach for a moment the shield SWORD OR SHIELD 55 with which he has until now protected himself, and to draw the sword which enables him to change from the defensive to the aggressive. "The greater part of the science of oratory lies in the judicious use of these two weapons: the sword and the shield. "It is thanks to them that discourses or dis- cussions will be freed from the monotony which characterizes parliamentary debates, "Neither the most perfect reasoning nor the greatest eloquence can long hold the attention of an audience, if the diversity of the con- troversy does not arouse enthusiasm." It seems to us that these suggestions should be closely examined by those who speak without antagonists. How many political or religious orators, how many lecturers would gain by meditating upon the preceding lines: "Moral lassitude is born of monotony," says a famous proverb. This quotation should be engraved in letters of gold above the entrance to every auditorium where public meetings are held, as well as over the doors of salons where people assemble to listen to a lecturer. He who understands how to wield the sword 56 SPEECH properly, or to take refuge behind the shield of reserve will be sure to avoid the most serious cause of failure. The popularity of an orator is usually due to his clever wit. So there are some with exceedingly respect- able talent who can not hold the attention of the public. Others, far less versed in the art of oratory, succeed in charming their hearers to the extent of causing them to forget all their defects and only to recognize their brilliant qualities. It is the latter who practise the art which Xanthes speaks of in this chapter. Alternately sweeping down upon an adver- sary in a sudden attack or taking refuge in a defense full of reserve, they possess both the dash of the swashbuckler and the enigmatic charm of the thinker. These orators force attention in spite of every- thing, and — in the words of a celebrated proverb — "Not only when they speak, but even at mo- ments when they say nothing. >> LESSON IV WEALTH OF ELOQUENCE AND OPU- LENCE OF WIT "There is," says Xanthes, "a very capri- cious bird. "They are few who know how to keep him in a cage. "However, he allows himself to be easily caught; he comes quickly at the sound of the pastoral flute, for he is far from being wild. "He allows himself willingly to be attracted by the sounds which escape from an open win- dow. "He enters, listens for a moment to the trills of some musical instrument, then, as quickly as he came, he flies away to some other habitation in order to listen to the song of the lute. "But there also his stay is momentary, and the sound of the human voice ringing out in a simple and sweet melody soon urges him to- ward a different place. "He does not take flight, however, without the intention of returning. 57 58 SPEECH ((■ 'It is not unusual to see him reappear after these various migrations; but his presence is only evanescent, and he departs on the wing, from the moment he imagines he will be cap- tured. "At times, also, his flight will lead him very- far from his native haunts; a very long time elapses before he comes back to the point of departure. "But, most of the time, he does not soar away definitely, and makes brief appearances, fol- lowed by more or less prolonged absences. "However, it happens sometimes that an air or a song will seem particularly agreeable to him ; then he does not fly away from the grasp of one who seizes him gently and shuts him up in a cage, from which he does not try to escape. "The reason for this is that this person knew how to unite all charms with (most important of all) all variety, which attract the bird At- tention. "This bird-fancier knew how, by the diver- sity of his songs, to compete successfully with the attraction of the neighboring lute or with the charm of the shepherd's flute." And, continuing to unwind the thread of his story, Xanthes adds: ELOQUENCE AND WIT 59 "But he must not fall asleep in the triumph of assured victory. "If he neglects to interest the bird Attention by means of the manifold charms of his melo- dies and their infinite variety ; if he permits this bird to listen to a one-chord and monotonous song, the bird, not being able to escape from his cage, will not wait long before falling asleep, a slumber from which silence alone will awaken him." The capture of which the philosopher speaks is what, as a matter of fact, demands the great- est care and offers also the greatest difficulties. To have "the ear of the public" always im- plies for an orator the constant effort to attract his audience. Otherwise, like the bird in the story, their attention will escape and wander far from him who is striving in vain to recall it. Now, faithful to his principle, after having indicated the mistake to us, the old Athenian is going to tell us what is ih'e origin of it, by showing us how to combat it. "Most orators," he says, "err through ex- tremes. "With some this disposition is manifested by an abundance of high-sounding words. 60 SPEECH ' ' Others indulge in an excessof ideas, which they accumulate without any systematized method and without giving themselves leisure to analyze them. ' ' Certain of them seek, above all, words which produce startling effects, but their multiplicity prevents the individual brilliancy of each one in particular from being appreciated. "Their discourses resemble certain cuirasses made of sparkling scales, whose reflection is spread over them all, forming at a glance one blaze of light, seeming at a short distance to be one single sheet of metal. "Generally both fail to arrest the attention of their audience. "This accumulation of words, as also of ideas, ends inevitably in creating a weariness among those who listen which is evident by the flagging of the attention. "To return to absolute simplicity of thought and expression will be the only method of reme- dying this lack of discipline. ' ' Orators to whom we listen with real pleasure are those who understand how to mingle serious and dispassionate phrases, words whose sonor- ous terminology gives the impression of the call of the trumpet bursting forth upon the theme of the flute. ELOQUENCE AND WIT 61 ''We admire the restful harmony of a rip- pling stream, but we can fall asleep easily to the murmur of its babbling. "The rumbling of the thunder, if it con- tinues, will have the same soporific effect. "Neither waves clashing in violent shocks nor the wind blowing in a tempest would any the more have the power to keep us awake, "But if the restful song of the brook be over- powered by the spontaneous roll of the thunder we should be startled and should wait for a return of the sound. "We should do the same if a calm followed a storm and if the deafening tempest suddenly abated. "In the lull which follows we should per- ceive the gentle murmur of the brook until, our attention being no more diverted by different sounds, we give ourselves up to the languor caused by monotony." From this vivid description we should con- clude, therefore, that wealth of eloquence, if it be continued indefinitely, becomes a barrier to the powers of concentration among one's hearers. We should not, however, think that the disci- ple of the great Greek orators approves of lack of ideas and of poverty of terminology. 62 SPEECH After having put us on our guard against the opposite extravagance, he advises us to study expression and ideas in the following terms: "An orator should concentrate his mind on that which relates to opulence in words and on the habitual use of elegant expressions, but there should be no necessity for mental effort on the part of his audience to understand them. "It is by attentive observation of this pro- cedure that one will acquire the understanding of rhythmic phraseology and of moderation, the sure foundation of all oratory, "This desirable attention to simplicity will not prevent the cultivation of strong and superb rhythm, which ought to be the object of all studies pursued by those who intend to speak in public. "This moderation ought to be so applied that it will never conflict with outbursts of oratorical inspiration. "It is after a dispassionate explanation and a circumspect and simplified discussion that words, overflowing with lyrical language, will have the power to make hearts beat. *^' Noble and legitimate passion, revealing it- self in magnificent phrases, will be aroused in others just in proportion as it compels atten- ELOQUENCE AND WIT 63 tion and revives it to the advantage of a senti- ment, the enthusiasm of which has not been weakened by preceding demonstrations. "The heart is accustomed to generous im- pulses and never refuses to follow them, if they are skilfully elicited. "The faculty of reasoning is not always pos- sest by the masses, and the impulse arising from instinct should be considered, as of vital im- portance to the passages of a discourse the mem- ory of which gives them prominence even after the orator has finished speaking. The function of this one is to arouse visions in the mind whose desired realization induces the action which it is wished to cause. "This is why one should avoid lengthy ar- guments filled with pretentious words, which, repeated continuously, become a habit and de- stroy spontaneity of thought. "It is most unwise for him who wishes to in- spire enthusiasm to allow his auditors time for determining on their deductions at the same time that his arguments are being approved. "The orator should not only suggest his ar- gument to the audience but he should impress it on them. "It should be developed in sub-divisions pro- IX.5 64 SPEECH ceeding from the main branch and not in paral- lel branches, because, if there exists the least divergence from the source this deviation would not take long to be converted into a decided split. "Now the object of every speaker is to instil conviction into the mind of those who listen to him, no matter what the subject of his discourse may be." Xanthes then indicates to us the inherent disadvantages of too great a wealth of ideas. "It is impossible," he says, "to warn an ora- tor strongly enough against the danger of a torrent of ideas which, like tumultuous waves, make a disorderly assault upon the brain. "The least disadvantage which can result is weariness for them and for their hearers. "Too many ideas can not find their proper place in a single address, and thus, if he wishes to elaborate them all, the orator finds himself forced to unfold them very concisely and not analyze them exhaustively, "Prolixity of ideas is a common fault among inexperienced orators, who do not know how to take out of a speech all the superfluous mat- ter. "That is why they rarely succeea in having ELOQUENCE AND WIT 65 their theories adopted, for conviction can not be created as to a thought too concisely de- veloped and uttered without explanation. ' ' As we have already seen, it is not only well to reflect deeply, to classify, to coordinate, and to deduce, but these operations must be made intelligible to listeners, in order that they them- selves may take the direction of them," And Xanthes then shrewdly adds: "It can even be positively stated that, in the majority of cases, he who has followed easily the argument suggested will not be long in be- lieving that he has conceived it and will not fail to claim the glory of his perspicacity, if facts are able to confirm it. "What greater success for an orator than to be able to create such an illusion ? "He will be all the more quickly rewarded, because every one is more disposed to be devoted to a cause when they believe themselves to be the originators of it. "For all these reasons, it is most unwise to subject the intelligence of a hearer to gymnas- tics of too violent a nature. "Besides, it must not be forgotten that too great an abundance of ideas hinders precision of expression. 66 SPEECH i 1 1 'This exactness, however, is the basic strength of all public speaking, "What must be absolutely avoided is weari- ness on the part of one's listeners. "It is unconsciously that they must be at- tracted by the arguments unfolded to them. "It ought to seem a coveted pleasure and not a prescribed duty for them to follow the argu- ment of an orator. "In order to accomplish this purpose it is, therefore, necessary to present the idea which one desires to have accepted as one would pre- sent a valuable object by placing it on a small pedestal in an empty room. "One can not too strongly insist on this last point," continued Xanthes, who, combining his favorite argument with his teaching, cites the following illustration : ' ' Suppose, for example, that you want to have ten objects admired; would you put them pell- mell in a case, taking care to place this case in a room encumbered with useless trifles ? "He who should act in this way would un- questionably be looked upon as most stupid, and he need not be astonished if his knicknaeks are only superficially appreciated. "The clever salesman, on the contrary, will ELOQUENCE AND WIT 67 take care to arrange each of these objects ac- oording to their value ; he will place them sep- arately in such a way that it will be possible to walk around them, thus being able to admire them from every side. "He will be scrupulously careful not to litter up the room where he exhibits them with puerile objects, whose presence would distract the at- tention of visitors. "The orator should take his inspiration from this example, if he desires that the thoughts which he is going to submit to his audience should be appreciated and valued as they de- serve to be. "He will take good care not to abandon his first idea for a second one, and then returning to the first quickly leave it again, to the ad- vantage of the second. "By acting thus he would do like the mer- chant who boasted of the profits of a statue, putting it down in order to take up a picture, the design of which he wanted to have appre- ciated, then as quickly seized again the statue and began to admire the outline of the arm. ' ' So well did he act his part of salesman that, once outside the shop, the buyer would be obliged to quicken his memory in order to recall 68 SPEECH the merits of each one of the works of art he had seen. *'He would hesitate before deciding upon the perfection of a drawing, asking himself if this admiration ought not rather to be given to the statue, and when he would review in imagi- nation the beauties of the latter, the outlines of the picture would be interposed between his recollections and the perception which he de- sired to evoke. "We can conclude that, in all probability, he will purchase neither the one nor the other of these objects so inadequately exhibited and whose beauty was so unsatisfactorily described, "Too many orators resemble these merchants. * ' Some of them mass ideas in an indescribable disorder. "Others present them simultaneously, scat- tering them pell-mell, so that the listener is obliged to undertake a real task in order not to unite the conclusion of one with the evolution of the other. "Very numerous are those who allow them to be aggressive, so much so that, like the cen- taurs of the fable, they seem to have sprung from two different beings. "There are also those who, as with blows ELOQUENCE AND WIT 69 from a hatchet, overwhelm the public with ar- guments which they believe conclusive, and which, perhaps, would be, if they allowed time for them to be understood. "But scarcely is the blow aimed when they deliver another without allowing the dazed lis- tener time to get back his wits. "There are those who join the wealth of ideas to opulent eloquence, of which we have already spoken. "So well do all these accomplish their pur- pose that the audience, drowned beneath the metaphors, submerged by the flood of ideas, deafened by the blast of loud words, have only one desire: to escape this torture and to renew the experience as seldom as possible. "How different is the discreet speaker who understands how to enclose the minds of others vnth the net tightened by his simple and im- pregnable arguments. "He does not unfold more than one idea at a time, never abandoning it before he ascer- tains that all his hearers understand it and it is acceptable by each one. "He will not despise abrupt phrases and harsh-sounding words, but he will understand how to use them so that they will lose none of 70 SPEECH their effect, and will employ them in such a way that their appeal will be a sure incitement to conviction. "Finally he will decide with certainty the moment when the attention of his public spreads its wings to fly away from the auditorium which he fills with the sound of his voice, and he will immediately seize upon some diversion which will retain it." Would one not suppose that these lines, writ- ten some years before the beginning of our era, had just ' been published for the use of lec- turers, who are becoming more numerous every day! If these latter wish to be sincere, they will acknowledge that true success is not the lot of a redundant and inflated speaker any more than it will be the inheritance of a too-prolific thinker. It belongs to him who understands varying his effects and caging the migratory bird, which all speakers would like to capture and whose flight few among them are able to arrest: At- tention. LESSON V OF ELOQUENCE If we believe Xanthes, there are two distinct kinds of eloquence. "The one may be compared to the lightning which flashes and quickly vanishes. "The other, like the fire concealed beneath the ashes, lies dormant a long time before the flame bursts forth. ' ' The lightning, however, does not always des- troy the objects which it grazes. It happens sometimes that it encircles them and sinks into the earth, leaving them intact. "The conflagration, on the contrary, has al- ready half done its work when the flame bursts out, and most of the time it devours only the shapeless remains, having by this time spent all the force of its redoubtable dominion. "Without underrating the first form, which at a critical moment can be an element of valu- able assistance, we can not fail to admire the force of the other, for, at the crucial minute, it 71 72 SPEECH reaches only those who are convinced, all ready to become fervent disciples. "Eloquence is, above all, the power to per- suade. ''It is also, at times, the means of attracting crowds and of deciding acts of heroism and self- sacrifice. ' ' However, in this last form it is not so often used. "Impassioned effort and tender emotions pos- sess only a relatively limited power in ordinary life, but the need of inspiring conviction exists in every step of the social ladder, and those who have the secret of developing it in the hearts of others belong to the most powerful race in the world. * ' Heroic eloquence achieves results a thousand times more brilliant, but they are at times less definite. "The state of mind, the surroundings, in a word, the environment, aid in reaching con- clusions inspired by heroic eloquence ; but, if this state of things be modified, the resolutions made in a moment of enthusiasm are often regretted and ill carried out," And the old Greek orator, who is also a pro- found psychologist, continues as follows: OF ELOQUENCE 73 ''"WTio among us has not "been subjected to the influence of scenery ? "Should we not think that it is an admirable preparation for the conclusion of orations? "Wise people who speak upon serenity amid the dazzling bloom of the flowers, under the blue dome of the sky, have they not a precious aid in nature ? "But when night falls and the tempest roars, the mentality becomes clouded and their pre- cepts are in danger of losing their power of persuasion, at least in the case of adepts, who have been recently convinced. "This is why we must beware of eloquence which borrows its power only from the magic of words which are adapted to the present situa- tion. "Less striking but more efficacious is the elo- quence which adopts no artifice and derives no benefit from an abnormal situation. ' ' This form of eloquence is contented to inter- pret the truth, demonstrate it, and by the omni- potence of speech compel its admission by those whom it addresses." According to Xanthes, eloquence of whatever kind should be inspired by three principle motives. 74 SPEECH With the exactness which is his characteristic, he defines them as follows : "The first motive is justice. "All polemics ought to be based upon this motive. "It can happen that an unjust principle, cleverly defended, may have a chance of being favorably received, if the orator be full of talent, but the fact is rare. "The following are the reasons: "The orator may be himself convinced, by reason of an argument whose point of departure is erroneous. "In this case, he is sincere and, if he be per- suasive, he will be able to convince his hearers of its veracity during a brief period of time, but this faith, resting upon error, will crumble in ruins simultaneously with the proclaimir.g of the real truth, and the disciples of the orator will not be long in expressing that scorn which this false doctrine deserves. "'We do not wish to refer to the case where the orator recognizes the weak foundation of his arguments and yet he insists on presenting them either from a feeling of vanity or because a question of self-interest influences him to take this attitude. OF ELOQUENCE 75 "But falsehood fails to impress an audience; such arguments almost always overshoot the mark which it is intended for them to attain • like arrows shot too violently, they pass beyond the target at which all public speakers aim, and which is called persuasion. "On the contrary, at other times, phrases which are uttered with too little conviction stop half-way before reaching the minds of the listen- ers, and, like arrows deprived of force, fall with- out accomplishing any results. ''It is, therefore, indispensable that he who speaks should be persuaded of the justice of the cause which he is defending." However, Xanthes foresees the case where a desire for the good or protection of humanity will influence an orator to argue in favor of a cause which he knows to be unjust, and he ex- presses himself thus: "One may object that many men of recog- nized talent, have argued against their own con- viction by proclaiming the innocence of a guilty person, whom they were called upon to defend. "However, many among them have succeeded in convincing the judges of innocence which they knew did not exist. "This assertion is true, and so many famous 76 SPEECH examples confirm it that there is no possibility of a doubt as to its truth, ' ' But one must not forget that these men who defend crime are moved to such action by a very noble sentiment: the desire of contributing to the redemption of a conscience and of a soul, "The beauty of the purpose makes them for- get the error of the motive ; they are not insincere when they are pleading this innocence, because they are only thinking of the future redemption of him whom their oratorical efforts will be able to save from well-deserved punishment. "The desire for justice is often confounded with that of redemption. ' ' "We will not insist on the truth of this opinion, which might be that of a contemporary, because every day we see the example of eminent lawyers who give the support of their talent to acknowl- edged criminals, in favor of whom they know how to use pathetic accents, making a fervent appeal to indulgence with which every generous heart is filled. The second motive, according to Xanthes, is destination. ' ' Before everything a discourse to be eloquent should have a definite aim. "Whether serious or frivolous, real or vision- OF ELOQUENCE 77 ary, this purpose will be exactly outlined in tlie mind of the orator ; otherwise, his orations prov- ing nothing and not interpreting a definite theory, it would be difficult for him to direct the attention of his hearers toward an obscure conclusion which he himself would find hard to demonstrate clearly. ' ' After some explanations concerning destina- tion, we find the following comparison so strik- ing for the careful scrutiny which it displays. "If you propose to some friends to make an excursion, before replying they will begin by questioning you about how much time it will occupy and what is the object of the change. ' ' They will want to learn how long it will last, of the reason for making it, and to know what acquaintances they will be able to make. "If the length of the journey projected should exceed their strength, if the obstacles seemed to them too difficult to surmount, if the route seemed to have no attractions, if, in fact, they thought that they could not derive any special benefit, they would surely refuse to accompany you. "It might happen, however, that some among them might join you at the outset; but if they found you an incompetent guide, stopping at 78 SPEECH all the uninteresting wayside places and choos- ing the long and monotonous roads without knowing exactly where they lead to, they will not hesitate to leave you, either to pursue their own way or simply to return home. "It is the same with the orator who mis- applies the science of destination. "His audience follows him at the beginning of his discourse, but as soon as they perceive that the effort to do so is in vain, they are less and less interested in his lectures and finally refuse to listen to his arguments which lead to no conclusion, and in the course of which he becomes bewildered and unable to solve his problems. There is, according to Xanthes, yet a third motive, whose cooperation is indispensable to all public speakers: the principle of beauty. ' ' The quest of beauty, ' ' he says, ' ' is the desire to please and to charm while giving information. "The trifling signification which these words sometime make should not be attached to them in this instance. "Beauty resides in that which is; a thinker will know how to discover it as well in that which is most humble as in that which is magnifi- cent. OF ELOQUENCE 79 "This sentiment, at times ideal, at others puerile, is always essential to a discourse, in order that all aridity of style may be eliminated. ' ' It opens up to the mind unexplored horizons and permits us to develop the most abstract subjects without being diverted from the study by the difficulties which it presents. ' ' The worship of the beautiful does not elim- inate these abstractions, but covers them with splendid flowers of speech." And, resuming his usual method of instruction by means of illustration, the old Athenian master continues: "A route will always seem less fatiguing and less wearisome, if we can stop from time to time and gather flowers, and if we have the certainty that each steep path once climbed will lead us to the discovery of glorious horizons. *'"We shall have more courage to undertake a new ascent, if we begin our journey beholding wonders that we have admired and with the hope that we shall see others equally beautiful at the first turning." And he concludes: ''Those who are to be pitied are they who do not know how to discover the beautiful and have only the fatigue of treading the pathway wliich IX. t; 80 SPEECH presents no ideal and is not illuminated by the inspirations of memory." This philosophy can not be too much admired, because it is for those who wish to apply it the sure means of enriching the mind without caus- ing that repugnance which the accumulation of difficulties never fails to create. This is the secret of many discouragements, of many discontinued studies, and is also the explanation of the deserted aspect of those halls, in which many orators have been heard whose merit however is indisputable. But just as Xanthes says, it is not everything to be able to assemble companions for a journey, we must be able to relieve the journey of its difficulties or at least to meet them courageously by awakening in them the hope of compensation at the journey's end. One must know how to interest them also, from the very beginning, that they may forget their weariness. One thing absolutely necessary is to present a definite aim. Who among you, at the moment of starting on an excursion up the mountains has not looked up at the sky and thought : ' * If it be foggy, I shall not start, for on reach- OF ELOQUENCE 81 ing the summit I shall not be able to distinguish anything, and I do not consider it worth while to impose on myself useless fatigue." Young Alpine travelers sometimes make such an attempt, but they are very careful not to re- peat it. This is why so many men whose scientific knowledge and talent are recognized preach in the desert, imitating thus the celebrated apostle, but less successful than he, because they fail to win disciples. The young students who have followed such a guide have been so disenchanted by the un- interesting trip, so uncertain as to how it will terminate, that they have eluded an invitation to make a second one. As to the others, those who know, they take good care to keep out of the way. "A mistake quite common," says Xanthes, "is to imagine that eloquence consists in redun- dant phrases, in a superabundance of words scintillating with wit, closely packed like the arrows in a quiver. "This ambitious phraseology has nothing in common with true eloquence. "The latter, far from indulging in preten- S2 SPEECH tious words, endeavors to frame thoughts in a concise and graceful diction. "The sentences should never be overburdened with innumerable incidents, nor with repeated parentheses. "Clearness and simplicity are the first requisites of eloquence. "A discourse should, above everything else, give the impression of precision and logical sequence. "Homogeneity is also to be considered, for it is due to the harmony of structure that every element of the discourse tends toward the same purpose. ' ' This leading thought can be diagnosed under harmonious phrases, but it should always be uppermost in the mind of the orator; he who, even for a moment, loses sight of the conclusion of his discourse, risks being lost in fatal digres- sions which will rob him of the undivided atten- tion of his public. "Now we have already stated how fleeting this is and how difiScult it is to reclaim it once it has been diverted. "This is why young orators can not be suf- ficiently cautioned against allowing their atten- tion to be distracted by stopping to look for a OF ELOQUENCE 83 word or to explain an argument which has momentarily escaped them. "In the first instance, the forgotten word should be replaced by a synonym; were it less harmonious or less applicable, one should not, however, neglect to catch the passing word, even if it only approximately performs the function of the one which has escaped. "The same holds good in discussion. "However, this case would not occur, if the discourse were prepared beforehand, as it is proper that all discourses should be. ' ' But if in spite of everything this case should present itself, the orator, instead of losing his head, and what is worse, of allowing his public to perceive his confusion, should resolutely aban- ' don his search and adopt a new line of argument. "During this time and in order to conceal his embarrassment, he repeats his last phrase, as if he wished especially to engrave it upon the mind of his hearers, "Then he will make a pause. "This pause is necessary, when it does not exceed a few seconds. ' ' In all discourses this pause is the sign which marks the termination of sentences in writings. "After a pause, the listener is advised that a «4 SPEECH HOW TO ACQUIRE IT 116 Illustrating this teaching by example, he con- tinues : "Have you never seen experienced sailors embark on a dangerous voyage? "Notwithstanding the staunchness of their ship, their indisputable skill as mariners, they rarely neglect to carry with them belts made of thin wooden plates, which they intend to use as life-saving appliances to support them on the surface of the water in case of shipwreck. "These instruments serve only one purpose, that of allowing them to wait for a vessel to save them. "Those who would scorn this succor would be considered imprudent, because this disdain might cost them their lives. "The phrases of which we have just been speaking play the part of life-belts in a dis- course; they are intended to prevent the ship- wreck of the orator in the ocean of forgetful- ness, and to allow him to await the return of memory or that not less desirable gift, presence of mind. "Many talents," Xanthes reiterates, "are in- dispensable to the formation of a good orator. "We have already warned him against a formidable enemy: diffuseness. 116 SPEECH **He can not distrust too much the improper use of paraphrases. "He should seek for elegance in the arrange-' ment of his words. "He must not make a mistake about this last qualification and confound elegance with affec- tation. "Elegance of composition exists as well in a poetic or in a tender style as in virile exhorta- tions or warlike declarations, "It is the opposite of vulgarity; it can be cynical or enthusiastic, simple or complex, but it will always command attention if properly exprest. ' ' The natural tone, attained by practising the exercises of which we shall speak in the next chapter, is the tone that all orators should strive to acquire. In order to master it the old Athenian advises the following procedure: He recommends us to take a very short and familiar phrase and to render it in the tone in which we would read it if it were enriched by commentaries. "Let us take,** says he, "the most ordinary phrase : "/ do not know, and let us practise saying HOW TO ACQUIRE IT 117 it with the intonation which the circumstances under which it is uttered demand. "First negligence. We understand by this, that this question is of little value; I scorn to examine it closely ; it is impossible for me, there- fore, to speak of it, and we utter : I do not know. * ' The slight regret, understood : I should have had pleasure to inform you, but I do not know. ' ' The grudge : How happy I should be to know the intentions which have dictated that act, but I have sought in vain: / do not know. -^* Anger: And to say that at this moment perhaps they are concocting a plot against me, and it is impossible for me to defend myself, since I do not know. ''Grief: Perhaps my dearest friend has dis- appeared in this war, but, whatever I may have been able to do, it has been impossible for me to be sure of the fact : I do not know. "Discussion: if I had been taught that art, I should be able to speak in public, but . . . / do not know. "At first, it will be well to practise with the aid of the phrase understood, then it should be set aside in order to enunciate the typical phrase only, which must be spoken with the proper intonations. 118 SPEECH **To observe scrupulously the difference in the shades of meaning is one of the charms of public speaking. "He who knows how, through the medium of delicate transitions, to pass from elaboration to simplicity and from pathos to coldness will feel his audience vibrate under the influence of his words. ' ' The part played by the voice is also of para- mount importance, and its transformations are always of a character to stimulate renewed at- tention. "The change of register also indicates a dis- traction and breaks the accompanying monotony of the discourse. "From the first syllable the voice reveals a modification in the feeling and in the idea. " It is also well to practise underlining lightly a word which we desire to emphasize. "Sometimes it is an entire phrase which we wish to place in such a manner as to give full value to the idea that it is intended to express. ' ' There are many ways of underlining. "The first is to be found in the articulation. "The other in the increased or diminished volume of the voice. ' * Whichever may be the case, it is an excellent HOW TO ACQUIRE IT 119 artifice to strengthen the tie which holds the attention of the hearers." Turning over a few more pages, we find advice concerning the first appearance of orators. "From the time that the budding orator feels himself sufiiciently equipped, from the moment he thinks that he can be a victor in the struggle against the thousands of enemies which stand upon the threshold of his career, he should take advantage of all his acquisitions. — "He should embrace every opportunity to speak in public and should not fail to do so, if only by making the most ordinary remarks, thus inducing discussions. 'The greatest harmony will always exist be- tween his words and his thoughts ; he will banish timidity, the mother of embarrassment, will take into account the advice of his superiors, and will endeavor to speak only wisely. -^"When the moment comes to make his first appearance in public, he should first select care- fully the place where he is going to speak. "This is of paramount importance, because speeches should always be adapted to the place where they are given. ' ' In the open air, the voice will expand more easily, the phrases will be amplified, and the 120 SPEECH rhythm of the sentences will be more vigorous. .^^ "In a lecture-room, the shades of meaning will be more definitely indicated, and one will be able, from time to time, to abandon the preten- tious style, to use a more simple and more natural tone of voice. "It is, therefore, essential that one should be accurately informed about the place where one is to appear, and, if it be possible, to try the acoustics, for one must always guard against repeated vibrations, which, by prolonging the last syllable of each word, produce confused sounds in the ears of the hearers. "The construction of the auditorium should also be considered. "The public should be addrest in a lan- guage which it is capable of understanding, for he who expresses himself before an assembly of learned men or before illiterate people in the same terms would not be worthy the name of orator. -^ ""The greatest masters of oratory have said this : * He who speaks to the public is either its master or its slave, according to his powers of persuasion.' "Therefore, one should not fail to observe the audience while speaking, in order to notice HOW TO ACQUIRE IT 121 its attitude and regulate the discourse according to the manner in which it is being received. "If one notices the least impatience, one must not hesitate to sacrifice a few sentences in order to shorten the discourse and resort to the diver- sions of which we have already spoken. "Under no circumstances should one become disconcerted, and, if it be necessary to reply to an antagonist, one should dp so with perfect composure, by looking stedfastly into the eyes of his opponent and calling to his aid the remem- brance of daily improvisations." Such are the broad underlying principles of that which Xanthes calls the mental study of oratory ; in the next chapter we shall study with him the benefits of the mechanical study which he designates as involuntary action, the study of which should go hand in hand with mental culture. LESSON VIII AUTOMATISM AND THOUGHT These two words, which seem to contradict each other, find, nevertheless, their place in the mechanical education of speech. In this kind of study, thought will be placed exclusively at the disposal of automatism, in order to obtain before all else the perfection of the instrument of speech. "There is not," says Xanthes, "an artizan, however remarkable in the understanding of his art, who does not first think of the quality of the tools which he will be called upon to use. "The most renowned sculptor could never awaken the soul of nature in the marble if his knife were made of a soft metal and if it bent under the blows of the hammer. "A painter could not picture all the colors of a landscape if he had only neutral tints at his disposal. "Now, the voice is the instrument of him who desires to devote himself to the art of speaking ; 122 AUTOMATISM AND THOUGHT 123 he should make all possible effort to render this instrument perfect and, to accomplish this, must devote himself at the same time to the mechanical and mental studies already prescribed in the course of these pages. " If he works conscientiously, he will have the joy of seeing this instrument not only being per- fected but also being modified and made so flexible that it will obey the slightest sug- gestion.',' And Xanthes adds judiciously: "Is it not sufficient for an orator to be oc- cupied in thinking out and constructing his discourse? Must he struggle also with a voice which is badly placed ? "The most pathetic things will seem dull, when uttered by a voice which has no warmth. "The different shades of expression can only be interpreted by a voice which responds per- fectly to the will of the orator. "The training of this organ is, therefore, in- dispensable to him who is destined for the career of the noble art of emotional expression and the subtle art of persuasion. "One of the first requirements in the develop- ment of such art is to learn how to use the re- spiratory organs without fatigue." 124 SPEECH It is evident that the ideas of voice-culture were the same in olden times as they are to-day for all beginners. The old Athenian enters into too much techni- cal detail for us to reproduce here, but, from his dissertation on this subject, we shall cite the following passages: "Many methods of breathing are used, the principal ones being: * * Lateral respiration ; /"Deep breathing; ( "Clavical breathing. "In the first, the volume of air absorbed is, ac- cording to some experts, of considerable quan- tity. The entire thoracic cage participates in this absorption, and, the work, being spread over a large surface, the operation is rendered all the easier because it includes the uplifting of the ribs at the same time. "Deep breathing is also called abdominal respiration, for in this method of inhaling the air is stored by the lowering of the diaphragm ; the expanding of the ribs is less perceptible and the abdomen is slightly curved inward. "On the other hand, in clavicular breathing, the abdomen is noticeably deprest, while the organs tend to rise." AUTOMATISM AND THOUGHT 125 Wliatever may be the method adopted, Xanthes advises that the same position be main- tained in putting it into practise. Differing in opinion from our chief modern professors, he condemns the reclining position and he particularly recommends a special atti- tude. ''The arms," he says, ''should be extended in the form of a cross, and the chest well ex- panded. "The mouth must remain closed during in- halation, which should be made through the nostrils. "It is bad for an orator to inhale with the mouth wide open; all sorts of diflSculties result from such a method, the least of which is a sort of hoarse panting, called, 'the orator's hiccup.' "In addition, this panting arises far more quickly if mouth respiration be employed. "When the student is thoroughly trained in this exercise, the nasal inhalation will be so easy for him that he will use it even in speaking, which practise will lend to his discourse great uniformity of elocution. "From the moment that the air inhaled through the nostrils has filled the lungs, great care must be taken not to expel it briskly. 126 SPEECH "The greatest part of the benefit derived from this exercise, would thus be lost, because it is above all the exhaling which is important for the orator. "From the moment when one feels that all the cavities of the lungs are abundantly supplied with air, one must retain during a few seconds this accumulated air and allow it to be exhaled as slowly as possible, while opening the mouth wide. "During this last operation, the arms should fall slowly until parallel with the body and then raised again while one takes a breath. ' ' According to Xanthes, the object of this similarity of movements is to develop and to restrain automatically the entire thoracic cage, thus aiding the function of respiration. He recommends to us also the use of rhythmic measure for the exercise, using the following mental formula: Count five during inspiration, five during the pause, and five during expiration. "But," pursues he, "these long breaths can only be a means of increasing the capacity of the lungs ; for, in actual practise, the orator will have the time to renew oftener the necessary provision of air, which the necessities of speech will not permit him to inhale in sufficient quantity. AUTOMATISM AND THOUGHT 127 "'However, it is indispensable for him to exercise his lungs, as a discus-thrower exercises his arm. "By inhaling as we have just prescribed not with the upper part but with the lower part of the lungs, the speaker will store enough air to fill them sufficiently, and, if he exhales in the manner that we have just advised, he will not need to resort to those frequent respirations which fatigue the orator as well as his hearers.'* A little farther on, we find still another valu- able counsel. "Take care," says the Athenian philosopher, "to wait until the provision of air is completely exhausted before attempting to renew it, for disregarding this advice will lead to spasmodic inhaling, and your discourse will become a mass of short, disconnected phrases." And again he insists upon this important point : "Visible effort is always a drawback, because it distracts the attention of the hearers, who fear a repetition of the movement which pro- duced it and can not stop thinking about it; the discourse is thus deprived of the sympathy of the audience." "Respiration studied scientifically," he says ix.» 128 SPEECH again, "has a considerable influence on the vol- ume and quality of the voice. '*If opening the mouth when exhaling be recommended, it is because perfect emission of a tone depends absolutely on the strict adherence to this rule. "If in speaking we shut the teeth or the lips, the sound, hampered in its emission, will not be produced in all its fulness. "Therefore we should practise daily the fol- lowing exercise, in order to develop quality and especially evenness of tone. "Being placed in the position required for respiratory exercise, we should inhale deeply through the nostrils and, opening the mouth quite wide, allow the breath to escape very slowly with the sound: ah. . . . ' ' One must use no force but simply permit the tone to slip gently away, at the time of ex- halation. "If it be spasmodic or tremulous, one must stop at once, begin the inhalation again, and try again on ah. . . . "When this first emission of the tone is full, rich, without any tremolo, without change of register, we pass to the vowel o, then to the other vowels, until the time when we become sufficient- AUTOMATISM AND THOUGHT 129 ly master of the voice to fear neither trembling nor break. "Having reached this stage, we shall be able to produce only a few equal tones, and then we may pass to the following exercise : "After a deep inhalation, attack the tone sharply, then let it die away gradually, "Then quicken the inspiration gently and in- crease the volume of the voice. "Practise several times this last operation during the time of exhaling ; that is, increase and diminish the voice alternately; but never lose sight of uniformity and evenness of tone. "Some people are afflicted with a very shrill voice, which detracts from the vigor of their discourse and renders ridiculous to some degree the development of grave or heroic ideas, "It is a question of lowering the compass of such a voice by employing the resonant exhalation on a very open ah; this exhalation must be very slow in the beginning, and the tone should be produced without any contraction. "The next step is to pronounce a word by dividing the syllables and by pronouncing each syllable without the least constriction of the throat, "Later, entire phrases may be spoken, each 130 SPEECH syllable being perfected by means of resonant exhalation. **At short intervals, we should take notice whether the voice has a tendency to rise above the proper pitch, and in such a case there should be no hesitation in interrupting the phrase and beginning the sentence again on a lower tone." After many pages of advice devoted to the rules for correcting faults of pronunciation, Xanthes speaks to us of the fine shadings of speech, relative to automatism and mechanism. ' ' I am presuming, ' ' he says, * ' that the orator has acquired the quality of voice and perfection of pronunciation which should be the object of all beginners; they should then think about arranging phrases in the most harmonious and intelligent manner, as to articulation and reson- ance. "This is the moment to advance equally the literary and technical study of oratorical art. "He must think of a phrase the fundamental idea of which emanates from a fixt principle or opinion. * ' He should arrange his words, always remem- T)ering the rules concerning words and language, and, as soon as the phrase seems correct to him, he should use it as a theme for his exercises." AUTOMATISM AND THOUGHT 131 We can not help admiring the superiority of the old Athenian over so many others who make pure technique their only objective. On the contrary, Xanthes wishes from the outset to initiate the beginner into the art of impro\asing and correcting. He insists that the phrases for practise shall be constructed by the student, the thoughts all his own, and he demands that they shall be as perfect as possible, relative to idea and style. This is what he terms automatism joined to thought. He then advises that we should study this phrase in proportion as it is applied. ''The sentence once constructed, it will then be a question of pronunciation, observing close- ly all the gradations of punctuation. We should pause between the words which, if enunciated without separation, would produce a confused impression. Before an inversion of the natural order of words : "The call of duty every one should obey." Between the word duty and the words every one there ought to be an imperceptible respir- ation, and a slight but clear change in the register of the voice. 13^ SPEECH The first five words should be enunciated in a uniform tone, the following four words in a lower and firmer tone ; to the ear of the listener, the first part should without discussion be the preparation for the second. It is as if the orator were saying, "Do you know what is to be done when duty calls? "Well, I am going to tell you: Every one must obey." Another effect can be obtained by stopping to take a short breath, just long enough to indicate the place where the words have been omitted, in order to shorten the phrase. "The beginning was happy and the success magnificent. ' ' In order to make it perfectly clear that the word magnificent is related to the verb to he, understood, to express distinctly that it is a question of confirmation and not of attribution, it is indispensable that the phrase should be interrupted, imperceptibly, between success and magnificent. Attention must be paid to the punctuation after the indirect object, and, every time it is a question of separating groups of similar thoughts ; between prepositions, so as to separate collections of words preceding the conjunction AUTOMATISM AND THOUGHT 133 and, except the and, wliich immediately precedes a preposition. The incidental also must always be preceded by a respiratory punctuation. Before and after an adverbial expression. After the vocative, if it begins the phrase; before and after if it is inserted between phrases. Before and after a parenthetical clause. Wlien it is desired to enunciate something announced. ''He has practised the most precious of all virtues: goodness." It is as if the orator said : ' * He has practised the most precious of virtues, and I am going to tell what this virtue is: it is goodness." "All change of idea, no matter how slight, demands not only an oral punctuation," Xan- thes says again, "but even a different inflection of the voice, accompanied by acceleration or retardation. "For example, in this phrase: "If one would believe certain philosophers, men do not understand how to utilize the ener- gies which lie dormant within them. "There must be "punctuation after 'men', which should be pronounced with great pre- cision, so as to indicate that it is a question 134. SPEECH of the men. Or if certain philosophers are to be believed, we should lower the voice a little, thus emphasizing the final syllable, in order to have it understood that it is not a question of any thing essential; then this change of in- flection will give a value to the rest of the phrase, which must be spoken in the same tone as the opening words of the sentence, by emphasizing very slightly but yet perceptibly the words to which is attributed a special value. "We should therefore say: " .... 'do 7iot know how to utilize the energies which lie dormant within them.' The word 7iot must be emphasized in order to attract attention to the much regretted omission; the word energies should be pronounced in such a way that it will be well understood that the phrase was spoken only with reference to this subject ; after this word there should be a gentle and short inspiration, to indicate clearly and, above all to emphasize the character of the energies, which generally are unknown to exist, since they lie dormant. "The change of subject will always be indi- cated by a pause, of which the orator will avail himself to fill his lungs, as he is advised to do when studying the preparatory exercises. AUTOMATISM AND THOUGHT 135 "As to the study of inflection, it is one of the most important, because the emotions of the hearer always depend on those of the orator. "In order to inspire enthusiasm, it will be wise to practise, beginning very low and in a rery unimpassioned tone, so as to allow the voice to rise and be able to develop its full reso- nance and volume at the end of the sentence. "However, if this proceeding is very long in order to avoid monotony or, worse still, hoarseness or shouting, we should make use of a few words to bring the voice back to its initial tone (without, however, wholly accomplishing this end), that afterward it may rise continuous- ly to the end of the phrase, in a sort of swelling undulation, which will destroy the monotony of the effort. "The study of inflection should go hand in hand with the mechanical exercises, but it is indispensable never to neglect the one for the sake of the other." With admirable common sense Xanthes adds : "Can one imagine an orator occupying him- self solely with his style and neglecting his voice ? Or can one conceive of him as possessing a magni- ficent organ but ignoring the study of inflection and punctuation? 136 SPEECH "The science of oratory is a whole which can only reach perfection if all its parts are culti- vated simultaneously. ''The pupil should, therefore, never be al- lowed to recite during the course of his exer- cises phrases in which care for technique alone is taken, 'Emotion, the gradations of tone, and purity oi. style should also be the objects of his study. "Automatism should never be practised un- less thought directs its manifestations. "The orator is called upon to think simul- taneously of mechanical respiration, creation of ideas, style, volume of tone, punctuation, inflec- tion, and expression. ' ' To acquire expression it will be well to begin with phrases expressing familiar sentiments. "After having constructed these phrases as nearly perfectly as possible, one should enun- ciate them in the same tone of voice as would be used in every-day life. "If success does not crown our efforts all at once, opportunities should be created to repeat them in the natural tone of voice, that is, when the demands of daily life will permit of this exercise, j "It is the usual mistake of all beginners to AUTOMATISM AND THOUGHT 137 believe that they are obliged to use the emphatic tone. "Oratory demands, above all else, the use of inflections which are appropriate to the subject being treated. If we are speaking of patriotism, of conquest, or of battles, it will be time enough to seek after a lofty style and tone. "But we should not forget that, if we misuse these, we shall produce monotony which is the forerunner of weariness. *'To recite with precision, to speak with ease, and know how to manipulate one's voice as an artist of genius uses a perfect tool, such should be the purpose of the orator relative to his ut- terances." Already Xanthes has instructed us in the pre- paratory course in oratory; now he is going to divulge to us the secrets of gesture, without the study of which the finest orator risks losing the desired effect. ii LESSON IX ATTITUDE AND GESTURE IN SPEECH DELIVERY ■ "The art of the orator," says Xanthes, *'in- (-fludes two languages: .J 'That of the voice, which appeals to the ear and the mind. ''That of gesture, intended to illustrate the first, and which appeals to the eye and to the in- telligence. ' ' This latter may be divided into many parts : ' ' Gesture. "Facial expression. "Attitude. "With very rare exceptions, the language of gesture should always precede the phrase, for which it thus prepares the way. "Gesture is of great help to the orator who knows how to use it judiciously, not only to punctuate his phrase, but also to allow him to take a deeper breath. "It is, in reality, during this first period of respiration that the gesture is generally made. 138 ATTITUDE AND GESTURE 139 "The second part, which is that of exhalation, is also that of the spoken word. "The abundance of gestures should vary ac- cording to the kind of language used, and es- pecially according to the place where it is used. "It is certain that a discourse delivered in the open air ought to be punctuated with more comprehensive gestures than would accompany the same phrases spoken in a very small room. "The popular orator who is rousing his hear- ers to the defense of their native land can not use the same gestures as the sage who is ex- plaining the mysteries of science to his pupils, ' ' Gestures made in a narrow hall and before a few people can sometimes be limited to facial expression. ' ' As with the voice, with style, and with speak- ing, gesture ought to be practised daily, "Gestures should be slow or quick, according to the requirements of the phrase which the orator is emphasizing. "Gestures should be dignified, graceful, with- out nervousness, without weakness, and, above all, without awkwardness." Before studying gesture in its details, Xanthes bids us take precaution against the imperfec- tions which must first be combatted; he speaks 140 SPEECH also to us of the many orators who are victims of defects which retard their progress, and nar- rates to us on this subject a fable on which all orators should reflect, the story of the two laborers. * ' A man had willed to his two sons two fields exactly alike, which for a number of years had not been under cultivation. "Rye-grass also was growing in abundance there, and injurious plants were climbing over each other in picturesque disorder. "The elder son began by pulling up all the weeds, then he plowed the field very thoroughly until he was certain of having dug out the last root. Finally, he piled them all up, burned them, and let the wind disperse the ashes. "Then only did he begin to sow seed. "The other son was of a more impatient nature. He was contented to plow superficially before sowing the grain. "What happened? The field of the first one, freed from parasites which prevent the growth of the grain, produced a magnificent harvest. "For the second, on the contrary, his pains were in vain, for the blades of wheat disap- peared very soon under the growth of the in- vading rye-grass. ATTITUDE AND GESTURE 141 ''He acknowledged too late the wisdom of his elder brother, and his negligence was punished by the failure of his harvest and the resulting troubles. "This fable," continues Xanthes, "should be taught to all young orators, in order to make' them understand how important it is that they should eradicate their defects before seeking to acquire the science of gesture." We shall now examine with the Athenian phil- osopher some of these defects. "First, exaggeration, which, if not used by a sublime orator when speaking of heroic things, will very quickly degenerate into awkwardness. "And even then this exuberance must be mo- mentary and demanded by the necessities of the situation. '^ "All useless gesture is considered exaggera- tion, that is, gesture not required by the re- quirements of the phrase. ' ' All vulgar gestures should be excluded, such as throwing the folds of the toga over the back or to lift them up as high as the shoulder, ' ' The hands on the hips, the fists in front, the hands crossed on the abdomen, all are just as many indications of negligence, and must never be allowed under any circumstances. 142 SPEECH "Gestures which conceal the face should be avoided, as also those which interfere with eack other without a reason ; spreading the fingers or shutting the hand over the thumb, etc. "Excessive mobility is always a defect, be- cause it imparts to the listener the restlessness which seems to agitate the speaker, "The repetition at regular intervals of the same gesture is equally enervating for the listen- er, who, in spite of himself, awaits and fears the repetition ; now this engrossing thought is most unfortunate for the orator, since it diverts for a mere puerility part of the attention which should be given wholly to his discourse. ' ' However, it would be dangerous to resort to impassiveness in order to escape this difficulty. * ' Speakers who are contented just to speak do not take long to weary those who listen to them." Xanthes, after having indicated the defects of gesture, turns to the explanation of those quali- ties which orators should cultivate: "The first of all," he says, "is to establish harmony between the gesture and the word. "Grace of movement would be out of place if one wished to express heroic deeds. * ' On the other hand a vigorous gesture would ATTITUDE AND GESTURE 14.3 be ridiculous if accompanying the expression of a graceful thought. £^**Ease is the quality the most prized and the one which is required of every public speaker. ** Variety of gesture ought to solve this diffi- cult problem if allied to moderation. "Nothing is more vexatious than this whirl- wind of arms and hands, which to little purpose — and generally^ to no purpose — are raised, lowered, wared about. As a result of this, an unrest is produced among the audience, of which the most perfectly harmonious discourse will assuredly feel the effect. "Gesture should always be free, refined, and never spasmodic. ' ' To obtain this result, or rather these results, daily practise is necessary. "This is indispensable to students, but the masters hare not been exempt from it, and, from Demosthenes to the most obscure orator, all those who hare made a profession of speak- ing in public have devoted a certain part of each day to the stud/ of gesture. "This practise consists in a series of move- ments, which should be worked upon separately, in order to be able to apply them with ease at the desired moment. 144 SPEECH "Here thought should intervene, as in the study of the voice. * ' One should construct a phrase, and then ap- ply the appropriate gestures to the best of one's understanding. "When we have classified the series of mo- tions which seem the most appropriate, the ges- tures should be studied separately, by analyzing the movements which produce them. -" "We should adopt the principle of never allowing the gestures to be made from the wrist or from the elbow. "The orator who speaks with the arms paral- lel to the body, moving only the wrist and the elbow, will give the impression of undeveloped awkwardness. "To produce the desired gesture we should adopt a natural position, afterward trying to avoid all that is ungraceful or vulgar, ' ' In order to facilitate this study the old orator classifies gestures in different categories, of which we shall cite first the two principal divi- sions : Gestures of impression. Gestures of indication. The first interpret almost always sentiment alone ; however, they may be employed to express ATTmJDE AND GESTURE 145 a physical sensation — pain, comfort, cold, heat, etc., etc. If we are suffering from fatigue we shall stretch our arms; during great heat we shall wipe the forehead ; under the painful sensation of headache, the hands will naturally be raised to the forehead; we shall dry our tears, etc. To warn against danger, we shall stretch forth the arm, holding the hand bent backward to the wrist, the fingers in the air slightly parted. However, many gestures can not be made dur- ing the discourse, to which they would give an aspect of \Tilgarity, bordering on ridicule. It is for the orator to choose those which seem to him adequate to the subject which he is treat- ing, and, after having studied them at length, to use them with the greatest discretion. According to Xanthes, the movements of prayer and threat may be classified among ges- tures of impression, as also those of hate and love, of vengeance, of satisfaction, of discontent, of surprize, and of stupor. All movements used to illustrate a material object are placed, according to him, in the second category, that of indicative gestures. They serve to designate form, movement, dimension, situation. 146 SPEECH **In the gestures of impression," he says again, "spiritual sensations can ail be personi- fied by the orator. "Enthusiasm will be exprest by a movement of the arms in the air or projected in front. l^' "Discouragement by the arms in a falling po- . sition and a crusht attitude. yj "Defiance, by the arms folded. " Finding oneself called upon to protest in good faith or because of one's devotion to a noble cause, the hand will rest upon the breast in a sweeping gesture. "Helplessness will be demonstrated by the arms held apart from the body. * ' The arms at a slight distance from the body, the hand partly open in the form of a shell, the palm upward, expresses the gesture of welcome. "The same movement, but with the fingers united and the hand horizontal, interprets the offering of something. "Gestures of indication are more exact. "The arms stretched, with the index-finger horizontal, is the indication of a rough dismissal. "The same gesture, if the index-finger is curved toward the breast, will mean an appeal. "In intimacy, the arm will be raised and the in- dex-finger will be raised to the height of the face. ATTITUDE AND GESTURE 147 ' ' The separation of the hands more or less re- mote will indicate larger or smaller dimensions, as to volume. "Length is demonstrated, ordinarily, by press- ing one index-finger on the phalange of the other; then it is drawn near the palm; the dis- tance between the two points where the index- finger touches will indicate the length to be ex- plained. "The horizontal palm and the fingers sepa- rated with a sliding gesture indicate a flat sur- face. * * This same gesture, waved slightly, will mark sinuosities. "To inspire repose, the hand may be gently moved up and down. "To command the acceleration of a move- ment, the hand, reversed, must be put forward, and this movement repeated many times. "The index-finger turned toward the ground indicates the next place. "Separation is indicated by the arm folded back and the hand half-closed, with the index- finger extended toward the horizon, etc., etc. "Facial expression is classified also in the division of oratorical art which is called gesture. "It is very important that it should never 148 SPEECH diverge to the point where it would interpret a sentiment contrary to the one desired to be ex- prest, "It is equally essential not to adopt that im- passiveness which certain novices take for a coldness in good taste. "Orators should guard against too exagger- ated facial movement, as contraction of the eye- brows, smiles when no cause for them exists, or contortions of the mouth. "The expression of the eyes will form an ob- ject of special study; their excessive mobility, winking too frequently ; all these will be so many defects which will destroy the harmony of facial expression. "The habit of closing the eyes should be vig- orously combatted, because it conceals from the audience the sentiments which the eyes are re- quired to express. "Staring has the same deficiency. "It is also most undesirable always to fix the eyes on the same point ; the head often leaning to the same side, it happens that a part of the audience find themselves, unconsciously, neglect- ed by the speaker. "For all the other parts of the face, the ora- tor, without employing excessiva gesture, which ATTITUDE AND GESTURE 149 exceeds the limits of authorized imitation, should endeavor to sketch the impressions which he de- scribes by the aid of facial expression. "It is designedly that we employ the word 'sketch,' for it would, indeed, be ridiculous literally to trace these impressions. *'When an orator says: " 'Let us weep for the fate of our brothers killed by the enemy,' the whole expression of his countenance will depict sadness, but it would be perfectly ridiculous if he burst into tears. "Also the simple sketch permits of passing very quickly from sadness to another sentiment, which would become very difficult if the impres- sion made had been a very deep one. "To continue the same example, we shall quote the phrase cited above, terminating it by the words: 'and let us revenge them,' and we shall understand how impossible it will be for an orator who has constrained his features to express the most profound sadness to force them to change their expression in a second to one which shall indicate savage energy contained in the words, 'let us revenge them!' "If, on the contrary, he has simply outlined quiet sadness, it will be far easier for him, by means of an imperceptible movement, to induce 150 SPEECH them to express the resolution dictated bj the concluding words." Passing then to the analysis of facial expres- sion, Xanthes says: ^'"The eyes are the most essential feature of the face. The orator should pay special attention to their expression. "They will express surprize, fear, indifference, or shame, according as they are wide open, half- closed, or lowered. "If they glare under contracted eyebrows, they indicate anger ; if they remain calm, while the eyebrows frown, it is a sign of calculated resolution. "The nostrils expanded express disdain. "The mouth opens in emotion, caused by fear or sudden surprize. "In grief, the corners of the mouth droop. "The lower lip extended forward indicates scorn, and sometimes ignorance. "The movement of the head thrown back, ac- companied by an elevation of the eyebrows, in- terprets audacity. "Affirmation is exprest by a downward ges- ture of the head. "Turned several times from one side to an- other, the head will indicate negation. !\ ATTITUDE AND GESTURE 151 ' ' The more rapid these two movements are and the oftener repeated, the more violent will be the aflSrmation or the negation. "The third division of gesture, attitude, is a thing less defined than gestures. "Attitude is a composite production, inclu- sive of everything which concerns gesture. "It is the art of pleasing the eyes and charm- ing the ears at the same time." An orator," says Xanthes, "should never forget that he will be judged first by his atti- tude. "He presents himself before speaking, and, if his pose displeases the public, he will have a thousand times more difficulty in winning its favor. "The moment it is a question of a discourse, gesture can be classified under three different heads. "The attitude, which makes the first impres- sion ; the gesture which follows, and, finally, the spoken word. ' ' One can, therefore, understand of what util- ity the science of attitude may be, since it avoids being judged by the public with prema- ture severity. "In order to acquire a harmonious attitude, 152 SPEECH the first of all conditions is to observe the pre- scribed rules as to moderation and grace in gesture. "Afterward, it is necessary to know how to take possession of the public; that is, to domi- nate it by looking frankly into the face of the audience and by a cold reserve of pose. "The timid never succeed in impressing an audience, because they are not sufficiently con- vinced of their own value. "When mounting the rostrum, every orator who wishes to be master of his public should be impregnated with the conviction of his own su- periority. "By acting thus he will not commit an act of extreme vanity, because it is incontestable that the majority of those who have come to hear him admit this supremacy, their presence being a certain proof of this conviction; one does not incommode oneself to listen to a speaker when one is persuaded that he can not teach people anything. "The orator should, therefore, take an atti- tude indicative of grace and of power. If he feels agitation, he must make a determined effort to dissemble it. "He should wait until perfect silence reigns ATTITUDE AND GESTURE 158 before beginning to speak. In case he shall have pronounced his first words in the tumult of voices, he should repeat them, allowing an in- terval of a few seconds to intervene between these words and their repetition. "One can not repeat this truth too often: ' ' The silence imposed by the orator is the best way to appease disorder in an auditorium. "During his discourse, he "should turn his head first to the right, then to the left, in order that every one may participate in his oration. "He should restrict himself to the use of those gestures which explain his words. "He should increase or diminish the volume of his voice according to the dimensions and the acoustics of the place where he is speaking. "He should take care to express the opinions to which he gives utterance, by a moderate play of the features, and he should emphasize them by the aid of rare and graceful gestures. "It is always better to begin a discourse slowly, and to commence it by short phrases. "An orator ought to think of the appeal to the intelligence of his public, which is imbued with his idea in proportion as he has not treated roughly the effort to comprehend him that he exacts of his hearers. 154 SPEECH **Cut short the exordium and go to the heart of the discourse as quickly as possible. You will have many more chances to be listened to than if you have already wearied the attention of your public by useless considerations. "A discourse is not a lesson in rhetoric; it is a demonstration in favor of a conviction. "For this reason, when one reaches the essen- tial point of the discourse, he will do well to create in himself an enthusiasm which will be propagated among his audience, by means of the impassioned words which this ardor will dictate, and appropriate and harmonious ges- tures with which he will illustrate his sentences, which at this moment will become longer and above all more sonorous. ' ' The final gesture, like the phrase of perora- tion, should never be left to the chance of im- provisation. ' ' This gesture is quite as important as the first of all. *'If the initial attitude influences the dispo- sition of the hearers, the attitude at the termin- ation of the discourse will remain engraved on their memory of representations; it will efface the former gestures, to leave only this one re- maining. ATTITUDE AND GESTURE 155 ''Understand well, we eliminate all cases of awkwardness or ridicule ; however, admitting that one has had to experience them during the discourse, the attractive attitude of the perora- tion would obliterate them from the mind. ' ' Orators who wish to be listened to should not forget that they are not only bearers of speech and of thought, but also propagators of the re- ligion of beauty." LESSON X SPEECH AS USED IN BUSINESS AND FAMILY LIFE It is not only on the rostrum and at public gatherings that the art of speaking should be revealed. It is of indisputable value when it is applied to the thousand and one conditions of daily life, in which the need of producing conviction is allied to the desire of sustaining, of consoling, yes, even of reprimanding, others. The authority of the head of the family de- pends very often on the way in which he ex- presses himself. A phrase badly constructed, composed of in- exact statements, has often created discord be- tween people who until then had had no other feeling than reciprocal sympathy. It also happens that not knowing how to in- terpret their opinions by the use of appropriate words, many people will keep silent and allow most reprehensible acts to be committed in their 156 IN BUSINESS AND FAINIILY LIFE 157 presence, which, with one word from them, would surely have been prevented. It is impossible to estimate the number of people who lament the inability to speak with which they are affected at the moment when they wish to express their thought! It would, however, be very easy for them to interpret these thoughts in the most accurate, if not the most brilliant, manner if they would cultivate the art of speech. It is certainly not given to every one to depict his sentiments in well-chosen words, and ele- gance of language needs, as we have seen, a special and complete course of study, the ap- plication to which demands a veritable life-work. But, if moral or material reasons prevent the achievement of this ambition in all its perfec- tion, it is always possible to devote the time necessary to the acquisition of polished lan- guage, accompanied by harmonious gestures, ex- pressing in a clear manner simple and sound ideas. "There are no circumstances," says Xanthes, "in which the art of speaking does not exert a preponderant influence over the conclusion of acts. The young scholar who appears at ease and 158 SPEECH speaks with elegance will win the favor of his master, rather than one of superior talent but unskilled in the art of expression." That which was true in the time of Xanthes remains even to-day as an indisputable principle. In modern society, in which so few places are at our disposal, relative to the number of can- didates who covet them, facility of speech has become a necessity. They are to be pitied who are not versed in this art, for they run great risk of never attain- ing to the position of which they are often worthy. However, one can not complain of these posi- tions being refused to those who disdain them without seeking to know them better, for diffi- culty and inelegance of speech are among the obstacles which defeat success. The presentation of an affair, as well as of an idea, exacts a display of the powers of per- suasion more or less important but certain ; now conviction is only obtained by means of words proving the truth of assertions. Is there anything more pitiable than the atti- tude of a man incapable of making himself un- derstood and, on account of it, unable to con- vince his hearers of the opinion which he would have them adopt? IN BUSINESS AND FAMILY LIFE 159 Whatever may be the affair which he proposes, if he makes his proposition clumsily and with embarrassment, no attention will be paid to his recommendations. We see, on the contrary, schemers accomplish easily the object which they wish to achieve, in spite of the deplorable character of their pur- pose, because they know by their command of words how to importune those of whose sincerity they have taken advantage. But, if the art of speaking is necessary in so- cial life, it is not less so in home life. "A father articulating imperfectly, and in- capable of expressing his wishes correctly, will never enjoy complete authority. "His children will feel that they are inade- quately sustained by so poor an advocate, and they will smile in secret at the stupid reprimands which he has administered to them. "He himself will feel so embarrassed because of the inefficiency of his speech that he will hesitate to make the reproach dictated by his conscience and which his voice so unskilfully interprets. "And how many opportunities he will lose of instructing his sons by not being able to interest them ! IX. 11 160 SPEECH "There are certain schools," continues the philosopher, "where the art of speaking is taught to the children at the same time as the first elements of instruction. "The master does not admit vulgarities of language and only approves of criticisms for- mulated in a manner as correct as can be de- manded from a child of tender age." "What a lesson for our contemporary teachers ! Children of this generation readily allow themselves to be attracted by the charm of words whose special coloring pleases their imag- ination, at the same time that it flatters their spirit of independence. At first the slang of sports, then pure slang gradually swamps in the minds of the students the science of correct and elegant expressions which their professors try to inculcate in them. The grandparents who can comprehend every thing in the habitual language of their grand- children are becoming rarer and rarer. Must we then scorn the illegitimate sister of pure language to the point of never borrowing from her one of those curious but brilliant ex- pressions in which she usually clothes her ideas ? The poets of the slums have proved through- out the world that in the gutter where this un- IN BUSINESS AND FAMILY LIFE 161 couth language had its birth a glimpse of heaven is sometimes perceived ; it is not then forbidden the orator to emphasize his phrase by using one of these expressions, which reproduce the truth as a too realistic picture in all its barbarity- would portray it; but children are poor judges of these gradations of expression, and if they have not near them the natural professor, which should be their father, they will descend to trivi- ality while sincerely believing that they are giving evidence of the originality of their conversation. This is why it is necessary that the head of the family should practise and preach the neces- sity of the art of speaking. "The spoken words," says Xanthes, "is the vehicle of thought ; it is through speech that the minds of children and of relatives are en- dowed with creative power. "The projections of healthy thoughts can not be efficaciously transmitted if he who is morally responsible for them does not know how to in- terpret these thoughts in words, which destroy the unbalanced impulses in young minds. "It is by speech as well as by example that we shall succeed in combating mental weakness, by substituting for it the power of the will, creator of strong resolutions." 162 SPEECH "The art of speaking," adds the philosopher, "is also the art of gradations. By cultivating it we shall succeed very quickly in enlarging the field of the intelligence, because we shall under- stand how to become accustomed, little by little, to the pruning of parasitic thoughts so as to allow the initial thought to triumph. ' * Those who ignore the art of speech are con- tented to think confusedly, and the imperfec- tions of their resolutions are less apparent to them. "But, being forced to express them, they quickly perceive their defects. "Speech determines the idea and it is in seeking to represent this idea that the confusion and obscurity of their ideas will strike those who express them with difficulty." And then the old orator insists again on the necessity of eloquence in that which concerns the circumstances of social life. "Persuasion," he says, "is achieved by a kind of exchange of radiance, which, if it affects simi- larly the orator and his interlocutor, will only influence profoundly the one of the two who is the most susceptible to the penetration of this radiance. ' ' And he adds: IN BUSINESS AND FAMILY LIFE 163 "Two men, each carrying a torch, were walk- ing one evening to meet one another; but, altho the flame of one shed a brilliant light, that of the second, imperfectly lighted, burned dimly in the darkness, so dimly that the latter was completely illuminated by the flame of the torch which the other advancing toward him was wav- ing, while the latter was scarcely touched by the rays escaping from the smoky torch. * ' The bearers of speech are like these two bear- ers of torches ; when one of them by the force of his arguments spreads over the heart of his in- terlocutor the illumination of persuasion, the other, he who expresses himself in a confused way and who knows little how to separate the light of the idea from the obscure chaos of his impressions, will never succeed in diffusing light around himself which he does not understand how to produce. "As compensation he will be disposed to per- mit all the lights which eloquent men dispense so generously to shine upon him, too happy if a blur does not come before his eyes as a result of this, which will prevent him from seeing with- in himself." The philosopher puts us again on our guard against the misfortunes which in social life can 164 SPEECH result from a radical or partial defect in elo- quence. "It has often happened," he says, ''that a man unjustly accused may not have been able to justify himself in a satisfactory manner, for the lack of knowing how to find the right words to say. * ' One day, a man from the suburbs of Athens was accused by his neighbor of having stolen a valuable ring belonging to him. He was com- pelled to appear before the judge, and he began by protesting his innocence, satisfied merely to deny his guilt, for the poor man was not gifted in public speaking. He limited himself from the first to the expression: 'No, it is not I.' But the neighbor was a clever speaker ; he converted the judge so thoroughly to his belief that the latter, persuaded in his turn, undertook to make him acknowledge that he was guilty of the crime of which he was accused. "Confused by these convincing phrases, sur- rounded by a network of proofs whose authority he was unable to contest otherwise than by per- sistent denial, the accused ended by proving the magic power of words, and, altho perfectly in- nocent, he confest. "He confest, as much to rid himself of the IN BUSINESS AND FA^IILY LIFE 165 torture of responding as to succumb to the sug- gestion evoked by the words to which he never retorted, and which, for this very reason, ended by affecting his mind so seriously as to bring on brain-trouble. ' ' Happily, at this crisis something unexpected happened: the neighbor found his ring. They hastened to liberate from prison the unskilful speaker, who could not explain his confession otherwise than by the difficulty of retorting the arguments with which he was overwhelmed and the desire of escaping from the questions to which it was impossible for him to reply in an appropriate way. ' ' The art of speaking, as well in family life as in social life, may be the starting-point of much success, and may contribute to increase the con- ditions of happiness. It is, therefore, essential to cultivate it in chil- dren from the earliest age possible. Xanthes recommends the method of recitations and there also imposes upon the head of the family the part of bearer of speech. ''The father or the patriarch," he says, "should endeavor to interest his family by nar- rations which he will have the children repeat, taking care to correct their unsuitable expres- 166 ' SPEECH sions and initiating them into the beauties of style. "He will eliminate vulgar words, or those which define the thought inadequately, and will try to create in these young minds thought-pic- tures sufficiently faithful to call forth the word that conveys them, "If this word does not immediately suggest itself, he will call it forth by eliminating all other words which are not adequate to the idea evoked, always taking care to hold the slender attention within the limits traced by the im- portance of the idea." And Xanthes, allowing the psychologist with- in him to speak, adds: "Many families owe to the familiar eloquence of their head union and harmony which are the most enviable gifts in the world. "And when, one fine evening, passing before houses concealed by the shadows of twilight, a traveler hears a man's voice relating to his attentive family some marvelous stories which sustain devotion to beauty and courage in the soul, he may stop suddenly, lay down his staff, and ask for a place among the listeners ; he will be welcomed as the rules of hospitality require, for thither, where peace reigns, these two satel- lites gravitate — goodness and charity." LESSON XI SPEECH AND INSTRUCTION "After his immortal master Socrates, the illustrious Plato," says Xanthes, "declared that the purpose of instruction was to develop the intelligence of men by means of speech that nothing written could ever replace. "Like these two masters, Cratylus and So- crates, he firmly believed that speech is the most authentic guide for the disciplining of man's instincts. "Aristotle, like Plato, also declared the truth of this principle, on which rests the whole peri- patetic doctrine. "And we can not but admire how profound was his knowledge of the soul, since the principles that he inculcated in the minds of his contem- poraries differed in form, according to the man- ner in which he presented them to all who came to hear him speak, or analyzed them with his disciples under the arcades of the Lyceum. "The last instruction was more profound, more substantial; it was necessary to be versed 167 168 SPEECH in the science of philosophy to be able to follow it in all its deductions. "But from the moment when he addrest the common people the tone of his discourse changed; it became more brilliant, more com- prehensible ; pure science was abandoned to take up simplified reasoning, and each one went away carrying with him provisions of this spiritual food, which, as well as that for the body, is in- dispensable to the appreciation of happiness. ** Since the time of these illustrious masters, others have succeeded them, and those whose in- struction was more productive, are absolutely the ones who have been inspired by this method. "To address the crowd, to educate human intuitions, to teach men the understanding of their duties, such were the aspirations of all the pastors of the soul, "By being more devoted to the study of man as a subjective being than as an objective entity, by spreading broadcast through the medium of speech rational ideas, orators have generated, above all else, the conception of the beautiful, of the just, and of the true, in the hearts of those whom books can never teach, since their edu- cation does not permit them to interpret thoughts through chirographical signs." AND INSTRUCTION 169 Altlio modern instruction may now be uni- versally propagated, the remarks of Xanthes have not lost any of their truth. There are yet many who hesitate before mak- ing the effort to hear a lecture and yet consent to come to listen to an orator. The success of lectures ought to be attributed especially to the indolence of the generality of audiences. We say ''the generality" because among the number there are those who by listening to lec- tures seek only an opportunity of acquiring more instruction or to verify their scientific at- tainments. But the greater part of the audiences is com- posed of people who, if they consent to listen to dissertations during an hour on one subject would not understand how to study it more se- riously. The lecture presents still another advantage, that of eliminating a superfluity of detail, only mentioning the main facts or the fundamental principles of that which is to be expounded. It gives to superficial minds the impression of a work all finished, of something perfected, nothing being left but to store the knowledge. Very few among them consider the charm of 170 SPEECH preparatory work, and there are still fewer who comprehend the utility of it. It is none the less true that without lectures many people would never learn of things of which, thanks to this mode of instruction, they learn the existence, at least in its main outlines. And if, among the audience, there is only one person in whom the desire for instruction has been awakened, the lecturer may rejoice and say, as did a celebrated man : "I have not lost my day!" "Instruction," says again the old Athenian, "always consists in reunions, where men come to take lessons, which are given to them by a master, with whom the art of speaking has al- ways been the object of special study. "Whether it adopts the form of classes, of dia- logs, or of religious initiation, instruction always offers a vast field for oratorical demonstrations. "Certain masters, among whom Plato should be named, used to practise oral instruction under the guise of dialogs between the professor and the pupils. It is by these lessons in dialog that he taught them that everything follows its own infinite course, and that by using all his efforts to separate general ideas from the confused mass of parasitic ideas, he made them understand the AND INSTRUCTION 171 individual differences concealing themselves un- der the same form. "Eliciting their replies and their objections, he opened wide the door of thought whose lights illumined the minds of those who were prepared to step over the threshold." And Xanthes adds these prophetic words : "Those were the true priests of the art of speech, placed at the disposal of creative thought, for the great shadow of Socrates hovered over them, as it still hovers over us, and as it will hover over philosophy for all time." Many forms of rhetoric have passed out of use, but the art of oratory is more than ever in vogue at this moment. Its supremacy must be attributed to the hur- ried life which we lead and which gives para- mount importance to oral instruction, by reason of its relative rapidity. Christianity has largely contributed to the development of eloquence, and many religious speakers can pass for masters in oratory. It is also an opportunity for instruction in a philosophy less material, less free from submis- sion, but quite as profound as that of rhetori- cians. Many also are the politicians, whose speeches 172 SPEECH are inspired by the defense of public causes, and are veritable classes of political teaching. With many among them the art of speech is interpreted by an argumentative debate, whose concise arguments are prepared so that they will produce conviction. Some others, on the contrary, derive their principal effects from the statement of certain abuses, the recital of which causes all the noble sentiments of the heart to rise. Under the impulse of the emotion which moves them, eloquence bursts forth spontaneously, and, like the contemporaries of Xanthes, whom the love of a noble cause brought to the Agora to teach there, near to the stone consecrated to oaths, respect for laws and for property, our political men of to-day teach us, in a flow of noble phrases and of convincing words, respect for the laws promulgated by modern civiliza- tion with the idea of combating our instiucts and curbing our appetites. But it is not given to every one to manifest noble thoughts before an audience of his own quality. This is what the Athenian orator foresees when he says: ''There are other orators whose mission is all AND INSTRUCTION 173 the more meritorious because it is more obscure, "These latter do not terminate their speeches amid the din of applause ; they have no disciples who go about singing their praises; however, their instruction is more valuable because it is addrest to the as yet unformed minds of chil- dren, which, like wax, are fitted to receive all impressions without discrimination. "We mean the unknown masters, who teach little children during their first years. **A special eloquence is necessary for them. "It is composed of gentleness, firmness, and unconscious persuasion. "It should be decked with flowers as a garden, and solid as iron. * ' It has not the right to wander in the domain of the hypothesis, nor in the seductive paths of imagination. "Effects are not its lot. It does not attract by its brilliancy, but by a slow and minute at- tention to the smallest detail. ""If the orator, dominating the crowd by the sonority of his phrases and the enthusiasm of his emotions, is sometimes called a leader of men, the master of children will never be other than a shepherd of souls. "But what care must be taken to preserve 174 SPEECH these tender minds from the approach of the wild beasts who seek to devour them — hypoc- risy, falsehood, and treachery. "Even gentle illusion should be included among the number of enemies which should be banished. "It is because of having esteemed it too highly that so many young people, when reach- ing the age of manhood, belittle life, having re- fused to recognize its realities, absorbed as they have been in the false smile of illusion, which, at the moment when they thought to seize it, disappeared while calling to them to follow it." Things have changed very little since the far distant epoch of which the Athenian philosopher speaks. In our day the task of the teacher, everywhere thankless, still is called that of a shepherd of souls. The appetite for living which produces so many fine and strong resolutions can be a de- testable counsellor, if from infancy a rational and persuasive instruction has not penetrated these young souls, demonstrating to them the principles of good and justice in opposition to other ideas, whose brilliancy masks profound perfidy. AND INSTRUCTION 175 This is why those who direct children ought to be versed in the art of speech. He alone will know how to inspire the words proper to sow in young souls the idea endowed with creative power, first in the form of nar- rations, then of counsels, and, finally, of instruc- tion, otherwise conviction, generated by all the means which speech suggests to those who have devoted themselves to this art. . LESSON XII THE POWER OF THE VOICE OVER THE FEELINGS Since the most ancient times the part played by the orator has been equally important in the organization of society and in family life. All generous acts and all heroic actions have been inspired by discourses, "It was Solon," says Xanthes, ''who, scorn- ing the menace of death threatening all the de- fenders of Salamis, mounted the stone of pro- clamations, demonstrating to the people what would be the shame of him of whom it could be said later, 'This is a man of Attica who has deserted Salamis!' "His oratory aroused the enthusiasm of the Athenian youth, who rose crying: 'Let us go to reconquer Salamis!' *'The decree containing the menace of death was repealed, and the Athenians were able to win back Salamis from the Megarians, who had taken it away from them. ' History is rich in examples of this kind. 176 POWER OF THE VOICE 177 Since the beginning of our era men have ap- peared who by virtue of speech have engendered formidable resolutions. The prophets have had unlimited power over the masses, and their predictions have often re- versed Fate. The propagation of Christian teaching and the various activities which have resulted from it — are they due to any other influence than that of speech? It was by virtue of his discourses that Mo- hammed, the young, obscure Arabian, taught first to his kinsmen, then his disciples, afterward to the faithful, and lastly the masses, the be- lief in a doctrine which responded to their as- pirations. It is even now cradled in the magic of words, evoking seductive ideas, that the Mussulmans, in the cafes or public halls, squat for hours to listen to a teller of stories. According to the teachings of this great leader of souls, as Mohammed was, he promises to these wanderers of the burning desert a future life peopled with refreshing visions ; at the sound of his words the springs sing, the exuberant foliage of the spreading branches casts its shadows, beds made of silken stuffs make them forget the 178 SPEECH dryness of the matting on which they are actually lying, and, to gain these miracles of the here- after, they are, as were their far-away ancestors, ready to rise in a mass and to run in the face of death, which alone can place them in pos- session of them. The epic poem of the Crusaders, had it any other origin than the cry of a monk coming at the close of a discourse, in which the will of the Almighty was affirmed in a concise and definite phrase? How much blood these three words caused to be shed! How many noble deeds they insti- gated! How much devotion is due to them! How many efforts have been successful by virtue of their power ! And in contemporary life do we not all the time assist in the triumph of speech ? Take a lawyer who knows how to influence the judges to the extent of dragging from them an acquittal, when, in spite of all the proofs of guilt, he has been able to sow the seeds of doubt in their minds. At times, however, uncertainty can not be produced; then, at the passionate appeal of the defender, pity arises and holds out its hands to «lasp those whose mission is to punish. POWER OF THE VOICE 17^ Immediately, another doubt enters their mind: Have they the right to be severe? This guilty one whom they are going to strike, is he not himself a victim ? If the same fate had caused them to be born in the same destitution, would they have been better than he? Under the dominating influence of this reas- oning, the agony of a moral injustice restrains them; their hearts melt, and the revengeful punishment is changed into a restraint which may become a redemption. ''Speech," says Xanthes again, "is like the seed which is confided to the earth. "It adopts divers forms of germination, but it always sprouts. ** Sometimes, as with the seed sleeping during all the bad season that it may bear fruit only in the spring, so is speech sleeping in the heart of man as if it had not been pronounced; but, like the seed, it germinates slowly and soon ap- pears, thanks to the favorable fertilization of eloquence, under the form of an action or of an idea which are its progeny. "In olden times a word sufficed to make a resolution burst forth and to let loose an effec- tive ardor which was resolved into spontaneous determination. 180 SPEECH "But speech is never sterile. It is sometimes productive of reprehensible actions. "There lies the reason why the office of the orator is one of the most magnificent that one can wish to fill. "As they wish, rye-grass or good grain may grow in the fields where they sow their seed, "As they wish, also, souls are closed to evil sentiments or are opened to dangerous coun- sels, for the orator is not only a dispenser of words, he is equally a generator of ideas. * ' It is he who is responsible not only for mak- ing them bloom, but also for modifying their growth and determining their species. "It is under the influence of sound words that the supremacy of the passions is diminished, giving place to reason, which puts to flight un- healthy suggestions and permits charitable thoughts to be developed." And the philosopher demonstrates to us the truth of his assertions when he says: "From infancy, man is subject to the influ- ence of speech. "The remonstrances and the exhortations of parents, the stories with which our tender years are beguiled, can have considerable bearing on the trend of our life POWER OF THE VOICE 181 "Certain men maintain an attitude of fear throughout their existence as a result of the reproaches with which they were crusht on every occasion from the earliest age. ' ' Others, on the contrary, are able to estimate their own worth, because the just observations and the approbation of their instructors has in- culcated faith in them. "There are those who remember their nurse's stories so vividly that, altho growing up strong and sensible, they can not efface from their thoughts the visions of fantoms, whose existence, nevertheless, their reason denies. "With certain others we observe the growth of opposite mental qualities arising from the contradictory doctrines which the lessons of various teachers have instilled in them. ""We see weak minds become enthusiastic un- der the beneficial influence of an energetic dis- course, and, bathed in the flow of impressions accelerating the transformation of thought, change into heroes whom posterity admires." We must, then, conclude with Xanthes that at every age speech is the element determining actions, whether it be addrest to the indi- vidual soul or whether it stir the soul of so- ciety which sleeps in each one of us. 182 SPEECH It is the most active factor of happiness ; it is also the surest agent of adversity, for according to the turn which advice gives to our resolutions they may become subjects of joy or a source of regret as poignant as useless. There is another influence which the wise Xanthes points out to us with the delicacy of sentiments which renders so attractive the doc- trine of this exact thinker: "The need of creating sympathy," he says, "inspires all men with words which adopt the form of their aspirations. "Strong and well-balanced, solid and cordial, when they interpret friendship they become apathetic or ardent, seductive flatterers, and tender, elevated, or agitated if they msh to evoke love. "Are they always sincere? "Alas! falsehood is the worm which slips too easily into the golden apple of eloquence. "There is, however, a sure way of never being the victim of its ravages ; that is, to work oneself in order to produce perfect fruits, whose delicate flavor and subtle perfume will be united to qualities more substantial and more nutri- tious. "It is not sufficient to think of nourishment POW^R OF THE VOICE 183 for the body; that of the soul ought to be specially cultivated ; and an orator should never forget that, if the flowers usually precede the fruit, there are certain trees, in great demand, which have resplendent bulbs, together with calices whose beauty of form, vies with that of their perfume. 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